ADVANCING EMPLOYABLE SKILLS FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM
SPECTRUM DISORDER:
A SURVEY STUDY
A Dissertation
Presented to the
Faculty of
California State Polytechnic University, Pomona
In Partial Fulfillment
Of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctorate of Education
In
Educational Leadership
By
Aisha Thomas
Summer 2016
SIGNATURE PAGE
DISSERTATION: ADVANCING EMPLOYABLE SKILLS FOR STUDENTS WITH AUTISM SPECTRUM DISORDER: A SURVEY STUDY
AUTHOR: Aisha Thomas
DATE SUBMITTED: Summer 2016 Department of Education
Dr. Amy Gimino ______Dissertation Committee Chair Department of Education
Dr. Heather E. Wizikowski______Assistant Professor Department of Education
Dr. Mark Sims______Principal Duarte High School Duarte Unified School District
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DEDICATION
I dedicate my dissertation work to my understanding parents, Maggie and Julius
Thomas, for taking care of me physically and mentally during the doctoral program at
Cal Poly Pomona. They never doubted my efforts and tenacious attitude toward the dissertation process.
My former students have encouraged me throughout the doctoral program.
Listening to their stories of struggle and success has urged me to fight harder for students with special needs in my district and beyond.
To my Northview family: Mr. Eric Ramos, Ms. Miriam Fox, Mr. Rick Crosby,
Dr. Allan Mucerino, Dr. Mark Sims, Dr. John Opara, and Ms. Teresa George for making my pursuit of a doctoral degree attainable.
Lastly, I dedicate this dissertation to the following families: the Walkers, the
Reevers and the Prodigalyidads for inspiring me to advocate for students with autism.
The fight will not end with this study. Your children will continue to motivate me to assist other students with developmental disorders to become productive adults who will contribute to society.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to sincerely thank Dr. Amy Gimino for her diligence, guidance, and patience during the final year of my doctoral program and the dissertation process. She encouraged me to look deeper into my topic of study to discover information that gave my study more depth and organization. I would also like to formally thank Dr. Heather
E. Wizikowski for her extensive knowledge on special education policies and individuals with developmental disorders. Her understanding of my topic has propelled me to investigate other avenues to assist individuals with autism spectrum disorders as they transition into adulthood. Finally, my sincere gratitude goes to Dr. Nancy Sanders for her broad knowledge of educational policies. My time in the doctoral program at Cal Poly
Pomona would be less memorable without Dr. Sanders’ sense of humor and the passion she shows towards assisting doctoral students in her care.
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ABSTRACT
This study explored how a school district prepares students with Autism Spectrum
Disorder for future employment opportunities. The research questions asked how educators develop the social and communication skills of students with ASD and explored staff members’ knowledge about supports and resources concerning supports and resources available to assist this population of students and the outcomes for students with ASD after they leave the high school environment. Seventy three participants, including, general education instructors, specialized academic instructors, school psychologists, occupational therapists, counselors, paraprofessionals, school site office staff, administrators, a speech pathologist, and a representative from the school district, responded to a survey. Results indicated that staff members utilized interventions and strategies such as direct instruction, modeling, redirection, special education programs
(IEPs), and group work to prepare students for social and communication skills, they were aware of supports and resources to assist students with ASD, and they were also aware of the outcomes for individuals with ASD once they leave the secondary learning environment. The majority of participants from the three educational settings responded that schools did not adequately prepare students with ASD for competitive employment, and respondents felt they did not have sufficient knowledge to assist students with ASD to obtain employable goals. Implications, limitations and directions for further research were discussed.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Signature Page ……………………………..………………………….………………….ii
Dedication ……………...………………………………...……………………………....iii
Acknowledgements ………………...…………………...…….…………….………...….iv
Abstract …………………………………………………..…….…………………..……..v
List of Tables …………………………………………..………….………...…………..xii
List of Figures ………………………………………….....…….…………………….....xv
Chapter 1: Introduction ……………………………….………..…………………………1
Background of the Problem ……...... …………….…………………………...….1
Comorbidity …………………..…...………………………….…………..2
History of Special Education Policies …………………...... …………….4
The Rehabilitation Act ……………………………………………5
Individuals with Disabilities Act …………………...…………….5
Funding autism research ………………………………..………...5
Federal and State Laws Regarding Employment for Individuals with Disabilities …………………………………………….…………….7
Employment First policy …………………………….…...... 8
Autism, collaboration, accountability, research Education Support Act 2014……………………………...…………………..9
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA) ……….…...9
Employing Individuals with Developmental Delays …………....10
Supported employment ……………….……...... ……10
School Settings ……...……………………………………………..…....11
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Secondary Learning Environments…………………………….………...12
Transitional Services ……………………………...…………..…12
Postsecondary Environments….. ………………………………..………………13
Problem Statement ………………………………………………………………..……..14
Cost Related to Autism ………………………………………...………………..16
Adults living with autism ……………………………….……………….17
Caregivers ………..……………………………………………………...19
Purpose of Study …………………………...………………….………………………..21
Research Questions …………………………………………….……………………….22
Significance of Study ………………………………………….………...... 22
Definition of Terms ………………………………………….………………………....23
Assumptions ………………………….………………………………………….……24
Summary ………………………….…………………………………………………….24
Chapter 2: Literature Review ………………………………………….………….…….26
Theoretical Framework …………………….……………………………….…..26
Social Justice and Education in Public Schools ……………………...…26
Organizational Theory ………………………………………………...... 27
Critical Social Theory and Education ………….………………………..28
General education setting ……………………..………….…...... 29
Common Core State Standards and Autism ……...……………………..31
Employable Skills …………………………...………………………………..…32
Expectations from Employers …………………………………………...32
Job Interviews …………………………………………………...32
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Effective Employment Communication ………………….……..33
Other Attributes Expected from Employers …………………….34
Individuals with Autism Obtaining and Maintaining Employment ……..34
Communication and Social Skills Deficits …………………………………..….35
Social Communication …..………………………………………..……..36
Expressive Language …………………………………………………....36
Tone ……………………..………………………………………37
Idioms ………………………..…………………………...…..…39
Interpersonal Skills …………………………………………………..….39
Social reciprocity………………………….………...... …40
Social cues…………..…………...... ….41
Working with peers ……………………………….…………...... 42
Engagement through social media …………………….……...…42
Flexibility and adaptability .…………………………….…....….43
Advancing Employable Skills for Students with Autism …………………….…43
Interventions …………………………………………………………….43
Professional Learning Communities ………………….…………44
Internal Supports and Resources……………………………….……...…46
Support teams ………………………………….…………….…..46
Curriculum and instruction ………………………………...……47
Social capital building …………………………………..………48
Video modeling ……………………………….………………...50
Demonstrating model behavior……………………….…….…...51
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External Supports and Resources …………………………...….….……52
Apprenticeship programs ………………………………….……52
Vocational rehabilitation ………………………….……….…....53
Individualized Educational Plans (IEPs)………………………………….…...... 54
IEP Goal Writing ………………….………………..………………...... 54
Transitional IEP Goal Writing……………………………….…………..55
Participation During Transition Meetings…………………….…..……..57
Summary …………..…………………………………………………….………58
Chapter 3: Methodology ……………………………………………….………………..60
Research Methods ………………..…………………………..………………….60
Survey Design ……………………………………….…………….…….61
Research Setting ……………………………………………..……………….….61
Community of Selected School District ……………….………………..61
Selected School District ………………………………….……..……….63
Supporting Students at Mountain Valley School District …….…67
Mission and Vision of Mountain Valley School District…………....…...69
Participants ………………………………………………………….…………...70
Description of Participants ………………………………….………...…71
Consent Form and Survey ………………………………………...……………..75
Construction of Survey ………………………………………………….76
Data Collection ………………………………………………………………….78
Data Collection Procedures …………………………………….………..78
Data Analysis Procedures …………………………………………….…………79
ix
Quantitative Analysis of Survey Data ………………….………………..79
Qualitative Analysis of Survey Data …………………………….………80
Trustworthiness ………………………………………………………….………81
Summary ………………………………………………………………….……..82
Chapter 4: Research Findings ………………………………………………….………..83
Research Question One …………………………………………………….……87
Responses to Social Skill Statement and Items ………………………..104
Analysis of Research Question Two …………………………………………...120
Analysis of Research Question Three ………………………………………….126
Education ………………………………………………………...….…126
Employment ……………………………………………………...…….127
District Provided Services …………………………………………...…127
Home …………………………………………………………...………128
State and Federal Services and Other Organizations ……………..……128
Summary of Table Results ……………………………………………...…...…129
Chapter 5: Conclusion ……………………………………...……………………….….132
Delimitations ……………………………………...…….………………….…..141
Limitations ………………………………………...…………………………...142
Implications …………………………………………………………………….143
Interventions …………………………………...……….……………...143
Vocational Training in Schools ...... 144
Informed Educators …………………………………………………….145
Recommendations ……………………………………………………………...146
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Optimizing IEPs ………………………………………………………..146
Delivering Interventions ……………………………...………………..147
Vocational Training before Reaching Adulthood ………………...……148
Conclusion ……………………………………………………………..………149
References ………………………………………………………...…………………....150
Appendix A ……………………………………………………….……………………191
Appendix B…………...………………………………………………………….……..192
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 United States Census Bureau: 2009-2013, State and City Facts……………………………………………………………...…62
Table 2 Mountain Valley School District Student Population From 2014-2015 …………………………………………….…………..64
Table 3 Student Demographic of Mountain Valley School District ………………………………………………………………..…65
Table 4 Participant Position Title at Mountain Valley School District ……. ………………………………………...………....………..75
Table 5 Participant Experience of Working with Students with ASD ……...... ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,...... 84
Table 6 Courses or Training Taken By Participants to Address the Needs of Students with ASD ………………………….……….……86
Table 7 Preparing Students with ASD – Competitive Employment ……………………………………………………….…….89
Table 8 Preparing Students with ASD – Competitive Employment ……………….…………………………………….….…...90
Table 9 Preparing Students with ASD – Communication with Adults ……………………………………………………….……...92
Table 10 Preparing Students with ASD – Communication with Adults …………………………………………………………...….93
Table 11 Preparing Students with ASD – Communication with Peers………………………………………………...……………………95
Table 12 Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Communication with Peers ……………………..………………….……96
Table 13 Preparing Students with ASD – Conversations ………………………....98
xii
Table 14 Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Conversations ………………………….………………………….…...99
Table 15 Preparing Students with ASD – Tone of Voice …………………..……101
Table 16 Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Tone of Voice ………………………………………………….…….102
Table 17 Preparing Students with ASD for Employment Social Skills In the Classroom ……………………...... 105
Table 18 Preparing Students for Employment – Behavior in the Classroom …………………………...……………………...……….…106
Table 19 Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Social Skills outside the Classroom …………………………….…....108
Table 20 Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Behavior Outside the Classroom …………………………....….……109
Table 21 Preparing Students for Employment – Flexibility…………………………………………………....………..111
Table 22 Preparing Students for Employment – Flexibility ………………………..……………………....…………..112
Table 23 Preparing Students for Employment – Social Cues ………………...….114
Table 24 Preparing Students for Employment – Social Cues ………………...….115
Table 25 Employable Skills Preparation …………………… ………………...…117
Table 26 Essential Skills Required of Individuals with ASD to Attain Employment ………………………………………………….…118
Table 27 District Supports and Resources to Address Employable
Skills of Students with ASD ………………………………………...…121
Table 28 Additional Support and Resources for Students with ASD Outside MVSD ……………………………………….……………..…123
Table 29 Supports and Resources Available to Assist Students with ASD Obtain Employment …………………………….……….....125
xiii
Table 30 Additional Comments from Participants Concerning Autism and Employment …………………………………………..…..130
xiv
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 The Survey of Pathways to Diagnosis and Services …………………………………………………………………...3
Figure 2 Young Adults with ASD and Employment …………………………….………………………...……..15
Figure 3 Level of Support Needed for Individuals with Autism ……………………………………………………...……....20
Figure 4 Research Questions and Components of Survey ……………………...... 77
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Chapter 1: Introduction
In March 2014, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention stated that 1 of 68
children in the United States have been diagnosed with autism. The Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention identified Autism Spectrum Disorder as a developmental
disability that caused impairments in social communication and behavioral challenges
(Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2016). In 2013, the American Psychiatric
Association (APA) revised the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM). In the most recent addition of the DSM, autistic disorder (AD), Asperger’s
disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified (PDD-NOS) are
not categorized separately; instead, they are now identified under autism spectrum
disorder (Young & Rodi, 2014). Under the DSM-5, individuals diagnosed with ASD must exhibit three deficits in social communication and display two symptoms of restricted activities or repetitive behaviors (Kaufmann, 2013).
Background of the Problem
Deficits in the areas of social communication and social skills are present in
adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The behaviors of adolescents with
ASD may manifest as maladaptive, repetitive, and rigid (Hume, Boyd, Hamm &
Kucharczyk, 2014). Individuals with ASD may also be challenged by receptive and
expressive language, particularly when compared to their typically developed peers (TD).
According to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, version 5 (DSM-5), ASD manifests
in early childhood, symptoms range from mild to severe, and those with the diagnoses
continue to experience difficulties throughout their lifespans (Karst et al., 2015).
Comorbidity
1
People diagnosed with autism may be identified with other disorders such as
Anxiety, Attention Deficit Hyperactive Disorder, Depression, Oppositional Defiant
Disorder, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and tics. Social anxiety can be a co-occurring impairment with young adults with ASD and can express itself as irritability and increased rituals, and typically increases over time with the ASD population (Mynatt et al., 2014). Ongoing social difficulties and past negative experiences with peers can contribute to social anxiety (White, Ollendick & Bray, 2011). Also as noted by Hedley and Young (2006), adolescents with ASD often experienced high levels of depression
(Westbrook et al., 2015).
Researchers Roux, Shattuck, Rast, Rava and Anderson (2015) revealed 60% of youth ages 15-17 had at least two mental health conditions in addition to autism. Figure
1 illustrates that adolescents between the ages of 15 and 17 with ASD also had the following disorders: seizures (11%), depression (23%), anxiety (47%) and ADD/ADHD
(51%) (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2015).
2
60%
50%
40%
30% Percents 20%
10%
0% Seizure Disorder Depression Anxiety ADD/ADHD
emotional and medical illnesses Co-occurring condition with ASD
Figure 1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: The survey of pathways to
diagnosis and services, 2011
Individuals diagnosed with comorbid psychiatric disorders were most likely to receive
additional services, such as services from mental health facilities (Simonoff et al., 2008;
Taylor & Henninger, 2015). These services usually reduce the amount of instructional
time the student receives in the classroom and may also reduce the amount of support the
student receives from other services such as counseling, behavior modification and
speech.
The Autism and Developmental Disabilities Monitoring (ADDM) network
monitored the increase of ASD through health records and special education sites. The
network determined the percentages by comparing areas that had low rates of autism such
as South Carolina (1.2%) to areas such as New Jersey (2.5%) which experienced high
rates of autism (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 2016). Due to the
3
increase of ASD identification by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2014), psychiatric researchers supported the Early Symptomatic Syndromes Eliciting
Neurodevelopmental Clinical Examination (ESSENCE) utilized to detect other disorders such as intellectual developmental disorder, language disorder and attention-
deficit/hyperactivity disorder in conjunction with autism spectrum disorder (ASD).
Researchers from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) supported the use of
ESSENCE to recognize comorbidity with the diagnoses of ASD to assist with
interventions (Gillberg & Fernell, 2014). Researchers recommended schools support
students with ASD in conjunction with other disorders and implement plans to address
future employment opportunities that compliments the skill set of the student (Strickland,
Coles, & Southern, 2013).
History of Special Education Policies
For the majority of the 20th century, individuals or children with special needs
were not recognized at local school levels. Prior to the passing of the Individuals with
Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) of 1975, local school boards and school districts
decided which students were educated under their jurisdiction. Martin, Martin, and
Terman (1996) remarked on the status of students with special needs prior to the passing
of state and federal laws protecting these individuals:
Through most of the history of public schools in America, services to children
with disabilities were minimal and were provided at the discretion of local school
districts. Until the mid-1970s, laws in most states allowed school districts to
refuse to enroll any student they considered "uneducable," a term generally
defined by local school administrators. (p. 26)
4
Parents of students with special needs were left with few options for their children
beyond expensive, private facilities, and state institutions that did not provide educational
evidence-based interventions, or keeping the child at home.
The rehabilitation act. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 was one of the first
national laws to address individuals with physical and mental disabilities in the context of
employment. This act placed the responsibility of assisting individuals with disabilities
with vocational rehabilitation agencies. If a disabled person sought assistance in
obtaining a job, the vocational rehabilitation agencies would devise individualized plans.
The act also protected disabled individuals against discriminatory actions such as denial
of services from federally assisted programs and activities (Stader, 2013). The act did not
significantly change the lives of millions of school age students with disabilities due to
the omission of public schools being mandated to follow the federal stature (Gius, 2007).
Individuals with disabilities act. The Education for Handicapped Children Act
(1975) was passed to protect the rights of handicapped children. This federal law, now known as the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA), required public schools to provide a “free appropriate public education” (FAPE) in the “least restrictive learning environment” (LRE). To accommodate the needs of students with special needs, educators were required to develop Individual Education Plans (IEP) to ensure that educational goals and objectives were being met (The ARC, 2015). The federal government provided additional funds to states and local education agencies (LEAs) to support special education in public schools.
Funding autism research. After several reauthorizations of the Education for
Handicapped Children Act, since retitled the Individuals with Disabilities Act (IDEA),
5
students with traumatic brain injury and autism were finally recognized. The act also included specialized training for “highly qualified teachers” to effectively deliver instruction and appropriate interventions for students with disabilities. In 1995, the
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) authorized $10 million dollars for autism research and interventions. In response to the growing number of individuals who were being diagnosed with autism, the Department of Developmental Services (DDS) developed an initiative that held several objectives: (1) to establish a comprehensive policy to address the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of ASD; (2) to identify the best practices in assessment, diagnosis, treatment, education, and training; (3) to promote private and public research; and (4) to provide current information to families and those who served the ASD population (California Department of Developmental Services,
2015).
After the 1997 initiative from the DDS, lawmakers and stakeholders assisted in developing a form of public policy that was equitable and reflected current research in the field of autism (Feinberg & Vacca, 2001). The Children’s Health Act of 2000 authorized the federal government to fund research on autism from profit and non-profit organizations and research facilities (Children’s Health Act, 2000).
Researchers and scholars began to define autism through identification of symptoms such as deficits in socialization, communication, and learning challenges, but found the symptoms of autism varied in degrees of severity. Students, formerly diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome, were found to have strong communication skills and to achieve academically (Atwood, 2007; Lerner, Mikami, & Levine, 2011). Others diagnosed with ASD struggled academically and were reluctant to communicate with
6
their peers (Fleury et al., 2014; Plavnick & Hume, 2014). Without ill intent, policies on
fighting autism relied upon studying the disorder and did not focus enough on treating
individuals with ASD.
Federal and State Laws Regarding Employment for Individuals with Disabilities
Competitive employment refers to the competitive labor market, where individuals with special needs and without are paid at or above minimum wage for full or part-time work. Competitive employment also refers to working in an environment with other non-disabled workers and the individual with special needs becomes eligible for advancing opportunities while being employed.
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder, transitioned out of the secondary educational public system, were less likely to attain employment compared to individuals
with learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, and speech impairments (Shattuck et
al., 2012). Henderson (2011) summarized the delicate balance of policies and state
agencies in the field of education, as follows:
The policy and fiscal context for state-level initiatives targeting a single disability
group is ever changing. Efforts by state-level commissions and panels to
establish and implement best practice guidelines, interagency agreements, and
seamless delivery systems often face daunting political and legislative
hurdles. It will be important to not only survey the progress of these efforts
regularly but also evaluate their impact on delivery and quality of services. (pp.
113-114)
The federal government and state legislatures created several policies to address the needs of individuals with autism and their employment prospects. To combat the growth
7
in autism, states utilized policies provided in IDEA that went beyond identification; these
provisions were used to assist students with ASD. Henderson (2011) reported, “These
efforts include provision of direct services, professional development, technical
assistance, and statewide interagency coordinating initiatives” (p. 106).
Employment first policy. On October 9, 2013, Governor Brown of California
signed AB 1041 (Chesbro), which established the Employment First Policy for individuals with special needs who required assistance with competitive employment.
The policy also entitled individuals with special needs to have the same benefits afforded to non-disabled employees (State Council on Developmental Disabilities, 2014).
California was the 12th state in the union to implement an employment policy into law.
The policy stated the following:
4869(a)(3) Integrated competitive employment is intended to be the first option
considered by planning teams for working age individuals, but individuals may
choose goals other than integrated competitive employment. 4869(a)(4)
Postsecondary education, technical or vocational training, and internship
programs may be considered as a means to achieve integrated competitive
employment or career advancement. (California Department of Developmental
Services, p. 2)
The law encouraged business owners and community leaders to allow individuals with
developmental disabilities, such as autism, to be integrated into the community which
allowed the individual to be independent and productive as adults. The state of
California recognized the importance of employing individuals with disabilities with
8
assistance from community colleges, vocational rehabilitation centers, and internship
programs.
Autism Collaboration, Accountability, Research, Education and Support Act
of 2014. The Autism Collaboration, Accountability, Research, Education, and Support
Act of 2014 (Autism CARES Act) allocated 1.5 billion dollars until the year 2019 for federal agencies and researchers to study and anticipate the needs of individuals with autism transitioning out of the secondary educational setting into adulthood (113th
Congress, Public Law 113-157; Williams, 2014). Congress addressed the lack of
employment opportunities for individuals with ASD by determining the most efficient
interventions to assist individuals with autism to attain employment. The act also ensured
individuals with ASD did not receive duplicate services from multiple agencies. For
instance, if an individual with ASD received services from the Department of
Rehabilitation for vocational training, the person could not receive the same services from Workability, a state program from the Department of Education.
Workforce Innovation and Opportunity Act (WIOA). On July 22, 2014,
President Barack Obama signed the WIOA, Public Law 113-128 to help individuals attain employment, in conjunction with education and training to maximize their skill set.
The United States Department of Labor requested that state vocational rehabilitation agencies allot 15% of their funding to transition services for youth with disabilities.
According to WIOA, before students with special needs were employed, they were required to receive extensive training services (United States Department of Labor,
2015). The Deputy Assistant for the United States Department of Education Office of
Career and Technical Education encouraged local providers, such as career development
9
centers and vocational rehabilitation agencies, to identify and evaluate evidence-based
practices and models to assist individuals with special needs to become employable
(Uvin, 2015). If the secondary educational setting did not provide enough resources for
an individual with autism to succeed, support from the WIOA, community colleges, and
vocational rehabilitation agencies could provide a second opportunity to pursue
employment.
Employing individuals with developmental delays. Individuals with ASD have
sought employment through vocational rehabilitation centers and counseling from schools or private organizations, similar to other individuals with developmental delays, intellectual disabilities and physical impairments. The Rehabilitation Act of 1973 provided individuals with disabilities the opportunity to receive vocational training to increase their chances of employment.
Supported employment. The Rehabilitation Act was the first federal law to address employing individuals with physical and mental disabilities, requiring every state
to establish departments to assist with individuals with disabilities who struggled to find
employment. Vocational rehabilitation agencies were established to address job
employment supports for those individuals who were considered unsuitable for
employment. During this era, supported employment was segregated or took place in
adult day programs.
Supported employment included competitive integrated employment with
precursor support builders, such as job coaches, on-the-job training, systematic training,
job development and follow-up services (Beyer et al., 2010; Moon et al., 1990; Wehman,
Brooke, Brooke, Ham, Schall, McDonough, Lau, Seward & Avellone, 2016).
10
Customized Employment (CE), mentioned in the Workforce Innovation and
Opportunities Act (WIOA) of 2014 included components of vocational rehabilitation and business owners/corporations taking deliberate steps to include individuals with special needs in the work environment to perform specific duties. Using supported employment as a precursor, Competitive Integrated Employment or customized employment represented a mutual compromise between the candidate for employment (individual with special needs), state or private employment agencies, and future employers (Wehman et al., 2016).
School Settings
All school districts in the state of California are required to follow federal laws pertaining to special education, including IDEA and all amendments made to existing policies. Schools are regulated by these policies, as a condition of funding from the federal and state government. The California Department of Education has Special
Education Local Plan Areas (SELPAs) that keep school districts, under their jurisdiction, abreast on existing and changing special education policies. SELPAs interpret policies and outline how the policies should look in practice.
Students with ASD can receive academic support either in the general education setting or a more restrictive learning environment. The U.S. Department of Education and the Office of Special Education and Rehabilitation Services (2007) statistically described the amount of time students with autism received academic support in the general education setting; 43.9% of students with autism spent more than 60% of their school day in general education settings. Under IDEA, more students with autism are enrolled in general education classes. According to the National Center for Education
11
Statistics in 2012, 18.1% of students with ASD spent 40% to 79% in general education
classes; 39.5% of students with ASD spent 80% or more in general education classes.
The number of students with ASD in the general education population continued to grow
during the school year 2013-2014; 63% of students with ASD spent most of the
educational day in general education classes (National Center for Education Statistics,
2014, 2016). Accommodations can range from placement in a general education
classroom with support from a specialized academic instructor or placement in a self-
contained learning environment. The educational setting depends on the severity of the
condition which may involve delays in expressive and receptive communication, lack of
social adaptation, maladaptive behavior, and academic delays.
Secondary learning environments. The transition from the middle school setting
to a high school setting may be unsettling to a typically developed adolescent (TD), but
changes in educational settings may cause students with ASD to display symptoms
subdued in elementary or middle school. For example, the student may exhibit
aggressive or noncompliant behavior or may not be able to accomplish daily tasks such as
waking up on time for school or grooming themselves properly (Myles et al., 2005).
Behavior challenges found among some students with ASD may manifest despite
elevated cognitive and communicative abilities (Myles et al., 2005; Sansosti & Sansosti,
2012).
Transitional services. IDEA was amended in 1997 to address transitional services
in the IEPs of students with special needs. The reauthorization of IDEA in 2004, placed greater emphasis on post-secondary goals pertaining to post-secondary education and
employment (U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education 2015). The
12
U.S. Department of Education, detailed transitional services for secondary students with
special needs, ages 16 to 22. Transition services must include a coordinated set of
activities to assist students with special needs as they transition from secondary to post-
secondary activities such as employment (IDEA, 2004; U.S. Department of Education,
Office of Special Education, 2015).
Postsecondary Environments
While in school, students with autism receive designated school supports for
speech, adaptive physical education, occupational therapy and counseling, but as they
leave the secondary environment, they may still experience deficits in communication
and social skills that persist into adulthood (Cederlund, Hagberg, Billstedt, Gillberg &
Gillberg, 2008). Taylor and Seltzer (2010) noted that individuals with autism, without
intellectual disabilities, typically display less repetitive and maladaptive behaviors as they
leave high school.
Researchers have monitored the transition from secondary settings to adulthood
for individuals with ASD and have found their outcomes to be bleak (Shattuck, 2015;
Wilczynski, Trammell & Clarke, 2013). The deficits found in communication and social skills, however slight, may impede the efforts of an individual with ASD to attain employment. Social impairments can interfere with the process of building relationships and functioning properly on a job site (Hendricks & Wehman, 2009; Kandalaft,
Didehbani, Kucharczyk, Allen & Chapman, 2013).
13
Problem Statement
Several studies in the field of Autism Spectrum Disorder have shown that once
these individuals leave the secondary educational environment, they do not obtain
employment like their typically developed peers and other individuals, with disabilities
such as speech and language impairments, intellectual disabilities and learning
disabilities (Shattuck et al., 2012; Strickland et al., 2013). Dr. Michael J. Cameron, Chief
Clinical Officer of Pacific Child and Family Associates, stated that finding viable employment opportunities for individuals with ASD is challenging. Cameron (2014) compared the state of employment opportunities and individuals with disabilities in the
United States to other industrial countries:
What is unique about the American culture, is its technical and corporate culture,
which results in specialized employment opportunities for individuals with
disabilities. This isn’t the same case with areas outside of the United States where
people with disabilities are incorporated and accepted into the work- force more
often times employed in less technical and more diversified jobs. (p. 14)
Often students with ASD enter supported employment centers to receive training to do a specific task, but do not receive training aligned with their individual strengths. Wehman et al., (2013) found individuals with ASD, ages 22 or younger, experienced difficulties in gaining employment using vocational rehabilitation services (Wehman, McDonough,
Molinelli, Riehle, Ham & Thiss, 2013). These services provided training to their clients for a specific job, such as working in the food industry or medical field (Riesen, Schultz,
Morgan, & Kupferman, 2014). Upon completion of these programs, the skill set of the individual with ASD were not diversified. When individuals with ASD completed their
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training, they could pursue competitive employment, but companies were not obligated to
hire individuals with ASD.
The National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2) collected data from 2001
through 2009 from youth with ASD who received special education services from the
secondary learning environment through adulthood. The study was the most current
source of national data that focused on the experiences and outcomes of individuals with autism spectrum disorder.
According to the Roux et al. (2015) study, 60% of young adults with ASD studied attained employment, but supported employment through a vocational rehabilitation
center also counted as pay outside the home. As illustrated in Figure 2, the number of
adults with ASD who obtained employment two years after leaving high school
decreased. The percentages were higher for young adults with ASD who did not have
jobs after leaving high school (<40%). Those who obtained employment earned $25,000
or less which was a result of adults with ASD working less than 40 hours per week.
Employed with lower income household: $25,000 a year or less
Did not work for pay between high school and early 20s
Attained employment for pay outside of the home within two years after leaving secondary learning environment
Attained a job for pay outside of the home
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%
Young Adults with ASD and Employment
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Figure 2. Young adults with ASD and employment
According to NLTS2, 55% of individuals with ASD had paid employment which included supported or sheltered employment. Individuals with supported employment worked fewer hours, earned less wages and were less likely to transition out of sheltered workshops (Cimera, Wehman, West & Burgess, 2012).
Newman et al. (2011) detailed the plight of individuals with ASD in the workforce. Eight years after completing high school, only 63.2% of young adults with autism worked, and when the survey was conducted, only 37.2% were employed. When
Newman compared the employment statistics of young adults with other disabilities with those with autism, the group with autism experienced greater difficulty in obtaining employment (Lee & Carter, 2012; Newman et al., 2011).
Costs Related to Autism
There are numerous costs related to autism from services provided in public schools such as services from special education, transportation, speech, Adaptive
Physical Education, behavior specialists, occupational therapists, and transportation; to assisted living, housing, day care and medical expenses as the individual transitions into adulthood. Compared to adults with other disabilities, adults with ASD require the costliest services (Cimera & Cowan, 2009). Buescher, Cidav, Knapp and Mandell (2014) estimated the United States has spent $137 billion dollars, annually, on services for the
ASD population Researchers from the University of Davis estimated the cost of individuals diagnosed with ASD to be $268 billion dollars for 2015 when you take into account the cost of medical services, resident care, special education services, in-home care, transportation, supported employment services, and loss of productivity. By 2025,
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the cost is estimated to be about $461 billion, if early diagnoses of autism and interventions to support employment are not present (Leigh & Du, 2015).
Hall-Lande et al. (2011) blamed the expense of ASD-related services to the lack
of coordination between support services. Dr. Paul T. Shattuck (2015), autism
researcher, in a National Public Radio interview, commented on the difficulties adults
with ASD experience:
There becomes a patchwork quilt of very disconnected services with different
eligibility criteria so families find that a very difficult transition to navigate
because you go from literally having sort of one-stop shopping under one roof at
the school for many of the therapeutic supportive services your kid needs, to a
state of affairs where there is not that one-stop shopping any longer. (transcript
11:15:57)
Adults with ASD were at risk of becoming disconnected from society when they were not
afforded the opportunities to share their skill set with potential employers.
Adults living with autism. The federal government authorized over one billion
dollars, over a five year period, to research the aging ASD population in regards to
transitioning from high school to the work environment or postsecondary educational
settings. Individuals with ASD have medical and non-medical costs such as, education,
transportation, interventions (behavioral, occupational, speech), and family caregiver
expenses. Researchers studied the annual costs of services from the California
Department of Developmental Services (CDDS) spent on the ASD population from
2012-2013. The average amount spent per child with ASD, ages 3-6, was $12,459 and the average amount spent per adult with ASD, ages 65 and over, was $49,767. The study
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found an increase of annual funds spent on individuals with ASD as they aged (Leigh,
Grosse, Cassaday, Melnikow, & Hertz-Picciotto, 2016). Researchers Warfield,
Crossman, Delahaye, Der Weerd and Kuhlthau (2015) highlighted the need for medical professionals to accommodate the growing population of individuals with ASD. The study found there were not enough medical professionals willing to care for adults with
ASD, because they were not made adequately aware of conditions, interventions, and counseling services specific to individuals with ASD (McDougle, 2013; Warfield et al.,
2015).
A 2010 report conducted by the Southwest Autism Research and Resource Center
(SARRC) evaluated the needs of adults with autism. The report found that 90% of the costs of caring for an individual with autism involved adult services such as adult residential placement and matters pertaining to caregivers (loss of income from work).
The costs are expected to grow without a comprehensive plan to coordinate the needs of adults with autism. The SARRC compared the living arrangements of typically developed individuals with individuals with ASD, ages 19-30 and found 32% of typically developed individuals lived with their parents compared with 79% of individuals with
ASD. The statistics also conveyed that 58% of typically developed adults compared with
4% of adults with ASD lived independently from parental figures (Resnik & Blackbourn,
2010).
After reviewing the research on outcomes for adults with ASD, Taylor, Smith &
Mailick, 2014) found more than $400 million dollars was spent on autism genetics research to find a cure to diagnose autism and to implement interventions for children with autism; not to treat adults with ASD (Carpenter, 2015). They highlighted the fact
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that there have been too few studies focused on interventions for adults with ASD, yet
research consistently identified that after leaving the secondary learning environment, adults with ASD experience less improvement of maladaptive behaviors and symptoms.
Furthermore, adults with ASD who do not have vocational or educational activities after leaving high school were prone to more disruptive symptoms associated with autism, such as self-injury, aggression, and uncooperative behaviors (Taylor & Seltzer, 2010;
Taylor & Seltzer, 2011).
Caregivers. Individuals with ASD, who are not employed after transitioning from
the secondary learning environment, have the option of living in Assisted Living housing
or remaining dependent upon their parents for their well-being. If the parents are
employed, they must contend with the issue of how to care for their adult child during the
day. The California Department of Developmental Disabilities divided services provided
to caregivers into the following categories: (1) day care programs; (2) in-home respite;
(3) out of home respite; and (4) transportation. Adult day care programs offer life skill
classes, community outings, and volunteer work, but programs vary in reference to
effectiveness, qualified staff, location, and expense. The 2015 Genworth Financial cost
of care survey estimated the average cost of adult day care in California to be $1,668 per
month, and the U.S. average was $1,495 (Adult Day Care, 2016). In-home respite allows
caregivers to pay others to cook, clean, or administer medication for the individual with
autism, on a short term basis. Out of home respite allows licensed facilities to care for
the individuals, such as attending therapy sessions, providing meals and medication on a
short term basis. Lastly, transportation refers to public transportation, personal vehicles
and transportation from the resident care facility (Leigh et al., 2016).
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Autism Speaks is an organization designed to provide resources for the public in the form of advocacy, research, fundraising, and awareness for autism. In 2013, Autism
Speaks collaborated with Specialized Information Services (SIS) International Research, a market research firm, to conduct a survey on the supports needed by the ASD adult population. The survey was completed by 10,000 caregivers (including parents) and 400 individuals with autism. Figure 3 illustrates the amount of support caregivers of individuals with autism required.
Figure 3 shows a need for caregivers to have access to support for their adult child with ASD. Less than 5% of respondents indicated that they did not need assistance to care for the individual with autism currently living in their home. The majority of the respondents stated that they needed assistance with an individual with autism twenty-four hours a day (Autism Speaks, 2013).
No support needed A few hours per week Less than a few hours per week A few hours per day Support throughout the day 24 hour support
0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35% 40% Percent of Support
Figure 3. Level of support needed for individuals with autism
Competitive employment opportunities for the transitioned individual with ASD may lessen the burden of caregivers supporting another adult in the household.
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The executive summary from the National Housing and Residential Supports
Survey (2013) revealed sources for funding residential support for individuals with
autism. Respondents indicated residential care facilities for individuals with
developmental delays were paid from the following services: (1) Medicaid state plan
(36%); (2) Supplemental security income (33%); (3) Income from family/relative (31%);
(4) Social Security disability income (28%); and (5) Medicaid waiver services (20%).
The majority of funding for housing individuals with ASD came from Medicaid (36%)
and supplemental security income (33%). In 2014, Medicaid spent $511 billion dollars
on coverage for individuals with disabilities (Center on Budget and Policy Priorities,
2015).
The cost of autism will continue to rise if the nation continues to offer more
federal and state resources to individuals who are unprepared to enter the workforce.
Through IDEA, public schools are required to provide services of appropriate educational
settings and interventions to students with autism spectrum disorder. In order to offset
the rising costs of care, it is important for educators to prepare students with ASD for
future employment.
Purpose of Study
Studies in the field of autism have shown that once individuals with ASD leave
the secondary educational environment, they typically are not able to obtain and maintain
employment (Shattuck et al., 2012; Wehman et al., 2013). In order to gain a better understanding of this phenomenon, this survey study explored how educators in a
Southern California school district advance the employable skills of students with ASD.
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Research Questions
The research questions that guided the study were as follows:
1) How well did the school district help students with ASD develop social and communication skills?
2) What did staff know about supports and resources to assist students with ASD with future employment opportunities?
3) What did staff know about the outcomes of students with ASD after they left the high school?
Significance of Study
Cimera and Cowen (2009) and Shattuck et al. (2012) have studied individuals with
Autism Spectrum Disorder and employment opportunities. The researchers found that students with ASD often leave the secondary educational environment ill-prepared to face the multi-layered environment of attaining employment such as completing a job application, using public transportation, preparing for job interviews with appropriate attire, and being prepared to be interviewed by potential employers.
The needs of students with ASD may be overlooked in reference to preparation for competitive employment. Local educational agencies and special education local plan areas (SELPAs) have encouraged schools to use evidence-based practices to prepare students with special needs for successful transition into adulthood, but the schools faced numerous obstacles. To address communication and social skill deficits of students with
ASD, educators should be aware of the evidence-based practices utilized with this population of students. Students with ASD may be capable of handling the rigor of general education classes, but may still exhibit communication and social skills deficits
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that may make obtaining employment more challenging, if the deficits are not addressed.
Educators should know the skill set of their students and build upon those skills to attract future employers.
Definition of Terms
The following terms related to autism are used in this dissertation:
• Autism Spectrum Disorders – Neurodevelopmental conditions which feature
impairments in the areas of social skills, communication, and restricted/repetitive
behaviors (Cederlund et al., 2010; Kozlowski, Matson & Snipes, 2012; Matson et
al., 2009; Rivet & Matson 2011).
• External Resources – Supplemental materials, partnerships with companies or
businesses, grants, consultants, additional technology, data use systems, programs
(safety, discipline, college preparation), and other outside sources of support
school districts or schools obtain to enhance learning or services for students
(Naraian, Brown, & Navarro, 2011; Supovitz, 2008).
• Resources - School supports that provide instruction to students in the form of
faculty, books, instructional supplies or technology (Odden & Picus, 2014).
Jaquith (2013) describes four types of instructional resources: (1) knowledge
(content, pedagogy), (2) tools/materials (curriculum, teaching material,
assessments), (3) relationships (trust, mutual respect), and (4) school
structures (professional learning centers, instructional leadership).
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Assumptions
The following assumptions were made about educating students with ASD:
School districts offer some supports to students with special needs that directly address social skills.
• Students with ASD, enrolled in general education classes, receive less support
services.
• Transition IEP documents contain few goals that address preparation for job
interviews or interacting with coworkers.
• Representatives from Vocational Rehabilitation are not commonly present for
transitional IEP meetings.
• Specialized academic instructors do not frequently integrate marketable job skills
into their classrooms.
• Teachers and administrators are unfamiliar with federal and state policies
designed specifically to assist individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorders.
• Social communication goals are not routinely written in IEP speech goals.
• Students with ASD do not participate in extracurricular activities (afterschool
clubs) at the same rate as their typically developed peers.
Summary
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder may appear similar to their typically developed peers due to their increased enrollment in general education classes and less support services. Researchers have shown that individuals with ASD obtained less employment opportunities after leaving the secondary learning environment (Newman et al., 2011; Shattuck et al., 2012). Factors such as deficits in expressive language, learning
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challenges, social skills, and comorbidity have lowered the chances of individuals with
ASD to attain employment.
Through the passing of the Autism CARES Act of 2014, the federal government has recognized that the autism population is aging and if the schools do not help this segment of the population, it will cost society billions of dollars. Without intervention from the federal and state government and age appropriate interventions, supports, and resources; the ASD population will continue to have less employment opportunities and more tax dollars will be spent on Social Security, supplemental income benefits, unemployment benefits, and Medicare to support individuals with autism. The upcoming literature review in Chapter 2 describes the structure of public schools and their efforts to implement interventions to develop employable skills for these students. The literature review applies a social justice framework and emphasizes the development of the communication and social skills necessary to obtain employment in the current job market.
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Chapter 2: Literature Review
Theoretical Framework
Social justice theory, organizational theory, and critical social theory provide the theoretical framework for this literature review. All three theories require educators to examine aspects of an educational organization, the programs, curriculum, staff, structure of schools, and resources to determine the extent which they assist or hinder students.
Social Justice and Education in Public Schools
Goldfarb and Grinberg (2002) reflected upon how social justice supports the education of marginalized groups, such as individuals who receive special services from public school settings. Federal mandates, such as IDEA (1975) have obligated schools to provide educational services for individuals with specials needs (Huefner, 2008).
However, the laws have not specified which educational services such as instructional methods and interventions benefit students with special needs most effectively.
According to Kaser and Halbert (2009), educational leaders in schools must be resilient in their efforts to improve the life chances of all learners by working with colleagues and the community. Jenlink and Jenlink (2006) argued teachers are responsible for securing the future of democracy and sustaining social justice through ensuring the success of all children. The Council for Exceptional Children (2009) indicated specialized academic instructors need to advocate for students with special needs by: (1) becoming knowledgeable about how the federal and state government provide services to individuals with special needs; (2) working in collaboration with other professionals to ensure individuals with special needs are receiving appropriate services;
(3) maintaining documents (IEPs) and providing evidence of transition activities of the
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individual with special needs; (4) ensuring appropriate placement (special or general
education settings) for individuals with special needs; and (5) adhering to all federal and
state mandates to ensure that individuals with exceptionalities receive a free and
appropriate public education (Council for Exceptional Children, 2009; U.S. Department
of Education, 2010; Whitby, Marx, McIntire & Wienke, 2013).
Social justice leadership has involved keeping other educational leaders abreast of
issues of race, class, gender, disability, and other historically and marginalized conditions
of individuals in our schools (Grogan, 2013). According to social justice leadership
theory, educational leaders (general and special education instructors) must address
challenges that afflict our students before the attainment of a diploma or a letter of
completion for students with ASD. Pazey and Cole (2013) discussed why educational leaders have not advocated strong enough to make changes in schools, “Paradigm shifts are not easy, and to facilitate one, leaders need to identify both their goals and the underlying foundation of those goals. A surface understanding will not suffice. Real change requires a fully informed consciousness, a true equity consciousness” (p. 182).
Organizational Theory
March and Simon’s organizational theory (1958) explains how schools are
organized and how external and internal factors, including policies, structures and procedures influence organizational change. Public schools are organizational structures or systems designed to capture, generate, select, store, and distribute information and knowledge (Cyert & March, 1963; Levitt & March, 1988; March & Simon, 1958; Rodan,
2008). There are complex institutions affected by people, time and societal forces. The federal government establishes public mandates such as IDEA and the Elementary
27
Secondary Education Act which give state departments directives on what programs or school structure changes to implement. Many of these directives are designed to reach student populations at risk of academic underachievement such as students who are economically disadvantaged, English language learners, and students with special needs.
The state department then gives directives to local educational agencies and information to distribute to school districts under their jurisdiction. Eventually, local school boards make administrative and board policies for school sites to follow. Understanding organizational theory allows educators to examine how institutions, such as schools, implement policies and procedures, reorganize structures, and attempt to make necessary changes when groups of students with special needs, do not achieve the goals of the organization (Duke, 2015).
Critical Social Theory and Education
Critical social theorists examine how schools dispensed knowledge, stop oppression and facilitate those who will promote social justice (Murrow & Torres, 1995).
According to Warmington (2015):
Society is understood as a complex totality, in which specialized educational
institutions play an important role… educational institutions are significant
both in stabilizing society and creating possibilities for its alteration. So the
interplay between educational institutions and wider society become a necessary
object of sociological scrutiny. (p. 268)
Critical social theorists argue against institutional and cultural practices controlled by those who are in control of the organizations that perpetuate the same rules of conduct.
Organizational and social justice theorists suggest that, if the secondary school
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curriculum does not reflect or is not compatible with today’s society, change will not
occur in the institution and social injustice will prevail (Bates, 2013). They caution that
schools should not perpetuate or ignore social injustice that can be addressed by changes
in the areas of curriculum, interventions, procedures, and school personnel.
General education setting. Researchers support inclusive settings, general
education placement, for students with ASD for several reasons; adolescents with ASD are more engaged in extracurricular activities, students with ASD had higher levels of social interaction with peers, and students gained stronger academic skills in inclusive settings (Kurth, 2015; Kurth & Mastergeorge, 2012; Lyons, Cappadocia & Weiss, 2011).
Kurth and Mastergeorge (2010) attributed the increase of academic achievement in general education settings to more rigorous IEP goals. In addition, researchers suggest that students with autism with higher intelligence quotients and those who received early interventions were more likely placed in least restrictive learning environments (Harris &
Handleman, 2000; Kurth, 2015).
The National longitudinal study from the U.S. Department of Education (2012)
noted that students with ASD often struggle in regular education classes. These students
do not participate in class as much as their typically developed peers. They are less likely to respond orally to questions, complete assignments with regularity and often have difficulty partnering with their peers on projects (Able, Sreckovic, Schultz, Garwood &
Sherman, 2015; Fleury et al., 2014).
In order for the needs of students with ASD to be met in general education settings, general education teachers must have knowledge of each individual’s academic goals and specific accommodations and/or modifications to the curriculum, according to
29
the Individualized Education Program (IEP) the case manager or specialized academic instructor (SAI) provides. General education instructors have acknowledged their lack of knowledge and training in reference to autism spectrum disorders (Able et al., 2015;
Finke, McNaughton, & Drager, 2009). Special education laws have not specified how
SAIs communicate IEP information to general education instructors, which has contributed to the inconsistency of students with ASD being academically successful in the classroom.
Other researchers have noted benefits of including students with autism in the general education population. Ryndak, Ward, Alper, Montgomery and Storch (2010) found students with ASD, who received services in mainstream classes achieved better adult outcomes in reference to: community integration, work contexts, and interactions with others (Westbrook et al., 2015). Sansosti and Sansosti (2012) found students with
ASD had more access to peer modeling behavior from typically developed peers. Other benefits of educating students with ASD in more inclusive environments included increased opportunities for social interactions with typically developed peers, and participation in age-appropriate activities that may lead to an increase in social competence (Kurth, 2015). These positive interactions with peers addressed aspects of the communication and social skills deficits found in some students with ASD (Hunt et al., 1986; McCurdy & Cole, 2014; McDonnell et al., 1998).
Overall, studies concerning the academic success of secondary students with ASD in the general education setting have been inconsistent. Variables such as implementation of IEP goals, accommodations and/or modification to the curriculum, teacher knowledge of ASD, severity of communication and social skills and academic
30
perseverance; will likely affect the success rate of secondary students with ASD in the
general education population.
Common Core State Standards and Autism
Educational social justice involves changing institutions and organizational arrangements by actively advancing the rights of individuals based on equity, equality,
and fairness (Theoharis, 2007). The Common Core State Standard (CCSS) initiative was
designed to prepare 21st century k-12 students for college or the workforce (National
Governors Association Center & Council of Chief State School Offices, 2010). These
standards emphasize the development of communication and collaboration. For example,
a first grade standard requires students to participate in collaborative conversations with
diverse partners on a topic or text material with peers, adults, or within groups. During
the early stages of development, children with autism, may not be able to form complete
sentences to converse with others and engage peers over a specific topic. The listening
and speaking component of the Common Core standards becomes more rigorous as
students progress through the grades. The standards require teachers to not only prepare
students to participate in group activities, but to express their opinions and to persuade
others to see their point of view. As students with ASD advance through the years, they
may develop communication and social skills. However, many would find it difficult to
sustain a conversation with peers and stay on topic (Constable, Grossi, Moniz, & Ryan,
2013; National Governors Association Center for Best Practices & Council of Chief State
School Officers, 2010; National Institutes of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, 2016).
Beals (2014) explained some academic challenges of students with ASD which
included “higher-order language comprehension” and the ability to draw inferences from
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text (Minshew, 2006). A Common Core English standard for 11th and 12th grades
requires students to make inferences from text material and analyze the author’s literary
choices made in the text. This Common Core standard can help prepare adolescents for
future employment opportunities by responding verbally or in writing to documents they
have read. However, students with ASD require additional skills and understanding for future employment endeavors. Common Core standards alone are insufficient to provide the essential skills to students with ASD who have had a history of limited employment opportunities. Educational leaders need meaningful strategies to effectively adjust instructional strategies and modify curriculum to reach students with developmental disorders (Anyon, 2014; Constable et al., 2013; Miller & Martin, 2014; Rivera-
McCutchen, 2014; Theoharis, 2007).
Employable Skills
Employers have historically sought to hire people with strong interpersonal and communication skills (Kuther, 2013; Hart Research Associates, 2013). Students with autism have difficulty with social communication skills and developing interpersonal relationships. As a result, these students have been historically ill-equipped to provide a potential employer with these essential skills (Williams, Mazefsky, Walker, Minshew, &
Goldstein, 2014).
Expectations from Employers
Job interviews. Employers have traditionally conducted job interviews to assess how a potential employee may communicate with other employees or the immediate supervisor and complete their work duties (Keyton et al., 2013). Smith et al. (2014) highlighted the essential features of an interview from the prospective of employers.
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Successful job interviewees are able to convey their experience and core knowledge, as it
relates to the job. Potential employees should verbally demonstrate to the employer that
they have the essential interpersonal skills to socially navigate the work environment
(Huffcutt, 2011; Smith et al., 2014.
Effective employment communication. Keyton et al. (2013) noted that
expectations from employers required employees to communicate effectively. The
Conference Board (2009) listed oral communication as a top valued skill in the work
environment. Effective communication has been essential in creating and sustaining
relationships in the workplace and accomplishing work goals (Keyton et al., 2013).
Keyton et al. (2013) gave examples of effective communication in the work environment:
(1) Communication should be conceptualized and functional: employees need to speak
with a purpose in accomplishing tasks; (2) Communication should involve other
coworkers; (3) Employees should be able to explain goals to other coworkers; and (4)
Employees should learn social communication behavior in the work place environment.
For example, if the company employees do not discuss politics or issues of sexuality,
these topics should not be initiated.
Other attributes expected from employers. The National Association of
Colleges and Employers (NACE) surveyed 61 companies concerning skills of future employees. Again, the ability to communicate was identified. Other attributes that were highlighted included the following: leadership, problem-solving skills, being detailed- orientated, analytical skills, the ability to work in a team, interpersonal skills, and flexibility/adaptability (National Association of Colleges and Employers, 2014). The ability to adapt in a working environment and being flexible towards new activities as
33
they arise are attributes that employers want future employees to possess (Mehling,
2012). Macey, Schneider, Barbera, and Young (2009) wrote that adaptable employees are able to respond to uncertainty in the changing work environment and actively embrace those changes. In the workforce, interpersonal skills have been considered soft skills, because they do not involve technical skills such as the ability to decipher computer languages or operating a specific machine. The ability to work and communicate effectively with others is considered an interpersonal or soft skill (Christie,
2012). Dr. Roy Carriker from Drexel University and Charles D. Close School of
Entrepreneurship surveyed four hundred employers (business owners and managers). In addition to communication and interpersonal skills, potential employment candidates needed to have the ability to apply knowledge and skills to real world settings (Carriker,
2015).
Individuals with Autism Obtaining and Maintaining Employment
Individuals with ASD, even those with high intelligence have not been guaranteed to attain employment. The work environment developed its own set of unwritten rules of behavior and culture which are challenging for employees with ASD to navigate. As a result, individuals with ASD often encountered hostile work environments. During employment, adults with ASD have experienced difficulty with the following: getting motivated, fixating on negative experiences, punctuality, understanding social boundaries, and being taken advantage of by coworkers (Hillier et al., 2007; Wilczynski et al., 2013).
Due to deficits in expressive language, students with ASD may become hesitant to ask unfamiliar people questions about employment opportunities. Getting through the
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interview process has been an obstacle that can further delay an individual with autism in attaining employment. Smith (2014) acknowledged that adult-based services designed to assist individuals with ASD to obtain employment have been historically limited.
Obtaining employment has involved interviewing which has been challenging for individuals with ASD (Higgins et al., 2008; Smith et al., 2015; Strickland et al., 2013).
Lack of social cognition and communication skills may make the transition from the secondary learning environment to work opportunities challenging for individuals with
ASD. During adolescent years, people develop their skills to connect with others during activities and conversations. If these skills are not honed in teens, it is hard to develop later as adults. The inability to use these skills during a job interview can prevent future employment (Adreon & Durocher, 2007; Hendricks, 2010; Ostemeyer & Scarpa, 2012).
The lack of social effectiveness skills and poor communication has caused difficulty for some individuals with ASD seeking and sustaining employment.
Communication and Social Skills Deficits
Numerous researchers recognized verbal communication delays in some individuals with ASD (Morgan, Leatzow, Clark, & Siller, 2014; Wilczynski et al., 2013).
Other characteristics were noted as well, such as an inability to work or communicate with peers or in a group, social skill delays which impaired individuals to respond to social cues in appropriate ways, and being inflexible or not adaptable to new activities or situations (Kandalaft et al, 2013; McCoy, 2012; National Institute of Mental Health,
2016; Rump, Giovannelli, Minshew & Strauss, 2009).
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Social Communication
Social communication encompasses language for social purposes, components of social interaction, social cognition, verbal and nonverbal communication, and expressive and receptive language processing (Swineford, Baird, Wetherby & Swedo, 2014).
Students with ASD may possess developed language skills, which is the ability to distinguish between speech sounds and verbally produce sentences or phrases; however, they may struggle with social communication. For example, Paul et al. (2009) specified areas of social communication associated with ASD including casual banter with others, failing to provide new or relevant information, appearing insensitive to the interest of the listener, and using language that is too formal for a particular context (Baron-Cohen,
Leslie, & Firth, 1985; Paul, Orlovski, Marcinko, & Volkmar, 2009). These communication deficits can cause difficulties for students with ASD to interact socially in school and the workplace.
Learning how to communicate with different target audiences who one encounters throughout the day, makes social communication complex. Without support in this area, especially during adolescence, individuals with ASD may continue to display difficulties with social communication which can persist into adulthood (Carter, Common,
Sreckovic, Huber, Bottema-Beutel, Gustafson, Dykstra & Hume, 2014).
Expressive Language
Researchers Kim, Junker and Lord (2014) describe expressive language as the ability to use language on a daily basis in natural settings, or in spontaneous social texts
(Luyster et al., 2008). For instance, people express themselves by altering speech depending on the audience, taking turns to allow others to speak while conversing and
36
through word choice (Eigsti, de Marchena, Schuh & Kelley, 2011). Among friends or colleagues, it is acceptable to use less formal language and use colloquialisms while engaging in conversation. For instance, the phrase, “Hey! What’s Up?” or “How’s it going?” are common greetings between peers or friends. Students or individuals with
ASD may struggle to alter their speech or conversations based on the audience and utter a more formal, rehearsed greeting. For example, “Hello. How are you doing?” is a common greeting, but it may sound too formal amongst peers. In future workplaces, coworkers may find the use of formal language during casual conversations odd (Eigsti et al., 2011; Rutter, Mawhood & Howlin, 1992).
Tone. The tone of voice refers to the inflection of a person’s voice. Some individuals speak softly, murmur, speak in a guttural fashion, or fail to enunciate certain syllables in words. Muonczunski (2011) detailed the voice modulations of children with
ASD:
When children with autism speak, they sound different from most people. Their
speech usually follows one of several characteristic patterns: Some talk in a flat,
toneless voice, others in an exaggerated, hyper way that doesn’t match the subject
matter. Still others may sound robotic; their speech doesn’t flow but comes in
clipped bursts. (p. 1)
Muonczunski mentioned children with autism sound different from their typically developed peers and without speech therapy, the tone of voice irregularities may continue into adolescence. The National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication
Disorders (2012) concurred with Monczunski’s assertion concerning tone of voice and autism.
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Speech prosody refers to intonation, speech pattern, loudness variations, pausing and rhythm of words. Individuals change their speech prosody by varying pitch, loudness, and duration (Meredith, 2013). It plays an important role in how people communicate with each other. It can enhance communication with intent and give a clearer indication of when conversations may end (Bone, Chi-Chun, Black, Williams,
Sungbok, Levitt & Narayanan, 2014). For example, an employer may state, “Smith, come into my office.” After stating the name of the employee, there was a short pause and the rest of the sentence was spoken in a tone without inflection or variation. The tone of the sentence may suggest that the employee should not be alarmed by the employer.
The same sentence spoken louder with a longer pause between “Smith” and the rest of the sentence, may convey that the employee should enter the boss’ office with trepidation. After administering the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS) test, Bone et al. (2014) found individuals with ASD often display speech that is slow and halting, inappropriately rapid, irregular in rhythm, has odd intonation, is flat and toneless, and/or has abnormal volume (Bone, Chi-Chun, Black, Williams, Sungbok, Levitt &
Narayanan, 2014; Lord et al., 1999, 2012). Individuals with ASD can also speak in a pedantic or bookish manner with odd prosody; monotone or “sing-song” speech (Volker,
2012).
Prosody in individuals with autism affects the voice’s pitch, rhythm, or stress patterns. For instance, Paul et al. (2005) compared adolescents and young adults with
ASD to those of typically developed peers and found that the ASD group were comparatively worse at comprehending grammatical stress differences within words, e.g.:
“PROgress” vs “progress”. Paul et al.’s (2005) study concluded that 50% of individuals
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with ASD have impaired phrasing and misplaced stress placements on certain words.
Diehl’s follow-up (2008) study revealed that participants with ASD struggled to use a person’s vocal pitch and emphasis on specific words to discern the meaning from spoken words. Similarities were found among participants in the areas of intelligence and receptive language. However, when the syntax (nouns, adjectives, verbs, words put together to form a sentence) was unclear, the participants with ASD performed similar to the TD participants (Diehl et al., 2008).
Idioms. People use idioms to express language (words or phrases) in figurative language terms. For instance, a teacher may shout, “Cut that out!” in reference to stopping a specific disagreeable behavior instead of describing the action of cutting an object with scissors. Using idioms during casual or social communication can make interactions between individuals more engaging and personable. Students with ASD are often literal with their expressive language and may not use idioms or understand why others choose to use humor or figures of speech during communication. Being less receptive to idioms or metaphorical language can cause individuals with ASD to be seen as odd or less approachable to classmates and future coworkers (Adreon & Durocher,
2007).
Interpersonal Skills
Howard Gardner (1983) identified seven intelligences found in people: visual- spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, musical, linguistic, logical-mathematical, intrapersonal, and interpersonal. Gardner theorized that knowing which intelligence is more dominant in a person gives insight into how we learn best and our cognitive ability to retain information
(Gardner, 1983). Interpersonal skills involve how we understand and interact with
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others. People with strong interpersonal skills learn best through interacting with others
or group activities.
Social reciprocity. The Baltimore-Chesapeake Autism Society defined social reciprocity as social interaction between two people; how the behavior of others can affect another person. Individuals who do not engage in social reciprocity do not take an active role in conversations, and the person prefers solitary activities (Autism Society of
Baltimore-Chesapeake, 2016). Lerner and Mikami (2012) noted that the lack of social reciprocity, found in individuals with ASD, is analogous to social acquisition deficits.
The deficits can be pronounced when a person is in a social gathering and they become uncertain on how to behave. As an individual with ASD reaches adolescence, they can become more aware of these social acquisition deficits making their own behavior and their lack of social reciprocity more evident to others (Gresham, 1997; Lerner & Mikami,
2012).
Researchers Crone and Dahl (2012) reviewed brain and social cognitive
development of adolescents and found at the end of adolescence, social dynamics change.
During the transition from adolescence to young adulthood, individuals become more
attentive to their environment (work or community) and exhibit greater control over their
emotions and behavior (Crone & Dahl, 2012). Individuals with ASD may experience
delays in obtaining these cognitive control skills due to delays in social development.
This can impact their ability to interact with peers.
Social cues. In society, work and school environments, people use social cues to adjust their behavior, words or tone of voice, according to a situation or circumstance.
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Social cues are comprised of gestures from the body or facial expressions, direction of gaze and the proximity to objects or other persons.
Individuals with ASD are challenged by the impaired ability to read social cues
(Laugeson, Frankel, Gantman, Dillion & Mogil, 2012). These difficulties include understanding the value and meaning of non-verbal elements or assessing the formality of social events (Griffen et al., 2014; Laugeson et al. 2012; Schopler, 1998). Children with
ASD typically show delays in interpreting social situations and may appear to be disinterested or not affected. They are challenged by the fluidity of acceptable behavior and responding appropriately in different settings (Gresham & Elliot, 1990; Murray &
Doren, 2013).
As individuals with autism mature, they may still show delays in social responses, interpreting facial expressions and cognitive flexibility (Corbett et al., 2009; Fiefer &
Rattan, 2007; Loveland & Tunali-Kotoski, 2005; Ozonoff et al., 2005; Sheth, Liu,
Olagbaju, Varghese, Mansour, Reddoch, Pearson & Loveland, 2011; Stichter, O’Connor,
Herzog, Lierheimer & McGhee, 2012). Upon reaching adolescence, individuals with
ASD become more cognizant of their lack of understanding social cues, and this awareness can lead to impaired relationships with peers, poor employment outcomes and the proclivity to isolate themselves further from society (Laugeson et al., 2012; Mitchell,
2010; Orsmond et al., 2004; Schohl, Van Hecke, Carson, Dolan, Karst & Stevens, 2014;
Tantam, 2003).
Working with peers. Social cognition refers to how a person rationalizes the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of other people they encounter (Allport, 1985; Huitt,
2006; Sternberg, 1994). During adolescence, relations among peers become sinuous and
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stressful. These evolving peer relationships become more complex, and secondary
students with ASD may struggle to determine their role in a group of friends. The ability
to accept perspectives from others is challenging for a person with ASD. They may also
find it harder to predict a peer's motivation behind the words they utter and their behavior
(Baron-Cohen, 1995; Fein, 2015; Frith, 2001). Structured activities and predictable
outcomes are less taxing to individuals with ASD. As a result, the lack of flexibility in
their own mind set and improvised conversations that may stray away from the original
topic can cause interactions with others to be strained (Baron-Cohen et al., 2003; Fein,
2015; Gilotty et al., 2002; Ozonoff et al., 2006).
Engagement through social media. Technology has added another layer of
complexity for peer interactions involving secondary students with ASD. Mazurek
(2013) conducted a study involving 108 participants with ASD, ages 18-62, to determine if social media was being utilized. The study found 79.6% of the participants utilized social media, and over 63% of the participants listed social engagement as the primary reason for using social media outlets (Mazurek, 2013). Individuals with ASD may find interacting with peers though social media less challenging due to the lack of physical proximity to another person. Many employers are accessing social media venues, such as
Facebook, to screen potential employees and determine if she/he is suitable for the work environment (Thomas, Rothschild & Donegan, 2015).
Flexibility and adaptability. Researchers D’Cruz et al. (2013) have associated
inflexibility to restrictive and repetitive behaviors found in some individuals with ASD.
In addition, inflexibility involves an individual preferring one activity over another and experiencing difficulty in adjusting to a new activity (D’Cruz, Ragozzino, Mosconi,
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Shrestha, Cook & Sweeney, 2013; Dias, Robbins & Roberts, 1996). Adaptability is similar to flexibility in reference to having the ability to change or alter yourself based on new activities or events, but includes the ability to adapt social skills, daily living activities, leadership, and functional communication. Goldin, Matson, Konst and Adams
(2014) noted that individuals with ASD, including those with higher cognition, score lower on adaptability assessments. As a result, delays in flexibility and adaptability, may deter an individual with ASD from finding employment, especially if they did not receive intervention to address those delays in the secondary learning environment.
According to IDEA (2004), Individualized Education Plans (IEPs) and transitional IEP meetings must address the needs of students with ASD during their secondary school years in preparation for postsecondary goals as adults and utilize age appropriate interventions to assist in this preparation. The goals developed during IEP meetings should be monitored to ensure if the student is making progress.
Advancing Employable Skills in Students with ASD
Interventions
Interventions, also known as evidence-based practices, provide support to students in specific areas of need. Public schools may adopt internal or external supports to help students with special needs transition from the elementary setting to the secondary learning environment. The U.S. Department of Education and the California Department of Education encouraged schools to utilize evidence-based practices (EBP) which are interventions based on science. In 2014, the Council for Exceptional Children outlined the purpose of EBPs which included schools applying EBPs to better understand the effectiveness of a range of practices for learners with disabilities (Cook, Buysse, Klinger,
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Landrum, McWilliam, Tankersley & Test, 2016). Secondary students with ASD may
need interventions for academics, social skills, and/or communication as they get closer
to transitioning from the secondary school setting to adulthood with the expectation of
employment. Kucharczyk (2015) and other researchers in the field of autism support
the need for comprehensive interventions that encompass several aspects of
transitioning secondary students with ASD in order to produce substantial
improvements in the post school outcomes of recent high school graduates (Carter,
Brock & Trainor, 2014; Handleman & Harris, 2006; Kucharczyk, Reutebuch, Carter,
Hedges, El Zein, Fan & Gustafson, 2015; Odom, Boyd, Hall & Hume, 2010;).
Under IDEA, public schools are mandated to provide services (appropriate
educational settings, speech, occupational therapy, adaptive physical education, and
counseling) to students with specific needs; ages three to twenty two. Thus students with
ASD may stay in high school beyond the four years to benefit from various interventions and support systems (Szidon et al., 2015).
Professional learning communities. School districts may have professional
learning communities (PLCs) for educators to provide training and information on the
best methods and interventions available for their students. Researchers have studied the reluctance of some educators toward implementing evidence based practices/interventions. Educators stated that when they received preparation from PLC or training to use a particular intervention, they were not given the opportunity to implement it and receive performance feedback. Other instructors specified insufficient time to implement the intervention and lack of ongoing support to continue utilizing the intervention as barriers (Blasé, Fixsen & Duda, 2011; Fixsen, Blasé, Naoom & Wallace,
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2009; Hall, 2015). The National Professional Development Center provided in-service
professional development to schools to increase the utilization of evidence based
interventions towards students with ASD. Teachers who participated in the program
received a year of training with ongoing coaching for the duration. Early results from the
program showed an increase in teachers using EBPs and an increases in students with
ASD attaining their IEP goals (Hall, 2015; Maddoz & Marvin, 2012; Odom, Cox &
Brock, 2013).
Simpson et al. (2011) have stressed the importance of providing rigorous in- service preparation and training to help course instructors utilize evidence based interventions to support students with ASD in their classes. To enhance their impact,
these professional development programs should be ongoing and include opportunities
for instructors to practice implementing interventions (Roll-Pettersson & Ala’l-Rosales,
2009; Simpson, Mundschenk & Heflin, 2011). According to Brock and colleagues
(2014) stand alone or one day PLCs designed to address the needs of students with ASD
without follow up training and support are less effective than PLCs that involve
individualized coaching, mentoring, and ongoing support (Odom et al., 2014).
Intervention consultants may be hired by a school district to train instructors and provide
intervention materials to the school. Once a district or school has decided to use an
intervention, student progress must be monitored and the fidelity of the implementation
should be reviewed (Alexander, Ayres & Smith, 2015; Pelletier, McNamara, Braga-
Kenyon & Ahearn, 2010; Simonsen, Myers & DeLuca, 2010; Yoon, Duncan, Lee,
Scarloss & Shapley, 2007). Interventions are costly and due to school budgetary
concerns, districts are more likely to invest in one or two evidence-based interventions to
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assist the ASD population. The quality of professional learning communities may be contingent upon what a school district is able to afford more so than the willingness of teachers to obtain additional information concerning the specific interventions designed to assist students with ASD (Brock, Huber, Carter, Juarez, Warren, 2014).
Internal Supports and Resources
Internal supports are school or district approved resources used to assist students with curriculum based instruction. Internal supports commonly utilized in secondary educational settings include: tutors, extended-day programs (homework helpers), summer school programs, culinary skills programs, paraprofessionals to academically assist students, career and technical development classes, academic counseling, parent outreach programs, and computer labs or one-to-one laptops (Odden & Picus, 2014). All students may take advantage of these resources, but due to communication deficits and social skills challenges, students with ASD may require supports and resources that are more customized to fit their needs.
Support teams. Support teams or Capacity Building Teams refer to a group of educators such as principals, superintendents, educators, nursing staff, school psychologists, allied health professionals (e.g., speech-language pathologists and occupational therapists), Board Certified Behavior Analysts, paraprofessionals, and vocational trainers working together to address the needs of adolescents with ASD using evidence based interventions (Rue & Knox, 2013).
The role of capacity building teams for students with ASD involves creating a comprehensive transition plan that is appropriate for the student. All capacity team members should be informed about the student’s progress and have ongoing
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correspondence with each other to ensure that the transition plan is being implemented by
instructors and support providers such as counselors and speech pathologists (Hoyle et
al., 2008; Mathur, Clark & Schoenfeld, 2009; McLaughlin, Leone, Meisel & Henderson,
1997; Rue & Knox, 2013; Wilczynski, Russo & Christian, 2008). The Center on
Secondary Education for Students (CSESA) created a skill evaluation form to be used by
capacity building teams to determine the skill level of students with ASD in the following
areas: organization, problem solving, communication, interpersonal communication,
responding to social cues, behavior, and flexibility.
Support teams are usually headed by school psychologists, and they include the
following components: (a) meetings with vocational rehabilitation staff; (b) defining the
expectation and commitment of all parties; (c) sharing information about services and
opportunities; (d) utilizing a user-friendly referral process, (e) developing an
individualized educational plan; (f) establishing a plan to exchange information fluently;
(g) completing assessments; and (h) clearly defining roles and plans for collaboration
(Wilczynski et al., 2013). If schools or capacity building teams fail to provide services
for social and adaptive skill deficits of students with ASD, the employability status of the
students can be compromised (Sansosti & Sansosti, 2012). The secondary public school
environment can garner capacity-building teams to efficiently implement transition
supports, interventions, and establish relationships with outside agencies such as the vocational rehabilitation center to develop the skill set of the ASD student population and increase social capital of the students.
Curriculum and instruction. Students with autism spectrum disorder, without
intellectual disabilities, should receive the same curriculum as their typically developed
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peers since the curriculum has been designed to prepare students for postsecondary education or the workforce. If the student with autism has been challenged by writing
(organization, using grade level vocabulary, grammar) or mathematics, they may receive instruction in a more restrictive learning environment such as special day class or resource specialists support for one class or two. The ability to access the general curriculum depends on the level of support a student with ASD requires. Some students may need the accommodation of being placed in another room during tests or a modification to the curriculum where the student will have a smaller amount of questions to respond to on a test (Witmer & Ferreri, 2014). Others may need modifications to the curriculum (e.g., different learning goals) or instructional adaptations (e.g., students may receive instruction from several teachers throughout the day who have different instructional strategies or class procedures). Throughout the day, students may receive instruction from several teachers throughout the day who have different class procedures and different forms of teacher strategies. Secondary students with ASD may be able to handle the rigor of the class, but may not have the cognitive flexibility to change their thoughts and actions according to the expectations of the instructor (Hume, Sreckovic,
Snyder & Carnahan, 2014).
Social capital building. Plagens (2011) referred to John Dewey, Pierre Bourdieu, and James Farr to define the concept of social capital. Individuals connect with each other through networks, associations, volunteering, trust, solidarity, sympathy, cooperation, reciprocity, belonging norms, and building relationships. Bourdieu (1984) distinguishes social capital from other forms of capital in terms of applying efforts to engage the individual in social networks or connections and making resources available
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that he or she cannot attain alone (Bourdieu, 1984; Plagens, 2011). The ability to connect
with people, communicate effectively, and sustain relationships allows individuals to connect with others in the school or employment arena. Having social capital is seen as a valuable tool to possess when an individual attempts to use their connections to facilitate actions such as seeking employment. Trainor (2008) reflects on the role of schools in building social capital among students with special needs:
Although research, legislation, and practice in special education postsecondary
transition acknowledge the importance of resources of knowledge and skills that
are established, in part, via social networks and relationships, insufficient
attention has been dedicated to the forms of capital possessed by young adults
with disabilities and teachers’ expectations of the acquisition and use of capital to
achieve postsecondary outcomes. (p. 148)
Through legislation, the federal government has enacted laws to ensure that students with
special needs are educated in appropriate school settings, but it has been challenging to
change the perceptions of students, instructors, and future employers toward individuals
with ASD. Deficits in communication and social skills may follow the individual with
autism throughout adulthood. Koegel et al. (2013) researched individuals with autism
and ways to increase socialization. Children and adolescents with ASD increased the
quantity and quality of peer interactions when their own special interests were
incorporated into the social setting. For example, a student with ASD is interested in
Japanese animation and joins the yearbook team or other clubs with a group of peers who
also enjoy animation. Most public schools can create avenues of socialization that
include students with ASD so that students are given more opportunities to build social
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capital by interacting with others. Students with ASD should be given multiple opportunities to integrate into school clubs or activities and or community social settings to increase their chances of engaging with peers and make new connections with others.
Individuals with autism spectrum disorders may have difficulties attaining social capital due to deficits in communication and social skills. Symptoms of maladaptive behavior or communication difficulties in adolescents with ASD can result in negative attention by others, such as being bullied or ignored by their peers. Carter et al. (2013) reported that students and young adults with ASD frequently face social capital challenges when placed in the same settings as their typically developed peers. As a result, secondary students with ASD may not have the opportunity to build social capital without interventions or supports from schools to address communication and social skill deficits. Thus, intentional efforts in the form of direct instruction and video modeling, supports and resources, during or after high school, need to be afforded to students and young adults with ASD (Adreon & Durocher, 2007; Carter, Harvey, Taylor, Gotham,
2013).
Video modeling. Modeling interventions consist of pre-recorded scenarios of individuals demonstrating age appropriate behaviors that the individual may have difficulty mastering. The teacher or facilitator observes the video with the student to discuss the behavior and practice the desired skill. The National Autism Center recommends modeling skills for students with ASD aged 3-18 years. This intervention can be used to target the following behaviors: communication skills, higher cognitive functioning, interpersonal skills, personal responsibility, and problem behaviors. Wilson
(2013) studied the benefits of video modeling due to the repeated exposure of the context
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and modeled behavior. Students with ASD may become distracted with live modeling due to some inconsistencies and unpredictable nature of live action. One can utilize the video model to expand the student’s skills, and the instructor can determine if the student has the ability to handle more complex contexts and behaviors (Wilson, 2013).
Wehman and colleagues (2013) suggest modeling target behavior and employment expectations on a jobsite. Implementing modeling as an intervention requires educational leaders to reach out to community business owners and attain permission to video tape at the worksite. Intensive instruction and monitoring of student success should occur regularly; educational staff can collaborate with internal and external support staff to assure that the student receives adequate practice at social skills across employment environments. (Wehman, Schall, McDonough, Molinelli, Riehle,
Ham & Thiss, 2013). The modeling intervention is cost and time efficient, because videos can be utilized numerous times (McDonough & Revell, 2000; National Autism
Center, 2009; Lopata et al., 2010; Kandalaft et al, 2013; Rue & Knox, 2013; Wilczynski et al., 2013).
Demonstrating model behavior. Modeling interventions, without video demonstrations, may also effective in showing students with ASD behavior to emulate in the classroom or school. The Program for Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills
(PEERS) was designed by UCLA to assist schools with implementing social skill interventions in the classroom. The lessons included role playing sessions between the instructors and paraprofessionals to model social etiquette, making and maintaining friendships, handling peer conflict, and peer rejection. The students with autism practiced the newly taught skills after every modeling session (Laugeson, Ellingsen,
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Sanderson, Tucci & Bates, 2014). Vernon, Miller, Ko and Wu (2016), support structured
social skill modeling or “learn by doing” interventions, because it allows students with
ASD to develop their social competency and it exposes them to sufficient opportunities to
be included in a group of peers.
Public schools may need additional supports and resources that are not readily
available to school districts to assist students with ASD. Some of the supports
incorporate evidence based practices, but before a school or district incorporates external
supports and resources to assist a specific segment of the student population, educational
leaders should explore how the resources will align with current practices and internal
supports.
External Supports and Resources
Apprenticeship programs. Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder need explicit instruction and modeling in preparation for the workforce. Researcher
Rubenstein et al. (2013) have endorsed mentor or apprenticeship programs for the ASD student population. Through apprenticeships, students with ASD can be introduced to several occupations and can decide which field suits their interests. The individual that mentors the student must have previous knowledge of the characteristics of people with
ASD and their needs. A mismatch between the student and mentor could hamper the efforts put forth by the student with ASD. Students with ASD may be fixated on a single career option and are often times unable to accept alternate points of view on other possible interests. One can use these specials interests to help build connectivity with other interests (Winter-Messiers, 2007).
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Vocational rehabilitation. One of the few formal systems that provides support to adults with ASD is the vocational rehabilitation system, administered by the US
Department of Education. The goal of vocational rehabilitation is to maximize employment outcomes by providing services such as assessment and diagnosis, counseling, job search assistance, assistive technology, and on-the-job training
(California Department of Rehabilitation, 2014). Any individual with a disability who requires help attaining employment is eligible for these services, which are aimed at creating the necessary skills and supports for individuals to be employed. Depending on the extent of their disability, individuals can be placed in non-competitive or competitive employment. In 2014, researchers Riesen, Schultz, Morgan and Kupferman highlighted the need for more collaboration between the secondary schools and vocational rehabilitation agencies to ensure better employment opportunities for students with disabilities. According to the study, secondary special educators have not placed a high priority on teaching essential employment skills in community-based environments and schools districts may not be able to properly fund a fully-developed transition program for students with disabilities (Lawer et al., 2009; Riesen et al., 2014). Cimera and Cowen
(2010) note that individuals with ASD have had higher rates of employment when services were sought through the Vocational Rehabilitation System (Hagner et al., 2012).
Referrals for future vocational training services are usually documented in IEPs for secondary students transitioning into adulthood. Postsecondary goals for students with ASD may include postsecondary educational goals for college or on-campus school services, goals for living independently, or goals for utilizing external resources such as the vocational rehabilitation center.
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Individualized Education Plans (IEPs)
IEP Goal Writing
Per the United States Department of Education, IEP documents must contain the following information concerning students: qualifying disability, present skill levels, attainment of previous skills, assessments, health information, accommodations, modifications to curriculum, appropriate educational settings, goals (academic, social, behavior, communication, adaptive living skills or counseling), special education services, and related services (Finn & Kohler, 2009; Peterson, Burden Sedaghat, Gothber,
Kohler & Coyle, 2013). IEP goals and objectives should be based on the needs of the
student. When secondary students with ASD are enrolled in special day class programs,
the case manager or IEP team must write academic goals to address each of the student’s
areas of academic deficits. All IEP goals must be monitored throughout the year, and a
student’s progress of the goals should be documented by the case manager and service
providers such as a counselor or speech pathologist.
According to the California Department of Education (2015), LEAs made several
recommendations to LEAs, and capacity building teams/support teams should assess
secondary students with special needs prior to holding transitional meetings. Formal and
informal assessment tools (e.g., interviewing students, observing the behavior of the
student, reviewing previous IEP documents, reviewing documented observations from
job training and performance evaluations, and reviewing written or computerized
assessments from the student, such as transitions interest inventories and labor market
surveys) should be utilized to determine appropriate goals for students with special needs
(West San Gabriel Valley SELPA, 2015). Results from these assessments will help
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capacity building teams best determine the steps a student needs to take to reach his/her
postsecondary goals.
Transitional IEP Writing
Before a student with ASD turns sixteen, a transition IEP plan must be held to
discern the course of study, services, and postsecondary goals needed to assist the student
transition into adulthood (Stader, 2013). Possible plans range from a day-treatment
program to preparation for college (Rue & Knox, 2013). According to Simpson,
Mundschenk, and Helfin (2011) educational leaders, especially specialized academic
instructors, need to be competent in developing and implementing transitional plans that are efficient and socially valid for students (Heward, 2003; Simpson, Mundschenk &
Heflin, 2011; Wilder, Dyches, Obiakor & Algozzine, 2004; Yell et al., 2003).
In addition to academic goals, support teams must also address postsecondary goals in the areas of education, employment, and independent living (Peterson, Burden,
Sedaghat, Gothberg, Kohler & Coyle, 2013). Research from Szidon and associates detailed three issues that can make general and transitional IEP goals less effective: (a)
goals that require passive participation from the student; (b) goals written to address
specific curriculum utilized in the school; and (c) goals that measure episodic events
(Szidon, Ruppar & Smith, 2015). Hume (2014) noted that IEPs were written too broadly
and documents were not individualized enough to meet the needs of the student (Hume et
al., 2014). Kurth and Mastergeorge (2010) found documentation of student progress on
IEPs declined as students increased grade levels. An ineffective IEP goal might state the
following: Student will attend career day at the high school and identify three possible
career choices. According to the goal, the student can attend the career day event and
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part of the goal would be fulfilled. Career events are not held on a weekly basis; a student may miss that particular day in which the event was held. A more effective IEP goal would be written as the following: Student will participate in work-based learning experiences (work experiences, community based training, volunteering or career exploration).
Effective IEP goal writing involves the service provider (specialized academic instructor, school psychologist, counselor, or speech pathologist) triangulating goals based on academic assessments, content standards related to postsecondary goals, and industry knowledge based on the student’s skill level and interests (Peterson, Burden,
Sedaghat, Gothberg, Kohler & Coyle, 2013). Industry knowledge refers to the skills and knowledge an individual needs to function in the workplace. Peterson and colleagues suggested capacity-building teams should be knowledgeable about the current job market and the essential skills required of students with ASD to be competitively employed
(Peterson et al., 2013).
Once transitional IEP goals are written, time must be allotted to implement the goals. More students with ASD attend general education classes, and educators may find it difficult to allot the time needed to fulfill social skills and communication goals pertaining to employment. Without flexibility in the high school curriculum, such as an additional period, an after-school program or a class designed to address employment skills for postsecondary living; the IEP team may have less success implementing and monitoring transitional IEP goals for students with ASD (Szidon et al., 2015).
According to Lee and Carter (2012), effective transitional services for the ASD population should have the following components: (a) individualized strengths-based
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transition services and supports; (b) career development and early work experiences; (c)
collaboration with outside agencies that assist students with special needs; (d) family
support and expectations; (e) independence and advocacy; (f) social and employment-
related skill instruction; and (g) establishing job-related supports. Amendments to IDEA
2004, made in 2008, stated that measurable postsecondary goals must be developed in the
areas of training, education, and employment (Szidon, Ruppar & Smith, 2015). Without
assistance from other capacity-building team members, schools would be challenged to
include all aspects of an effective transition plan. Due to deficits in communication and socialization, secondary students with ASD may seem to be at a disadvantage for the competitive job market, but the utilization of assessments, age-appropriate interventions, academics, and monitored IEP goals can provide pertinent information to assist capacity- building teams make postsecondary goals realistic and relevant to the student.
Participation during Transition Meetings
Secondary students with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) must be invited to their
Individual Education Program transition planning meetings, according to the reauthorization of the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004. The NLTS-2
(2012) revealed secondary students with autism did not regularly attend their IEPs.
Those that did attend had minimal participation in their meeting (Cameto, Levine &
Wagner, 2004; Lee & Carter, 2012; Shogren & Plotner, 2012).
Efforts need to be made to make the transition from school to postsecondary settings less worrisome for students with ASD. Due to communication difficulties, they may not have the expressive language skills to state that they are anxious or fearful about leaving the familiar settings of the secondary educational atmosphere. Furthermore,
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students with ASD may experience anxiety when called upon to engage in activities involving transition exploring, planning and preparation (Szidon et al., 2015; White,
Oswalk, Ollendick & Scahill, 2009). When advocating for students with special needs, such as students with ASD, educational leaders must be knowledgeable about autism spectrum disorders, work with other professionals to ensure appropriate services for the student, document transitional activities, and find avenues in which the student can develop marketable skills for future employment opportunities.
Summary
There are a multitude of challenges for adolescents with Autism Spectrum
Disorder in seeking competitive employment. Once they leave the secondary educational environment, they are typically ill-prepared to face the obstacle of obtaining competitive employment. Communication and social skill deficits impose a barrier to attaining employment.
To prepare students with ASD for future employment opportunities, researchers recommend for school districts to utilize support teams to address the needs of students and implement EBPs or interventions to address communication and social skills deficits found in some students with ASD. Internal factors such as staff awareness of autism, programs (general and special education classes), support staff (school psychologists, speech therapist, counselors, occupational therapists), and the amount of students with
ASD enrolled in the district, can affect district decisions on preparing students for employment opportunities. External factors, such as the socioeconomic status of the community, city demographics, and transportation, may also affect the outcomes of postsecondary students with autism seeking employment. This study, described in
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chapter three, explored how one school district in Southern California prepared students with ASD for future employment.
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Chapter 3: Methodology
Research Methods
The purpose of this survey study was to identify resources and supports educators in a Southern California district utilized to advance employable skills for students with autism spectrum disorder. The study also sought to determine if the educators were cognizant of the outcomes of students with ASD once they leave the secondary learning environment. Several studies in the field of ASD have shown that once these individuals leave the secondary educational environment, they are not obtaining employment on a continuous basis. Research by the National Longitudinal Transition Study-2 (NLTS2)
(2011) and Volkmar (2009) found substantial numbers of individuals with ASD struggled to obtain employment after leaving high school.
The research questions that guided the study were as follows:
(1) How well did the school district help students with ASD develop social and
communication skills?
(2) What did staff know about supports and resources to assist students with ASD
with for future employment opportunities?
(3) What did staff know about the outcomes of students with ASD after they
left the high school environment?
This chapter describes the selected research design, setting, and participants for the study, along with the instruments and procedures used to gather data and enhance the trustworthiness of the results.
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Survey Design
A survey design was chosen to collect quantitative and qualitative data from select educators and support staff in a diverse Southern California school district. The purpose of the survey was to identify the attitudes, opinions, and behaviors of district educators and support staff toward preparing students with ASD for future employment and addressed the aforementioned research questions.
Research Setting
Community of Selected School District
Mountain Valley School District is located in a community with a high number of citizens who were foreign born and whose first language is something other English. The
United States Census Bureau released the following information concerning the city and compared it to the state of California:
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Table 1
United States Census Bureau: 2009-2013, State and City Facts Population Statistics City California
Population as of 2014 22,006 39 million
As of 2010: persons over 65 years of age 15.8% 11.4%
Between 2009-2013: Foreign born persons 34.9% 27%
Between 2009-2013: Language other than English spoken in the home 53.6% 43.7%
Between 2009-2013: Median household Income $62,250 $61,094
Between 2009-2013: Persons below poverty Level 13.4% 15.9%
Source: (United States Census Bureau, 2015)
As shown in Table 1, at the time of time of the study, more than 10% of the city lived below the poverty line which indicated a lack of job opportunities in the area. When students with ASD left the secondary learning environment, they competed for jobs with their typically-developed peers. The city did not contain a grocery store. Graduating seniors from the district sought employment in neighboring cities or in industries other than retail. A newly completed rail line allowed citizens from the city to travel to work throughout different areas of southern California.
Parents of individuals with ASD, who were not proficient in English, may have found it challenging to access services pertaining to housing or vocational rehabilitation
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centers. Caregivers were responsible for finding the location of the facility, filling out
paper work, waiting for approval (a waiting list may exist), and making plans for future
transportation to the facility. The city also had a large senior citizen population and
housing for seniors were located near the middle and high school. As a population ages,
there is a natural decrease of working adults, which results in less income for families.
The addition of another unemployed adult, with special needs, can cause financial stress
in the home. The city was small compared to cities such as Pasadena and greater Los
Angeles, and individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder were faced with limited job
opportunities and fewer affordable day treatment centers or vocational rehabilitation
centers that were within walking distance. The nearest vocational rehabilitation centers
were several miles away; accessible by car or bus.
Selected School District
The selected district for this study, referred as Mountain Valley School District
(MVSD) is located in southern California near Pasadena. It consists of five elementary
schools, a middle school, a high school, and an alternative high school. According to the
California Department of Education, during the 2014-2015 school year, the district provided educational services for > 3,900 students and more than 10% of the school district is comprised of students with special needs (2015). As shown in Table 2, approximately 100 students, ages 3-22, with ASD were enrolled in the school district and during that period, approximately 35% of those students were enrolled in the high school
(California Department of Education, 2015).
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Table 2
Mountain Valley School District Student Population from 2014-2015
School District 2014-2015 Number of Students Total District Student Enrollment >3,900
Students with Special Needs District Enrollment Approximately 392
High School Students with Special Needs Approximately 112
Students with ASD in the District Approximately 100
Students with ASD Enrolled in the High School Approximately 35 ______
The results from Table 1 reveal, at the end of the 2014-2015 school year for
MVSD, more than 10% of the student population consisted of students with special needs and >10% of the district student body was comprised of students with autism spectrum disorder. Approximately 35 students with ASD were enrolled in the high school. The information from Table 1 does not specify how many high school students with ASD were scheduled to leave the secondary learning environment in 2015.
MVSD is located in a small urban area near Pasadena, California. The community has a large Latino population, and at the time of study most students were socioeconomically disadvantaged and English language learners (see Table 3).
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Table 3
Student Demographic of Mountain Valley School District
Race 3896 students Socioeconomically Disadvantaged ELL Latino 76% 81% 28% White 8.7% 47% 8.2% African-American 5.2% 69% <1% Filipino 4.1% 46% 11% Asian 3.3% 49% 34% Two or more races 2% 57% 2.6% Not Reported <1% 62% 23% Pacific Islander <1% 67% 17% Native American <1% 50% 0%
Over 80% of the Latino population were considered socioeconomically disadvantaged and the following students were considered socioeconomically disadvantaged by ≥50%:
African-Americans, Two or more races, Not Reported, Pacific Islanders and Native
Americans. English language learners represented >50% for each ethnicity (California
Department of Education, 2015).
MVSD received special education information and directives from the West San
Gabriel SELPA. Before October 2013, all specialized academic instructors in the district were required to receive an Added Authorization in Special Education (AASE) to instruct students with ASD (California Commission on Teacher Credentialing, 2013). All MVSD students with special needs and an IEP were assigned case managers to create goals according to the needs of the student.
Under IDEA, students with special needs were eligible to receive services in their school district between the ages of three and twenty-one (IDEA, 2004). Students with
ASD were provided services through general education classes with DIS (according to the needs of the student), a combination of general education and special education classes with DIS or enrollment in moderate/severe classes with several paraprofessionals
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in the classroom environment. As students with ASD transitioned into high school, they were offered the same services with the exception of the students with ASD that had limited communication and social skills. Those students were enrolled in the Community
Based Instruction (CBI). Community Based Instruction accommodated students with special needs who were eligible to receive a letter of completion in lieu of a diploma.
Students with ASD were placed in CBI with individuals with disorders such as an intellectual disability or dual disabilities. The students were supervised at all times by a certificated staff member as they traveled throughout the neighborhood and learned life skills.
As students with ASD prepared to leave the secondary environment, MVSD offered the following options:
• Students who were enrolled in general and special education classes throughout
high school, but considered ill-prepared to live independently or attain
employment, were encouraged to enroll in a class at the local community college.
These students came back to the high school environment to receive consultation
from a specialized academic instructor or perform small jobs around the school
such as retrieving items, cleaning the classroom, and other small tasks. The
instructor assisted the student with skills needed to become independent adults,
but they were not placed in a structured learning environment. Consultation
continues until the age of twenty-two unless the student finds employment,
enrolls in an adult day program, or receives assistance from the Department of
Rehabilitation which offers vocational rehabilitation skills.
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• Students with ASD, enrolled in general education classes with accommodations,
were placed on an academic track. They were treated like their typically-
developed peers who were on track to receive a diploma, allowing them to seek
employment or attend college.
• Students with ASD who exhibited maladaptive behaviors such as uttering
inappropriate words to others, awkward body posture, spontaneous movement of
the hands or arms or walk with an ungainly gait did not exhibit adaptable social
and communication skills suitable for future employment. These students were
placed in the Adult Transition class on campus. The Adult Transition class
contained students from the CBI class and the students continued with learning
life skills, and they worked in the community a few hours a week, off campus.
Supporting students at Mountain Valley School District. Every school site in the district contained general education instructors and specialized academic instructors.
One out of the five elementary schools staffed an academic counselor, a counselor for social behavior or career development, and a full-time librarian. Another elementary school in the district is an authorized International Baccalaureate school that focused on inquiry-based learning and critical thinking. Students with special needs such as those with ASD were either placed in the general education setting or a more restrictive learning environment such as a special day class. Students with ASD, in the general education setting may have seen the Resource Specialist for academic support in a different classroom for 30 to 60 minutes within a week, depending of the student’s IEP. If the student had Adaptive Physical Education, speech, or counseling, they may have also been taken out of the general education or special education classroom for an additional
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sixty to ninety minutes per week, according to their IEP. Support staff members such as
the speech pathologist, the school psychologist (working in the capacity as a counselor),
the APE teacher, and occupational therapists pulled students out of their classroom based on their availability. When students with ASD were enrolled in more restrictive learning environments, such as the moderate to severe class, support staff came to the classroom to administer services. These students with ASD have limited speech capacity, maladaptive behaviors, or dual disorders (comorbidity).
The middle school had a principal, an education support specialist to assist students with academic counseling, and a school counselor to assist with academic counseling and students’ emotional well-being. Students were often sent to speak with the school counselor if the student appeared to be sad, upset, or interrupted the learning process. Students were also given support services by being called out of the classroom for 30 to 60 minutes per week depending on the needs of the student. The middle and elementary schools had afterschool programs that began when school ended until the parents obtained their children. The program consisted of staff members who helped students with homework, distributed snacks, and coordinated activities such as arts, crafts and sports.
The high school had a principal, two vice-principals, and three academic counselors. The following classroom environments were offered to meet the needs of students with special needs: (1) general education, (2) Special Day Class, (3) Community
Based Instruction (CBI), and (4) Adult Transition for ages 18-22. All students were encouraged to join a sports team or a number of afterschool clubs. Support services were still available to students, according to their IEP, but if the student with ASD was
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enrolled in general education classes, they usually received fewer support services. The
IEP team decided if the student required support services despite the interruption to
classroom instruction.
Mission and Vision of Mountain Valley School District
The vision for the MVSD involves developing 21st century skills for all students.
Researchers Larson and Miller (2011) credit U.S. Secretary of Education, Arne Duncan,
for referring to 21st century skills in 2009. He stated 21st century skills required students to be creative, to persevere, to problem solve, and work collaboratively. The Partnership for 21st Century Skills developed the framework for 21st century learning which included instructors preparing students with skills (information, media, and technology), knowledge and expertise to successfully enter the workforce. The mission for MVSD involves providing the knowledge and skills for students to be successful in college, employment, and life. The mission and vision for the district are aligned with Common
Core state standards which require educators to prepare students for postsecondary education and employment.
All schools were responsible for generating school accountability report cards annually, and the documents were visible to the general public. Each report card gave a general description of professional development over the past four years. The most consistent professional development opportunities were related to Common Core, technology, and instructional strategies (California Department of Education, 2015). All schools in MVSD dedicated three staff days for, professional development courses; to support the implementation Common Core standards. Teachers were encouraged to use technology (laptops, the Internet, on-line assessments, Schoolwires, Smartboards) and
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outside materials in the classroom in an effort to implement Common Core. The school
district employed an outside consultant to assist with a district-wide TK-12 Common
Core writing campaign. English instructors attended PLCs for the writing campaign and the consultant monitored the progress of educators through classroom observations and student work samples. As of 2015, the district had not adopted textbooks that were
Common Core aligned and had not employed a person to monitor the of Common Core state standards in the classroom.
Participants
As of 2015, Mountain Valley School District employed 299 certificated and
classified (paraprofessional) individuals (California Department of Education, 2015).
Through district email, 178 certificated employees (administrators and teachers) from
seven school sites were asked to participate in the survey. The district employees were
selected due to the possibility of employees providing services (instruction,
implementation of support services, and supervision of students on the playground,
during lunch or after school activities) to students with ASD. The director of special
education services, the secretary for special education services, five speech pathologists,
three school psychologists, two occupational therapists, and the adaptive physical
education instructor also received an email to participate in the survey. Classified
employees, such as paraprofessionals do not have district email accounts so teachers and
administrators informed them about participants. The certificated employees from the
school sites and district amounted to 191 employees, and the response rate for the survey
participation was 41%; based on certificated employees who were contacted through
email. The employees were selected to participate in the survey due to possible
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proximity to students with ASD in the district. The employees either spoke with, provided services to or instructed students with ASD, daily or weekly. All employees were 18 years or older.
Description of Participants
Employees of MVSD either work at a single school site, multiple school sites in the district, or in the district office. The employees receive directives from multiple sources. The director of special education services receives information concerning amendments to current policies that pertain to special education from the Los Angeles
County Office of Education (LACOE) and the local SELPA office. The director of special education services for the district oversees all programs, services, and laws related to students with special needs. When students with autism come to MVSD from another district or city, the director of special education services meets with all parties; the transferring district that served the student and the family representing the student. Based on the needs of the student, the director makes the determination if the district can provide the necessary support and resources to educate the student. The district representative also advises school administrators on how to provide services to students with ASD who enter the district. Once a month, the director gathers all support providers and specialized academic instructors from all school sites to discuss topics related to special education and policy changes that may affect IEPs or services to students.
School psychologists, speech therapists, and occupational therapists receive directives from the director of special education. These support providers are assigned to one or more school sites in the district, and they provide services to students with IEPs once or twice a week for 15 to 30 minutes.
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Speech pathologists provide weekly or biweekly services to students with ASD in the areas of articulation, expressive language, and social communication. IEP goals are written by speech pathologists to implement and monitor speech progress. During IEP meetings, speech pathologists may explain how speech affects a student with autism in the classroom and in the home.
When students with ASD struggle with the physical aspects of using instruments such as writing utensils, using technology or adapting to their classroom environment, the students are referred to occupational therapy. During the elementary years, students with
ASD receive services from occupational therapy. If a student with ASD continues to require services from occupational therapy, it may mean that the student is enrolled in more restricted learning environment for moderate needs. Students with ASD, enrolled in Community Based Instruction or Adult Transition may receive services from occupational therapy.
School psychologists conduct initial and triennial IEP meetings. They provide counseling services for students if it is written in the IEP, and they may also refer parents to services or facilities that the district may not provide for students with autism, such as counseling in the home. When students with ASD become disruptive to the learning environment, the school psychologist can implement an Applied Behavior Analysis to determine why the student behaves in a less productive manner in the classroom and identify triggers that may initiate the negative behavior. If the behavior continues, the school psychologist may determine that the student needs a more restrictive learning environment.
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Specialized academic instructors or special education teachers receive directives
from the district and school site administrators. All specialized academic instructors in
the district are required to have the Autism Authorization credential by the California
Commission of Teaching Credentialing. The credential allows specialized academic
instructors to provide academic and intervention services to students with ASD.
Specialized academic instructors have more contact with support providers: occupational
therapists, school psychologists, speech therapists, adaptive physical education
instructors, and general education instructors who may provide instruction to students with ASD.
School administrators, general education instructors, counselors, office staff, and
paraprofessionals are usually assigned to one school site. General education instructors,
counselors, and office staff receive directives from the school administrator, and the
school site administrator receives directives from the superintendent of the school district.
Before a student with ASD is transferred into a general education setting, the
general education instructor is provided with IEP accommodations or modifications in
order for the student to acquire the curriculum. General education instructors may be
familiar with how a student with communication and social skill deficits behaves when compared to typically developed students.
Paraprofessionals work under the direction of a certificated instructor. They assist numerous students with ASD in MVSD from the elementary schools to the Adult
Transition class on the high school campus. Schools have relied upon paraprofessionals to assist students with instruction, social or emotional skills, behavior skills, and sometimes personal care. Some paraprofessionals may be seen as the primary service
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provider for a student with ASD due to the proximity of the student (Feldman & Matos,
2013; Rispoli, Neely, Lang & Ganz, 2011; Rossetti & Goessling, 2010).
The term for the following job position, Specialized Academic Instructor and
Special Education Instructor are used interchangeably throughout the next chapters.
Most participants used the term Special Education Instructor. The criteria for participating in the survey involved being a district employee (certificated or classified), and having taught or provided services to a student or students with ASD within the past two years. If the participant responded “No” to the question, the survey directed them to discontinue the survey. Five participants were excluded from the results, because participants responded “No” to both questions concerning providing services to students with ASD within a school period and within a two year period, and one participant provided services to students with ASD is less than one year. These participants were informed to discontinue the survey, because they did not meet the criteria for completing the survey. Some participants marked more than one position title on the survey, and the numbers are reflected in Table 4.
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Table 4
Participant Position Title at Mountain Valley School District
Position n = 73 % General Education Instructor 32 43.8% Specialized Academic Instructor 14 19.2% Paraprofessional 13 17.8% Administrator 3 4.1% School Psychologist 3 4.1% Counselors 2 2.7% Occupational Therapists 2 2.7% School Site Office Staff 2 2.7% Speech Pathologist 1 1.4% District Office Staff 1 1.4% ______
According to Table 4, the majority of the staff members who responded to the survey were general education instructors (43.8%) followed by specialized academic instructors
(19.2%) and paraprofessionals (17.8%). The remaining participants represent (19.1%) of those who responded to the survey: administrators, school psychologists, counselors, occupational therapists, school site office staff, a speech pathologist, and a representative from the district.
Consent Form and Survey
Prior to taking the survey, each participant was given a consent form to sign which included the purpose for the study and confidentiality. All participants were informed that their responses to the survey would not affect their employment status in the district that the survey was voluntary, and that participants could skip any question or discontinue the survey without penalty.
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Construction of Survey
As shown in Figure 4, the survey questions correlate with the three research questions. Specifically, the question on competitive employment was constructed from the Employing Individuals with Developmental Delays section from chapter 1. The ordinal scaled questions (2a-2c) pertaining to communication were constructed using several sources. Dr. Carriker (2015) from Drexel University conducted a survey from
400 business owners on essential skills from future employees and the ability to community was considered a desirable skill to have. The NACE (2014) also conducted a survey in which business owners were asked about attributes they wanted future employees to possess. The survey results mentioned communication skills, but they also listed interpersonal skills, the ability to work in a group, and being flexible. The ordinal scaled questions (2e-2g) were constructed using components of the surveys from Dr.
Carriker, the NACE and other research from the literature review. Researchers
Wilczynski, Trammel, Clarke (2013) and Hillier et al. (2007) studied individuals with
ASD in work environments and noted that employees with ASD struggled to understand social boundaries. Ordinal scaled question 2h was composed from that research or information from the literature review. The ordinal scaled question 2d focused on voice tones of students with ASD, and that was constructed using information from the literature review on social communication. The last ordinal scaled question was composed using information from the IEP transition plans from Chapter 2. Question 4 reflects the literature review section on employable skills. Questions 5, 6, and 7 were composed using the literature review section on internal and external resources for individuals with ASD to assist in obtaining employment. The final question reflects
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information from Chapter 1 and Chapter 2 from this study that focused on educators understanding the complexities of autism and how its effect on future employment (see
Figure 4).
Research Question 1: How Research Question 2: What did Research Question 3: What did well did the school district help staff know about supports and staff know about the outcomes students with ASD develop resources to assist students of students with ASD after social and communication with ASD with future they left the high school skills? employment opportunities? environment? Likert Scale Items and written Written Responses Written Response responses 1. The educational setting you 4. What skills do you feel 8. From your estimation, what work in prepares students with students with ASD need for happens to students with ASD, ASD for competitive future employment? once they leave the high school employment? environment? 2. For the purposes of future 5. What district supports and employment, the educational resources are available to setting I work in helps prepare advance employable skills for students with ASD to: students with ASD? a. Effectively communicate with adults such as teachers, aides or other staff members b. Effectively communicate with peers or classmates c. Effectively start and end conversations d. Effectively adjust the tone (high pitch, murmur, guttural, soft) of voice e. Behave in a non-disruptive manner in the classroom f. Behave in a non-disruptive manner outside the classroom g. Be flexible towards and adjust to new activities without difficulty h. Effectively respond to social cues 3. As an educator, I have 6. What (if any) additional enough knowledge to assist support and resources are you students with ASD with aware of outside the district? employment goals 7. What supports and resources are available to help students with ASD obtain employment?
Figure 4. Research questions and components of survey
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Participants were also encouraged to write any further comments concerning students with autism and future employable opportunities (see Appendix for survey).
Data Collection
The researcher’s objective as a special education instructor and researcher for this study involved collecting data from the certificated and classified employees from the district to better understand how they prepare students with ASD for future employment opportunities, their knowledge of internal and external resources designed to assist those students with autism, and their awareness of the outcomes for students with ASD after leaving high school. The researcher was not employed or compensated by the district of study to conduct research, and the researcher does not have a supervisory position over the participants involved in the study. The researcher has instructed general education students, students with learning and physical disabilities, and students with ASD for 18 years. Prior to conducting the research for this study, the researcher was aware of the educational settings and support services that existed in the district to serve students with learning challenges and federal and state policies that affected the educational lives of students with special needs. The researcher was not as well-informed on specific interventions utilized in the elementary schools and high school setting to address the social and communication skills of students with ASD.
Data Collection Procedures In May of 2016, using district email, potential participants were asked by the researcher to come to a specific school site, at a specific time to participate in the survey.
The researcher was authorized to conduct surveys after school using three school sites;
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two elementary schools and the middle school. The email contained the reason for conducting the survey, the length of time it would take to respond to the survey (15 to 20 minutes), and an email address to reach the researcher if any questions arose prior to participating in the survey. As the participants entered the room to take the survey, the researcher read the consent form aloud. Participants entered at different times during the specified days noted on the email. The consent form was projected on the Smartboard and the participants followed along. Before the consent form was signed, the participants were asked to relay all questions concerning the consent and survey to the researcher.
Consent forms were collected by the researcher and placed in a box titled Consent Forms.
Only staff members taking the survey were allowed in the room. Participants were told to alert the researcher if they needed a question clarified. Once the survey was completed, the researcher collected the surveys and placed them in a separate box titled
Survey.
Data Analysis Procedures
Quantitative Analysis of Survey Data
Various descriptive statistics were used to describe the results of the study.
Percentages were utilized to convey the results for Tables 3 and 4, and the data were aggregated by job position in the district. The data for Table 5 and 6 were disaggregated by job position and educational setting.
For Tables 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, 21, 23, and 25, data were disaggregated by job position and educational setting. Ordinal scaled numbers were used for questions 1, 2a –
2h and 3, for example (1) Strongly Disagree, (2), Disagree, (3) Undecided, (4) Agree, and
(5) Strongly Agree. Using an excel spreadsheet, ordinal scaled numbers (5) and (4) were
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grouped together to form the response Agree. The same method was used to determine the number of participants who marked Disagree on the survey: ordinal scaled numbers
(1) and (2) were grouped together to form the response Disagree. The percentages were calculated by dividing the number of Agrees and Disagrees by the total number of responses.
Qualitative Analysis of Survey Data
The survey provided space for participants to provide a written explanation for their likert-type responses and concluded with five open-ended questions. The survey contained five questions to respond to in writing as well. Prior to entering the qualitative data on a word document, the researcher used colored tabs to differentiate the surveys by educational settings and job positions (e.g., yellow tab represented the elementary school participants, pink tabs represented the middle school participants, and blue tabs represented the high school participants). Multiple tabs were included if participants marked more than one educational setting. In addition, smaller colored tabs were used to separate the participants by job position.
All qualitative responses to the survey questions were transferred into a separate word document and coded. Categories began to emerge from the ordinal-scaled questions and the results were disaggregated by educational setting and job position. For example, for tables 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, and 22, the following categories were formed: strategies used by instructors, evidence-based practices, special education programs, general education programs, and support providers. Different categories emerged from question 8 on the survey. Data were aggregated by educational setting and/or job position. For example, table 26, asked participants to list the essential skills
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individuals with ASD needed for the current job market which were: communication, responding to social cues, being flexible and computer skills.
After the qualitative data were collected, the researcher started analytical coding to determine the meaning behind the responses from the participants and conclude whether the qualitative responses answered the three research questions for this study.
For the following tables: 8, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 29, narratives were written to analyze the responses from the participants. The remaining tables with qualitative data were summarized in passages.
The last inquiry on the survey asked the participant for any further comments concerning students with autism and future employable opportunities. The researcher’s email address was provided so the participants could provide additional information without documenting it on the survey. The name and email address were kept confidential. Responses from this part of the survey were analyzed similar to the other qualitative data.
Trustworthiness
As a researcher, my perspective on the study comes from my experience as an educator of students with special needs such as autism and students without special needs. In my place of employment, I have the unique opportunity to see my former students as the summer school instructor at the high school and impromptu conversations after school. Former students, those with and without learning challenges speak to me often. Through numerous conversations with former students with autism, I am aware that they face challenges due to social deficits that may hinder them from being competitively employed.
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As an employee of the district for eighteen years, the special education staff members from the middle school and high setting were aware of the researcher’s position as a specialized academic instructor responsible for students with special needs which include students with ASD. This familiarity may have influenced the participants to respond more favorably to statements concerning preparing students to communicate and behave socially. New staff members in the district and participants from the elementary setting were not as familiar with the researcher.
To attain a more thorough understanding of the participant’s perspective on advancing employable skills for students with ASD, the participants were given the opportunity to add comments and explain their response. Prior to participants taking the survey, the researcher verbally read from the consent form, that their responses would remain confidential. During the survey, the researcher stayed in the room with the participants to clarify any question on the survey. The presence of the researcher in the room may have influenced the participants to respond positively to statements that addressed preparing students with ASD for employment.
Summary
Quantitative and qualitative data were collected to determine how staff members advanced employable skills for students with ASD. In Chapter 4, responses from the participants describe how educators prepare students with ASD in the areas of communication and social skills for future employment opportunities.
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Chapter 4: Research Findings
The study examined how well a school district prepared students with ASD for future employment, staff familiarity with supports, resources to assist students with ASD, and staff awareness of the outcomes of students with ASD once they leave the secondary
educational setting. Surveys were administered to 78 district employees including:
specialized academic instructors, paraprofessionals, administrators, school psychologists,
counselors, occupational therapists, school site office staff, the speech pathologist, and the district office representative. Seventy eight participants responded to the survey.
Among these participants, more than 70% of the general education instructors responded that they provided services to students with ASD within the past school years, and indicated that they provided services to students with ASD within a span of two years.
Five participants indicated that they had not provided services to students with ASD within two years. These participants were excluded from the study results presented in this chapter.
Table 5 provides a summary of the participants’ experience working with students with ASD based on their position in the district and educational setting (elementary, middle school, high school). Of the 73 included participants, 8 marked that they worked in more than one setting as reflected in the elementary middle school and high school setting results. The district representative (n = 1) was categorized separately.
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Table 5
Participant Experience of Working with Students with ASD Years of Service/ Position/ n = participants % Total #’s Educational Setting ______1-5 years General Education Instructors n = 18 56.3% (n = 32) Special Education Instructors n = 3 9.4% Administrator n = 1 3.1% Speech Pathologist n = 1 3.1% Paraprofessionals n = 7 21.9% School Site Office Staff n = 2 6.3%
(n = 33) *Elementary Schools n = 12 36.3% *Middle School n = 16 48.5% *High School n = 6 18.2% 6-10 years General Education Instructors n = 5 56% (n = 9) Paraprofessionals n = 2 22% School Site Office Staff n = 1 11% Counselor n = 1 11%
(n = 13) Elementary School n = 5 38% *Middle School n = 7 54% *High School n = 1 7.7% 11-20 years General Education Instructors n = 7 23% (n = 30) Special Education Instructors n = 11 36.7% Administrators n = 2 6.7% School Psychologists n = 2 6.7% Occupational Therapists n = 2 6.7% Paraprofessionals n = 4 13% Counselor n = 1 3.3% District Representative n = 1 3.3%
(n = 35) *Elementary School n = 12 34% *Middle School n = 14 40% *High School n = 9 26% >20 years General Education Instructors n = 2 100% (n = 2) (n = 2) Elementary School n = 1 50% Middle School n = 1 50% ______
As shown in Table 5, (n = 30) participants provided [11-20 years] of service to students with ASD, and the special education instructors (36.7%) provided services between 11 and 20 years. For the total years of service [1-5 years], (n = 32) participants provided
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services to students with ASD. There were only two participants who provided services
to students with ASD for more than 20 years; both were general education instructors
from the elementary and middle school setting. The asterisk symbol (*) was placed next
to the educational settings to indicate the participants who marked more than one
educational setting.
Table 6 provides a summary of the number of training courses, workshops, or
professional development courses participants had taken that specifically addressed the
needs of students with ASD. Two participants declined to state the number of courses
taken so their results were not included in Table 6. Eight participants (mostly the support providers) listed more than one educational setting, and they were counted for each setting so they were counted in more than one category.
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Table 6
Courses or Training Taken By Participants to Address the Needs of Students with ASD ______# of Courses Job Position/ Participants % N = 73 Educational Setting 0 General Education Instructors n = 15 71.4% (n = 21) Special Education Instructor n = 1 4.8% School Site Office Staff n = 2 9.5% Paraprofessionals n = 2 9.5% Counselor n = 1 4.8%
(n = 25) *Elementary School n = 11 44% *Middle School n = 10 40% *High School n = 4 16% ______
1-2 General Education Instructors n = 11 55% (n = 20) Special Education Instructors n = 4 20% Administrators n = 3 15% Speech Pathologist n = 1 5% Counselor n = 1 5%
(n = 20) Elementary School n = 8 40% Middle School n = 10 50% High School n = 2 10% ______
3-5 General Education Instructors n = 4 28.6% (n = 14) Special Education Instructors n = 4 28.6% Paraprofessionals n = 6 42.3%
(n = 17) *Elementary School n = 5 29.4% *Middle School n = 6 35.3% *High School n = 6 35.3% ______
6-10 General Education Instructor n = 1 12.5% (n = 8) Special Education Instructor n = 1 12.5% School Psychologist n = 1 12.5% Paraprofessionals n = 5 62.5%
(n = 14) *Elementary School n = 6 42.9% *Middle School n = 7 50% *High School n = 1 7.1% ______
>11 Special Education Instructor n = 4 50% (n = 8) District Representative n = 1 12.5% Occupational Therapists n = 2 25%
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Table 6 Continued
Courses or Training Taken By Participants to Address the Needs of Students with ASD ______
# of Courses Job Position/ Participants % N = 73 Educational Setting
School Psychologist n = 1 12.5%
(n = 11) *Elementary School n = 5 45.5%
*Middle School n = 3 27.3% *High School n = 3 27.3%
As shown in Table 6, participants who received the most course work or training (>11)
that addressed the needs of students with ASD were special education instructors (n = 4),
(50%), the district representative (n = 1, 12.5%), the occupational therapists (n = 2, 25%),
and the school psychologist (n = 1, 12.5%). The participants from the elementary school
setting (n = 5, 45.5%) received the most course work or training that addressed the needs
of students with ASD. General education instructors (n = 15, 71.4% took no coursework
or received no specific training to address the needs of students with autism.
Research Question One
Research question one asked: “How well did the district help students with ASD
develop social and communication skills?” Survey item 1 stated the following: The
educational setting you work in prepares students with ASD for competitive employment.
Survey items 2a-2d were statements related to communication: For the purposes of future
employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to; a)
effectively communicate with adults such as teachers, aides or other staff members, b)
effectively communicate with peers or classmates, c) effectively start and end
conversations, and d) effectively adjust the tone (high pitch, murmur, guttural, soft) of
voice. Survey items 2e-2h were statements related to social skills: e) behave in a non-
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disruptive manner in the classroom, f) behave in a non-disruptive manner outside the classroom, g) be flexible towards and adjust to new activities without difficulty, and h) effectively respond to social cues. Survey item 3 stated the following: As an educator, I have enough knowledge to assist students with ASD with employment goals. Table 7 provides a summary of participants’ perspectives that educational setting they work in prepares students with ASD for competitive employment, aggregated by educational setting and position in the district to address the question of preparing students with ASD for competitive employment. The responses from district from district office personnel were not included in the tables, but they were incorporated in the summaries. Eight participants marked more than educational setting on the survey. The responses are noted by the (*) symbol in the table.
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Table 7
Preparing Students with ASD – Competitive Employment ______Question 1. The educational setting you work in prepares students with ASD for competitive employment. ______Education Setting/ # of Responses Agree Disagree Position Elementary Schools n = 30 8 (27%) 11 (37%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 4 (27%) 6 (40%) Special Education Instructor n = 4 1 (25%) 1 (25%) Administrator n = 2 0 (0%) 2 (100%) *School Psychologist n = 2 0 (0%) 1 (50%) School Office Staff n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 1 (50%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Middle School n = 38 17 (44.7%) 10 (26%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 8 (47%) 3 (18%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 1 (20%) 3 (60%) Administrator n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) *Paraprofessional n = 9 5 (56%) 2 (20%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 1 (50%) Counselor n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) Declined to state position n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High School n = 16 6 (38%) 6 (38%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 2 (33%) 2 (33%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 1 (50%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 3 (60%) 1 (20%) Totals n = 84* 36.6% 33.7%
______The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 72 responses included in the table.
As shown in Table 7, participants from the middle school setting (n = 38, 44.7%) agreed with the statement the most followed by participants from the high school (n = 16,
38%), and lastly, participants from the elementary school (n = 8, 27%). The elementary
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staff members with the least amount of agrees were the administrators (n = 2, 0%), the
school psychologists (n = 2, 0%), and the occupational therapists (n = 2, 0%). In addition, the district representative (not noted in the table) agreed that schools at MVSD prepare students with ASD for competitive employment.
As shown in Table 8, a few participants from the elementary schools and middle school provided written responses that referred to interventions or strategies used with students with autism. Participants from the high school did not mention interventions or strategies.
Table 8
Preparing Students with ASD – Competitive Employment
Question Educational Setting Intervention/ Strategy 1. The educational Elementary Schools Direct Instruction (academics) setting you work in Direct Instruction (social skills) prepares students Direct Instruction (life skills) with ASD for Verbal Redirection competitive IEPs employment Special Education Teachers
Middle Writing exercises that address Employable skills Direct Instruction (academic) Direct Instruction (life skills)
As shown in Table 8, participants indicated direct instruction for reading, math,
writing, and life skills was utilized at the elementary and middle school level. Verbal
redirection, IEPs and special education instructors were listed as interventions. One
participant wrote, “You hope that the students are prepared, but you don’t know beyond
the classroom.” A second participant from the elementary school setting wrote that
educators used certain strategies with students with autism, but the strategy was not the
best method to assist those students (Cook, Buysse, Klinger, Landrum, McWilliam,
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Tankersley & Test, 2016). As the participant explained, “Students at early ages are more corrected than coached.” A third participant wrote that they were unaware of employment outcomes for students with autism. “I am unaware of what our district provides students with ASD, especially those at the high school who are close to entering the workforce.”
One participant mentioned the severity of symptoms and level of cognition as contributing to students’ future employment. The participant wrote, “Students with
Asperger’s have a greater chance of being gainfully employed in a competitive market.
Other students with severe autistic-like tendencies, may not be that well prepared.”
High school educators may have a different perspective on preparing students with ASD for competitive employment, because their students are closer to adulthood.
One participant mentioned the district did not have a program designed to assist students with ASD become employed, saying: “Currently, there is no class specifically designed for ASD students at my current district.” Another participant mentioned students with
ASD did not possess the skills for competitive employment, writing: “I feel the students are not physically and mentally able to perform work tasks on a job or travel to and from a place of employment without assistance.”
Participants also responded to questions, series (2a-2d) that addressed how well the district prepared students to communicate effectively. The data were aggregated by educational setting and position in the district. Table 9 summarizes participants’ perspectives on preparing students with ASD to communicate with adults, including teachers, aides, and other staff members.
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Table 9
Preparing Students with ASD – Communication with Adults
Educational Setting/ Position # of Responses Agree Disagree For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: 2a) Effectively communicate with adults such as teachers, aides or other staff members ______
Elementary Schools n = 30 23 (77%) 2 (7%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 11 (73%) 0 (0%) Special Education Instructor n = 4 3 (75%) 0 (0%) School Office Staff n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) * Occupational Therapist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) * Paraprofessional n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
Middle School n = 38 26 (68.4%) 7 (18%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 10 (59%) 4 (24%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 4 (80%) 1 (20%) * Paraprofessional n = 9 8 (88.9%) 0 (0%) Counselor n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) Administrator n = 1 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Declined to state n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High School n = 16 9 (56%) 4 (25%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 3 (50%) 2 (33%) * School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 4 (80%) 0 (0%) Totals n = 84* 67.1% 16.7%
______The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 72 responses included in the table.
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As shown in Table 9, more than 50% of participants from all educational settings agreed that they prepared students with ASD to communicate with adult school staff members with 50% or more. Elementary participants (n = 23, 77%) agreed with the statement the most, followed by middle school participants (n = 26, 68.4%), and then high school participants (n = 9, 56%). Paraprofessionals from all educational settings agreed with the statement the most, and the school psychologists agreed with the statement the least.
More than 50% of the general education instructors agreed with the statement. The district representative (not included in the table) agreed with the statement.
As shown in Table 10, a few participants from the elementary school and middle school provided written responses that referred to strategies used to prepare students with
ASD to communicate with adults. Participants from the high school did not provide written responses.
Table 10
Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Communication with Adults
Question Educational Setting Accomplished By:
2. For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: a) Effectively communicate with adults such as teachers, aides or other staff members
Elementary Schools Practice oral communication skills Music classroom Aides Special education program
Middle School Direct Instruction Verbal encouragement IEPs Special education classes Classroom discussions Rephrasing sentences iPads Sign Language
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As shown in Table 10, the elementary schools and middle school participants listed special education programs to prepare students with ASD to communicate with adult staff members. Practice also took place in both settings; practicing oral skills in the elementary settings and actual class discussions on how to speak to adults on campus.
Both settings also used other methods such as using aides/paraprofessionals to remind students to communicate properly or having staff members verbally encourage or help students rephrase sentences when speaking to adults. Participants from the middle school campus, mentioned students with more severe forms of autism use iPads and sign language to communicate with adult staff.
Table 11 summarizes participants’ perspectives on preparing students with ASD to effectively communicate with peers or classmates.
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Table 11
Preparing Students with ASD – Communication with Peers
Educational Setting/ Position # of Responses Agree Disagree For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: 2b) Effectively communicate with peers or classmates ______
Elementary Schools n = 30 23 (77%) 2 (7%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 11 (73%) 0 (0%) Special Education Instructor n = 4 3 (75%) 0 (0%) School Office Staff n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Paraprofessional n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
Middle School n = 38 27 (71%) 6 (15%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 10 (59%) 3 (18%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 3 (60%) 1 (20%) *Paraprofessional n = 9 9 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) Counselor n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) Administrator n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Declined to state n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High School n = 16 7 (44%) 7 (44%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 2 (33%) 3 (50%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 3 (60%) 1 (20%) Totals n = 84* 64% 22%
______The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 72 responses included in the table.
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As shown in Table 11, the majority of the elementary (n = 23, 77%) and middle school staff (n = 27,71%) agreed that they prepared students with ASD to communicate with their peers. Only (n = 7, 44%) of the participants from the high school setting agreed with the statement. The counselors from the middle school setting (n = 2, 100%) along with all of the middle and elementary paraprofessionals (n = 11, 100%) agreed with the statement. The district representative (not included in the table) agreed that schools prepare students with ASD to communicate with peers. Only the school psychologist disagreed with the statement.
As shown in Table 12, participants from the elementary school and the middle school setting provided strategies that were used with typically developed children and those with ASD.
Table 12
Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Communication with Peers
Question Educational Setting Accomplished By:
2. For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: b) Effectively communicate with peers or classmates ______
Elementary Schools Group projects Positive Behavior Intervention System
Middle School Group projects Direct Instruction IEPs Reward System Verbal encouragement Introduce to new peers
The elementary and middle school participants mentioned using group projects to prepare students with ASD to communicate with their classmates. Middle school
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participants also mentioned introducing students with ASD to peers they were unfamiliar with. Once again, participants from the high school did not provide written responses to the question.
Two participants mentioned that some students with ASD struggle to communicate socially. One wrote, “I’d like to see more communication with students in other classrooms, when applicable.” The other wrote, “Students are encouraged to communicate with peers, but sometimes it doesn’t work out well.”
Table 13 reflects participants’ quantitative responses regarding students with ASD to start and end conversations.
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Table 13
Preparing Students with ASD – Conversations
Educational Setting/ Position # of Responses Agree Disagree For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: 2c) Effectively start and end conversations ______
Elementary Schools n = 30 24 (80%) 4 (13%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 12 (80%) 3 (20%) Special Education Instructor n = 4 2 (50%) 0 (0%) School Office Staff n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Paraprofessional n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (100%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
Middle School n = 38 25 (65.8%) 5 (13%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 8 (47%) 4 (24%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 3 (60%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 9 8 (89%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) Counselor n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Declined to state n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High School n = 16 8 (50%) 4 (25%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 0 (0%) 1 (50%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 3 (50%) 1 (17%) *School Psychologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 3 (60%) 1 (20%)
Totals n = 84* 65.3% 17%
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The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 72 responses included in the table.
As shown in Table 13, the majority of the elementary (n = 24, 80%), middle
school (n = 25, 65.8%) and high school participants (n = 8, 50%) agreed that schools
prepare students with ASD to start and end conversations. In addition, the majority of the
general education instructors from the elementary school setting (n = 12, 80%), agreed
along with the administrators (n = 2, 100%), school psychologists (n = 2, 100%), and
middle school counselors (n = 2, 100%). The district representative (not included in the table) also agreed with the statement.
Table 14 includes participants’ written responses regarding preparing students with ASD to start and end conversations
Table 14
Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Conversations
Question Educational Setting Accomplished By: 2. For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: c) Effectively start and end conversations
Elementary Schools Special education program Working with partners Modeling Speech
Middle Schools Think-pair-share Group work Modeling Redirection IEPs Direct Instruction Sentence starters
High Schools Speech
As shown in Table 14, the participants in all educational settings mentioned relying upon
support from speech services to assist students with ASD start and end conversations.
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Elementary and middle school participants mentioned using the modeling, group work, and working in groups to assist students begin and end conversations. In addition, middle school participants mentioned using sentence starters to practice with students with ASD on starting and ending conversations.
Participants also provided additional comments related to beginning and ending conversations. One wrote, “Manners and social norms have been spotty at best. Good for some students, questionable for others. From my example, the students I have dealt with have difficulty starting and ending conversations.” Another participant commented that autism coupled with other disorders may affect the ability of the student to begin and finish a conversation: “Students who also have ADD do not follow the conventional rules of turn-taking.”
Table 15 summarizes participants’ quantitative responses regarding preparing students with ASD to effectively adjust their tone of voice.
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Table 15
Preparing Students with ASD – Tone of Voice
Educational Setting/ Position # of Responses Agree Disagree For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: 2d) Effectively adjust the tone (high pitch, murmur, guttural, soft) of voice ______
Elementary Schools n = 30 18 (60%) 6 (20%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 11 (74%) 2 (13%) Special Education Instructor n = 4 2 (50%) 2 (50%) School Office Staff n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *School Psychologist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
Middle School n = 38 16 (42%) 5 (13%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 7 (42%) 3 (18%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 3 (60%) 1 (20%) *Paraprofessional n = 9 4 (44%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Counselor n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) Administrator n = 1 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Declined to state n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High School n = 16 5 (31%) 4 (25%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 0 (0%) 1 (50%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 1 (17%) 2 (33%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 4 (80%) 0 (0%) ______Totals n = 84* 44.3% 19.3%
The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 71 responses from participants.
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As shown in Table 15, only participants from the elementary setting (n = 18,
60%) felt the school sites prepared students with ASD to change their voice tones, and
the percentage of participants at all levels agreed with the statement was less than the
former communication items (questions 2a, 2b and 2c). Only the speech pathologist and
the district representative agreed with the statement.
Table 16 includes participants’ written responses regarding preparing students
with ASD to adjust their tone of voice. Elementary and middle school participants
provided strategies they used in their written responses.
Table 16
Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Tone of Voice
Question Educational Setting Accomplished By: ______2. For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: d) Effectively adjust the tone (high pitch, murmur, guttural, soft) of voice
Elementary Schools Modeling (Role-play) Speech IEPs Sing and discuss emotions Aides Special education program
Middle Schools Verbal encouragement IEPs Modeling Presentations
District Speech Social Stories
As indicated in Table 16, elementary participants mentioned relying on services from speech to assist students with ASD to adjust their voice tones. The district representative also mentioned the use of speech services. Elementary and middle school
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participants mentioned using special education classes, IEP goals and modeling to
address using tones of voice.
Participants offered additional comments related to assisting students with their voice tone. One participant mentioned, “Staff don’t usually model what they would like to hear, and it is difficult for students with ASD to self-monitor.” Another mentioned,
“The students may be asked to lower their voice, but not clearly taught an alternative. I seldom see grunting and murmurs addressed.” Reflecting on the lack of training in this area for educators, one participant mentioned, “I don’t think general education teachers get enough training, so it is hard for them.” Another participant expressed that the method of preparing students with ASD to adjust their tone of voice, may not be sufficient stating, “The students may be asked to lower their voice, but not clearly taught an alternative. I seldom see grunting and murmurs addressed.”
Based on the response to the communication items, participants from the elementary and middle school mentioned they actively prepare students with ASD to communicate with efficiency; utilizing numerous interventions such as direct instruction, social stories, and modeling. Other strategies mentioned included; group projects, sentence starters, Think-Pair-Share, and classroom discussions. Numerous participants mentioned the challenges involved in preparing students with ASD to communicate with efficiency and the need for more strategies to continue this preparation.
One participant wrote, “Sometimes staff expects students with ASD to communicate like their typically functioning peers and don’t provide them with sufficient accommodations to communicate their needs and get them met with alternative activities.”
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Responses to social skill statements and items. The social skills items asked participants to evaluate the extent which their educational setting prepared students with autism to have control over their behavior inside (item 2e) and outside the classroom environment (item 2f), be flexible when transitioning into new activities (item 2g), and appropriately responding to social cues (item 2h).
Table 17 summarizes participants’ quantitative responses regarding preparing students with ASD to behave in a non-disruptive manner in the classroom.
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Table 17
Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Social Skills in the Classroom
Educational Setting/ Position # of Responses Agree Disagree For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: 2e) Behave in a non-disruptive manner in the classroom
Elementary Schools n = 30 21 (70%) 6 (20%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 10 (67%) 3 (20%) Special Education Instructor n = 4 3 (75%) 1 (25%) School Office Staff n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *School Psychologist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
Middle School n = 38 29 (76%) 4 (10%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 12 (71%) 2 (12%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 4 (80%) 1 (20%) *Paraprofessional n = 9 7 (77.8%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) Counselor n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) Administrator n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Declined to state n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High School n = 16 9 (56%) 5 (31%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 4 (67%) 2 (33%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 2 (40%) 1 (20%) Totals n = 84* 67.3% 20.3%
The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 72 responses included in the table.
As shown in Table 17, the majority of elementary (n = 21, 70%), middle school (n
= 29, 76%) and high school participants (n = 9, 56%) agreed with the statement that they
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prepared students with ASD to behave inside the classroom. In addition, the middle school occupational therapists and counselors and the district representative agreed with the statement.
As shown in Table 18, participants from all educational settings provided written comments reflecting strategies and interventions used in the classroom environment.
Table 18
Preparing Students for Employment – Behavior in the classroom
Question Educational Setting Accomplished By:
2) For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD: e) Behave in a non-disruptive manner in the classroom ______
Elementary Schools Redirection Direct Instruction Discrete Trial Training Classroom structure Aides
Middle School Direct Instruction Special education program Verbal encouragement Redirection IEPs Aides PBIS
High School Redirection
District Modeling (role-playing) Applied Behavior Analysis Discrete Trial Training
Elementary, middle and high school participants mentioned redirection to prepare students with ASD to behave inside the classroom environment. Direct instruction and aides were mentioned by the elementary and middle school participants, and discrete trial training was also mentioned by elementary participants and the district representative.
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Additional comments demonstrated that some participants felt confident preparing
students with ASD to behave inside the classroom, while other educators struggle.
Several participants wrote that interventions were used or rules were in place to assist
students with ASD behave inside the classroom, but with mixed results. Sample comments include:
• These actions are taught. Whether it is retained, I’m not so confident.
• Again effort is made, but the same triggers and behaviors keep getting exhibited.
• After taught routine and understands the routine, (assemblies and changes) to
routine and cause behavior problem in room.
• This requires constant prompting, both physical and verbal. Students with ASD
have a low tolerance for frustration, so this affects their behavior.
• The students may be asked to sit and wait. They may be asked to remain inside or
in line. However, not many alternatives are taught.
The responses from participants reflect efforts on the part of educators to address the
behavior of students with ASD inside the classroom.
Table 19 summarizes participants’ responses related to preparing students with
ASD to behave outside the classroom.
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Table 19
Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Social Skills outside the Classroom
Educational Setting/ Position # of Responses Agree Disagree For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: 2f) Behave in a non-disruptive manner outside the classroom
Elementary Schools n = 30 16 (53%) 5 (17%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 9 (60%) 3 (20%) Special Education Instructor n = 4 3 (75%) 0 (0%) School Office Staff n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *School Psychologist n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Middle School n = 38 21 (55%) 6 (15%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 7 (41%) 4 (24%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 4 (80%) 1 (20%) *Paraprofessional n = 9 6 (66.7%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 0 (0%) Counselor n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) Administrator n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Declined to state n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High School n = 16 4 (25%) 6 (38%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 1 (17%) 3 (50%) * School Psychologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 2 (40%) 1 (20%) Totals n = 84* 44.3% 23.3%
The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 72 responses included in the table.
As shown in Table 19, the majority of elementary (n = 16, 53%) and middle school participants (n = 21, 55%) felt the school setting prepares students with ASD to behave outside the classroom. However, only a few (n = 4, 25%) high school participants
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agreed with this statement. Middle school paraprofessionals (n = 6, 66.7%) and the district representative agreed that schools prepare students with ASD to behave in a non- disruptive manner outside of the classroom.
Table 20 summarizes participants’ written comments regarding strategies used to prepare students with ASD to behave appropriately outside the classroom.
Table 20
Preparing Students for Employment – Behavior outside the classroom
Question Educational Setting Accomplished By:
2) For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD: f) Behave in a non-disruptive manner outside the classroom ______
Elementary Schools Practice Aides Redirection Direct Instruction
Middle School Redirection Verbal encouragement
High School Redirection
As shown in Table 20, participants from all school levels responded that they used redirection to assist students with ASD with behavior outside the classroom environment.
Participants mentioned that aides are used in the elementary school settings, and they also practiced appropriate behavior with students with autism.
One responded that s/he, “Encourages students outside of class by offering new settings in the social setting when things get difficult.” Another noted that current strategies to assist students with autism were not particularly helpful, “System wide modifications were not in place. Proctors and those in charge of playground reacted to behaviors addressed issues after the fact and did not seem particularly helpful.” A final
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participant mentioned, “The students tend to wonder and get upset when not given their
way. Relaxing techniques and alternative behaviors aren’t being taught.” Overall, the responses illustrated the need for more strategies and interventions to address the issue of preparing students with ASD to behave outside of the classroom.
Table 21 summarizes participants’ perspectives on preparing students with ASD to be flexible since new activities or settings can be challenging for some students with autism.
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Table 21
Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Flexibility
Educational Setting/ Position # of Responses Agree Disagree For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: 2g) Be flexible towards and adjust to new activities without difficulty
Elementary Schools n = 30 18 (60%) 4 (13%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 9 (60%) 2 (13%) Special Education Instructor n = 4 1 (25%) 1 (25%) School Office Staff n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *School Psychologist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
Middle School n = 38 22 (57.9%) 8 (21%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 8 (45%) 5 (29%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 4 (80%) 1 (20%) *Paraprofessional n = 9 5 (55.6%) 1 (10%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) Counselor n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) Declined to state n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High School n = 16 8 (50%) 6 (38%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 0 (0%) 2 (100%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 2 (33%) 3 (50%) *School Psychologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 3 (60%) 1 (20%) Totals n = 84* 56% 24%
The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 72 responses included in the table.
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As shown in Table 21, the majority of elementary (n = 18, 60%) and middle
school participants (n = 22, 57.9%) agreed with the statement, but only half of the high
school participants agreed. The school psychologist, occupational therapists and high
school paraprofessionals agreed with the statement. Interestingly, the middle school
special education instructors and the elementary school general education instructors
agreed with the statement, but the responses for the elementary special education
instructors and middle school general education instructors were reversed. Finally, the district representative also agreed that schools prepared students with ASD to be flexible and adjust to new activities.
Table 22 summarizes participants’ written comments for this item. When compared with previous items, this question generated the least amount of strategies or interventions to accomplish this task.
Table 22
Preparing Students for Employment – Flexibility
Question Educational Setting Accomplished By:
2) For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD: g) Be flexible towards and adjust to new activities without difficulty
Elementary Schools Practice
Middle School Scheduling
High School Redirection
Only one participant from each site provided a response, and each response was
different. The participant from the elementary schools responded with practice, the
middle school participant wrote scheduling, and the participants from high school
mentioned redirection. Several participants indicated results can be inconsistent. One
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stated, “Not always – they are routine orientated and don’t adjust very well to sudden changes in activities.” Another participant wrote, “We are there for their transition difficulties and challenges. I always try reinforce good behavior and let them know when well will be changing activities. Sudden changes in routine can create anxiety and negative behaviors.” One concerned participant noted, “This is an area of great concern.
Students become very upset when they aren’t given their way. Staff tends to chase them and calm them, but not re-direct or teach alternative behaviors.” Another participant commented, “Always need redirection. Their mood often overtakes their ability to stay calm and follow directions.” Several participants expressed difficulty preparing students with ASD to be more flexible, “Things can get pretty hectic and change last minute.
Students are not prepared for this.” One participant suggested new interventions may help. “It’s hard for the ASD children to adapt to any type of change, but we as staff members have to introduce new ideas to these children.”
Table 23 provides participants’ responses to the last likert scale item regarding the school setting preparing students with ASD to effectively respond to social cues.
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Table 23
Preparing Students with ASD for Employment – Social Cues
Educational Setting/ Position # of Responses Agree Disagree For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: 2h) Effectively respond to social cues ______
Elementary Schools n = 29 20 (69%) 2 (7%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 11 (73%) 2 (13%) Special Education Instructor n = 3 2 (67%) 0 (0%) School Office Staff n = 2 0 (0%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 0 (0%) 0 (0%)
Middle Schools n = 38 26 (68%) 3 (8%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 10 (59%) 2 (12%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 3 (60%) 1 (20%) *Paraprofessional n = 9 6 (66.7%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) Counselor n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *School Psychologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Declined to state n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High Schools n = 16 6 (38%) 6 (38%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 1 (17%) 4 (67%) *School Psychologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 1 (20%) 1 (20%) ______Totals n = 83* 17.3% 3.67%
The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 72 responses from participants.
As shown in Table 23, elementary (n = 20, 69%) and middle (n = 26, 68%) school participants agreed that the school setting prepared students with ASD to respond to
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social cues, but only a few high school participants (n = 6, 38%) agreed with the statement. Furthermore, elementary general education (n = 11, 73%) and special education instructors (n = 2, 67%) and the middle school psychologist, administrator, counselors, occupational therapists, and the district representative agreed with the statement. However, only a few high school special education (n = 1, 50%) and general education instructor (n = 1, 17%) agreed with the statement.
Table 24 summarizes participants’ written responses to this item. Most of the
responses were considered evidence-based practices.
Table 24
Preparing Students for Employment – Social Cues
Question Educational Setting Accomplished By:
2) For the purposes of future employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD: h) Effectively respond to social cues
Elementary Schools Direct Instruction Modeling Coaching Discrete Trial Training Practice
Middle School Direct Instruction Aides Verbal encouragement Modeling
District Social Stories
As shown in Table 24, all of the responses from the participants were similar to the responses provided for the other the social skills items; behavior inside and outside
the classroom and flexibility. The participants from the elementary and middle school
mentioned using direct instruction and modeling to prepare students with ASD to respond
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to social cues. Participants from the elementary setting mentioned concerted efforts to accomplish this goal via coaching and utilizing discrete trial training implemented by the school psychologist.
The final item on the survey assessed participants’ knowledge to assist students with ASD with employment goals. The item mirrored the first item that referred to preparing students for competitive employment.
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Table 25
Employable Skills Preparation
As an educator, I have enough knowledge to assist students with ASD with employment goals ______Educational Setting/ Position # of Responses Agree Disagree
Elementary Schools n = 30 7 (23%) 16 (53%)
*General Education Instructor n = 15 2 (13%) 9 (60%) Special Education Instructor n = 4 2 (50%) 1 (25%) School Office Staff n = 2 0 (0%) 1 (50%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 2 (100%) *Paraprofessional n = 2 1 (50%) 1 (50%) Administrator n = 2 0 (0%) 1 (50%) *School Psychologist n = 2 2 (100%) 0 (0%) Speech Pathologist n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%)
Middle School n = 37 17 (46%) 13 (34%)
*General Education Instructor n = 17 6 (35%) 8 (47%) *Special Education Instructor n = 5 2 (40%) 2 (40%) *Paraprofessional n = 9 6 (66.7%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 2 (100%) Counselor n = 1 0 (0%) 1 (100%) *School Psychologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Administrator n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) Declined to state n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%)
High School n = 16 8 (50%) 6 (38%)
*General Education Instructor n = 2 1 (50%) 0 (0%) *Special Education Instructor n = 6 2 (33%) 4 (67%) *School Psychologist n = 1 1 (100%) 0 (0%) *Occupational Therapist n = 2 0 (0%) 2 (100%) *Paraprofessional n = 5 4 (80%) 0 (0%) Totals n = 83* 39.7% 41.7%
The (*) indicates that participants were counted more than once. There were 72 responses from participants.
The results shown in Table 25 revealed high school participants felt they had enough knowledge to assist students with ASD with employment goals (n = 8, 50%) more than middle school (n = 17, 46%) and elementary participants (n = 7, 23%). The
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school psychologist and administrator from the middle school setting agreed with the statement. Furthermore, the general and special education participants from all educational settings and the district representative agreed with the statement.
Survey question 4 asked participants to list essential skills individuals with ASD need to attain employment. Table 26 presents these data aggregated by educational setting and job position.
Table 26
Essential Skills Required of Individuals with ASD to Attain Employment
Educational Setting/Position Skill
Elementary Schools ______General Education Instructor Responding to Social Cues, Controlling behavior, Being Flexible/Adaptability, Organization, Hands on Activities, Social Skills, Communication, Coping, Listening, Following Directions, Common Core State Standards, Interviewing, Adjusting Voice Tones, Computer Skills
Special Education Instructor Hands on Activities, Social Skills, Communication, Following Directions, Common Core Standards
Administrator Responsibility, Being Flexible/Adaptability, Social Skills, Communication, Coping
School Psychologist Responsibility, Organization, Communication, Computer Skills
Occupational Therapist Being Flexible/Adaptability, Organization, Communication, Coping
School Office Staff Hands on Training, Social Skills
Paraprofessional Life Skills
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Table 26. Essential Skills Required of Individuals with ASD to Attain Employment- Continued
Educational Setting/Position Skill Middle School______General Education Instructor Communication, Academics, Social Skills, Being Flexible/Adaptability, Collaboration, Common Core Standards, Dealing with Criticism, Responding to Social Cues, Life Skills, Hands on Training, Email Etiquette, Coping, Time management, Organization, Creativity
Special Education Instructor Communication, Computer Skills, Writing resumes, Academics, Fill out Job Applications, Interview practice, Social Skills, Technical Skills, Hands on Training
Administrator Communication, Responding to Social Cues
School Psychologist Communication, Responding to Social Cues
Paraprofessional Communication, Computer Skills, Academics, Social Skills, Analytical Skills, Life Skills, Independency, Organization Skills, Hands on Training
Counselor Communication, Being Flexible/Adaptability, Responding to Social Cues, Coping
Occupational Therapists *See Elementary
High School______General Education Instructors Social Skills, Academics, Responding to Social Cues
Special Education Instructors Communication, Social Skills, Computer Skills, Hands on Training, Responding to Social Cues, Following Directions, Safety Awareness, Self-Care Hygiene
Paraprofessional Independency, Social Skills, Life Skills, Hands on Training, Responding to Social Cues, Following Directions
School Psychologist *See Middle
Occupational Therapists *See Middle
Several commonalities emerged from the participants’ responses. The paraprofessionals from all educational settings believed life skills and hands on training were the most essential employable skills for students with ASD to develop.
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Paraprofessionals from the middle and high school settings also wrote being independent as an essential goal. The participants from the middle school had the most diverse responses from the elementary and high school setting such as email etiquette, dealing with criticism, and creativity. The special education instructors wrote safety awareness and self-care or hygiene as essential employable skills for transitioning students with
ASD to possess. Common Core state standards and academics (reading, writing and mathematics) were listed the participants from all three educational settings.
Analysis of Research Question Two
The second research question asked, What does staff know about resources that may assist students with ASD for future employment opportunities? The following survey questions addressed the second research question: (5) What does staff know about resources that may assist students with ASD for future employment opportunities?; (6)
What (if any) additional support and resources are you aware of outside the district? and
(7) What supports and resources are available to help students with ASD obtain employment?
Table 27 summarizes participants’ responses to survey question 5 (i.e., their knowledge of district supports and resources that address the employable skills of students with ASD, disaggregated by educational settings and job position. Thirty seven participants wrote that they were unaware of district resources and supports, and five wrote that resources did not in MVSD. These participants were not included in the table
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Table 27
District Supports and Resources to Address Employable Skills of Students with ASD
Educational Setting/Position District Supports/Resources
Elementary Schools______General Education Instructor IEP Meetings, Parent Conferences, Special Education classrooms, D’Veal, Professional Learning Communities
Special Education Instructor Community Based Instruction, General Education classes, Inclusion Specialist, Speech Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Adaptive Physical Education, Discrete Trial Training
School Psychologist Workability, TA Opportunities, Speech Therapy, Occupational Therapy, Behavioral Specialists
Occupational Therapist Community Based Instruction
Middle School______General Education Instructor Speech Therapy, Special Education classes, Counseling
Special Education Instructor Transitional goals, Community Based Instruction, Community connections
School Psychologist *See Elementary
Paraprofessional Speech Therapy, SELPA training, Community Based Instruction, Career Day on campus
Counselor Speech Therapy, Transitional goals, Professional Learning Communities
Occupational Therapists *See Elementary
School Psychologist *See Elementary
High School______Special Education Instructors Counseling, Occupational Therapy, Speech Therapy, Behavior Specialists, Community Based Instruction, Off campus job internships
District______Applied Behavior Analysis, Discrete Trial Training, Community Based Instruction, Adult Transition
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As shown in Table 27, elementary special education instructors provided the most
responses and listed all of the support providers in the district, such as speech, APE and
occupational therapy. General education instructors from the elementary school settings
listed special education programs as a resource along with the counseling service D’Veal.
D’Veal is a mental health program designed for students who struggle with academics and need counseling due to issues in their home environment, not necessarily students
with special needs such as autism. The elementary school psychologist listed similar
resources similar as the special education instructors and added students with ASD have
access to Workability (a program offered to all students with special needs from the
California Department of Education that offers job training skills to students, similar to the services from the vocational rehabilitation centers), and Teacher Assistant
opportunities.
The middle and high school participants were listed similar to the elementary
school participants’ responses. IEP transitional goals were seen as tools to support
students with autism to help obtain employment. Only the special education instructors
from the high school responded to the survey question.
Survey question 6 asked participants to list additional supports and resources that existed outside the district available to students with ASD. Again, the data were disaggregated by educational settings and job positions. Thirty one participants mentioned they were “Unsure” or “Unaware” of supports and resources.
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Table 28
Additional Support and Resources for Students with ASD outside MVSD
Educational Setting/Position District Supports/Resources
Elementary Schools______General Education Instructor D’Veal, Foothill Family, Autism Specialists, Regional Center, Conferences, the Internet, Autism Centers, Counseling, Jewish Organization, Temple Grandin, support facility nearby district
Special Education Instructor Ability First, Regional Occupation Program, Community College, Adult Occupational Program
Administrator Regional Center, Autistic Sports League
School Psychologist Regional Center
Middle School______General Education Instructor Family Services, Regional Center, Frostig
Special Education Instructor Regional Center, Department of Rehabilitation, LACOE Online courses
Administrator Regional Center
Paraprofessional SELPA Training, Pacific Clinics, Autism Spectrum Specialist, Job Coaches from nearby district (training)
High School______General Education Instructor Community College, Work Skills Transition Program
Special Education Instructor Regional Center, Department of Rehabilitation, Ability First, Community Center in Nearby City giving individuals with special needs employment opportunities
District ______Regional Center, SELPA Trainings, Help Corp
As shown in Table 28, elementary general education instructors provided more responses than general education instructors from the middle and high school setting.
The Regional Center was a common response from all educational settings. The district representative’s responses were similar to the responses from other participants with the
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exception of Help Corp. Paraprofessionals from the middle school setting listed several outside resources to assist individuals with ASD.
Survey question 7 asked participants to list supports and resources for students with ASD with finding employment. Participants were encouraged to respond to the question, in writing, as it specifically addressed supports and resources available to assist students with ASD find employment. The data were aggregated by educational setting and job position. Forty two participants mentioned they were unaware of resources and supports to assist students with ASD find employment.
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Table 29
Supports and Resources Available to Assist Students with ASD Obtain Employment
Educational Setting/Position Supports/Resources (employment)
Elementary Schools______General Education Instructor Community Based Instruction, University recruiting individuals with ASD to work on Computer Aided Design (CAD) for video games
Special Education Instructor High school courses, Assisted Living Programs
School Psychologist Regional Center
Occupational Therapist Regional Center
Middle School______Special Education Instructor Regional Occupational Program, Ability First, Regional Center, Department of Rehabilitation
Counselor Guidance Counselors, Case Managers
Administrator Transitional IEP Plans
Paraprofessional Assisted Living Programs, High School, Community Based Instruction, Adult Transition, Regional Occupational Program, Technology High School______Special Education Instructor Regional Center, Department of Rehabilitation, Ability First, Workability
District ______Regional Center, College Support Service
As shown in Table 29, the responses to the question were limited, and the general education instructors from the middle school setting provided no responses to the question. The middle school paraprofessionals provided responses similar to those listed in Table 28 and 29 (i.e., Regional Center, Department of Rehabilitation and Community
Based Instruction). The counselor and the middle school administrator were the only participants that listed IEPs. The district representative and the general education
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instructors were the only participants that listed college as a resource for students with
ASD with finding employment.
Analysis of Research Question Three
The last item on the survey addressed research question three, “How aware is staff concerning the outcomes for students with ASD after leaving the high school environment?” Question 8 asked: “From your estimation, what happens to students with
ASD, once they leave the high school environment?” After initial coding, six major themes emerged: (1) Education, (2) Home, (3) Employment, (4) District Provided
Services, and (5) State or Federal Services and Other organizations. The qualitative data for question 8 are presented in a narrative below that conveys participants’ concerns for students with autism after leaving the high school environment.
Education. Leaving high school and earning a diploma is a huge accomplishment for students. Students with autism spectrum disorder may not follow the linear path of graduating from high school, attending college, or pursuing a job, due to communication and social skills deficits that may continue to affect the individual into adulthood. During elementary, students with autism may have numerous support providers in their educational lives: behavior specialists, counseling, occupational therapy, speech therapy, and special education instructors to support their academic needs. If a child with autism receives less support from the district, and they are enrolled in more general education classes, their outcome as adults may look promising. A participant from the general education setting stated, “Many of our students with ASD go onto to pursue their education at the college level whether at a local junior college or four year university.”
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Students with ASD who have mild communication delays and minimal social deficits,
may have the same outcome as a typically developed student.
Employment. Students may find it challenging to find employment if they cannot communicate with unfamiliar people or they are not able to respond to a social cue from a potential employer (Cederlund, Hagberg, Billstedt, Gillberg & Gillberg, 2008). One participant wrote the following: “Many find themselves either unemployable or in low skill work due to lack of social skills.” Another participant mentioned, “They may have difficulty in interviewing particularly for higher-paying jobs.” Due to continued communication and social skills deficits, students may obtain jobs that are below their ability level. A participant stated the following: “I believe they frequently get jobs that are far below what they are truly capable of.” Some students with ASD may find the process of attaining a job or living on their own daunting, and some students may stay home. One participant wrote the following: “Unfortunately, I feel ASD students who don’t have support are left to the parents usually following parents or staying at home. If the student doesn’t have the knowledge or support to live independently, they may go to an assisted living home.”
District provided services. Despite support from schools, many students with
autism find themselves unemployable, because the combination of communication
challenges, social skills deficits, and lack of vocational training during high school (Lee
& Carter, 2012; Riesen, Schultz, Morgan & Kuperman, 2014). One participant
commented, “I imagine that many students even with effective training still have a hard
time in the employment field, depending on the side of the spectrum they are on. [Jobs or
Training] should be available to all people on the spectrum regardless of age.” If the
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parents and the transitional IEP determines that a student with ASD is not ready to be independent or they do not possess employable skills, the district offers an Adult
Transition program for students 18-22. Two participants stated the following:
“Hopefully, they will transition into the 18-22 year old classroom at the high school, which helps them become responsible adults and prepares them for the working world, and in our district, there is a Life Coping class in which students are employed within the community and travel via public transportation.”
Home. The district also provides support for students with more severe forms of autism that prevents them from integrating into the general education classroom. Many of the students are unable to communicate without a device and their maladaptive behaviors requires the student to be monitored by paraprofessionals. The outcome for these students looks less promising. A participant wrote the following: “If they have caring parental support, they will find the resources in communities to help them live functioning healthy lives. If not, then they will probably stay with caregivers and live limited lives.”
State and federal services and other organizations. Services from Regional
Center and the Department of Rehabilitation may be able to assist students with more severe forms of autism to either to attain vocational training (Wehman, McDonough,
Molinelli, Riehle, Ham & Thiss, 2013). Another participant wrote, “It depends on the severity of the student. If appropriate, some students are connected with Regional Center services that assist with employment.”
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Students with milder forms of autism may leave high school with a promising
future ahead of them, like their typically developed peers. It is considered a success if the
school district was able to provide enough support to a student with autism who attends
college or supports themselves through employment. All students with autism do not
exhibit the same communication delays, and others have high cognitive abilities, but they are challenged by the social complexities of school and society. The district must continue to provide appropriate interventions, support and training opportunities to students with ASD to pursue future employment opportunities.
Summary of Table Results
The analyzed quantitative and qualitative data supported that participants from all
educational settings prepared students to communicate effectively and use their social
skills inside and outside the classroom environment. The high school did not respond to
the likert-like questions, in writing, unlike the participants from the elementary and middle school settings. Paraprofessionals from the middle school setting had more
Agrees in responding to communication and social skill questions, but the school psychologists for the middle and high school setting responded with more Disagrees.
The responses to questions on supports and resources were similar to each other in regards to support providers, the Regional Center, and the Department of Rehabilitation.
Responses from participants, displayed in the narrative, showed an awareness of the outcomes for students with autism once they leave the secondary educational environment. The themes for the narrative reflected the following: students staying home, finding employment, receiving continued support from the district, receiving support from state or federal agencies, and going to college.
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The following qualitative data refers to participants responding to the following question on the survey, “If you have any further comments concerning students with autism and future employment opportunities, please contact…… Your name and contact information will remain confidential as stated in the consent form.” The comments were not categorized.
Table 30 Additional Comments from Participants Concerning Autism and Employment
Comments
- Would be very beneficial to get more education on resources.
- There’s a need for developing social activities for all levels of students with autism or on the spectrum. Training for staff to increase inclusive practices!
- Heard USC was purposely recruiting students with ASD, because they think “outside the box.” (Article in my alumni magazine).
- Thank you! Something I need to research this summer. How can I support students with ASD socially and beyond our school?
- Obviously, more information is needed.
- Due to confidentiality, the information about our students is limited. It would be helpful to know how to flex academic expectations to meet individual needs.
______
The results from the tables showed that participants from the elementary schools, middle, and high school settings believed that they were preparing students with ASD to communicate and behave appropriately inside and outside the classroom. Interventions and strategies took place in the classroom and the support providers (speech, counselors, school psychologists, and occupational therapists) provided IEP designated support for students with ASD, but the participants gave less positive responses to preparing students
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with ASD for competitive employment. They also believed that they did not have enough knowledge to address employment goals for these students. In Chapter 5, the researcher will explain some of the varying responses from the participants and provide recommendations for Mountain Valley School District to move forward as they make renewed, concerted efforts to advance employable skills to students with ASD.
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Chapter 5: Conclusion
The purpose of this survey study was to determine how a school district advanced employable skills to students with ASD. Can a school district encapsulate the purpose behind the Common Core initiative to prepare students for a global economy despite the challenges of reaching a segment of the student population that has developmental challenges in the areas of communication and social integration? Are school districts equipped with the proper resources, supports, and interventions to assist students with
ASD in preparation for future employment? Finally, are staff members in the district aware of the facts concerning individuals with ASD and future employment opportunities?
Competitive employment is a term that is not regularly used in educational settings among teachers, administrators, support providers, and paraprofessionals. As discussed in Chapter 1, competitive employment describes full time employment with the same wages and benefits as others without disabilities (Employment First Policy, 2013;
Wehman et al., 2015). Research from Strickland (2013), Wehman (2015), and WIOA
(2014) acknowledge that individuals with ASD and others with developmental or intellectual disabilities require support from vocational rehabilitation centers, intensive vocational support from school districts or assistance from community colleges. The results from the study found the majority of the participants from the elementary school setting did not agree that schools prepare students with ASD for competitive employment, but most high school participants believed that some students with ASD were capable of competitive employment. Elementary school educators may not perceive the curriculum and instructional strategies as preparation for future employment, despite
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adaption to the Common Core state standards that emphasized preparing students for the
workforce and college for students Kindergarten through twelfth grade. Consistent with
the results from the recent National Longitudinal Transition Study 2 (2015), the
qualitative responses indicated outcomes of low paying jobs or an inability to find
employment.
Federal mandates such as IDEA (2004) require more inclusive educational
settings for students with ASD, but most teachers reported that they were not prepared to
teach in inclusive settings and implement interventions when needed (Able, Sreckovic,
Schultz, Garwood, Sherman, 2015; Stader, 2013). Research from Taylor and Seltzer
(2011) found students in general education settings received less vocational training.
Researchers Simpson, Mundschenk, and Heflin (2011) recommended the use of transitional plans to prepare students with ASD for employment, yet only the administrator from the middle school wrote transitional IEP plans were utilized as a support for students with autism seeking to attain employment.
The study found most staff members at MVSD did not receive training specifically designed to meet the needs of students with ASD with the exception of the district representative, school psychologists, and occupational therapists. General education instructors from all educational settings received the least amount of training specifically designed to address the needs of students with autism. Prior research concerning lack of training among educators in the area of autism has been consistent.
Instructors either lacked the training to teach students with ASD in an inclusive educational model, or teachers were challenged by implementing evidence based interventions for students with ASD (Simpson, Mundschenk & Heflin, 2011; Sansosti &
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Sansosti, 2012). In Mountain Valley School District, support providers used interventions with students with ASD, but the study found only participants from the
elementary and middle school settings mentioned using interventions and strategies to
address the communication and social skill deficits of students with ASD.
The survey questions addressed communication skills that challenge students
with ASD, including: (2a) communicating with adults on the school site, (2b)
communicating with peers, (2c) starting and ending conversations, and (2d) tone of voice.
The study showed the majority of participants agreed that they prepared students in the area of communication, but the most frequent written response to inquiries 2a through 2d was “No Preparation.” The findings from the survey suggests that instructors may expect the support provider or speech pathologist to address the communication challenges of students with ASD rather than implementing evidence-based interventions in the their own classroom. When communication goals are written into an IEP, the speech pathologist provides the intervention during a small group session or individually with the student, and they monitor the progress of the student. Researchers Freeman (2013) and Rue and Knox (2013) support collaboration between the speech pathologist and instructors to integrate communication goals into the classroom.
Direct instruction and verbal encouragement were listed by elementary and middle school participants as the most frequently used strategies to support students with
ASD with communication. Direct instruction involves a structured form of instruction or program led by the instructor and components of content are broken down by skills which are taught to mastery through a series of oral and written assessments. Students respond through a choral response and repetition after they hear it from the instructor.
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Researchers support the use of direct instruction with elementary students with and without learning challenges (Cadette, Wilson, Brady, Dukes & Bennet, 2016; Ganz &
Flores, 2009). Researchers also support using words of encouragement for a specific task in which the student is engaged in, rather than providing general praise to students
(Haydon & Musti-Rao, 2011). For example, rather than stating “great job”, when a student with ASD uses appropriate tones in the classroom, an educator should state,
“Great job lowering your voice in class today, Sam.” Teachers have many opportunities to reinforce growing communication skills by offering specific feedback to students
(Poindexter, 2015).
Researchers Fisher, Frey, and Rothenberg (2008) studied the daily dynamics of classrooms and determined the most vocal person in the classroom is the instructor.
Teachers instruct, give directions, call the names of students, talk to other adults in the classroom, respond to phone calls, and read aloud. Also, classroom teachers, even specialized academic instructors, may not be able to distinguish the voice of a typically developed child from one with ASD. Children with ASD develop their communication skills later than their typically developed peers, and once they begin to speak, the focus of speech becomes retaining those skills (Klin, Saulnier, Sparrow, Cicchetti, Volkmar &
Lord, 2007; Parr, Orlovski, Marcinko, Volkmar, 2009). Tone of voice becomes an issue of concern when peers notice the subtle differences in tones of voices of students with autism (Butler & Dykstra, 2014). The student with ASD may become self-conscious and speak less, which can affect his/her chances of having successful job interviews or conversing with their co-workers.
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Questions from the survey also focused on preparing students with autism for employment in the area of social skills, such as (2e) behaving inside and (2f) outside the
classroom, (2g) being flexible in response to new activities, and (2h) responding
appropriately to social cues. The study participants agreed that they prepared students
with autism in the area of social skills, but when they were asked to explain their
responses, the top three responses contained the answer “No preparation.” In the
Mountain Valley School District, instructors refer students who exhibit maladaptive
behaviors to specialists, such as the school psychologist, a support provider who
specializes in behavior modification, or a one-to-one aide assigned to the student.
Educators mentioned using the intervention of Applied Behavior Analysis to address
issues related to behavior inside and outside the classroom, including helping students
with ASD to be flexible towards new activities. When students with autism struggle in
this area, the educator requests a referral from the school psychologist to observe the
student, determine the antecedent for the behavior, and recommend the appropriate
intervention (McKenney, Dorencz, Bristol, & Hall, 2015; Ryan, Hughes, Katsiyannis,
McDaniel & Sprinkle, 2014). The instructor or paraprofessional implements the
intervention for the student, but if the behavior persists or worsens after several
interventions are utilized, the IEP team reconvenes to discuss a more appropriate learning
environment for the student.
The qualitative responses revealed that educators experienced mixed results after
implementing interventions to address the behaviors of students with ASD. For
example, a middle school paraprofessional participant wrote, “This requires constant
prompting, both physical and verbal. Students with ASD have a low tolerance for
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frustration, so this affects their behavior.” A middle school general education instructor participant stated the following: “Again effort is made, but the same triggers and behaviors keep getting exhibited.” A meta-analysis on interventions utilized in public schools for students with ASD found more than one intervention may be implemented to change behavior patterns in students with autism (De Bruin, Deppeler, Moore &
Diamond, 2013).
As noted by researchers, employees with ASD had difficulty understanding social cues (Hillier et al., 2007; Wilczynski, Trammel & Clarke, 2013). Participants from all educational settings agreed that they prepared students with autism to respond to social cues and frequently mentioned modeling how to accomplish the task of responding to social cues. None of the participants mentioned using video modeling, but researchers
Bellini and Akullian’s (2007) study suggests video modeling can be an effective intervention to teach social responses to elementary students and adolescents with ASD.
When students with ASD are outside the classroom (during recess, lunch, extracurricular activities), the instructor may not have direct supervision over students.
Typically, proctors or one-to-one aides have contact with these students. The paraprofessionals in the district who work in moderate to severe classroom environments, receive training on meeting the needs of those students from SELPA. Outside of the classroom, activities are less structured and the student with ASD may find it challenging to interact with others without the instructor being present (Tyson & Cruess, 2012).
Researchers support paraprofessionals using interventions in the special education environment and in inclusive settings (Feldman & Matos, 2013; Rispoli, Neely, Lang &
Ganz, 2011).
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Numerous studies recommended evidence-based modeling to teach desired skills
to students with special needs (Rubenstein, Pierson, Wilczynski & Connolly, 2013;
Wilson, 2013; Sansosti & Sansosti, 2012). Modeling was a frequent response for the ordinal scaled statements; (2c) preparing students to begin and end conversations, (2d) speaking in appropriate tones, (2e) behaving inside the classroom and (2h) responding to social cues. Participants also frequently wrote “Direct Instruction” as intervention used with students with autism.
When participants were asked to write employable skills that students with ASD needed, the most frequent responses mirrored the results from NACE (2014) and research from Hillier (2007), and Wilczynski, Trammel, & Clarke (2013): communication skills, interpersonal skills, the ability to work in a team (social skills), flexibility/adaptability, and understanding social cues. Although, organizational skills (being detailed orientated), problem-solving skills and analytical skills (academic) were listed as important employable skills in the research from Hillier (2007), Wilczynski et al. (2013) and the National Association of Colleges and Employers (2014), participants did not mention these skills in their responses. Thus, all employees from the district could benefit from more opportunities to learn about advancing employable skills for students with ASD (Barnhill, Sumutka, Polloway, & Lee, 2014; Young, 2011).
Survey items 5, 6 and 7 referred to resources and supports inside and outside the district of study to assist students with ASD with employable skills. When asked, 10 special education instructors listed the most supports and resources for students with
ASD, and only special education instructors from the high school responded to the inquiry. Since MVSD adopted the Common Core state standards early in its inception,
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2011, all educators were expected to prepare students for college or the workforce. Some
instructors may not have fully accepted the idea behind Common Core to make students
competitive in a global market, or the educators may not view preparing students with
autism as a high priority due to the amount of challenges students with ASD face. Prior research for Common Core found educators may struggle to implement the standards, and utilize interventions that are designed to make the standards more accessible to students with ASD (Constable, Grossi, Moniz & Ryan, 2013; Porter, Fusarelli &
Fusarelli, 2015).
When asked about internal supports and resources for students with ASD, services from special education program were mentioned 24 times in the surveys by participants.
The district specialized academic instructors, administrators and support providers are familiar with federal laws that protect the educational rights of students with special needs such as IDEA and FAPE. The reauthorization of IDEA, 2004, stipulated the presence of general education instructors during IEP meetings (U.S. Department of
Education, 2015). Their presence during the IEP meetings may not reflect a clear understanding of resources that may be available to assist students with ASD.
When asked about external supports and resources for students with ASD, participants frequently mentioned Regional Centers, the Department of Rehabilitation, and community college. Regional Centers, regulated by the California Department of
Developmental Services are located throughout the state of California. They provide information, counseling, some training and educational opportunities for individuals with
developmental disorders (California State Department of Developmental Services, 2016).
Regional Centers can also make referrals for individuals with developmental disorders to
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seek services from vocational rehabilitation facilities to assist with supported
employment (SE) programs which may lead to competitive integrated employment (CIE).
Current policies, such as the Employment First Policy (2013), the Autism Cares Act
(2014) and WIOA (2014) encourage competitive employment, but the federal and state
government will continue to fund agencies to assist individuals with developmental
disorders who need services from supported employment which may lead to competitive employment in the future.
The services offered to students with special needs by local community colleges vary. Community colleges close to MVSD offer classes such as reading for comprehension and advocating for self and adaptive physical education. Several campuses offer accommodations to the curriculum and testing, assistive technology, counselors, and career exploration. These services are similar to accommodations and services a student with ASD would receive in a public school district in California. The researcher reviewed the websites from the local community colleges that the participants mentioned by name. After the initial courses were offered (e.g., reading comprehension or using technology on campus), the colleges offered the same courses to every student on campus.
When asked about the outcomes for students with ASD after they leave the high school setting, participants responded that students live at home, find employment (jobs that do not match their skill set), go to college, stay in district to attend Adult Transition class for ages 18-22, or students receive vocational training as a precursor to competitive employment. Educators from the elementary settings often mentioned individuals with
ASD attend college, find employment, or receive continued support from the high school.
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However, participants from the high school setting responded that individuals with ASD stayed home or received services from the state or federal agencies. Overall, the participant responses were consistent with findings by NLTS2 (2015) and Roux,
Shattuck, Rast, Rava and Anderson (2015) that reported between the years 2001 and
2009 students with ASD were not employed on a continual basis, and several were employed only part time.
Delimitations
The study focused on one school district in the state of California and efforts made to advance marketable job skills for students with Autism Spectrum Disorder.
Mountain Valley School District has five elementary schools, one middle school and one high school. The city where the district resides has a high Latino population (76%) and is considered socioeconomically disadvantaged which means based on the family income, students are eligible for free or reduced lunch. At the time of study, the district had approximately 3,900 students. Among these students, 28% were English language learners, approximately 10% were considered students with special needs, and more than
25% of the students with special needs were diagnosed with autism. The surveys were distributed at three school sites (staff members from other school sites in the district were asked through email to take the survey at one of the three designated school sites).
Access to all school sites in the district may have increased the response rate. The researcher attempted to create a general idea about how a school district, at all educational levels, provides employable skills to the ASD student population. The alternative school in the district was not included, because the school focuses on students receiving the opportunity to recover credits that they did not earn on the high school
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campus. The researcher was unaware of students with ASD attending the school and if interventions were utilized to specifically address the needs of students with ASD. The district does not represent how other districts implement programs for students with special needs. Thus, results of the study may not generalize to other schools and districts with different programs, larger student populations dissimilar demographics pertaining to ethnicity, socioeconomic status, the number of English language learners, the number of students with special needs and specifically, the number of students with ASD.
Limitations
The following items may have affected the results of the study:
• Data were collected by the researcher who was employed by the district as a
specialized academic instructor who provides academic instruction to students
with special needs including students with ASD.
• Data collection took place two weeks before the end of the school year. This may
have affected the number of staff members who participated in the survey. Also,
only one out of five speech pathologists participated in the study; others who were
too busy did not complete the survey.
• The survey items did not distinguish between students with mild forms of autism
and those enrolled in restrictive learning environments due to limited
communication, maladaptive behaviors, and dual disorders that may affect the
cognition level of the student. Responses from participants may have been
different, if the questions from the surveys specified preparing students with mild
or severe forms of autism for future employment.
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• During data analysis for this study, the researcher utilized open coding and wrote
all qualitative responses on a word document. The researcher counted eighteen
responses from participants that referenced students on the spectrum, words or
phrases such as severe, Asperger’s syndrome, on the spectrum and students with
lower cognitive abilities, conveyed to the researcher that the participants made
their own distinctions between students with mild to severe forms of autism.
Implications
The implications for this study involves the Mountain Valley School District restructuring their programs at various school sites to provide appropriate interventions for students with ASD. The district should also provide opportunities for students to receive vocational training before transitioning into adulthood and give all educators in the district opportunities to receive additional information on addressing the needs of students with ASD.
Interventions
Currently, the high school at MVSD has seven periods of instruction to accommodate students who need additional study time. Students with ASD may be able to receive support services in the classroom such as a seminar class or after school.
Using an additional class to provide interventions or support to students with ASD could prevent the student from being pulled out of the classroom 30 to 60 minutes out of the week. According to Farbman (2015), additional instructional time or classes may provide more individualized support in the classroom, teacher collaboration may strengthen instruction with shared ideas and strategies from colleagues, and more activities may take place inside the classroom. Students would not lose instructional time in the general
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education setting with the addition of another class to specifically address the
communication and social skills deficits. Support providers should implement
interventions in the classroom, if the student with ASD is placed in a more restrictive learning environment, such as a special day class program.
Vocational Training in Schools
Researchers in the field of employment for individuals with developmental
disorders, have noted that individuals with ASD who either participated in vocational
training during school or had work experience prior to exiting high school had a greater
chance of attaining competitive employment as adults (Lee & Carter, 2012; Morgan &
Kuperman, 2014; Riesen, Schultz). The participants (general education instructor,
special education instructor, and paraprofessional) from the study listed hands-on training
as an essential skill students with ASD needed to find employment. (See Table 26).
According to Stern (2010), career-technical education (CTE) is a combination of academic courses and vocational training on a high school campus. These career academies are smaller learning communities that exist within the high school to provide vocational training that a student may use as a step towards their career of choice or the student may choose to enter a community college to further their education. The career-
technical education program offered in at least 38 states and 177 school districts
(National Academy Foundation, 2014), provide internships, mentorships, field trips, and
other experiences related to the work. In 2011, the California Department of Education
reported during the 2009-2010 school year, 95% of the students who were enrolled in
CTE graduated, 71% of the students participated in mentorships and 52% of the seniors
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participated in work-based learning experiences. The high school may consider this
option for students with ASD due to the history of decreased employment opportunities.
Informed Educators
Social justice theorists ask educational leaders to look at marginalized groups like
the ASD student population and look for changes to be made in procedures, policies,
structures, pedagogy, and faculty in order to implement change that may benefit the
student. The survey results reveal that staff members understand students with ASD have
deficits that may make school challenging, but they may be unaware of the long term
outcomes such as unemployment, costly adult day care centers, and the lack of
productivity that may be detrimental to the economy, the parents and the individual with
ASD. If a school district continues to be uninformed about effective interventions, supports and resources to assist the ASD student population, then the road towards competitive employment will be difficult to navigate.
The practical implications for this study involve staff members making better decisions involving services, educational settings, and transition plans for students with
ASD and employment prospects. Increased awareness of preparing students with ASD for employment may alter the exchange of communication between the administrators,
support providers, the instructors, and the parents. Discussing the achievement of IEP
goals and academics in the educational setting is essential, but specifically addressing
advancing employable skills for a student with autism, may solidify in the minds
educators, parents, and students that employment is the ultimate goal. If the student
needs additional support in social communication, interacting with peers or reading social
cues, interventions can be applied with a support provider or implemented in the
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classroom. Increased awareness of students with autism and the challenges of future employment opportunities, may ultimately reduce the reliance on Adult Day Care or assisted living programs that may increase the cost of living for caretakers of individuals with autism. Also, awareness of employment outcomes for students with ASD may decrease the lack of productivity from individuals with ASD living at home or alone without an employable skill set.
Recommendations
Based on the research for this study, it is recommended for Mountain Valley
School District to:
1. modify the structure of IEP and transitional meetings for students with autism
2. restructure the way interventions are delivered by support providers, and
3. seek avenues to bring in more vocational trainings to be implemented inside the schools, especially the high school.
Optimizing IEPs. One to two months before the school year ends, case managers, special education instructors are required to hold transition meetings for incoming seventh graders, ninth graders, and students who are transitioning from the high school into adulthood. These meetings are similar to the annual IEP meetings, but the team discusses the type of services a student will continue to receive and which educational setting is most appropriate to fit the needs of the student. Transitional meeting for high school students with autism are slightly different. The transitional team may have representatives from the Regional Center or the Department of Rehabilitation to determine if the agency should provide services or if those services can be provided by the district. Every transition meeting should have a checklist similar to the skills
146
evaluation checklist designed by CSESA to evaluate the strengths and needs of the
student with autism. The domains on the checklist should reflect the communication
deficits such as social communication, expressive language, speaking with peers,
communication with adults and tones of voice; as well as other domains: interacting with peers, flexibility, responding to social cues, and organization. The skill evaluation
checklist may also be utilized by the capacity building team to monitor the progress of
students with autism as they receive interventions to address skills on the checklist (Rue
& Knox, 2013). All educators and support providers should have access to the checklist
which will allow educators to make better decisions on what the district can do to make
the individual with autism more employable.
Delivering interventions. Evidence- Based Practices, interventions and strategies are essential to the educational and vocational progress of students with ASD. Support providers such as speech therapists, case managers, occupational therapist, counselors, and school psychologists provide services to address communication social deficits found in students with ASD, but these interventions are provided apart from classroom instruction. Collaboration and communication must take place between support providers and instructors to develop plans to use interventions. Kucharczyk and colleagues (2015) stated that schools, especially the secondary environments, must consider a concerted and coordinated intervention effort toward providing essential supports and resources to students with ASD (Kucharczyk, Carter, Hedges, El Zein, Fan
& Gustafson, 2015). This requires the IEP team or capacity building teams to discuss the most effective way to deliver support and interventions to students with ASD. Support may be delivered in a seminar class or in the more restricted learning environments. The
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restructuring of delivering interventions may prevent the student with ASD from being
taken out of the classroom environment during instruction.
Vocational training before reaching adulthood. The district should explore
methods to bring career technical education to the high school to create more opportunities for students with autism to receive vocational training and receive instruction from the core academic classes. Receiving vocational training in high school could increase the skill set of students with autism and make them more marketable to future employers. Students with communication and social skill delays should continue to receive interventions from support providers, but these interventions should be shared with instructors, so effective evidence-based practices can be monitored by the instructor or aide on a more consistent basis.
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Conclusion
The Mountain Valley School District continues to offer services and programs to students with autism spectrum disorder. Programs, support and resources are provided to students with mild forms of autism and those who are not able to verbally communicate.
The study found that educators are aware of the outcomes for students for autism; low employment rates and unproductivity, but they are receptive towards changing their perspective from assisting students with autism to preparing students with autism for future employment. Public schools must continue to serve students with ASD by educating them in appropriate settings, monitoring their IEP goals to determine progress, providing feasible and age appropriate interventions and providing opportunities for educators to receive PLC on meeting the needs of students with ASD.
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Appendix A IRB / 16-133 Informed Consent Form California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Informed Consent Form for Research Involving Human Subjects You are being invited to participate in a research study, which the Cal Poly Pomona Institutional Review Board (IRB) has reviewed and approved for conduct by the investigators named here. This form is designed to provide you - participant- with information about this study. The Investigator or his/her representative will describe this study to you and answer any of your questions. You are entitled to a copy of this form. If you have any questions or complaints about the informed consent process of this research study or your rights as a participant, please contact the Compliance Office within Cal Poly Pomona’s Office of Research at (909) 869-4215. Project Title: Advancing Employable Skills for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Survey Study
Principal Investigator: Aisha Thomas, Doctoral Candidate, email: [email protected] Research Advisor: Dr. Amy Gimino, email; [email protected] Cal Poly Pomona, Doctoral Leadership, K-12 You are invited to participate in a research study being conducted by Aisha Thomas, Doctoral candidate, and faculty members at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona (Cal Poly Pomona). The purpose of this mixed methods, quantitative and qualitative study is to identify how a school district provides resources and supports to students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) for the purposes of future employment. Several studies in the field of ASD have showed individuals with the neurodevelopmental disorder do not obtain employment opportunities on a continuous basis after exiting the secondary learning environment. In this study, you will be given a survey and questions to respond to in writing. Participation in this study will take approximately 15 to 20 minutes of your time. As a participant in the survey, you may skip any specific item written on the survey. Please understand that your participation in this study is completely voluntary. You are free to refuse to participate and/or to withdraw at any time during the survey, and there will be no penalty for your withdrawal. There are no known or expected risks associated with your participation in this study. Your participation in the survey or your refusal to take the survey will not affect your employment status in the district or school.
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Your participation in this study also may benefit society such as individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder as qualitative and quantitative research that is successfully published adds to the knowledge base of the field. Your information will be completely confidential. We welcome you to ask any questions you have about this project both before and throughout your participation. Should you have any further questions, please feel free to contact Aisha Thomas at 626- 485-7031. Thank you. CONSENT STATEMENT: I, ______, hereby give my consent to participate in the research study entitled “Advancing Employable Skills for Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Mixed Methods Study.” I have read the above information and am aware of my participation in the survey or my refusal will not affect the status of my employment as the district or school. I fully understand that I may withdraw from this research project at any time without prejudice or effect on my standing with California State Polytechnic University, Pomona. I also understand that I am free to ask questions about techniques or procedures that will be undertaken. Finally, I understand that information obtained during the course of the study will be kept confidential. None of the information I provide can be connected directly to me. Participant’s Signature (18+ years or age)______Date______I hereby certify that I have given an explanation to the above individual of the contemplated study and its risks and potential complications. Principal Investigator ______Date ______
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Appendix B Survey Example
Survey: Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
• Do you currently teach or provide services to a student or students with Autism
Spectrum Disorder (ASD)? Yes ______No _____
• Have you taught or provided services to a student or students with ASD in the
past two years? Yes ______No ______(If No was marked, please discontinue
the survey).
• How many years have you provided services to students with ASD? #
______
• About how many training courses, workshops or professional development
courses have you attended that specifically addressed the needs of students with
ASD? # ______
Please mark your position title in the district:
Specialized Academic Instructor ____ General Education Instructor ____
Speech Pathologist ____ School Psychologist ____ Counselor ____
Administrator ____ District Office Staff ____ Paraprofessional ____
Please mark the educational setting that you work in:
Elementary _____ Middle School _____ High School _____
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District Office _____ Other _____
Circle One Choice 1. The educational Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly setting you work Disagree Agree in prepares students with ASD for competitive employment. 1 2 3 4 5 Please Explain:
Circle One Choice 2. For the purposes Strongly Disagree Undecided Agree Strongly of future Disagree Agree employment, the educational setting I work in helps prepare students with ASD to: a) Effectively 1 2 3 4 5 communicate with adults such as teachers, aides or other staff members Please Explain:
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b) Effectively 1 2 3 4 5 communicate with peers or classmates Please Explain:
c) Effectively start and 1 2 3 4 5 end conversations Please Explain:
d) Effectively adjust 1 2 3 4 5 the tone (high pitch, murmur, guttural, soft) of voice Please Explain:
e) Behave in a non- 1 2 3 4 5 disruptive manner in the classroom Please Explain:
f) Behave in a non- 1 2 3 4 5 disruptive manner outside the classroom Please Explain:
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g) Be flexible towards 1 2 3 4 5 and adjust to new activities without difficulty Please Explain:
h) Effectively respond 1 2 3 4 5 to social cues Please Explain:
3. As an educator, I have 1 2 3 4 5 enough knowledge to assist students with ASD with employment goals Please Explain:
4. What skills do you feel students with ASD need for future employment?
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5. What district supports and resources are available to advance employable skills for students with ASD?
6. What (if any) additional support and resources are you aware of outside the district?
7. What supports and resources are available to help students with ASD obtain employment?
8. From your estimation, what happens to students with ASD, once they leave the high school environment?
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9. If you have any further comments concerning students with autism and future employable opportunities, please email me at [email protected]. Your name and contact information will remain confidential as stated in the consent form.
Thank you for your participation in the survey. Aisha Thomas, Doctoral Candidate Dr. Amy Gimino, Dissertation Advisor California Polytechnic State University, Pomona Educational Leadership, K-12
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