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New Horizons for Processing and Utilizing Red Mud Michigan Technological University Digital Commons @ Michigan Tech Dissertations, Master's Theses and Master's Reports 2021 New Horizons for Processing and Utilizing Red Mud M. Archambo Michigan Technological University, [email protected] Copyright 2021 M. Archambo Recommended Citation Archambo, M., "New Horizons for Processing and Utilizing Red Mud", Open Access Dissertation, Michigan Technological University, 2021. https://doi.org/10.37099/mtu.dc.etdr/1178 Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.mtu.edu/etdr Part of the Catalysis and Reaction Engineering Commons, Metallurgy Commons, and the Thermodynamics Commons NEW HORIZONS FOR PROCESSING AND UTILIZING RED MUD By Michael Scott Archambo A DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In Chemical Engineering MICHIGAN TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY 2021 © 2021 Michael Scott Archambo This dissertation has been approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY in Chemical Engineering. Department of Chemical Engineering Dissertation Co-Advisor: Dr. S. Komar Kawatra Dissertation Co-Advisor: Dr. Timothy C Eisele Committee Member: Dr. Tony N Rogers Committee Member: Dr. Gowtham Department Chair: Dr. Pradeep Agrawal Table of Contents List of Figures .................................................................................................................. viii List of Tables ................................................................................................................... xiii Preface.............................................................................................................................. xvi Acknowledgements ......................................................................................................... xvii Abstract .......................................................................................................................... xviii 1 General Introduction ...................................................................................................1 2 Red mud: Fundamentals and new avenues for utilization ..........................................5 2.1 Abstract ............................................................................................................5 2.2 Introduction ......................................................................................................6 2.2.1 Bauxite ore, mineral precursor to red mud .........................................8 2.2.2 The Bayer Process.............................................................................12 2.2.2.1 Milling and Desilication .................................................13 2.2.2.2 Digestion and Clarification .............................................14 2.2.2.3 Precipitation and Calcination ..........................................16 2.2.3 Characterization of red mud..............................................................19 2.2.4 Worldwide production of red mud ....................................................27 2.3 Disposal Practices for red mud .......................................................................31 2.3.1 Seawater disposal and lagooning ......................................................33 iii 2.3.2 Dry methods- Thickened tailings disposal ........................................36 2.3.2.1 Thickening/Flocculants ...................................................37 2.3.2.2 Dry Stacking Slurry ........................................................40 2.3.2.3 Dry Stacking Cake ..........................................................41 2.4 Neutralization techniques of red mud ............................................................41 2.4.1 Seawater neutralization .....................................................................42 2.4.2 Carbon dioxide neutralization ...........................................................46 2.5 Utilizing red mud waste as a valuable material ..............................................52 2.5.1 Iron recovery .....................................................................................52 2.5.2 Titanium recovery .............................................................................62 2.5.3 Rare Earth element/Scandium/Gallium recovery .............................64 2.5.4 Catalysis ............................................................................................72 2.5.5 Construction/Ceramics ......................................................................74 2.5.6 Using red mud to remediate soil and water ......................................77 2.6 Conclusions ....................................................................................................78 3 Optimization studies for red mud neutralization with carbon dioxide .....................81 3.1 Abstract ..........................................................................................................81 3.2 Introduction ....................................................................................................81 3.3 Experimental ..................................................................................................86 3.3.1 Materials ...........................................................................................86 3.3.2 Methods.............................................................................................87 iv 3.4 Results and Discussion ...................................................................................89 3.4.1 Effect of CO2 Flow Rate on pH neutralization .................................95 3.4.2 Effect of Neutralization time on red mud pH ...................................98 3.4.3 Effect of CO2 neutralization on red mud zeta potential ..................100 3.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................103 4 Utilization of Bauxite Residue: Recovering Iron Values Using the Iron Nugget Process .............................................................................................................................104 4.1 Abstract ........................................................................................................104 4.2 Introduction ..................................................................................................104 4.3 Experimental ................................................................................................111 4.3.1 Materials .........................................................................................111 4.3.2 Methods...........................................................................................115 4.3.2.1 Sample Preparation .......................................................115 4.3.2.2 Iron Content Analysis ...................................................117 4.4 Results and Discussion .................................................................................118 4.4.1 Residence Time Variation...............................................................120 4.4.2 Carbon Content Variation ...............................................................123 4.4.3 Flux Content Variation ...................................................................124 4.4.4 Slag Analysis ..................................................................................126 4.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................129 v 5 Effects of various flux material additions on red mud iron nugget quality ............131 5.1 Abstract ........................................................................................................131 5.2 Introduction ..................................................................................................131 5.3 Materials and Methods .................................................................................133 5.4 Results and Discussion .................................................................................134 5.4.1 Flux material effect on slag viscosity .............................................136 5.4.2 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis ............................................................137 5.4.3 Grade and Recovery of iron ............................................................142 5.4.4 Cost of flux reagents .......................................................................145 5.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................146 6 Using CO2 Neutralized Red mud to Generate Iron Nuggets ...................................147 6.1 Abstract ........................................................................................................147 6.2 Introduction ..................................................................................................147 6.3 Materials and Methods .................................................................................152 6.4 Results and Discussion .................................................................................153 6.4.1 Generation of calcium carbonate during red mud neutralization ....153 6.4.2 Iron Nugget recovery with CO2 neutralized red mud .....................155 6.5 Conclusions ..................................................................................................159 vi 7 Extraction of rare earth elements from red mud with oxalic acid ...........................160 7.1 Abstract ........................................................................................................160
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