Short-term volunteers – Helpful or Harmful? -A qualitative case study of short-term volunteers from a bottom-up perspective in Tanga Town, Tanzania.

Author: Julia Andersson & ​ Malin Höjer Supervisor: Jonas Ewald ​ Examiner: Chris High ​ Term: HT19 ​ Subject: Peace and ​ Development Studies Level: Bachelor Thesis ​ Course code: 2FU33E ​

ABSTRACT People have always been enjoying travelling and exploring new places. The phenomenon of combining travelling with social work abroad has become known as “voluntourism”. Over the last few years, voluntourism has gained a lot of criticism, claiming that it does more harm than good for the host communities. Most research that has been done on the subject is from Western researcher's perspective, which is a top-down perspective. This research will instead be from the people's perspective, and will look at volunteer tourism from a bottom-up perspective in a developing country.

The data for this research has been collected through semi-structured interviews in Tanga Town, Tanzania. The interviewees consist of key persons and stakeholders that are involved, or have knowledge of, short-term volunteers. This research displays the importance of more perspectives on short-term volunteers and the critique it has received in the form of Neo-colonialism and white saviour aspects.

Key words: Voluntourism, Short-term volunteers, Neo-colonialism, White ​ ​ saviour complex, Dependency, Sustainable development.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT We would like to acknowledge everyone who have contributed to this research, in one way or another. We wish to express our appreciation to all local actors in Tanga Town who took their time to attend the interviews and made this research possible. A special thanks to Mr. Mwamba Hatibu Mungia who connected us to many of the interviewed subjects. We want to send a special gratitude to our supervisor, Dr. Jonas Ewald for his patience and his guidance throughout the research process. Further, we want to thank Dr. Juma Wickama for being an excellent host and helped us with everything necessary to be able to stay and navigate in Tanga Town. Lastly, we are grateful for friends and family that have supported us while conducting this research.

LIST OF ACRONYMS Gross domestic product (GDP) Least Developing Countries (LDCs) Non Governmental Organisation (NGO) United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) United States of America (USA)

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TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. INTRODUCTION 3 1.1 Study background 3 1.2 Problem statement 6 1.3 Aim and Research questions 7 1.4 Thesis outline 9

2. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK 11 2.1 The Theory of Neo-Colonialism 11 2.1.1 Neo-Colonialism and voluntourism 13 2.1.2 Aid Dependency and Ownership 15 2.2 The White saviour complex 16 2.3 The Theories and the Study 17

3. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK 19 3.1 Research strategy 19 3.1.1 Qualitative research 19 3.2 Research design 20 3.2.1 Case study 21 3.2.2 Reliability and Validity 22 3.3 Secondary research 24 3.4 Primary research 24 3.4.1 Interviews 24 3.4.2 Sampling 26 3.5 Ethical considerations and values 27 3.6 Limitations and Delimitations 28 4. PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH RESULT 29 4.1 Research question 1 29

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4.2 Research question 2 31 4.2.1 Dependency against the West 31 4.2.2 Exclusion, work opportunities and stereotypes 35 4.2.3 Egocentrism and the White savior complex 38 4.3 Research question 3 40 4.3.1 Volunteering and Marketing 43 4.4 Research question 4 45 4.5 Conclusion of research results 49 5. ANALYSIS 51 5.1 Neo-colonialism and short-term volunteers 51 5.2 The White saviour complex and short-term volunteers 54 5.3 Conclusion of the analysis 56 6. CONCLUSION 58 6.1 Discussion 58 6.2 Further research 60 7. REFERENCE LIST 61

APPENDICES

Appendix A Interview guide

Appendix B Interviewees

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Study background If you search for “volunteer abroad” online, you might be tempted to go abroad and help “the people in need”. This may seem like the ultimate holiday for you and many other people around the world (Google, 2019). Whether the purpose is to work with children, in the health sector or with environmental issues, many people also see the tourist attractions and the cultural exchange in those countries as a factor to do volunteer work abroad (Wearing, Benson & McGehee, 2016).

The term volunteer tourism or “voluntourism” is older than many people might think, however, the term has gained more relevance over the last two decades. The idea to combine tourism and volunteering can be traced back to colonial missionaries, as well as the nineteenth-centuries Grand Tour, were young upper-class men would travel in order to gain experience by visiting new countries (Vrasti, 2012: 1). In more recent years, the concept of volunteer tourism has gained a more cosmopolitan meaning, together with the increase of environmental and socially sustainable tourism. Today volunteer tourism is one of the largest sectors of the travel industry, with millions of participants each year. It is mostly people in the ages 18-25 that choose to do short-term volunteering and the main reason for volunteering is the curiosity to explore the world, as well as give back to local communities. The combination of intentionally doing good for others and at the same time see and learn new things for yourself is something that many youths appreciate (Vrasti, 2012: 1-2).

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Most volunteer tourism holidays are distributed by Western tour operators. It ​ ​ is getting more common that local NGOs are seeking the economic benefits that volunteers bring. In 2017, the volunteer industry was worth 173 billion U.S dollars. Organisations charge people that want to “make a difference” 1000 U.S dollars per month for accommodation and meals (Pariyar, 2017). ​ ​ Save the Children confirm those numbers and claim that the volunteer ​ industry is the largest growing market in the world, with a growth of 2.6 billion U.S dollar each year. The orphanage industry is one of the largest in the short-term volunteer sector and Save the Children have made a concern regarding orphanages: “Eight million children worldwide are in orphanages ​ up to 90% of these children are not orphans.” (Save the children, 2017). ​ They want to raise awareness of the consequences that short-term volunteers can contribute to. The illegal activity can continue to exist due to the great ​ amount of money that international volunteers pay those organisations. The ignorance that some short-term volunteers have against the volunteer project they are supporting is just one of the critiques that researchers have raised (Save the children, 2017). A lot of other critique points regarding unequal ​ ​ power-relations, dependency against the West and a non social sustainable solution, which will be discussed in section 1.2 (Singh, 2014) (Garrison, ​ 2015) (Wijesinghe, Mura & Bouchon, 2017) (Hanson Pastran, 2014).

The reasons for choosing Tanzania for this study is that it is a pre-colonized country with very few conflicts over the years. Tanzania can also provide tourists with a unique landscape and wild animal experiences. It is a country with a relatively high economic growth yet still a high poverty line, due to the fast-growing population rate (The World Bank, 2019). The high poverty line combined with a relatively stable and safe country has made it attractive to missionaries over the years and nowadays volunteer tourism. Many

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volunteer operators, such as Go volunteer Africa and Go overseas, claim that Tanzania is the top-rated destination in Africa to visit as a volunteer. They are selling the experience as a cheap adventure where you can do something meaningful with your holiday (Go volunteer Africa. nd) (Go overseas. nd). ​ ​

“Volunteering in Tanzania is one of the top-rated volunteer and adventure travel programs in Africa. Go Volunteer Africa allows you to combine meaningful and low-cost volunteering in Tanzania projects with action-packed adventure travel into the ultimate life-changing experience” (Go volunteer Africa, nd). ​ ​

The reasons for choosing Tanzania in this case study, will be further motivated in section 2.1. However, Tanga Town, Tanzania is a fast growing city with many NGOs and plans for development. The local port is planned ​ to be expanded and a new oil terminal installed (Industry projects and ​ technology, 2019). The railway, that has been out of use for 12 years, is also ​ ​ ​ ​ planned to be restored, to provide transport between the northern part of ​ ​ Tanzania and the port of Tanga (Railway gazette international, 2019). Tour operators and local NGOs are advertising Tanga Town as a tourist ​ ​ destination and a place for development opportunities: “Camp Tanga is a coastal paradise with lush palm trees and warm sea ​ breezes. Located alongside a local community, you'll make a difference in their lives during your short stay in Tanzania” (Camps international, nd). ​

Or, “In Tanzania, you will get a chance to live like a local and make a ​ difference in someone’s life. Take the first step and discover the many opportunities that are available in Tanga Tanzania” (Livan investment, nd). ​

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The improvements of the port and the railway will probably make a huge impact on Tanga Towns development, which makes it an interesting case for Peace and Development studies. The way that tour operators are advertising the experience of volunteering in Tanga Town, is in line with volunteer tourism, which is our main focus in this research. When searching for ​ previous studies of volunteer tourism, the conclusion is that the effect of volunteer tourism in Tanga Town has never before been researched, which makes it interesting for a case study.

1.2 Problem statement The literature review of subject related to short-term volunteers shows that a well debated question among scholars is if short-term volunteer work is sustainable for communities in developing countries and the consequences of volunteer tourism. Many Western researchers have discussed the negative versus the positive impact of volunteer tourism, such as “Volunteer and host ​ community” by Singh (2014) and “Oppression, emancipation, and volunteer ​ tourism: Research Propositions” by McGehee (2012). Subsequently, have ​ the motivation behind the volunteer work been discussed in many terms, among others, “A Critical Analysis of Volunteer Tourism and the ​ Implications for Developing Communities” by Garrison (2015). The tour operators' perspective has also been discussed by Hernandez Maskivker, G. ​ - Lapointe D and Aquino, R. (2018). “The impact of volunteer tourism on ​ ​ ​ local communities: A managerial perspective” and Bremen (2015) “Volunteer tourism: A critical explorative analysis from the tour operators perspective”.

The perspective in previous research is majority from a top-down approach, mainely from the volunteers or the international organisation's point of view.

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However, there is limited research done on what the local actors, such as stakeholders and key persons opinions are of short-term volunteers.

The most common problem discussed is the cross-cultural misunderstanding, power relations and dependency against the West (Singh 2014). Studies suggest that it displays trends of egocentrism, ineffectiveness, and damaging behaviour to host communities (Garrison, 2015). A complexity associated with egocentrism is the White saviour complex, which explains how white people take advantage of their white privilege to “save” the Global South (Bandyopadhyay, 2019).

Another argument is that voluntourism is a neo-colonial structure. The reason for this is that it does no more than add to unequal power relationships and cultural stereotypes between tourists and host communities (Hanson Pastran, 2014). Officially colonialism ended in the twentieth century. However, it can be argued that power structures between countries including political, economic and socio-cultural aspects still are affected by previous colonialism, and this is called Neo-colonialism (Wijesinghe, Mura & Bouchon 2017). The White saviour complex and Neo-colonialism will be further examined in the analytical framework (Chapter 2).

1.3 Aim and Research questions As shown in our problem statement (section 1.2), the local actors in the host communities have been overlooked in many previous studies. Therefore, the research aims to discuss the local actor's perspective on the topic of short-term volunteers. This paper attempts to provide a better understanding of the phenomenon from a bottom-up perspective. A bottom-up perspective tends to investigate local engagement in the development process and

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address the root causes (Charbonneau & Parent, 2012). This research address the importance of the local actor's perspective since they live in a community that is affected by short-term volunteers. Furthermore, it will explore the local impact of short-term voluntourism and increase a better understanding of how host communities are affected, which might ensure that volunteer tourism can be more economic and socially sustainable (Rayssa, Aquino & Hernandez Maskivker, 2018).

The research has been conducted through a case study in Tanga Town, Tanzania, using a qualitative interviewing method. The selections of respondents have been made to reach an as high degree of diversity as possible, including genders and different actors from various platforms in the community. As earlier mentioned, previous research on volunteer tourism has used Neo-colonialism as their main theory (Hanson Pastran, 2014). Neo-colonialism is the most suitable theory to use in this paper and will therefore be applied to explain the results combined with the research questions in the analysis. The theory will also be strengthened by using the White saviour complex.

While keeping the aims of this research in mind, the following objectives have been articulated. 1. To understand the local community opinions on the effect of volunteer tourism in Tanga Town, Tanzania. 2. To understand if volunteer tourism can increase dependency in terms of human resources and financial aid.

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3. To understand if local actors think that short-term volunteers contribute to sustainable economic and social development in Tanga Town. 4. To understand how local NGOs work with volunteer tourism in Tanga Town, Tanzania.

Main research question What is the local actor’s view of volunteer tourism and do short-term volunteers contribute to sustainable development of economic and social aspects in Tanga Town, Tanzania?

Sub research questions ​ 1. Whom does volunteer work benefit? 2. Do local actors in Tanga Town, Tanzania share the same problematic view of short-term volunteer tourism as previous researchers? 3. What are the positive and negative effects of short-term volunteers, according to local actors in Tanga Town, Tanzania? 4. How can short-term volunteer work be more economic and socially sustainable for the people and organisations that are affected in Tanga Town, Tanzania?

1.4 Thesis outline To be able to answer the research questions and to address the aim and objectives, the thesis has been structured in the following way. The second chapter will explain the theoretical framework and how the theories are related to volunteer tourism in Tanga Town, Tanzania. The theoretical framework will be used to discuss the correlation between the result and the research questions.

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After the theoretical framework chapter, the methodology will be presented. This chapter outlines the approaches and methods of the data-collection. The overall discussion in this chapter is approaches related to a qualitative method. The fourth chapter of the thesis will provide and discuss the results based on the answers from the 11 interviews with local actors in Tanga Town, Tanzania (see Appendix 1 for questionnaire). The results will be discussed based on the research questions that have been presented above.

Moreover, the next chapter will present a critical analysis of the results combined with the analytical framework and literature on the subject. Lastly, a conclusion of the outcome will be provided, which also involves issues and further research.

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2. ANALYTICAL FRAMEWORK

In this chapter, the theories that were used for this study will be presented. Namely two theories were used for this study, Neo-colonialism and the White saviour complex. Neo-colonialism will be the main theory for this research, and White saviour complex will be used as a compliment to strengthen some of the arguments. The current ongoing discussion on aid-dependency and ownership, will be used as another complement to the arguments.

2.1 The Theory of Neo-Colonialism Even though colonialism officially ended in the twentieth century, political, economic and socio-cultural aspects are still being influenced worldwide by Neo-colonial power-structures (Wijesinghe, Mura & Bouchon 2017). The essence of Neo-colonialism is that even though a country, in theory, has independence and sovereignty, the country's political, economic and social structures are still dictated by the outside world (Nkrumah, 1965: ix). Tanzania has a history of 42 years as being a British colony before it gained its independence in 1961. Before that, the country was under German rule since 1885 (World Bank, 2009). The argument that Tanzania, because of this, should be affected by Neo-colonialism is therefore a relevant argument.

According to Nkrumah, a Ghanaian politician, Neo-colonialism can take different forms. An extreme example of this, is if troops of an imperial power take control over the government in a country. However, the more common form of Neo-colonialism is exercised through economic and social aspects. Neo-colonialism tends to increase in the gaps between rich and poor countries in the world. This is a result of using foreign capital to exploit

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developing countries, instead of it being used on development for those countries (Nkrumah, 1965: ix-x). When it comes to financial aid from the developed countries, Nkrumah argues that aid in any form to a country affected by Neo-colonialism is only revolving credit. Meaning that any profit made goes back to the aid givers, which is the already well-developed countries. Performed and paid for, by developed countries, then run through Neo-colonised countries, and later become increased profits for developed countries (Nkrumah, 1965: xv).

Even though Nkrumah's ideas and views are from over 50 years ago they are still relevant as Neo-colonialism is still happening today with the exploitation of countries and its people. Economic, technological and political factors are continuously affected by, and most beneficial for, Western countries as they were in the past (Wijesinghe, Mura & Bouchon 2017). Often when researchers and scholars research unequal power-relations in the world, the most common theory that is being used is the Post-colonial theory. However, for this research, Neo-colonialism serve as the better theory, as there are some unsuitable characteristics with the Post-colonial theory for this research. The Post-colonial theory was mainly constructed by people from Western countries that have nothing in common with the community that it is meant to represent (Wijesinghe, Mura & Bouchon 2017). Researchers argue that political independence did not do much for these former colonies, as there are still unequal power-relations. Many of them have huge debts to their former colonisers, which makes it more difficult to further develop their own country. The use of Neo-colonialism in this study is therefore more relevant to use, as it deals with the world's current structures of colonialism and imperialism (Wijesinghe, Mura & Bouchon 2017).

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The reason for choosing Tanzania for this research is because Tanzania has, in comparison to many of its neighbouring countries, not gone through an armed political conflict to implement extensive reforms. These are some of the factors that make Tanzania such an interesting example when researching Peace and Development Studies (Ewald, 2011: 7). After Tanzania gained its independence in 1961, the social and economic structures were shaped by the previous 70 years of colonialism, serving the needs of the colonisers (Ewald, 2011: 96). This led to Tanzania being dependent on already developed countries. For example, Tanzania was during the 1980’s and 1990’s one of the most aid-dependent countries in the world. At the peek the foreign aid was 50.5% of the country's GDP. Many further developed countries such as the USA and China have played major parts in the development of Tanzania (Ewald, 2011: 106). In November 2019 during the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) in Dar es Salaam, it was reported that Tanzania would, in only a few years, leave the group of Least Developing Countries (LDCs). One of the reasons is that the country has decreased the dependency from donors is because of more safeguarding of the country's natural resources, the revenue benefit the own country now instead (Kamala, 2019).

2.1.1 Neo-Colonialism and voluntourism Neo-colonialism is an important term when speaking of volunteer tourism, namely because most volunteer workers travel to post-colonised countries. Another factor is to help and reconstruct more equitable and mutually beneficial Post-colonial relationships between volunteers and the people they work with, within the host communities. Mainly, so critical analysis of both the possibilities and limitations of volunteer tourism can be used as a tool for further development (Hanson Pastran, 2014).

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Most of the already existing research on voluntourism and the reasons behind it, is from Western researchers and scholars perspective. The writers of the existing literature that discusses the effects of volunteer tourism, are divided into two opinions. The most common concern from the critical scholars, is the argument that volunteer tourism is a form of Neo-colonialism, because it reinforces unequal power-relations and cultural stereotypes between volunteers and host communities (Hanson Pastran, 2014). It has also been argued that volunteer tourism creates an exclusion when the host community do not fully understand, or have the opportunities to engage in the implementation of the volunteer programs. Those misunderstandings can depend on language barriers, economic or socio-cultural aspects. It can also create an over-dependency of short-term volunteers and undermine work done by locals (Singh, 2014).

The opponents of the critical scholars argue that volunteer tourism can be beneficial for all involved, in terms of social change and economic aspects. Volunteer tourism can contribute to social networks between host and volunteer, which can reinforce social movement at a local level. Social change can also come in forms of cultural exchange and a broader discussion of development issues. Volunteer organisations also contribute to economic, political and human resources in the communities (McGehee, 2012). A negativity in the volunteer industry is that unqualified and inexperienced Westerners can come and try to contribute to development for countries that are developing (Hanson Pastran, 2014). The original idea for voluntourism is that there would be positive impacts on the host communities (Sin, 2009: 481).

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Volunteer organisations have the opportunity to use volunteer tourism as a positive socio-cultural exchange or a negative dependency of Western humanitarian aid. Which scholar you belong to, depends on which theoretical perspective you choose to see the issue from. Researchers argue that the discussion needs additional examinations and more widespread views of theoretical perspectives, to be able to be fulfilled. The topic has many gaps to fill before any real conclusion can be drawn (McGehee, 2012).

Amongst all the research on voluntourism, there is not much research about local communities' opinions of voluntourism. As this research focuses on a local community in Tanzania, hence the discussion. This research will hopefully contribute to the debate of voluntourism from another perspective and fill some of the gaps in the topic. This thesis intends to be written from a Neo-colonial perspective and therefore a critical perspective. However, the opposition's views and opinions will be considered when analysing the result of the interviews.

2.1.2 Aid Dependency and Ownership Another term that has come up during this research is Ownership, which is a topic that has a lot of relevance today, when discussing dependency in association with Peace and Development studies. The term Ownership, in this case, refers to the ownership or the lack of, in aid and aid dependency. Ownership concerning aid dependency means that aid donors have no say or influence on the political agenda of the aid recipient. Donors have no policy preferences regarding the recipients, but still continuing with the aid providence. The importance of that the receiver owns their projects and programs have been discussed many times at conventions on peace and development (Castel-Branco, 2008) (Oden & Wohlgemuth, 2006). The ​ ​

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Ownership of aid can also be the other way around, where the aid provider is the one with ownership of the aid and can come up with policies and regulations for the recipients (Castel-Branco, 2008).

2.2 The White saviour complex ​ Another complexity that is relevant to discuss when researching and writing this thesis, is the White saviour complex. The White saviour complex is a modified complex of “the White man's burden” (Bandyopadhyay, 2019). The phenomena were first mentioned in 2012 by Cole, a Nigerian-American novelist. Cole (2012) means that the concept is based on ”the confluence of ​ practices, processes, and institutions that reify historical inequities to ultimately validate white privilege” (Aronson, 2017). It has been argued that ​ ​ white volunteers take advantage of their privileges to “save” the Global South. Some argue that this complexity shows that “the White saviours” still intend to view themself as superior to the “unknowing” people in the South. The modern definition of the “White man's burden” is explained as volunteers that seek to help non-white people in a colonial spirit, in the context of self-serving (Bandyopadhyay, 2019). Cole (2012) expresses it as: “The white savior supports brutal policies in the morning, founds charities in the afternoon, and receives awards in the evening” (Aronson, 2017). This ​ ​ statement can be passed down to our most noble intentions, for example, work as a volunteer in developing countries. On social media, the White savior complex is often discussed when volunteers post pictures of African children to present themself in a good light.

One of the most successful accounts on social media is “No White Saviors”. Their work intends to enlighten the White savior complex to make people from Africa their own hero of their own stories and accomplishments, instead of the white “good-doers”. The White savior complex tries to educate people

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on the power-relations that can take place when they underestimate developing countries capacity of developing their own community. Instead they are shaping the locals to victims of their own situation and culture (No White Saviors, nd).

2.3 The Theories and the Study The Neo-colonialism theory applies to this study mainly because there are arguments that voluntourism is a form of Neo-colonialism. That does no more than contribute to unequal power-relations as well as cultural stereotypes between volunteer tourists and the host communities (Hanson Pastran, 2014).

As the purpose of this study is to find out if the people, that are directly affected and sometimes work with these short-term volunteers, think there is a connection between voluntourism and Neo-colonialism. The conclusion of previous researchers is mostly that yes, voluntourism is in some ways a form of Neo-colonialism. However, is the opinions of the people affected, the same as the Western researchers opinions?

In the analysis, the term Ownership and aid dependency will also be analysed. The term will be used in aspects of humanitarian aid. The term has been brought up in discussions and during the collecting of data. Mainly because it can be used as a bridge between Neo-colonialism and humanitarian and financial aid.

The analysis will also apply the White savior complex as a compliment to Neo-colonialism. The White savior complex is of the highest relevance in this analysis due to its bottom-up approach when discussing the underlying problematic factors of short-term volunteerism. White Saviorism has an

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extensive connection to unequal power relations and is grounded in an old colonial spirit to “help” the Global South.

The theories will be used as a lens to view the collected data and the relevant literature. The reason for this is to get a better understanding of how Neo-colonialism and the White savior complex exist and how it functions in today's society. Also to highlight the central role of a theory in a qualitative study (Collins & Stockton, 2018). The Neo-colonialism theory will be used as a starting point when analysing the answers from the interviews. It will not be drawn any conclusions on the subject. The analysis is only a conclusion based on the perspective of the data collected, and can not be generalised on its own.

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3. METHODOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK

The third chapter explains the methodology that has been implemented to conduct this research. Firstly, the qualitative research strategy will be presented, and then the research design with a description of the case study and our validity will be described. Thereafter, the secondary research and then the primary research, which provides information on how our sampling and interviews have been conducted. Furthermore, an evaluation of the ethical considerations for this research will be presented and discussed. The limitations and delimitations will be discussed combined with every section in the framework and lastly presented, the concluding chapter.

3.1 Research strategy This paper is written in a critical realism manner. According to critical realism, the research questions should be generalisable, and a case should reflect a wider perspective of a phenomenon. It is used as an abductive approach since the theory is used to understand the relation between the theory and the findings, which also is in line with critical realism. We are aware that it is common that the outcome of research, based on critical realism, does not have a definitive answer and the aim and analyse need to be specific to not lead us into other perspectives and subjects. Research which is done from a critical realism perspective often uses qualitative research methods, and is also how this study will be conducted and analysed (Danermark, 2001: 88-96).

3.1.1 Qualitative research ​ This thesis uses qualitative research methods and a case study design to understand the local actor's view of short-term volunteer tourism in Tanga Town. The analysis will combine the results with previously done research of

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the subject and the analytical framework. According to Bryman (2016), the primarily focus of a qualitative strategy is to view the world through the participant's eyes, and is more penetrating and process-based than quantitative strategies. Observation and interviews are the most common strategies to collect data amongst the qualitative research methods, compared to a more structured quantitative research that is focusing on numbers and statistics (Bryman, 2016: 401). Since the research will investigate the individual´s own experiences, explanations and emotions, the qualitative method is most suitable for this research. By using a qualitative research method, primary data will be collected in the field in Tanga Town. Qualitative research is also a flexible method that allows the researcher to be spontaneous and adapt to the situation in the interaction with the target group (Bryman, 2016: 401).

3.2 Research design As mentioned earlier, there are many reasons why we have selected Tanga Town, Tanzania for this research. The research objects in this study are ​ individual persons in Tanga Town, that have opinions, influence in the community or are in direct contact with short-term volunteers. To achieve an inside perspective of the local actor's opinion, in-depth interviews with the relevant people, have been conducted. This corresponds with Bryman’s (2016) definition of a case study, which is why the method of case study is applied. The results are based on interviews with stakeholders and key persons related to short-term volunteers, which forms this research case.

3.2.1 Case study

According to Bryman (2016), a case study is a “detailed and intensive ​ analysis of a single case” (Bryman, 2016: 60) where the case itself, the

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findings and the explanations are in focus. The term case mostly is applied at a location, community or an organisation (Bryman, 2016: 60-61). Opposed to Bryman (2016) does Yin (2009) define a case more as a research process: “A ​ case study is an empirical inquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident” (Yin, 2009: 18). The two definitions are both applicable to this research since this research is a case study in the community of Tanga Town, which takes place in a real-life context.

A conclusion can be drawn that a case study is impossible to distinguish as a research on its own, and it is therefore important to be aware of the critique of the chosen method. How a single case result should be applied to other cases and be generalised in a larger picture, is a well-debated question. The answer is often that a single case cannot have such a width. It is therefore important to understand that the case study is just a sample on its own and needs to be a part of other case studies under the same objective to get a broader perspective (Bryman,2016:61-62).

To distinguish a case study from other studies, it needs to be utterly specified. This research is based on an idiographic approach since the unique features of the case are revealed and the case is the object of interest (Bryman, 2016: 61). This is the most important elements to distinguish a case study from a cross-sectional study, where the results are based on a sample of cases, often conducted by surveys from a single point in time (Bryman, 2016: 53).

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To outline the research design even more, a distinction of what type of case has been done. According to Bryman (2016), Yin mentioned in 2009 that five types of cases exist (1) The critical (2) The extreme or unique (3) The representative or typical (4) The revelatory (5) The longitudinal. The research aims to investigate local actor´s opinions of volunteer tourism and the sustainability of development in Tanga Town. This case is mostly in line with (3) The representative or typical approach (Bryman, 2016: 62-63). Yin (2009) describes this type of case as “The objective is to capture the ​ circumstances and conditions of an everyday or commonplace situation” (Yin, 2009: 48). Our research questions are constructed in a way that allows us to apply theories and draw conclusions from a wider perspective. This type of case is in line with this specific research because of its opportunity to describe a broader category of which it is a member of, and also because it can provide a suitable context for the research questions. The representative case also allows the researcher to examine key social processes, which in this case, are the volunteer's social impact on the local community (Bryman, 2016: 62).

3.2.2 Reliability and Validity Reliability and validity are important to maintain a high quality in the research. According to Bryman (2016), reliability interacts with the issues of consistency of measures and the validity discusses if the concept measures that concept (Bryman, 2016:156-158). Qualitative researches have discussed if reliability is relevant for qualitative research since it is used to avoid measurement problems. Since this study is not concerned with measurement, but based on qualitative data, reliability is not relevant. However, validity is indeed relevant to this study (Bryman, 2016: 383).

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Validity is the most important quality criteria since it concerns the integrity of the conclusion in the research. To make this research as credible as possible, it will be discussed how the facets have been implemented in this research. The most typical facets of validity are; (1) Measurement; (2) internal; (3) external; (4) ecological; (5) and inferential. Since (1) measurement validity mostly relates to quantitative research it will not be discussed (Bryman, 2016: 41).

The (2) internal validity is a question of how the researcher is drawing conclusions between different variables. Since this research is qualitative, it can just be speculated on how one variable could be responsible for another, conclusions can not be drawn. Similar to (2) internal validity is the (5) inferential validity, which draws conclusions between the research design and the findings. The facet will be treated in the same way as the (2) internal validity. The result can not generalise the results beyond the research context, which concerns the (3) external validity. As in the internal validity, the analysis will only speculate of how the results could be implemented in similar case studies and in a wider context then this case (Bryman, 2016: 41- 42).

The (4) ecological validity concern how the findings describe people's everyday life and natural social settings. When conducting the interviews, the local actors' everyday situation with short-term volunteers will hopefully be captured. However, it can not be assured that the respondents tell the truth and full story in their answers (Bryman, 2016: 42).

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3.3 Secondary research An important part of the research is to analyse the existing sources of information that is in line with the topic. The review of the secondary data will be evaluated before and after the implementation of the research. To be able to do the field study, it is crucial to both understand the study and to find a research gap in the existing literature (Bryman, 2016: 309). The secondary data will be an especially important source in the analytical framework to support the chosen theories and complexities. Several sources will be used to conduct information about the subject, such as databases, literature at the library and on the internet. Since this research is qualitative, the sources that have been used are based on qualitative research methods. We are aware that this could be a limitation on its own because of the legitimation and the number of participants may not be correct (Bryman, 2016: 594-595).

3.4 Primary research The primary data will be collected after a research gap has been found in the secondary data, to make it easier to investigate what is needed to be elaborated in the chosen field. The primary data can be identified as an eye-witness report or first-hand information and are not affected by other researchers` values and research goals, which can be the case with secondary sources. As previously mentioned, the data collection will be conducted in a qualitative research method in order to use personal interviews where inside information and the human's side of the issue can be discussed (Bell, Bryman & Harley, 2019: 457-458).

3.4.1 Interviews The research is primarily based on findings of the interviews made in November and December 2019, combined with the secondary material. The

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purpose of the interviews is to obtain descriptive information about how people understand a certain situation or its life situation (Bryman. 2016: 485). The main reason for choosing to travel to Tanga Town in person instead of saving time with telephone interviews is to be able to do face-to-face interviews. According to Bryman (2016), a face-to-face interview has the advantage of obvious reasons as some respondents could have limited access to a telephone. The face-to-face technique also promotes an open discussion when both parts can observe each others body language. It is important for the interviewer to have the opportunity to recognise the respondent's body language to distinguish such things as discomfort, reactions or confusion.

To be able to research from a bottom-up perspective it would almost be impossible for this research to be conducted through telephone interviews. It ​ is almost impossible to do telephone interviews in a developing country like Tanzania. It had not been possible to make appointments and conduct ​ interviews if the researches had not been there to build networks, trust and confidence. This research aims to give a voice to those usually not heard, and that could only be done through a field study (Bryman, 2016: 485).

Because of the nature of the survey, in-depth interviews, with a semi-structured approach have been used during the interviews. The questions have been formed in a semi-structured way, with the possibility to ask follow-up questions, this can lead to further discussions and reflection. A semi-structured interview can contribute to a more casual conversation rather than lined-up questions, which can be the case in a structured interview. The qualitative interview is especially favorable to provide insight into the informant's own experiences, thoughts and feelings. We are aware that a

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qualitative unstructured interview could provide even more freely answers then semi-structured. Even if that is the case, an unstructured method is based on fewer themes and researchers should have more interviewing experience than we have, to be able to steer the respondent within the subject (Bryman, 2016: 466- 469).

During the primary research, eleven in-depth interviews have been conducted with key informants and stakeholders that met the criteria explained in chapter 1. After the 11th interview, the researchers could conclude that the subject has widespread opinions among the targeting respondents. After 11 interviews a pattern had appeared, which showed a difference between the negative and the positive opinions on the matter. Enough material to answer the research questions had been conducted at this point.

3.4.2 Sampling The sample has been made from a purposive non-probability form of sampling. This research aims to get a wide variety in the result and not generalise it on the whole population of Tanzania.

According to Bryman (2016), the purposive sampling method is a considerable way to strategically find persons that are relevant to the research questions (Bryman, 2016: 408). The participants that could fit into the research have been selected with the help of a local contact person and through the snowball-effect. This is a technique that is used when the researcher has found a small group of people that is relevant for the research. Those people did, later on, connect the researcher to other organisations or people that would be relevant (Bryman, 2016: 415). When using the snowball-effect, it is most common to use another method as a starting point

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and then use the snowball-effect as a compliment. The grounded sampling approach in this research is generic purposive sampling to find people that meet the criteria and have knowledge about the subject (Bryman, 2016: 419).

The subjects have been carefully selected to get a diverse and legitimate result. The selected stakeholders are coordinators and workers from local NGO:s. The key-persons consist of a religious leader, doctors and other important actors in the community. Even if the goal has been fulfilled with this sampling approach, we could have arranged interviews with a broader spectrum of people before we started to use the snowball-effect to get even more diverse and larger amounts of participants.

3.5 Ethical considerations and values Researchers can cause harm to participants both intentionally and unintentionally. According to Bryman (2016), harm can take shape in ways as: “physical harm; harm to participants development; loss of self-esteem; ​ stress; and inducing subject to perform reprehensible acts” (Bryman, 2016: ​ 126). It is therefore important to retain ethical principles during the whole research. Confidentiality issues have therefore been followed during this research, such as information in the reason for this research, the consent requirement and the confidentiality for their protection and anonymity. All of the respondents have been given enough information about the research and the ethical principles that they could make a decision wherever they want to participantes or not (Bryman, 2016: 129).

All names of the participants have been removed during transcription to ensure the participant's privacy. Using names is not of any relevance in this study. To be able to separate the key persons from the stakeholder's opinion,

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all the participant has agreed that it is okay to use their occupation in this paper (Bryman, 2016: 131). We need to have in mind that our values may affect our choice of subject, respondents and the analysis of the data. Since we are Western people, we could be seen as possible candidates of donors or volunteers. Therefore, we are aware that our presence at the interviews may have affected the participants answers (Bryman, 2016: 34-35).

3.6 Limitations and Delimitations This research is limited to a micro-level case study, with a focus on Tanga Town. A conscious decision has been made to only interview stakeholders and key-informants from Tanga Town, for the purpose of a bottom-up perspective. We are aware that we need to be careful when analysing the ​ result, as we only spend 6 weeks in Tanzania. Therefore, we do not have the whole picture and understanding of the situation. The research is delimited to 11 local actors perceptions and can therefore not be generalised on its own. We can not be completely certain that the respondents represent the whole reality. Even if the research questions have been answered, further research need to be conducted in order to get a more valid and wider result. In the analysis, conclusions will not be drawn, we can only speculate in some aspects, based on the respondent´s perspective on the issue.

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4. PRESENTATION OF RESEARCH RESULT

This chapter will present the findings of the interviews conducted in November and December of 2019. The interviews were conducted in Tanga Town, Tanzania with stakeholders and key-persons relevant to the topic. The findings are categorised into four different sections based on the research questions that have been stated in chapter 1.3. Following headlines refers to the presented research questions. 4.1 Research question 1 - Whom does volunteer work benefit? 4.2 Research question 2 - Do local actors in Tanga Town, Tanzania share the same problematic view of short-term volunteer tourism as previous researchers? 4.3 Research question 3 - What are the positive and negative effects of short-term volunteers, according to local actors in Tanga Town, Tanzania? 4.4 Research question 4 - How can short-term volunteer work be more economic and socially sustainable for the people and organisations that are affected in Tanga Town, Tanzania?

4.1 Research question 1 The result of the interviews shows that all the respondents claim that foreign volunteers' motivation is to experience the country and the culture, gain personal experience and to make an impact in a country that they think needs their help to further develop.

“They want to travel and at the same time do it in a positive way that can make an impact. People are going into it because they think that is helpful and that it is needed. That is also how they are marketing those trips, that it is necessary and needed” (NGO Worker 2). ​

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Four of the respondents expressed that the motivation to do volunteer work abroad could be for a self-serving purpose. Some claim that volunteering can also go to an extreme level of child abuse in some sectors. This is a statement from an organisation that works with children's welfare. The director claims that the volunteer industry is an easy path for pedophiles to get close to children who are already in a vulnerable situation.

“Most volunteers are naïve and not that worldly, they have been fed with the idea that it is starving children in Africa. It is a big market for abuses, it is prime for pedophiles, I have seen how shitty it is. I have seen how the volunteers going up to the local school up the road and decide to kiss a girl on the mouth and he just laughs it off” (NGO Director 2).

Most of the respondents can see the positive benefit for the organisation, the community and the volunteers in terms of cultural exchange and economic benefits. According to those sources, the answer to the research question would be that the benefits of short-term volunteers do not come in human resources, which is the purpose that volunteer organisations are marketing. The benefits come in exchanges between people, both ideas, experiences and cultures. The result shows that local actors in Tanga Town can mostly see the benefits for the foreign volunteers in terms of experience and on another hand, a self-serving purpose to do good. The work that short-term volunteers do, only contribute to an income source for local organisations and could contribute to cultural exchange during the right circumstances.

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4.2 Research question 2 Previous researchers have often presented a problematic view of short-term volunteers in developing countries. Problems that have been discussed are cross-cultural misunderstandings, power-relations and dependency against the West (Singh 2014). Garrison (2015) also brings up more personal issues, such as egocentrism, ineffectiveness, and damaging behaviour to host communities (Garrison, 2015). Related to egocentrism the White saviour complex has been discussed to bring up how people use their white privileges to “save” the Global South (Bandyopadhyay, 2019). Another debated question is if volunteer tourism could be a new form of Neo-colonialism because it contributes to unequal power-relationships and cultural stereotypes between tourists and host communities (Hanson Pastran, 2014). Chapter two explains Neo-colonialism and the White saviour complex further. This research question aims to explore if local actors in Tanga Town have the same perspective on short-term volunteers as previously researchers, and to discuss those statements from a bottom-up perspective. Because of the spread argument of this question, it will be discussed in three parts.

4.2.1 Dependency against the West Some researchers argue that foreign volunteers in formerly colonised countries are a form of Neo-colonialism (Hanson Pastran, 2014). The first response of all the interviewed persons is that Neo-colonialism is not connected to foreign volunteer work. Even if the majority of the respondents are negative to the claim that volunteer tourism is a form of Neo-colonialism, it is hard to ignore the fact that all of the respondents agree that volunteer tourism can contribute to economic dependency.

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“The point should be that you can run your own organisation, so if an organisation is set up to just doing the same things they should considering their model. I mean if you have running this organisation for 100 years and they are still needed probably they are doing something wrong. I think that those organisation that is using short-term volunteers has very short-term goals in mind. And they will be dependent on foreign aid” (NGO Worker 2). ​

Another perspective is the importance of learning new skills to be able to develop the country, not the skills of teaching, building schools or nursing, rather digital- and marketing skills. Many of the respondents think that they need volunteers to come and learn them more modern skills, and that the volunteers that come in short-term do not get the opportunity or have the time to do the real impact that is needed. The doctor who was interviewed thinks that the whole community is dependent on Western skills, at all levels, not just small organisations.

“Yes, you can say that there is a connection between Neo-colonialism and volunteer work. As we are dependent on the finances, knowledge and expertise that these people bring here. So yes in one way we are still dependent on Western countries in order to function. For me, it is the whole community that is dependent. Laws and regulations in the country, still rely on expertise from the outside. [...] There are very few if any big companies in Tanzania that do not have the support of foreign companies” (Doctor in Tanga Town).

The persons with a relatively negative view of short-term volunteers blame the organisations for taking advantage of foreign aid and human resources

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instead of using the manpower of local Tanzanians. They also mean that the volunteers are poorly informed of the impact that short-term volunteers do to the dependency on the West. Furthermore, a former research specialist for the government has a different view and thinks that the dependency has emerged from bad governance.

“A problem is that African countries have fallen behind in the development process. We have not trained our people properly for the job that is needed to keep up with other countries. There are no shortcuts to solving this but to train people properly, to invest and to upgrade. This we most do in order to lessen the dependency on others. I do not think that the reasons behind that we have volunteers here is because we lack the skills or knowledge. I think that for example, European countries send personnel here to learn and to get experience in developing countries. [...] So most of it is our own making that we are in this situation today” (Former research specialist for the government).

Neo-colonialism can take shape in different types of aspects. One question that was asked during the interviews was: Do you consider short-term ​ volunteers important in order to keep the organisation alive? This question ​ gives a direct answer if organisations are dependent on foreign humanitarian aid and financial support. NGO worker 3 has a positive view on that some organisation needs volunteers to stay alive and can see how it benefits the children that are under the organisations care.

“Yes, it is important for organisations to have foreign volunteers in order to stay alive. We can ask the volunteers for support and that is good for the organisation. We get more foundings and they come with ideas. Some

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children here can not be treated here but can however get treatment in other countries. My job would be easier if there were more people here to help. Volunteers contribute with both foundings and human resources” (NGO Worker 3).

Unlike the statement above, this NGO director means that those organisations that cannot stay alive without fundings and short-term volunteers are not sustainable, ethical or beneficial for the community. The director claims that those organisations take on short-term volunteers exclusively for financial gain.

“Absolutely, I think that short-term volunteers are the reason that some organisations even exist. A better question would be if those organisations should exist in the first place? It is a lot of organisations that are only kept alive because of that but should they be going in the first place would be a more critique question. [...] You can see all over Tanzania how these small pop-ups that call themselves NGO:s. that often is operated by ex-tour guides whom knows it is a lot of money to cash in on volunteer holidays and they know the tours, they know the pattern, they have been a tour guide for many years so they know how to interact with tourists” (NGO Director 2).

This NGO worker has a similar argument as NGO director 2, except that focus is at the work short-term volunteers are doing, rather than the economic aspects. NGO worker 1 means that the short-term volunteers are doing work that could be done by anyone from the local community and are not beneficial for the community in terms of human resources.

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“When it comes to money it is an easy way to get funds by having short-term volunteers. However, the work that they are doing is often not that significant. Organisations that have short-term volunteers often lose credibility as well. Often bigger companies question them when the work that they do is carried out by volunteer and they are therefore not contributing to the local economy” (NGO Worker 1).

The Priest contributes to a wider perspective and can appreciate the positive effects of the exchange between the foreign volunteers, the community or the organisations.

“Of course, we are not able to stand alone. Christ says that: it is no one that is really poor that can’t give and no one is so rich that they don’t have to resave. Everything depends on each other” (Priest in Tanga Town).

Those statements show that even if Neo-colonialism is a sensitive subject and many of those interviewed did not want to be connected to dependency towards the West. However, it is still a question for discussion in the community of Tanga Town.

4.2.2 Exclusion, work opportunities and stereotypes “There is a big organisation called UK charity and I was staying at the same hotel as them. We were meeting up with a friend of a friend that was a tour guide in the area so we went out for a hike up in the mountains. We passed this massive complex and I was like ”what’s that!?” the tour guide said, “oh that’s where the medic students stay”. We started to have a really interesting

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conversation because he was changing his opinion as the tour was going on. At first, he said “it's really nice of them to come and help” but when I started to bring up more negative aspects, he also started to open up and then he said “you know what, it's not fair, my cousin training to be a doctor and he doesn’t get this opportunity and they are just coming and going”. It is really interesting to see that local volunteers actually thinks that foreign volunteers are taken their place. I mean, work experience is important for Tanzanians too” (NGO Director 2). ​

This quote is from one respondent with the opinion that foreign volunteers are taking up space for the local young people, ready to gain experience through volunteerism. Other interviewed subjects also think that foreign volunteers are taking high skilled positions and the easier jobs that could be done by any Tanzanian. Some of the interviewees think that this is a problem, however, most of the respondents have a more positive view on the issue. The most common opinion from the respondents is that foreign volunteers bring finance for the organisations since they work for free. Locals want a paycheck to do the work and most organisations can not afford to hire employees that are necessary.

Researchers have also a problematic view of different power relations that could appear between locals and foreign volunteers. The respondents can not identify power-relations in terms of white superiors, such as economic and work-skills. Even if the respondents do not view it as unequal power-relations, some of them express exclusion in the way some volunteer projects work with local organisations. The most common aspect is that foreign volunteers tend to speak in their own language and do not inform the local staff to make progress in their mission.

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“For me, it is very rude when these people that come here speak in their own language when it comes to the hospital, you feel excluded. At least speak English as I know they can. It is very common that they speak in their own language among each other and do not include us. It is very rude” (Doctor in Tanga Town).

Many respondents specify the importance of exchange between host communities and volunteers. In order to discuss power-relations and receive a more intentional cultural exchange, one respondent presents a more socially sustainable solution than short-term volunteering.

“Creating more projects and programs that incorporate tourism with ethical tourism and create more cultural exchange programs that are based on mutual respect, listening and learning. That flips some of these unequal power relations. I think that it would be possible but it needs to be very intentional. And there is a very long way to go before there are even the skill-based people that would want to do that. People that actually care to really flip that switch and create something that is really about exchange” (NGO Director 2). ​

Based on this material, the outcome is that previous research about exclusion, work opportunities and stereotypes has come to a partly right conclusion. Short-term volunteers may take up spaces for those locals who want to work as volunteers to gain experience, however, small organisations have not the income to hire local employees. A topic that should be discussed further is how short-term volunteers are acting when they perform their assignments. They need to have more consideration for the local employers

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and their culture. Some researchers claim that volunteer tourism could develop stereotypes, however, the respondents did not agree on this statement.

4.2.3 Egocentrism and the White savior complex Although, the respondents think that foreign volunteers are volunteering in Tanga Town in the sense of doing good, without any hidden agenda, the outcome of their doings can be connected to white saviourism. Some of the respondents point out that most of the unnecessary volunteer work is in child care and schools. They believe that children need a sustainable solution to learn and that the skills to teach and take care of children can be found among local Tanzanians. NGO worker 1 means that the foreign volunteer is misinformed from the volunteer agency and have no idea of the impact they are causing.

“I have had a lot of arguments with people over the years that have been saying that they are coming to help, we have the skills and they do not understand that local people also have these skills. They do not understand that they are not the only ones. They do not understand or want to acknowledge what is going to happen when they leave again. The White saviour complex is very much,” we are skilled and we are coming to help” but they do not think about the future they do not think about a country as a whole” (NGO Worker 1). ​

NGO director 2 claims that almost every volunteer post pictures on social media that present the appearance of the African people as uneducated, poorly informed and that the volunteers are the local organisations only hope. The director claim that the short-term volunteers are performing a work that

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every Tanzanian could do and the most charitable volunteer work is being done in the dark, without any individual recognition.

“Yes, volunteers can absolutely be connected to the White saviour complex. They are using the privilege of their skin colour to be able to do things that they are not qualified to do and they are being allowed to do it. At the hospitals, the people are lining up to be helped by the white people and they are wearing the white coat despite being an 18-year old that really wants to be a doctor in the future. If that is not using your privilege and thinking that you are being useful and doing a better job than a local than I do not know what White saviour complex is” (NGO Director 2).

Not every respondent has the experience of white saviourism and thinks media are painting up to cast a shadow over the volunteer industry.

“I have never come across that. I know that pictures are printed at some media, but in the community it is okay.” (NGO coordinator 1). The Priest ​ agrees with NGO coordinator 1 and claim that: “In our country, it is not like ​ that, they come because they see the needs” (Priest in Tanga Town).

The interviews reveal that short-term workers do not volunteer primarily to be white saviours, they assume that they are doing a great impact. Some respondents claim that the White savior complex is a contemporary problem in the volunteer industry, and a few consider that there is no connection with white saviourism. There are claims that the White savior complex can continue to exist due to the miss targeted marketing of young people. These

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people with little life experience do not consider the impact they do after they have left the organisation.

4.3 Research question 3 All of the participants in this research had more or less the same view on the positive and negative effects of short-term volunteers. Having foreign volunteers is a positive thing for both the community and the organisation according to the majority of the respondents. Mainly because it contributes to cultural exchanges and knowledge exchanges that can lead to better ways of working and conducting different projects. The majority of the participants agree that foreign volunteers are important for Tanga Town in order for the community and the organisations to grow and continue to develop.

“They have a positive impact, you learn new things from them, new ways of living. We share ideas it is given and take from both sides. It is good to have them” (NGO Worker 3). ​

One of the most recurring subjects most of the participants bring up is the exchanges of knowledge and different perspectives on situations and projects. Mainly that it is a positive element to have people from the outside evaluate and help with different perspectives. It is however important that it is an exchange of knowledge.

“It is a good chance to have someone from the outside telling you how you are doing and give you new ideas and perspectives. It is encouraging to have them here. It is good because they can tell you if you are doing something good and so on. Give doctors and nurses an overview, for example, maybe

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next time do it this way instead. They are here to learn as well. It is encouraging to have them around.” (Doctor in Tanga Town).

Cultural exchange has also been a well-discussed subject in the interviews. All the respondents have both negative and positive experiences when different cultures meet. Here are some aspects:

“Nowadays we are constantly affected by culture because of the development of social media. [...] We don’t be amazed by the foreigners because we have seen you on TV or other social media, even small children. When foreigners come, we are interested to give them our culture, so they imitate our culture. We give them our nature, like safari and mountains and also our style of clothing. It is the same thing back. If you come one day wearing like that you can see our ladies wearing the same thing tomorrow. They have imitated the same behaviour, even the way of talking and walking” (Priest in Tanga Town).

“Take the culture where you come. Respect the culture in the community that you are visiting. A concern that I have is that, is that people take no concern with that this is a regional hospital, not one of those fancy ones were everything is more hygienic. Sometimes they do not want to touch the patient, always using hand sanitizers, making you feel that you are dirty and stuff like that. It has become better. Previously the mindset of people about Africa was that there were animals everywhere and stuff like that. If you are travelling as a volunteer you should have an open mind and know that everyone has their culture and that you should respect that, and be flexible. Accept all the challenges that are coming your way” (Doctor in Tanga Town). ​

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Another significant impact that foreign volunteers contribute to, according to some of the respondents, is financial support. Many organisations depend on foreign volunteers to function and continue to exist. Whether it is the volunteers themselves becoming sponsors or from other external benefactors that contribute because of the organisation having foreign volunteers. This can contribute to small organisations that is doing a great job can continue to exist. However, illegal organisations can also continue their businesses. One of the respondents explained it as following:

“There is an orphanage in Arusha that we have been investigating. And they are connected to 2 of the largest volunteer agencies in the UK. And this place is illegal, unregistered, they are trafficking children from the villages around, taking children from living parents no restrictions from social welfare, no one is watching this place. And they have 200 volunteers a year coming through that place. Volunteers exclusively have built that place and children are being sponsored” (NGO Director 2).

However, the majority of the participants agree that volunteers that are only there for 1-3 weeks are too short a time to have a significant impact on the work or project in the organisations. How much difference can one person do in only 1-3 weeks in a project? There are also concerns that foreign volunteers is not qualified for some of the work that they are doing. For example, if the persons are not qualified to work in a hospital in their home country they should not work in a foreign country's hospital neither. Several of the participants share experiences of unqualified volunteers that have

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practiced work they are not qualified for and would not be able to practice in a Western country.

“We previously had two foreign volunteer doctors here. One had very little experience, seemed like he was in administration back in his home country. He came here as a volunteer to do surgery. He was not doing a good job, we lost a lot of patients because of him. The other one that also came as a volunteer he was a post-graduate medical student he came here with the identity of a surgeon. He looked at tutorials on YouTube and then went and did the surgery on a patient. After that, we stopped accepting foreign or local volunteer doctors and surgeons” ​ (Doctor in Tanga Town).

This quote shows that a real problem exists with policies and systems regarding foreign volunteers. That a person with little to no experience can come and perform surgery shows that there needs to be stricter policies and restrictions on who can perform a certain task. The Doctor agrees that there is a problem when it comes to the qualifications, and that these foreigners should not come to a developing country and think they have better knowledge and skills on how to perform a task then local actors.

4.3.1 Volunteering and Marketing Another important problem with volunteer organisations is that they advertise a picture for Western people to come and “save these poor, sad, starving African children”. The volunteer sector is a multi-million industry were people earn a lot of money by bringing mostly young and unqualified people into their business. Many of the participants mention that they view

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volunteer organisations as a business that wants to earn money rather than organisations that wants to help.

“The most volunteer organisations is about an experience for the volunteers rather than having any real impact on project outcome and long-term development work. I see it more of a product sold to people and the experience that they are having. They don’t realize that when they have done their time, someone else will come and do exactly what they did, but they don’t see that side of it. When you have set back and watch that for years and years and see that circle going through, you understand that they actually have created an industry that institutionalised children and I can say that I have seen that all over Tanzania. This is because children have become a product and its 100 % built on short-term volunteers” ​ (NGO Director 2).

Another common thread in the interviews is that the picture that is shown and advertised on African countries in Western countries is somewhat misleading.

“In university, I took a course called the economics of South-East Africa and did a section on volunteers and how it is marketing to people's experiences. You always see the acutely same things, like the photo from above on sad-looking child and it is like “come help Timmy go to school”. It is about you are doing something that only you can do and that you have this value because of the fact that you come from Europe and that you can teach them something that they one teacher can not do. [...] But if you have the idea that because you come from a certain continent is more qualified, that simply

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employs that because you have a certain culture is superior” (NGO Worker ​ 2).

However, not all the people that were interviewed share the same view. One NGO director of an organisation that works with educating young girls about menstruation, hygiene and sexual intercourse. This organisation mostly has short-term volunteers and no specific qualification is deemed, as it is seen to be common knowledge in Western countries. The volunteers come for 3 weeks with the last week being a holiday. The NGO Director has a positive experience of short-term volunteers and views it as an opportunity to connect volunteer tourists and the local community.

4.4 Research question 4 When asked about how short-term volunteers could be more beneficial for development in a sustainable manner. All, except one of the interviewees, agreed that working as a volunteer for 1-3 weeks is not enough time to have any significant impact on the work in the organisation. It is agreed that there should be no volunteers shorter than 4 weeks to have an impact and obtain an understanding of the local community.

“It depends on the different people that are coming. They should be here longer than 1-3 weeks. Can not do any significant difference in that short period of time” (Former research specialist for the government). ​

Another aspect that is mentioned, is that volunteer work should be more restricted and controlled by the government. It is a common agreement that running a NGO should not be profitable. A suggestion is also that there should be more policies implemented on volunteer work from more

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countries, such as Australia did in 2015 (The National Standards for Volunteer Involvement, 2015). NGO director 2 agrees that it is a need for further policies among volunteer workers. Mainly to be able to prove that short-term volunteers actually achieve a beneficial impact for the organisations and not just contribute to an economic aspect in the programs. The respondent believe that it is less complicated if a foreign volunteer work with children, then the local social workers that are qualified.

“There need to be more hard-hitting policies for the companies. I think we should start there. If it is stopped being profitable as it is now, people follow the money. If it was not profitable a lot of the NGOs here would say no to taking short-term volunteers. They are not doing it because it is easy, it is hard work hosting someone for two weeks that screams every time they see a spider. They are not doing it because it is fun. So if you would cut off the money to some of these organisations it would have a big impact. [...] Receiving countries also need to have legislation. There should be policies in place. However, I think that people are scared of doing it because of the economic aspects. The amount of paperwork that we have to do if we want to have a project in one of the schools here is enormous. And that is for a local social worker. And for the tourist volunteers that come here, there is next to none. There should be harsher rules to follow. And maybe proof after 3 months, what have they actually achieved” (NGO Director 2).

Another issue is that some volunteers do not seem interested in teaching and helping the local coworkers to not depend on them and do follow up work to see that that the right methods are being used.

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“Volunteer work could be more sustainable if they were not to be selfish and be more realistic. Help us not be dependent on them. They should make sure that when they leave the teaching continues. They should come to teach us and then follow up to make sure that we have learned the right way” (Doctor in Tanga Town).

An important and thoughtful statement that was made during an interview, that shows the power dynamics that exist in this world. The interviewee claims that if volunteer work was to be more sustainable, a change in power-dynamics is needed. It is not only Western people that want to travel, discover new places and meet new people.

“Foreign volunteers are good, good to learn from others. It is good for foreigners to come here and see and learn. It is something that I do not understand and it is why so many people from Western countries come here to volunteers but it is very difficult for Tanzanians to travel to for example Sweden and volunteer. Why no African volunteers in Europe? I think there is a need in Western countries as well for volunteers. We are good at doing certain things as well. There is however not an equal need in the west as here. We need volunteers here in order to be able to develop further. We are in more need of them. For us to be able to develop further, firstly we need ourselves and our people, a volunteer should only come here and boost us. Of course, we can add something to you as well but you are already ahead. We need you more, share ideas” (NGO Worker 3).

There is also mentions about already started projects in Tanzania where the focus is on having an equal exchange between people. This kind of programs

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and projects that focus on equality between people are proven to be more socially sustainable in the long run.

“Right now there are of course inequality between foreigners and people from the local community as Westerners are seen as above. They are better educated, have more money. It is very rare to get that really equal balance. There are however some projects in the country where you can come and help, but you are being partners up with someone from the community, and that is a quite interesting way to do it and it could be a right step in the right direction to create a more equal power balance. But I do think that it will take a very long time before there is full equality” ​ (NGO Worker 1).

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4.5 Conclusion of research results As mentioned in the limitation chapter, it is important to take into consideration that the result is limited to 11 respondent´s perspectives and life experiences. The result can not be applicable to the whole community of Tanzania, even if the material answers the research questions for this specific research. Some of the claims are supported by previous researches studies, however, some are experiences from individual local actor´s work situations.

The result presents differences between the negative and the positive opinions on the matter. The positive respondents have the view that short-term volunteers are a huge resource for the country and that they bring cultural exchange, exchange of skills and economic finance to the country. They also point out that volunteers bring tourism, which is beneficial for all economic aspects in Tanzania.

“International volunteers are very important to come to our country, the third-world country because of their increasing manpower, they share knowledge, income for us through tourism and future donors. We seriously welcoming them” (NGO Director 1). ​

The opponents to those whom are positive to short-term volunteers believe that volunteers can be important as long as it does not result in dependency. They also claim that illegal organisation can continue to exist or is used as a quick economic fix. They consider most of the short-term volunteers lack knowledge of Tanzanian culture, skills and how the organisation is functioning. They mean that Tanzania is dependent on the West due to the unfair economic relations worldwide and that the picture that has been

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painted of Tanzania is misleading. The volunteers need to be more enlightened to be able to help Tanzania in their development process.

“Economics are unequal, trade terms are unequal. The Western still using debt repayments and bad trade negotiations. That is what’s really creating this dependency. If we are looking at where the world dependency is being held, it is the use of the terms for aid. That in that 70% of the world budget is on US contractors, there is where I think that the real inequality is still coming alone. [...] If you are going to volunteer then do it properly. Apply for it like a job, see so that you are qualified for it. If you want to be useful then be useful and stop pretending. And more leading your voice instead of doing the job yourself. Do not be a saviour” (NGO Director 2).

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5. ANALYSIS

This chapter contains an analysis of the collected data. The collected data have been viewed through a lens of Neo-colonialism and the White saviour complex to be able to answer the research questions and better understand the collected data.

5.1 Neo-colonialism and short-term volunteers When analysing the collected data, it became clear that Neo-colonialism on some levels and aspects still exist in Tanga Town. Even though the respondents, when asked directly, said that Neo-colonialism does not exist. It was, however, sometimes understood and realised by the interviewee that they had experienced Neo-colonialism. When it comes to short-term volunteers and Neo-colonialism it is implied in many of the respondent´s answers that there are unequal power-relations in contact with volunteer work and projects. All of the respondents mentioned at least one example where they had experienced dependency on foreign volunteers, whether it is manpower, knowledge in certain fields or financial support. It was a general agreement from most of the respondents that foreign volunteers and workers are at this moment needed in many sectors in Tanga Town to further develop as a society. They do however not want to be dependent, and progress is needed for Tanzania and many other countries to continue with their development.

A general view from the respondents is that 1-3 weeks is too short of a period to have any real impact on any work or projects. The period that volunteers spend on a project or organisations is one of the most important and problematic view that the respondents have on short-term volunteers. Another important factor is that volunteers come with the right skills and

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mindset. If a Western volunteer´s purpose is to help develop the skills of hospital employees, it is important that this person takes the time to teach the skills and not only do the work themselves. It is important to realise that an exchange of knowledge must come from both sides to establish capacity building. A common thread in the interviews is that they do not want to be dependent on foreign volunteers. They rather think that it should be an exchange of knowledge so that they someday can become not dependent on foreign volunteers. If this were to happen, the development whole Tanzania would be going forward and someday even be able to catch up to many other countries development. Most of the respondents recognise that today's situation is not sustainable for societies in Tanzania. Observed from a Neo-colonial perspective, it can be shown that the people that were interviewed still consider themselves dependent on Western people, organisations and countries to function and survive.

Ownership is another relevant aspect when discussing dependency. Even if the concept usually is viewed from an economic perspective, in this thesis, it will be analysed in terms of humanitarian aid (Castel-Branco, 2008) (Oden & ​ Wohlgemuth, 2006). All the people in organisations that were interviewed ​ had experienced short-term volunteers in their organisation and the majority received volunteers from volunteer agencies abroad. During the interviews, it did not emerge whether the organisations felt that the agencies had any control over their policies or agenda. However, there were tendencies of exclusion in terms of how the volunteer executed the programs or assignments. According to the respondents, occasionally volunteers talk their own language, do the assignment in their own manner without corresponding with the coordinator, and do not inform the local organisation of the progress or results of the work they have completed. When a volunteer implements a

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program in this manner it could appear as a result-based purpose, which perhaps is directives from the operating organisation. Some of the organisations that were interviewed found it hard to survive without the financial support from foreign volunteers and may have been compromised in terms of influence in the volunteer's assignment. Although, one organisation interviewed did not accept short-term volunteers and have conducted a more financially sustainable way to finance their projects. In this organisation they did not have the problem of ownership, they felt that they had full control over their agenda, policies and program.

If the concept is stretched, the dependency of humanitarian aid together with results-based programs can be connected to Neo-colonialism. Organisations may need to compromise their agenda to be able to receive the financial support and the volunteers that are needed to survive. This can be shown to be a form of Neo-colonialism because it reveals that Western organisations still can regulate how much influence the local organisation will have. This subject concludes that ownership does not need to be visible in the manner of finance and policies, it could be controlled at the level that the receiving organisation can regulate the volunteer's purpose for the organisation (Castel-Branco, 2008) (Oden & Wohlgemuth, 2006). ​ ​

The respondents' perspective on Neo-colonialism was not always negative. Most respondents consider foreign volunteers as a positive element. Cultural exchange and learning new skills can contribute to faster development of their organisation. On the other hand, the underlying consciousness of being trapped in dependency on humanitarian and financial aid can conduct a management issue when they have no control over their own regulations and

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agenda. This would not be socially or financially sustainable for neither organisations nor the community.

An interesting aspect is if it is more important for the country and its communities to develop quickly with help of foreign aid or be independent of others and gain a more sustainable social development. Most of the respondents agree that development in the long run, needs to be socially sustainable and the benefits of volunteers needs to be beneficial for the host community, rather then the volunteers. Although this process is not something that happens quickly, it requires time and commitment. Despite this, as of right now humanitarian and financial aid is somewhat necessary for some organisations that have not developed a safety-net to not be dependent. To come back to the Neo-colonial theory, Neo-colonialism is something that should not exist in today's modern society, however, it does and it is something that needs to be taken seriously and needs to be worked on for it to someday disappear.

5.2 The White saviour complex and short-term volunteers There is no doubt that the White saviour complex has become a contemporary debated question on social media (No White Savior, nd), however, is the phenomenon applicable to the local society in Tanga Town?

Studies have shown that one of the greatest motivation behind volunteer work abroad is to gain a self-fulfilling purpose (Sin, 2009). The White saviour complex claim that Westerners think that African countries need them and that they can do the job better than a local person. In this case, it can be connected to a self-fulfilling purpose to be a “good-doer”, without knowledge of how you can support in a socially sustainable way (Aronson, 2017).

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The respondents present a perspective that is in line with white saviourism. Even if they do not address it in such a way that volunteers try to save their organisation or the local people, some answers apply that volunteers are there to be the “saviours”. For example, the most common answer to what the respondents think is the motivation behind short-term volunteering is that cultural exchange, life experiences, and doing good in developing countries is the underlying factors. To not be connected with white saviourism when going as a volunteer, the motivations could instead be to improve local people's abilities or support to develop a more economically sustainable organisation. According to the respondents, to do real impact you need advanced skills and spend more time than 3 weeks in an organisation. So why do people go as short-term volunteers when the money they spend to the big volunteer agency could be more useful? The answer to this seems to be how African countries are marketed by volunteer agencies.

According to some respondents, the marketing of short-term volunteers is, as mentioned earlier, misleading. The majority of the respondents agree that they need Westerns to come and help develop a better understanding of high skills, such as digital marketing and computer skills, new technology or development in healthcare. They do not need volunteers in the short-term to build schools, teach children English, or gain experience in the health sector, the local population can do this work by themselves. Many volunteers come and do their program without any thoughts of what is going to happen after they leave, however, it is requested to learn from volunteers and to be involved so the organisations can gain skills and be more independent. Most of the white saviourism seems to exists in Tanga Town because of the false picture that the volunteer agencies present, where the volunteer can be

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the saviour of a poor country. It is no wonder that volunteers have a false view of African communities and that they consider themselves to know better than the local population, according to some respondents of this study.

5.3 Conclusion of the analysis Despite the result of perceived traces of Neo-colonialism that has been presented, the local actors we have interviewed in Tanga Town do not perceive that Neo-colonialism is a phenomenon in their society. To get a better understanding, Neo-colonialism needs to be further researched at a policy level and from a wider perspective. The theory of Neo-colonialism is more fitting in researches with a top-down approach, because of its nature of economic and policy-based aspects (Nkrumah, 1965). Previous researchers that have connected Neo-colonialism and short-term volunteers are generally from a top-down perspective, without taking the local actor's views and situation into consideration. The respondents do not view Neo-colonialism as the main problem in Tanzania. The local actors that have been interviewed claim that many other aspects and factors play a part in the issue that is more relevant then Neo-colonialism.

However, the White savior complex is well suited for this study due to its characteristic of viewing the issues from local people's perspective. According to some respondents, the phenomenon can continue to exist due to the false picture that volunteer agencies are painting of African people and short-term volunteering as needed in local organisations. The volunteer agencies that are marketing volunteering in developing countries should change from selling an experience for Westerns into doing a real impact, for example, educate in work-skills and help organisations to further develop. In

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that way, the whole volunteer industry could be more socially sustainable and local organisations could be more independent. To sum up this chapter, a quote from the results will be brought up again to highlight how local people in Tanga Town believe that short-term voluntarism should be managed.

“If you are going to volunteer then do it properly. Apply for it like a job, see ​ so that you are qualified for it. If you want to be useful then be useful and stop pretending. And more leading your voice instead of doing the job yourself. Do not be a saviour” (NGO Director 2).

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6. CONCLUSION

In this last chapter, the most significant and important aspects will be discussed. The arguments will be discussed in a wider and more extensive perspective. A section of further research will be presented, where the importance of more research of the subject is debated. At last, issues that have been conducted during interviews will be stated.

6.1 Discussion Local actors in Tanga Town that have been interviewed, perceive that the most significant problem with volunteers is the short period that are spent in the organisations. That volunteers need higher skills to be able to do any real impact and that the marketing of African societies is unfair. Neo-colonialism is not as big of a problem that some researches are implying, according to the respondents of this case study. The theory had to be stretched in order to be implemented on the research results, because the respondents could not recognise the connection between Neo-colonialism and short-term volunteers. When studying Neo-colonialism from a bottom-up perspective, Neo-colonialism does not appear as a problem at local level, however, it may affect local societies because of policies and regulations that Western countries still have in developing countries. Many already developed countries give developing countries financial aid and in exchange, they develop unequal trade terms and put pressure on developing countries governments. It appears good on the paper to give aid to developing countries, except they may be trapped in a vicious circle (Aronson, 2017).

The respondents agree that volunteers are needed in Tanga Town at the moment. However, there are divided opinions on the importance of

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short-term-volunteers and whether it is socially sustainable. Some of the respondents consider short-term volunteering an important source of income and that volunteers bring new ideas to organisations. Others claim that short-term volunteering only focus should be on tutoring local employers skills that could contribute to capacity building in the organisations.

When discussing the White savior complex, there are also divided opinions among the respondents. The majority have experiences of the complexity in terms of exclusion and in the manner the volunteer agencies are marketing the society in Tanga Town. Some argue that the volunteers should be there to guide the local employers and not do the job themselves, not be the “hero” of the project, which can be connected to white saviourism. An aspect of the White savior complex is how Westerns view African societies and their culture. It hurts to connect yourself to the white saviourism, however, how many times have you or your parents said “think of the children in Africa” ​ when you did not eat up your food? This is a way of simplifying and humble Africans way of living, which is an aspect of white saviourism.

A perspective on the White savior complex is that Westerns are using African societies to display their own accomplishments (Aronson, 2017). Are all researchers white saviors who are using information from locals and implementing theories of development? Would it be better to discuss how development should be done from their perspective and not from a Western researchers perspective?

The conclusion of this research confirms that the discussions on short-term volunteers are a very complex subject on many levels. During the study, one factor has appeared obvious, the local actors in Tanga Town are driven to be

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more involved in the developing process and they wish to be more independent. Volunteers can be involved in the development-process if new solutions manage to be established, which can prevent the dependency that local societies have against the West at many different levels.

6.2 Further research ​ As presented throughout this research, several power relationships and dependency issues emerged through the interviews. This research could contribute to further discussion and research on the subject of short-term volunteers and the impact it can have on societies in a developing country. This case study is meant to contribute to the wider debate and connect to the existing literature on a developing countries dependency. Since the focus is on volunteer tourism, this case study is conducted mainly as a complement to previous research on the effect and problematics of short-term volunteerism. Furthermore, the connection on how volunteer tourism can come to increase the dependency of foreign humanitarian aid needs to be highlighted and further researched. Further research is also essential to bring a better understanding of the importance of independent social societies and the impact that short-term volunteers have. It could also develop an understanding of local actors opinions of volunteer tourism, which can contribute to an increased interest in social involvement and local volunteerism. Another subject that needs further research and recognition is the White saviour complex. A rather new and relevant phenomenon that needs to be applied and discussed more in future research.

During this research, several new interesting subjects and aspects have been discovered that were not thought of at the beginning of this project. The most significant aspect is the problematics with many orphanages in Tanzania. It came to our knowledge from two respondents that some of the orphanages

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that receive short-term volunteers engage in human trafficking and exploitation of children. This makes it possible to earn money and make it into an industry. Those respondents claim that it is very few policies with restrictions and regulations when it comes to the industry of orphanages. Short-term volunteers often come to orphanages and donate money to these organisations that do not always do good for the children. This statement is from two of the respondents, this is not something that we have investigated further and can therefore not strengthen nor contradict. However, it is a strong claim that needs further research.

To sum up, short-term volunteering is an interesting aspect when researching development and dependency in a development society. This paper hopefully shows that the issue of short-term volunteering can and should be further researched in order to break the dependency that some countries and organisations still have from Western countries. This so that more countries and societies can develop in a more socially sustainable manner.

In conclusion, a question that has been discussed during this research is if a local society believes that short-term volunteers can contribute to any beneficial impact on their society. Many aspects, positive and negative have been discussed and as further research is needed no final conclusion can be drawn if short-term volunteers contribution are helpful or harmful.

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McGehee, N,G. (2012). Oppression, Emancipation, and Volunteer Tourism. ​ Annals of tourism research, 39:1, p:84-107. [Online] Available at: https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0160738311000806?t oken=586B18104F7823872975C0594D246D8FB364C217A39 5196FFD18A0BDE5457A2EA458E6C621DBBB4D82A9AD1 B171C44DB [Accessed 28 Oct. 2019]. ​

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Wearing S., Benson A., McGehee N. (2016). Volunteer Tourism and Travel ​ Volunteering. In: The Palgrave Handbook of Volunteering, Civic Participation, and Nonprofit Associations. Palgrave ​ Macmillan, London. [Online] Available at: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-137-26317-9_ 13 [Accessed 21 Dec. 2019]. ​

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APPENDIX A INTERVIEW GUIDE

The following interview guide has been used throughout the interviews.

The interview guide includes a few introductory personal questions about the respondent and is then followed by a few questions about their experiences with short-term volunteers. The interview guide then focuses on questions designed by the study's purpose and research problem, which relate to answering the study's research questions.

Intro: Our names are Julia Andersson and Malin Höjer.

We are studying our third year as bachelor students at Linneuniversity in Sweden.

Our program is called Integration and Diversity and we are majoring in Peace and Development.

Research: For our bachelor thesis we are doing a research on the topic of what local actors thinks of volunteer tourism in their community. Volunteer tourism are often described as a person who wants to explore and see the world as well as give back to the community during a short term (1-3 weeks). A well debated question among scholars is if short term volunteer work is sustainable for communities in developing countries and also the consequences and mechanisms of volunteer tourism. The perspective in previous research is almost every time from the volunteers or the international organisation's point of view. However, there is limited research done on what the host communities’ opinions are of volunteer tourism. Our aim is to explore the local impact of short term voluntourism and increase a better understanding of the host community’s opinion on the topic.

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Do you agree to be recorded during the interview?

Would it be fine if we use your occupation in the written paper?

We will not use your name or gender in the paper, it will not be possible to trace your identity.

1. Name ​

2. Occupation ​

3. Do you have some experience of short-term volunteers (1-3 weeks)? ​

4. What is your thought of short-term volunteers’ contribution? ​

- In your community ​ ​

- In your organisation ​ ​

5. Do you consider short term volunteers important in order to keep the ​ organisation alive? (Discuss economic and humanitarian aid benefits)

6. Have you seen some increase/ decrease of foreign volunteers lately? ​

- What impact have that done on the community? ​ ​

7. How do think your community/organisation would function without ​ volunteer tourism?

8. Do you have local volunteers in your organisation? ​

9. Do you think that local volunteers work in a different way and do other ​ contribution compared with volunteer work then foreign volunteers?

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10. Do you think that it would be a more spread range of work opportunities for ​ ​ locals in the sectors that today have volunteer activity if the foreigner volunteers weren’t here?

11. What do you think is the positive effects of volunteer tourism? ​ ​

- Ask of social networking, economic/human resources ​ ​ development, cultural exchange

12. What do you think is the negative effects of volunteer tourism? ​ ​

- Ask of exclusion (ex: language problem), cultural differences, ​ ​ stereotypes, physical effects

13. Have you any thought of how volunteer tourism could contribute to unequal ​ ​ power relations between Western counties and your community?

14. Do you have any knowledge of neo-colonialism? If, not, explain ​ ​

- Do your think that neo-colonialism could be connected to ​ ​ volunteer work in your community? In what way?

15. What do you think is the motivation behind the volunteer work? ​ ​

16. Have you any knowledge of the white saviour complex? If not, explain. ​ ​

- What do you think of that statement? ​ ​

17. How do you think that volunteer work could be more sustainably for your ​ ​ organisation/community?

- Could they work in a different way?

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18. Do you have any other thoughts of the fact that foreign volunteers come to ​ ​ your community in a short time period?

19. Anything else you think we should know/think about that we have not ​ ​ asked?

Of record, do you know another person that could be interested to be interviewed?

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APPENDIX B INTERVIEWEES

The following interviewees have been identified and contacted for participation in the study. A total of 11 interviews have been conducted. All ​ ​ interviewees will be anonymous since the research shouldn’t harm the informants by creating an uncomfortable position or by jeopardizing the informant’s employment.

Doctor in Tanga Town - 2019-11-22

Former research specialist for the government - 2019-12-02

NGO Coordinator - 2019-11-27

NGO Director 1 - 2019-12-07

NGO Director 2 - 2019-12-04

NGO Worker 1 - 2019-12-05

NGO Worker 2 - 2019-12-04

NGO Worker 3 - 2019-11-30

NGO Worker 4 - 2019-11-26

NGO Worker 5 - 2019-11-21

Priest Tanga Town - 2019-11-22

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