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Durham E-Theses Durham E-Theses A landscape archaeological study of the Mesolithic Neolithic in the mileld basin, Northumberland Waddington, Clive How to cite: Waddington, Clive (1998) A landscape archaeological study of the Mesolithic Neolithic in the mileld basin, Northumberland, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/5004/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 A LANDSCAPE ARCHAEOLOGICAL STUDY OF THE MESOLITHIC-NEOLITHIC IN THE MILFIELD BASIN, NORTHUMBERLAND Clive Waddington Thesis Submitted for Degree of Doctor of Philosophy The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the written consent of the author and information derived from it should be acknowledged. University of Durham Department of Archaeology 1998 1 6 1999 Clive Waddington PhD Thesis A landscape archaeological study of the Mesolithic-Neolithic in the Milfield basin, Northumberland ABSTRACT The primary objective of this thesis is the construction of a landscape-scale synthesis of past human behaviour during the Mesolithic-Neolithic in the Milfield Basin, Northumberland. Previous archaeological studies in this area have been dominated by site-based research with little account taken of the wider landscape setting, settlement patterns and land-use strategies. To acquire the appropriate 'landscape' (off-site) data this study has included a fieldwork component consisting of a 7km sampling transect which extended across the interfluve from watershed to watershed and sampled all the different environmental zones of the basin. This area, of nearly 6 million square metres, was systematically fieldwalked, geomorphologically mapped and test-pitted. A total of 146 test pits were opened to sample the subsurface lithic content and sediment stratigraphy of each of the different geomorphological slope types. The subsequent data was analysed in a G.I.S. environment and interpreted in combination with published palynological data, existing site-based archaeological data including the author's recent excavations at the Coupland complex. The method of acquiring, analysing and interpreting the fieldwalking data is an innovative contribution to landscape archaeology techniques and includes a model of lithic scatter slope displacement and archaeological inference for ploughed slope environments. The study culminates in a diachronic synthesis of Mesolithic-Neolithic behaviour together with associated thematic discussion. Consequently, this thesis contributes towards two areas of research: landscape archaeological syntheses and methodological/taphonomic studies. The principal findings of this study include new models of prehistoric settlement and land-use for this area, a re-evaluation of the Mesolithic-Neolithic transition, a reconsideration of the late Neolithic 'ritual complex' and the identification of processes affecting surface lithic scatters and their implications for subsequent interpretation. CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES 6 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 10 PREFACE 13 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 15 BACKGROUND TO THE MILFIELD BASIN ARCHAEOLOGICAL LANDSCAPE PROJECT 16 THESIS STRUCTURE 17 LANDSCAPE ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE THEORETICAL CONTEXT 18 APPROACH OF THIS STUDY 24 Spatial Scale 26 Chronological Scale 30 RESEARCH DESIGN 32 GENERAL OBJECTIVES 35 CHAPTER 2. PREVIOUS RESEARCH AND SPECIFIC PROJECT AIMS 37 INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY AREA 38 THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL LEGACY 39 PREVIOUS INTERPRETATIVE AND SYNTHETIC STUDIES 43 THE GLACIAL INHERITANCE 48 THE HOLOCENE LANDSCAPE 51 Geology, Geomorphology and Soils 51 Vegetational History 57 SPECIFIC PROJECT AIMS 64 CHAPTER 3. FIELDWORK AND METHODOLOGY 66 INTRODUCTION 67 1 METHODOLOGICAL ISSUES 68 Taphonomy 69 THE STUDY TRANSECT 74 Fieldwalking 75 Test-Pitting 86 Morphometric Mapping 88 GEOMORPHOLOGICAL EVALUATION 91 PALYNOLOGY 93 FIELDWORK EXECUTION 94 CHAPTER 4. RESULTS AND ANALYSIS 96 SECTION 1. RECORDING STRATEGY AND RESULTS 98 FIELDWALKING DATA 103 General Information 103 Density and Under-Representation 105 Assemblage Chronology 108 Fieldwalking Results 111 TEST PIT DATA 115 MORPHOMETRIC DATA 127 SECTION 2. ANALYSIS 132 DENSITY 132 RAW MATERIALS 134 BURNT, REJUVENATED AND PATINATED LITHICS 137 LITHIC TYPES 142 SECTION 3. TAPHONOMY 145 SLOPE PROCESSES 145 Steep Slopes, Moderate Slopes and Breaks of Slope 148 Colluvial Footslopes 150 Flat and Gentle Slopes 153 Alluvial Terraces 155 Summary 155 2 INFERENCE 156 Model of Lithic Scatter Slope Displacement and Archaeological Inference 156 SURFACE-SUBSURFACE RELATIONSHIPS 161 SUMMARY 165 CHAPTER 5. THE MESOLITHIC 166 BACKGROUND 167 THE PALAEOENVTRONMENTAL RECORD 169 Cheviot Slopes 169 Gravel Terraces and Alluvial Valley Floor 170 Sandstone and Boulder Clay Slopes 171 THE LITHIC DATA 171 Density and Distribution 173 Character of the Assemblage 176 Raw Materials 179 Technology 181 SETTLEMENT 182 Summary 187 OTHER ARCHAEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS 187 Goatscrag and Roughting Lynn 188 CHAPTER 6. THE NEOLITHIC TRANSITION 197 BACKGROUND 198 THE PALAEOENVTRONMENTAL RECORD 201 Cheviot Slopes 201 Gravel Terraces and Alluvial Valley Floor 202 Sandstone and Boulder Clay Slopes 203 THE LITHIC DATA 205 Density and Distribution 205 Character of the Assemblage 207 Raw Materials and Stone Axes 211 Stone Tool Manufacture 217 SETTLEMENT 220 The Early Neolithic Settlement Near Bolam Lake 231 3 THE WIDER ARCHAEOLOGICAL RECORD 233 Burial Monuments 233 Cup and Ring Marks and Roughting Lynn 235 The Coupland Complex (and Roughting Lynn again) 237 CHAPTER 7. THE LATE NEOLITHIC 249 BACKGROUND 250 THE PALAEOENVmONMENTAL RECORD 255 Palynological Data 255 Botanical Macro-Fossils 259 Regional Alluvial Histories 260 Summary 260 THE LITHIC DATA 261 Density and Distribution 262 Character of the Assemblage 267 Raw Materials 268 Stone Tool Manufacture 269 OTHER LATE NEOLITHIC ARCHAEOLOGY 272 Settlement Sites 272 Henges 275 Pit Alignments 284 Cup and Ring Marks 288 Stone Circles 289 CHAPTER 8. DISCUSSION 294 INTRODUCTION 295 INTERPRETATIVE OVERVIEW 295 Mesolithic 295 Neolithic Transition 301 Late Neolithic 308 DEMOGRAPHY 314 SOCIAL PERSPECTIVES 318 THE MESOLITHIC-NEOLITHIC TRANSITION REVISITED 326 CHAPTER 9. CONCLUSION 331 EVALUATION OF THE STUDY 332 4 SUMMARY OF KEY FINDINGS 341 Methodological Findings 341 Interpretative Findings 342 FURTHER WORK 344 ENDNOTE 346 BIBLIOGRAPHY 348 APPENDICES 399 APPENDIX 1 Fieldwalking and test-pit record forms devised for this study 400 APPENDIX 2 Illustrations of selected lithics of different periods recovered from the fieldwalking 403 APPENDIX 3 Test-pit lithic frequencies by morphometric unit 410 APPENDIX 4 Flint and non-flint raw materials by period and ecological zone 412 APPENDIX 5 Burnt, rejuvenated and patinated lithics by period and ecological zone 414 APPENDIX 6 Frequency of lithic types by ecological zone 416 APPENDIX 7 Lithic assemblage by core reduction sequence 422 APPENDIX 8 Summary of all radiocarbon dates referred to in the text 424 5 LIST OF FIGURES 1.1 Location map of the Milfield Basin 27 1.2 Historic centres of the Milfield Basin 29 2.1 Extent of Lake Ewart (after Butler 1907) 50 2.2 Simplified soil map of the Milfield Basin (after Payton 1988) 52 2.3 Simplified geological map showing the 5 environmental zones 54 2.4 Location of pollen sites in north Northumberland and the Borders 61 3.1 Map showing precise location of the fieldwalking transect 77 3.2 Size of ecological zones in the study transect 76 3.3 Pilot study lithic counts 80 3.4 Information categories recorded on the field record form 83 3.5 Lithic classification scheme 84 3.6 Fields and tables recorded on lithic database 85 3.7 G.I.S. coverages in Arcview 86 3.8 Morphometric classification system 90 4.1 Ecological zones across the transect with field numbers 99 4.2 All fieldwalking findspots 100 4.3 Location of test-pit clusters 101 4.4 Morphometric units across the transect 102 4.5 General summary of fieldwalking data by ecological zone 103 4.6 Comparative lithic densities from regions in north-east England 105 4.7 Schofield's (1991) model of 'Expected Assemblage Characteristics' 107 4.8 Chronological divisions used for the lithic assemblage 110 4.9 Summary of fieldwalking results by field 112 4.10 Fieldwalking densities by ecological zone 114 4.11 Test Pit Cluster 1 116 4.12 Test Pit Cluster 2 117 4.13 Test Pit Cluster 3 118 4.14 Test Pit Cluster 4 119 4.15 Test Pit Cluster 5 120 4.16 Test Pit raw data by pit 121 4.17 Schematic section of sandstone valley side showing test pit sediment 125 logs 4.18 Schematic section of Cheviot valley side showing test pit sediment 126 logs 4.19 Relief map of transect 128 4.20 Distribution of lithics over morphometric units 129 4.21 Summary of fieldwalking results by morphometric units 130 4.22 Test pit raw data by morphometric unit 131 4.23 Lithic densities per ha. by ecological zone 132 4.24 Number of flint and non-flint
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