Fire, Smoke, and Haze The ASEAN Response Strategy
Edited by S. Tahir Qadri
Association of Southeast Asian Nations This publication was prepared by staff and consultants of the Asian Development Bank. The analyses and assessments contained herein do not necessarily reflect the views of the Asian Development Bank, or its Board of Directors or the governments they represent, or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or its Member Countries.
The Asian Development Bank and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations do not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this publication and accept no responsibility for any consequences for their use.
In this publication, the term “Country” does not imply on the part of the Asian Development Bank or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations any judgment as to the legal or other status of any territorial entity.
© Asian Development Bank 2001
ISBN No. 971-561-338-1 Stock No. 121300
Published by the Asian Development Bank P.O. Box 789, 0980 Manila, Philippines
Printed in the Philippines
For more information on ADB, visit http://www.adb.org Contents
List of Boxes iv List of Figures iv List of Tables v List of Photographs v
Message vi Foreword vii Acknowledgements ix Abbreviations and Acronyms x
Executive Summary xiii
The Premise 1 1 Understanding Forest Fires—The Global Fire Scene 2 2 Forest Fires and Haze in the ASEAN Region 30 3 Responses to Fires and Haze in the Region 58
The Program 77 4 The Asian Development Bank’s Technical Assistance 78 5 Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan 88 6 The Way Ahead 188
Appendixes 199 Bibliography 232
iii Appendixes 1 Glossary—Local and Technical Terms 200 2 Regional Haze Action Plan 207 3 Procedure for Formulating and Implementing Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans 212 4 Fire Danger Rating Systems 215 5 Donor and Partnership Activities 219 6 Outline of the Haze Action Online and Some Aspects of the Design Standards 225
List of Boxes 1 Walker Circulation 12
2 The Air Quality Standards for PM10 Set by International Agencies 17 3 Pollution and Mortality 18 4 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution 24 5 Wildfire ’97—Principles and Needs 25 6 Land Conversion and Economic Development 31 7 Tropical Peatlands 46 8 Air Pollution and Health Effects 49 9 The Toll of Haze 50 10 Effects of Haze on World’s Climate 51 11 Achievements of ADB’s Regional Technical Assistance Project 85 12 Firebreaks and Fuelbreaks 98 13 Fire Suppression—Minimum Requirements of Personnel and Equipment 128 14 Institutions Responsible for the ORHAP 171 15 Some Important Fire and Haze Web Sites 183
List of Figures 1 Visitations of El Niño 12 2 The Walker Effect 13 3 Generalized Spatial Gradient of Tropical Ecosystems 14 4 Conceptual Diagram of Losses and Benefits of Forest Fires in Indonesia 15 5 Flow Chart of Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System 216 6 Site Structure 230
iv List of Tables 1 ASEAN Region; Country Information 32 2 Spatial Distribution of Areas Affected by 1994 Fires in Indonesia 45 3 Spatial Distribution of Areas Affected by 1997-1998 Fires in Indonesia 45 4 Losses Resulting from Forest Fires in East Kalimantan, 1982-1983 54 5 Summary of Costs of the 1997-1998 Fires in Indonesia 55 6 Design Options 227
List of Photographs Forest fires extending to the roadsides, Indonesia, 1997 2 Smoke emanating from plantation sites, as seen through satellite imaging, Indonesia, 1997 30 The aftermath of a forest fire, Indonesia, 1998 58 Training of Indonesian firefighters in the use of spray chemicals, 1997 78 Training of Indonesian firefighters, 1997 88 Smoke from the 1997 conflagration in Indonesia 188
v Message
1997 and 1998 were crisis years for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The financial turmoil that hit ASEAN countries’ economies during this period was compounded by the haze that enveloped a good part of the region. The pernicious practice of burning forests to clear land for commercial purposes and the unusually dry weather that caused even the earth to catch fire combined to produce a pall of catastrophic proportions. The loss in terms of agricultural production, transportation, tourism, and other economic endeavors has been estimated at more than $9 billion. The cost to human health, loss of biodiversity, destruction of forests, and general environmental degradation is immeasurable. ASEAN’s response was swift. ASEAN Ministers met frequently to draw up measures to deal with the problem. They adopted a Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP), with corresponding national action plans and implementation measures, prescribing urgent action on three fronts—monitoring, prevention, and mitigation. Resources were mobilized and action undertaken to carry out these plans. The ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre in Singapore has been strengthened to more effectively detect hot spots, predict the weather, and provide early warning of fires. Firefighting mechanisms have been organized in fire-prone areas and operational exercises have been carried out. Meetings with plantation owners and forest concessionaires have been organized to impress upon them the seriousness of the zero- burning policy that ASEAN has adopted. And the ASEAN Secretariat has set up a special unit to coordinate efforts to deal with the haze problem. Meanwhile, in the long term, the ASEAN Environment Ministers have agreed to work on an ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution. In all this, ASEAN has received the support of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), Global Environment Facility (GEF), United Nations Environment Programme, United Nations Development Programme, individual governments, and nongovernment organizations (NGOs). This publication, a joint effort of ADB and ASEAN, brings together the current knowledge about land and forest fires, examines their causes and impacts with particular reference to Southeast Asia, and suggests what could happen in the future. It describes and assesses ASEAN’s response to the haze phenomenon and the role of ADB and other international bodies. Finally, it lays down a blueprint for future national, regional, and global action to deal with the haze problem in Southeast Asia. This work should, therefore, be of great interest to many—national governments, regional and international organizations, NGOs, and the media, which wrote so much about the disaster when it occurred but little about the measures that have been taken to address it. I wish to extend to ADB ASEAN’s congratulations and appreciation for this publication, a most valuable contribution to the reasoned discourse on a serious international problem, with constructive proposals for action to deal with it. I would also like to reiterate ASEAN’s thanks to ADB for its unremitting support for ASEAN’s response to the haze crisis. In so doing, I reaffirm ASEAN’s commitment and resolve to ensure that this disaster does not happen again on such a devastating scale.
RODOLFO C. SEVERINO Jr. Secretary-General Association of Southeast Asian Nations
vi Foreword
Every year, millions of hectares of the world’s forests are consumed by a large number of fires, resulting in billions of dollars in suppression costs and causing tremendous damage, health problems, and even deaths. The forest fires that have hit the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries, especially Indonesia, have been particularly severe, with the United Nations Environment Programme labeling the blaze of 1997-1998 among the most damaging in recorded history. The environmental, economic, and social dimensions and impact of these catastrophic fires, and the associated transboundary atmospheric haze pollution, were profound. Most tropical fires are set or spread accidentally or intentionally by humans. When severe droughts over the last two decades have combined with large-scale logging in the rain forests and indiscriminate use of fire for land clearance, the results have been devastating. As a result of these and other contributory factors, all areas of ASEAN are prone to wildfires, which are likely to remain a serious threat for some time. As a partnership for sharing experiences, information, responsibilities, and benefits, and working toward common good through joint efforts and approach, ASEAN is in a strong position to address its fire problem at the regional level. Following the 1997 fires, the affected ASEAN countries assumed a more operational stance toward the fire and haze disasters. Major initiatives in response to the 1997-1998 fires included national strategies for coordinated action and collaborative regional efforts. At the ASEAN level, a Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP) was formulated and endorsed by ASEAN Environment Ministers in Singapore on 23 December 1997. The adoption of this instrument has proved to be a turning point in the region’s approach to preventing and mitigating the damage from recurrent fires and haze. The RHAP document is a reflection of ASEAN’s determination to actively tackle the problem. The Asian Development Bank (ADB) has been playing its part, supporting and catalyzing action to prevent and mitigate the impact of forest fires and haze. It has provided technical assistance at the regional level through the ASEAN Secretariat and advisory technical assistance at the national level to Indonesia. Intended as a reference source and general guide for fire and haze management in the ASEAN region, this volume primarily targets policymakers and professionals at the regional level and in the ASEAN member countries, as well as in other donor countries and agencies. As such, it reviews the fire and haze situation in the region, but putting it into an overall global context. It draws on the findings of ADB’s two related technical assistance projects, including lessons learned and proposals for follow-up in the short and medium term. The volume is organized into two main parts. THE PREMISE presents in the first three chapters background information relating to forest fires and associated haze, comparing global responses and initiatives to address the situation. In particular, the situation in ASEAN is dealt with in some detail. Chapter 1 focuses on the increasing incidence and intensity of forest fires and haze in recent years, analyzing the major causes and developments in fire science and technology to address these problems. There is also a brief account of international action to address forest fires and haze. Chapter 2 goes into some detail on the fires and haze that have affected the ASEAN region, providing analysis on the causes, and the constraints that have exacerbated these causes. Forestland conversion
vii involving uncontrolled use of fire in land preparation is identified as a major source of fires, the environmental, economic, and social aspects of which are examined. Chapter 3 discusses the responses at several levels to the recent forest fires and haze in the ASEAN region, particularly the occurrences of 1997-1998. It also provides an analysis of recent trends in donor assistance. THE PROGRAM, containing Chapters 4 to 6, discusses the programs being implemented in the ASEAN region, including regional, subregional, and national components of the Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan (ORHAP), to enhance regional preparedness to meet any future occurrences of forest fires and haze. Chapter 4 details ADB’s two-pronged approach to address transboundary atmospheric pollution in the region through its advisory technical assistance grant to Indonesia and regional technical assistance grant to ASEAN. It describes the catalytic role intended, objectives and details of activities, as well as the results achieved and lessons learned. Chapter 5 explains the ORHAP and how it is closely linked to, and supportive of, actions at subregional, national, and local levels in ASEAN. The three main program components of prevention, mitigation, and monitoring and the institutional arrangements for implementation are discussed in detail with references to the activities and actions falling under each. Chapter 6 looks at the important actions required to consolidate the initiatives undertaken so far and to promote and implement appropriate forest fire management in the region, to support rational land use and development. A lesson learned is that cooperation, openness, and dissemination of results among projects and relevant government departments is of paramount importance, as is a participatory approach. Millions of people living in rural areas depend on forests for their livelihood. Often, their aspirations for a more decent, secure, and equitable way of life are tied up with forestry development. Organized and informed participation of these people can help all parties involved to find solutions to their problems. The likelihood (in terms of number and intensity) of forest fires can be reduced through rational and balanced management interventions with the full participation of local communities. A bibliography and six Appendixes follow, providing a glossary of local and technical terms, ongoing assistance programs and activities of the RHAP, procedures for formulating and implementing a Fire Suppression Mobilization Plan, fire danger rating systems, funding agencies’ collaboration to combat forest fires and haze, and an outline of the ASEAN Haze Action Online. ADB stands ready to provide the necessary assistance at the regional as well as at the national level in support of the efforts aimed at addressing the underlying causes of forest fires and associated haze as documented in this publication. But it is important to recognize that the initiative and responsibility for successful implementation rest with the countries concerned. Regional organizations such as ASEAN can act as a facilitator and coordinator of bilateral or multilateral support, using its influence and capacity to mobilize intraregional cooperation and collaboration in dealing with the challenge. In this context, as the publication points out, the emphasis has to be on prevention, because as the old axiom goes, “prevention is better than cure.”
ROLF SELROD ZELIUS Chief, Office of Environment and Social Development Asian Development Bank
viii Acknowledgements
This volume is the result of the work of a number of experts and institutions without whose support it would not have been possible to compile the enormous amount of information available and convert it into a concise publication. In particular, we would like to acknowledge the assistance and support provided by the ASEAN Secretary-General Rodolfo C. Severino Jr., ASEAN Environment Ministers, ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment, Haze Technical Task Force, ASEAN Secretariat, Regional Haze Action Plan Coordination and Support Unit, and ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre. Special acknowledgement is due to the following for their efforts, in various capacities, as individual contributors or as members of various teams, in making this publication possible: 1.Erik Scarsborough, Larry Maramis, Adelina Kamal, Riena Prasiddha, Vinca Safrani, and Conny Andryani, as members of the management unit, for their valuable contributions throughout the Project that led to this publication. 2. Erly Sukrismanto, as Forest Fire Management Specialist; Djohan Widjaja as Information Management Specialist; John Low Kwang Keang as Atmospheric Sciences and Meteorology Specialist; John M. G. Hansen, Brian J. Graham, and Bruce J. Arthur, consultants for three AusAID-financed studies; and Raymond Yee, consultant for the ASEAN Haze Fund Study. 3. Steffen Henkel and Lucia de Carlo, two interns from Passau University, Germany, who provided their assistance and support to the management team. 4. The Panel of National Fire Management Experts from ASEAN member countries, who participated and provided technical inputs in many activities associated with the Project. 5. C. Chandrasekharan, who compiled the first draft of the publication. 6. Raman Letchumanan for his excellent suggestions to strengthen the publication. This acknowledgement would be incomplete if support of several regional and international institutions that collaborated with the Project during its implementation and beyond was not recognized. These include the Asia-Pacific Center for Environmental Law, EU-Forest Fire Prevention and Control Project, Global Fire Monitoring Center, GTZ-Integrated Forest Fire Management Project, Hanns Seidel Foundation, Indonesian Center for Environmental Law, and several donors, including AusAID, CIDA, JBIC, UNEP, US Agency for International Development; and institutions including the US Forest Service, NOAA, World Health Organization, World Meteorological Office, and WWF-Indonesia. At the Environment Division of the Asian Development Bank, we would also like to acknowledge the efforts of ADB staff Elizabeth del Mundo, Ruby Arico, Vergel Latay, Julito Baldisimo, Emma Bides, Vicky Mabugat, and Helen Cruda in finalizing the publication. ADB consultant Graham Dwyer worked as copy editor, and jointly on the design and typesetting with Segundo Dela Cruz, Jr.
S. TAHIR QADRI Editor
J. WARREN EVANS Manager, Environment Division
ix Abbreviations and Acronyms
ADB Asian Development Bank ADPC Asian Disaster Preparedness Center ADTA advisory technical assistance AMC ASEAN member country AMMH ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze API Air Pollution Index ASEAN Association of Southeast Asian Nations ASMC ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre ASOEN ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment ATM atmospheric transport models AusAID Australian Agency for International Development AVHRR Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer BAKORNAS PB Badan Koordinasi Nasional Penanggulangan Bencana (National Coordination Agency for Disaster Management) BAPEDAL Badan Pengendalian Dampak Lingkungan (National Environmental Impact Management Agency) BAPPENAS Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (National Development Planning Agency) BMG Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika (Meteorological and Geophysics Agency) CDC Centre for Disease Control (Malaysia) CIDA Canadian International Development Agency CIFOR Centre for International Forestry Research COST ASEAN Committee on Science and Technology CRISP Center for Remote Imaging, Sensing and Processing CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation CSU Coordination and Support Unit DIP Detailed Implementation Plan ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation ENSOI El Niño Southern Oscillation Index EPA US Environmental Protection Agency ESCAP Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific EU European Union FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FDRS fire danger rating system FFPCP Forest Fire Prevention and Control Project (of the EU) FFPMP Forest Fire Prevention and Management Project (of JICA) FIRE Fire in Global Resource and Environmental Monitoring (CEC-JRC) FSMP Fire Suppression Mobilization Plan x GAW Global Atmospheric Watch GDP gross domestic product GIS geographic information system GMS Geostationary Meteorological Satellite GTZ Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Agency for Technical Cooperation) ha hectare HTTF Haze Technical Task Force ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agroforestry IDNDR International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction IFFM Integrated Forest Fire Management Project (of GTZ) IFFN International Forest Fire News IGAC International Global Atmospheric Chemistry IMS information management systems JICA Japan International Cooperation Agency KBDI Keetch-Byram Drought Index km kilometer LAPAN Lembaga Antariksa dan Penerbangan Nasional [Indonesian National Institute of Aeronautics and Space] m3 cubic meter MACRES Malaysian Centre for Remote Sensing mm millimeter MOFEC Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops (Indonesia) mt metric ton NDVI Normalized Difference Vegetation Index NWFP nonwood forest product NWP Numerical Weather Prediction NGO nongovernment organization NHAP National Haze Action Plan NMS National Meteorological Services NMSs nonmeteorological satellites NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ORHAP Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan PARTS Programme to Address Regional Transboundary Smoke PM particulate matter PRC People’s Republic of China PSI Air Pollutant Standard Index PMU Project Management Unit PUSDALKARHUTNAS Pusat Pengendalian Kebakaran Hutan Nasional (National Center for Forest Fire Control) RETA regional technical assistance RHAP Regional Haze Action Plan
xi RFA Regional Firefighting Arrangement SEA-EI Southeast Asian Environment Initiative SEAFIRE Southeast Asian Fire Experiment SOP standard operating procedure SPOT Satellite Positioning and Tracking SRFA Subregional Firefighting Arrangement STARE Southern Tropical Atlantic Regional Experiment (IGAC) TEWT Tactical Exercise without Troops TKNPKHL Tim Koordinasi Nasional Pengelolaan Kebakaran Hutan dan Lahan (National Coordinating Team for Land and Forest Fire Control Management) UN United Nations UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDAC United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNEP United Nations Environment Programme UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund US United States USAID United States Agency for International Development WHO World Health Organization WMO World Meteorological Organization WRI World Resources Institute WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
Note: “$” refers to US dollars unless otherwise specified.
xii Executive Summary
Background for rain forests to become dry and vulnerable to burning. In In recent years, forest fires influenced by rapid demographic the Ice Age, extended periods of minimal rainfall occurred changes, increased human activity, and unpredictable in Southeast Asia, making large areas of the region climatic variability have become a major environmental vulnerable to fires. Only recently, long-term climate problem in the tropical ecosystems of the Association of variability, i.e., glacial vs. nonglacial climate and short-term Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region. Fires and climate oscillations caused by El Niños, have regularly created associated haze have adversely affected the natural conditions that make even the rain forests vulnerable to environment and threatened the sustainable development and wildfires. Forest and landfires are also linked to human management of natural resources. Hence, fire and haze interventions. management has acquired a new dimension in land resources Humans have used fires as they settled in the forests for and environmental management that must be accorded thousands of years to practice swidden agriculture and urgent and utmost attention. The problem and the causes if to help in hunting. Traditional use of fire is thought to have not addressed urgently may not only affect the countries in little long-term ecological impact on the forests; but increased the region, but its many impacts may also extend beyond population density, shortened fallow periods, and cash and acquire global dimensions. cropping made shifting cultivation an agent of ignition, along Early humans used fire as a tool to alter their surroundings with several other factors. and later to prepare land for cultivation. The use of managed Since 1982, there have been five major fire outbreaks in fires became a common practice in land conversion. However, Southeast Asia, with small fires occurring almost annually. once out of control due to negligence, carelessness, or arson, The last major fire was in 1997-1998, destroying an the fires led to long-term land degradation and resulted in estimated land and forest area of more than 9 million hectares other detrimental impacts, to the ultimate disadvantage of (ha) in Indonesia alone. human society. Every year, millions of hectares of the world’s forests are Underlying Causes being consumed by a large number of fires, big and small, Availability of dry fuel, a source of ignition to set fire, and a resulting in billions of dollars in suppression costs and transport mechanism such as wind to feed a conflagration causing tremendous damage in lost timber, declines in real are the main factors behind all major forest fires and estate and recreational values, property losses, and deaths. associated haze. Three factors enhance the magnitude of such Wildfires have influenced many aspects of our life: the flow occurrences: direct and immediate causes, contributing of commodities on which we depend, the health and safety factors or constraints, and indirect or influencing factors. of the communities where we live, and the resilience of our natural ecosystems. Direct Causes Most tropical fires are set or spread accidentally or Southeast Asian Fires and Haze intentionally by humans and are related to several causative Tropical rain forests are the natural vegetation in large areas agents; some of them linked to subsistence livelihood, of Southeast Asia. These forests grow under conditions of others to commercial activities. Foremost among the abundant rainfall, high temperature, and humidity, rendering various underlying causes of catastrophic fires in Southeast them less vulnerable to fires and more resistant to burning. Asia in 1997-1998 are the use of open burning techniques Wildfires in Southeast Asia since the Pleistocene age were for conversion of forestland to other land uses, e.g., estate made possible only by periods of reduced rainfall, long enough crops, industrial plantations, and other commercial
xiii enterprises; traditional slash-and-burn agriculture; and traditions that eroded customary law, social speculative burning to stake land claims. cohesiveness among indigenous groups, and According to a study conducted by the Ministry of State traditional knowledge regarding prevention and for Environment in Indonesia,* the fires and haze of 1982- control of fires; 1983, 1987, 1994, 1997, and 1998 were due to a wide range (xii) inadequate knowledge of fire prevention and of factors. These include: mitigation techniques exacerbated by a lack of (i) lack of institutional commitment at regional, operating procedures and appropriate institutional national, provincial, and local levels to make arrangements for coordinating mitigation activities investments in preventing land and forest fires as at the national, regional, and international levels; opposed to mitigation; (xiii) inadequate prevention and mitigation capacity, i.e., (ii) increased vulnerability of forestlands to fires from trained personnel, equipment, and facilities at the unsustainable forest management and harvesting regional, national, and local levels; and practices; (xiv) inadequacy or nonexistence of committed funding (iii) conflicting roles and responsibilities of institutions for prevention and mitigation activities at the concerned with managing forestlands and forest regional, national, provincial, and local levels. fires, especially on the mandate, authority, financial resources, and accountability; Contributory Factors (iv) indifference to the cyclical nature of fires and haze Apart from direct causes, there are contributory factors that in the region on the part of institutions charged increase the potential of fire danger. These include political, with managing forestlands and forest fires, and economic, physiographic, sociocultural, and institutional disregard for early warning announcements on the factors. In fact, the most important of these are policies and onset of El Niño; institutions. (v) inadequate information and systems for Lack of political will, inappropriate and poorly communication, including ineffectiveness of such specified policies, weak legislation, ambiguous regulations, systems from institutional failure; bureaucratic procedures, land-use conflicts, and inadequate (vi) vested interests that marginalize issues relating to resources for enforcement of laws and regulations were fires and haze to favor a particular sector, corporate again and again crucial and crippling constraints. Policy body, or individual; gaps and conflicts in land use, tenure security, and (vii) lack of incentives to promote logging techniques economic development add considerably to the dangers that lead to sustainable output of production posed by forest fires. forests, and mechanical land clearing; (viii) inadequate research into the use of logging Indirect Factors residues as productive inputs and development of Indirect and influencing factors such as climate and climatic logging products; variation often play a significant role in the setting off of (ix) indifference of the private sector (industry, large- forest fires and associated haze. Climate is an overriding scale agriculture, and smallholders) to the control factor in fire occurrence and frequency. It determines environmental consequences of large-scale fires; not only the vegetation characteristics in a general sense, (x) poorly specified property rights that caused mutual but also influences soil microorganism activity and thus the conflicts among numerous classes of land claimants litter decomposition. In tropical lowland environments, (local residents, government, transmigrants, industry); (xi) indifference of government and entrepreneurs to *Ministry of State for Environment, Republic of Indonesia and United Nations Development Programme. 1998. Forest and Land Fires in local customary rights, livelihood strategies, and Indonesia. Volumes I and II.
xiv litter decomposition is generally fast, and organic matter natural forestland to other uses. The Indonesian Ministry of accumulation is rarely an important factor. However, State for Environment Report quoted earlier provides fresh climatic seasonality in terms of wetness and dryness is the empirical evidence that supports the above conclusion. most important parameter related to fire occurrence. In According to the report, of a total area of 4.8 million ha tropical conditions where seasonal changes are less evident, consumed by fire in 1994, 88 percent comprised logged- the weather variations due to climatic disturbances lead to over forests or land under cultivation by traditional dry land cyclical drought conditions. agricultural techniques. Meteorologists consider El Niños as one of the significant In contrast, shifting cultivation accounted for only aggravating factors behind the rise in temperatures and 5 percent, transmigration farmland 4.5 percent, plantations consequent drought in Southeast Asia during major fires only 0.8 percent, and natural protected forests a scant and haze in the past years. El Niños are an oceanographic 0.2 percent. The figures for 1997 tell a similar story. Of all phenomenon of strong and extensive warming in the upper land area consumed by forest fires during the year, logged- ocean of the tropical eastern Pacific. An El Niño arises, over production forests accounted for 62 percent. The periodically, to upset global weather patterns. El Niños lead remainder comprised the national parks, 20.6 percent; to the strengthening of a warm ocean current called the protection forests, 8 percent; nature reserves, 6.5 percent; equatorial counter-current in the mid-Pacific, causing the and recreation parks, 0.6 percent. entire weather mechanism to be disrupted. Rainfall is delayed, crops are adversely affected, and storms occur where Economic Impact they should not. An estimated spatial distribution of areas affected by Investigators of the fires and haze in Southeast Asia 1997-1998 fires included more than 6 million ha in indicated that while the El Niño phenomenon created dry Kalimantan, more than 1.5 million ha in Sumatra, some conditions, the direct causes of the damaging fires were 1 million ha in Irian Jaya, about 400,000 ha in Sulawesi, habitual use of uncontrolled, open, and broadcast fires as and about 100,000 ha in Java. Of the burned area, cheap means of land clearing and preparation by owners of 4.65 million ha is forestland. plantations; small farmers; and slash-and-burn agriculturists. The economic loss has been estimated to be about $6 billion. This does not include the full environmental costs, Impacts e.g., loss of biodiversity or the cost of social suffering. Burning of forests and biomass has serious impacts, often Apart from the loss of material goods and services, forest resulting in loss of life, livestock, and capital. The damage fires have caused serious direct economic losses through caused by fires is often difficult to quantify, especially when damage and decline in the quality of forest growing stock, nontangible losses are involved. Impacts of forest fires have reduced landscape stability, increased proneness to pests and several dimensions—economic, environmental, ecological, diseases, reduced availability of forest-based raw material social, and others that could be onsite and offsite, direct and supplies, and the need for new investments in forest indirect. rehabilitation and fire protection measures. Indirectly they The extent of impacts would depend on the frequency have affected agricultural productivity and tourism. and intensity of fires, fuel load, type of forests involved, and They have also had an impact on indigenous populations climatic factors. and their means of livelihood, and jeopardized the prospects Human interventions make tropical forests far more and ability of the rural poor to improve their standard of vulnerable to fire than otherwise. The greater the degree of living. human intervention into the natural tropical forest ecological Forest fires have also degraded surviving forests by system, the more vulnerable these forests become to fire. exerting potential impact on composition, regeneration, This conclusion has obvious implications for conversion of productivity, protection functions, and aesthetic values.
xv Ecological and Environmental Impacts globally. The Antalya Declaration of the Sixteenth World Ecological impacts of forest fires are reflected in the Forestry Conference in 1997 highlighted the urgent need degradation of vegetation quality, expansion of savannah and for improved and integrated forest fire management. sterile grasslands, erosion of biodiversity, damage to the health of the forest ecosystem, plant mortality, loss of wildlife ASEAN Response habitat and wildlife, pollution in rivers and The major haze source countries in the region affected estuaries, and overall ecological retrogression. Fires affect by the 1997-1998 fires have experienced similar occurrences the quality and productivity of soil by destroying humus and during the last 20 years. Despite these, their capability to altering its chemistry, increasing soil temperature, adequately respond to the situation has not matched the needs. destroying microbial inhabitation, reducing moisture In this connection, ASEAN has assumed the central role. retention capacity of the soil, causing erosion of surface soil For several years ASEAN was concerned with the issue of and nutrient loss, increasing run-off, lowering the subsoil transboundary atmospheric pollution in the region and some water table and causing desertification, and ultimately, general instruments have been put in place. reducing the carrying capacity of the land involved. Forest fires contribute to global climate change and Regional Haze Action Plan warming. Burning of forests destroys an important sink for Intergovernment efforts of the ASEAN member atmospheric carbon, while biomass burning is recognized countries (AMCs) to address transboundary atmospheric as a significant global source of emissions, contributing as pollution, in the wake of the 1997 forest fires and haze, much as 10 percent of the gross carbon dioxide and 38 percent resulted in the Regional Haze Action Plan (RHAP), of tropospheric ozone. approved for implementation in December 1997. The Haze formation and dispersion have important primary objectives of the RHAP are to: (i) prevent forest environmental dimensions that include air pollution both fires through better management policies and enforcement, within boundary and transboundary. Other effects include (ii) establish operational mechanisms to monitor land and reduced visibility, transport disruption, and health hazards. forest fires, and (iii) strengthen regional land and forest Apart from public health, social welfare is adversely affected firefighting capacity with other mitigation measures. through displacement of communities, loss of income The RHAP has three major component programs: sources, and dwindling livelihood opportunities. prevention, mitigation, and monitoring. Different countries have been designated to spearhead the activities that fall Responses under each of the three RHAP programs. Malaysia takes Global Concern the lead in prevention, Indonesia in mitigation, and Singapore The recurrence of increasingly large forest fires has in monitoring of fires and haze. All AMCs will undertake attracted world concern, particularly in the industrialized the national-level actions of the three RHAP programs. countries, for the last several years. In those countries, fire Prevention, mitigation, and monitoring will also take place science and technology have developed considerably and at the subregional and regional levels. A considerable amount sophisticated systems are being employed to forecast and of donor assistance was forthcoming for this crucial initiative, monitor fires and haze through the use of satellite and in which the Asian Development Bank (ADB) played a space-borne sensors, and climate and transport models. Some catalytic role. of these new technologies are being transferred to tropical developing countries, but considerable efforts are required to Role of the Asian Development Bank balance and tune them to their needs. The RHAP was signed during a period of intense fire, smoke, The increasing frequency and intensity of fires and haze and transboundary pollution. It was formulated and endorsed are alarming and have led to several parallel initiatives within an abbreviated time frame, so it was not possible for
xvi the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze (AMMH) or the • catalyze donor collaborative partnerships and activities Haze Technical Task Force (HTTF) to work out the to directly complement the AMCs’ planning in implementation details prior to endorsement by the nine confronting the region’s transboundary haze pollution AMCs. What the Ministers had in mind when they endorsed problem; the RHAP document was to initiate a process. • share knowledge and experience as well as efficient and The document had also made it clear that ADB’s assistance economic use of regional firefighting equipment; would be sought to implement the plan. ADB’s response to • develop formalized cooperation arrangements among the requests of ASEAN was fast and firm. It adopted a two- countries of the region and beyond, to enhance pronged approach, in the form of regional and national scientific understanding of the causes and initiatives. consequences of transboundary atmospheric pollution; and The regional technical assistance (RETA) 5778: • establish a regional level framework for joint response Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent and mechanisms through enhancement of ASEAN and Mitigate Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution; and associated institutions’ capacity in the effective advisory technical assistance (ADTA) INO 2999: Planning implementation and monitoring of the RHAP. for Fire Prevention and Drought Management were approved One of the prime needs was to channel all efforts, whether in early 1998. Implementation of these technical assistance funded by the AMCs, ASEAN, or international assistance grants has been completed. agencies, through an operational network of national, The focus of ADB’s RETA Project was to strengthen subregional, and regional arrangements. The RETA Project ASEAN’s capacity in operationalizing and implementing the was able to do this effectively, particularly obtaining donor RHAP. The complementary ADTA was designed to estimate resources for the implementation of RHAP components. the economic damage caused by the 1997-1998 fires in In tandem with the inception workshop of the RETA Indonesia, to provide a basis for policy change, and identify Project, an open forum for donor’s participation in assistance investments needed for prevention and mitigation of forest for fires and haze was held in early 1998. This led to a fires at the country level. number of commitments complementing the RETA Project The main objective of the RETA Project was to strengthen activities, and taking over of some activities within the and formalize cooperation among ASEAN countries affected Project’s scope. Resources were utilized for important by forest fires and haze by supporting the underfunded activities. The assistance of Australia and the • short-term measures aimed at operationalizing the United States in implementing the World Meteorological RHAP; Organization (WMO) program to address the regional • medium-term measures to strengthen the capacity of transboundary haze as well as United Nations Environment relevant institutions in implementing the RHAP, and Programme (UNEP) support in various areas of fires and improve scientific understanding of large-scale fires and haze mitigation deserve special mention. transboundary atmospheric pollution; and • strengthening the capacity of institutions to implement Achievements of the RETA Project and institutionalize the RHAP. The RETA Project’s achievements through direct These called for several actions to achieve the following: intervention and collaboration with other donors were • identify actions to be taken by the AMCs to establish gratifying. These include the following. an institutional framework to address the region’s A. Through direct intervention: transboundary haze pollution problem on a long-term, • Compiled baseline information through surveys, sustainable basis; studies, and assessments. • decide the required investments, if any, to support the • Conducted an inventory of the regions’ firefighting institutional framework; resources and fire suppression capabilities.
xvii • Established and strengthened subregional firefighting • Promoted development of facilities for training and arrangements. research studies relating to forest fires and haze • Carried out studies and evaluations on ASEAN’s management. existing forest fires and haze monitoring system to • Mobilized donor support for fire-and-haze-related promote their upgrade. projects, e.g., program to address regional • Undertook policy studies on the use of market-based transboundary smoke (PARTS), forged collaborative instruments to promote adoption of mechanical zero- partnerships with other international institutions, and burn land clearing methods and marketing of facilitated donor coordination. products using biomass residues as productive inputs. • Reviewed national and international laws, policies, Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan (ORHAP) and institutional arrangements connected with The prime output of the RETA Project was an forest fire and haze issues and developed a legal operationalized version of the RHAP (ORHAP), which was framework and facility for cross-border cooperation. approved for implementation by the ASEAN Senior Officials • Helped to develop regional and national facilities on Environment and HTTF in July 1999. ORHAP had two for fire and haze monitoring, e.g., ASEAN major beneficial impacts on ASEAN. First, it helped ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC). to address the fire-and-haze issue directly, with actions that • Developed and strengthened the system of increase the region’s capacity to manage future forest fires information management at the ASEAN level and and haze. It also catalyzed the beginning of ASEAN’s supported the establishment of a regional reorientation from a passive agency that responds to challenges information center and clearinghouse, which in an ex post manner to a more forward looking institution included the setting up of ASEAN Haze Action that anticipates challenges and responds to them ex ante. Online. The programs and activities of the ORHAP are defined • Assisted in operationalizing a RHAP that includes a considering three basic parameters: system of detailed implementation plans at the • the region’s transboundary pollution problem is regional, subregional, and national levels. ultimately driven by national-level policies; • Assisted in organizing institutional mechanisms, • haze pollution itself results from behavior heavily particularly for regional coordination, through the reinforced by profit considerations; and establishment of a Coordination and Support Unit. • climate factors act to worsen the tendency of the above • Promoted a continuous dialogue among ASEAN two parameters to produce haze. members and partners as an ongoing system for And five strategic considerations: effective regional cooperation. • the primary goal of the ORHAP is to prevent the B. Through collaboration with other donors: recurrence of transboundary haze and this calls for a • Formulated an operating procedure for activating focus on fire management; forest firefighting resources in the ASEAN region, • endorsement of the RHAP and ORHAP by an ASEAN with particular reference to Indonesia. country implies limitations on land conversion; • Designed a model fire suppression mobilization plan • measures in the ORHAP that remove or address and initiated the preparation of Fire Suppression “binding constraints” on preventing or mitigating Mobilization Plans (FSMPs) for specific areas. transboundary haze pollution will be given highest • Conducted studies on haze transport and climate priority. Measures that address successively less binding models and harmonization of pollution indexes. constraints will be assigned successively lower priority. • Catalyzed and collaborated in conducting studies on • the purpose of ORHAP-related measures at regional health impacts of haze pollution. and subregional levels is to catalyze and complement, xviii rather than to substitute for, the measures carried out presents a detailed matrix of the budget, source of funding, at the national level; and time frame, and a monitoring variable to determine the • wherever alternative measures for achieving the same successful implementation of actions. Thus the DIP matrix objective exist, the one that costs less will be can function also as a vehicle for monitoring ORHAP implemented. implementation. Transparency in monitoring is assured by The ORHAP is designed as a rolling plan with a dissemination of the entire DIP matrix to all concerned short-term horizon, to be updated annually, i.e., a detailed parties by a restricted access, i.e., password-required, implementation plan for year one plus a regular ORHAP intranet. for the succeeding five years. Thus, the ORHAP is a While the ORHAP details the steps that ASEAN itself document meant to be continually refined and updated. will take, donor-assisted initiatives only support the steps Depending on the evaluation of activities conducted and taken by ASEAN. The full complement of concrete completed in the previous periods, future activities can be measures that will comprise the implementation strategy also modified, new activities added, and redundant ones deleted. need to be laid out. These additional activities are expected to be of two types: Since the actions are undertaken at regional, subregional, those undertaken directly by the AMC governments themselves and national levels, correspondingly, the DIP is divided into and those for which donor support will need to be catalyzed. three. The DIPs relating to various levels together comprise The three major programs of ORHAP: prevention, the ORHAP DIP, which collectively form the detailed mitigation, and monitoring were divided into 20 activities “to-do” list that guides implementation over six years. The and 50 actions. To implement these programs, the ASEAN ORHAP is thus composed of one regional, two subregional, region was subdivided into member countries, and each AMC and nine national DIPs. had its own system of provinces, districts, etc. The country At the ASEAN level, HTTF will monitor the progress plan, including subplans on fires and haze includes the of ORHAP implementation and take action in shaping National Haze Action Plans (NHAPs), with the countries the region’s infrastructure for fire protection and free to adopt their own program structure. The NHAPs are mitigation. A brief description of the three major programs linked to the ORHAP. As in the case of programs, there could follows: also be parallel linkages due to overlapping of interests or other expediency criteria. The two Subregional Firefighting Prevention Arrangements (SRFAs) (Borneo and Sumatra) within the While the program defines its scope, funding determines umbrella of the ORHAP are cases of parallel spatial linkages the actual number of incorporated activities. Accordingly, at subregional level in respect of a program activity, i.e., the first six-year rolling ORHAP include 10 activities: firefighting. Spatially, nine NHAPs and two SRFAs are • forecasting climatological conditions that are likely to appropriately linked. result in fires and haze; • mapping areas subject to heightened risk of forest fires, Detailed Implementation Plan including how these at-risk areas expand or shrink in The core of the ORHAP is a Detailed Implementation response to seasonal, annual, or multi-year changes in Plan (DIP), which contains the provision for actual climate; implementation of activities. Each DIP is prepared based • managing and disseminating information on fires and on commitments from the AMCs, assistance agencies, haze, the geographical areas that may be affected by donor countries, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), haze, and the human health impacts or likely impacts community groups, and other voluntary organizations. of existing or forecasted haze presence or movement; In addition to detailing the organization and designating • reviewing the existing policy framework at the national the persons responsible for each action, the DIP also level to determine how the economic incentives that it
xix provides are likely to shape the use of fire as a tool or range of measures that either modify the fuels found within weapon; or around the fire-threatened resources to reduce the spread • bringing about appropriate policy changes to ensure and intensity of fires, or reduce the chances of human-caused that the economic incentives provided by the policy ignition. framework at the national level are consistent with the Various categories of fire prevention measures include policy on open burning; scientific resource management, policy reforms and • providing market-based and other economic incentives modifications, command and control, public education, and for promoting the adoption of new products and moral suasion. technologies that use biomass, logging, and land- Scientific forest resource management regarding fires clearing residues as productive inputs; comprises hazard reduction measures, including rational and • formulating, operationalizing, and implementing controlled use of fire, such as prescribed burning. Forest NHAPs as a foundation to operationalize the RHAP, fire management can be an important aspect of sustainable and increase the degree of readiness to meet forest fire forest management practices to ensure that negative impacts emergencies at the national level; are minimized and positive impacts maximized. • harmonizing and integrating NHAPs at the ASEAN Policy measures involve removal of anomalies in the existing level to ensure collective consistency and effectiveness land conversion and related policies, improving the policy in jointly responding to regional forest fires and haze; environment with nondistortionary incentives, and • developing and implementing institutional introducing zero-burn land-clearing systems and market- arrangements for linking national firefighting based instruments. capabilities in any combination within ASEAN, e.g., The regional project carried out a special study on the SRFAs, or other mechanisms for coordinating multiple potential of promoting mechanical land clearing and national firefighting capabilities; and marketing of products based on residues. It noted that the • formulating, ratifying, and implementing an ASEAN- technical feasibility of zero-burn land-clearing methods has wide Forest Fire Readiness Protocol that formalizes been proven and demonstrated in a number of cases in the national-level firefighting linkages by putting into place region. It was the skewed system of incentives involved in institutional arrangements that facilitate rapid the free use of open fire for land clearing and the deployment. landowners’ efforts to maximize private profits that created In the context of the ORHAP, prevention signifies doubts about its economic advantages. From an overall control of transboundary haze pollution and related damage, national and socioeconomic point of view, the system has both environmental and material, to the fullest extent several merits. In Sarawak, Malaysia, land clearance for possible. It involves efforts on two fronts: cultivation is mostly carried out mechanically and land • preventing fires from outside, e.g., agricultural areas, preparation for planting follows “zero-burn” methods. burning forests and other natural vegetation; and Market-based instruments or approaches can be applied • managing the use of fire for land clearing and refuse in several variations to encourage land clearing through zero- disposal so that the extent and density of burning are burn techniques and to promote products that use the biomass controlled. resulting from mechanical land clearing as raw material. The Fires should be prevented as much as possible, since exact extent and conditions under which zero-burn land- control and mitigation is more difficult and expensive. clearing techniques are financially feasible or Prevention is one of the most effective ways of tackling land applicable are still being worked out. However, available and forest fires. Management of the land conversion process evidence suggests that these conditions are likely to vary needs to be addressed through policy and regulatory measures. widely. What is certain is that in some haze-source ASEAN The prevention of land and forest fires embraces a wide countries, explicit and implicit subsidies for land clearance
xx reward the use of open burning. For environmentally burning or even stop this practice altogether. ASEAN will conscious operators, the existing indirect subsidies act as a therefore promote such new programs and expansion of strong disincentive to the use of zero-burn methods. The existing ones in all member countries by sponsoring incentive system, thus, subsidizes the behavior that workshops and training programs, especially in key fire- contributes to transboundary haze pollution and penalizes and-haze-prone areas. the behavior that attempts to prevent it. The use of market- Moral suasion initiatives reduce transboundary haze based instruments will partially remove the two-edged bias pollution by publicly informing stakeholders who are tempted against the use of mechanical land-clearing techniques. to practice uncontrolled open burning of the broader The rationale for market-based instruments is to prevent negative effects of the practice. ASEAN undertakes such people from using fire as a land-clearing tool for their own initiatives by meeting directly with representatives of motives at little cost, shunting the bulk of the burden to relevant private sector firms as appropriate, and discussing haze-recipient populations. On the other hand, operators the broader negative impacts of uncontrolled open burning using mechanical land-clearing techniques bear all of the and transboundary haze pollution. costs of land-clearing. Thus, even if open burning was not subsidized, the operator using open burning enjoys more Mitigation profit than the operator using mechanical land-clearing To reduce the impacts of fires and haze, mitigation calls techniques. Allowing this is inconsistent with economic for action at three stages: pre-event, during the event, and efficiency and market principles where producers compete post-event. These three stages consist of the following on an equal footing so that society can obtain products at activities: (i) preparedness to face fires where actions on the lowest possible cost. If for any reason this equal footing infrastructure, equipment, strategies and logistics, training, is weakened, damaged, or destroyed, society-at-large is the crew fitness, surveillance, etc., are planned and implemented; loser. The introduction of market-based instruments (ii) suppression, including aspects of detection, quick promotes competition on an equal footing and brings about communication of information, crew mobilization and economic efficiency with society as a whole benefiting. dispatch, provision of water, movement of equipment, Command and control is an expression to cover all legal coordination of field action, e.g., of aerial and ground measures including instruments, regulatory mechanisms, legal operations, firefighting, and extinguishing of fires; and (iii) sanctions, and restrictions. Legal measures form an relief to those affected by haze pollution and fires, including important fire prevention tool. Command-and-control medical attention and compensation, and rehabilitation to measures directly regulate human use of fire by imposing repair damage to property and resources. sanctions against persons who use it in unapproved ways. Mitigation is closely linked with other ORHAP programs. Command-and-control measures are therefore implementable Prevention, e.g., firebreaks, fuel load control, other only at the national or subnational level. Nonnational preventive measures, and monitoring includes weather entities at the regional and subregional levels can play a role monitoring, fire modeling, fire spotting, and early warning. in facilitating or supporting implementation of command- Many of the time-consuming operations are carried out when and-control measures at the national or subnational levels. there is apparently no fire danger. For example: Public education and moral suasion objectives can be • developing and maintaining infrastructure, water achieved through dissemination of information and use of storage, firebreaks and fire corridors, aircraft landing sites; the media. Public education and awareness programs • acquiring, maintaining, and stock verification of tools reduce transboundary haze pollution by informing and equipment, e.g., hand tools, heavy equipment, water stakeholders of the broader negative effects of open burning hoses and tankers, communication equipment, etc.; and haze pollution. Once they are made aware of these • preparing and revising fire maps, information effects, at least some of these stakeholders will limit open materials, guidelines, and instructions for crew;
xxi • planning for fire emergencies, covering strategies and simultaneously in all countries in a regional or subregional logistics; grouping is slight, resources on standby in a member • establishing fire detection, surveillance, i.e., aerial and country not threatened by fire can be used to augment those ground, and intelligence systems; in places where fire suppression resources are fully employed. • preparing resource mobilization plans; Since the overall risk of transboundary haze and the fires • contacting community leaders, cooperating agencies, that cause them is so unevenly spread across the region, the and volunteers; subregional level is the key in organizing and carrying out • conducting training and retraining for various levels; cooperative mitigation-related activities under the ORHAP. • reviewing, modifying, or improving organizational The same is true with monitoring activities. arrangements, and standby and response orders; and Two SRFAs are in place. SRFA Sumatra’s membership • conducting dry runs and intensive drills, and keeping comprises Indonesia as lead country, Malaysia, and the crews in good shape. Singapore. SRFA Borneo’s membership comprises Brunei The activities are carried out as per plan to keep the whole Darussalam as lead country, Indonesia, and Malaysia. A third system in a “well-oiled” condition, and ensure that no SRFA for the Greater Mekong subregion (SRFA-GMS) has details are overlooked and “the war is not lost for want of a yet to be officially formed, because the impetus for this, i.e., nail.” Two important initiatives to promote “better extensive large-scale fires within the area, has not yet arisen. preparedness” undertaken during the execution of the SRFA-GMS would group all AMCs through which the RETA Project, and still continuing, were: (i) preparation of Mekong River flows: Cambodia, the Lao People’s a system of FSMPs; and (ii) establishment of working groups Democratic Republic, Myanmar, Thailand, and Viet Nam. for SRFAs. Its formation would leave the Philippines as the only ASEAN FSMPs are required to start from the village level and country not a member of an SRFA. This deficiency could move upwards through the institutional hierarchy, to be easily be repaired by the Philippines joining SRFA Borneo, linked at district, provincial, and SRFA levels to ensure an which would be fitting, because of the country’s proximity effective functioning system. to Borneo. When the process of formulating or upgrading FSMPs ORHAP activities to be carried out at the subregional for various areas is completed, a database containing all level must avoid violating an individual member country’s relevant information such as the training and equipment national sovereignty in two key areas. First, the requirements, operational costs of implementing the FSMPs, requesting country only may trigger the physical entry of and inventory of skilled personnel and equipment needs to fire management personnel and equipment from one be assembled. This must be carried out individually for each member country into another’s territorial boundaries. The geographic area, and the results aggregated at the national host country alone must decide when the threshold at level. Regular and continuous updating of this database would which large-scale fires can no longer be contained by ensure better utilization at the time of need. The national fire management resources has been breached, government agency performing this task at the national level and suppression resources drawn from the supranational should be assigned the lead role in fire management. level will be required to prevent haze from violating SRFAs: The main rationale for subregional cooperation another country’s airspace. in fire management and suppression is cost effectiveness. Second, the deployment of suppression resources drawn One means of increasing the cost effectiveness of fire from the supranational level must take place on the basis of suppression at the national level is by risk pooling at the an agreed subregional FSMP, rather than on an ad hoc basis international level. This involves supranational sharing of improvised at the spur of the moment. The subregional FSMP fire suppression resources during periods of peak demand. should, as a first step, work out logistics for efficient Because the risk of large-scale fires occurring deployment of national fire management resources. Only
xxii then should deployment of supranational resources be • detecting wildfires; integrated into the national level framework. • predicting and tracking the movements of the resulting The ORHAP’s mitigation program has identified four haze; priority activities for the first six years of the rolling plan: (i) • forecasting the degree of wildfires likely to generate formalizing arrangements for improved training and haze, as well as the type or composition of emissions retraining of forest firefighters at the national and that might be generated; regional level to ensure that trained personnel are adequately • determining the likely health impacts from typical or equipped to cope with future forest fires; (ii) inventorying particular haze; existing firefighting capability at the national level, • identifying the areas historically affected by forest fires including all aspects of equipment and personnel, to and haze in the region, or those likely to be affected by determine the maximum scale of forest fire that existing particular occurrences; and resources are equipped to handle; (iii) strengthening • assessing the impact of past forest fires, including the firefighting at the national level where each AMC’s extent of area burned, the composition of flora and capability is sufficient to cope with forest fires likely to fauna destroyed, and the socioeconomic cost of occur on an annual basis; and (iv) ensuring the continued particular forest fires at the local, national, and global readiness of firefighting capability at the national level through levels. regular maintenance of equipment and upgrading of skills The scope of monitoring of fires and haze covers early of firefighting personnel. warning and fire danger rating, large-scale fire management assistance, atmospheric pollution, and health impacts of haze Monitoring and ex-post monitoring. There are large variations in the scope, methods, types, Early warning system. The early warning system aims to purposes and objectives, and outputs of monitoring. provide a measure of the risk of fires and to communicate Monitoring can be an event, a process, or an output; it can the information in a timely manner to the central, be discreet, continuous, or incremental; it can be tackled provincial, and district authorities and the community as a directly, indirectly, or by proxy measures; it can be done whole. Fire danger warning is probably the central function from ground (site) or air (remote). of a fire monitoring system, and most other activities are, in It can employ simple methods or measures, i.e., one way or the other, related to this important aspect. number, area, volume, profit or sophisticated technology Simplicity is the primary hallmark of any early warning involving satellites, computers, and systems science system. The warning system is based on climate models and providing for multiple linkages, e.g., weather data, forecasting of weather trends. The El Niño Southern economic data, management information system, Oscillation index is a useful predictor of fire weather in the geographic information systems, and facilities to import region. and export information. Nearly all fire danger rating systems incorporate three The data needs of sophisticated monitoring systems are base weather variables: rainfall reflecting wetness or often tremendous, ranging from land-use changes and dryness, relative humidity, and maximum temperature. More demographic trends to socioeconomic indicators, sophisticated indexes add fuel types and land use hydrometeorological factors, spatial and temporal classification to the base weather variables. distribution of relevant factors, and environmental standards. Relative humidity and maximum temperature remain While the ORHAP has defined the scope of monitoring relatively uniform in the parts of the ASEAN region affected based on the needs and priorities of the region, six activities by forest fires over the past two decades. They are thus poor were included in the ORHAP’s current monitoring predictors of fire activity. Neither are the data on fuel types program, including: particularly helpful, since the purpose of deliberate open
xxiii burning is to consume whatever fuel is present. Therefore, emissions that escape from large-scale fires. The main there is need to develop a fire danger index that is most purpose of atmospheric monitoring is to provide timely haze appropriate to the situation in the ASEAN region. Efficacy warnings based on the PSI and API. A warning system for of different systems such as the Keetch-Byram Drought haze relies on the ability to predict deterioration visible in Index (KBDI), Rainfall Debt, and the Canadian Fire Weather any place over a long period, as meteorological forecasting Index in their modified forms have been assessed. skills permit. The most basic forecasting tool is a box model However, a decision on a common fire danger index for the that accepts the generated smoke into a fixed volume air. region is yet to be taken. Ex-post monitoring. The purpose of ex-post monitoring is Large-Scale Fire Management Assistance. If a wildfire to correctly measure the various impacts of fires and haze, occurs in spite of the early warning system and the to plan remedial measures. preventive measures taken, the monitoring system should Information Needs. The types of monitoring data and be able to detect the fire and begin tracking changes in its measurements involved in fires and haze are varied in status. The system should determine first the precise nature, e.g., land-based measurements, ship-platform-borne location of the fire so fire management resources can be measurements, aircraft-borne measurements, satellite and deployed quickly to the fire site. It should then track any spacecraft-borne measurements, and a wide range of spread of the fires and resulting haze, thereby assisting meteorological information. national and regional authorities in managing the fire and To obtain high accuracy, data need to be properly in activating any preestablished haze response systems. The calibrated and validated. The analysis of data will require important technical activities that comprise an appropriate the availability of a geographic information system database, fire-and-haze detection and tracking system include which must comprise regional vegetation distribution map, intensive surveillance and haze transport modeling. The fuel map, fire risk map, and land use map with information regional and national capabilities in this regard are being on fire agents, causes, etc. For combined fire-smoke enhanced through international assistance. analysis, this kind of database can then be linked to Atmospheric Pollution and Health Impact of Haze. The atmospheric chemical analyses. nature and severity of the smoke emission, the direction and ASMC in Singapore is the prime regional institution for velocity of its dispersion, its persistence and duration, i.e., monitoring forest fires and associated haze and gathering atmospheric residence-lifetime, the height at which it related information, supported by national meteorological resides, its impacts on the economy and society, and smoke services. Together they carry out (i) traditional activities related attenuation, etc., are influenced by various factors and form to meteorological monitoring and forecasting; (ii) monitoring the specifics of haze monitoring. The fuel type and the and surveillance functions, including hot spot identification interaction of haze with other atmospheric pollutants through satellite imageries, haze trajectory modeling, influence the nature and chemistry of the smoke, its compiling monthly and seasonal climate prediction particulate conversion ratio and carbon monoxide and carbon information, and activities related to air quality monitoring; dioxide ratio in haze, as well as its impact on visibility. These and (iii) effective and prompt dissemination of information in turn define the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) and/or Air to environmental and other agencies engaged in fire and haze Pollution Index (API). Wind movement and velocity and response and management, and to the public through the other climatic factors decide the residence time of haze over Internet and news releases. the atmosphere. A considerable amount of research is still Institutions. Under the ORHAP, there is no program on needed to fully understand the haze formation and dispersal institutions. However, strengthening of institutions is a phenomenon. crucial requirement, impacting on other programs. The The negative impacts of haze on human health are closely aspects and subjects falling under institutions are related to the density and chemical composition of the (i) organizational arrangements, (ii) regulatory and legal
xxiv instruments, (iii) capacity building, (iv) donor land use and incentives. Sometimes forest fire incidence and collaboration and partnership arrangements, (v) a system spread may be caused by ill-conceived forest management, for continuous planning, and (vi) information management. in particular, total fire exclusion policies that have led to fuel Organizational System. The ORHAP is a niche in the accumulation and catastrophic fire outbreaks. organizational structure of ASEAN and benefits from the Policy objectives and measures relating to forest fire existing infrastructure and arrangements. However, management need to be clearly articulated and be in tune strengthening will be needed in areas of particular relevance with the nation’s environmental and socioeconomic to the ORHAP, e.g., information management. policies. Forest fire laws and regulations should be Within the ASEAN system, HTTF has the primary developed for the enabling policy objectives to be translated responsibility to manage and monitor the ORHAP. HTTF realistically into action and linked to overall environmental shares this responsibility with a number of regional and and forest laws. There should also be mechanisms with national institutions, i.e., vertically and laterally. The adequate capability and powers to deal with environmental following is a list of responsible institutions: crimes relating to fire. • ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment; In short, public policy on fire should be a dynamic • ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze; political manifestation of the people’s concern for their • ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment; environment, health, and social welfare, and trust in the • HTTF: Indonesia (Mitigation), Malaysia (Prevention), system of resource governance. Their trust should not be and Singapore (Monitoring); betrayed. • Working Group on SRFA-Borneo; A viable and efficient legal system is important for • Working Group on SRFA-Sumatra; translating policies into action. Legal instruments help to • ASEAN Secretariat-RHAP Coordination and Support achieve policy objectives and to implement policy measures. Unit, supported by the Environment Unit, the The legal instruments covering the laws, rules, regulations, Agriculture and Forestry Unit, Information and Library agreements, and covenants empower an institution to take Unit, Computer Unit, and Culture and Information appropriate action for achieving its mission. Laws contain Unit; enabling provisions to establish adequate regulatory • ASMC, Singapore; measures to ensure achievement of policy objectives. They • dialogue partners and collaborative partnerships; and define the power of the State and the nature and scope of its • NGOs and the private sector. sectoral institutions. With such a long list, the need for coordination is Legal instruments at the national level as a means of evident. The role of the RHAP Coordination and Support contributing to the achievement of policy objectives affect Unit (CSU) within ASEAN is crucial. CSU needs governmental agencies and the public. Government considerable strengthening of resources, facilities, and agencies stipulate the responsibilities and actions that the expertise. agency and its personnel are to carry out, and explicitly or Regulatory and legal instruments. Policy and legal implicitly, the limits of its authority. instruments are interrelated. The present policy approach Smooth implementation of the ORHAP at the regional, concerning response to wildfires and land-use fires is often subregional, and national levels through cooperative, an ad hoc reaction to a situation that has already developed, collaborative and joint activities, and related institutional rather than proactive mitigation before the emergency arises. arrangements calls for a number of interagency and Frequently, policy development does not consider the international agreements for legally formalizing such underlying causes of fire incidence and spread, which may arrangements within the ambit of a mother agreement and/ lie outside the forest sector, such as rural poverty and or an operational protocol. An initiative to establish an deprivation or the effects of other public policies related to ASEAN Agreement on Atmospheric Haze Pollution in the
xxv form of a mother agreement is in progress and expected to institutional players and inputs from experts and become operational by 2001. stakeholders. Conceptually, the ORHAP has all the Capacity Building. Capacity building needs to be important characteristics of a formal plan, specifically of an undertaken on a continued basis to avoid redundancy. Two action plan. The nature and emphasis of certain levels of aspects that need to be underlined in this connection are actions may vary when compared to a sector plan or a research and development, and education and training. development plan. However, the ORHAP can and does Currently, there are several project components being function within the confines of a broader planning implemented to improve the capability of AMCs in fire and framework. The system of continuous planning incorporates haze management. updating of the six-year rolling plan and the DIP, Donor Collaboration and Partnerships. Donor support and monitoring and implementation of the ORHAP, and resources have made vital contributions to address the establishment and operation of an ASEAN Haze Fund. impacts of repeated forest fires and haze. The donors ASEAN Haze Fund. A study aiming to determine the provided a substantial amount of funds for short-term feasibility, purpose, concept, and alternative financing suppression activities. While this has no doubt been vehicles for the establishment of an ASEAN Haze Fund was appreciated by AMCs, the sustained funding of short-term carried out under the auspices of the RETA Project. It also fire suppression over an indefinite period is neither feasible identified various management and institutional nor would it be an efficient use of scarce donor or affected- arrangements, including operational guidelines for the fund. country resources. The study concluded that the creation of the ASEAN Haze The challenge now is to use the intervening period Fund is not only feasible but urgent to finance ORHAP- between the end of the last El Niño and the onset of the next related activities, particularly fire suppression and to put into place an institutional framework that will mitigation operations. prepare the region for subsequent periods of vulnerability to This can be achieved through a cohesive and integrated forest fires and haze. This preparation should be such that framework, drawing on the resources of AMCs, including ASEAN will never again have to resort to a crisis other sources of funding. Action to establish the fund is management style response during periods of heightened pending. risk, as it did during 1997-1998. Accomplishing this will Information Management. The importance of information require donor funds to be used as efficiently as possible. on fire and haze management cannot be overstressed. While While assistance projects play vital roles, it is crucial to the communication system has achieved a high level of ensure that they are fully owned by the AMCs and integrated sophistication in various spheres of life, there are gaps in into the ORHAP, so that activities can run on effectively even the system being used in fire and haze management in after the external assistance is terminated. The role of the Southeast Asia. At site or near fires in comparatively donors in addressing the fire-and-haze issue will also have to underdeveloped areas, there is often no access to new be redefined. Fire-and-haze-related donor activities will have communication systems. to be integrated through explicit partnerships, rather than each The following are some of the important problems of the donors simply becoming aware of other donors’ relating to fire information management identified during involvement. A start has been made in this direction by the 1997-1998 fires and haze in Southeast Asia: integrating all donor activities directly into the ORHAP-DIP. • data are spread out around various institutions that are When used as intended, the DIP places the onus of developing often reluctant to share them. If and where available, an integrated operational plan for confronting the fire-and- data are not consistent or in compatible format, and haze issue directly on the AMCs and ASEAN itself. are of low quality and expensive; System of Continuous Planning. Planning is an institutional • data cannot be communicated in time when needed responsibility. Preparation of a plan involves several because telecommunication facilities are not adequate;
xxvi • reliable human resources to gather and process data overall network of computer users. Separate training are limited. Data on the 1997-1998 fires were mostly programs were conducted for staff supporting the work of monitored by three foreign-funded satellite-monitoring HTTF members, to ensure that they would have continuous projects operated by foreign experts; access to the information posted on the ORHAP intranet. • data processing was not adequate to produce information for supporting fire management; and Looking Ahead • there is lack of a proper communication plan. Endorsement of the RHAP document was a watershed in A study carried out by the RETA Project identified four ASEAN’s approach to managing the region’s transboundary broad categories of information management functions: (i) haze pollution problem. While several activities have already policy, planning, and program development; (ii) regulatory been initiated during the last two years under the and technical services; (iii) administrative services and operationalized RHAP, it still needs to be consolidated as a support; and (iv) internal information management, which sustainable system. together formed the ORHAP information systems Based on past lessons and studies about the future architecture. The purpose was to summarize the information outlook of fire factors and likelihood and fire and haze, there packages and database to suit the needs of fire and haze is a pressing need for strengthening the ASEAN regional management. These are now being put into practice. collaboration in various areas and aspects related to fire and Regional Information Center and Clearinghouse. Based on haze management. These include joint activities, the study, a regional information center and clearinghouse continuation and completion of ongoing activities, was established at the ASEAN Secretariat. It includes: real- consultation and undertaking of new activities, fine tuning time satellite imagery; a continuously-updated inventory of of fire-related policies, common standards and approaches, relevant donor-assisted initiatives; information on past, a legal system to facilitate regional cooperation, instruments present, and future meetings, workshops, seminars, and for transboundary haze pollution control, institutionalization training programs related to transboundary haze; and of forest fires and haze management, providing a perspective numerous other features. As the most efficient means of framework for the ORHAP, and elevating institutional disseminating this information, a public-access web site available strengthening to the status of a program. over the Internet (http://www.haze-online.or.id) on fires and Joint Activities. Joint activities of different nature, i.e., transboundary haze was established in the region. The collective, cooperative, collaborative, and coordinated, Coordination and Support Unit (CSU) is now responsible suitable for the different contexts are important means of for the information center and clearinghouse. strengthening the regional approach. Policy studies, research To ease the flow of information connected with the and development, specialized training, remote sensing and implementation of the ORHAP among members of the satellite-based monitoring, and SRFAs are some of the HTTF, AMMH, and international agencies, a restricted activities where cooperation has been initiated. This access, i.e., password-required, intranet was established in cooperation needs to be further strengthened. parallel with the public access Internet web site. This is being As and when conditions becomes more conducive, and if used to allow continuous updating of the various DIPs economy and efficiency warrant it, more and more activities required for ORHAP implementation. related to fire management can be brought under the regional Training programs in the operation and maintenance of preview. the web site were formulated and conducted by the RETA Continuation, and Completion of Ongoing Activities. Several Project. Trainees included ASEAN Secretariat staff who activities have been initiated by the ORHAP under the would maintain the web site’s content, as well as staff from auspices of the RETA Project. Some activities have been the Secretariat’s Computer Unit, who would be responsible started and are ongoing, some are in a nascent stage, and for integrating the web site into the ASEAN Secretariat’s others are still in the form of a plan awaiting approval for
xxvii funding. Some activities are of considerable magnitude, some countries with bilateral support from international are complex in nature, some are short term, and others are agencies. of a medium-term nature. An ASEAN regional framework policy on forest fire An important task ahead is to carry these activities and associated haze can serve as a model for AMCs to forward, enhance their functioning, or complete them as formulate or modify their own policies to suit their needs. necessary to realize the goals. Some of the activities to be Common Standards and Approaches. For the joint seen through are: (i) Completing the network of FSMPs, efforts as envisaged in the ORHAP to succeed, it is linking village units all the way up to the regional (SRFAs) necessary to adopt common standards and common level; (ii) increasing and improving the monitoring capacity approaches. The need for harmonization of haze of ASMC, and establishing an effective monitoring system pollution indexes, standardization of the fire danger network; (iii) completing the work on policy changes rating system and hot spot algorithms, common involving introduction of market-based instruments, system curriculum for fire management training, standard terms of responsible land clearance bonds, mechanical land and definitions, and common and harmonized system of clearing, and model codes of practice; (iv) providing training weights and measures exemplify the importance of programs on firefighting, fire management and monitoring; common standards and approaches. and (v) establishing the Regional Fire Research and Training Legal System for Regional Cooperation. The different Center for Land and Forest Fire Management. levels in the legal system of the ORHAP will roughly be Consultation, Program Modification, and New Activities. A (i) regional level convention or a mother agreement; means of strengthening regional collaboration is through (ii) specific agreements such as on transboundary haze regular and periodical consultation among the AMCs to pollution; (iii) agreements related to situation and review the implementation of the ORHAP and assess the transaction, such as an agreement for sharing need for program modification, including new activities. meteorological information; and (iv) standard operating Some ideas have already come up. These include publication procedures for actions falling within the purview of of the ASEAN Forest Fire Bulletin, establishment of Pan- specific agreements, i.e., standard operating procedures ASEAN Fire Centers; incorporation of public health-related for cross-border transfer of firefighting equipment. activities in the ORHAP; and promotion of dedicated For international agreements to be drawn up for satellites for fire monitoring. various aspects of ORHAP implementation, an enabling Fine-Tuning Policies. There is no separate forest fire policy legal instrument is necessary. Sustained implementation in the AMCs. Fire-related policies are included as clauses or of the ORHAP would be facilitated significantly by a provisions in other related policies, e.g., forest policy, mother agreement, or a comparable legal instrument that environmental policy, land development policy, etc. Separate embodies various agreements at the bilateral, subregional, regulations corresponding to these policy clauses are often and regional levels. The ongoing initiative for an ASEAN issued. These lead to inconsistencies and even conflicts as far Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution is a priority as forest fire and haze-related actions are concerned. There is that needs to be seriously pursued. a need for fine-tuning of fire-related policy provisions by Institutionalizing Forest Fire and Haze removing inconsistencies and providing appropriate focus. Management. Sustainability of human-made systems such Better still, a separate policy statement on forest fires and haze can as forest fire and haze management depends on how be formulated following the accepted procedure involving policy effectively it has been institutionalized with appropriate formation, articulation, and formulation. mission, structure, and controls for continued and efficient Catalyzing policy changes relating to the use of fires that functioning. It is necessary to ensure that the institutional cause atmospheric pollution is not easy. This is a medium- framework is sound and capable of systematic term task that is being undertaken by some enhancement.
xxviii A Perspective Framework for the ORHAP. The emphasis of Program Status for Institutional Strengthening. In spite of the ORHAP is on implementation and action. As a rolling the ORHAP principle that the fire and haze problem of six-year plan, its horizon is short. While this has merits from ASEAN region cannot be fixed, but should be managed, the short-term operational point of view, its lack of a long- there exists the potential danger that it may still concentrate term perspective has some serious disadvantages, mostly on technical fixes. It is to be noted, however, that the particularly affecting the consistency of approach and most important impediment in fire and haze management direction. In the absence of a long-term perspective within has been the weaknesses and rigidities of institutions and which the ORHAP could be designed across a rolling time institutional instruments. The three programs of the ORHAP frame, there are no long-term scenarios or reference points (prevention, mitigation, and monitoring) are technical to guide annual forward planning. This can lead to planners’ programs; it may be worthwhile to incorporate institutions bias in the add-on plans, potentially leading to unsteady or or institutional strengthening as another program. even a lack of progress. On the other hand, a long-term perspective plan, of which Conclusions the ORHAP will be a part, has the advantage that it can The ORHAP has been designed as a people-oriented, public- better rationalize the program structure and balance, to interest-propelled system, with a mission to defend the human achieve the goals in the shortest possible time. As the environment and particularly to prevent transboundary haze. perspective plan by definition will be closely linked with Through its mission to manage forest fires and associated other related sectors, it also helps to obtain a holistic haze, the ORHAP can and should serve as a stabilizing force understanding of the ecological and human aspects of forest to support land- and forest-based development in the region. fires and haze. The laudable commitment of ASEAN in this regard needs This is an aspect to be considered along the way ahead to be kept undiminished. Complacency should avoided, as it and acted upon. would blunt this commitment.
xxix
The Premise
“The earth we abuse and living things we kill, in the end, take their revenge; for in
exploiting their presence, we are diminishing our future.”—Marya Mannes
“The shining water that moves in the streams and rivers is not just water, but the blood of our
ancestors . . . The rivers are our brothers, they quench our thirst. The air is precious to the
red man, for all things share the same breath—the beast, the tree, the man, they all share
the same breath . . . The earth does not belong to man: man belongs to the earth . . . All
things are connected like the blood which unites one family . . . Whatever befalls the earth,
befalls the sons of the earth. Man did not weave the web of life; he is merely a strand in it.
Whatever he does to the web, he does to himself.”—Native American Chief, Seattle CHAPTER 1 Understanding Forest Fires— The Global Fire Scene
[This chapter discusses the increasing incidence and intensity of forest fires and associated haze in recent years, while underlining the uses of fires as an ecological agent and tool in land and forest management. The major causes of forest fires are analyzed, and the development of fire science and technology as a means of addressing devastating fires is traced. A brief account of international action in the field of forest fires and haze is also provided.]
The Burning Issue Occurring in agricultural land, forests, and The Report on Global Environmental Outlook rural areas, spreading from one area to another, 2000 prepared by the United Nations burning furiously, and causing heavy and Environment Programme (UNEP) paints a suffocating haze, the fires that ravaged the devastating picture of the earth’s health at the Association of Southeast Asian Nations dawn of the new millennium. The planet is (ASEAN) region in 1997-1998 reached undergoing an unsustainable course of disastrous proportions. The environmental, development, fueled by a relentless decline in economic, and social dimensions and impact the environment and degradation of natural of the catastrophic fires, and the associated resources. transboundary atmospheric haze pollution, were
Forest fires extending Contributing to this decline are the profound. The haze caused by the to the roadsides, uncontrolled and wildfires rampaging through conflagration in the ASEAN region and Indonesia, 1997 lands and forests, affecting the environmental elsewhere was directly linked to important Photo: Anonymous quality and ecological resilience of our habitat. issues of land use and abuse, toxic contamination, biodiversity conservation, greenhouse gas emissions, and particularly to the importance of fire management within an overall regime of land resource management. Experience indicates that the underlying causes of fires cannot be fully removed and there is no easy remedy. Hence, abatement through effective and integrated fire management assumes great relevance and urgency. Global Fire Occurrences The annual rate of deforestation in developing countries during the 1980s was 16.3 million hectares (ha), while the corresponding figure for the developing
2 THE PREMISE countries of the Asian and Pacific region was Taking a cue from nature, early humans used 4.3 million ha. During the period 1990-1995, fire as a tool to alter their surroundings and there was not much change in the rate of later to prepare land for cultivation. There is deforestation, standing at 13.7 million ha for paleontological evidence to show that fires all developing countries, and 4.2 million ha for occurred in the prehistoric past. The forests of the Asian and Pacific region (FAO mythology of many countries features accounts 1997). While several causes have been of fires dating back to several thousands of years. attributed to the alarming rate of deforestation, The climate in the tropical Amazonian in the majority of cases, fire has played a region is too moist to allow a forest fire to burn decisive role (Mol et al. 1997). as long as the forests are in an undisturbed state. Every year, millions of hectares of the world’s There is, however, evidence that in the remote forests are being consumed by fires, big and past, forest fires did occur in the region. For small, resulting in billions of dollars in example, Saldarrioga and West (1986) suppression costs and causing tremendous determined that the ages of charcoal fragments damage in lost timber, falls in real estate and collected from the Venezuelan part of the recreational values, property losses, and deaths. Amazon ranged from 250 to 6,260 years old. While several Wildfire is influencing many aspects of our life: Those fires were most likely associated with causes are the flow of commodities on which we depend, extremely dry periods or human disturbances attributed to the the health and safety of the communities in (Reis 1996). alarming rate of which we live, and the health and resilience of deforestation, in wildland ecosystems. Recent History of Fires the majority of There are many forests seldom affected by Since the 1960s, several fires have attracted cases, fire has fire, while others regenerate easily after burning. world attention. The Parana fire in Brazil in played a decisive Some forests are subjected to high fire 1963 burned 2 million ha, destroyed more than role frequencies and heavy destructive impact. It is 5,000 houses, and claimed 110 lives (Reis difficult to estimate the number and extent of 1996). With this started the new history of forest fires and related annual losses. wildfires in Brazil, and a permanent worry, Comprehensive reports on losses are not mainly with regard to the damage that fire can available and forest fire statistics are often cause to forest plantations. The effect of fire on deficient (Goldammer 1997e). vegetation became an issue in 1988 following devastation to some parts of the Amazon Prehistory of Fires forests. According to the World Wide Fund for Wildfires have been present on the earth since Nature (WWF), large-scale logging and forest the development of terrestrial vegetation and fires have contributed to the wiping out of some the evolution of the atmosphere. Lightning, 12-15 percent of the Amazon rain forest. sparks generated by swaying bamboos, and Satellite imagery from the Advanced Very High volcanoes have been some of nature’s ways of Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) satellite, igniting forests and keeping the plant interpreted by the Brazilian National Institute environment dynamic. As a perfect relationship for Space Studies, indicated that 20.5 million ha existed between fire and the ecosystem (Soares of Brazil’s Legal Amazon (which covers an area 1991), such natural wildfires occurred at long of 500 million ha) was burned in 1987, of which intervals. about 8 million ha was considered to be
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 3 deforestation in the dense forest area (Seltzer forests, which have a composition similar to et al. 1988). In early 1998, the savannahs in the the northeastern PRC (Cahoon et al. 1994). state of Roraima were left parched by the worst The Kalimantan fire in Indonesia in 1982 drought in history, resulting in big blazes, which burned about 5 million ha and caused losses burned some 3.2 million–3.5 million ha. Of amounting to $9.1 billion. Fires have swept this land, about 200,000 ha were good forests through the forests of Kalimantan and Sumatra and the rest were already deforested areas or (also elsewhere) in Indonesia several times secondary forests (Anon 1997a, Reis 1996). during the last two decades, engulfing millions Each year, fires in the Brazilian Amazon burn of hectares and causing losses estimated at an area larger than Rio de Janeiro state. billions of dollars (Goldammer et al. 1996). Ranchers and subsistence farmers ignite their In 1983, the Ash Wednesday fire in lands in an attempt to convert forests into fields Australia caused 76 deaths, killed 300,000 sheep and to reclaim pastures from invading weeds. and cattle, and burned more than 2,500 homes. Subsistence farmers have migrated from all parts The Great Black Dragon Fire of the northern of Brazil to the fringes of the rain forest, lured PRC in 1987 burned around 1.3 million ha, by government promises of free land and a destroyed more than 10,000 houses, and better life. But despite the lushness of the nearby resulted in a death toll of about 200. The forest, the soil is too poor to support intensive Yellowstone fire in the United States in 1988 agriculture. They arrive armed with hope and almost completely burned out one of the world’s chainsaws, clearing and burning land to farm most famous parks, costing about $160 million the poor soil. to suppress, and causing an estimated loss of The fires set by ranchers and subsistence $60 million in tourist revenues between 1988 farmers often get out of hand, inadvertently and 1990 (Polzin et al. 1993). In the longer burning forests, pastures, and plantations term, however, the increased biodiversity (WCFSD 1999). created by the fires in Yellowstone National Park The results of a seven-year study conducted may well yield benefits that outweigh these by the Woods Hole Research Center in losses. Massachusetts, US, suggest that the Amazon In 1982-1983, Cote d’lvoire in West Africa rain forest is experiencing an acute drying, was swept by wildfires over a total area of about leading to increased susceptibility to fire. 12 million ha. The burning of some 40,000 ha Recent tests involving digging for water at many of coffee plantations, 60,000 ha of cocoa sites found dry ground, while similar tests seven plantations, and some 10,000 ha of other years earlier revealed water close below the cultivated plantations had detrimental impacts During the last surface (Reis 1996, WCFSD 1999). on the local economy and left more than 100 four years, Statistics in the People’s Republic of China people dead during this devastating fire period unusual weather (PRC) reveal that between 1950 and 1990, (Goldammer 1998b). conditions (and 4,137 people were killed in forest fires In the last four years, unusual weather global weather (Goldammer 1994a). In the same period, conditions (and global weather changes) have changes) have led information from satellites reveals that about led to fires in several parts of the world. Some to fires in several 14.5 million ha of forest were affected by fires of the conflagrations during 1996-1998 have parts of the world in the neighboring Soviet Union, been particularly damaging, as fires swept predominantly burning in the Siberian boreal across the fragile rain forests of South America
4 THE PREMISE and two waves of forest fires gripped economy was estimated at $1.9 billion Fires burned the Indonesia, causing a national disaster. (Chandrasekharan 1998a). forests and Fires in Mexico and Central America have pastures of burned a reported 1.5 million ha. These have Fire Data Mongolia generated large quantities of smoke, which have Reliable data on the occurrence of wildland consecutively in blanketed the region and spread into the United fires, areas burned, and losses are available for each of the years States as far north as Chicago. From January to only a limited number of nations and regions. between 1996 June 1998, about 13,000 fires burned in Mexico Within the northern hemisphere, the most and 1998 alone. Figures released by Mexican authorities complete data set on forest fires is periodically in May 1998 indicated that a reduction of collected and published for the member states industrial production in Mexico City, which was of the Economic Commission for Europe, imposed in order to mitigate the additional covering Canada, all western and eastern smog caused by forest fires, involved daily losses European countries, countries of the former of $8 million. Soviet Union, and the US. The last data set Between December 1997 and April 1988, covers the period 1994-1996 (ECE/FAO 1997). more than 13,000 fires burned in Nicaragua, In the European Union (EU), a Community the most in any Central American country, Information System on Forest Fires has been destroying vegetation on more than created on the basis of information collected 800,000 ha of land. The Nicaraguan Ministry on every fire in national databases. The of Environment and Natural Resources collection of data on forest fires (the common recorded more than 11,000 fires in the month core) has become systematic with the adoption of April 1998 alone. of a Commission Regulation in 1994. In July 1998, devastating forest fires affected The Community Information System on more than 100,000 ha in eastern Russia. Forest Fires covers 319 provinces (departments, Coniferous forests burned in more than 150 states) of France, Germany, Greece, Italy, locations around Vladivostok, Sakhalin, and Portugal, and Spain (European Commission Kamchatka peninsula. In Russia’s Pacific island 1996, Lemasson 1997). It contains of Sakhalin alone, more than 25,000 ha of information on 460,000 fires recorded between forest were consumed by fire during 1 January and 31 December 1995, involving a September 1998. The same year, forest fires in total of 6 million ha. Florida, in the United States, burned an area A global data set has been developed on the of some 100,000 ha (Goldammer 1998b). basis of active fires detected by the National Fires burned the forests and pastures of Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Mongolia consecutively in each of the years (NOAA) AVHRR sensor—the “Global Fire between 1996 and 1998. The 1996 fires Product” of the International Geosphere- affected an area of 10.2 million ha, including Biosphere Program under its subcomponent of 2.4 million ha of forests, in which 22 million Global Vegetation Fire Information (GVFI) cubic meters (m3) of forest growing stock were System. lost. The 1997 fires affected more than The fire data set includes all free-burning 12.4 million ha, of which forests accounted for vegetation fires (wildfires in forests, savannahs, 2.7 million ha. This fire killed some 600,000 and other vegetation; prescribed burning), use livestock while damage to the Mongolian of fire in agricultural systems (e.g., burning of
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 5 agricultural residues, prescribed burning) and beneficial effects of fire. However, every Every region has burning of plant biomass in households region has its own peculiarities and the role of its own (fuelwood, charcoal, etc.). fire varies not only between regions, but also peculiarities and within each region from habitat to habitat. A the role of fire Fire Type Classification great deal has been learned from fire research varies not only Forest fire type classification is important in and management in temperate and subtropical between regions, designing and implementing appropriate ecosystems. However, fire management but also within control measures. Forest fires are variously practices found to be successful in these each region from classified, based on: regions should not be applied automatically to habitat to habitat • source of ignition: natural and human- the tropics. made fires, which may result from carelessness and accident, or may be Fire Frequency incendiary in nature (often using fire as a Fire frequency, measured as the return weapon instead of as a tool); interval between fires, may be as short as one • size of area affected: large (e.g., more than year or may extend into centuries. Fire 50,000 ha), medium, and small fires frequency and intensity are not fully (irrespective of the nature of damage); independent variables. Areas with short return • intensity of burn and damage: very heavy, interval fires tend to have less intense fires than heavy, medium, and light fires (depending areas with long return interval fires. Moreover, on fuel load and other factors [e.g., many ecosystems are subjected to low-intensity, duration]); and short return interval fires as well as less frequent, • nature of burn: underground fire (e.g., high intensity fires. The relationship between coal seams), ground fire (that consumes frequency and intensity is complicated by a the organic materials beneath the surface variety of factors such as vegetation structure, litter), surface fire (that burns surface productivity, weather, and topography. litter and other loose debris of the forest Grasslands, for example, can support high floor), creeping fire (that spreads intensity fires that burn annually. overground), and crown fire (consuming A distinction is often made between fire the upper branches and foliage). Crown frequency and fire incidence. Fire frequency is fires often burn the ground level vegetation used to refer to the fire return interval at a and canopy of the forest, and are the most particular location, whereas fire incidence is damaging. used to refer to the interval between fires that Depending on the circumstances, weather, burn within a specified land unit, but not fuel load, undergrowth, etc., one form of fire necessarily at the same point. may change into another or into a combination of different types. The impact of Fire Intensity fire depends on the type. It is difficult to provide a conventional definition for fire intensity. If the focus is on Fire Frequency and Intensity energetics or fire behavior, then fire intensity Fire frequency and intensity are both a cause is best defined in terms of energy released per and an effect of ecosystem characteristics and unit time per unit of fire front. If it is on are fundamental variables in the negative or carbon or nutrient cycling, or fuel reduction,
6 THE PREMISE then fire intensity is the energy or biomass carried into the crowns. Repeated burning consumed per unit area. These measures may tends to reduce fire intensity, though the or may not be of use to measure the impact of long-term ecological consequences of such fires on ecosystem biota. For example, low burning may vary. intensity surface fires in ecosystems composed Variations in fire behavior and frequency of vulnerable species result in substantial greatly influence post-fire vegetation changes. In contrast, high intensity crown fires development. In ecosystems with light to in savannahs or pine forests can simply stimulate moderate intensity fires, and short return reproduction of the same species, with little change intervals, post-fire species composition may be in the overall composition of the ecosystem. quite similar to the pre-fire composition. In ecosystems with longer and perhaps less Influencing Factors predictable return intervals, post-fire ecosystem A variety of environmental factors regulate response typically follows a classical species fire frequency and intensity. Climate influences replacement series. The similarity between pre- Human influence fire variations on a geographic scale. The and post-fire composition is also determined has generally frequency of lightning discharges and in some ecosystems by fire intensity. resulted in an associated rainfall are the most important Humans’ historic role in changing fire increase in fire variables influencing ignition in some frequency and intensity is variable. Human frequency, but ecosystems. However, in others, humans have influence has generally resulted in an increase fire intensity been able to and still do control the frequency in fire frequency, but fire intensity increased or increased or of fire starts. In general, fire frequency decreased in different vegetation types. In decreased in increases inversely with moisture availability. tropical regions, where human association with different On the other hand, in very dry areas, slow rates the vegetation has been more prolonged, this vegetation types of biomass accumulation can result in longer alteration of ecosystems from previously fire return intervals. existing conditions may have been more Topographic diversity and vegetation patterns dramatic. The growth of population and regulate fire frequencies in any given area. economic development have increased the Vegetation also influences intensity. In many damage caused by forest fires, and the fire cycle temperate ecosystems fuels tend to accumulate around the world has quickened—in some as vegetation ages. Such an accumulation is cases from more than 100 years to only three often associated with the production of hard and to four years, or even less. Also, in the dense leaves and waste wood. Further, the quality West’s coniferous forests and North’s and distribution of these fuels also change. In forests, fire suppression has resulted in any case, such changes act as feedback substantial changes in fuel conditions. mechanisms about the likelihood of ignitions. Although modern humans further increased Changes in vertical and horizontal fuel the number of fire starts, the area burned by distribution associated with ecosystem fires has declined in many vegetation types. development also affect fire frequency and Consequently, fuels have accumulated and fire intensity. Given sufficient time between fires, intensities have risen. In the tropics, intentional understory trees and debris form a vertical burning for forest cultivation and pathway, or “ladder,” of fuels from the forest agriculture has increased fire incidence floor to the canopy along which fire may be (Goldammer and Odintsov 1998).
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 7 Factors Responsible Immediate Causes Analysis of causes is an important step toward The contribution of natural fires to tropical designing control measures, management wildland fires today is negligible. Most tropical policies, and action. Historical perspectives fires are set or spread accidentally or intentionally provide an insight into future needs. There by humans, and are related to several are predisposing factors or inherent causative agents, some of them linked to conditions, as well as immediate causes that subsistence livelihood, others to commercial might result in wildfires and influence their activities (Goldammer 1997a, e). These include: frequency and intensity. These are often • deforestation (conversion of forests to other interrelated. land uses, e.g., as agricultural land and pastures); Predisposing Factors • land clearance and land preparation for The predisposing factors are various and may agricultural crops; include the following: • traditional slash-and-burn agriculture; • economic (poverty and dependence of • grazing land management (fires set by The 1995 world rural communities on forests for graziers, mainly in savannahs and open population stood livelihood); forests with distinct grass strata); at 5.7 billion, and • demographic (increased population • extraction of nonwood forest products is expected to pressure on forests for their goods and (NWFPs) (using fires to facilitate harvests grow to about services); or improve the yield of plants, fruits, and 9.4 billion by • meteorological (weather conditions other forest products, such as honey, resin, 2050, with all the including high temperature and lower and antlers, predominantly in deciduous attendant impacts atmospheric humidity); and semideciduous forests); on natural • crop conditions (amount of canopy • wildland/residential area interface fires resources opening causing desiccation and water (fires from settlements, e.g., from cooking, stress, nature and amount of ground torches, camp fires, etc.); vegetation, and fuel load); • other traditional fire uses (in the wake of • nature and condition of ecosystem religious, ethnic, and folk traditions; tribal (vegetational types, fire resistance level of warfare); component species, and locational • socioeconomic and political conflicts over topography); questions of land property and land-use • sociocultural (cultural significance of fire rights, using arson; to the forest dwelling and rural • speculative burning to stake land claims; communities); and accidental fires (e.g., due to falling of dry • institutional (lax environmental laws, leaves and twigs on high tension electricity inadequate enforcement capability, lines); and indifference of public administration to • fires introduced by design (e.g., environmental matters, lack of prescribed fires) going out of control and dissemination of weather information and becoming wildfires. fire danger warnings, misuse of funds Another factor to be noted in this regard is earmarked for fire protection, and the connection between population growth and management and policy weaknesses). deforestation. The 1995 world population stood
8 THE PREMISE at 5.7 billion, and is expected to grow to about impact on forest ecosystem stability. 9.4 billion by 2050, with all the attendant Today, shifting cultivation is practiced by impacts on natural resources. some 500 million people on a land area of How to obtain a respite from deforestation 300 million-500 million ha (Goldammer and forest fires and haze is a major management 1993a) and is often unsustainable due to challenge. the increase in size of individual plots and shorter fallow periods. Fuel Loading • Temporary complete removal of forest Air, temperature, and fuel are considered the cover in preparation for industrial three corners of a fire triangle. It is the timber plantations. volume, type, and condition of fuel that • Permanent conversion of forests to determine the rapidity and intensity of any fire. grazing or cropland, as well as other Moisture content in fuels could minimize the nonforestry land uses. chances of a blaze, as moisture must evaporate In all cases, clearing and burning initially to permit the temperature to rise to ignition follow the same pattern; trees are felled at the point. The constant circulation of wind dries end of the wet season and the slash is left to dry up the fuel, boosting chances of an outbreak for some time. The efficiency of the first burning and helping the blaze to spread. is variable; often not exceeding 10-30 percent The vegetation characteristics themselves are of the ground biomass due to the large amount a major determinant of fire occurrences. Fuel- of forest biomass in tree trunks and stumps. loading capacity in terms of plant density and The remainder is tackled by a second fire or plant lifeform combination (i.e., woody plants left to decompose. of various sizes and herbaceous plants, The burning of primary or secondary rain particularly grasses) determines the fire forest vegetation for conversion purposes has potential of vegetation. The soil substrate and accelerated in recent years. Such forest-clearing its microorganism activity contribute to the fuel- fires often escape and have been shown to often Fire in the loading capacity. If decomposition of the lead to large-scale wildfires in undisturbed rain tropical rain annually produced litter is slow, organic matter forests under the right climatic conditions. forests is often builds up at the soil surface. This is a leading While a land fire (e.g., in farmlands) may related to forest cause of forest fires in temperate environments. lead to a forest fire, a distinction is often made clearing for between the two in view of the differences in agriculture, Ignition Source their causes, impacts, control measures, etc. industrial timber Fire in the tropical rain forests is often related Forest fires and associated haze have plantations, and to forest clearing for agriculture, industrial damaging impacts, but not designed and other land-use timber plantations, and other land-use changes, controlled burnings. changes of which three broad types can be distinguished. Some ecologists assert that fire is nothing • Shifting cultivation where land is allowed more than a secondary factor in the destruction to return to forest vegetation after a of dense and moist rain forests, which will not relatively short period of agricultural use. burn unless interference causes inflammable Traditionally, shifting cultivation provided materials to be present or accumulated. Logging a sustainable base of subsistence for can increase the susceptibility of tropical rain indigenous forest inhabitants and had little forest to fire, particularly when carried out in
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 9 an unnecessarily destructive and wasteful weeks without rain occur, the forest Climate is a manner or resulting in large gaps in the forest vegetation sheds leaves progressively. In crucial control canopy. Such practices can cause the addition, the moisture content of the surface factor in fire accumulation of flammable biomass, invasion fuels is lowered, while the downed woody occurrence and by weed species, and desiccation of soil material and loosely packed leaf-litter layer frequency, since it organic matter—all factors that make forests contribute to the buildup and spread of surface determines not susceptible to wildfire. fires. only the A series of disturbances may also increase Aerial fuels such as desiccated climbers and vegetation, but the susceptibility of rain forests to fire. For lianas become fire ladders potentially also influences instance, the extended rain forest fires of 1989 resulting in crown fires or “torching” of single soil in Yucatan (Mexico) that burned some 90,000 ha trees. microorganism were the result of a chain of disturbances. In The occurrence of seasonal dry periods in activity, and 1987, Hurricane Gilbert damaged and opened the tropics increases with distance from the thus litter the closed forests, leaving behind humid equatorial zone, leading to more open, decomposition unusual amounts of downed woody fuels. These semideciduous, and deciduous forest fuels were then desiccated by the drought of formations. Such forests are subject to frequent 1988-1989, and the whole forest area was fires (often annual, but sometimes two or three finally ignited by escaped land-clearing fires. times a year), and fire-tolerant species tend to None of these three factors, the cyclonic storm, dominate. The main fire-related characteristics the drought, or the ignition source, if of these formations are seasonally available occurring alone, would have caused a flammable fuels (grass-herb layer, shed leaves). disturbance of such severity (Goldammer 1992a). The most important adaptive traits that characterize the vegetation include thick bark, Climate—An Aggravating Factor the ability to heal fire scars, resprouting ability, Climate is a crucial control factor in fire and seeds that feature fire adaptations. occurrence and frequency, since it determines not only the vegetation, but also influences soil Weather Variability microorganism activity, and thus litter Meteorologists, based on available decomposition. In tropical lowland thermometric record, have determined that four environments, litter decomposition is generally of the hottest years in history occurred in the fast, and organic matter accumulation is rarely 1990s—1990, 1995, 1997, and 1998. The first an important factor. However, climatic five months of 1998 were the planet’s hottest seasonality in terms of wetness and dryness is on record according to the scientists of the US the most important parameter related to fire NOAA. The El Niño phenomenon is considered occurrence. Thus, a climate and vegetation to be the main reason behind the mercury ascent analysis is imperative for an assessment of fire and is frequently blamed for major forest fires. occurrence and frequency. Climatic seasonality About 93 percent of all droughts in Indonesia does not manifest itself only on a month-to- have occurred during an El Niño (Goldammer month basis, but also in year-to-year variation and Manan 1996). El Niño affects the global (Mueller-Dombois 1978). weather pattern, resulting in extreme dry If precipitation falls below 100 millimeters conditions, which in turn leave forests parched (mm) per month, and periods of two or more and open to fires. Thus, while El Niño is not a
10 THE PREMISE source of fire, it aggravates the danger of fires warm intervals, fish are less plentiful (it was in places where negligence and management the fishers along the coasts of Ecuador and Peru lapses can lead to severe conflagrations. Some that originally termed the phenomenon “El point out that El Niño has always been in Niño” [Spanish for “the Christ child”]) existence, without frequently causing major (Goldammer 1997d). forest fires in the past. This may be due to the In the eastern equatorial Pacific, the existence of relatively undisturbed forest cover overlying air is heated by the warmer waters with dense canopies in most tropical ecosystems below, increasing the buoyancy of the lower that prevented drying of the lower vegetative atmosphere and fueling convective clouds and strata, particularly the ground cover. heavy rains. But the air over the cooler western equatorial Pacific becomes too dense to rise to El Nińo Southern Oscillation and Global produce clouds and rain—in other words, dry Weather conditions result in Australia, Indonesia, and El Niño is a periodic oceanographic Philippines, while more flood-like conditions phenomenon in which a strong and extensive are caused in Ecuador and Peru. Over the past warming occurs in the upper ocean in the 50 years, 12 major El Niños have been recorded. tropical eastern Pacific, upsetting weather The worst of these began in March 1997 and patterns globally. The El Niño effect leads to the faded away in June 1998. Before this, the El strengthening of a warm ocean current called Niño of 1982-1983 had been the most severe the equatorial countercurrent in the mid-Pacific, (See Box 1, and Figures 1 and 2). causing the entire weather mechanism to be According to scientists, the frequency and disrupted. Rainfall is delayed, crops are intensity of El Niños are on the increase. In the adversely affected, and storms occur where they 19th century, El Niño appeared on average should not. Occurrence of El Niño is linked with every seven-and-a-half years; now it comes at a change in atmospheric pressure known as the intervals of less than five years. The reasons for Southern Oscillation, and the overall this increased frequency are not clear. There is phenomenon is often called the El Niño Southern a suggestion that the recent mood swings of El Oscillation (ENSO). ENSO consists of El Niño have been due to climatic changes and Niño—a “warm phase” or a large warming in global warming, with greenhouse gases, mainly the equatorial Pacific Ocean—and La Niña—a carbon dioxide, the most dominant factor in “cool phase” in which surface waters of the the global weather changes (Goldammer 1997f central Pacific Ocean are colder than normal. and 1998a). The typical global impact of ENSOs is the In contrast to El Niño, La Niña (“the girl anomalous pattern of rainfall and temperature. child”) is associated with unusually cool ocean The surface ocean in the central and eastern temperatures across the central and eastern equatorial Pacific is normally colder than that equatorial Pacific. This generally causes sharp According to in the western equatorial Pacific. In some years, reversals of weather patterns around the globe scientists, the however, the ocean is especially warm. This and occurs roughly half as often as does El Niño frequency and warming typically occurs around Christmas and (only six major La Niñas have been intensity of El lasts for several months. It is caused by a recorded in the past 50 years). In La Niña years, Niños are on the complicated atmospheric-oceanic coupling that monsoons are enhanced over Australia and increase is not yet entirely understood. During these Southeast Asia, but the central equatorial
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 11 BOX 1 Walker Circulation
In the 1920s, Sir Gilbert Walker made In the warm Indonesian (aerosols, trace gases) are carried to the seminal connection between archipelago, extensive burning of the high troposphere and exported barometer readings of air pressure at vegetation (from shifting cultivation, globally. During the “low phase,” the sea level at stations on the eastern forest conversion, and other warm waters from the west are and western sides of the Pacific agricultural burnings) takes place. transported to the eastern Pacific, Ocean. He observed that when Although the impacts of these fires and high pressure builds up over the pressure rises in the east, it usually on atmospheric chemistry have not Indonesian archipelago. A typical falls in the west, and vice versa. This yet been explored, it is assumed that situation develops during which effect, which explains the El Nińo two major patterns of emission take emissions from biomass burning are phenomenon, is referred to as the place based on Walker Circulation. trapped in the lower troposphere. Walker Circulation. Walker and his During the “high phase” (normal The last few years, with extraordi- team analyzed weather records until years) of the Walker Circulation, low nary fires in Indonesia, have been they found patterns of rainfall in Latin pressure is centered over the characterized by the low phase of America that could be associated with Indonesian hot spots. Air masses the Walker Circulation. (Anon 1997a, changes in ocean water temperatures. with products from biomass burning Goldammer 1998b)
Pacific becomes drier than usual, a reverse of may be associated with La Niña included dry the El Niño effects. La Niña does not necessarily weather in parts of South America; wetter than follow hard on the heels of El Niño. However, normal conditions in northern Australia and the it has done so three times in the past 15 years. Philippines; above-normal rainfall during the In general, slightly higher than normal rainfall southwest monsoon in India; increased has been recorded during La Niña; but in certain hurricane activity in the Caribbean and Central years the amount of rainfall can be much higher America; dry spells in parts of Argentina and than in La Niña years (Nicholls 1993). Chile; above-normal rainfall in southern Africa, The last La Niña started to develop in mid- with the exception of Zimbabwe; and possibly 1998. Unusual climate conditions in 1998 that drier than normal conditions in the Horn of
FIGURE 1 Visitations of El Nińo There have been 20 ENSOs in the 120 years since 1877. There is now much debate surrounding the idea that the frequency and intensity of ENSOs are increasing, and there is some evidence that this has been the trend in the past 20 years.
30
20
10
0
-10
-20
-30 1876 1905 1936 1966 1997
The figure shows the El Nińo Southern Oscillation Index (ENSOI) six monthly average (April–September) for the years 1876–1997.
Source: MOE-UNDP 1998.
12 THE PREMISE Africa. Several governments took steps to prepare for the 1998-1999 La Niña, including FIGURE 2 The Walker Effect upgrading drainage systems, limiting Change in the temperature of the sea affects wind development in high-risk areas, and improving patterns, which affect weather globally. flood control. Normal equatorial conditions Impacts of El Nińo In 1982-1983, El Niño caused worldwide Air circulation loop destruction, particularly severe flooding and (The Walker Circulation) extensive damage in Latin America and droughts in parts of Asia. In Australia, forest Ocean surface fires destroyed thousands of houses and took Warm countless lives in the El Niño season of 1982. water layer Cold water layer Upwelling The total damage wreaked by the 1982-1983 of nutrients El Niño phenomenon globally was estimated to be between $8 billion and $13 billion, with about 2,000 lives lost. In 1991-1992, the effects of El Niño led to severe drought in Southern Africa, Developing El Nińo conditions bush fires in Australia, and forest fires in Indonesia . During 1997-1998, El Niño spread Reversed Air circulation loop from the Pacific to vast areas in Australia, Asia, air loop (The Walker Circulation) and Africa. It caused severe droughts in Australia, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, and Ocean surface Philippines; led to famine in southern Africa, Warm and hurricanes in Mexico and the southern water layer Cold water layer El Niño Upwelling United States. This fueled forest fires of nutrients in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand, as well as in the Amazon. The recent devastation caused by El Niño has added a new urgency to a long running Full developed El Nińo scientific mission: the quest to be able to forecast weather precisely, and to understand Reversed Walker Circulation the causes and effects of unusual climate swings. in the atmosphere
The Array of Impacts Ocean surface The burning of forests and biomass has serious Warm water impacts, direct and indirect, often resulting Cold water layer Upwelling layer in loss of life, livestock, and capital. The ineffectual damage caused by fire is often difficult to quantify, especially when nontangible losses are involved. The impact of forest fires has several Source: Institute of Ocean Sciences, Canada, Down to Earth, December 1997. dimensions—environmental/ecological, social,
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 13 economic, and others, which could be onsite lowering the subsoil water table, and causing Tropical lowland and offsite. The extent of these impacts depends desertification—ultimately reducing the rain forests are on the frequency and intensity of fires, fuel load, carrying capacity of the land involved. essentially type of forest involved, and climatic factors. nonflammable Influence on Ecosystems vegetations, but Ecological and Environmental Impacts Fire has been, and continues to be, once invaded by The ecological impact of forest fires is particularly destructive in tropical Africa, while grasslands they manifest in the degradation of the quality of high fire frequency in tropical Australia has become easily vegetation; expansion of savannah and sterile resulted in a generally more fire-adapted degraded by grasslands; erosion of biodiversity; damage to vegetation. Tropical lowland rain forests are frequent fires the health of forest ecosystems; plant essentially nonflammable vegetations, but once mortality; loss of wildlife habitat; air, river, and invaded by grasslands they become easily estuary pollution; and overall ecological degraded by frequent fires, destroying a good retrogression. Some authors point out that as portion of their floristic and ecological humans ascend the ladder of civilization, their potential. Slash fires following logging increase needs grow in arithmetical progression and the the fire hazard in tropical forests because they corresponding pollution grows in geometrical promote the establishment of fire-prone grasses. progression (Muralikrishna 1999). Fires affect Therefore, fire as a management tool has a the quality and productivity of soil by different outcome in tropical as compared to destroying humus and altering its chemistry, temperate forests. increasing soil temperature, attacking microbial Within the tropics (from latitudes 23º N to inhabitation, reducing moisture retention 23º S), three types of tropical lowland climate capacity of the soil, causing erosion of surface are recognized:1 the humid tropics (I), the soil and nutrient loss, increasing runoff, subhumid or semidry tropics (I-II), and the dry tropics (II). The three tropical climate zones FIGURE 3 Generalized Spatial Gradient of are based on mean monthly rainfall and Tropical Ecosystems temperature distribution. These three zones correspond roughly to the potential terrain of Climatic zones the three zonal forest types: tropical rain forest I I–II II I–III Zonal Ecosystems Gradient (wet to dry) (zone I, extending to about 10º N and 10º S of Rain forest Semi-deciduous Dry deciduous Desert scrub the equator in tropical America, Africa, and forest forest and succulents Southeast Asia), semideciduous forest (zone I- (Monsoon forest) II, recognized as a broad climatic transition Intrazonal Ecosystems zone in tropical America and Africa, but Heath forest almost absent in Southeast Asia), and dry Forest on “Hyperseasonal” Very Important limestone savannahs sparse edaphic deciduous forest (zone II, which is the largest desert variants Peat-swamp } grass tropical climate type). Zone III represents forest edaphic (soil-influenced) and other variants. Tall-grass Mid-grass and Other savannahs short-grass variants* A generalized spatial gradient of the tropical savannahs } ecosystems is shown in Figure 3.
*Mostly anthropogenic. Zonal tropical rain forests occur typically on Source: Mueller-Dombois 1978. well-drained, deeply weathered lateritic2 clay soil
14 THE PREMISE (oxisols and ultisols), which contain little organic FIGURE 4 matter and nutrients. These soils are highly acidic Conceptual Diagram of Losses (generally pH 4.2-5.6) and contain poor oxide and Benefits of Forest Fires in Indonesia clays with low exchange capacities. They commonly undergo irreversible drying when Declining benefits o f burni exposed to strong desiccation. ng Whitmore (1984) described several other tropical lowland rain forests that occur on quite different soils. These are the tropical heath 3 s (Karangas) forests on podzolized sands; the e lu va rain forests on limestone, ultrabasic of fires Increasing extent ce ur eso of r (serpentine) rock, calcareous sand and coral Loss rocks along beaches; and peat-swamp Increasing drought and fuel availability forests. All are significant edaphic variants, Logged-over which can be treated as intrazonal forest types Grassland Secondary Primary forest and forest and forest and and scrub + + drained + in the tropical rain forest terrain. plantations peatlands plantations Peat-swamp forests are an important rain Progression of flammable vegetation types with drought forest type in Southeast Asia (Whitmore 1984), Source: IAP Working Group, Indonesia, 1999. as well as in tropical America and Africa (USDA-FS 1981). In spite of their often turflike accumulation of organic matter, Depending upon the severity of annual natural fires have apparently not been observed burning and the weather, the emission in this edaphic variant of the tropical rain products added to the atmosphere from forest. Savannahs are the most widespread biomass burning amount to tropical vegetation type today, with different 220-13,500 gigatons (Tg) of carbon dioxide, subtypes due to edaphic variations in the 120-680 Tg of carbon monoxide, 2-21 Tg of tropical seasonal environments. nitrous oxides, and 11-53 Tg of methane gas. It is not proposed to go into the details of The situation, obviously, is not very comforting. various types of vegetation. In all cases, According to one estimate, in just a few months however, it is necessary to have a clear idea the burning that took place in 1997 in Indonesia about the positive and negative roles of fire. released as much greenhouse gases as all the In just a few Figure 4 provides an illustrative case. cars and power plants in Europe emit in an months the entire year (Kristof 1997). Scientists have burning that took Release of Greenhouse Gases estimated that from 1850 to 1980, between place in 1997 in Forest fires contribute to global climate change 90 billion and 120 billion metric tons (mt) of Indonesia and warming. Burning of forests also destroys carbon dioxide were released into the released as much an important sink for atmospheric carbon. atmosphere from tropical forest fires. greenhouse gases Biomass burning is recognized as a significant In comparison, during that same time period, as all the cars and global source of emissions contributing as much an estimated 165 billion mt of carbon dioxide power plants in as 10 percent of the gross carbon dioxide and were added to the atmosphere by industrial Europe emit in 38 percent of tropospheric ozone (Goldammer nations through the burning of coal, oil, and an entire year and Seibert 1990, Landsberg 1997). gas.
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 15 According to recent estimates, some aromatic hydrocarbons, and other gases that 1.8 billion-4.7 billion mt of carbon stored in are released and returned to the atmosphere in vegetation may be released annually by a matter of hours. The greenhouse gases, viz. wildland fires and other biomass burning carbon dioxide and methane, influence global (Crutzen and Andreae 1990). However, not all climate, while combustion particulates also of the biomass burned represents a net source affect global radiation. Methane, nonmethane of carbon in the atmosphere. The net flux of hydrocarbons, and nitric oxide are all carbon into the atmosphere is due to chemically active gases that affect the deforestation (forest conversion with and oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere and lead without the use of fire) and has been estimated to the photochemical production of ozone in by Houghton (1991) to be in the range of the troposphere. Recently, it was discovered that 1.1 billion-3.6 billion mt per year. biomass burning is also an important global Wildfires burning in radioactively source of atmospheric bromine in the form of contaminated vegetation lead to uncontrollable methyl bromine. Bromine leads to the redistribution of radionuclides, e.g., the long- chemical destruction of ozone in the Smoke emissions living radionuclides caesium (137Cs), strontium stratosphere and is about 40 times more from wildfires (90Sr), and plutonium (239Pu). In the most efficient in the process than chlorine on a affect human contaminated regions of Belarus, Russian molecule-to-molecule basis. Burning also health, Federation, and Ukraine, the prevailing forests enhances the biogenic emissions of nitric particularly are young and middle-aged pine and pine- oxide and nitrous oxide from soil. Biomass causing hardwood stands with high fire danger classes. burning affects the reflectivity and emissivity respiratory In 1992, severe wildfires burned in the Gome of the earth’s surface as well as hydrological ailments, and in region (Belarus) and spread into the zone of cycle by changing rates of land evaporation and some cases, 30 kilometers (km) radius around the Chernobyl water run off (Crutzen and Goldammer 1993; disease and death Power Plant. Research reveals that in 1990 Goldammer 1993a; and Anon 1997a, 1998). most of the 137Cs radionuclides were Combustion products are a significant source concentrated in the forest litter and upper of transboundary atmospheric pollution. The mineral layer of the soil. In the fires of 1992, smoke cloud due to fires in the Amazon area these radionuclides were lifted into the showed up on satellite images on 24 August atmosphere. Within the 30-km zone, the level 1995 spread over an area of 7 million km2 of radioactive caesium in aerosols increased 10 covering all of Brazil’s Amazon region and parts times (Dusha-Gudym 1996). of Columbia and Paraguay. The concentration of atmospheric particle pollution in some areas Combustion Products in Mato Grosso, Brazil, reached The immediate effects of burning are the 900 micrograms (µg) per m3, three times higher production and release of gases and than the safe level. particulates into the atmosphere, affecting its chemistry. The instantaneous aerial combustion Social Impacts products of burning vegetation include carbon Apart from causing transboundary air dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, pollution, smoke emissions from wildfires affect nonmethane hydrocarbons, nitric oxide, human health, particularly causing respiratory sulfur oxide, methyl chloride, polycyclic ailments, and in some cases, disease and death.
16 THE PREMISE They also cause visibility problems, which may additional pollutants such as ozone, nitric result in a breakdown of communication oxide, sulfur dioxide, carbon monoxide, systems, accidents, and economic loss. Other aldehydes, and polyaromatic hydrocarbons be social impacts include damage to energy and measured, if possible, to provide a electric installations, disruption in the supply comprehensive assessment of the health risks and distribution of food, displacement of people resulting from exposure to haze components. from affected areas, and temporary closure of Measurement of carbon monoxide, carbon educational establishments and production dioxide, and TSP would also allow some units. partitioning of smoke into flaming and smoldering sources and evaluation of the biomass Air Quality and Health particulate conversion ratio. The main constituent of the smog that As the concentration of airborne particles adversely affects health is particulate matter. rises, a corresponding rise in hospital The “WHO [World Health Organization] admissions (and even deaths) is noted. Even Health Guidelines for Episodic Vegetation Fire though evidence is piling up increasingly on Events” that arose from the meeting of experts the lethal effects of particles, scientists are yet held in Lima, Peru, 6-9 October 1998, stressed to fathom the extent of damage they can cause the necessity of ground-based air quality to public health. (See Boxes 2 and 3.) Fire can be a monitoring of particulate matter in all source of positive countries affected by regional haze from Economic Impacts and negative vegetation fires. Ideally, PM (particulate Fire is one of the least expensive and 2.5 impacts—the matter with an aerodynamic diameter less than simplest tools for preparing land for growing reason why 2.5 microns) should be measured since that size agricultural crops. However, once out of rural societies fraction has a significant health impact. If that control, it can lead to long-term site degradation considered fire as is not possible, PM or total suspended and other detrimental impacts. Fire can thus 10 a good servant, particulates (TSP) should be measured. The be a source of positive and negative but a bad master WHO draft document also recommends that impacts—the reason why rural societies
BOX 2 The Air Quality Standards for PM10 Set by International Agencies Agency Standard Time Period
ALA (proposed) 10 µg/ m3 Annual average
ALA (proposed) 18 µg/ m3 24-hour average
US EPA 50 µg/ m3 Average annual ambient standard
US EPA 150 µg/ m3 24-hour average
United Kingdom 50 µg/ m3 24-hour average
Indian Standard 60 µg/ m3 Annual average
WHO 70 µg/ m3 24-hour average (European Ambient Air Quality Guideline)
Note: All figures in micrograms per cubic meter (µg/m3). Source: Deadly Particles, Down to Earth, 15 December 1999.
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 17 damage control, and rehabilitation. There have BOX 3 Pollution and Mortality been considerable improvements in fire Possible biological mechanisms by which pollution causes death management techniques, mainly in include the following: • increased susceptibility to infection from impaired immune industrialized countries, through the use of defenses; sophisticated tools and equipment. • airways inflammation leading to impaired gas exchange and hypoxia (deficiency of oxygen reaching the tissues of the body); While land clearing for agriculture and • provocation of alveolar inflammation by ultrafine particles with the estate crops has taken place on an increasing release of mediators that exacerbate underlying lung diseases and increase blood coagulation; scale, a new dimension was added to forest • increased lung permeability leading to pulmonary edema (excessive management around the middle of the accumulation of fluid on the lung tissues); and th • precipitation of heart failure in those with chronic heart disease by 19 century, when tree plantations were raised acute bronchitis or pneumonia induced by pollution. under a system of clear felling the natural
Source: Particles in Our Air: Health Effects and Concentrations, edited by Richard Wilson forests and artificially regenerating them— and John Spengler, Harvard University Press, US, 1996. essentially for commercial and industrial purposes. The commercial potential of the considered fire as a good servant, but a bad tropical forests also promoted increased rates master. of extraction; and the conventional and Apart from loss of material goods and conservative “selection systems” in many cases services, forest fires cause serious direct were deliberately set aside (or diluted). economic losses through damage and decline Since the beginning of the industrial in the quality of forest growing stock, reduced revolution, humans have transformed about landscape stability, increased proneness to pests 40 percent of the earth’s land surface. By 1990, and diseases, reduced availability of forest-based conversion of tropical forests—much of it raw material supplies, and the need for new accomplished by open burning—had reached investments in forest rehabilitation and fire an estimated rate of 1.8 percent of the earth’s protection. Indirectly, they affect agricultural total forestland per year. In absolute terms, this productivity and tourism, indigenous amounts to about 14.2 million ha. The populations and their means of livelihood, and implications of open burning on this scale for jeopardize the prospects and ability of the rural the global environment are startling. poor to improve their standard of living. A healthy forest is one that is resilient to By 1990, Forest fires can also degrade other surviving changes. The term ecosystem health is used to conversion of forests by exerting impact on their composition, define the structural and functional stability of tropical forests— regeneration, productivity, protection an ecosystem and its ability to bounce back after much of it functions, soil quality, wildlife, and aesthetics. stress (Gupta and Yunus 1998). Forest fire accomplished by management is an important aspect of open burning— Fire in Land and Forest Management sustainable forest management, ensuring the had reached an Controlled use of fire has been an health of forest ecosystems, and that negative estimated rate of important aspect of land and forest impacts of fire are minimized and positive 1.8 percent of the management. Methods and techniques have impacts maximized. earth’s total progressively evolved to suit the types of land forestland per and the nature and scale of operations, Fire Science and Technology year covering all aspects of fire management— The years since World War II, particularly the prevention/protection, mitigation, suppression, recent past, have witnessed a series of
18 THE PREMISE achievements in the field of fire management LandSat, the French Earth Resource science and technology. More are in different Satellite, SPOT, and space-borne radar sensors, stages of development. Most remarkable deliver accurate maps of active fires, progress has been made in the following fields. vegetation state and areas affected by fire. Because of its availability, spatial resolution, Detection and Monitoring of Fires spectral characteristics, and low cost, NOAA The amount of living vegetation, and its AVHRR has become the most widely used moisture content, has a strong effect on the satellite data set for regional fire detection and propagation and severity of wildland fires. monitoring. Currently, AVHRR data are used Observation and assessment of vegetation for vegetation analyses and in the detection and greenness is therefore essential for any system characterization of active flaming fires, smoke of fire danger rating. Current assessment of plumes, and burn scars. living vegetation moisture relies on various The middle-infrared and thermal AVHRR methods of manual sampling. While these bands of the NOAA polar-orbiting satellites have measurements are quite accurate, they are been used for identifying fires.4 Several difficult to obtain over broad areas, so they fail techniques are used to detect active fires on Polar orbiting to portray changes in the pattern of vegetation regional scales using multispectral satellite data. weather satellites greenness and moisture across the landscape. A comprehensive validation of AVHRR provide the Space-borne remote sensing technologies active fire detection techniques through a range potential for have improved the capability to identify fire of atmospheric and surface conditions has not delivering activities at local, regional, and global levels by yet been performed. Several studies, however, greenness using visible and infrared sensors on have provided some level of validation. information and existing platforms for detecting temperature other parameters anomalies, active fires, and smoke plumes. Limitations of AVHRR Fire Detection needed for fire Polar orbiting weather satellites provide the Data are sensed by all channels management and potential for delivering greenness information simultaneously at 1.1 km spatial resolution. fire impact and other parameters needed for fire Data acquired by the instrument are resampled assessment with management and fire impact assessment with on board the satellite to 4 km spatial resolution daily global daily global coverage at coarse spatial resolution. and recorded for later transmission to one of coverage at This is achieved using wide-angle scanning the two NOAA Command Data Acquisition coarse spatial radiometers with large instantaneous fields of view. (CDA) stations, at Gilmore Creek, Alaska, and resolution Short-return interval, low-resolution Wallops Island, Virginia. This is known as the geosynchronous satellites such as the Global Area Coverage mode of transmission. Geosynchronous Operational Environmental In addition, the full spatial resolution 1.1 km Satellite (GOES) (Prins and Menzel 1996) and data can be recorded for previously scheduled polar orbiting sensors such as the NOAA areas of the world, in the Local Area Coverage AVHRR (European Commission 1996, mode, or can be received directly from the Justice et al. 1996, Kendall et al. 1996) have satellites by suitably equipped receiving stations been used successfully to establish calendars of in the High Resolution Picture Transmission vegetation state (fire hazard) and fire activities. mode. Other satellites with longer temporal sampling Even in full configuration, with two NOAA intervals, but with higher resolution, such as satellites in operation, the AVHRR data provide
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 19 only a limited sampling of the diurnal cycle. images to remove most of the cloud and other The orbital characteristics of the satellites deleterious effects, and an NDVI image of the result in two daytime and two nighttime orbits continental US is computed by the US per location. The afternoon overpass provides Geological Survey’s Earth Resources the best coverage in terms of fire detection and Observation Systems (EROS) Data Center. monitoring in tropical and subtropical regions These weekly images are obtained via the (Justice and Dowty 1994). In addition, the Internet and further processed into images that afternoon overpass enables detection of the full relate to fire potential (Burgan et al. 1996) and range of parameters described (i.e., vegetation easily interpreted by fire managers. Four state, active fires, burn scars, smoke). separate images are derived from the NDVI Perhaps the most fundamental problem of data—Visual Greenness, Relative Greenness, AVHRR fire detection is that analysis is Departure from Average Greenness, and Live limited to relatively cloud-free areas. This can Shrub Moisture. be a serious issue in tropical and subtropical To improve the determination of spatial regions. Cloud cover can cause an definition of fuel types requires use of a fire Improved fire underestimation in the extent and frequency of danger fuel model map. In the United States, weather forecasts burning, and limits the ability to track vegetation the EROS Data Center has used a series of are needed for parameters. This issue is not limited to the eight monthly composites of NDVI data for forest fire NOAA satellite system. Dense clouds will prevent 1990 to produce a 159 class vegetation map of management at detection of the surface by all visible and infrared the continental United States at 1 km resolution various time and sensors. A satisfactory methodology for (Loveland et al. 1991). Data from 2,560 fuel space scales estimating the amount of burning missed observation plots randomly scattered across the through cloud obscuration has yet to be country have permitted the development of a developed. 1 km resolution fuel model map from this. This With the characteristics of the NOAA is now being used to provide broad-scale fire meteorological satellites, as described, it is danger maps. possible to collect near real-time information Improved fire weather forecasts are needed to support fire management activities. (A fully for forest fire management at various time and automatic system has been developed to detect space scales. At large time and space scales, forest fires using data from NOAA AVHRR. accurate fire weather forecasts have the The prototype system was developed in Finland potential for long-range planning of allocation and tested in four experiments in 1994 to 1997 of scarce resources; at smaller time and space there and in its neighboring countries). scales they have potential use in alerting, staging, and planning the deployment of fire Fire Weather and Seasonal Moisture suppression crews and equipment; at the Changes smallest time and space scales, they can be helpful Since 1989, the use of a Normalized in fighting fires as well as determining optimal Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) to periods for setting prescribed silvicultural fires monitor seasonal changes in the quantity and (Fosberg and Fujioka 1987; Roads et al. 1991, moisture of living vegetation has been 1997). investigated (Goward et al. 1990). Daily Current US fire weather forecasts are AVHRR data are composited into weekly prepared from short-range weather forecasts
20 THE PREMISE (one or two days) from the US National geographic information systems (GIS) is Center for Environmental Prediction (NCEP), increasingly being used in fire management- other model output statistics, and human oriented systems (Chuvieco 1996). Remotely judgment. These fire weather forecasts include operated air vehicles (drones) offer reliable and information about rainfall, wind, humidity, and safe means of information gathering for temperature. disaster-type fire situations. An experimental modeling system, A high-quality climate database is a developed at the NCEP for making prerequisite for modeling, including short-range global to regional weather initialization, testing, and verification. Hazard forecasts, is being developed at the Scripps ratings, haze monitoring, and prediction also Experimental Climate Prediction Center require good knowledge of the state of the (ECPC). Although this system is focused on atmosphere, which can be provided only by making and disseminating experimental meteorological observations of high quality global to regional fire weather forecasts for (Tapper et al. 1998). Southern California, it could easily be Communication systems for early warning transported and applied anywhere else in the information dissemination are generally world. advanced since they rely on the technology developed in the civilian telecommunication Circulation Models sector. Space-borne sensing and collection of Global Circulation Models allow the real-time data for early fire warnings generally integration of information crucial for assessing depend on systems that were not specifically fire danger in a regionally or globally changed designed for sensing fire precursors, active fires, climate. This has been proven successfully for and fire effects. A short overview of the most the boreal zone (Stocks and Lynham 1996, important sensors that are in use or are being Stocks et al. 1997) and partially for tropical built gives an indication of future possibilities. fire regimes (Goldammer and Price 1998). New Space-Borne Sensors Burned Area and Emission Estimates Remote sensing users, in addition to The demands of forest inventory, land-use continuing experimentation and refinement of planning, and atmospheric chemistry studies methods, need to provide operational require accurate knowledge of the amount of monitoring data sets on regional and global The development vegetation affected by fire, and the types of scales to contribute to early warning of fire of operational plants burned. High- and low-resolution hazards, and to fire and smoke management. automated sensors have proven successful in establishing The development of operational automated monitoring reliable data sets on burned areas on a regional monitoring techniques and the provision of techniques and scale (Cahoon et al. 1994) and offer the consistent long-term data sets are challenges to the provision of opportunity to extend this method on a global be faced. Issues such as prohibitive costs of consistent scale. data, computing resources, data management, long-term data data archival, and distribution also need to be sets are Technology Development addressed. challenges to be The integration of remotely sensed fire data Data set development is being undertaken faced with information obtained on the ground in using satellite sensing systems, which, as stated
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 21 earlier, were not designed for fire monitoring. systems (expert systems), offers feasible, cost- The current suite of sensors suitable for fire efficient, and user-friendly solutions monitoring have problems such as calibration, (Goldammer 1998b, IDNDR 1997). saturation, spatial resolution, orbital overpass time, and coverage, which need to be taken Modern Fire Suppression Technologies into account in data processing and data set These include aircraft, communication compilation. It is critical that users fully equipment, fire-retardants, heavy field understand the limitations of the data and their equipment, fire jumping, and water bombing. utility. New sensors are being designed and built They have seen limited use in developing that will reduce or eliminate some of these countries, however. problems, but they will introduce new, and in some cases, unanticipated, ones instead. The International Actions development of new satellite data sets is an At the international level there is considerable iterative process that needs to be undertaken in interest in forest fires and haze, particularly Several close collaboration with the users. The planned transboundary implications, and their impact international systems will provide a challenge in terms of on the environment. statements, presenting the amount of raw data in a suitable commitments, volume and level of information content Expressions of World Concern and declarations (Goldammer 1998b, IDNDR 1997). New There has been increasing global concern at on development sensors being developed, such as the Moderate the deterioration of the environment, and sustainable Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer, are including deforestation and resource depletion. forest aimed at satisfying the demands of fire science A series of international conferences, summits, management and management. and commissions, starting with the United have flagged the Nations (UN) Conference on the Human need to mitigate Challenges Environment held in Stockholm in 1972, have and manage Early warning, monitoring, and inventory unequivocally stated that without environmental forest wildfires of wildfires need to be accompanied by conservation, development will not be monitoring and inventory of ecological sustainable. In this connection, the crucial issue characteristics that lead to fire. Disturbances, of deforestation and the need to obviate the such as insect or disease outbreaks, wind throw undesirable impacts of wildfires have also been of trees, industrial forestry, and conversion of stated, implicitly or explicitly. The widespread forests to other uses are frequently precursors fires seen in many countries during the 1990s— to fires. particularly those of 1997-1998—and the Pests and diseases stress ecosystems, resulting associated atmospheric haze pollution and in production of dead matter, particularly foliage negative socioeconomic impacts provided an and other fine materials that are critical to fire unprecedented urgency for dealing with fires. ignition and behavior. Post-fire vegetation recovery is important to predict fire-return The Declarations intervals. Advanced early warning systems will Several international statements, need to integrate these parameters into commitments, and declarations on sustainable multilayer fire information systems. GIS development and forest management have technology, combined with decision support flagged the need to mitigate and manage forest
22 THE PREMISE wildfires, in the context of controlling • to work together toward a constructive Conventions deforestation and forest degradation. and forward-looking outcome for the have had direct global forest policy dialogue at the eighth or indirect The Antalya Declaration session of the United Nations Commission implications for The Antalya Declaration of the XIth World on Sustainable Development; the way the fires Forestry Congress (WFC), 13-22 October 1997, • to better coordinate and strengthen are managed and singled out forest fires for special efforts to prevent, manage, monitor, and controlled attention. Noting with alarm the continued rate suppress forest fires, especially in of forest loss and degradation in many regions anticipation of the next El Niño and, in the of the world, the Congress called upon longer term, to address the underlying countries “to develop, implement, and review causes of forest fires; and policies, plans, and management practices • to work closely with counterparts in other aimed at minimizing the destructive nature and ministries in the respective countries to extent of wildfires on forestlands” (WFC 1997). promote cross-sectoral policies and activities that support sustainable forest The Rome Declaration management. The Rome Declaration on Forestry was Such pledges should be followed up seriously. adopted at the Second Ministerial Meeting on Forestry, in Rome, 8-9 March 1999. At that Conventions meeting, the ministers responsible for forests: Although some international environmental • were deeply concerned at the important treaties date back to the early part of the challenges associated with forest loss and 20th century, it was not until the 1960s that degradation in many regions; concerns about environmental pollution and • stressed the need to maintain the integrity depletion of natural resources led to binding of forests as ecosystems by promoting multilateral environmental agreements. The sustainable forest management worldwide; following conventions have had direct or • noted that the causes of forest fires are indirect implications for the way the fires are many and complex; and managed and controlled: • recognized the need to harness all efforts Ramsar. Convention on Wetlands of to prevent forest fires as well as to International Importance especially as waterfowl address the multiple causes and Habitat (Ramsar Convention), Ramsar, 2 consequences of fires around the globe. February 1971. www.ramsar.org They also called upon the UN Food and World Heritage. Convention Concern- Agriculture Organization (FAO) and other ing the Protection of the World Cultural and international organizations, donor agencies, and Natural Heritage, 23 November 1972. concerned countries to work together to address www.unesco.org/whc the underlying causes of forest fires; to improve CMS. Convention on the Conservation of the coordination of efforts to tackle, prevent, Migratory Species of Wild Animals, Bonn, and combat forest fires; and to rehabilitate 23 June 1979. www.wcmc.org.uk/cms affected areas with a view to providing assistance Ozone. Vienna Convention for the Protection requested by governments. of the Ozone Layer, Vienna, 22 March 1985, On their part, the ministers pledged: and Montreal Protocol on Substances
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 23 that Deplete the Ozone Layer, Montreal, have at times had a more profound effect on Nonbinding 16 September 1987. www.unep.org/ozone environmental policy than binding ones. Two instruments are UNFCCC. United Nations Framework nonbinding instruments adopted during the often forerunners Convention on Climate Change, New York, UN Conference on Environment and of binding policy 9 May 1992. www.unfccc.de Development (UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro instruments and CBD. Convention on Biological Diversity, in 1992 are the Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 have at times had Nairobi, 22 May 1992. www.biodiv.org (UNCED 1993). The Forest Principles5 a more profound UNCCD. United Nations Convention to adopted at UNCED falls under this category. effect on Combat Desertification in those Countries environmental Experiencing Serious Drought and/or UN International Decade for policy than Desertification, Paris, 17 June 1994. Natural Disaster Reduction binding ones www.unccd.de On 11 December 1987 at its 42nd session, the Another multilateral environmental General Assembly of the UN designated the agreement that emerged after the 1972 1990s as the International Decade for Natural Stockholm Conference on Environment was the Disaster Reduction (IDNDR). The basic idea 1979 Convention on Long-Range behind this proclamation was the unacceptable Transboundary Air Pollution, adopted by many and rising levels of losses that disasters continue European states, Canada, and US (UNEP to incur on the one hand. And on the other 1999). Signatories have adopted a critical loads hand, there was the existence of a wealth of approach under the convention, which relates scientific and engineering know-how that could to the transboundary effects of haze from land be effectively used to reduce losses resulting and forest fires in Southeast Asia (see Box 4). from disasters. The UN World Conference on Natural Nonbinding Instruments Disaster Reduction, which was part of a midterm Nonbinding instruments are often review of IDNDR activities, was held in forerunners of binding policy instruments and Yokohama, Japan, on 23-27 May 1994. The UN
BOX 4 Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
The Convention on Long-Range protection of the environment as well decrease is greatest for sulfur dioxide, Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) in as human health. the pollutant causing the major Europe, which was signed in 1979 and Participating countries commit problem, with expected national entered into force in 1983, is a classic themselves to periodic reporting on reductions in 2000 relative to 1980 of example of regional environmental emissions, national strategies, and about one third in Central and Eastern management. The first protocols programs. Many participating Europe, and two thirds to three organized finance and addressed countries have developed action plans quarters in Western Europe. However, acidification and photochemical or long-term strategies based on a reductions of the emissions of nitrogen pollution. Acidification was addressed system of cost-effective, differenti- oxides, ammonia, and hydrocarbons again in 1994 since it was found that ated obligations. are more difficult to achieve. This will the first sulfur protocol did not provide Clear financing, the involvement of be the subject of a new protocol. To sufficient protection. Recent attention national scientific bodies, and joint exploit the advantages of the multi- has focused on the problems caused implementation have contributed to effect, multi-pollutants approach, by persistent organic pollutants and LRTAP’s status as one of the most sulfur emissions will also need to be heavy metals. Future priorities include successful regional multilateral further reduced. This should increase development of an innovative, multi- environmental agreements. Emissions the cost-effectiveness of controlling air effect, multi-pollutant protocol aimed of acidifying substances have pollution for all participating countries. at nitrogen oxides and related decreased in all areas since the first substances, which will include protocols came into force. The Source: UNEP 1999.
24 THE PREMISE BOX 5 Wildfire ’97—Principles and Needs Principles Needs • Fire is a key element of sustainable development. • Increase awareness of the impact of fire on • Fire is a component of ecological processes. sustainable development. • Fire is both a threat and a tool. • Incorporate wildland fire into land management • Fire and its effects are not constrained by geographic policies. or political boundaries. • Compile international data on wildland fire. • Fire is one of the few natural disturbances that can • Expand our understanding of fire’s role in global be forecasted and mitigated. processes. • Fire may endanger people and communities. • Establish international partnerships and agreements. • Fire can disrupt local economies. • Coordinate international research. • Fire can cause irreversible impacts. • Continue international dialogue. • Fire is an important element of most global • Implement appropriate technology. ecosystems and atmospheric processes. • Share information, knowledge, and experience. • Fire’s role in the global environment is not fully • Evaluate international progress in wildland fire understood or appreciated. management.
(Based on the report of the International Conference on Wildfire ’97, Vancouver, Canada, May 1997). Source: Goldammer 1997b. team of specialists used the opportunity to Program (IGBP) and other programs devoted express their views on global fires. In 1997, close to global change research (Andreae et al. 1993, links were established between the IDNDR FIRESCAN Science Team 1996, Malingreau Secretariat in Geneva and the Global Fire and Justice 1997, Van Wilgen et al. 1997). Monitoring Center (GFMC). While the scope of global change research is In July 1997, GFMC was entrusted with the not necessarily directed toward operational The application formation of a Working Group on Fire and management systems, e.g., early warning of of technologies Related Environmental Hazards of the IDNDR natural hazards, the spinoffs of science and methods of Early Warning Programme. The nevertheless have considerable potential for information recommendations of the group, which were contributing to management solutions. gathering, submitted to IDNDR in 1997, were However, the application of technologies and processing, and incorporated into the Report of the UN Secretary methods of information gathering, processing, distribution has General: “Improved Effectiveness of Early- and distribution has revealed that many existing revealed that Warning Systems with Regard to Natural and systems must be further developed to meet the many existing Similar Disasters” (Goldammer 1998b). requirements of precise and real-time systems must be The proposed priority activities of the application for early warning and management further developed Working Group on Fire and Related of fire and other environmental hazards. to meet the Environmental Hazards include Global Fire IGBP at the Max Planck Institute for requirements of Inventory, Information Exchange and Chemistry, Freisburg, Germany, provides the precise and Technology Transfer, Fire Research and Policies, basis for interdisciplinary fire research real-time and Agreements on Environmental Protection. programs. One of the operational IGBP core application for projects is the International Global Atmospheric early warning Scientific Programs Chemistry (IGAC) Project, which is and management Fire research and technology development has investigating the impact of biomass burning of fire and other received considerable stimulation from on the atmosphere and biosphere (BIBEX). environmental scientific projects conducted under the umbrella Since 1990, interdisciplinary international hazards of the International Geosphere-Biosphere research campaigns have been conducted or are
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 25 in the planning and implementation stage, the Division (now Timber Section, UN-ECE Trade most important of which in the tropics are the Division) in 1988, a steadily increasing Southern Tropical Atlantic Regional communication process in international fire Experiment (STARE) and the Southeast Asian matters was initiated. It was followed by the Fire Experiment (SEAFIRE) (see Chapter 3). publication of the first scientific periodical, STARE was designed to investigate the Journal of Wildland Fire, and the foundation of atmospheric chemical consequences of fires in the International Association of Wildland Fire tropical and subtropical forests and savannahs (IAWF) in 1992. This association provides the of South America (Brazil) and Southern latest information on wildland fire issues Africa. This first intercontinental fire experiment through the journal as well as through was conducted in the field during 1992 and Wildfire (a quarterly magazine), Current Titles involved more than 150 fire researchers from in Wildland Fire (a monthly bulletin available 14 nations. It demonstrated that fires on both on disk or printed that lists new articles, sides of the tropical Atlantic cause elevated ozone videos, and books on wildland fires), a concentrations in the troposphere during the dry continuously updated International Directory of SEAFIRE will season (August-November). The Southern Wildland Fire (a digital master list of 30,000 investigate the African Fire-Atmosphere Research Initiative people working in the field), and an characteristics (SAFARI) was the African part of STARE and International Bibliography of Wildland Fire (a and regional and included fire ecology research components at a digital product with more than 45,000 citations global subcontinental level. In 1996-1997, additional on wildland fire). IAWF cosponsors fire transport of international fire research programs were conferences, sells and distributes publications, emissions from conducted in near-equator Africa. and provides free access to databases by various types of SEAFIRE will investigate the characteristics telephone, fax, or E-mail (http:// fire in tropical and regional and global transport of www.neotecinc.com/wildfire). Quick Southeast Asia emissions from various types of fire in tropical information through the Internet is provided Southeast Asia, such as fires used in forest by FireNet (http://life.anu.edu.au/landscape- conversion and shifting cultivation, and in ecology/firenet/firenet.html). grassland and seasonally dry monsoon forests A series of international fire conferences has (Goldammer 1996). provided regular platforms for presenting and Previous and current international fire exchanging scientific results; for example: experiments under the IGBP are regularly • the biannual Conference on Fire and announced in the UN-ECE/FAO International Forest Meteorology (formerly held in Forest Fire News (IFFN) and also published in Canada and the United States, and scientific media (e.g., Journal of Geophysical beginning with the Australian conference Research). in 1996 also internationally); • the International Conference on Forest Fire International Exchanges Research at Coimbra University The international community of fire (Portugal), in 1998 for the first time in specialists started to organize itself in the late conjunction with the 14th Conference on 1980s. With the first issue of IFFN, published Fire and Forest Meteorology; and by the Economic Commission for Europe • the ECE/FAO seminars on forest fires (ECE)/FAO Agriculture and Timber (held at five-year intervals since 1981).
26 THE PREMISE Fire management science and technology For its first phase, GFMC is sponsored by have reached a level of advancement and the German Government’s Ministry of sophistication in industrialized countries. But Finance Affairs, as the country’s contribution in developing countries, they are still in their to the IDNDR. GFMC is also cosponsored by nascent stage, as most do not have adequate several international and national organizations; infrastructure, experience, and hardware to UN-ECE Trade Division; IDNDR; manage wildfire disasters. International Union of Forestry Research Although bilateral assistance agreements Organizations (IUFRO); International Bureau exist and several field projects in fire of Forest Research Association; IGBP; and US management are carried out through national Bureau of Land Management. The fire and international organizations, there are no documentation, information, and monitoring facilities and/or mechanisms available to system is accessible through the Internet: provide the necessary disaster management http:/www.uni-freiburg.de/fireglobe. assistance internationally on a permanent and quick-response basis. International Guidelines Besides the ECE/FAO Team of Specialists Fire Management Guidelines The International on Forest Fire, which has a restricted mandate ITTO has established a set of international Tropical Timber and a regionally restricted area of influence, and guidelines for the protection of tropical forests Council has some ongoing and planned regional fire research against fires. This resulted in a publication, established a set campaigns under the IGBP scheme, neither the ITTO Guidelines on Fire Management in of international UN system nor any other organization is Tropical Forests, in 1996. The Guidelines contains guidelines for the providing adequate structures and mechanisms 29 principles and recommendations covering: protection of with global responsibilities in fire management. policy and laws, strategies (fire management tropical forests Consequently, an information and planning, fire management options, fire against fires monitoring system was needed that national and suppression, role of communities in fire international agencies involved in land use protection), monitoring and research, planning, disaster management, or other fire- institutional framework and capacity related tasks could utilize for planning and development, socioeconomic considerations, decision making. To fill the need, the Global land resources management, and training and Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) was public education. The Guidelines offers a established in June 1998 in accordance with framework for countries in the tropics, to be the objectives of the UN/IDNDR, fine-tuned in accordance with socioeconomic, recommendations of the International Tropical cultural, and vegetation conditions. Timber Organization (ITTO) Guidelines on Fire Management in Tropical Forests, and Health Guidelines recommendations of various scientific and As a consequence of the 1997-1998 fires and policy conferences in the field of fire. haze, several international agencies have GFMC is located at the Fire Ecology and undertaken important initiatives. One issue that Biomass Burning Research Group of the Max attracted attention was the health affects of Planck Institute of Chemistry, Germany. GFMC smoke from vegetation fires. To address this, has established regional activities linked to WHO has prepared Health Guidelines for Monitoring Tropical Vegetation. Episodic Vegetation Fire Events.
CHAPTER 1: UNDERSTANDING FOREST FIRES—THE GLOBAL FIRE SCENE 27 Notes is not flawless. Bare soil, corrugated iron, and 1 Montane climate/vegetation influenced by low vegetation (grass) can also have a high altitudinal zonation is not included here. temperature in the sun and are often wrongly 2 The residual product of rock decay. assigned as a fire hot spot. This misclassification 3 Zonal soils that develop in a moist climate. can account for more than half of results. 4 The satellite can detect fire points, normally Further, hot spots cannot be detected in areas called hot spots. It, however, was developed with thick haze or smoke cover, as the sensor for weather and oceanic monitoring, both of cannot penetrate haze, smoke, or cloud. Area which have temperatures below 40oC. The calculation is difficult or impossible with only sensor measures the average temperature of hot spot information. 1 km2. This does not mean that a fire has to be 5 Full title: A nonlegally binding statement of of this size, since a small hot fire can influence principles for a global consensus on the the average temperature of the 1 km2 pixel management and conservation and sustainable considerably. Unfortunately, detecting hot spots development of all types of forests.
28 THE PREMISE
CHAPTER 2 Forest Fires and Haze in the ASEAN Region
[This chapter focuses on forest fires and haze in the ASEAN region, and provides a detailed analysis of the causes and constraints that exacerbate these problems. Forestland conversion involving uncontrolled use of fire has been identified as a prime cause and source of forest fires. The social, economic, and environmental impacts of the recent forest fires and haze have been enormous, with the estimated total cost of the 1997- 1998 occurrences alone amounting to $9.3 billion.]
The Background accounting for 34 percent (in value) of world Nearly half of the ASEAN6 region is covered export trade in panels. Three quarters of total with tropical forest, accounting for about wood production is used as fuelwood and charcoal. 6 percent of the forest area of the world. The In addition, the region is rapidly developing a region’s forests have global significance in terms substantial pulp and paper industry. Many ASEAN of biological diversity (FAO 1999a). ASEAN member countries (AMCs) are also major Smoke emanating is an important timber producing region exporters of nonwood forest products (NWFPs), from plantation sites, from plantation sites, in particular rubber, rattan, and bamboo. as seen through (particularly of tropical hardwoods), accounting satellite imaging, for 6 percent of the world’s industrial roundwood The amount of land under forest in the Indonesia, 1997. production. More than 85 percent of this comes ASEAN region is 46.2 percent and forest area Photo: ASEAN from Indonesia and Malaysia. These two per capita is 0.4 ha. The rate of deforestation Specialized in the region has been substantial, at about Meteorological Centre, countries are major producers and exporters of Singapore wood-based panels (mainly plywood), together –2.8 million ha during 1990-1995, representing an annual change of –1.3 percent. Forests have supported overall economic development in AMCs by generating investment funds and providing land for the expansion of agriculture and estate crops. The need for increasing export earnings and other national economic development imperatives has prompted the conversion of forestlands into rubber, oil palm, and timber plantations. Fire has been used extensively in land preparation as a cost-effective process (see Box 6). As a result of these and other factors, all AMCs are prone to wildfires, which are likely to remain a serious threat for some time. As a partnership for sharing experiences, information, responsibilities, and benefits, and
30 THE PREMISE BOX 6 Land Conversion and Economic Development
Conversion of forest and wildlands to Democratic Republic [Lao PDR] and environment. One of the major causes other productive uses is a prominent Myanmar), a significant amount of of Indonesia’s 1997-1998 wildfires, feature of the national economic land remains in an undisturbed state, identified by investigators, was the development policy in a number of which means that national develop- land clearing practices of oil palm forest- and land-abundant ASEAN ment policymakers in these countries plantations companies and countries, just as it formed an have the option of using large-scale smallholders, who used fire as a low- important part of the economic land conversion to help fuel future cost (or free) way of preparing land for development process of all countries economic development. cropping. More than 60,000 ha of that today enjoy a high level of income Land conversion is undertaken in forestland per year were converted into (i.e., the developed economies of order to harness the wealth contained oil palm between 1995 and 1997. Europe, North and South America, and in land resources so that it directly Most of the oil palm plantations were Oceania). As in the case of these and immediately enters into the flow of opened up through systematic burning latter economies, the land conversion production and national income. Once of vegetation, primarily logged-over process is essentially complete in brought into this flow, this wealth can forest. In addition to the existing some AMCs (Brunei Darussalam, easily be transformed into goods and 2.4 million ha, the Indonesian Philippines, Singapore, and Thailand). services of all types. Some of this land Government intends to allocate In others (Indonesia and Malaysia), wealth is transformed into investment another 3.1 million ha for future land conversion is taking place, and is in future productive capability, which conversion into oil palm plantations. seen by policymakers as an important stimulates employment and ultimately Regulations allow for three kinds of and positive contribution to economic augments national income. Some of land-clearing permits: open burning, development. In yet other AMCs, land the remainder is used to purchase controlled burning, and zero burning. conversion is experiencing a hiatus as consumption goods, which in part However, landowners and companies a result of previous political and increases the demand for home- are generally reluctant to adopt more economic dislocations (Cambodia and produced goods, indirectly stimulating expensive zero-burn land preparation Viet Nam). Land conversion in these further domestic investment and systems. This is also true of forest countries may, therefore, resume in employment. plantations. the future when the pace of economic But land conversion can support development quickens sufficiently. In real development only if it can be Source: ADB/ASEAN (1999). Final Report of RETA 5778: Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent and still other AMCs (the Lao People’s carried out without damaging the Mitigate Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution.
working toward common good, ASEAN is in political system, demographic features, level of ASEAN is in a a strong position to address its fire problem at economic development, and share of strong position the regional level. international trade. Because of the proximity and contiguity of to address its fire problem at the Similarities and Differences between these countries, an underlying “unity in AMCs diversity” has developed in social and economic regional level There are several differences and similarities attitudes, resulting from migration, trade, and between AMCs. The differences in geographic sociocultural interaction. Accordingly, there are location, in terms of latitudes and longitudes, considerable similarities in land-use practices, geological evolution, physiographic and economic activities, social habits, commercial topographic aspects, volcanism, wind direction, dealings, and international interests. In spite of etc., are reflected in their climate, vegetational the differences in the level of industrialization, types, land categories, resource endowments, agriculture continues to be important to all and capabilities. The diverse ethnic and AMCs, with the exception of Brunei historical background (including the history of Darussalam and Singapore. colonization), coupled with the nature of The entire ASEAN region generally falls resources available, has also resulted in within the tropical zone and follows differences in such aspects as religion, culture, comparable land management systems.
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 31 Shifting cultivation is prevalent in all the forested Pacific. These forests require abundant rainfall Fire regimes are countries of the region. and high temperatures all year round. If monthly best understood The rapid land use changes taking place in rainfall drops below 100 millimeters (mm), as existing along a the countries is reflected in the high rate of drought will result. Insular Southeast Asia, gradient of deforestation. For a comparison of population, Papua New Guinea, and the high islands of ecological and income, land, and forests of AMCs, Melanesia were largely covered with species- human factors see Table 1. rich forests until recent decades. Logging and agricultural expansion have now greatly Fire Regimes of the Region decreased their quality and extent. Apart from The region has a number of distinct fire Papua New Guinea and the protected or remote regimes, each with one or more associated parts of Southeast Asia, the lowland rain forests vegetation formations. Fire regimes are best of the region are a mosaic of disturbed stands, understood as existing along a gradient of fire climax grasslands, secondary vegetation, and ecological and human factors. The characteristics commercial crop plantations. Within this broad and features of the major fire regimes are briefly climate type, special vegetation types have their described in the following sections. own fire regimes. The fire climax Imperata cylindrica grasslands are fired by humans Tropical Rain Forests annually to prevent invasion by woody pioneer Tropical rain forest is the natural vegetation species. Peat swamp forests are susceptible to over large areas of Southeast Asia and the continuous subsurface burning during severe
TABLE 1 ASEAN Region: Country Information
Forest Area Annual Change Pop. Density in Forest Area Land Area (1997 GNP per Area % of Per Capita Country (’000 ha) pop/km2) Capita (’000 ha) Land Area (ha) ’000 ha % Rate
Brunei Darussalam 527 56.9 25,160 434 82.4 1.5 -3 -0.6
Cambodia 17,652 59.5 270 9,830 55.7 1.0 -164 -1.6
Indonesia 181,157 112.3 980 109,791 60.6 0.6 -1,084 -1.0
Lao PDR 23,080 22.5 350 12,435 53.9 2.5 -148 -1.2
Malaysia 32,855 63.9 3,890 15,471 47.1 0.8 -400 -2.4
Myanmar 65,755 71.2 — 27,151 41.3 0.6 -387 -1.4
Philippines 29,817 237.1 1,050 6,766 22.7 0.1 -262 -3.5
Singapore 61 5,573.8 26,730 4 6.6 NS 0 0.0
Thailand 51,089 115.7 2,740 11,630 22.8 0.2 -329 -2.6
Viet Nam 52,797 34.7 260 9,117 28.0 0.1 -135 -1.4
Total 454,790 96.5 1,594 202,629 44.6 0.5 -2,912 -1.4
— = not available. Source: State of the World’s Forests (FAO 1999).
32 THE PREMISE droughts, and heath and limestone forests are Goldammer and Seibert 1990, Schweithelm more fire-prone than other forest types due to 1998b). the limited water-holding capacity of their soils. Undisturbed lowland rain forest is highly Tropical Lowland Deciduous Forests resistant to burning, but scientific evidence This regime includes monsoon and savannah indicates that Borneo’s forests (and by forests, the latter having less tree cover and more inference, those elsewhere) have burned grass. These forests occur in areas where the periodically over tens of millennia during dry season is three to seven months long, total extreme droughts. Humans have used fires as annual rainfall is usually less than 2,000 mm, they settled in the forests over thousands of and the mean temperature in the coldest month years to create swidden7 plots and facilitate is rarely less than 20 degrees C. Monsoon teak hunting. Traditional use of fire is thought to (Tectona grandis) forests occur naturally in have had little long-term ecological effect on continental Southeast Asia and have been the forests, but increased human population planted elsewhere. Dry Dipterocarp savannah density, shortened fallow periods, and cash- forests are also found in continental Southeast cropping have made shifting cultivation a major Asia, and open grasslands and thorn forests are agent of deforestation. Careless commercial spread in patches across drier parts of the The rain forest timber harvesting has greatly increased fire region. The relatively dry Lesser Sunda Islands fire regime has hazard, and logging roads have provided of eastern Indonesia contain monsoon and shifted to a much agricultural settlers with access to remote savannah forests with affinities to Australian higher fire forest areas, thereby increasing the risk that flora. These forests usually burn one or more frequency; larger their land-clearing activities will result in times in a year with low level litter, ground- areas have wildfires. Logged and otherwise disturbed level fires being the norm. Levels of fire burned and fire forests are being cleared by “slash and burn” of adaptation vary among formations. Fires are intensity has waste wood, in preparation for conversion to typically ignited purposely or accidentally by increased palm oil or pulpwood plantations. humans, and increased frequency of burning is Severe ENSO-related droughts over the last putting stress on these fire-adapted ecosystems two decades, combined with large-scale (Stott et al. 1990, Goldammer 1996). logging in the rain forests and indiscriminate use of fire for land clearance, have led to Fire Climax Pine Forests massive wildfires in Indonesia and, to a lesser Pine forests occur naturally on disturbed sites degree in neighboring countries. These have in the lower montane forests of tropical Asia, dramatically changed the fire regime, and primarily in the Himalayan foothills, the threaten the existence of lowland rain forest mountains of continental Southeast Asia, flora in many parts of Sumatra and Kalimantan Sumatra (Indonesia), and Luzon (Philippines). in Indonesia, and Sabah and Sarawak in Human disturbance of forests at lower and Malaysia. The rain forest fire regime has shifted higher elevations has caused the altitudinal to a much higher fire frequency; larger areas range of fire climax pine forests to expand. Pine have burned and fire intensity has increased. plantations have been established at lower But fire policy and fire management elevations in many parts of the region. Tropical approaches for rain forests are at an early stage pine species have various levels of fire of development (Whitmore 1998a, adaptation and are prone to burning due to the
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 33 volume and flammability of their litter. These also report that the thermoluminescence analysis Most fires are forests are productive if fire frequency and of burned clay collected on top of an ignited by intensity are stable, but tend to become degraded extinguished coal seam near active coal fires humans through if fire occurs too frequently or is combined with has proven fires occurred between 11200 and carelessness, but other disturbance factors. Most fires are ignited 13300 BC. Charcoal residues suggesting ancient may be started by humans through carelessness, but may be forest fires were also found in several places in purposely to started purposely to improve grazing or help Brunei Darussalam and Sabah. improve grazing with hunting. Most pines will not regenerate if Humans probably had a role in starting forest or help with fire occurs annually, so it is necessary to reduce fires in recent millennia, and may have hunting the fire frequency. Total fire exclusion usually deliberately burned forests to improve hunting results in broad-leaved species reclaiming the for thousands of years. As prehistoric human site (Goldammer and Penafiel 1990). settlers of the Indonesian archipelago began to switch from hunting and gathering to growing Forest Fire History crops, they used fire to clear agricultural plots The Ancient Fires in the forest. The cycle of forest clearing, Even though fire has been an integral part of cultivation, and abandonment is known as tropical forest ecology in the Asian and Pacific swidden, kaingin, or shifting cultivation, an region and wild forest fires have occurred in agricultural system adopted throughout most the region for centuries, they were much less of the region over a period of thousands of years. prevalent in the tropical rain forests compared Swidden cultivation has continued into this to the dry forests, savannahs, and grasslands. century in locations where soils are too poor to The wildfires that have been a feature of support permanent cultivation of annual crops. Southeast Asia’s ecology since the Pleistocene Until recently, swidden agriculture was the Age are made possible by periods of reduced dominant form of cultivation in Kalimantan, rainfall, long enough for even rain forests to and is still practiced there as well as in Sumatra. become dry enough to burn. During the Ice Typically, swidden plots are cultivated for one Age, extended periods of minimal rainfall to three years, then abandoned to allow natural occurred in Southeast Asia, making large areas vegetation to regrow, creating a mosaic of of the region vulnerable to fire. More recently, pioneer and secondary vegetation patches in the recurring El Niño phenomenon has created the mature forest. In areas with growing conditions that enable large-scale wildfires to populations of forest dwellers, the number of reoccur in the ASEAN region (Qadri and years between abandonment and the next Scarsborough 1998). clearance of a swidden plot has been shortened Scientific evidence based on dating charcoal to a period that does not permit regeneration deposits found in the soils of East Kalimantan to progress beyond pioneer vegetation. indicates that forest fires have repeatedly burned areas of lowland rain forest since about Recorded Fires of the Past 15500 BC. Goldammer and Siebert (1989, In the absence of droughts, undisturbed mature 1990) report that the radiocarbon dates of soil rain forest is resistant to burning due to high charcoal recovered in their study areas in East humidity below the forest canopy. There is also Kalimantan indicate that forest fires occurred a scarcity of fuel such as ground vegetation, between about 15510 BC and 1650 AD. They leaf litter, and fallen branches due to the rapid
34 THE PREMISE recycling of fallen vegetative material. Forests Kalimantan. He reported that forest fires had adapted to grow on sand and limestone-derived damaged a number of sites in 1877. Soon after, soils are more susceptible to fire than those Gerlach recorded evidence of forest fires in what growing on other soil types, and peat swamp is now the Sentarum Lake Wildlife Reserve in forests are particularly vulnerable to above and the southwestern region of West Kalimantan below ground fires when water levels fall during (Meijaarad and Dennis 1997). It can no longer droughts (Whitmore 1984). Tropical rain forests be assumed that tropical forest fires are a recent recover even after a severe fire, if left phenomenon. But the frequency and intensity undisturbed and if seed sources are nearby. But of tropical forest fires have increased in parallel hundreds of years may be required to reach a with the frequency and intensity of human successional stage8 that approximates the species activities in the forests (Schindele et al. 1989). composition that existed prior to the fire. High Grasslands still cover the 80,000 ha Sook intensity fire, followed by frequent burning, Plains in Sabah as the result of a drought-related leads to conversion of tropical rain forest to forest fire in 1915 (Whitmore 1998a). Periodic grasslands, unlike monsoon forest formations fires have been reported in the in seasonally dry areas that recover quickly from Danau Sentarum Wildfire Reserve in West frequent fires. Kalimantan since the middle of the 19th century. Earlier fires were The majority of forests on the islands of Brunig (1971) reports that the relatively fire- undoubtedly Borneo and Sumatra have been affected by prone kerangas or heath forests of Sabah and smaller in area human actions, and tens of millions of hectares Sarawak burned spontaneously or by human and probably have been converted to grasslands and various action in the 1880s, the early 1930s, and the more spread out agricultural uses. An analysis of remote sensing late 1950s. So while the burning of forests of over time than data from the mid-1980s indicated that the Sumatra and Kalimantan is clearly not a recent the fires of the Indonesian archipelago contained about or geographically unique phenomenon, the fact past two decades 10 million ha of grasslands at that time that these islands remained largely forested until (RePPProT 1990). Much of the remaining recent decades indicates that neither naturally forest has been logged in recent years, and caused fire nor human use of fire led to logged forests are frequently degraded or significant deforestation in the past. converted to agriculture. The present landscape Earlier fires were undoubtedly smaller in is a mosaic of vegetation types and land uses, area and probably more spread out over time including some intact forest ecosystems, logged than the fires of the past two decades. A 1924 forests in various stages of regeneration, forest map of what are now the provinces of scrubland, grassland, annual crops, and tree Central, East, and South Kalimantan showed plantations. that this large portion of Borneo was still Forest fires have been reported a number of 94 percent forest covered at the time times over the past 150 years on the island of (RePPProT 1990). Borneo, and such fires probably also occurred in Sumatra. Records of forest fires were first Fires in Recent Years made in the late 19th century when Michielsen While the fires of 1997-1998 were severe, they (in 1882) conducted a survey of the region were not the first such examples. Records in between the Kalanaman and Cempaka Rivers the region have shown that there have been at (now Sampit and Katingan Rivers) in Central least nine instances of widespread fire and smoke
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 35 in the region since the 1970s, occurring mostly 5 million ha. In East Kalimantan alone, about during El Niño periods. 3.5 million ha were affected by drought and fire. Of this, some 1.4 million ha were logged- Indonesia over forest, 800,000 ha primary rain forest, Areas in Indonesia that are prone to fire 750,000 ha secondary forest, and 550,000 ha include forest areas whose canopies have been peat swamp forest. The fires resulted in the broken and opened, secondary forests, loss of timber values of about $8.3 billion, and deciduous forests (particularly teak forests), and a total of timber and nontimber values plus grasslands. Such areas are found in almost all rehabilitation costs of about $9.1 billion provinces of Indonesia. (Goldammer et al. 1996). Undisturbed primary With the stepping up of economic activities forests were less affected by fire, compared to in Indonesia’s outer islands, forest fires have the moderately and heavily disturbed forests. become commonplace, occurring every year. Logged-over forests are highly sensitive to During pronounced El Niño years, when drought and easily combustible (Malingreau et conditions are usually dry, fire and smoke al. 1985, BAPPENAS 1999). With the problems tend to be much more serious. Serious stepping up of fires occurred in 1982-1983, 1987, 1991-1992, Fires between 1983 and 1997 economic 1994-1995, and 1997-1998. Less serious fires Land and forest fires that occurred during activities in occurred in 1999. Again fires have been the extended dry periods in 1987 (66,000 ha), Indonesia’s outer reported in March 2000, particularly from the 1991 (500,000 ha), and 1994 (4.87 million ha) islands, forest Riau province. Media reports indicated that were distributed over some 25 provinces, fires have become some 1,200 fires have been detected in including Maluku and Sulawesi. These fires commonplace, Kalimantan and Sumatra. The economic cost were larger than during years with normal occurring every of the fires has extended far beyond the rainfall. The smoke emitted from the year destruction of large tracts of forestland. In Indonesian archipelago during these years was addition to the direct damage these fires have not primarily caused by forest fires alone, but caused to human and animal populations living also by the application of fire for converting in the affected areas, the resulting smoke has forests into estate tree crops and forest directly imperiled human health and economic plantations, as well as by slash-and-burn well-being in adjacent AMCs. agriculture (Goldammer 1998b). Also, the burning of coal seams represents a permanent Fires of 1982-1983 fire source from which wildfires spread One of the most serious of the recent fires whenever severe droughts occur and fuel was in East Kalimantan during 1982-1983, conditions are suitable for carrying a fire. demonstrating the greater vulnerability of disturbed forests to blazes. In that fire season, Fires of 1997-1998 and Beyond ENSO caused large-scale wildfires, which ran Noted by UNEP as one of the biggest out of control from several land clearings and environmental shocks since 1950, the 1997- slash-and-burn sites as well as from logging 1998 forest fires of Indonesia were among the areas, alang alang, and camping sites. It has most damaging in recorded history (UNEP been estimated that the overall land area of 1999). The area affected by fire has been Kalimantan affected by fire exceed estimated as 9.76 million ha. Indonesia (and
36 THE PREMISE Malaysia) experienced one of the worst recorded other AMCs have also experienced forest fires, droughts in recent history during that period. although on a smaller scale. Information available The scale of the It occurred in two spells. The dry conditions on the fire situation in these countries is scanty. damage caused that started around April 1997 abated briefly Some AMCs, apart from Indonesia, might by transboundary by November 1997. But the El Niño persisted experience significant forest fires and haze if haze pollution and drought resumed in early 1998, in a pattern conditions are created by land clearing for resulting from reminiscent of the El Niño drought and fires of export-oriented commercial crops, the fires has been 1982-1983. The second spell lasted from socioeconomic evolution, and/or climatic without January to May 1998, until the onset of rain.9 variations. precedent Less serious, sporadic fires occurred in the dry season of 1999. With the shock of 1997- Malaysia 1998 fires still strongly evident, the smaller The threat of forest fires in peninsular outbreaks of 1999 did not attract much Malaysia has been relatively small and most of attention. the recorded examples relate to plantation Two aspects of the fires that have affected forests. Besides the documented fires in forest Southeast Asia during the past two decades plantations, those in natural forests occur differentiate them from previous occurrences. sporadically throughout the peninsula during First, the magnitude of the fires themselves dry spells of January-March and June-August. surpassed all previous outbreaks of this type on Such occurrences have been small in size and record. Previous fires were much smaller, readily brought under control. primarily because the scale of land clearances Fire appears to be a more serious problem in the past was limited and consequently the in Sabah. The worst fires of recent years fuel load for burning was also less. Second, the occurred in 1982-1983 when about 1 million ha scale of the damage caused by transboundary of (mostly logged-over) forests were reported haze pollution resulting from the fires has been burned (Phillips 1987). The cause was without precedent. attributed to a severe drought, which was also The fires of the 1980s and 1990s were blamed in large part for the fires in Kalimantan triggered by open burning for large-scale land during the same period. preparation for commercial crops. This accounts In Sarawak, fires have been reported and for the exceptional magnitude of the fires documented to be confined to forest plantation themselves, and for the scale of the damage from areas, and to date have been relatively small the transboundary haze produced. All of the (Mhd Saad et al. 1996). During 1997-1998, above factors have prompted much more swift extensive fires did break out in Sabah, and to a responses from the AMC governments lesser degree in Sarawak and in the peat and compared to their pre-1980 stance, that rains hill forests. Neighboring Brunei Darussalam would eventually quell the fires, and at least in also suffered small fires during the same period, the long term, reverse any damage they may extending over an area of about 6,500 ha of have caused. heath forests, peat swamp forests, and bushlands. Other ASEAN Countries Thus, even though on a lower scale, forest Even though the major centers of fires and haze fires in Malaysia remain a cause for concern, during the last 20 years have been in Indonesia, particularly since the country shares similar
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 37 geographic, climatic, ecological, and land-use land area in 1950 to 21 percent today. Population attributes with Indonesia. growth, commercial logging, and agricultural Malaysia has a reasonably effective legal and expansion are the main causes of deforestation. institutional framework to control fires and haze, All fires are caused by human activity and often including: a system of fire permits and start from shifting cultivation. Meanwhile, fire restrictions on open fires, a system for preparedness planning and implementation has monitoring air pollution, forest management been more reactive than proactive (Castillo prescriptions in line with sustainability criteria, 1998). Forest fires occur in pure pine stands and a relatively advanced firefighting capability. (Pinus kesiya) in the highlands of Northern The Ministry of Science, Technology, and Luzon, in broad-leaved forests adjoining Environment has formulated a National shifting cultivation fields, and in grasslands Contingency Plan to Combat Forest and (thereby complicating attempts at reforestation). Plantation Fires in Malaysia. The Plan is The archipelago’s 6 million ha of fire climax Malaysia has a executed by a National Forest and Plantation grassland are typically burned annually to reasonably Fire Committee that is composed of various enhance grazing. The pine forests are fire-prone effective legal and government agencies, with the mandate to and the broad-leaved forests are susceptible to institutional develop guidelines and procedures to coordinate burning during ENSO-related droughts. framework to interagency fire response. The Fire and Rescue (Schweithelm 1998a). Laws forbidding control fires Services Department is the lead agency for fire swiddening and forest burning have been largely and haze suppression. ineffective, resulting in a paradigm shift in the Malaysia has pioneered the use of zero- late 1980s toward community-based forest burning techniques for forest clearance management. (Hashim et al. 1993) and is using persuasion, The Philippines seems to have suffered from technical advice, and penalties to encourage the second worst fires in 1982 and 1983 (after plantation firms to adopt these techniques. Indonesia). The total burned area was estimated Shifting cultivators in Sarawak are required to at 8,063 ha in 1982 and 117,951 ha in 1983. undertake prescribed burning to avoid wildfires. In the years between 1984 and 1989, fires Many plantation units have their own fire burned between 3,000 ha and 37,000 ha of detection and suppression systems. As part of forests per year. In the years 1990, 1992, and routine forest management and as 1993, fires affected 12,473 ha, 36,906 ha, and prescribed in the working plans, Malaysia 14,914 ha, respectively. maintains a system of firebreaks, and an During 1997-1998, fires occurred in several adequate amount of firefighting equipment provinces including Benguet, Bukidnon, Davao (BAPPENAS/JICA/ITTO 1999). Oriental, Mountain Province, Negros Occidental, Nueva Vizcaya, Palawan, and Philippines Pangasinan. The fires consumed almost As in the case of Indonesia, tropical rain 50,000 ha of natural and plantation forests and forest is the dominant natural vegetation 37,500 ha of grasslands. formation in the Philippines, but deforestation has progressed to the point that little intact Thailand lowland forest remains. Forest cover has The forests of Thailand are categorized into diminished from more than half of the nation’s two main groups: evergreen forests (45 percent)
38 THE PREMISE and deciduous forests (55 percent). Deciduous The National Forest Policy (1985) mandates forests are further classified into three main that a plan for slowing deforestation must subgroups: mixed deciduous forest, dry include forest fire prevention and suppression. dipterocarp forest, and savannah. Since they Other laws set penalties for igniting open, shed their leaves during the dry season of unauthorized fires. Attempts at fire December to April, creating high fuel loads, management began in 1971 with short-term these forests are highly vulnerable to fire. technical assistance through a consultant, funded About 90 percent of the nation’s land area by the Canadian Government. This led to the was forested at the beginning of the 20th century training of some Thai forest officers abroad in but by 1999 this had reduced to about forest fire control in the early 1970s and the 23 percent, including areas under scrub and establishment of a Forest Fire Control Section bamboo (FAO 1999a). The rapid rate of in the Forest Management Division of the Royal deforestation has been, and continues to be, Forest Department (RFD). This section was the result of agricultural expansion to upgraded to a Subdivision in 1981, and Office Thailand is the accommodate the growing human population, of Forest Fire Control and Rescue in 1991. first Southeast which has increased 10-fold since the beginning RFD has taken the following actions to Asian country in th of the 20 century. Teak was always the main prevent and control forest fires: which helicopters focus of commercial forestry, but output has • established forest fire control units in fire- and fixed-wing fallen as deforestation has increased, leading to prone areas; aircraft have been Thailand becoming a net timber importer in • cooperated with the Ministry of Interior used for aerial 1977. A total nationwide harvesting ban in to organize and train local government firefighting and natural forests has been imposed since 1989 officials and volunteers in firefighting; personnel (Mhd. Saad et al. 1996). • organized a network of government transport Fires occur annually in the dry season from agencies and commercial aviation firms December to May, typically in the form of to report fires; ground fires in the drier forest formations, • provided funds to purchase firefighting grasslands, and dryland agricultural areas, and equipment; mostly in the north and northeastern parts of • conducted a nationwide fire prevention the country. campaign; and Virtually all fires are started by humans in • begun collecting fire data and conducting order to facilitate gathering of NWFPs, dispose research. of agricultural waste, convert forestland into RFD has had some success in reducing forest agricultural fields, settle conflicts, help with fires through public fire prevention campaigns hunting, and also due to carelessness. People and strengthening of local fire management have generally believed that fire is not harmful brigades. Thailand is the first Southeast Asian to forests. country in which helicopters and fixed-wing Fire data are not regularly collected for the aircraft have been used for aerial firefighting entire country, but an aerial survey in 1984- and personnel transport. 1986 indicated that 3.1 million ha of all Further improvements in Thailand’s vegetation types are burned annually, while a equipment for fire management capability are repeat survey in 1992 showed that the burned constrained by budget and personnel limitations area was down to 2 million ha. (Schweithelm 1998b).
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 39 Viet Nam forest floor to drying by sunlight and wind, and The forests of Viet Nam, accounting for made the forest accessible to agricultural settlers; about 28 percent of the country’s land area, (ii) increasing numbers of people clearing land have been considerably degraded due to shifting for farming in or near forests by burning; (iii) cultivation, fuelwood collection, overfelling, and temporary forest conversion using traditional fires. The unsettled situation in the country for slash-and-burn methods; (iv) permanent the past several decades has accelerated the conversion of forestland to agricultural uses environmental degradation. Viet Nam is now (e.g., cultivation of food crops, estate crops, in the process of rebuilding its resource horticultural products, grazing of livestock); (v) management systems and related institutions. conversion of natural forest (mainly exploited The main problem areas with regard to forest or otherwise degraded secondary forest) for the fires in Viet Nam are the seasonally flammable establishment of industrial timber plantations; deciduous forests, indigenous pine forests, (vi) drainage of peat swamps for agricultural degraded natural vegetation, shifting agriculture or other purposes; and (vii) fires that have and deforestation complex, and intensively spread and turned wild from these treated agricultural lands. The peak of burning interventions. activities in Viet Nam is during the mid to late While the causes of forest fires are more or dry season (January-April). less common to all the AMCs affected by the One major problem is the fires occurring in recent fires and haze, discussions tend to focus the economically valuable Melaleuca on Indonesia because of its significance to the leucadendron forests. Available fire information region and the availability of information from is limited. In the mountainous pine forests in several studies on its forest fires. These suggest the highlands of Da Lat, northeast of Ho Chi that the main causes of fires and haze are: (i) Minh City, the annual area reported destroyed the imperatives of national economic by fire usually does not exceed 100 ha, but many development and related financing needs; (ii) fires seem to be unreported (Goldammer 1992). land conversion using open fires, prompted by private profit maximization; and (iii) problems Causes relating to land tenure and social equity. These To start a forest To start a forest fire requires inflammable matter causes are aggravated by factors such as ENSO- fire requires (fuel load), a source and reason leading to actual induced drought; technological and inflammable ignition, and a favorable condition where the infrastructural limitations; and institutional matter (fuel ignited fuel can spread the combustion. inadequacies. load), a source Climatic conditions, fuel source, and its nature and reason define the fire-proneness of a situation; whereas Land Conversion and Preparation leading to actual the ignition source and condition of burning It is a common misconception that most land ignition, and a define the fire itself. conversion in the ASEAN region involves the favorable In the ASEAN region, various factors have clearing of pristine forest. While this may be condition where been associated with the considerably increased true in the case of peat swamp forestland, much the ignited fuel incidence and intensity of fires of late. These land conversion in the region simply continues can spread the include: (i) careless logging that has killed trees the process of human intervention that began combustion unnecessarily, left too much wastewood in the with timber extraction from virgin forestland. forest, opened the closed canopy exposing the According to a recent report, of the total area
40 THE PREMISE of about 4.8 million ha consumed by fire during Thus, land clearance and preparation activities 1994, 88 percent comprised logged-over forests, influence the volume and condition of the fuel some of which were under cultivation by load, serve as the ignition source, and often cause traditional dryland agricultural techniques. By the spread of fire. These activities, in effect, take contrast, shifting cultivation areas accounted advantage of drought conditions created by for only 5.3 percent, transmigration farmland weather disturbances such as ENSO. 4.5 percent, areas occupied by previously- established plantations only 0.8 percent, and Drought Conditions natural protected forests a scant 0.2 percent. Indonesia’s climate is shaped by the annual The corresponding figures for 1997 (which cycle of east and west monsoons, which affect exclude information for calendar year 1998) tell rainfall and winds across the archipelago. The a similar story. Of the total land area consumed major islands and most smaller island groups by large-scale fires during that year, logged-over are dominated by a humid tropical climate and production forests accounted for 62 percent. rain forest vegetation, although the Lesser Sunda The remainder comprised the following: Islands, eastern Java, and small parts of other national parks, 20.6 percent; protection forests, islands have mild to pronounced rainfall The intensity of 8.4 percent; nature reserves, 6.5 percent; and seasons. Drought in Indonesia is generally fire in logged recreation parks, 0.6 percent (MOE/UNDP experienced between May and October. areas was directly 1998). There are two weather phenomenon related to the Observations made during the fires and haze considered to be crucial to the spread of forest intensity of of 1997-1998 and previous cases have indicated fires and haze. The first is recurrent ENSO logging that the intensity of fire in logged areas was conditions, bringing extraordinarily dry weather directly related to the intensity of logging.10 Even to the region (and in the process, creating severe fires did not completely destroy conditions ideal for disposing of biomass residue moderately logged stands where, after the fire, by open burning). Prolonged drought in a few trees with green foliage could still be Indonesia occurs at least once every 10 years. observed, although spaced and scattered. In Data on rainfall in Bali, Java, Kalimantan, heavily logged forest areas, where remaining Sulawesi, and Sumatra since the early 1900s trees were widely spaced, shrubs had formed a show that prolonged drought occurred 17 times thick ground cover, providing an efficient during the century, of which 11 corresponded biomass source for the fires after the extensive with an El Niño. When the dry season in drought. Here, the fuel consumption was more Indonesia occurs at the same time as an El Niño, complete (BAPPENAS 1999). the result is a prolonged drought, which extends The main factors causing increased from June to November and can continue until combustibility are wasteful logging; and forest May of the following year. The second weather clearance for agricultural crops, estate crops, factor is that in geographic areas that lie close and forest plantations leading to buildup of dry to the equator, there is relatively little wind. materials. The changing composition of This means that in the ASEAN areas where vegetation due to mono-cropping, draining of land conversion is in progress, the weather peat swamps, and mining practices that expose forces that mix (and dilute) the particulate coal deposits also contribute to altering the fuel matter from land conversion fires with characteristics. unpolluted air are weak.
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 41 In Indonesia, a prolonged drought as a transmigrants. Also, in some situations, rural Compared with consequence of an El Niño has occurred five people move into the forest to eke out a the previous El times over the last 20 years. This had varying livelihood by illegally clearing and cultivating Niño years, the effects in different parts of the country, forestland. one in 1997 had depending on the strength of the El Niño and Inadequate social awareness is, in several the highest the monsoon winds sweeping past Indonesia. cases, reflected in eco-hostile and private profit- impact on Compared with the previous El Niño years, the maximizing attitudes by private operators drought and fires one in 1997 had the highest impact on drought unwilling to invest in fire protection. Also, fire in Indonesia and fires in Indonesia. Forest and land fires in is often set deliberately for individual economic 1997 occurred in nearly all provinces. gain, through grazing, collection of honey, and other NWFPs, as well as hunting and gathering. Contributing Constraints In addition, villagers are also often reluctant to During the recent forest fires and haze, fight fire without attractive cash incentives. particularly in 1997-1998, several factors have aggravated the causes of fires. Technological and Infrastructural Technological constraints include lack of Physiographic appropriate technology; inadequate knowledge The physical condition of the locality— and appreciation about technological difficult terrain, slope and accessibility, and possibilities as well as limitations; insufficient inadequate availability of water—often makes tools and equipment; inadequately trained fire management measures difficult to carry out. personnel; lack of research support; Fire crews often struggle to access forests in inadequacies in forest fire management steep terrain and peatlands. Conditions such as exemplified by lapses in monitoring, fire danger low humidity, lack of clouds, and inaccessibility warning, fire protection measures, of natural water bodies affect fire suppression presuppression planning and preparedness, and operations. Because of such constraints, firefighting; and reluctance to adopt zero-burn performance of water bombing and cloud techniques of land preparation and low impact seeding operations in Indonesia during the logging. 1997-1998 fires was unsatisfactory. Lack of infrastructure such as access roads, fire corridors, fuelbreaks, observation towers, Sociocultural water reservoirs, communication and mapping Cultural and/or religious leanings of facilities, satellite stations, etc., affect the indigenous and rural communities, fire worship, efficiency of fire management. and practice of slash-and-burn agriculture can For example, the total reported length of become obstacles to adopting scientific fire cleared fireline in Indonesia is only about management. Other sociocultural factors 150 km, which appears grossly inadequate. include land tenure issues, conflict of interest Adequate infrastructure is found only in areas among different classes of people and covered by some of the donor-funded projects. communities, and use of fire as a weapon to inflict harm on the enemy. Such situations are Institutional common among indigenous communities and Most of the important constraints are between the indigenous communities and institutional in nature. Lack of political will,
42 THE PREMISE inappropriate and poorly specified policies, plan was prepared by the Ministry of Forestry weak legislation, ambiguous regulations, (predecessor of MOFEC) in the mid-1980s, in bureaucratic procedures, and inadequate cooperation with FAO. resources for enforcement of laws and According to the plan, the forest area of the regulations have come up again and again as country was to be divided into firefighting crucial and crippling constraints. Policy gaps control units of 40,000–50,000 ha in Java, and and conflicts relating to land use, tenure security, 100,000–150,000 ha outside Java, such that and economic development add considerably fires (even if they occur) can be prevented from to the forest fire danger. spreading and confined to the control unit Indonesia’s economic policy, which allows (GOI/FAO 1990b). But this plan has not been for large-scale expansion of commercial crops, pursued. Again, after the Bandung Conference encourages land speculation and may lead to of 1992, a Long-Term Integrated Forest Fire ecological disaster. The pace and manner of Management Strategy for Indonesia was plantation development has been such that the prepared, but this also was not seriously followed Ministry of Forestry and Estate Crops up. (MOFEC) is little more than a hapless Inadequate research, technology bystander (Anon 1997b). Unlike other countries development, and knowledge about the in the region, Indonesia’s policy on timber different aspects and situations of fire (for pricing subsidizes the concessionaire. In some example: in coal seams and peat swamps); and other countries it is based on competitive bids. inadequacies of measures and means at all levels A study indicated that in 1990, Indonesia’s to improve fire management skills have been timber subsidies cost the Government major constraints. There are relatively few $2.5 billion in lost revenues (Constantino personnel trained in fire science. 1990); and this further leads to wasteful use of Recently, efforts have been made in resources. For reasons related to tenure security, Indonesia to strengthen training facilities. A many forest dwelling communities do not yet report indicates that by the end of August 1998 acknowledge current forest boundaries. there were 16,175 persons trained in fire An absence of properly designed plans protection and suppression, up from about relating to land use; inadequacies of forest 14,000 in 1997 (MOFEC 1998). management and fire management; and lack of Some of the other constraints identified by Indonesia’s updated land-use maps, fire maps, fire analysts following the 1997-1998 fires and haze, economic policy, information management, and dissemination particularly as applied to Indonesia, include the which allows for reflect institutional weaknesses. Lack of following. large-scale institutional ability to learn lessons from past • Increasing vulnerability of forestlands to expansion of mistakes and to follow up on recommendations fires resulting from unsustainable forest commercial is a matter to be addressed seriously. For management and harvesting practices. crops, example, there have been several • Conflicting and inadequately identified encourages land recommendations to curtail the volume of roles and responsibilities of institutions speculation and timber production to ensure sustainable forest concerned with managing forestlands and may lead to management (SFM) in Indonesia, including forest fires, especially with regard to ecological protection of forests from fire and other mandate, authority, financial resources, and disaster damaging agents. A national fire management accountability.
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 43 • “Business as usual” attitude of government • Poor coordination of fire management The three agencies. (including fire suppression). Inadequate biggest fires were • Indifference to the cyclical nature of fire coordination among sectors, between those of 1982- and haze from institutions charged with central and provincial levels and/or among 1983, 1994, and managing forestlands and forest fires, the donors has been reported.13 1997-1998, and including disregard for early warning the areas affected, announcements concerning the onset of The Dimensions of the respectively, were ENSOs. Impact 5,000,000 ha; • Inadequate information and systems for Area Affected 4,865,000 ha, communicating fire-related information. The size of the area affected by fires over and 9,756,000 ha • Vested interests that marginalize issues the years has varied considerably. The three in Indonesia relating to fire and haze as a means of biggest fires were those of 1982-1983, 1994, favoring a particular sector, corporate body, and 1997-1998, and the areas affected, or individual(s). respectively, were 5,000,000 ha; 4,865,000 ha, • Neglect by government and entrepreneurs and 9,756,000 ha in Indonesia. Distribution to local customary rights, livelihood of the fires differs depending on the strategies, and traditions, which result in interpretational and definitional differences, and erosion of customary law, social also on how the estimates were made. cohesiveness among indigenous groups, and traditional knowledge relating to the 1994 Fires prevention and control of fires. In 1994, fires (of varying intensities) • Lack of incentives for promoting logging occurred in 24 provinces of Indonesia. techniques that lead to sustainable output Distribution by land-use type is given in Table of production forests and mechanical land 2. clearing; inadequate use of logging Table 2 suggests that the incidence of fire in residues as productive inputs and primary forests is relatively low (8,000 ha), far development of products made from them; less, for example, than the extent of fire in and absence of an incentive system to reforestation areas. Based on this data, fires involve local people. appear to be closely associated with other land- • Insufficiency or nonexistence of use activities and hence fire control should not committed funding at national, be the sole responsibility of MOFEC (MOE- subregional, provincial, and local levels to UNDP 1998). adequately address the issue of forest and land fires.11 1997–1998 Fires • Lack of a proactive quick action approach.12 The 1997-1998 fires occurred in 27 provinces • Delay or inaction, often due to lack of of Indonesia, falling within the five large islands. funds, in rehabilitating the badly burned Nearly 70 percent of the fires were in Kalimantan. areas. Apart from harboring pests and Irian Jaya, Sulawesi, and Sumatra were also diseases, the dead and charred materials significantly affected (BAPPENAS 1999). Fires remaining in the area can cause future fires also occurred on a smaller scale in Brunei by providing a highly combustible fuel Darussalam, Malaysia, Philippines, and Thailand. load. Details of their impacts are not available.
44 THE PREMISE TABLE 2 Spatial Distribution of TABLE 3 Spatial Distribution of Areas Affected by 1994 Fires Areas Affected by 1997–1998 in Indonesia Fires in Indonesia
Land-Use Type Affected by Fire Area Burned (’000 ha) Land-Use Type Affected by Fire Area Burned (’000 ha)
Traditional Dry Land Farming 2,800 Agriculture 3,843
Shifting Cultivation 1,500 Estate Crops 119
Transmigration Farming 260 Timber Plantations 188
Plantations 221 Lowland Forest 3,100
Transmigrant Settlements 39.5 Peat and Swamp Forest 1,450
Reforestation Areas 20.5 Dry Scrub and Grass 700
Timber Estates 17 Montane Forest 100
Natural Forests 8 Total 9,500
Total 4,866
Source: ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Fire Prevention and Drought Management Source: Goldammer 1997. (BAPPENAS 1999).
ADB under its advisory technical assistance14 preliminary estimates of areas burned in Java (ADTA) used a variety of techniques, depending and Sulawesi through a visual assessment of on availability of data, to obtain spatial SPOT Quicklook Mosaics. In the absence of estimates. For estimates of the area burned in detailed analyses of satellite imagery for all the Irian Jaya, a combination of aerial and ground affected provinces, a lack of up-to-date landcover surveys was used; along with a comparison of maps, and ability to overlay all fire areas on Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (TOMS) land-use or land classification systems, imagery for Irian Jaya, Kalimantan, and assessments of fire location by functional land- Sumatra. The rest of the estimates were use categories were achieved by extrapolation obtained from analysis of SPOT images by the of findings by CRISP. Distribution by land-use Center for Remote Imaging, Sensing and type so assessed is given in Table 3. Processing (CRISP) at the National University The extent of the forest area burned and the of Singapore. share of peat and swamp forest in it are In addition to computation of the area particularly noteworthy, because of the burned, CRISP (Liew et al. 1998) undertook a transboundary implications (see Box 7). manual classification of fire scars for both Kalimantan and Sumatra, concluding that about Transboundary Haze Pollution half of the affected area consisted of plantations The transboundary dimension of fires can and/or agricultural lands, 20 percent was peat manifest itself in various ways: fires crossing swamp forests, and the remainder secondary national boundaries cause direct damage, mass forests and bushes. CRISP has also performed migration of wildlife (and also of humans)
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 45 BOX 7 Tropical Peatlands
Peat forests are waterlogged forests burning of organic matter leads to the nitrogen and sulfur, and a variety of growing on a layer of dead leaves and toppling of trees and a complete volatile and semivolatile compounds. plant material of up to 20 meters removal of standing biomass. Further, However, peat vegetation has a higher deep. These are a biologically diverse the smoldering organic fires may biomass density and burns predomi- resource and a recognized component persist and be reactivated as an nantly under smoldering combustion. of the world’s biological heritage. ignition source in the next dry spell This results in higher emissions of all The countries of Southeast Asia, in (Goldammer and Seibert 1989). pollutants per hectare burned. particular Indonesia and Malaysia, In the past 20 years, the incidence At the annual meeting of the stand- have more than 20 million ha, or of major fires in the peatswamp ing committee of the Convention on 60 percent, of the world’s tropical forests of Southeast Asia has been Wetlands, better known as the peatlands. In the event of a prolonged increasing. In East Kalimantan, a fire Ramsar Convention, 27 countries and spell without rain, and a lowering of that started in September 1982 lasted four global NGOs gathered in Switzer- the water table in the peatswamp, the for 10 months and affected more than land on 2 October 1997. They organic layers progressively dry out. 35,000 ha. The fire followed an almost expressed their concern at the forest Subsequent fires have spread to unprecedented period of drought in the fires in Indonesia. Louise Lakos, chair- forests covering thousands of region, associated with an El Niňo. person of the committee, noted: “The hectares of peatlands. Fires in these The contribution of tropical members of this international peatlands create much more smoke peatlands to the global carbon cycle is conservation body drew attention to per hectare than other types of forest higher than in most temperate zones. the fact that a large proportion of the fires and are difficult to extinguish. It is estimated that 15 percent of the area burning is peatswamp forest, The fires go deep underground and global peatland carbon resides in which constitutes an important global can burn uncontrolled and unseen in tropical peatlands. Peatswamp fire wetland type, which we cannot afford the peat deposits for several months. emission contains, like other to lose. Time is short and action is While the spread of surface and biomass-burning emissions, large needed urgently.” ground fires in this type of organic amounts of carbon dioxide, carbon terrain may not be severe, deep monoxide, particulate matter, oxides of Source: Down to Earth, Vol. 6 No. 11, 31 October 1997.
across borders, impact on water quality and Haze Formation and Dispersion The haze-affected fish resources in international waters, and— Forest fires and other vegetation fires countries have most important—transboundary atmospheric produce gaseous and particle emissions that have borne much of pollution and other haze effects. This last impacts on the composition and functioning of the cost of the mentioned impact was highly evident in the the global atmosphere (Crutzen and Goldammer region’s recent wake of the 1997-1998 fires in the ASEAN 1993; Levine 1991, 1996; Van Wilgen et al. fires, though they region. As Ramon and Wall (1998) observed, 1997). These emissions interact with those have had little “whereas the impact of fires concerns mainly from fossil-fuel burning and other technological control over their foresters and conservationists, it is the smoke sources, which are the major cause of magnitude, that causes politicians and economists to react.” atmospheric pollution and human-caused frequency, or Fires cause smoke, the smoke mixes with the climate changes. duration atmosphere and drifts around, causing Open burning to dispose of biomass residue transboundary atmospheric pollution and related of land conversion involves stacking it into large problems. The haze-affected countries have borne heaps and leaving it undisturbed until it is dry much of the cost of the region’s recent fires, enough to burn. It is then set alight. The result though they have had little control over their is typically a low-temperature fire that only magnitude, frequency, or duration. Emissions partially burns the material to be disposed of. from wildfires are thus a regional problem, even A relatively large quantity of partially-combusted though the fires themselves may occur well within material therefore remains, much of it being the national boundaries of individual AMCs. light enough to be carried into the air by the
46 THE PREMISE heat generated by fire. A similar process also residence time, light scattering properties and The haze happens when wildfire enters a forest. visibility, deposition pattern within the human problem suffered Once released into the atmosphere, the lungs, and health impacts depend on particle by Indonesia and partially-combusted material tends to remain size.15 While coarse particles flush out of the its neighbors, due stationary, unless there is sufficient wind to mix atmosphere within several hours up to a day, to the 1997-1998 it with fresh air free of particulate matter. If fine particles have the longest residence time wildfires, was a enough mixing takes place, the partially- (up to weeks) in the atmosphere and travel result of a combusted material from the fires becomes so extensive distances (hundreds to thousands of combination of dispersed that it is relatively benign, and for kilometers). Their elimination out of the factors—the the most part, unnoticeable. This is ordinarily atmosphere is mainly due to rain. volume of the case in ASEAN countries where land smoke, humidity, conversion is in progress. In these areas, land- Factors Affecting Haze Dispersion and the level of clearing fires occur continuously, on a year- The haze problem suffered by Indonesia and wind speed and round basis, and often the production of its neighbors, due to the 1997-1998 wildfires, rain emission materials and local formation of haze was a result of a combination of factors—the remains unnoticed. volume of smoke, humidity, and the level of However, when a large enough number of wind speed and rain. land-clearing fires occurs at the same time in a The distribution of haze away from the limited area, or when the fires in a particular biomass fires in Indonesia is primarily area reach a large enough scale, so much controlled by wind and vertical mixing. The emission material is released at the same time most significant large-scale influence on winds that the atmosphere is incapable of fully diluting in the region is the position of the intertropical it. If the resulting buildup of atmospheric debris convergence zone (ITCZ), which exerts control becomes sufficiently concentrated, winds over the broad-scale wind speed and direction. ultimately transport the cloud of haze into the By September 1997 many large and airspace of recipient countries before it can be uncontrolled fires were burning in the peat areas adequately diluted. Transboundary haze is born. of East-Central Sumatra, much of South Therefore, haze pollution can be said to be Sumatra, and Central and West Kalimantan. “transboundary” only if its density and extent During the September-October period, thick is so great at source that it remains at haze blanketed these regions in particular. In measurable levels after crossing into another late September-early October the haze was country’s air space. Reducing transboundary carried out of these regions, particularly to the haze pollution in the region, therefore, north and west under the influence of relatively ultimately requires limiting the amount of strong trade wind flow. It was during this time emissions from open burning that each member that peninsular Malaysia and Singapore were country allows to enter the atmosphere during especially hit by haze. This was a period during any particular time. The aim of limiting the which the ITCZ was lying well north over the emissions (and their release into the Mekong area countries and the Philippines, atmosphere) should be to control pollution both with the trade winds to the south of the ITCZ within boundaries and at a transboundary level. having a strong north-south component. As the Most particle processes in the atmosphere, ITCZ moved south later in October, the airflow such as atmospheric deposition rate and developed more of an east-west component,
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 47 pushing most of the haze away from the fire 1.5 percent of the haze. The thickest haze came Haze from fires zones, toward the west and into the Indian from an extensive fire in a 1 million ha area of in peatland is Ocean. peat being drained by the Government for a estimated to The fires of February-April 1998 were massive rice planting project, known as the contribute largely confined to Borneo, and in particular to Grand Million Hectare Peatland Project (Projek 60 percent and East Kalimantan province. Haze became thick Sejuta Hectare Lahan Gambut). During the converted forests again during March and April 1998, but was 1997-1998 fires, more than 700 million mt of 18 percent of the largely confined to Borneo, especially in the carbon dioxide were released into the total smoke and south. The presence of a broad area of low- atmosphere from the burning of the peat16 haze produced level convergence over Borneo at this time (Levine 1998). resulted in light low-level winds (or lack of strong winds), which limited the haze Adverse Impacts of Haze movement off the island. Air Pollution At the peak of the haze, the Air Pollution Magnitude of Dispersion Index (API) reached unprecedented levels in Fires do not respect national (in some cases, the region. An API count exceeding 100 but even natural) boundaries. During the 1982- below 200 is considered unhealthy; between 1983 East Kalimantan fires, the haze also 200 and 300 is very unhealthy; and between reached as far as peninsular Malaysia and 300 and 500 is considered hazardous. API Singapore, lasting an entire month and covered readings remained in the hazardous range for an area of about 35 million ha. In 1997, haze long periods in September and October 1997 covered about 100 million ha of land and water in Sarawak, with a high of 849 recorded. A and lasted as long as six months. From September reading of 1,000 was recorded in the interior to November 1997, the dense haze from the of East Kalimantan in mid-April 1998, a level Indonesian fires spread over an area the size of that is probably not unusual in areas close to Western Europe, affecting some 70 million the fires. Malaysians and Singaporeans were people in the region, directly or indirectly. This informed when air pollution reached unsafe haze was, probably, the worst on record. The levels, and were warned to take appropriate 1998 fires in Indonesia did not affect mainland protective measures. Asia as much as in 1997. The haze covered the In Miri, as the API continued to hover above source area of East Kalimantan and spread over the 500 mark in April 1998, the Sarawak to West Kalimantan, southeastern Sarawak, and Natural Disaster Relief Committee declared a parts of peninsular Malaysia. host of emergency mitigation measures, including closing of schools and kindergartens, Critical Sources of Haze advising residents to wear protective masks and Haze from fires in peatland is estimated to to refrain from using private motor vehicles, contribute 60 percent and converted forests 18 and advising polluting industries (mainly in the percent of the total smoke and haze produced. quarry, mining, cement-mixing, asphalt, saw- Instead of stray individual fires, 80 percent of milling, and transport sectors) to scale down the haze was produced by seven clusters of fires operations in order to reduce the volume of in and around peat forests in Kalimantan and pollutants being emitted into the atmosphere Sumatra. Shifting cultivation accounted for only (Abraham 1998).
48 THE PREMISE Most Indonesians were, however, unaware More than 40,000 persons were hospitalized of the level of health hazard they faced. Some for respiratory and other haze-related ailments. areas were affected by the haze from July to The long-term impacts on health of exposed December 1997, and it started again in February children and elderly are as yet unknown. In 1998. Exposure to acute air pollution elevates Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia, at one stage, the the probability of premature death in vulnerable Government came within a hairsbreadth of groups such as asthmatics, people with chronic evacuating the city’s 400,000 inhabitants. In lung or heart disease, and young and old Indonesia alone, health officials estimated that pneumonia patients. 20 million people suffered from health problems related to the haze. Health Hazards According to the Economic and Impairment of Visibility Environment Program in Southeast Asia (EEP- The effect of haze on light and visibility has SEA) and WWF (1998 b, c), the haze of 1997 an impact on economic production cost the people of Southeast Asia some (manufacturing and agricultural), transport, $1.4 billion, mostly in short-term health costs. tourism, etc., while haze-caused accidents result
BOX 8 Air Pollution and Health Effects
Air Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) Health Category Health Effects Preventive Measures
Up to 50 Good None None
51–100 Moderate None or limited for the general Not necessary population
101–199 Unhealthy Moderate symptoms for Individuals with light heart and sensitive individuals, followed by respiratory problems have to irritation in healthy population reduce physical movement and outdoor activities
200–299 Very unhealthy Significant symptoms as well as Aged and sick individuals have drop in tolerated body move- to stay indoors and reduce ment or exercise in heart and physical exercise; the public lung patients; general symp- has to avoid excessive outdoor toms among healthy population activity
300–higher Hazardous Appearance of certain early Aged and sick individuals have diseases in addition to clear to stay indoors and avoid and significant problems as well physical activity; at Index levels as decrease in tolerated body of more than 400, people have movement or exercise for to avoid physical outdoor healthy population; index of activities; everybody has to stay more than 400 could potentially indoors, close all windows and cause premature death for sick doors, and limit physical people and the aged if not activity treated properly; healthy individuals will have symptoms that restrict normal activity
Source: World Health Organization.
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 49 in loss of lives. Several gaseous compounds in while in Malaysia it dropped to 1 km or less in The 1997 haze the haze are likely to affect global environment some parts of the country. Haze disrupted land, was so thick at and climate. Quantitative evaluation of impacts sea, and air transportation. times that was, however, limited due to the fragmentary The 1997 haze was so thick at times that visibility was particle measurement data and methodological visibility was reduced to less than 10 m, making reduced to less problems. land, sea, and air travel hazardous (see Box 9). than 10 m, Particulate matter scatters the light and In some areas, visibility fell to only a few meters making land, sea, causes severe reduction of visibility. Analysis of for several months. In one Indonesian town, and air travel freshly emitted biomass burning particles school children were reported to have been tied hazardous generally have two size distributions, consisting to a rope to prevent them from becoming lost of fine particles smaller than 2.5 microns in in the haze on their way to school. On 11 April
diameter (PM2.5) and coarse particles ranging 1998 the Sultan of Brunei’s palace became from more than 2.5 microns diameter to about almost invisible behind a thick curtain of haze
10 microns (PM10). In biomass emissions, the (Associated Press, 11 April 1998), as were fine particles represent up to 90 percent of the Kuala Lumpur’s tallest-in-the-world twin towers total mass of particles emitted (Ward 1998). in September and October 1997, and again in The size distributions of partially aged biomass April 1998. burning particles found in Indonesia, Malaysia, Disruption to Transport and Singapore indicate that the ratio of PM2.5
to PM10 is about 80 percent. This ratio includes Transport was also severely disrupted. the urban particle background, whose fine Closures of airports and cancellations of flights particle fraction generally contributes about 50 were common in the region. River transport
percent of PM10. These results indicate that the in Borneo and marine traffic in the Strait of fine particle fraction in haze conditions is much Malacca were also disrupted. Economic losses higher than in urban background aerosols from such disruptions, and aircraft and (Dieterle and Heil 1998). maritime accidents were compounded by steep During the 1994 fires, haze pollution declines in tourist arrivals. in Sumatra reduced the average daily minimum Similar problems have been recorded during horizontal visibility to less than 2 km. At the virtually every major outbreak of fires and haze end of September of that year, visibility in in the region since 1982-1983. Following each Singapore dropped to less than 500 meters (m), of these instances, several AMCs have resolved
BOX 9 The Toll of Haze
The smog arising out of the 1997 fires • An Indian cargo ship collided with a from heart and lung diseases to spread to Brunei Darussalam, Panamanian vessel in the Strait of damage to the nervous system, blood, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Malacca, killing 29 people. Reason: and kidneys. Singapore, and Thailand, affecting a poor visibility. Experts predict that the impact of population of 70 million. • Seven boat accidents were the forest fires in Indonesia is • On September 26, all 234 people on reported in Kalimantan’s Mahakam potentially more dangerous than that board a jetliner died when it crashed River. In one, nine students were of the oil fires in Kuwait during the before landing in northwest killed. 1990 Gulf War. Indonesia. Visibility was poor due to Doctors point out that the smog the haze. (haze) can cause a range of ailments Source: Down to Earth, 31 October 1997.
50 THE PREMISE to prevent any recurrence. But despite such (Liew et al. 1998, Ramon and Wall 1998). The resolve, disasters due to fires and haze have haze also has effects on the world’s climate (see occurred repeatedly in the AMCs. Box 10).
Global Warming Ozone Concentration Most of the gases present in haze play direct Nitrogen oxides in haze can be quickly or indirect roles in regulating the atmosphere converted into nitric acid, causing acid rain. of the earth (Wirawan 1993). Their release (Rain falling in Sabah in 1997 was highly acidic, during large-scale burning leads to an increase registering pH3.85, a level of acidity that in the concentration of greenhouse gases, damages plants and aquatic life.) Haze can also thereby contributing to global warming. undergo a photochemical reaction that greatly Burning peat is especially detrimental because increases the ground level concentration of ozone it releases carbon into the atmosphere that has (Abraham 1998, Crutzen and Andreae 1990). been in storage for thousands of years, and Ozone causes eye irritation, impairs lung smoke from peat fires contain high levels of function in humans, and reduces crop production sulfur oxides (see Box 7). British peat specialist by damaging plants (Wirawan 1993). Jack Rieley estimated that the peat fires in The fires burned Indonesia in 1997-1998 could have released Economic Costs villages, caused more carbon dioxide than the annual Economic costs of the fires were high and they losses of contribution from cars and power stations in had profound impacts. Some of them were property, and western Europe (WWF 1997). Efforts are highly visible. The fires burned villages, caused injury and harm continuing to quantify the amount of biomass losses of property, and injury and harm to to people. Many that was burned in the 1997 fires, in order to people. Many lost their means of livelihood. All lost their means estimate the amount of carbon dioxide released those who lived in haze-affected areas suffered of livelihood from the burning of above-ground vegetation discomfort.
BOX 10 Effects of Haze on World’s Climate
Scientists studying the effects of forest Borneo in March 1998, when half of smoky tropical clouds can yield some fires have, so far, focused on the the island was covered with smog. He rain only if they rise high enough for cooling that occurs when smoke found that dense smoke completely water to freeze. blocks sunlight. It was reported that turned off normal tropical rain. The Experts warn that this may lead to smoke particles help in forming water smoke filled the clouds with tiny disastrous effects on the world’s droplets. However, it was not certain particles that made water vapor climate. Similar effects seem to be how this would affect rainfall. Now condense. However, the moisture was occurring elsewhere, says Christian Daniel Rosenfeld, an atmospheric divided among so many droplets that Kummerow, a project scientist at scientist at the Hebrew University of they were too small to fall as rain. At Goddard Space Flight Center, near Jerusalem, Israel, has shown that the same time, smoke-free clouds over Washington, DC. smoke from forest fires can, in fact, the other half of the island produced Anything that affects the rainfall stop clouds forming raindrops. In other ample rainfall (New Scientist, Vol. 164, pattern is important. According to words, smoke tends to prevent rainfall. No. 2208). Hans Graf of the Max Planck Institute Rosenfeld studied simultaneous Rosenfeld believes forest fires are for Meteorology in Hamburg, Germany, visual, infrared, and radar observations at least partly responsible for the about two thirds of the energy that from the National Aeronautics and decline in rainfall in the tropics over powers the planet’s weather depends on Space Administration’s (NASA’s) the past century. “For certain types of the formation and fallout of raindrops. Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission clouds, heavy smoke blocks precipita- (TRMM) satellite as it passed over tion altogether,” he says, adding that Source: Down to Earth, 15 January 2000. p. 24.
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 51 Direct economic impacts of the fires and A rapid survey by the Japan Medical Team haze included loss of forest and land resource for Disaster Relief in October 19971 7 assessed capital; loss of timber and nontimber forest the effects of haze pollution on human health crops and stocks; damage to infrastructural in the Province of Jambi, Sumatra. The survey assets; agricultural crop losses, productivity loss, indicated that 98.7 percent of the people and falling yields; falls in tourism arrivals and complained of at least one symptom and revenue; disruption in commerce; and disarray 91.1 percent of the people complained of at in transport systems, unplanned cost of fire least one respiratory symptom after the haze. A suppression efforts, health care, and physical examination revealed that 33.3 percent rehabilitation. of tested people suffered from conjunctivitis, Plant growth may also have been affected by 8.9 percent stridor, and 2.9 percent rale the reduction in solar energy as a result of the (Obayashi 1998). sun’s rays being partially blocked by haze. The United Nations Disaster Assessment and Photosynthesis may have been further reduced Coordination (UNDAC) Mission on Forest by the deposition of soot particles on leaves. A Fires conducted assessments of land and forest drop in aquaculture and fisheries productivity fires in several countries, including Brunei More than also results from a reduction in available solar Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, 40,000 people energy. Singapore, and Thailand, in September- have sought Fire affected the marine environment and October 1997. The team reported that 11 medical help and its biological resources, resulting in increased people died and 23,000 people suffered from hospitalization in sediment from burned water catchments. This respiratory diseases in Central Kalimantan. In Indonesia and resulted in a reduction of primary aquatic Jambi, 35,368 cases of upper respiratory tract Malaysia for productivity through light suppression and by infections were reported, while in West Sumatra smog-related imposing stress on filter feeding organisms. The the number was even higher (47,565 cases). respiratory haze also reduced solar radiation and South Sumatra also recorded a number of ailments productivity of all species with food chain links diarrhea cases during the haze. to the mangrove ecosystem. Details about the The Indonesian Ministry of Health estimated economic impacts of the fires on specific after the 1997-1998 fires that the haze-related subsectors of the economy can be found in health problems affected 240,000 people in the various reports (BAPPENAS 1999, MOE- country. The total number of deaths, severe UNDP 1998, EEP-SEA and WWF 1998b). asthma cases, bronchitis, and acute respiratory infection cases in eight provinces of Kalimantan Social Costs and Sumatra was about 2,000. These numbers Health-related Costs reflect the health problems caused by PM10 and During the haze, the health of some do not include effects associated with other 40 million people in the region was directly pollutants. affected. (Some sources estimate the total A study on asthma attacks among children number of people affected directly and indirectly revealed that a high concentration of fire- to be about 70 million.) More than 40,000 people generated carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, have sought medical help and hospitalization in and inhalable suspended particulate matter
Indonesia and Malaysia for smog-related (PM10) was responsible for the health problems respiratory ailments (BAPPENAS 1999). (ASEAN 1998a).
52 THE PREMISE Other Social Costs great deal of the forest burned was secondary, Other social impacts of forest and landfires resulting in depleted biodiversity. have included damage to heritage sites, In Iriyan Jaya, Kalimantan, and Sumatra, a graveyards, tribal houses, and shelters in the particularly dangerous ecological impact has rice fields. been the degradation of large areas of peat soils through fire. Extensive fire damage to the peat Environmental Costs soils of the swamp forest ecosystem is also Environmental costs include those resulting from expected to accelerate the changes brought ecological and related impacts of fires on plant, about by draining of these swamps for wildlife, soil, air, water, biodiversity, and global agricultural expansion, and drastically alter the climate, and a diminution of the environmental role of this ecosystem in water storage to services of the forests. sustain regional forest, agricultural, and aquatic Ecological impacts of wildfire of 1997-1998 ecosystems. included adverse ecological changes affecting terrestrial, aquatic, marine, and agricultural Wildlife Decline ecosystems; reduction in ecosystem functioning The fires affected not only humans but also and landscape stability; damage to wildlife, wildlife. A drop in the numbers of rare and A drop in the wildlife habitat, and protected areas; loss of endangered animal species caused directly by numbers of rare sequestered carbon, emission of greenhouse fires has been compounded by the hunting of and endangered gases and contribution to global warming; disoriented animals for food and for sale. animal species microclimatic changes; air pollution; water WWF Indonesia in a news release of caused directly by quality changes, reduction in water yield; 17 December 1998 claimed a decrease in the fires has been increased soil erosion, loss of soil nutrients and population of orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) as a compounded by fall in productivity; plant mortality, loss of forest result of forest fires in 1997-1998 in Indonesia the hunting of growing stock, damage to regeneration, spread and Malaysia. In Borneo and Sumatra, disoriented of alang alang, and forest degradation/ orangutans were forced to flee the forests due animals for food deforestation; erosion of biodiversity affecting to the heat and smoke. Hunger, too, drove them and for sale ecosystem, species, and genetic variability; and out of the forests as the fires destroyed the fruits loss of environmental heritage—all affecting the on which the orangutans feed. potential sustainability of development. The Kalimantan fires have reduced the orangutan habitats by some 40 percent, Biodiversity Loss worsening a decline estimated by WWF (1998) There has been loss of biodiversity as a result at 80 percent in the 1970s and 1980s. of the 1997-1998 fires, which caused increased Destruction occurred not only to the degradation of globally important protected areas orangutans’ habitat but also to the habitats of such as Kutai National Park. The 1997-1998 other flora and fauna. Efforts must be made fires destroyed most of East Kalimantan’s Kutai urgently to protect these important habitats. National Park and Bukit Suharto Nature Reserve. Some 85 percent of Wanareset Estimated Value of Total Costs (research forest) was also burned. Severe There have been several attempts to estimate damage was not limited to natural biodiversity, the value of all the losses caused by the fires but also included agricultural ecosystems. A and haze. Insufficient data and the differences
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 53 in the methods adopted have caused are several valuations of losses—preliminary, considerable variation. Nevertheless, the detailed, by individual years, and by individual economic costs have been significant, sectors of economy; covering host and recipient irrespective of the methodology. Some details countries of haze impact; and more of 1982-1983 and 1997-1998 fires in Indonesia comprehensive ones covering all the fires. are provided, as an illustration. One of the more comprehensive estimates was prepared by the Asian Development Bank Fires of 1982-1983 (ADB). It includes losses covering forestland Economic losses due to the 1982-1983 fires (timber, NWFPs, reduced/impaired growth), are estimated at $9 billion (Table 4). This biodiversity, spiritual and cultural values, indirect amount is three times the total annual revenue benefits, carbon sequestered, plantations, estate from the forestry sector in 1980, which totaled crops, agricultural crops, and tourism, as well $3 billion (MOE-UNDP 1998). as additional costs incurred for treating haze- In addition to the opportunity costs incurred related ailments and firefighting. by the State, local communities also experienced This valuation builds on previous estimates significant losses. Mayer (1989) reported that but includes the cost of the 1998 fires. A food, water, and forest supplies were modeling approach was used so that the diminished, access to remote communities was estimates can be updated when more data blocked, and income was reduced. According become available. The approach to valuing the to Mackie (1984), damage to pepper crops losses has been to sum the value of the individual alone amounted to $2 billion. components, each of which uses the most Thus, the estimate of losses, while significant, appropriate technique. is only partial as the socioeconomic costs have The total losses resulting from the 1997-1998 not been fully accounted for. fires and haze have been estimated at between $8.8 billion and $9.7 billion, with an average Fires of 1997–1998 of $9.3 billion. A summary of these costs is Since the fire season of 1997-1998 continued given in Table 5. With all their negative impacts, in two sequences over two calendar years, there and heavy socioeconomic and environmental costs, the fires exposed the weaknesses of government policies in Indonesia. TABLE 4 Losses Resulting from Forest Fires The reform package introduced by the in East Kalimantan, 1982–1983 Government in April 1998 to the International Monetary Fund and further described in the Source of Loss Value ($ billion) Memorandum of Economic and Financial Timber from Natural Forest 7,981 Policies of 29 July 1998 reflects the measures
Timber from Swamp Forest 348 and targets set to correct the situation. The fires also elicited spontaneous responses regionally, Nonwood Forest Products 373 nationally, and internationally in the form of Rehabilitation Expenses 352 concrete support and action. Total 9,054
Source: Schindler et al. 1989a, b.
54 THE PREMISE TABLE 5 Summary of Costs of the 1997–1998 Fires in Indonesia
Estimated Economic Losses ($ million)
Sector Minimum Maximum Mean
Agriculture
Farm Crops 2,431 2,431 2,431
Plantation Crops 319 319 319
Forestry
Timber from Natural Forest (logged and unlogged) 1,461 2,165 1,813
Lost Growth in Natural Forest 256 377 316
Timber from Plantations 94 94 94
Nonwood Forest Products 586 586 586
Flood Protection 404 404 404
Erosion and Siltation 1,586 1,586 1,586
Carbon Sink 1,446 1,446 1,446
Health 145 145 145
Transmigration, Buildings, and Property 1 1 1
Transportation 18 49 33
Tourism 111 111 111
Firefighting Costs 12 11 12
Total 8,870 9,726 9,298
Source: Final Report, ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Fire Prevention and Drought Management (BAPPENAS 1999).
CHAPTER 2: FOREST FIRES AND HAZE IN THE ASEAN REGION 55 Notes and haze, intersectoral coordination at the 6 Member countries of ASEAN are Brunei central level was not effective due to Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao inadequate institutions, including unclear People’s Democratic Republic, Malaysia, assignment of tasks, authority, and Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, responsibilities among the relevant Thailand, and Viet Nam. institutions, especially in the mobilization 7 For definition see Glossary in Appendix 1. of personnel, equipment, and financial 8 For definition see Glossary in Appendix 1. resources, as well as reporting and 9 Several reports and papers including the information dissemination. These WWF discussion papers “The Year the problems were also seen at provincial and World Caught Fire” (WWF 1997) and “The district levels. Donor assistance does not Fire This Time” (Schweithelm 1998a) come from a single source using a clearly contain an overview of the Indonesian defined mechanism. Some is received wildfires in 1997 and 1998. directly by MOFEC, some through the 10 Ground surveys made by Lennertz and BAKORNAS PB, and others go directly Panzer (Panzer 1989) in timber concessions to the provinces. Exchange of information throughout the burned area have provided is not well organized, which complicates proof that damage was generally heavier monitoring of the assistance (BAPPENAS/ in logged-over than in primary forests. JICA/ITTO 1999). 11 The situation has been the same for several 14 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Fire years. A seminar on Forest Fire and Satellite Prevention and Drought Management. Data Utilization held in Jakarta in 15 Apart from the impact of particulate matter September 1987 revealed that the Ministry on health, it could also affect the long-term of Forestry had been unable to deal global temperature balance by disturbing comprehensively with forest fires due to the evaporation-condensation cycle. shortage of funds (GOI/FAO 1990b). 16 ADB under its ADTA INO 2999 estimated Investigations indicated that the country’s that a total of 757 million mt of carbon multimillion dollar reforestation fund, dioxide were produced during the 1997 collected on timber produced, had not been and 1998 fires (more than 85 percent of used to fight fires or set up antifire defenses. this was as a result of the combustion of 12 The Indonesian Government has been peat). The total cost of the carbon released somewhat late in reacting to fire warnings; into the atmosphere (based on $7/mt) was data on hot spots were available during calculated to be $1.446 billion. This figure January/May 1997, and yet there was no is conservative; other estimates have put timely proactive initiative. Even after news the amount of carbon dioxide produced at releases were made of an impending ENSO, 3.7 billion mt, or nearly five times the level land preparation burnings continued as estimated by the technical assistance. usual in August 1997. 17 Within about two to three months of the 13 In Indonesia, during the 1997-1998 fires forest fires and haze.
56 THE PREMISE
CHAPTER 3 Responses to Fires and Haze in the Region
[This chapter discusses the varied responses, at several levels, to the recent fires and haze, particularly those of 1997-1998, and analyzes trends in donor assistance.]
Nature of Initiatives control) and medium- and long-term (sustainable There have been various responses to past fire improvement) perspectives. Some of the post- outbreaks, but the recent round of fires in fire initiatives involving reviews, planning, and Indonesia and neighboring countries led to investment studies belong to the latter category, several new initiatives, and the reviving or supporting sustainable development. revamping of old ones, to address the problem.18 To help establish and ensure effective The new initiatives in response to the 1997- coordination of these mutually reinforcing 1998 fires included formulation of national initiatives, ADB has provided technical strategies for coordinated action, regional efforts assistance at the regional level to the ASEAN within ASEAN, and international support. Many Secretariat and advisory technical assistance at countries and international organizations have the national level to Indonesia (see also Chapter provided emergency assistance in cash and kind, 4).
The aftermath of a including equipment, materials, medicine, and In the 1990s, the world focused its attention forest fire, Indonesia, firefighters. Some of these initiatives had on sustainable development and sustainable 1998. emergency and disaster abatement dimensions. forest management. Indonesia, for its part, has Photo: Anonymous Others had short-term (for addressing damage reported that in response to UNCED decisions, Agenda 21, and Forest Principles, it has developed a framework to strengthen national efforts to realize proposals of the Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF), which included protection of forests from fires (GOI/MOFEC 1998c).
ASEAN Response to Fires and Haze Nearly all of the fires and haze in the ASEAN region over the past two decades have been caused by direct human interference rather than occurring naturally. This means that control of fire and haze is within the collective grasp of AMCs, a fact that has not been lost on ASEAN.
58 THE PREMISE Collective Commitments Haze Technical Task Force Beginning in the early 1980s, AMCs launched Three months later in September 1995, the several national and regional initiatives aimed ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment at controlling these problems. The first of these, (ASOEN) convened their sixth meeting in Bali, with far-reaching regional influence, occurred Indonesia, at which they established a Haze in 1985 with the adoption of the Agreement Technical Task Force (HTTF). on the Conservation of Nature and Natural HTTF’s initial objective was to put into Resources, which made specific reference to operation the measures included in the 1995 air pollution and “transfrontier environmental ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary effects.” Pollution, relating to atmospheric pollution, Between 1990 and 1997, ASEAN initiatives including the following tasks: targeted control of fires and haze. • demarcate critical areas of land and forest Transboundary atmospheric pollution was also fires; highlighted in the 1990 Kuala Lumpur Accord • identify the critical periods for occurrence on Environment and Development. of haze; Environmental pollution issues were again • develop a system for National Focal Points The absence of extensively discussed at the Bandung Conference to alert ASOEN on impending haze; specific of 1992, which itself gave rise to a number of • organize proper collection and effective operational plans workshops and meetings on transboundary dissemination of meteorological data, rendered the atmospheric pollution, held in Indonesia and including satellite photographs of “hot cooperation plan Malaysia between 1992 and 1995. spots” by the ASEAN Specialized ineffective. The 1992 Singapore Summit identified Meteorological Centre (ASMC) in Consequently, transboundary pollution as one of ASEAN’s Singapore and the countries concerned; ASEAN faced major environmental concerns and addressed • develop a proper monitoring system for more major it in its 1992 Singapore Resolution on actions taken on the ground to fight and transboundary Environment. Concern over transboundary contain land and forest fires; and pollution in 1997 atmospheric pollution was once again voiced • monitor and report on the status of projects in the 1994 Bandar Seri Begawan Resolution relating to the management and control on Environment and Development. of transboundary haze pollution involving At the informal ASEAN Ministerial Meeting international organizations and developed on Environment (AMME) held in Kuching, countries. Malaysia, on 21 October 1994, environment HTTF was also charged with producing a ministers discussed transboundary pollution manual on implementing measures to and agreed that ASEAN should collaborate mitigate and control haze-causing land and actively to build up its member countries’ forest fires. expertise and capacity to address the problem, However, the absence of specific operational as well as to minimize its effects. As a result, directives rendered the cooperation plan an ASEAN Meeting on the Management of ineffective. Consequently, ASEAN faced more Transboundary Pollution was convened in major transboundary pollution in 1997. Kuala Lumpur in June 1995, at which the The HTTF, which includes all AMCs and is ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary chaired by Indonesia, met for the first time in Pollution was adopted. Jakarta on 16-17 October 1995.
CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 59 Following the 1997 fires, the affected AMCs in confronting regionwide fire and haze Following the assumed a more operational stance toward the disasters. The two previous “action plans” were, 1997 fires, the fire and haze disasters than previously. Indonesia in fact, strategy documents that provided a affected AMCs and Malaysia signed a bilateral memorandum broad-brush description of the steps the region assumed a more of understanding on 11 December 1997 that should take in mitigating the impact of operational allowed the two countries to jointly address transboundary haze.20 In contrast, the RHAP stance toward the certain aspects of transboundary haze and to has an operational focus, the intent of which is fire and haze undertake joint responses to other disasters. to identify actions to be taken by specific parties disasters than Malaysia supported Indonesia with personnel at regional, subregional, and national levels for previously and equipment for firefighting. mitigating the impacts of fires and haze. The RHAP document is, therefore, a Regional Haze Action Plan reflection of the AMCs’ determination to actively At the ASEAN level, a Regional Haze Action tackle the problem rather than simply describing Plan (RHAP) was formulated by HTTF and a broad-brush approach to it. This endorsed by the ASEAN Ministerial Meeting determination to take action is obvious from on Haze (AMMH)19 held in Singapore on the frequency of the meetings of both HTTF 22-23 December 1997. The signing of this and AMMH, which in 1997 increased sharply instrument, the third of its type to be endorsed relative to previous years. At the peak of the by the AMCs, has proven to be a turning point 1997-1998 fires and haze, AMMH meetings in the region’s approach to preventing and were held every six weeks, with the meetings mitigating the damage from recurrent fires and of HTTF and subregional working groups haze. occurring even more frequently. During the course of these meetings, two Objectives of Haze Action Plan points became clear to AMMH. First, the The primary objectives of the RHAP are to: region’s fire-and-haze issue constitutes a • prevent forest fires through improved recurrent problem that is far too large for any natural resource management policies and one agency to address effectively; coordinated enforcement of relevant legislation; and concerted action by all AMCs, as well as • establish operational procedures for donors, will be required. Second, if the RHAP monitoring land and forest fires; and is to succeed in reducing the prevalence or the • strengthen regional firefighting impact of transboundary haze, it will have to capabilities as well as other mitigation be fully put into operation. measures. An operating assumption of the RHAP is Scope of Haze Action Plan that developing fire suppression mobilization Transboundary pollution and other and response strategies at national and regional crossborder impacts from fires are issues of levels is necessary if future fire-and-haze regional significance, so it is appropriate that disasters on the scale of that of 1997 are to be there should be a regional plan to address avoided (see Appendix 2). these. The signing of the RHAP by the nine The term “haze” in the title may raise some ASEAN Environment Ministers signaled a new doubts and questions. Why haze plan? Why not stance toward ASEAN multilateral cooperation fire plan? Is haze the only issue of concern to
60 THE PREMISE arise from land and forest fires? The word Contribution of Regional Institutions “haze” seems more appropriate, particularly in Specific technical/scientific contributions can the regional context as it drifts disastrously over be provided by individual institutions. Examples other territories away from the source. It is the of such institutions involved in issues relating “dirty cloud of haze” that gives the fire a to fire and haze include: the Asian Disaster regional or transboundary dimension and brings Preparedness Center (ADPC), ASEAN Institute in the social dimension of health and safety. of Forest Management (AIFM), ASMC, and The term “haze” internalizes all the factors Economic and Environment Program in leading to the production of haze—the Southeast Asia (EEP-SEA). condition of forests, land clearing, combustible residues, and ignition source. To control haze, National-Level Initiatives one has to address all the factors that lead to it. The Front-Line Countries The RHAP is a plan for fire management and The front-line countries that most felt the more. impacts of the fires were Indonesia and The scope of the RHAP includes establishing Malaysia, followed by Brunei Darussalam and and enhancing fire prevention; improving Singapore. capabilities for fire suppression in the event of While the major efforts of firefighting were Specific countries occurrence to minimize any impact; and to be taken up by Indonesia, Brunei Darussalam have been strengthening regional mechanisms for fire and Malaysia also experienced their share of designated to monitoring and early warning. fires, though on a considerably smaller scale. spearhead the The RHAP, thus, has three major All the countries, however, had to fight the haze activities that fall components—prevention, mitigation, and problem. under each of the monitoring. Specific countries have been National efforts involved priming of three RHAP designated to spearhead the activities that fall organizational arrangements, coordination of components. under each of the three RHAP components. activities, relief and rehabilitation measures, Malaysia takes the Malaysia takes the lead in prevention, Indonesia and post-fire evaluation. Follow-on actions lead in in mitigation, and Singapore in monitoring of included formulation and implementation of prevention, fires and haze. This notwithstanding, all of the National Haze Action Plans (NHAPs). Indonesia in AMCs will undertake actions at the national mitigation, and level that relate to all three of the RHAP Assessment of Response Singapore in components. In addition, individual actions The arrangements made to combat fire monitoring of supporting prevention, mitigation, and disasters formed part of an emergency plan. fires and haze monitoring will also take place at subregional This will require reviews of suitability to develop and regional levels. a stable system of fire management and HTTF realized that it must focus fire promotion of forest rehabilitation, management efforts in specific areas. The consolidation, and long-term development. concept of Subregional Firefighting An ADB study21 has investigated these and Arrangements (SRFAs) was endorsed at the other institutional issues with regard to third AMMH held in Brunei Darussalam on Indonesia. One of its major findings was that 4 April 1998; and a work program was the roles of agencies involved in fire and disaster initiated to develop SRFAs for Borneo and management were unclearly defined, and a lead Sumatra. agency for coordination and provision of
CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 61 strategic direction was lacking. This led to an operational means to monitor fires In the ASEAN confusion where disaster response (relief and throughout the year, since these are available region, most land aid distribution), interagency coordination (for on a daily basis. and forest fires eliminating duplication and implementing The most commonly used satellite for fire are detected by compatible strategies), and fire suppression detection is the NOAA22 polar orbiting satellite. local dwellers and activities were undertaken by multiple agencies. The satellite carries many sensors on board to ground patrols. Many communities did not understand who was measure a host of different parameters on the Lookout towers in charge, nor did they know whom to turn to earth. The sensor to detect forest fires is the are used where for assistance. The question of responsibility AVHRR. It has five channels to measure available for provision of funds for fire suppression was outgoing radiation from the earth in five unclear and significant delays in securing different wavebands. The third channel of the approval for funding contributed to confusion AVHRR is sensitive to high temperature targets in mounting suppression action. In some cases, such as land and forest fires. Thus, by the delays were so chronic that no fire processing the AVHRR data at each pass, it is suppression measures were undertaken possible to extract latitude and longitude (BAPPENAS 1999). While the study had not coordinates of suspected fires daily to a recommended that a single agency should be precision of about 1 km, which is the resolution responsible for all fire management, there is of the AVHRR sensor. still room for one agency to play a lead role to There are many nonmeteorological satellites coordinate other inputs at national, provincial, (NMSs), which also have fire detection and local levels. capability. The Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Operational Linescan Application of Technology System (OLS) has a unique capability to detect Forest Fires and Haze Monitoring low levels of visible—near infrared—radiance In addressing the fires and haze, an important at night.23 The resolution is similar to that of measure, which calls for reasonably the NOAA AVHRR sensor. A proposal to make sophisticated technological know-how, is the DMSP/OLS data available to the ASEAN monitoring. Monitoring techniques vary region is being considered. Commercial high- considerably among the AMCs, with respect to resolution satellite data, e.g., SPOT and fires, haze, and climate change. LandSat, can provide valuable confirmation and exact coordinates of forest fire locations. Forest Fires However, such data are expensive and not In the ASEAN region, most land and forest suitable for operational monitoring of fires. fires are detected by local dwellers and ground Further, these satellites have sampling intervals patrols. Lookout towers are used where of two to three weeks, making it impossible to available. To a much lesser extent, aerial follow the development of forest fires. surveillance is also used to detect fires. Satellite A weather satellite soon to be launched by detection of fires is gradually being accepted as Japan, the Multifunctional Telecommunication an institutional mechanism for fire detection. Satellite (MTS), will carry a multispectral sensor Satellite detection is cost-effective compared to similar to that on the GOES. This will provide conventional methods because the satellite can hourly hot spot virtual analysis. However, the see large areas simultaneously. It can also provide resolution of the sensor is about 5 km, making
62 THE PREMISE it less precise than the NOAA AVHRR sensor. amount of time required for dispatching crews Currently, at least five agencies in the region to fire sites. are providing satellite detection of hot spots through ground stations in Bogor, Jakarta, Haze Palembang, Samarinda, and Singapore. While Available operational monitoring of haze satellite data are vital, there are constraints that from the ground comes through regular require more direct observations be carried out meteorological bulletins required by member to supplement the satellite information. Satellite countries of the World Meteorological detection of fires is often difficult due to: Organization (WMO). The NMSs normally • inability to penetrate cloud; operate an array of ground observing stations • often nonoptimal flyover; within the country. Under WMO requirements, • false alarms from nonfire targets near the the stations will make reports called Synoptic threshold temperature; Reports (SYNOP) at three-hourly intervals. • poor resolution (1 km at the center, 7 km This report will consist of local measurements at the edge), and of temperature, pressure, visibility, reactive • decreased detection performance in heavy humidity, winds, cloud, type of weather, and smoke haze. (BAPPENAS 1999) additional meteorological parameters. The While satellite Most of the NMSs have the capability to visibility and weather type will reveal details data are vital, receive Geostationary Meteorological Satellite about the extent of haze conditions, if any, at there are (GMS) and NOAA satellite imagery, which the locality. These will be transmitted through constraints that means that they theoretically would also be able the national telecommunication network to the require that more to detect hot spots and haze. However, some main weather headquarters. The report will be direct of the NMSs lack the capacity to use this satellite consolidated along with others across the observation be imagery to detect large-scale fires and haze. A country and transmitted to WMO countries. carried out to training course has been developed by ASMC Through this method, concerned countries can supplement the to help NMSs process satellite data for hot spot monitor the haze conditions of designated areas satellite detection. Being able to detect hot spots using of another country, provided they are also information US NOAA satellite imagery will enable the member countries of WMO. The disadvantage NMSs to better support their national fire is that most of these observing stations are not response effort through faster responses to detect colocated near the forest fires, therefore the fires with their own satellite capability. report does not represent the worst conditions. Some national-level institutions other than If the observing station is colocated in an NMSs also have specialized monitoring aerodrome, it is also obliged to send hourly capabilities, including the ability to determine reports of weather conditions, called the exact coordinates of large-scale fires. These Meteorological Aerodrome Reports (METAR), include Lambaga Antariksa Penerbangan under International Civil Aviation Organization National or National Institute for Aerospace (ICAO) requirements. The METAR is similar (LAPAN) of Indonesia and the Malaysian Centre to the SYNOP report and will also reveal the for Remote Sensing (MACRES). This capability extent of haze conditions nearby. allows the NMSs and specialized centers to Aerial reports about haze are occasionally directly assist national governments in locating reported by commercial flights traveling in the land and forest fires, which greatly reduces the region. But this reporting is voluntary and the
CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 63 reporting format does not include a haze on NOAA weather satellite images, tracked description. Occasionally, some pilots will report where fires were burning each day, and provided visibility conditions and haze depth. early warnings about fire dangers to the fire The best method of monitoring haze is teams through a chain of command structure through remote sensing. The Japanese GMS24 at national, provincial, and district levels. carries the Visible/Infrared Spin-Scan There are six NOAA-AVHRR satellite Radiometer (VISSR), which is capable of stations in Indonesia. Two in Jakarta are located detecting smoke haze. Since it is geostationary, at the Agency for Meteorology and Geophysics it will provide hourly visible images during (Badan Meteorologi dan Geofisika or BMG) daytime. With these images available, it is and LAPAN that are mainly for weather possible to track the development and spread monitoring purposes; and there is one each in of haze to different regions. GMS, Bogor (West Java), Palembang (South Sumatra), unfortunately, is unable to provide quantitative Samarinda (East Kalimantan), and Palangkaraya measurements of haze concentration. Another (Central Kalimantan). The specialized system satellite suited to detect haze is the Total Ozone for fire detection and monitoring by satellite is The best method Mapper Spectrometer (TOMS) sensor on board primarily held by the MOFEC with support of monitoring the Earth Probe (EP) satellite. TOMS can detect from funding agency projects. The Bogor haze is through smoke particles from a variety of ground-based station, supported by the Japan International remote sensing. sources, such as biomass burning, whether Cooperation Agency (JICA), operates NOAA The Japanese naturally occurring or caused by agriculture, oil AVHRR and a smoke-tracking Himawari. GMS carries the industry fires, or industrial smoke. Overlaid with NOAA images (hot spots), the Visible/Infrared The TOMS data are able to provide a Himawari images could confirm the existence Spin-Scan quantitative approximation of aerosol of fires. The stations produced hot spot maps Radiometer, concentrations in the haze by correlating to daily and sent these to provinces where the hot which is capable measurements made on the ground. The EP spots existed. The basic constraint was the poor of detecting satellite is polar orbiting, like NOAA, therefore communication system between stations and smoke haze only one image is available daily. receiving addresses (provinces, districts, and fields). This rendered the detection and control Monitoring Experience during system inefficient. 1997–1998 Forest Fires and Haze Caution is required in using hot spot data Experience of monitoring the 1997-1998 from satellite images to detect and evaluate fires, fires and haze in Indonesia, and Brunei because of the limitations described earlier. The Darussalam and Malaysia, are reviewed here. total number of hot spots counted on images taken during the day decreases on similar Indonesia images taken at night, probably due to daytime Fire detection systems in the country use changes in humidity. Hot spots may represent sophisticated technology (satellite imagery) as heat sources other than from land and forest well as conventional methods such as fire towers fires, including burning coal seams, gas flares, and terrestrial patrols. and activities in settlement areas. The During the 1997-1998 fires and haze in information provided also has not always been Indonesia, MOFEC and several other effective due to the coarse scale (resolution) of organizations monitored hot spots appearing the images and communication delays. The
64 THE PREMISE experiences of the 1997-1998 fires have shown Brunei Darussalam that much improvement is needed to strengthen Brunei Darussalam has adequately Local villagers the early warning capability through a controlled its forest fire and haze pollution are often the key combination of enforcement and awareness problems. The Fire Services Department, informants and programs at the local level. which is responsible for fire and haze they need to be While aerial surveillance with multispectral management, has developed a national provided with scanners and fire detection by satellite sensors contingency plan for combating fires. adequate represent the higher side of the technology, at a The areas of concern have been incentives practical field level it is necessary to have a compartmentalized into five jurisdictional system of fire (lookout) towers, surveillance zones: Commands A, B, C, D, and E. In terms teams with two-way communication of fire hazard, the Forestry Department equipment, fire patrol teams, and local established a Fire Hazard Rating and Zoning informants for immediate detection of fires. scheme that is based on the following factors: Local villagers are often the key informants and (i) the presence of communities and settlements, they need to be provided with adequate (ii) historical data on frequency of fire incentives. occurrence, and (iii) abundance of combustible The results of automatic processing of satellite materials. images as well as of surveillance measures must Taking these factors into account, the be transmitted immediately to the local department classified the country into three Fire firefighting units for ground verification and Hazard Zones: (i) Low Hazard Zone, (ii) fire suppression, as warranted. This calls for Medium Hazard Zone, and (iii) High Hazard an effective and efficient communication Zone. The zoning system is useful in prioritizing system, linking all levels in the fire management or concentrating the surveillance for fire system. detection and control. Aerial surveillance using aircraft or The Government has established an “Airborne helicopters is limited. Although the aerial Command” stationed at the Royal Brunei Air surveillance exercises held in Riau by the SRFA- Force Second Squadron at the international Sumatra found the system to be effective for airport. The Command uses helicopters and detecting fires on a real-time basis, it is still helitankers for controlling fires, under an considered inefficient due to its high operational operation called “Clear View.” This is aimed costs. MOFEC is cooperating with domestic mainly at providing quick and accurate commercial airlines for surveillance; requiring information for water bombing. It also helps the airlines to report to the closest airports any with the early fire detection and warning system. fires they spot during their regular flights. Then So far, the system has been effective and the airports forward this information to the efficient. closest MOFEC office for further action. In addition to these sophisticated measures, Along with information generation, it is Brunei Darussalam is still practicing a “word essential to ensure that there are adequate of mouth” approach to fire detection. This capability and preparedness to quickly respond encourages citizens to promptly report any fire to firefighting needs, including personnel, in their district. The Fire Services Department tools, techniques, skills, infrastructure, and is promoting this approach through a public mobility. relations program.
CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 65 Malaysia fire-related problem areas. Urgent action is Malaysia has been widely practicing aerial needed to address weaknesses in management surveillance for fire detection and monitoring, and technology. even though it still depends principally on ground patrolling. Hot spot information is Southeast Asian Fire Experiment received from, among others, the National SEAFIRE is a research project in the Meteorological Services. A word of mouth planning and preparation phase and will be approach is also a component in the system. conducted under a scheme of the International The people’s concerns about the consequences Geosphere-Biosphere Programme (IGBP). The of burning and strict law enforcement have International Global Atmospheric Chemistry made the approach effective. (IGAC) project is a core project of IGBP. One of the activities of IGAC (Natural Variability Fire Prevention and Mitigation and Anthropogenic Perturbations of the Tropical Technology While most of Atmospheric Chemistry) investigates the impact the skills needed An analysis of the situation with regard to fire of biomass burning on the atmosphere and at the field level prevention and mitigation as a background for biosphere (Biomass Burning Experiment or are to be assessing future needs is given later under the BIBEX [http://www.mpch-mainz.mpg.de/ developed locally, respective sections (see Chapter 5). ~bibex]). SEAFIRE will establish the fire certain research component within the Integrated Study Acquisition of Technology sophisticated on Land-Use Change in Southeast Asia, with technology can Science and technology relating to forest fire linkage to other activities of IGBP. be acquired covers various aspects; there is need for an SEAFIRE will explore the ecological impacts through appropriate balance of focus, depending on of fire in land use (fires used in forest technology perceived needs. conversion and shifting cultivation, grassland, transfer While most of the skills needed at the field and seasonally dry forests) and the level are to be developed locally, certain characteristics, the regional and global means sophisticated technology can be acquired of spreading, and the atmospheric chemical through technology transfer. The use of impacts of the resultant smoke. Land and marine geosynchronous satellites and space-borne sources of trace gases and aerosols will be sensors for early warning of fires and considered, as well as industrial sources (fossil- atmospheric pollution; investigation of fuel burning, secondary chemical products). candidate systems for fire weather and fire Special emphasis will be given to climate danger forecasting; assessing influence of inter- variability (ENSO vs. non-ENSO). SEAFIRE annual climate variability; and interpretation of will also coordinate with other regional activities fire scar characteristics are some of the areas in fire management and research. where most tropical countries will need to build national capability. ASMC, BMG, and LAPAN International Response are examples of institutions that can Most international assistance projects to address appropriately be strengthened. Southeast Asia’s fires and haze are country Science and technology relating to forest projects in Indonesia. Assistance at regional level fires at the forest end are weak. There is no is mostly in the form of regional seminars and long-term research being carried out to address meetings. While there are international
66 THE PREMISE assistance projects relating to, or having coordinate the global assistance and expertise components of, fire and haze management in provided by international agencies through the some of the other AMCs (e.g., Malaysia, UN system. A meeting was organized in Philippines, and Thailand), details are not Geneva to mobilize resources from the funding available. agencies. Firefighting experts, other UN Based on experience, many of the projects agencies, international organizations, and have undergone revisions and modifications. donors were invited to participate. Through It was therefore difficult to obtain a fully updated its facilities at GRID-Sioux Falls, in the United situation. States, UNEP provided daily satellite images A list of active funding agency-assisted via the Internet showing hot spots and some activities is given in Appendix 5. spatial data layers such as population, elevation, drainage, and land cover to help in fire Emergency and Immediate Term suppression planning. UNEP also supported a Assistance, 1997–1998 web site showing the biodiversity loss and Emergency In spite of Indonesia’s experiences of the previous species in danger due to the forest fires. assistance in cash few years with fires and haze and the efforts to and kind Contributions build capacity for fire management, the fires of (material 1997-1998 attained disastrous dimensions as the Emergency assistance in cash and kind supplies, IDNDR entered its last quarter. This prompted (material supplies, equipment, expertise, equipment, several emergency actions. services of firefighters, use of water bombing expertise, services In response to the escalating fire and drought aircraft, helicopters, communication facilities, of firefighters, emergency, a UNDAC Team was dispatched masks, and other types of humanitarian aid) use of water to Indonesia at the end of September 1997 to was received from different sources. These bombing aircraft, provide assistance in terms of needs assessment, included countries such as Australia, Canada, helicopters, resource mobilization, and coordination of PRC, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, communication international support (Dennis 1998). The Japan, Republic of Korea, Malaysia, New facilities, masks UNDAC Team cooperated with the national Zealand, Norway, Russia, Singapore, Sweden, and other types authorities, local donor country representatives, Switzerland, Thailand, UK, and US, as well as of humanitarian UN agencies, and international nongovernment from UN and other agencies including the aid) was received organizations (NGOs). United Nations Development Programme from different UNEP and the UN Office for the (UNDP), UNEP, United Nations Children’s sources Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) Fund (UNICEF), United Nations Educational, made a joint appeal for emergency assistance Scientific and Cultural Organization to the region. Donors responded with direct (UNESCO), WHO, Global Environment financial and in-kind assistance. An OCHA- Facility (GEF), World Bank, ADB, UNEP mission was again dispatched to Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Indonesia toward the end of March 1998 to (OPEC), EU, and ASEAN. With assistance assess the impact of fires in East Kalimantan, coming from so many different sources, the with the worsening of drought and fire situation. problems of coordination were compounded. Realizing the gravity of the 1997-1998 forest This assistance represented considerable fires, the UN Secretary-General appointed the emergency-related expenditure. For instance, Executive Director of UNEP to monitor and Germany provided about $5.5 million in direct
CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 67 assistance for 15 firefighting vehicles, forest Pollution, 27-28 May 1998, Singapore, protection equipment for 50 teams of 20 organized by the Germany-Singapore persons each, and small mobile water treatment Environmental Technology Agency (GESTA); plants and drilling equipment. The United States Bi-Regional Workshop on Health Impacts of contributed a $2 million emergency fund in Haze Related Air Pollution, Kuala Lumpur, 1998, in addition to $3.5 million provided 1-4 June 1998, organized by WHO; JICA/ earlier. ITTO International Cross-Sectoral Forum on Forest Fire Management in Southeast Asia, NGO Relief Efforts 7-8 December 1998 in Jakarta; and Workshop SKEPHI, TELAPAK, Wahana Lingkungan on Regional Transboundary Smoke and Haze Hidup (WALHI), WWF, and the World in Southeast Asia organized by WMO, 2-5 June Resources Institute (WRI) were some of the 1998, Singapore. international and national NGOs that provided support in addressing the forest fires and haze. Medium- and Long-Term Assistance The Indonesian NGOs raised public donations Early Fire Projects for relief projects, supplied masks and The 1982-1983 fires and haze brought the medicines, and provided other forms of issue of (and the need for) forest fire humanitarian assistance. Forest Watch management to world attention. Between 1982 Network, a global network of NGOs with WRI and 1992, short- to medium-term international at the lead, helped raise public awareness and assistance was provided to Indonesia to address concern about the Indonesian fire disaster. The the problem. This included (i) fact-finding, Forest Watch Network has a central node, needs assessment, and consultation missions; regional nodes, and subnodes. TELAPAK, (ii) emergency assistance; (iii) technical aid and located in Bogor, is Indonesia’s nodal equipment; (iv) training courses and seminars; organization. Haze Busters based in Singapore and (v) management support. Several agencies funded by Asia Foundation and others, is a and countries such as the European Community, unique voluntary effort serving as a link between FAO, Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische donors and recipients. Zusammenarbeit (GTZ), ITTO, JICA, UNDP, UN Disaster Relief Organization (UNDRO), Meetings Australia, Canada, Finland, and United States A full count of all the national, regional, and were involved. During this period, six medium- global meetings (including conferences, term projects, two seminars, three training The United workshops, and seminars) organized by courses, and 10 missions were undertaken. States different agencies, on various aspects of the contributed a 1997-1998 fires and haze in Southeast Asia is The Bandung Strategy of 1992 $2 million not available. The following are illustrative of The forest fires and haze of 1991 in emergency fund the range: Asian Regional Meeting on El Niño Southeast Asia emanated mainly from the in 1998, in Related Crisis, 2-6 February 1998, Bangkok, Indonesian archipelago. To avoid a recurrence, addition to hosted by ADPC and cosponsored by the United the Indonesian Government called for $3.5 million States Agency for International Development international cooperation to support national provided earlier (USAID)/DFID/NOAA; Asia-Pacific Regional fire management. In June 1992 an Workshop on Transboundary Atmospheric international conference on “long-term
68 THE PREMISE integrated forest fire management” was held part of its overall forest management objective. in Bandung in which national agencies All four projects have locally installed NOAA involved in fire management, international AVHRR satellite image receiving systems in development organizations, and potential order to detect and monitor fire hot spot activity. donors participated. The aim of the conference In addition to strengthening the institutional was to develop the framework for a concerted capacity of MOFEC to deal with fires, FFPCP, action plan for Long-Term Integrated Forest IFFM, and FFPMP have also adopted rural or Fire Management in Indonesia. The Bandung community-based approaches to fire prevention strategy became a reality in 1994 when the and control. bilateral Indonesian-German project on “integrated forest fire management” became Achievements of the Early Projects operational, followed by other projects IFFM. At the village level, socioeconomic supported by EU and JICA. studies were carried out to investigate the concept of community-based fire management Ongoing Pre-1997 Projects and organize volunteer fire response crews. Fire Projects related to land and forest fires are centers have been established in 10 forest Projects related to being undertaken by different government and divisions linked to provincial fire centers. Fire land and forest nongovernment agencies, educational damage rating and early warning systems have fires are being institutions, and others (see also Appendix 5). been set up and demonstrated, and fire undertaken by As of September 1998, there were 34 donor- protection equipment and tools supplied and different assisted ongoing and planned projects under training provided to local people and army government and the purview of MOFEC. Of these, seven personnel. The integration of IFFM into the nongovernment projects were directly or indirectly related to structures of government forestry departments agencies, forest fire management (FFM). Four of them (central and provincial) provides direct access educational were long-term projects started after the to those concerned with fire- and haze-related institutions, and Bandung meeting, with three projects having decisions. Planned activities include the others forest fires as their main concern. preparation of a fire management strategy; The four projects are: setting up of a fire-GIS; refining the early (i) GTZ’s Integrated Forest Fire warning and fire detection systems; and Management Project (IFFM) in East undertaking improved training and capacity Kalimantan (1994-2002); building programs. (ii) JICA’s Forest Fire Prevention and FFPMP. The overall goal of the project is Management Project (FFPMP) in to prevent forest devastation and environmental Bogor, Jambi, and West Kalimantan disturbances caused by wildfires and smoke. (1996-2001); The project aims to strengthen the capability (iii) EU-Forest Fire Prevention and Control of MOFEC at central level, in Jakarta and Project (FFPCP) in Southern Sumatra Bogor, to deal quickly with forest fires and also (1995-1998); and to improve prevention and initial suppression (iv) the Indonesia-UK Tropical Forest at the local level. The project components Management Programme (ITFMP). include early warning and detection; a system ITFMP was started in 1992 and comprised of forest fire base maps; extension and training a number of components related to fires, as in the use of pumps, hoses, and hand tools;
CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 69 participatory forest fire prevention involving started. These have varied in scope, focus, After the 1997 innovative institutional structures; and use of magnitude, and budget, etc. Some were fires, numerous firebreaks, trenches, and fire-resistant tree national in coverage, while others are regional. short- and species, along with other improved land Some of the important ones are briefly described medium-term fire management methods. here. projects were For farmers involved in the program, the proposed and project provides seeds, seedlings, and fencing UNEP Initiatives started materials; while labor is provided on a self-help UNEP is implementing a medium-term basis. project on “Emergency Response to Combat FFPCP. The objectives are: (i) to obtain Forest Fires in Indonesia and to Prevent an understanding of the occurrence of fire and Regional Haze in Southeast Asia.” This project, the present means of control in the province funded with $750,000 under the GEF, has five of South Sumatra; (ii) to develop an major components. Most significant among operational NOAA fire monitoring and early these is an early warning and emergency warning system in Palembang (South response system that uses a combination of Sumatra); and (iii) to establish forest fire aerial surveillance and satellite imagery to detect prevention and control systems in three fires and allows firefighting teams to respond different pilot areas representing three quickly. important forest types. Another component of the UNEP project is Other aspects covered by the project include focusing on development of international social forestry, research on fire management and agreements relating to transboundary fire risk, and GIS for forest fires. atmospheric pollution. The UNEP project ITFMP. The emphasis of the program was collaborates closely with ADB in this regard, on sustainable forest management. The as well as in other subinitiatives to promote the program consisted of five projects: senior RHAP. UNEP has also helped ASEAN management advisory team, provincial forest countries in implementing the Sumatra management, forestry research, training, and Firefighting Surveillance Pilot Project. It is also community-based conservation management. assisting other AMCs in developing the ASEAN The last project incorporated components Protocol/Agreement on Addressing the relating to forest fires. Regional Fire and Haze Problem. Others. Two other projects within the purview of MOFEC with a component on fire ITTO-CFC National Guidelines on Forest Fire management are: (i) forest sector support This project is being carried out in program and integrated forestry radio collaboration with the Directorate General of communication project with support from EU, Nature Conservation (PKA) and Institute and (ii) strengthening the management Pertanian Bogor (IPB). National guidelines are capabilities of MOFEC, supported by GTZ. being finalized. Apart from these, the project envisages several other outputs: skills New Fire and Haze-Related Medium-Term development, training of trainers, equipment Assistance supply, communication development, After the 1997 fires, numerous short- and coordination, financing and budgeting aspects, medium-term fire projects were proposed and and public awareness.
70 THE PREMISE GTZ: Sustainable Forest Management The research is designed in a modular way; Promotion in East Kalimantan with each module standing independently, but This is a new component on a pilot basis, complementing and supporting the others added to the IFFMP in January 1998 to assist (CIFOR-ICRAF-UNESCO 1998). forest enterprises (private and state-owned), and The combined expertise and field knowledge local people to take the necessary steps to of these three institutions is unique in rehabilitate fire-affected forests and integrate supporting the study. While some funding these into management systems. commitments have already been received, more are expected soon. WWF-Indonesia WWF-Indonesia provided additional input ADB Assistance Program in the analysis of the causes and impacts of forest ADB’s assistance on forest fires has included fires and haze and formulation of an Integrated two separate but interrelated technical assistance Conservation Development Plan. The latter projects (see Chapter 4). The first of these is incorporates a buffer zone protection plan and ADB support for a national initiative through impact of fires on conservation areas. an ADTA to Indonesia. This will assess the extent of economic damage caused by UNDP Assistance uncontrolled fires in 1997 and assist the UNDP provided support in the preparation Government to bring about the necessary policy of an action plan for prevention and reforms and investments in prevention of future management of forest and land fires. This fire disasters and better management of project has recently been completed. UNDP is droughts. concentrating its efforts on immediately The second project consists of support to strengthening the ability of the Indonesian ASEAN through a regional technical assistance Government to assess and monitor (RETA) project for strengthening ASEAN’s environmental disasters. capacity in preventing and mitigating transboundary atmospheric pollution resulting CIFOR-ICRAF-UNESCO Project from the forest fires, and improving cooperation This project will study the underlying causes among fire and smoke-affected ASEAN and impacts of fires in Southeast Asia. This is countries. ADB and a three-year in-depth study. The Centre for ADB (through the latter project) and ASEAN were International Forestry Research (CIFOR), ASEAN were instrumental in mobilizing instrumental in International Centre for Research in support of other donors and establishing mobilizing Agroforestry (ICRAF), and UNESCO propose partnership arrangements to address forest fires support of other a three-tiered approach: (i) a general overview and haze. The following three assistance donors and of the fire situation in the Indonesian programs were catalyzed by ADB/ASEAN. establishing archipelago; (ii) a more detailed assessment in partnership Kalimantan and Sumatra (to assess how their WMO Program to Address Regional arrangements to fire characteristics are representative of Transboundary Smoke (PARTS) address forest Indonesia as a whole); and (iii) a detailed PARTS was formulated by WMO in 1995 fires and haze in assessment of causes and effects at specific sites in response to a collective request from AMCs. the region (in Kalimantan and Sumatra). It consists of three components.
CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 71 (1) Upgrading of ASMC’s capability in the Indonesia and Malaysia. There are three All the three use of satellite imagery to detect fires and components covering fire prevention, PA RT S haze. This includes automated fire mitigation, and funding of PARTS. components detection, upgrading of hardware in • Improving the capability for using satellite include technical preparation for the coming generation technology for fire and haze detection and assistance and of satellites and sensors, expanding monitoring at ASMC, in association with training via ASMC’s capability in analyzing the relevant national-level institutions workshops, and chemical composition of smoke plumes, (component 1 of PARTS). twinning and developing satellite-based • A program directly contributing to ADB’s arrangements meteorological surveillance techniques RETA 5778, consisting of three such as exchange of selected AMC national meteorological subcomponents: visits that services. (i) support for an Applied Study on emphasize on-the- (2) Upgrading of the region’s capability in the Formulating a Regional Fire job training modeling of long-range transport of haze Suppression Training and Research and other pollutants. This will involve Program; installation of atmospheric transport (ii) support for an Applied Study on models at ASMC’s facility in Singapore, Strengthening NHAPs for AMCs, training of ASMC staff in the use of their with particular reference to models, and visits of ASMC staff to Indonesia; and NOAA facilities in the US. (iii) support for an Applied Study on (3) Designing and implementing a strategy for Formulating a Framework for a Fire regional monitoring of transboundary Suppression Mobilization and atmospheric pollution with assistance from Response Plan, with particular appropriate international experts. reference to Indonesia. All the three PARTS components include • Support for training in fire mitigation and technical assistance and training via workshops, prevention, which will build on the and twinning arrangements such as exchange Applied Study on Formulating a Regional visits that emphasize on-the-job training. Fire Suppression Training and Research The Australian Government will directly Program. finance PARTS component 1 as one of three of its initiatives for assisting ASEAN in US Assistance under SEA-EI addressing the impacts of fire and haze in the SEA-EI is a regional assistance program region. package consisting of US contributions through The US Government will finance PARTS different agencies for 10 projects under three components 2 and 3 as two separate subprojects groups: forest management, fire prevention, and under the Southeast Asian Environment firefighting; and climate prediction and Initiative (SEA-EI). environmental monitoring. The 10 projects are as follows: Australian Assistance • causes and impacts of forest fires in Australian assistance is provided through a Southeast Asia—technical assistance to project to combat fires and haze in Southeast CIFOR/ICRAF; Asia. This project, running for two years, covers • reduced impact logging—extension of the
72 THE PREMISE technology including training; BAPPENAS development planning assistance; • alternatives to slash-and-burn agriculture; WHO project on air quality monitoring and • subregional fire disaster response mitigation of health implications of forest fire coordination; and haze; burned area estimation using SPOT • coal and peat fire suppression. This has quick-look mosaics and mapping the extent of two components: (i) building capacity to Indonesian fires by CRISP. There are two EU extinguish coal seam fires in Indonesia, projects to address tropical deforestation and and (ii) assessing peat fires in eastern fires: (i) Fire in Global Resources and Malaysia. Assistance is provided through Environmental Monitoring, and (ii) Tropical the Indonesian Ministry of Mines and Ecosystem and Environmental Observation by Energy and Malaysian Fire and Rescue Satellites. Department; • climate impact forecasting: establish Proposals and Pipeline Projects climate models that will generate and Forest Fire Hazard Mapping distribute regional climate forecasts up to UNEP has proposed a project for an Early one year in advance; Warning System and Forest Fire Hazard • atmospheric modeling capacity: to help Mapping in Indonesia. UNEP has develop and enhance the region’s The proposed project output will include proposed a atmosphere modeling capability in ASMC satellite data to demonstrate technical project for an (component 2 of PARTS); possibilities, creation of a GIS database, forest Early Warning • smoke and haze monitoring: assistance to fire hazard maps, an early warning system, System and enhance the region’s physical monitoring forest fire models, and improved capacity in Forest Fire capacity (component 3 of PARTS); fire hazard mapping. The project will address Hazard Mapping • disaster reduction applications of climate the need for a proper spatial database at 1:50,000 in Indonesia forecasting: USAID’s Office of Foreign scale with thematic layers (e.g., elevation, Disaster Assistance will work with ADPC hydrology, geology, vegetation, soil, and land in Bangkok; and use). • health assessment: providing support to the Malaysian Centre for Disease Control Joint ASEAN Program in Fire and Haze (CDC) to devise health directions to Management minimize the impact of haze on affected This proposal is for the development of an populations. ASEAN-wide fire and smoke management The US Government has approved more strategy and operational system, by sharing than $5.28 million for this initiative. responsibilities and resources, focusing on: prediction of fire hazard and fire effects on Others ecosystems and atmosphere; detection, There are other initiatives, some of which monitoring, and evaluating fires; and sharing are self-funded and others fully or partly financed fire suppression technologies and resources (this by donors from resources of approved projects. program is expected to evolve during the These include: Canadian International Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan Development Agency (CIDA)/ASEAN fire [ORHAP] and would eventually represent its danger rating system for Indonesia; CIDA- ASEAN core program).
CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 73 Project Firefight in objectives, activities, inputs, and outputs, A World Conservation Union and WWF even though their geographical locations differ. Project, Firefight, proposes to establish a global A lesson to be learned from the degree of overlap network for forest fire prevention and control. is that cooperation, openness, and The project aims to raise public awareness about dissemination of results among projects and the the dangers of fires; improve forest fire relevant government departments is of management worldwide; and eliminate adverse paramount importance. environmental, social, and economic impacts A trend in the new generation fire projects of forest fires (IUCN/WWF 1998). is the emphasis given to sophisticated space- borne remote sensing technology of Technology Assessment and Applications monitoring and prediction, compared to The application of modern technology to the practical presuppression and suppression. different aspects of fire management such as There are also no projects that seriously address weather monitoring, wide-area surveillance, and post-fire rehabilitation. Because of the speedy communication is being discussed as a difference in technological competencies and potential project of vital importance to the conditions between these two levels, a barrier region and some of the major donors appear to to the transfer of technology, even the transfer A trend in the be interested. of information, is created. The projects new generation analyzed were implemented by different fire projects is Trends in Fire and Haze Projects national agencies, further creating problems the emphasis After studying in detail the objectives and of coordination and counterpart support given to activities of 35 projects, training courses, and (Dennis 1998). sophisticated missions, Dennis (1998) observes that fire In Indonesia, the bulk of the fire projects space-borne projects arise out of extreme fire outbreaks. The arising from the 1997 disaster deals with remote sensing worse the problem, the more likely attention assessment of damage and development of technology of will be attracted, with the two experiencing a capacities to undertake necessary activities to monitoring and direct functional relationship. Interest in fire prevent, monitor, and control fires. However, prediction, has only been short-lived after a spurt of activities no direct provision was made for facing the compared to following a major blaze. reemergence of such devastating fires, so soon, practical Earlier projects addressed issues of fire in 1998. There was, therefore, no adequate presuppression prevention and control. After the 1994 fires, source of funding to fight the 1998 fires in East and suppression which created extreme transboundary pollution, Kalimantan other than that provided by the the projects also started focusing on the causes. Indonesian Government. Of the 35 projects, missions, and training Neighboring Sarawak, on the other hand, courses, six are mainly directed at understanding has no exclusive or major forest fire projects the problem, 19 at doing something practical, and the current projects emphasize sustainable and 10 address both issues. Most current model forest management. Yet, Sarawak’s projects are of short-term scope, investigating forests have been comparatively safe from fire. the underlying causes. Some address specific It has to be said, however, that the 1998 fires aspects, such as capacity building and in East Kalimantan would have overtaxed any biodiversity conservation. In the case of several fire suppression arrangements, in the absence recent projects, there are overlaps or similarities of an adequately planned integrated approach.
74 THE PREMISE Notes 20 The two previous “action plans” referred 18 A comprehensive account of past, present, to are: (i) the Long-Term Integrated Forest and proposed fire projects in Indonesia Fire Management Strategy for Indonesia, during 1982-1998, with details such as which was one of the outputs of the objectives, component activities, target Bandung (Indonesia) Conference of 1992; groups, geographical coverage, time and (ii) the ASEAN Cooperation Plan on horizon, counterpart agency, budget level, Transboundary Pollution, which was and where relevant, achievements and adopted at the ASEAN Meeting on the impacts, can be found on the Southeast Asia Management of Transboundary Pollution web site of the Global Fire Monitoring convened in Kuala Lumpur in June 1995. Center (http://www.uni-freiburg.de/ 21 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Forest Fire fireglobe) and in a recent publication of Prevention and Drought Management. CIFOR-ICRAF-UNESCO-EU, A Review of 22 The US NOAA satellite is a meteorological Fire Projects in Indonesia (1982-1998) by satellite and its access is free to member Rona Dennis (1998). The book covers the countries of WMO. history of fires, forest fire activities of donor 23 This capability enables the instrument to countries, ongoing and proposed fire projects, detect clouds illuminated by moonlight; and projects in the aftermath of the 1997 fires, lights from cities, towns, industrial sites, Indonesia’s response to the fires and smoke gas flares, and ephemeral events such as haze, and international relief assistance. fires and lightning-illuminated clouds. 19 AMMH is in fact a meeting of the ASEAN 24 The GMS satellite is in stationary orbit, at Ministers of Environment focusing on a constant location 36,000 km above the haze. at-risk areas of the ASEAN region.
CHAPTER 3: RESPONSES TO FIRES AND HAZE IN THE REGION 75
The Program
“A first rate theory predicts; a second rate theory forbids; and a third rate theory
explains after the event”—Aleksander Isaakovich Kitaigordskii
“Present day science and technology offer an opportunity to beautify, in the full
sense of the word, life on earth, to create conditions for the all-round
development of every individual. But it is this very creation of the human mind
and human hands that threatens the very existence of the human race! What
a crying contradiction! We want science to cease to be the servant of two
masters—life and death. We want it to serve life only”—Mikhail Gorbachev CHAPTER 4 The Asian Development Bank’s Technical Assistance
[This chapter gives a brief account of ADB’s two-pronged approach to address transboundary atmospheric pollution in the region through an advisory technical assistance grant to Indonesia and a regional technical assistance grant to ASEAN. It explains the catalytic role, objectives, and activities of the regional technical assistance, as well as the results achieved and the lessons learned.]
Role and Concerns of ADB the preparation and execution of development ADB has played a prominent role in promoting projects and programs, and also for advisory the development of the Asian and Pacific region. purposes. It gives priority to regional, ADB’s concerns, and therefore its operations, subregional, and national projects and programs cover a wide spectrum of development that contribute to the harmonious development activities. Its overarching objective is poverty of the region as a whole and that promote reduction, while its medium-term strategic regional cooperation. objectives are to foster economic growth, improve the status of women and disadvantaged Environmental Concerns Training of groups, support human resource development, In 1996, ADB in collaboration with Harvard Indonesian firefighters in the use help to sustainably manage natural resources, University completed a research study on of spray chemicals, and protect the environment. environmental indicators. Three sets of indexes 1997. Apart from loans and equity investments, for monitoring environmental changes were Photo: Anonymous ADB provides technical assistance grants for developed: cost of remediation, environmental elasticity, and environmental diamond. The cost of remediation reflects the cost of moving the environment from its present state to a more desirable level in the future. This index has strong policy implications for national governments and multilateral financing institutions (MFIs) since it reveals the amount of wealth that a society has to forego to restore the environment to a more livable level. The index relates environment to the cost of repairing damage done to it in dollar terms. Environmental elasticity is a dynamic ratio that measures the percentage change of an aggregate measure of environmental quality for every 1 percent increase of a country’s per capita
78 THE PROGRAM gross domestic product (GDP). The environmental issues are fully reflected in environmental changes are generally defined by macroeconomic and sectoral policies. The several selected environmental indicators and environment should be regarded as a dimension are aggregated through a weighting scheme. that cuts across sectors, policies, and The environmental diamond measures and institutions. The energies of the private sector presents the state of the environment graphically, and civil society must also be better harnessed in terms of overall quality of air, water, land, for environmental management. and ecosystem. This indicator reveals a general Unfortunately, Asia’s environment is likely picture without concealing the multiple to get much worse before it gets better. Most dimensions of the environment. economies are still a long way from the point The three indexes can be used by MFIs and where rising incomes will create the demands governments in determining the state of the for better environmental standards and induce environment, the rate of environmental a shift in economic structure toward less degradation compared to economic growth, polluting economic activities. However, it and the costs of improving the environment. would be wrong to conclude that economic In terms of environmental investments, MFIs growth per se is the cause of Asia’s ADB plays a may give added emphasis to countries with environmental woes. The culprits are failed leading role in negative environmental trends. The green side policies and institutions, and reckless neglect. the region of environmental degradation (land and How to improve policies and establish efficient supporting and ecosystem) should receive greater attention and and effective institutions are expected to be catalyzing action investments. Systematic and standardized data among the major challenges of the 21st century to prevent and gathering, however, should be a priority for (ADB 1998b). mitigate the ADB’s developing member countries. It is in this context that atmospheric impact of forest transboundary pollution caused by forest fires fires and Environmental Challenges assumes significance. associated Environment was also one of the major transboundary themes of ADB’s study on Emerging Asia: Policy Emphasis on Forestry atmospheric Challenges and Changes.25 The study shows that ADB plays a leading role in the region pollution Asia’s environment has become so polluted and supporting and catalyzing action to prevent and degraded that it poses a threat not just to the mitigate the impact of forest fires and associated quality of life of its people but also to economic transboundary atmospheric pollution. growth. The costs of this environmental neglect ADB’s policy emphasis on forestry (and land are massive. use) is to promote sustained management of Many argue that Asia cannot spare the resources, focusing particularly on (i) resources needed to clean up its environment. conservation of ecosystems, species, and But the solution to Asia’s environmental biodiversity; (ii) rehabilitation of degraded problems does not lie in a mammoth areas; and (iii) institutional strengthening (ADB environmental bureaucracy charged with the 1995). The issue of forest fires and haze in the responsibility of investing billions of dollars in ASEAN region is a challenging one. ADB’s environmental infrastructure. Rather, what is contributions can support the capacity of needed is a redeployment of existing resources regional and national institutions to effectively within the public sector to ensure that face future fires on a sustainable basis without
CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 79 allowing them to become environmental pollution. The document itself is, therefore, a catastrophes. reflection of ASEAN’s determination to actively do something about the problem rather than Technical Assistance to Address Forest simply describing a broad-brush approach to Fires and Haze it. However, the RHAP was formulated and Several ADB missions visited Indonesia in endorsed within such a short space of time that late 1997 to take stock of the fires and haze it was not possible for the AMMH or HTTF and consider possible responses. Following to work out implementation details prior to its consultations with national, regional, and endorsement by the nine AMCs.26 What the international agencies and bilateral donors, as ministers had in mind when they endorsed the well as with the ASEAN Secretariat, a balanced RHAP was to initiate a process. The document approach was formulated to address the causes had also made it clear that ADB’s assistance of the economic and environmental damage would be sought to implement the plan. resulting from these fires, and to prevent their recurrence. ASOEN’s HTTF in its November Two-Pronged Approach 1997 meeting reviewed a position paper for ADB adopted a two-pronged approach to regional technical assistance. HTTF, while address the causes and economic and conveying its agreement in principle, suggested environmental damage from the fires and to that ADB assistance be directed toward putting prevent their recurrence, supporting regional the RHAP into operation and supporting various initiatives as well as national ones. The result economic and scientific studies to enhance was a set of twin projects: a RETA Project27 understanding of the causes and consequences for strengthening the capacity of ASEAN to of forest fires and associated haze formation prevent and mitigate transboundary and dispersion. atmospheric pollution, and an ADTA28 for Accordingly, a mission to Indonesia, planning for fire prevention and drought Malaysia, and Singapore in December 1997 met management in Indonesia, approved in early with senior officials of the ministries and 1998. Both projects have been completed. departments of environment in the respective countries, the Malaysian Institute of Forest Advisory Technical Management in Kuala Lumpur, and ASMC in Assistance A balanced Singapore, and also participated in the HTTF ADB approved on 20 March 1998 an ADTA approach was meeting in Singapore. The mission discussed grant for $1 million to the Indonesian formulated to various initiatives by the region to address the Government. The objectives were to assess the address the problem of fires and transboundary atmospheric damage and economic cost to Indonesia from causes of the pollution, as well as the key aspects of putting the 1997-1998 fires and haze, and to formulate economic and them into operation. an investment plan that would prepare the environmental The RHAP prepared by HTTF/ASOEN was country for future occurrences and recurrent damage resulting endorsed by the AMMH held in Singapore droughts. from these fires, from 22 to 23 December 1997 (See Appendix More specifically they are: and to prevent 2). (i) to determine the causes of the fires, and their recurrence The RHAP was signed during a period of the social, environmental, and economic intense fire, smoke, and transboundary impacts of fire and drought;
80 THE PROGRAM (ii) to assess the possible causes of the implement the RHAP, and improve The main uncontrolled fires in 1997 and the haze scientific understanding of large-scale fires objectives of the problem, and how these could have been and transboundary atmospheric pollution; RETA Project prevented; and were to (iii) to assess and evaluate policies and • strengthening the capacity of concerned strengthen and regulations relating to the use of fire institutions to implement and formalize for site preparation, and the efficacy of institutionalize the RHAP. cooperation methods used in preventing and These aims called for several actions with a among AMCs controlling fire outbreaks; view to achieving the following: affected by the (iv) to assess the need for new approaches • helping to identify actions to be taken by fires to fire prevention and control; and AMCs to put into place an institutional and haze (v) to make recommendations on the costs framework for addressing the region’s and benefits of investments in transboundary haze pollution problem on prevention, early warning systems, a long-term, sustainable basis; firefighting capability, and institutional • identifying the investments (if any) strengthening. required to support the institutional The ADTA was completed in April 1999. framework; Details of implementation, outcome, • catalyzing donor collaborative partnerships achievements, and proposals for follow-up are and activities that would directly provided in a three-volume final report complement the actions the AMCs planned (BAPPENAS 1999). to undertake in confronting the region’s transboundary haze pollution problem; Regional Technical • sharing knowledge and experience as well Assistance Project as efficient and economic use of regional ADB approved $1 million for the RETA Project firefighting equipment; on 24 February 1998 from the Japan Special • developing formalized cooperation Fund. The ASEAN Secretariat and associated arrangements among countries of the institutions including ASMC were to provide region and beyond to enhance the level of the counterpart support, including staff, office scientific understanding of the causes and space, and meteorological equipment (including consequences of transboundary the supercomputer at ASMC), and other atmospheric pollution; and facilities, estimated at an equivalent $200,000. • establishing a regional level framework for joint response mechanisms through Objective and Scope enhancement in the capacity of ASEAN The main objectives of the RETA Project were and associated institutions to effectively to strengthen and formalize cooperation among implement and monitor the RHAP. AMCs affected by the fires and haze via support In this regard, the RETA Project’s scope of for: work included: • short-term measures aimed at putting the (i) operationalizing the RHAP (including RHAP into operation; formulation of a mobilization and • medium-term measures that strengthen the response strategy for activating capacity of relevant institutions to firefighting resources);
CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 81 (ii) improving the ASEAN Secretariat’s agency for the RETA Project; and its Project The most information management and Management Unit (PMU) was housed within important task of dissemination relating to fires and haze; the ASEAN Secretariat Building in Jakarta. the RETA (iii) strengthening the capacity of ASMC (in Compared to other areas in which a regional Project was to Singapore) to allow it to serve as a framework has been used to strengthen intra- develop a regional hydrometeorological ASEAN ties (e.g., trade, transport and strong and information center, in collaboration intraregional tourism—all of which have legally comprehensive with national counterpart agencies; binding instruments concluded), regional time-bound plan (iv) developing appropriate mechanisms for cooperation to combat transboundary haze for prevention, international cooperation for fire pollution is at a relatively early stage. While a mitigation, and prevention and mitigation; soft-law legal framework for regional monitoring at (v) establishing fire detection and cooperation in this has existed since the mid- the national and monitoring systems at the regional level; 1980s, few concrete measures have been regional levels (vi) undertaking socioeconomic and identified and fewer still have been scientific studies with a regional focus implemented. that may include: Transboundary haze pollution is a complex (a) use and marketing of biomass and issue that requires coordinated concrete logging residues, measures by a relatively large number of parties (b) use of market-based incentives to if its negative impacts are to be diminished. promote adoption of new products More important, the action has to be taken and technologies, and before a haze problem develops, so that crises (c) transboundary atmospheric can be avoided or their intensity reduced. pollution; and Crisis management by definition involves (vii) disseminating the results of the studies short-term measures not focused on preventing referred to in v above, as well as or reducing the intensity of future disasters. information concerning implementation It is a costly and inefficient means of of the RHAP via regional workshops. addressing ASEAN’s transboundary haze The most important task of the RETA pollution problem over time. Short-term crisis Project was to “develop a strong and management initiatives were, therefore, comprehensive time-bound plan for prevention, deliberately excluded from the scope of the mitigation, and monitoring” (as well as RETA Project. institutional strengthening and identifying Its focus was instead on assisting ASEAN required investments) at the national and to develop an institutionalized approach to regional levels. averting or reducing the negative impacts of future transboundary haze. Relationship between the RETA Project and the RHAP Implementing the Project The RETA Project was intended to be part of a Meetings of the ASEAN Environment process that would lay a strong foundation to Ministers, ASOEN, HTTF, and subregional address the fire and haze problem in the ASEAN working groups monitored the progress of the region by putting into operation the RHAP. RETA Project and ensured timely action and The ASEAN Secretariat was the implementation coordination on bringing the RHAP to fruition.
82 THE PROGRAM Within ADB, a Steering Committee, chaired RHAP. This aim was achieved by by the Manager of the Environment Division, formulating the ORHAP and Detailed with representatives from the Office of Implementation Plans (DIPs); Environment and Social Development, Forestry (ii) create a better understanding of haze and Natural Resources Division West, Forestry formation, movement, and dispersion. and Natural Resources Division East, Programs This was achieved by initiating ASMC Department East 2, and Consulting Services studies on haze formation and Division was set up to oversee implementation, movements, in association with partner to monitor progress, and to liaise with ASEAN. international institutions; The ASEAN Secretariat itself liaised with (iii) strengthen the capacity of ASEAN and national governments and agencies, arranged national institutions to avoid or face fires and conducted regional workshops and and haze. A key instrument in this seminars, and provided necessary regard is the proposed ASEAN administrative support. PMU, meanwhile, took Agreement on Transboundary Haze, The RETA care of the day-to-day administration and which is supported by legal agreements Project was to be management of the RETA Project. that will specify various aspects of joint implemented A multidisciplinary team of international and fire management response systems; and over 12 months, regional consultants assisted the ASEAN harmonize fire detection and with the first Secretariat. monitoring systems, and other three-month An input of about 60 person-months, outcomes of the program for phase comprising 12 person-months of international strengthening ASEAN and national culminating by and 48 person-months of domestic consultants, institutions; and the end of May was involved. (iv) convene regional workshops, seminars, 1998 and As envisaged in the original project and training programs to disseminate resulting in the document, the RETA Project was to be the results of scientific studies relating development of implemented over 12 months, with the first to transboundary haze pollution, and an operational three-month phase culminating by the end of discuss their relationship to the overall plan May 1998 and resulting in the development of RHAP implementation process. an operational plan. The second phase was to focus on building The Activities a clear understanding of the smoke and haze The following activities were undertaken to pollution and to strengthen institutions to fulfil the major goals: address the issues involved. (i) development of a framework for putting the RHAP into action; The Process (ii) strengthening of national and The cornerstone on which the RETA Project subregional plans to address fire and was built and completed was the RHAP. The haze issues; specific terms of reference within which the (iii) review of regional policies, and Project functioned were to: development of strategies and (i) assist ASEAN in formulating a time- guidelines to promote (a) land-use bound operational plan that AMCs could practices that curb deployment of fire, use to implement and monitor the and (b) market-based instruments that
CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 83 discourage practices that result in fires deserving in-depth analysis. First, ASEAN’s and emissions; collective fire management capacity needed to (iv) review of experiences within and beyond be strengthened. Second, in order to prevent the region concerning fire prevention, recurrence of similar fires with the return of control, and mitigation strategies; each ENSO, policies that encouraged adoption (v) an inventory of existing fire of mechanical land-clearing techniques would management capacity in the affected need to be put in place. AMCs to be made available for regional fire suppression efforts; Mobilization of Donor Support (vi) formulation of an operating procedure In tandem with the Inception Workshop of for mobilization of fire suppression the Project, early in 1998, an open forum for resources in each affected country, as funding agencies’ participation in assistance for well as with cooperating agencies the fire and haze problem was held. This led to outside the region; development of Fire a number of commitments complementing the Suppression Mobilization Plans Project activities, with the donors taking over (FSMPs) and SRFAs. some of the activities within the RETA Project’s (vii) development of an improved scope. The resources so released were used to information management and finance other important activities that had been The prime dissemination system in the ASEAN underfunded. output of the Secretariat relating to fires and haze; The RETA Project thus promoted RETA Project (viii) strengthening of the capacity of ASMC collaborative programs with various donors, was an to serve as a regional hydro- including the Australian Agency for operationalized meteorological information center, in International Development (AusAID), CIDA, version of the collaboration with national the Governments of New Zealand, Norway, RHAP meteorological agencies; and the United States (under its SEA-EI), (ORHAP) which (ix) development of regional training and and UNEP. Several donors are also working was approved for research programs via exchange visits, with CSU on forest fires and haze pollution implementation secondments, and joint training management. by the ASOEN/ exercises in fire management, remote HTTF in sensing of fires and haze, application Main Outcome of the RETA Project July 1999 of GIS, and other priority subjects; The prime output of the RETA Project was (x) undertaking of socioeconomic and an operationalized version of the RHAP scientific studies that enhance (ORHAP) which was approved for understanding of forest fires and haze; implementation by the ASOEN/HTTF in July (xi) convening of regional meetings, 1999. The ORHAP includes priority actions seminars, and workshops; and for prevention, mitigation, and monitoring of (xiii)establishment of a Coordination and fires and haze, and is composed of one regional, Support Unit (CSU). two subregional, and nine national DIPs. The ORHAP requires execution of a relatively large Studies Carried out by the Project number of interdependent initiatives that When the ASEAN Environment Ministers complement one another and fit together into endorsed the RHAP, two themes stood out as an overall framework.
84 THE PROGRAM The RETA Project report contains definitions ASEAN to address the fire-and-haze issue of program components; generic guidelines for directly, with actions that increasing the region’s The ORHAP implementing the ORHAP; a detailed ORHAP capacity to manage future incidents. It has also requires providing descriptive summary of actions; sparked the beginning of ASEAN’s execution of a NHAPs and two SRFAs; an annual operational reorientation from a passive agency that relatively large plan and a six-year rolling plan for implementing responds to challenges in an ex post manner, to number of the ORHAP; procedure for formulating rolling a more forward-looking institution that interdependent six-year programs; procedures for implementing anticipates challenges and responds to them ex initiatives that specific portions of ORHAP and criteria for ante. complement one choosing from the alternatives; Fire Suppression The regional level coordination, sup- another and fit Mobilization Plans (FSMPs) and procedures for port, and monitoring of the ORHAP has together into an formulating and implementing them; details of been institutionalized through establishment of overall existing and required regional legal frameworks CSU, which fully took over the coordination framework at the ASEAN level; particulars about a fire- and support functions with effect from 1 October and-haze information clearinghouse; and 1999. A web site (http://www.haze.online.or.id) monitoring framework and establishment of a was also set up for online information exchange CSU at the ASEAN Secretariat for undertaking and updates. CSU acts as a clearinghouse for the continued refining and implementation of potential collaborative programs for bilateral and the ORHAP. multilateral assistance aimed at prevention and The ORHAP has had a beneficial impact mitigation of forest fires and associated on ASEAN in two respects. First, it has helped transboundary haze pollution.
BOX 11 Achievements of ADB’s Regional Technical Assistance Project
A. Through direct intervention • Catalyzed development of B. Through collaboration with other • Compiled baseline information through regional and national facilities donors surveys, studies, and assessments. for fire and haze monitoring. • Formulated an operating procedure • Conducted inventory of the region’s • Developed and strengthened the for activating forest firefighting firefighting resources and fire system of information resources in the ASEAN region, with suppression capabilities. management at the ASEAN level particular reference to Indonesia. • Established and strengthened and supported establishment of a • Designed a model FSMP and subregional firefighting regional information center and initiated preparation of FSMPs for arrangements. clearinghouse including setting specific areas. • Carried out studies on ASEAN’s up of a haze web site. • Conducted studies on haze existing fire and haze monitoring • Helped put in place an transport and climate models and system with a view to upgrading Operationalized Regional Haze harmonization of pollution them. Action Plan, including a system indexes. • Undertook policy studies on the use of of Detailed Implementation • Catalyzed and collaborated in studies market-based instruments for Plans at the regional, on health impacts of haze pollution. promoting adoption of mechanical subregional, and national levels. • Promoted development of facilities zero-burn land-clearing methods and • Assisted in organizing for training and research relating marketing of products that use institutional mechanisms, to forest fire and haze biomass residues as productive inputs. particularly for regional management. • Reviewed national and international coordination, through • Mobilized donor support for fire laws, policies, and institutional establishment of CSU. and haze projects (e.g., PARTS), arrangements relating to fire and • Promoted dialogue among forged collaborative partnerships haze issues and developed a legal ASEAN members and partners as with other international framework and facility for a long-term system for effective institutions, and facilitated donor crossborder cooperation. regional cooperation. coordination.
CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 85 Throughout the RETA Project, PMU has carried out by the team have been substantial provided support in the formulation of the AMCs’ and will be useful during the implementation of NHAPs. The numbers of studies and analyses the ORHAP and also as reference materials.
86 THE PROGRAM Notes originally endorsed by only nine AMCs. 25 Emerging Asia: Challenges and Changes, 27 RETA 5778: Strengthening the Capacity of Asian Development Bank, 1997. the ASEAN to Prevent and Mitigate 26 Cambodia joined ASEAN on 30 April 1999, Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution. bringing total membership of the grouping 28 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Fire to 10 countries. The RHAP was thus Prevention and Drought Management.
CHAPTER 4: ASIAN DEVELOPMENT BANK’S TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE 87 CHAPTER 5 Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan
[This chapter explains the concepts behind the ORHAP and how it is closely linked to, and supportive of, actions at subregional, national, and local levels. Further, the three main program components— protection, mitigation, and monitoring—and the institutional arrangements for the program are discussed in detail with reference to activities falling under each.]
The Process and consideration. And an important component Considerations of sustainable management is protection from Forests form the main body of the terrestrial injurious factors, including fires. ecological system. As an inseparable component of the total land use system, forestry has Managing Forest Fires significant interrelationships with agricultural, The importance of fire management is pastoral, and food-producing systems. The increasing as forests, woodlands, and grasslands interrelated and multiple roles of forests, face greater demands for commodities and covering the wide spectrum of environmental amenities. Recent research has extended our conservation and use of forest resources, are knowledge of fire behavior, fire ecology, fire suppression, and other aspects of fire science Training of vital for human welfare and sustainable Indonesian socioeconomic development. that are being incorporated into ecosystem firefighters, 1997 In planning for forest resource management management. Photo: Anonymous and development, sustainability is a crucial Fire management can take several forms, from no active management to fire exclusion, i.e., total suppression. Fire exclusion may be appropriate for plantations or plant communities of thin-barked trees; while no active fire management may be appropriate for wilderness and national park areas where fire can be allowed to play out its role as a natural disturbance agent; or fire management can take an integrated form. The integrated fire management option embraces all possible treatments, managing ecosystems to enhance the benefits of fire while reducing its detrimental effects (Landsberg 1997, Goldammer 1997a). Since fire can either be the cause or the result of changes in the landscape, fire management
88 THE PROGRAM should be conceived on a landscape scale, of government, as well as horizontally among incorporating forests and their immediate various land management agencies and private surroundings. Fire management was, and owners. Fire management policy objectives will continues to be, largely a reactive process in not be effectively achieved if any of the pieces of most developing countries with little data the framework are missing or do not work well handling capacity (Landsberg 1997). This together. situation needs to be improved. Approaches toward fire management will Predictability of Future Fires vary for different forests and landscapes, dictated Economic, social, environmental, and by their characteristics. An essential tool is a climatic factors have historically been fire management plan. This will form part of, responsible for causing forest and land fires. or be integrated with, the forest management There is no reason to expect that these factors plan, aiming for sustainability and efficiency. will become any less responsible for fires in the Preparation of fire management plans should be future. Although forest and land fires are caused based on statistical and nonstatistical information, by human actions, experience shows that these including inventory of past forest fires, weather, fires can be primed or aggravated by a It is possible that topography, and fuel type and size, supported by prolonged drought (or during ENSOs). The fires and the latest land use and forest cover maps. A threat of a prolonged drought as well as of forest widespread haze classification system and a clear understanding and land fires can thus be anticipated by regular will occur again, of forest fires and their causes are important to monitoring of ENSOs. as the present establish alternative approaches to fire prevention In areas of recurrent fire and haze, an land-use plans in as well as for forest rehabilitation. In an effective RHAP is needed to prevent them the region call for integrated approach to fire management, it is through better management and enforcement. continued large- necessary to think comprehensively and on a long- The factors contributing to the starting of fires, scale land term basis, taking into consideration available particularly weather and related disturbances conversion technology and skills. (e.g., ENSOs), are predictable. Based on data between 1990 and 1997 on the Southern Fire Management Planning Oscillation Index and sea surface temperature, Fire management integrates fire-related there will be more El Niños in 2000-2003, 2007- biological, ecological, physical, and technological 2010, 2013-2015, and 2020-2022; or at least information into forest and land management, two in any 10-year period (MOE-UNDP 1998). to meet desired objectives. Interrelated fire Thus, it is possible that fires and widespread management activities include fuel management, haze will occur again, as the present land use fire prevention and control, fire suppression, plans in the region call for continued large-scale beneficial uses of fire, and the associated planning, land conversion. There is a pressing need for training, education, and research. Fire the region to maintain greater vigilance and to management, thus, encompasses all measures develop better fire management capabilities, well taken to maintain fire regimes within desired in advance. bounds, and is an integrated framework of policies, institutional arrangements, procedures, Holistic View of Fire technology, and resources. This framework An event being predictable does not usually runs vertically through two or more layers necessarily make planning easy, as it is likely to
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 89 be influenced by several other unforeseen first version (RHAP) is the one adopted by the The beneficial situations. A holistic view of fire and an nine ASEAN Ministers of Environment when role of fire understanding of its negative and positive they met in December 1997. This is the formal should be an factors are necessary for intelligent “official” version, as endorsed by AMMH. The integrated management of resources. Integrated operationalized version drafted by the RETA element of the management of fire recognizes its traditional Project is referred to as the ORHAP. overall approach uses and does not exclusively concentrate on to sustainable fire exclusion (prevention, suppression). The Principles and Parameters vegetation beneficial role of fire should be an integrated Any management policy or system should resource element of the overall approach to sustainable be tailored to certain principles, in order to management and vegetation resource management and reflect conditions, needs, and resources. This protection protection. Also, in order to address the main is particularly true in the case of managing fires. source of land-use fires, as well as of unwanted wildfires, local people and communities have Some General Principles to be integrated into the overall systems of Some important parameters are: fire management. (i) know what fire regimes you want: determine what fire regimes are RHAP as a Strategic Guideline possible under the prevailing climate, The RHAP document as endorsed by AMMH ecological conditions, and land use; of in December 1997 could correctly be thought these, decide which are most desirable of as a set of strategic guidelines that briefly and practicable; describes the objectives, process, and broad steps (ii) manage fires to meet specific objectives: to be adopted in this regard. It thus forms the these may include sustainable resource basis for developing an Operationalized management, maintenance of ecological Regional Haze Action Plan. processes or key species, biodiversity conservation, protection of human or Need for Operationalization of RHAP natural values, or avoidance of When the RHAP was drafted in 1997, the atmospheric or other offsite impacts; regional fire and haze disaster was at its peak, (iii) design fire management policies within so crisis management was the order of the day. the context of other land use trends: as It was, therefore, not possible to incorporate a far as possible, address related or great amount of detail concerning how the underlying factors that increase fire risk; RHAP was to be implemented. In fact, the maintain coordination and cooperation RHAP document itself fulfilled a dual function: with related sectors; it provided a mandate for HTTF to take (iv) develop a fire management policy emergency action to address the fire and haze systematically within a comprehensive disaster; and it provided a vehicle that ADB framework: ad hoc efforts may be could use to quickly mobilize assistance for the needed to address acute fire RHAP’s later implementation via regional and management deficiencies, but only a advisory technical assistance. comprehensive framework of law, The process of operationalizing the RHAP institutions, and resources will be has given rise to two versions of the plan. The effective in the long term;
90 THE PROGRAM (v) involve partners: communities, NGOs, Land conversion can be carried out in a wide the private sector, and neighboring variety of ways, some of which maximize short- country governments should be term gains at the expense of long-term benefits participants in fire policy formulation to the national, regional, or global community. and fire management. Successful policy The large-scale land conversion fires that cause formulation depends on asking the right haze in the ASEAN region are viewed as being questions of the right people; predictable, policy-driven outcomes of the (vi) change attitudes: effective fire national economic decision-making process. management requires changing Therefore, these fires will remain a problem in attitudes of key players at the the region until the land conversion process has community level, in the private sector, been completed in all AMCs. and in the government; Transboundary pollution is thus seen as a (vii) critically evaluate procedures and problem that cannot be “fixed,” but one that technology: imported technology and must be managed. The ORHAP must focus procedures may not meet needs or may on managing the threat of transboundary haze be impractical within resource pollution, which will remain a given parameter constraints; and during the entire period that the land conversion Transboundary (viii)assign responsibility clearly (e.g., to the process in the region is underway. It will call pollution is thus appropriate level of government or for a relatively large number of concrete steps seen as a problem community) (Schweithelm 1998b). in haze-producing AMCs, supporting and that cannot be complementing the measures to be carried out “fixed,” but one Parameters at the regional and subregional levels. that must be Three parameters have been identified in (ii) Haze pollution itself results from behavior managed operationalizing the RHAP. heavily reinforced by profit considerations. (i) The region’s transboundary pollution Open burning as a waste disposal technique problem is ultimately driven by policy at is cheap and, therefore, profitable to land users the national level. and operators. Land conversion typically Since land conversion in the ASEAN region involves the felling of trees and clearing of brush. over the past two decades has been driven by This generally results in a large amount of economic development policies at the national biomass residue, which in most cases is level, there is a direct causal relationship regarded as waste matter to be disposed via the between such policy, land conversion fires, and least-costly and most rapid means—fire. The transboundary haze pollution. This defines an longer it takes to dispose of the waste biomass, important parameter and constraint within the more profits are reduced. which the ORHAP must pursue its objective These considerations have historically made of reducing (ideally, to zero) the number, scale, open burning the technique of choice for frequency, duration, and negative impacts of disposing of waste biomass for small-scale and transboundary haze pollution in the ASEAN large-scale land conversion operations. In both region. cases, the effect is magnified by any direct or Since this represents an important constraint, indirect subsidies to land conversion. it is also an important factor in shaping the In the absence of policies that alter the framework of the ORHAP. profitability of open burning, either by reducing
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 91 subsidies that encourage it or penalizing this The limitation to the right of any country Avoiding wastage behavior directly, open burning by default will endorsing the RHAP/ORHAP to arrange its of resources is the remain the waste residue disposal technique of own natural resource management policy in any key to the choice. Modification of this behavior in the way it chooses is that: “it should not allow the efficiency of the short or medium term is a difficult, costly, and haze pollution to emanate from land-conversion ORHAP uphill task. The ORHAP must, therefore, fires within its territorial boundaries; and in primarily focus on managing the effects of this the event it happens should not allow haze behavior, and only secondarily on modifying pollution to violate the airspace of another it, through policies. country—thereby causing adverse (iii) Weather factors increase the tendency of environmental impact on its own citizenry and the above two parameters to produce those of the neighboring countries.” transboundary haze pollution. First, this will require that haze producing As has already been described, the AMCs undertake concrete measures to prevent, extraordinarily dry conditions brought about mitigate, and monitor large-scale fires. A by ENSO, among other factors, periodically number of related measures must also be increase the risk of transboundary haze implemented at subregional and regional levels. pollution. This makes the number of measures (iii) In ORHAP, measures that remove or required for fire and haze prevention, address “binding constraints” on mitigation, and monitoring relatively large, preventing or mitigating transboundary calling for a considerable amount of investment. haze pollution will be given highest priority. Measures that address less binding Strategic Considerations constraints will be assigned lower priority. Avoiding wastage of resources is the key to the The degree to which a measure proposed in efficiency of the ORHAP. The mix of measures the ORHAP will be effective depends on and their implementation must therefore be as whether or not it would help to remove a cause cost-effective as possible. Based on the foregoing or a binding constraint, thus reducing the risk considerations, certain strategic positions have of occurrence of fire and haze. For example, if been identified to ensure that the ORHAP all measures under the ORHAP had so far aimed effectively responds to the reality of the situation: at improving the region’s capability to detect (i) The primary goal of the ORHAP is to large-scale fires, its fire detection capability prevent the recurrence of transboundary would be excellent. haze and this calls for a focus on fire But the region’s capacity to manage or management. suppress those fires once detected would be Preventing transboundary haze requires that minimal. Taking yet another step to improve the density and quantity of haze in the the region’s capability to detect large-scale fires immediate atmosphere at any one time be would have zero impact on improving capacity reduced below levels that cause haze pollution to prevent or reduce transboundary haze to cross international boundaries. pollution. This is because under such (ii) Endorsement of the RHAP/ORHAP by circumstances the “binding constraint” on an AMC implies limitations on the achieving this goal would be the lack of fire manner in which it carries out land management capacity, not lack of fire detection conversion. capability.
92 THE PROGRAM The ORHAP so far has led, in relative terms, The relative scarcity of finances is likely to to overinvestment in monitoring and severe cause this principle to be upheld in all cases underinvestment in fire management and where measures are completely financed by the suppression. If this disparity is allowed to widen, countries themselves. Special care must be taken the results will be disastrous. This is clearly a also in the case of financing by donors. suboptimal outcome that can be avoided by adhering to the above strategic principle. Structuring of Programs (iv) The purpose of the ORHAP-related For evaluation of impacts/effectiveness, a measures at the regional and subregional consistent program structure is needed in which levels is to catalyze and complement— different subprograms, program elements, and rather than to substitute for—the measures projects or activities can be incorporated. carried out at the national level. The concept is that the programs and activities For an ORHAP-related measure to be are hierarchically linked through a common undertaken at the regional or subregional level, denominator. In a program structure, the area one of the two criteria must be met. The first of concern is divided into several programs; each of these—the economies of scale—should be of the programs into subprograms; each of the such that the activity is more efficiently subprograms into program elements; and each The ORHAP so undertaken at the regional or subregional level of the program elements into projects. (If needed, far has led, in than at the national level. For example, the further subdivisions can be introduced along the relative terms, to division of labor between the regional and line of hierarchy. In this hierarchy, the program overinvestment subregional level in the training of fire tends to be long term and projects short term.) in monitoring management personnel or in the training of Once a project is completed, achieving its and severe trainers is determined by the nature of immediate objective, it normally is not repeated underinvestment economies of scale of the particular training. It or continued. It would have, in a short period, in fire is more cost-effective to provide the training of contributed to the long-term objective of the management and fire management personnel at the regional level program element, subprogram, and program, suppression than at the subregional level. However, the of which it is a part; and that is the common training-of-trainers in fire management training denominator running through the chain of is more cost-effective at the subregional level hierarchy. or below. Program structure is a form of scientific The second criterion is that the measure classification of planned activities for decision should catalyze similar measures at the national making, account keeping, prioritizing, and level. For example, the formulation of an FSMP scheduling. It helps coding of activities and for the haze-prone areas of Sumatra facilitated aggregation and computerized data by the SRFA-Sumatra is expected to lead to management; it facilitates storage and analysis similar plans in other haze-prone provinces of of trend data, and monitoring and evaluation Indonesia. of programs. A coded structure makes it easy (v) Wherever alternative measures for to compile related information. achieving the same objective exist, the The designing of program structure should measure that achieves the desired reduce overlaps, improve stability, and simplify objective at the least possible cost will be future planning, monitoring, and evaluation. implemented. The program structures can be developed based
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 93 on the nature of activities involved or objectives, vertical linkages (based on the common or a combination of both. The number of levels denominator that links them to achieve program in the hierarchy depends on the complexity, size, objectives), as well as parallel linkages due to and spread of the plan. overlapping of scope. When a plan covers a large spatial area, the ORHAP’s Program Components space is divided into units and subunits. Each The ORHAP has adopted the three-program of the subunits and units carries out the program structure proposed in the RHAP, of prevention, activities, and in aggregation, it adds to the mitigation, and monitoring. whole. There will be several activities under To effectively address the haze issue requires each of the program areas to be undertaken that several activities and actions are undertaken centrally, covering common areas of interest for under each of the three programs to address a reasons of control, guidance, efficiency, particular aspect of the problem. effectiveness, and economy. Here also, the Implementation of each of these actions needs linkages—vertical and horizontal—are evident. to be monitored closely if the transboundary For the ORHAP, the ASEAN region has been In order to keep haze problem is to be properly addressed. In subdivided into member countries, which each the cost of order to keep the cost of monitoring of each have their own systems of provinces, districts, monitoring of action to a minimum, a single agency can be etc. The NHAPs represent the country plan each of these made responsible for ensuring that each action (including subplans) on fire and haze. The individual actions is successfully carried out within the time frame countries are free to adopt their own program to a minimum, a specified. structure. The NHAPs are naturally linked to single agency can The framework of the ORHAP thus works the ORHAP. As in the case of programs, there be made on three levels, the most aggregated of which could also be parallel linkages due to overlapping responsible for is that of the ORHAP programs of prevention, of interest or other criteria. The two SRFAs ensuring that mitigation, and monitoring. The next level is (Borneo and Sumatra) within the umbrella of each action is that of the activities, each of which fall under the ORHAP are cases of parallel spatial linkages successfully one of the three ORHAP programs. The lowest at subregional level in respect of a program carried out within level is that of the actions, each of which activity, i.e., firefighting. the time frame supports a particular activity. Thus, the three ORHAP programs have specified Each of these three ORHAP programs is to been divided into 20 activity groups— be operationally defined, by listing the activities prevention with 10 activities, mitigation with that fall under each of them. Once the activities four activities, and monitoring with six that comprise each of the programs have been activities. (Initially these 20 activities were decided, the actions that fall under each of the further subdivided into about 50 specific activities are identified. Some of the activities actions. In the process of refining and revising (and the actions under them) are to be undertaken the ORHAP, the number of activities and at the regional level, some at the subregional actions can change.) Spatially, it consists of nine level, and others at the national level. NFAPs and two SRFAs, appropriately linked. At the ASEAN level, HTTF will implement Program Linkages activities, monitor progress, and also take action Within the framework of a plan, the program in shaping the region’s infrastructure for fire components and subcomponents must have protection and mitigation.
94 THE PROGRAM The Planning Horizon haze, in accordance with their own national Based on the length of the planning period, priorities and the nature and degree of threat Efficiency the plan can be classified as being immediate that each faces. It is necessary at every stage to demands that the term, short term, medium term, and long term. specify operational responsibility and related level of The immediate and short-term plans are means and specifications. The actions to be investment of operational in orientation and will have detailed implemented under the NHAPs are a matter each AMC be in scheduling and budgeting of activities and for each of the AMCs to decide. This allows direct proportion operations. The medium- and long-term plans for a high degree of specificity in the to the risk of are of a perspective nature, indicative of the identification of the actions to be undertaken causing or direction toward the goal to be achieved. The at national level, and the level of funding suffering the plans can be of fixed term, with provision for devoted. Efficiency demands that the level of impacts of fire revision at the end of each period or horizon, investment of each AMC be in direct proportion and haze each time taking advantage of the lessons learned to the risk of causing or suffering the impacts in the previous period. It can instead be “rolling” of fire and haze, this risk being a variable that in nature, such that it is updated annually or is likely to change over time. periodically with the horizon remaining unchanged, i.e., there will always be a plan Rationale for Subregional and Regional ready for a fixed period ahead. The ORHAP is Actions also designed as a rolling plan with a short- As already outlined in the section on term horizon, being updated annually—i.e., Strategic Considerations, some actions are such there will be a detailed implementation plan that sufficient economies of scale exist for them for year one plus a regular ORHAP for the five to be centralized at the regional level. Other years beyond (second to the sixth years)— actions are more efficiently undertaken at the effectively having a horizon of six years. subregional level. For example, modeling and Thus, the ORHAP is a document meant to forecasting of long-range weather changes such be continually refined and updated. Depending as ENSO requires extensive and sophisticated on an evaluation of activities conducted/completed computing resources. The resources during the previous periods, future activities can requirement allows it to be most efficiently be modified, new activities added, and redundant carried out at a regional level. ones deleted. These additional activities are On the other hand, sharing of fire expected to be of two types: those undertaken suppression resources such as personnel and directly by the AMC governments, and those for equipment is more efficiently carried out at which donor support will need to be catalyzed. the subregional level, since physically redeploying equipment and personnel over Hierarchy of Plans long distances is inefficient, impractical, and The planned activities will be carried out at time-consuming. regional, subregional, and national (including provincial, district, and village) levels. Program Description A detailed treatment of the three ORHAP National-Level Plans programs—prevention, mitigation, and The ORHAP specifies that all AMCs will monitoring—and the institutional arrangements formulate NHAPs for combating wildfires and and instruments required to support effective
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 95 implementation of the ORHAP, is outlined in as the foundation for operationalizing the following sections. the RHAP, and increase the degree of readiness to meet forest fire Prevention emergencies at the national level; ORHAP’s Prevention Program (viii)harmonizing and integrating the In the context of ASEAN-level involvement, the NHAPs at the ASEAN level to ensure ORHAP has specified 10 activities under its their collective consistency and prevention program: effectiveness in jointly responding to (i) forecasting climatological conditions regional forest fires and haze; that are likely to result in fire and haze; (ix) developing and implementing (ii) mapping of areas subject to heightened institutional arrangements for linking risk of forest fires, including how these national firefighting capabilities in any at-risk areas expand or shrink in combination within ASEAN (e.g., In the context of response to seasonal, annual, or multi- SRFAs, or other mechanisms for the ORHAP, the year changes in weather; coordinating multiple national maximum (iii) management and dissemination of firefighting capabilities); and control of information relating to the present or (x) formulating, ratifying, and transboundary likely future fires and haze, the present implementing an ASEAN-wide Forest haze pollution or likely geographical areas affected by Fire Readiness Protocol that formalizes and other related haze resulting from forest fires, and the linkages among national-level damage (both human health impacts (or likely firefighting capabilities by putting into environmental impacts) of existing or forecasted haze place a system that enables rapid and material) presence or movement; deployment. involves efforts (iv) reviewing the existing policy While these activities may not cover all the on two fronts framework at the national level with a aspects of “prevention,” some of them overlap view to determining how the set of in certain aspects of mitigation and monitoring, economic incentives that policy indicating the interrelated nature of the framework provides is likely to shape programs. the use of fire as a tool or weapon; (v) bringing about appropriate policy Categorization of Strategic Measures changes to ensure that the set of In the context of the ORHAP, the maximum economic incentives provided by the control of transboundary haze pollution and policy framework at the national level other related damage (environmental and is consistent with the policy as it material) involves efforts on two fronts: pertains to the use of open burning; • to prevent fires from outside (e.g., (vi) providing market-based and other agricultural areas) getting into and economic incentives for promoting the burning forests and other natural adoption of new products and vegetation, and technologies that use biomass and • to manage fires that are being set for land logging or land-clearing residues; clearing and refuse disposal so that the (vii) formulation, operationalization, and extent and density of burning are implementation of NHAPs that serve controlled.
96 THE PROGRAM Fires should be prevented as much as habitat protection; and prescribed burning to possible. Prevention is one of the most effective reduce combustible materials before the onset ways to tackle land and forest fires, while of the fire season are some of the relevant firefighting is more difficult and costly. activities in this regard. In the case of peatswamp Management of land conversion process should forests, hazard reduction should primarily take be addressed through policies and regulations. the form of preventing them from being rendered The prevention of land and forest fires embraces inflammable by draining. a wide range of measures that either modify the fuels found within or around the fire- Prescribed Burning threatened resources to reduce the spread and Prescribed burning, often used as a intensity of fires, or reduce the chances of silvicultural tool, is the controlled application human-caused ignition. of fire to wildland fuels in specific areas, to The various categories of fire prevention promote resource management. measures include scientific resource Prescribed burning has been used by Scientists are now management, policy reforms/modifications, foresters, in suitable forest types, to manipulate advocating command and control, public education and species composition and characteristics of regular awareness creation, and moral suasion. All forests and also to prepare sites for forest prescribed burns measures to prevent fire and haze directly or plantations. Traditionally, prescribed burns to maintain the indirectly contribute to mitigation by reducing were undertaken after logging to remove natural the intensity of impact, even if fires occur. branches and other logging debris, expose composition of mineral soil, and produce better growing forests, and Scientific Management of Forest conditions. However, scientists are now prevent fuel Resource advocating regular prescribed burns to buildup in forests The traditional approach for preventing fires maintain the natural composition of forests, that traditionally escaping into forests and to other areas containing and prevent fuel buildup in forests that have been visited large fuel loads has been through a system of traditionally have been visited by fires regularly. by fires regularly fire protection or fire hazard reduction. According to scientists, if prescribed burns were used more often, then the forests would Hazard Reduction receive a quick input of nutrients, and excess Hazard reduction is an important aspect of organic matter would be removed. Such fires fire protection. While it is difficult to prevent in suitable situations can help to check weed fires completely, it is possible to reduce fire growth in forest plantations, induce better incidence and intensity. Establishment and regeneration and growth of plants (e.g., teak), maintenance of firebreaks, which are natural maintain a seral status of vegetation that or constructed barriers to stop or check fires; contain a high percentage of commercial clearing the paths, tracks, and campsites of any species (e.g., moist deciduous forests), reduce inflammable materials; planting belts of fire soil acidity, increase bacterial activity, and resistant species around parks, protected areas reduce protozoan population (GOI/FAO and forest plantations, and along road margins; 1990b). spraying of fire retardant chemicals in vulnerable To accomplish a prescribed burn safely, locations; establishing buffer zones for protected managers must prepare a plan and instructions areas for the dual purpose of fire prevention and detailing how the burn will be executed. A
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 97 BOX 12 Firebreaks and Fuelbreaks
Construction of firebreaks and Fuelbreaks • shaded, agroforestry-style fuelbreaks around and inside a forest The concept of fuelbreaks is fuelbreaks where trees are widely is a common method employed to entirely different. Fuelbreaks are spaced and livestock grazing interrupt the continuity of fuels. generally wide (20-30 m) strips of reduces the abundance of surface land on which the native flammable and aerial fuels; and Firebreaks vegetation has been modified or • fuelbreaks that are maintained as A firebreak is a line, up to several replaced by introduced vegetation so forest but where aerial fuels are meters wide, on which all combus- that fires burning into them can be mechanically shredded or removed. tibles are removed and the mineral more readily controlled. In the The most important fuels in soil exposed. The objective of tropics, it has been demonstrated forests that need to be treated are firebreak construction is to segregate, successfully that fuelbreaks can be those between the ground surface and stop, and control the spread of a maintained economically by the canopy of upperstory trees. wildfire. The width of the firebreak agricultural or agroforestry land uses Surface fuels (grass-herb stratum, varies with fuel loads and expected (e.g., cultivation of groundnuts, shrubs) are the main carriers of fire, spotting (fires jumping over the millet and legumes, as practiced in while aerial fuels are those combus- firebreak) behavior. Since fires may Sudan). Fuelbreaks include: tibles not in direct contact with the easily cross firebreaks of up to • agricultural and pastoral land uses ground (foliage, lianas, twigs, several dozen meters, their use is not where most of the woody, above- understory tree crowns), which carry always cost-effective. In addition, ground biomass is removed and the fire into the crowns (fuel ladders). firebreaks in steep terrain tend to substituted with agricultural crops erode during the rainy season. and livestock grazing; Source: Tropical Forest Update 6(1), March 1996.
prescribed burn will be safer and more successful Forest fire prevention should be undertaken if the perimeter of the area is extended to natural as a joint effort of all concerned—as a matter of boundaries such as lakes, rivers, and marshes. civil defense involving government institutions, Narrow roads or single-blade bulldozed private agencies, and the public. Participation firelines may not be wide enough to prevent of rural people, and their goodwill, is particularly the fire from crossing. Along with prescribed important. It is necessary to provide appropriate burning in the forests, zero-burning methods incentives for their sustained cooperation. of site preparation for commercial crops in Establishment and maintenance of firebreaks private lands adjoining forests are often and other fire prevention and presuppression promoted. measures (see Box 12), including the related infrastructure, involve considerable investment. Along with System of Vigilance This is often not supplied by individual owners prescribed In combination with management measures, and private companies, to save on costs. During burning in the it is necessary to adopt a system of vigilance and the 1997-1998 fire season in Indonesia, there forests, zero- this includes hazard rating, forecasting of fire were no effective firebreak systems in most burning methods proneness based on weather pattern and climatic cases. Even though fire warning messages and of site factors, fire risk assessment, fire classification, related instructions were announced through preparation for mapping of fire risk areas, dissemination of fire the media, these were of limited value in the commercial information, early fire danger warning, intensive absence of an adequate infrastructure and crops in private surveillance, code of public behavior in high fire enforcement system. lands adjoining risk situation, enforcement of government forests are often regulations, and relevant command-and-control Policy Measures promoted measures. Some of these overlap with mitigation A good policy provides a rational and balanced and monitoring activities. strategy for action. It helps to prioritize action
98 THE PROGRAM and to attract funds and attention for carrying proportion to the magnitude of the financial out policy components. Policies in general incentives for land-clearing offered by the policy should be able to curtail conflicts and regime. The greater the financial incentives to inefficiencies. clear land the more uphill the task will be to A detailed account of policies, strategies, and address the issues related to forest fires and haze. legal or regulatory instruments has been This situation persists due to conflicts provided under the section on strengthening of among, or inefficiencies within, key aspects of institutions (page 152). Only policy aspects as the overall policy framework. The conflicts and they relate to the program of protection under inefficiencies embody inconsistencies among the ORHAP are discussed here. policies, such as those of plantation Policies relating to several sectors such as establishment, food security, forest concessions, agriculture and rural development directly processing of timber and NWFPs, forest products influence the fire and haze situation. For each trade, transmigration, and land-tenure rights of of the policy objectives, appropriate measures traditional and indigenous groups. A are clearly to be specified. If the statement of considerable amount of anecdotal evidence exists policy objectives and details of policy measures to show that policy inefficiencies and Policy are left vague, there can be serious problems. inconsistencies drive a significant portion of inefficiencies and ASEAN’s transboundary haze pollution problem. inconsistencies Influence of Existing Land Conversion drive a significant Policy Concealed Subsidies portion of Land conversion takes place in the major Clearing land of vegetative growth, residues, ASEAN’s haze source countries, particularly in Indonesia, and debris by burning is the cheapest method, transboundary for raising palm oil plantations, timber estates, compared to other alternatives. The costliness haze pollution expansion of agricultural crops in peatland, and of other methods (e.g., mechanical, zero-burn problem for transmigration. Policies on land conversion, system) of land clearance has historically made particularly relating to authorized practices, are open burning the technique of choice for vague and not supported by stringent and disposing of biomass residue. Thus, there is a practical control measures. Policies, including component of concealed subsidy in the system instruments available (and employed) for their of land clearance existing in some AMCs. implementation, indirectly influence human Ways to discourage land clearing include attitudes and behavior. Thus, skewed economic making open burning expensive by charging incentives can do more harm than good. Some fees for a fire license (as with the fire permit governments in the region inadvertently increase system in Malaysia), and requiring fire hazards through policies that explicitly or landholders to use only controlled burning. implicitly encourage settlement and conversion Incentives for fire use should be appropriately of forests because of the incentives provided. balanced by disincentives (economic or This is particularly true in cases where the punitive) for carelessness. It is often overall impact of the country’s natural resource carelessness that causes even small fires to go management policy is to significantly reward land out of control and spread. The right to convert conversion (and thus large-scale open burning) land should not be taken as an unconditional via financial inducements. The extent of the fire reward and license to cause social harm. and haze problem appears to be in direct Equally important are laws, rules, and
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 99 regulations pertaining to fires (e.g., have frequently been ineffective in reducing the It is often forbidding certain activities during summer, conflicts regarding land and forest resources due carelessness that in areas prone to fire damage) and their to inappropriate or ineffective land use and land causes even enforcement. They must serve as deterrent tenure policies, insufficient management small fires to go for those who commit environmental crimes, resources, and often a lack of political will. out of control while providing incentives to those who In recent decades, this situation has led to and spread cooperate in preventing forest fires. faster deforestation, relentlessly changing fire regimes. Poor harvesting practices have made Changing the Policy Environment forests more fire-prone, fire use is undisciplined, Policies on the use of fire should meet and fire is often the tool of choice for forest resource management objectives, within the conversion. The changes in the fire regimes of parameters of specific fire regimes. Resource the tropical rain forests has been most dramatic; management objectives and fire regimes are but even the fire regimes in seasonally dry areas likely to change, sometimes quickly and have changed as fires have become more frequent dramatically, in response to alterations in the and intense. Policies should now be designed to natural environment or in the social, economic, stabilize fire regimes, a more complex task than and political conditions. Policymakers and managing fires in a relatively stable regime. planners should understand these changes and their impact, in order to design policy The Ecological Context instruments that are flexible enough to be The climatic and ecological factors that shape effective in a wide range of circumstances. fire regimes are generally thought to be relatively stable, but they can change The Human Context unpredictably and sometimes suddenly. The The nations of Southeast Asia are, with two increased severity of ENSO-related drought in or three exceptions, in the early to middle stages the western Pacific during the last two decades of economic development. While they vary is an example. This may be a short-term anomaly greatly in terms of culture, economy, political or a long-term trend caused by natural climate systems, and demography, most AMCs share oscillations or human-induced climate change. characteristics that make it technically difficult Fire regimes can also change suddenly as the or politically unattractive for them to manage result of natural disasters such as cyclones, the human factor in fires. Some AMCs have which can alter forest structure and fuel rapidly growing populations, with a large conditions overnight. percentage of poor people living in rural areas Each vegetation formation has a who are heavily dependent on small-scale characteristic fire regime shaped by climate, agriculture and forest products for their ecological factors, and human actions, which livelihoods. In some countries, forested areas are determine the frequency, intensity, size, resource frontiers for timber production, mining, seasonality, and predictability of fire and commercial agriculture, as well as safety (Christensen 1993). Fire regimes determine valves to relieve population pressure elsewhere. how fires affect vegetation ecology and This has created a three-way conflict between biogeochemical processes and fluctuate naturally logging and mining firms, agricultural settlers, in response to long-term climate change and and indigenous forest dwellers. Governments shorter-term climate oscillations. Humans have
100 THE PROGRAM altered the fire regimes of most areas of the conditions, zero-burn techniques can be used region through their use of fire and for disposing of biomass residue from land modifications of vegetation. clearings, with the residue being used for the The flora of most seasonally dry areas have production of semifinished or finished goods. evolved in areas where wildfires are frequent, When properly carried out, such policy measures and many species depend on fire for can help reduce transboundary haze pollution, regeneration. In the wet tropics too, flora have enhance the environment, and promote evolved in area where fires were caused by economic development. severe droughts with long return periods Supplementary provisions that would help (Goldammer and Seibert 1990). These fire in the prevention of fires and haze include regimes have been altered dramatically over measures to (i) reduce the rate of conversion the past century as humans have used fire and of natural forests, (ii) reduce the size of forest harvesting to modify rain forests at an utilization concessions, (iii) introduce reduced- accelerating rate, causing shifts in vegetation impact logging practices, (iv) introduce market- structure and species composition. based instruments to promote residue utilization, and (v) rationalize shifting Policy-Related Suggestions cultivation. Lack of a fire policy adds to conflicts and In the case of Indonesia, there are some confusion regarding the managed use of fire. special needs to combat the danger of fires and Enforcement of fire prevention and control calls haze. for strict policies and rules on burning, including • Efforts should be made to provide the conditions under which the use of fire is legal. capacity and facilities to complete Effective enforcement requires a policing provincial spatial plans to be used as a basis system and the political will to act. for reliable local land zoning. The forest fires and haze issue has to be • Clearance of peatlands should be subject rationally approached through a combination to special regulations; burning of any kind, of appropriate policy changes, involving including managed burning, should be incentives and market-based instruments. strictly prohibited. • All peat soils should be identified and Policy Changes delineated, to ensure special attention and New policies should primarily aim at altering protection. land clearance practices that cause • Efforts should be made to rehabilitate transboundary haze pollution. peatlands that were cleared for irrigated Policies on land use and land conversion rice planting under the Grand Million practices should define controls relating to type Hectare Peatland Project. Lack of a fire of land, processes, precautions, and social policy adds to responsibilities. They should promote policy- Rational Incentives conflicts and induced actions, e.g., use of zero-burn land- Instead of allowing undeserved gains through confusion clearing techniques, and the introduction of fire indiscriminate use of fire for land clearing, regarding the permits for open burning. Some countries such rational incentives must be introduced, in the managed use of as Malaysia have introduced such measures. interests of sustainable development, social fire There is evidence that at least under some equity, and safety. An example is the no-fire-
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 101 bonus plan of the Philippines, which is an >30 cm diameter at breast height (dbh), the Market-based effective fire prevention mechanism within the wood residue in East Kalimantan was 317 m3/ha instruments can Social Reforms Agenda of the Mountain including 177 m3/ha suitable for sawlogs, while be included in a Province. In relevant cases, eco-labeling in Riau, the figure was 267 m3/ha. In areas program of waste requirements and certification of forest products using less than 30 cm dbh as the cutting limit, reduction and can be linked to the track record of producers the amount of wood residue in East Kalimantan waste utilization, in carrying out forest fire protection measures. was 29 m3/ha, while in Riau, little residue incorporating remained. Wood residue utilization is limited, logging residues Fire Protection as a Sustainability as it is illegal to remove any residue from forest from Criterion concession areas. The main consumers of wood neighboring Recently, the concept of criteria and residue in Riau are the pulp and paper industries areas indicators (C&I) in the context of sustainable that consume about half of the residue generated. forest management (SFM) has added a new In East Kalimantan, the residue is still dimension to strategic planning. C&I provide unutilized. The pulp and paper industries in standards to judge the performance and progress East Kalimantan use their own wood from toward achieving SFM. The quality and forest industrial plantations. effectiveness of fire protection should be While the potential for residue utilization established as one of the criteria for SFM. An seems to exist, considerable planning and explicit policy statement to that end can help to promotion are needed. If residue utilization promote fire protection. along with zero-burn techniques of land clearing were to become profitable, it could not only Residue Utilization generate attractive incomes to the operator but There is considerable scope for introducing could even subsidize the mechanical clearing eco-friendly market-based instruments as of land. Introduction of a penalty (or high fees) effective incentives to adopt zero-burn land- for land clearing by open burning could improve clearing techniques in AMCs. Land-clearing the attractiveness of residue utilization. Any residues can be used (rather than burning them) policy that promotes such a system will become to produce a large number of intermediate or a market-based instrument.30 final products including furniture, fence posts, The success of market-based instruments handicrafts, fuelwood, active carbon, chips for depends on the profitability of mechanical land pulping, mulching materials, and other clearing for residue utilization compared to consumer products. waste disposal by open burning. This relative Market-based instruments can be included profitability heavily depends on the degree to in a program of waste reduction and waste which open burning is either explicitly or utilization, incorporating logging residues from implicitly subsidized by existing distortions in the neighboring areas. natural resource management policy in general, A survey conducted under the ADB ADTA29 and land conversion policy in particular. Other in Indonesia showed that the amount of residue factors such as geographic proximity to biomass in logged forest in East Kalimantan was residue processing facilities and availability or 419 m3/ha, including 146 m3/ha suitable for quality of transport also affect the costs of sawlogs. In Riau, the figure was 98 m3/ha. In processing biomass residue. Residue-based conversion forest, using a cutting limit products, by their nature, will be of low-value-
102 THE PROGRAM per-unit-weight, so a wide range of factors tool enjoy all the profit of doing so, but bear would affect their relative profitability. only a small portion of the costs, as populations suffering haze shoulder the rest of the costs. Zero-Burn Land Clearing and Market- On the other hand, operators using mechanical Based Instruments land-clearing techniques bear all of the costs of ADB’s RETA Project studied the potential land clearing. Thus, even if open burning was of promoting mechanical land clearing and not subsidized, the operator using open burning marketing of products based on residues. enjoys a distinct profit advantage over the The technical feasibility of zero-burn land- operator using mechanical land clearing. clearing methods has been proven and Allowing this difference is inconsistent with demonstrated in a number of cases in the economic efficiency and market principles under region.31 In Sarawak, Malaysia, land clearance which producers compete with one another on for cultivation is mostly carried out mechanically an equal footing so that society may enjoy their and land preparation for planting follows “zero- products at the lowest possible cost. If for any burn” methods. Logs are stacked along reason, this equal footing is weakened or contours, to prevent soil erosion. Sometimes a destroyed, society-at-large is the loser. The Even if open partial/light burning is carried out to reduce introduction of market-based instruments burning was not the debris. promotes competition on an equal footing and subsidized, the The exact extent and conditions under which results in economic efficiency. operator using zero-burn land-clearing techniques are ADB’s RETA Project points out that several open burning financially feasible or applicable are not yet firms have successfully completed the transition enjoys a distinct known. However, evidence available so far, to mechanical land clearing. The firms that were profit advantage suggests that these conditions are likely to vary the most successful in this regard were those over the operator widely. that could profitably make use of waste biomass using mechanical What is certain is that in some haze- residue either within the firm itself or within a land clearing producing AMCs, explicit and implicit subsidies vertically-integrated corporate structure of for land clearance reward the use of open which the firm formed one part. burning. For environmentally conscious The most common and profitable uses of operators, existing indirect subsidies act as a biomass residue were found to be: (i) chipped strong disincentive to use zero-burn methods. biomass residue as fuel for steam turbines that The perverse incentive system, thus, subsidizes drive electricity generators at large, export- the behavior that contributes to transboundary oriented pulp mills; and (ii) as a source nutrient haze pollution and penalizes the behavior that for oil palm. In the latter case, the biomass attempts to prevent it. Use of some form of residue was simply allowed to decompose in market-based instrument will at least partially place. By adjusting the planting time of the oil remove the two-edged bias against the use of palm seedlings, the firm was able to significantly mechanical land clearing. reduce application of supplementary fertilizer, resulting in lower production costs. The Rationale The rationale for applying market-based Some Variants instruments to zero-burn land clearing is as There are several types of market-based follows. Persons using fire as a land-clearing instrument.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 103 System of Cess and Performance Bond performance bonds can be used to subsidize The variant of market-based instrument companies that produce goods from biomass recommended for encouraging zero-burn land residue. This subsidy could be paid in any of a preparation is the cess. The cess, which ideally number of ways (e.g., as a year-end corporate would represent the financial equivalent of the tax rebate). environmental damage caused by land clearing The appropriate level of the subsidy and through open burning, would be collected from means of paying it are heavily dependent on all persons in advance of land-clearing activities the local conditions, the infrastructural facilities (i.e., when land-clearing rights are granted). available, or the geographical area in which The proceeds of the cess would then be held as production of the goods using biomass occurs. a performance bond, which would be returned (with interest) to operators who have cleared Tradable Permits the plot of land in question via mechanical Making the firms pay for the right to use means. The proceeds forfeited could be used the atmosphere to dispose off pollutants gives to further improve and promote the mechanical them the incentive to reduce the amount of clearing of land. pollutants. This can be done in various ways. This arrangement has several advantages. One such variation is tradable permits. The First, it creates a favorable bias toward use of original concept of a tradable industrial pollution zero-burn techniques for land clearing and land permit recognized that it is cheaper for some uses that do not require heavy land preparation. firms to reduce emissions of certain pollutants While this market-based instrument can be than it is for others. Tradable pollution permits employed even in the absence of policy changes, are simply “bearer certificates” that grant a in practical terms, it would call for appropriate limited right to discharge emissions into the The cess, which policy direction. The policies should signal a atmosphere. The government can then control ideally would government’s intent to encourage the amount of pollutants released by limiting represent the environmentally responsible behavior and to the number of certificates issued. financial discourage the opposite. Second, in cases in There are several considerations when equivalent of the which mechanical land clearing is not financially adapting the tradable permit system to help environmental viable, the government will have placed a combat fires and haze: (i) the sources of damage caused transparent monetary value on the damage emission move around and cause a problem in by land clearing caused to society by open burning, with the spatial distribution, and (ii) fire and haze are through open compensation being collected in advance of the mainly produced during the dry season making burning, would damage. Third, this sets the stage for tighter it difficult to space out the emission time-wise. be collected from environmental controls, once enforcement Therefore, modifications are necessary if all persons in capacity has been upgraded, or medium-term tradable permits are to help reduce haze. One advance of land- changes in natural resource management policy way is to reduce the number of permits in clearing activities have been put into place. circulation such that a worst case scenario would Encourage use of Biomass Residue. A not cause transboundary pollution. complementary aspect of the market-based instrument is promoting the production and Direct Pollution Charges sale of products that use biomass residue as Another market-based instrument for raw material. The forfeited proceeds of discouraging open burning is the levying of a
104 THE PROGRAM direct charge for each unit of emissions cleared using mechanical means instead of open AMCs can produced. Conceptually, this is a compelling burning. collaborate at the idea, primarily because firms would be charged AMCs can collaborate at the regional and regional and directly for the pollution damage they cause, subregional levels to support use of market-based subregional levels thus forcing them to incorporate this factor into instruments at national level. An important to support use of their decision-making process. A variation is prerequisite for the success of market-based the market-based scaled pollution charges where polluters pay instruments at the national level is sustained instruments at according to the degree to which they increase political will. national level the risk of transboundary haze. For example, implementing a system of But direct pollution charges have drawbacks, performance bonds assumes that the bond will most of which result from the fact that be collected in an efficient and timely manner, government monitoring and surveillance costs and that the proceeds will be utilized in a way are significant. It is probably not feasible to that ensures effective functioning of the charge directly for the emissions themselves, instrument. Lapses will lead to failure of the since this would involve numerous problems in instrument to achieve its objectives. measurement, all of which could be subject to legal challenge. Command-and-Control Command-and-control is an expression to cover Recommended Alternative all legal measures including instruments, As with all market-based instruments, the regulatory mechanisms, legal sanctions, and objective of the three types considered— restrictions. Legal measures form an important performance bonds, tradable permits, and direct aspect of fire prevention. and scaled pollution charges—is to make a Command-and-control measures directly particular market function more efficiently, or regulate the use of fire by imposing sanctions to create a market where none existed before. against those who use it in unapproved ways. The market in question here concerns the rights They are therefore usable only at the national or to use the atmosphere for waste disposal. subnational level (nonnational entities can Their use would depend on the situation in support implementation of command and the jurisdiction in question. All the alternatives control measures at the national or subnational have advantages and limitations and it is level). necessary to balance them. However, based on A wide range of command-and-control the situation in Riau and South Sumatra measures exists. The most stringent for fire provinces, performance bond schemes have management is a total ban on open burning of been found to be objective, uncomplicated, any type under any circumstance. Examples of inexpensive, and easy to administer. The less stringent command-and-control measures assumption is that all persons or firms clearing (in descending order of stringency) are: land will do so via open burning. They are (a) issuing permits on a case-by-case basis therefore charged a fee that reflects the damage that allow open burning as an exception that such open burning causes. The fee is then to a total ban on burning; only returned upon the person or firm (b) automatic issuance of a single-use permit demonstrating to the satisfaction of the as per (a) above upon the applicant’s enforcing agency that their plot of land was signing a sworn affidavit that he/she will
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 105 adhere to guidelines specified by decrease, the prevalence of open burning. In the absence of authorities; Adopting a regime of obviously unenforceable credible (c) legal sanctions against persons who do command-and-control measures would cause enforcement, not comply with published restrictions perpetrators to question whether authorities stringent on open burning issued by appropriate would ever be able to implement any fire control measures will authorities; regime. If the answer is perceived to be in the increase, rather (d) legal sanctions against persons who do negative, the jurisdiction would become an than decrease, the not comply with published restrictions “outlaw area” within which perpetrators could prevalence of on open burning issued by appropriate use fire in any manner they like, with impunity. open burning authorities during publicly-announced Even if a regime of strictly voluntary periods of increased fire risk; compliance had no more than a neutral impact (e) limitations on open burning during on the use of fire, it would still be more cost- certain hours of the day, days of the effective than (and therefore preferable to) week, or seasons of the year; adopting stringent measures that the authorities (f) bans on open burning unless are incapable of enforcing. Further, a credible appropriate authorities are notified in program of strictly voluntary compliance could advance of the intention to burn; comprise the first stage of introducing a phased (g) restrictions on the area of land that may program of successively more stringent be burned on any one occasion; and command-and-control measures. If authorities (h) voluntary compliance with guidelines on publicly announced their schedule for the phased open burning issued by appropriate program in advance, any credibility achieved authorities. in the first stage of voluntary compliance would The number of permutations and increase the chance of success of more stringent combinations of command-and-control measures later in the program. measures regulating use of fire is obviously large. The greater the number of phases of the The list of measures above is therefore not meant program that have been successfully and to be exhaustive. Its purpose is to demonstrate credibly implemented, the greater the likelihood the wide array of the types and levels of of automatic compliance in the future. Such a stringency that could potentially be adopted by program thus becomes increasingly more cost- fire control authorities at the national or effective over time. subnational level. The ORHAP recognizes the legitimacy of The level of stringency of the particular all of the command-and-control measures listed command-and-control measure(s) adopted should previously, as well as their permutations and be consistent with two factors. These are (i) the combinations. It encourages all ASEAN risk of large-scale fires and haze being caused; governments to adopt such measures that can and (ii) a realistic assessment of the institutional most cost-effectively prevent transboundary haze capacity for implementation of, and the amount pollution. Ultimately, success at any level will of resources available for, enforcement. generally depend on: (i) the political will of the government to Need for Credibility enforce the regime; In the absence of credible enforcement, (ii) the amount of resources devoted to stringent measures will increase, rather than enforcement; and
106 THE PROGRAM (iii) the magnitude of surveillance and establishment of) the regime, and a description If an AMC has enforcement costs, which are influenced of how these are to be financed. been a source of by the total area of land in which open It is unrealistic to expect that command-and- transboundary burning is likely to take place, and the control measures, in isolation, will be sufficient haze over the past remoteness or accessibility of the areas to control the use of fire enough to prevent 20 years, its in which enforcement operations are transboundary haze pollution. Upgrades should prevention efforts to be carried out. therefore be placed in the wider context of an could probably overall fire and haze prevention program that be improved by Need to Upgrade Command-and-Control incorporates policy reforms, moral suasion, and establishing or Regimes public education. upgrading If an AMC has been a source of existing transboundary haze over the past 20 years, its Regional and Subregional Support command-and- prevention efforts could probably be improved Even though command-and-control control measures by establishing or upgrading existing command- measures are to be applied at the national and on the use of fire and-control measures on the use of fire. The subnational levels, the ORHAP includes ORHAP, therefore, has incorporated the concrete steps to be taken at the regional and procedure described below for this purpose. subregional levels to support the upgrading (or establishing) of command-and-control regimes Procedure in haze-producing countries. These steps First, each national or subnational include (i) convening workshops so that government (as appropriate) should review its countries that have successfully upgraded their current (if any) command-and-control command-and-control regimes can share the measures. The purpose is to discover how an results with other countries contemplating or existing command-and-control regime might be undergoing such upgrading, (ii) provision or altered (or a proposed regime appropriately sharing of expertise that directly supports the configured) to ensure maximum impact per unit upgrading process by AMCs that have already of investment in controlling transboundary haze completed the upgrading, (iii) assistance in pollution. The criteria established for procuring third-party financing for the determining whether or not a particular formulation of such programs, and (iv) measure should be implemented at all, and for catalyzing third-party financing for upgrading determining the order of priority for measures command-and-control regimes that have contemplated, should guide this process. already been formulated. Second, all contemplated changes to the command-and-control regime (or measures Moral Suasion proposed for a new regime) should be imposed The term “moral suasion” is generally used by within a time-bound plan for upgrading (or economists and other social scientists to denote establishing) the regime—for example, with a an attempt to get a private decision maker to horizon of not more than five years. Utmost incorporate the full costs of a particular action care should be taken in addressing the twin into the decision-making process, as opposed issues of sequencing and timing in formulating to considering only the direct costs of that this plan. The plan should also include a schedule action. In the context of the ORHAP, the scope of estimated costs for the upgrading (or of moral suasion is restricted to influencing the
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 107 decision whether or not to set large-scale fires. all legitimate moral suasion activities Moral suasion Moral suasion encourages those who might set implemented at all levels aimed at preventing encourages those large-scale fires to consider all the social costs transboundary haze pollution, provided that these who might set (to all populations at home and abroad). Moral are carried out in ways consistent with the large-scale fires to suasion may or may not involve an open or respective legal systems. consider all the implied threat of imposing penalties, should an Public education through information social costs environmentally irresponsible action be taken. dissemination is an important means of moral It is generally more effective when it suasion. incorporates such a threat and, in effect, complements command-and-control. Public Education During the past two decades, moral suasion The fire-and-haze information management has successfully been used to encourage system at the ASEAN Secretariat, and in environmentally responsible behavior among particular, its web site, functions as a public the private sector in a large and growing number education and awareness-raising vehicle. The of countries, including jurisdictions lacking more informed the people are on fire and haze environmental controls, laws, or regulations of issues, the more likely it is that they can express any type. The ORHAP has endorsed the use of their feelings on transboundary haze to the moral suasion as a category of measures for appropriate authorities; or to engage in moral preventing transboundary haze pollution. As suasion. The ASEAN community has an such, it recognizes that moral suasion may be intrinsic right to as much information as applied by virtually any segment of ASEAN, available on forest fires because of the profound including the general public, local communities, and wide-ranging impacts of transboundary NGOs, religious groups, and the governments, haze pollution. as well as by international donors. An important function of public education is to ensure that the public is made aware of Means of Moral Suasion the health risks associated with exposure to haze Effective moral suasion can be achieved by pollution, and of the preventive measures that ensuring that information on fires and haze is individuals need to take to minimize these risks accurately and objectively provided to the public. in the event of haze. The ORHAP includes This is being carried out via the fire-and-haze numerous initiatives for disseminating information management system at the ASEAN information regarding fires and transboundary Secretariat in Jakarta. This system, which haze to local communities in more remote areas functions as a clearinghouse for fire-and-haze- as well as those in urban centers. The system related information, has been upgraded and a also incorporates measures to inform regional public-access web site established on the and international bodies of the steps being taken Internet. within and beyond the ASEAN jurisdiction to Because moral suasion initiatives may be prevent and mitigate large-scale fires and undertaken by such a wide range of individuals transboundary haze pollution. or groups, there is substantial potential for— Public education and awareness programs and few constraints facing—their are most effective (and cost-effective) when implementation at the regional, subregional, formulated and implemented at the community national, or other levels. The ORHAP supports level. As FSMP is a community-level response
108 THE PROGRAM to the threat of forest fires and haze, HTTF multimedia format and disseminated through decided that the plan should incorporate public television and radio broadcasts. Development education. and distribution of short and illustrated Within the ORHAP, the public education summaries of lessons learned in addressing measures that should be given the highest priority impacts and possible causes of 1997-1998 forest are those that are the most cost-effective. There fires will help to make people aware of the are two factors that affect the cost-effectiveness disaster and dissuade them from activities of these measures: first, the greatest impact per damaging the environment. unit of expenditure, when they are implemented within the context of an overall plan; and second, Strategy for Public Awareness and capacity to generate revenue. Education Public education initiatives that generate The development of community and public revenue tend to be more cost-effective (and education programs is seen as the most effective sustainable over time) than those that do not. way of creating public awareness on the impacts Public education ASEAN’s fire-and-transboundary-haze-pollution of fires and haze. Such programs also create a initiatives that problem is of such high profile that opportunities sense of personal responsibility that reduces the generate revenue exist for tied-in revenue-generating public likelihood of the occurrence of more large-scale tend to be more education initiatives. Such opportunities should fires in the region. cost-effective not be overlooked because of assumptions that The ORHAP envisaged the first phase in (and sustainable public education initiatives can only consume this regard as the formulation of a regionwide over time) than and not generate resources for their further operational strategy for a public awareness and those that do not expansion. The fire-and-haze-related public education program. UNEP has provided funds education initiative of the IFFM based in from the public awareness and education Kalimantan (Indonesia) provides an example. component of the Emergency Response project The project has resulted in television shows on to develop the first phase of the regional strategy. the fire-and-transboundary-haze problem This will focus primarily on the two SRFA pilot featuring an Indonesian teenage television star. areas with possible spin-offs to Brunei This initiative appears to be revenue-generating Darussalam, Malaysia (particularly the states of to the point of profitability. It also gives rise to Sabah and Sarawak), and Philippines (with profit-making spin-off initiatives involving the emphasis on Palawan). UN-ESCAP has agreed sale of clothing and other paraphernalia in principle to provide additional support. Once associated with the shows. the operational strategy for the public awareness Among the issues decision makers and the and education program has been formulated public need to be informed about are the various and disseminated, it is expected that further alternative methods of land clearing and their support from a wide range of donors can be implications. To this end, it is necessary to catalyzed. develop and disseminate outreach materials such as posters, pamphlets, and brochures Mitigation featuring some best examples of land-clearing ORHAP’s Mitigation Program practices and fire prevention techniques. There are four main activities designed to be Moreover, scientific knowledge and information taken up within the six-year planning period about forest fires should be developed in envisaged under the mitigation program of the
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 109 ORHAP. These are based on current priorities etc., are planned and implemented); (ii) at ASEAN regional level. suppression (covering such aspects as fire The activities include the following: detection, quick communication of correct (i) formalizing arrangements for improved information, crew mobilization and dispatch, training and retaining of forest provision of water, movement of equipment, firefighters at the national and regional coordination of field action, e.g., of aerial and levels. They should be adequately ground operations, firefighting, and equipped to cope with future forest fires; extinguishing of fire); and (iii) relief (to those (ii) inventorying existing firefighting who are affected by haze pollution and fire, capability at the national level, including including medical attention and compensation) all aspects of firefighting equipment and and rehabilitation (to repair damage to property personnel. This would determine the and resources). maximum scale of a forest fire that the Along with or immediately after a fire, two existing firefighting capability is different operational directions will be equipped to handle; involved—one, to address haze with its (iii) strengthening firefighting capability at transboundary dimension, affecting the health, Haze mitigation the national level to a point at which welfare, and lives of the people; and two, to is designed to each AMC’s firefighting capability is address the damage by undertaking damage reduce haze and sufficient to cope with forest fires likely control and rehabilitation (including salvage its impact; and to occur; and operations where appropriate). fire mitigation (iv) ensuring the continued readiness of Mitigation activities are closely linked with aims to reduce national firefighting through regular other ORHAP programs—prevention (e.g., use the spread and maintenance of equipment and of firebreaks, fuel load control, and others) and intensity of fires upgrading of skills among firefighting monitoring (e.g., weather monitoring, fire and their impact personnel. modeling, fire spotting, and assessment of haze intensity). Scope of Mitigation Activities Mitigation thus involves a continuum of The dictionary meaning of mitigation is “to interrelated activities and in the ORHAP, covers cause to be less harsh or hostile; to soften; to most of the entire spectrum of fire management. relieve; to reduce; to mollify.” In that general sense, haze mitigation is designed to reduce Mitigation and Fire Management haze and its impact; and fire mitigation aims Mitigation is a strategy for suppressing to reduce the spread and intensity of fires and unwanted fires. Fires on the landscape become their impact. Since haze is an impact of fire, unwanted when they extend beyond their mitigation of haze and fire overlaps. intended management objective by: (i) placing Mitigation requires action at three stages— at risk human health and safety, and valued pre-event, during event, and post-event. With natural and human-made resources; and (ii) respect to fire and haze, correspondingly, these creating haze pollution beyond the boundaries three stages are: (i) preparedness for any fire of the area affected by fire. To effectively address occurrence (in which actions relating to the two criteria of unwanted fires, the use of a infrastructure, equipment, strategies and/or fire danger rating index and an air quality index logistics, training, crew fitness, surveillance, is necessary.
110 THE PROGRAM Modern fire management recognizes that it in which large-scale land conversion is taking is not possible—nor is it always desirable—to place. extinguish all fires. Fire management may therefore involve containing a fire, which is The Different Phases of Fire Management then allowed to burn itself out. If extinguishing Fire management covers all aspects and a particular fire is feasible and desirable, fire phases relating to land and forest fires. A haze management may involve suppression. At the action plan is, in a way, a fire management plan other end of the spectrum, fire management and includes pre-fire (or pre-suppression), may involve prescribed burning. This is usually suppression, and post-fire (or post-suppression) carried out to destroy accumulations of fuel that phases. if left undisturbed could result in fires on a scale Since the pre-fire period is aimed at large enough to cause heavy damage and/or improving preparedness, the focus of action is transboundary haze. to enhance overall fire management capability The components that comprise modern fire and to plan for mobilization of all necessary management are consistent with virtually any resources for fire suppression in the event of a policy toward the use of fire. They are as fully fire. Thus, this is a vital phase and can consistent with a complete ban on open burning conveniently be divided into two subphases: (i) AMCs that allow as they are with conditional and controlled the period of high fire probability and risk, i.e., open burning, burning or voluntary compliance. The approach immediately prior to a likely fire, or a period either as a matter that a particular AMC takes in its policy toward of high fire danger rating, and (ii) a period of of explicit or fire reflects that country’s perception of its no fire threat, i.e., outside/before the fire implicit policy, particular situation (e.g., the extent of forest danger period. put the whole and wildlands, the degree to which it might region at a contribute to economic growth, and the level Activities During Periods of higher risk of of development of the country’s fire No Fire Danger transboundary management infrastructure). In all cases, During the period between two fires, when haze pollution however, adequate fire management and there is apparently no fire danger, many than do suppression capability is an obvious operations can be carried out, for example: countries that requirement. (i) developing and maintaining ban open AMCs that allow open burning, either as a infrastructures, water storage, burning matter of explicit or implicit policy, put the firebreaks and fire corridors, aircraft whole region at a higher risk of transboundary landing sites, etc.; haze pollution than do countries that ban open (ii) acquisition/maintenance and stock burning. Countries that allow open burning verification of tools and equipment thus have a bigger obligation, for the safety of (hand tools, heavy equipment, water the rest of ASEAN, to invest appropriately in hoses and tankers, communication fire management than countries that ban open equipment, etc.); burning, other things being equal. This (iii) preparing/revising fire maps, additional investment is necessary to information materials, guidelines, and compensate for the increased risk of instructions for crew; transboundary haze pollution resulting from (iv) planning for fire emergencies, covering their policies. This is particularly true of AMCs strategies and logistics;
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 111 (v) establishing fire detection, surveillance etc., will be useful in planning fire suppressions The advent of (aerial and ground), and intelligence and mobilizing resources. advanced systems; Other strategic elements requiring focused technology has (vi) preparing resource mobilization plans; attention include the following: led to the (vii) contacting community leaders, • measures and actions for the efficient development of cooperating agencies, and volunteers; mobilization and dispatching of fire computerized fire (viii)conducting training and retraining for suppression resources and a plan (fire management various levels; suppression mobilization plan) that can be systems that offer (ix) reviewing/modifying/improving used to improve the organizational the chance to organizational arrangements, and efficiency and cost-effectiveness of fire overcome some standby/response orders; and management at village, district, provincial, of the weaknesses (x) conducting dry runs and intensive drills, national, subregional, or regional levels. in fire and keeping the crews in good shape. • capacity building programs ranging from management The activities are carried out as per plan and training for managers in theoretical and planning the purpose is to keep the whole system “well- practical aspects (covering forest fire oiled,” and to ensure that no details are factors, fire prediction and planning, overlooked so that “the war is not lost for want surveillance, fire protection, fire of a nail.” suppression, rescue operations, and rehabilitation) to practical drills in fire Fire Plan suppression for firefighters. Appropriate The purpose of forest fire planning is to training is also required for local volunteers develop elements of a fire management program and others who will be required to and to achieve an adequate level of readiness to participate in firefighting; attack a major blaze, when it happens, efficiently • arrangements for the provision of vital and effectively. It covers aspects such as hazard information including checklists, maps, reduction, weather monitoring, and capacity etc.; and development for quick response to fire incidents. • appropriate mechanisms to obtain It takes into account the engineering, education, participation/cooperation of local people, and (law) enforcement aspects of fire communities, the private sector, and NGOs management. in fire management and suppression. Local The advent of advanced technology has led people can be enlisted as voluntary fire to the development of computerized fire wardens and voluntary firefighters. management systems that offer the chance to Improved incentives including honorariums, overcome some of the weaknesses in fire access to resources and entrepreneurial management planning. Along with appropriate opportunities, and provision of off-farm models to provide an integrated fire rating income-earning to community members will scheme, it will be possible to develop an help to promote participation. advanced fire suppression strategy by integrating the ground positioning system, GIS, and high Procedure for Activating Firefighting resolution remote sensing. A GIS database Resources consisting of elevation, hydrology, geology, The centerpiece of the mitigation program vegetation, transport networks, settlements, of the ORHAP is envisioned to be a
112 THE PROGRAM regionwide fire suppression mobilization (and programs, fire control organizations (national, response) plan. An important first step in provincial, community organizations), and formulating the FSMP is to organize a operational procedures. Lists of equipment regionwide inventory and assessment of existing provided details of hand tools, water handling firefighting capability (tools, equipment, equipment, mechanical equipment, personnel, level of training, funding, adequacy transportation, aerial firefighting capability, of existing dispatch plans, and overall capability personnel protection equipment, logistic in responding to fire emergencies) to support support, fire detection tools, and communication cooperative fire suppression efforts. Such equipment. inventories should be conducted regularly. Three major findings resulted from the inventory and assessment exercise. Inventory of Fire Management Capability First, the level of wildland fire management Fire management and suppression capability capacity across AMCs is inversely related to the is of prime importance for the ORHAP. If fires degree to which each country suffered from and haze in the ASEAN region are to be forest fires and haze during 1997-1998. managed efficiently, then the upgrading of any Second, in Indonesia, the AMC most affected inadequate fire management capacity must by fires and haze, there is a relative scarcity of receive high priority. With this in mind, several dedicated fire suppression equipment, but a inventories were undertaken prior to, and relative abundance of nondedicated fire during, implementation of ADB’s RETA suppression equipment (i.e., equipment such Project. as common agricultural tools that can effectively As the country designated to take the lead in be used for fire suppression). This means that implementing the mitigation program, in terms of potential fire suppression capacity, Indonesia began a preliminary inventory of fire Indonesia is well placed. By effectively management capacity prior to commencement organizing its abundant personnel and of the RETA Project. At HTTF’s request, nondedicated fire suppression equipment, Indonesia performed a second inventory with Indonesia can quickly and cost-effectively assistance from the Project. improve its fire management capacity. Because the first and second inventories Third, a far greater upgrading of fire focused mainly on equipment rather than the suppression equipment and technical expertise overall aspects of fire management capacity, the than originally envisaged would be required at If fires and haze RETA Project itself conducted a third inventory district level and below, for fire suppression units in the ASEAN at the request of HTTF, with assistance from at these levels to provide the necessary base for region are to be the US Forest Service, AusAID, and Canada, regional cooperative fire suppression initiatives. managed and a team of Indonesian experts. The exercise Fourth, in most of these areas, it is the efficiently, then involved four field teams. manner in which fire suppression equipment the upgrading of The countries included in the third inventory and personnel is organized—rather than the lack any inadequate comprised Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, of either—that forms the binding constraint on fire management Malaysia, Philippines, and Singapore. In each fire management capacity. capacity must of the countries, the inventory and assessment Last, in the absence of operational FSMPs, receive high covered equipment, fire management personnel, the region’s fire suppression resources tend to priority facilities, communication, logistics, training be used in a highly inefficient manner.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 113 A positive aspect to these findings is that community-level FSMPs, the foundation for in locales in which the region’s fire which had already been laid by the ADB management capacity is wanting, this capacity ADTA.32 AusAID provided assistance for the can be mobilized at low cost, simply by formulation of the Operating Procedure. organizing existing fire suppression resources Essentially, the Operating Procedure in a more efficient way. This is true of all acknowledged that the key to efficient fire governmental levels and is the key to ASEAN management is capacity at the community level, mobilizing fire suppression resources at the rather than being based on centralized subregional level. management at the regional level. This can be The original intention of the inventory and achieved by formulating community-level assessment was to: (i) aggregate data on FSMPs, which would incorporate (ground- available equipment and technical expertise, (ii) based) monitoring activities, as well as fire construct a regional-level inventory and tracking prevention and awareness programs. They system for fire suppression equipment and would also serve the additional purpose of personnel, and (iii) construct from this system, providing a framework for upgrading The Operating an operating procedure for activating forest equipment and skills, since only when existing Procedure firefighting resources (Operating Procedure) fire suppression resources are organized as acknowledged in the ASEAN region. However, two findings efficiently as possible can appropriate upgrading that the key to of the inventory and assessment exercise programs be formulated. efficient fire indicated that a different strategy for The architecture of the Operating Procedure management is formulating the Operating Procedure would be would thus involve a network of interlinked capacity at the required. FSMPs at the community, subdistrict, district, community level, • First, the inventory and tracking systems province (or state), and national levels in each rather than being for fire suppression equipment and country. These national networks of FSMPs based on personnel become unwieldy and unfeasible would then link at the supranational level with centralized beyond the district level. AMCs located in the same subregion. management at • Second, the existing inventory and the regional level tracking systems in the most critical haze- Measure of Adequacy for Fire Management producing areas (Kalimantan and Sumatra Capacity in Indonesia) were either at a preliminary The ORHAP requires that each AMC match stage of development or were nonexistent. its fire management and suppression capability Thus, in most critical areas, inventory and to the level of risk of causing transboundary tracking systems for fire suppression haze. If a particular country has not been a equipment and personnel would have to source of transboundary haze during the past be newly arranged, or substantially two decades, its fire management capability at upgraded, to enable fire management units a minimum is considered to match the level of at these levels to support regional risk to which it exposes the region. It may be cooperative fire suppression initiatives. that the land conversion process in the country has essentially been completed, reducing the Architecture of the Operating Procedure risk of large-scale fires to a minimum. Accordingly, it was decided by HTTF that The fire management capacities of some the Operating Procedure be based on AMCs fall far short of the required standard.
114 THE PROGRAM One purpose of the ORHAP’s mitigation responsibilities under the ORHAP. Regional- program is to outline a system through which level collective action can, often, compensate these countries can speedily acquire adequate for likely deficiencies in individual countries. fire management and suppression capacity. In many cases, more than the cost, the Under the ORHAP, the fact that a country binding constraint on efficient fire management has been a source of transboundary haze during and suppression is a cumbersome and inefficient the past two decades is prima facie evidence organizational structure, the streamlining of that its fire management capability falls short which is nearly costless. Assistance in obtaining of what is required. The ORHAP requires that the necessary expertise or funding may be any such country must, as quickly as possible, requested from the chairperson of HTTF, who create a timebound plan for upgrading its fire channels such requests to the appropriate management capacity to a level sufficient agencies or institutions. The upgrading of fire enough to cope with once-in-20-years fires and management and suppression capability in haze. The ORHAP further requires that transboundary-haze-source AMCs is also following any fires and haze, the source countries supported by complementary measures at the must put in place time-bound operational plans regional and subregional levels. In many cases, to be able to manage and suppress fires of the more than the scale that caused the haze. Fulfillment of this Upgrading of Fire Management Capacity cost, the binding condition ensures that at a minimum, AMCs Often, upgrading of fire management constraint on have sufficient fire management and suppression capacity is taken to be synonymous with efficient fire capacity to address the risk of transboundary haze procuring additional tools or equipment, or management and to which they may expose the region. Information providing additional training or retraining to suppression is a must be shared with all other AMCs on a fire management personnel. cumbersome and continuous basis, either via the ORHAP’s Provision of training and equipment has in inefficient restricted-access intranet, or other appropriate the past been popular. But only under restricted organizational means of communication (e.g., facsimile/letter conditions have such initiatives had a positive structure, the sent to HTTF). impact on fire management capability. When streamlining of It is, however, by no means certain that any provided in isolation, training and equipment which is nearly upgraded fire management and suppression do little to improve fire management capacity, costless capacity in an AMC would be sufficient to since lack of training or equipment per se is successfully address all future threats of rarely the binding constraint. transboundary haze. It calls for a system of Only when equipment and training are continuous assessments and upgrades. provided to remove binding constraints present Ultimately, upgrading fire management/ in an overall fire management and suppression suppression capacity is a costly venture that must system are they likely to have any appreciable compete with other national priorities. It is positive impact. therefore not possible—nor does the ORHAP’s The equipment procured often fails to reach mitigation component require—that all AMCs the hands of those that can most efficiently make build national-level capacities sufficient to use of it, and training is received by those deemed completely eliminate the risk of their causing deserving a favor, rather than those who might transboundary haze at any point in the future. best benefit from it. Further, the type, scale, size, Instead, AMCs need only fulfill their and level of technical sophistication of the
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 115 equipment procured is often poorly (if at all) it allows the initial and recurrent financial costs Equipment suited to the requirements of the recipient country. of the upgrading to be calculated with procured often The same can be true of the type and content of reasonable precision, given that FSMP fails to reach the training provided. programs already in place include an annual hands of those Upgrading of fire management capacity is review and budgeting process. If government that can most to be undertaken within a system of FSMPs funding allocated to fire suppression in the area efficiently make (formulation or upgrading) for specific in question is insufficient to finance a proposed use of it, and geographic areas. Such plans are the basic upgrading program, then third-party sources training is building blocks of fire management capacity. of financing have to be sought. Alternatively, received by those the upgrading program can be scaled down, or deemed deserving Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans undertaken in a phased manner over several a favor, rather The purpose of FMSPs is to improve the budgeting periods. than those who efficiency with which fire suppression resources Building on the foundation provided by might best benefit in any given geographic area are mobilized. ADB’s ADTA INO 2999, which provided from it FSMPs can therefore be used to improve the inputs to Indonesia’s Integrated Action Plan organizational efficiency and cost-effectiveness (IAP) for Addressing Land and Forest Fires, of fire management at the village, subdistrict, and in order to ensure consistency among the district, provincial, national, and subregional FSMPs at the various governmental levels, a levels. Model Fire Suppression Mobilization Plan was Given that FSMPs at the community level drawn up. This was done by national fire were to provide the foundation for ASEAN’s management experts (NFMEs) and numerous fire suppression resource-sharing scheme, they international fire management experts working would be linked operationally at community on various projects closely interlinked with, and level, and subsequently at higher levels. catalyzed by, ADB’s RETA Project and the FSMP formulation and implementation focus ORHAP. The model FSMP was then used as a on Indonesia, since the payoff from upgrading template for developing FSMPs for the most fire management capacity in that country critical areas. The rationale for this is that outweighs that in other AMCs. Owing to the virtually all jurisdictions, to ensure adequate fire constraints caused by the recent financial crisis management capacity, should share one factor affecting some AMCs, FSMP focuses on in common: a preformulated, agreed, written consolidating and better organization of existing FSMP that embodies the collective decisions fire suppression resources, rather than on of all relevant agencies on how fire emergencies wholesale additions of fire suppression are to be addressed within the geographic area equipment or training. Only after the existing concerned. suppression resources are organized as Having agreed on FSMPs in advance of a efficiently as possible would it make sense to fire allows such incidents to be addressed as shift the focus to upgrading fire management quickly and efficiently as possible, regardless of capacity. the extent of financial resources available for Such upgrading programs use the existing addressing the fire emergency. FSMP as the starting point, since it is from the For the RETA Project, community-level FSMPs that the personnel, skills, and equipment FSMPs were prepared for critical districts of requirements can be most easily derived. And Riau and South Sumatra provinces, with a view
116 THE PROGRAM to ultimately replicating them in all critical Formulation (and implementation) of a provinces of Sumatra and all four provinces of FSMP for a specific geographic area can Kalimantan. therefore take place independently of any proposed or pending changes in the lead agency Salient Features of FSMPs for fire management at the national level, or of FSMPs lay out, well in advance, the exact proposed or pending devolution of powers. procedures to be followed in carrying out Once an FSMP has been formulated for a suppression. Therefore, all suppression particular area, the maximum degree of resources available in the area covered by the readiness that can be achieved using available plan can be used in as efficient a manner as resources can be determined. If a greater degree possible. They avoid spur-of-the-moment crisis- of readiness is deemed to be required, a management-oriented decision making, which program for upgrading the existing degree of always leads to inefficient resource use and readiness can be easily formulated from the plan, wastage of valuable time. FSMPs specify a and the relevant personnel, training, tool, and single, transparent chain-of-command for equipment requirements derived. From these, addressing fire emergencies agreed in advance reliable cost estimates and a realistic schedule by all parties concerned. This avoids confusion for implementing the upgrading program can and decisions being taken at different levels that be formulated. In extreme situations, FSMPs conflict with one another. They provide an can be funded entirely at the local level, using organizational structure into which whatever financial or other resources are complementary fire suppression resources can available. be merged. When fire suppression crews from Experiences of the 1997-1998 fires suggest another geographic area or country arrive at a that some of the most efficient fire suppression fire scene, these can be deployed immediately schemes were funded and implemented totally and with maximum efficiency. by local communities, using self-provided If a fire escalates to the point where locally resources. The donor-sponsored mobilization available resources can no longer cope, FSMPs plans that operated within the geographic areas state the procedure to be followed. The success adjacent to the project sites enjoyed similar Experiences of of FSMPs, however, depends on sustained success. the 1997-1998 commitment—by all parties and agencies that fires suggest that have agreed to participate in the plan—to The FSMP Process some of the most maintain and enhance the degree of readiness Details of the procedure for formulating and efficient fire the plan envisages. implementing FSMPs are given in Appendix 3. suppression FMSPs allow all available resources, Only some important aspects relating to the schemes were including those provided by volunteers and FSMP process are highlighted here. funded and local community groups to be deployed with implemented maximum possible efficiency. In virtually all Initial Planning totally by local jurisdictions, volunteers (not to mention FSMPs are to be prepared or upgraded for a communities, donors) are much more likely to participate sufficient number of geographic areas within using self- actively in fire suppression (and prevention) the country concerned to ensure that fire provided when a plan exists that unambiguously management capacity is sufficient to cope with resources welcomes their role. a once-in-20-years occurrence. A work plan for
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 117 preparing FSMPs is necessary if a time frame agreements. For countries in which the (and budget) are to be followed. The work plan organizational side has previously been the should specify that operational training, binding constraint on efficient fire management, equipment, and other input requirements are care is needed in sorting out the institutional to be collectively derived from the FSMPs; and details of the new organizational structure and should consider the potential for, and constraints related roles and responsibilities. Successfully on, local provision or manufacture of such concluding such interagency agreements is not inputs. a trivial task, as it generally results from Once the work plan for formulating or negotiations enabling all agencies to arrive at a upgrading the FSMPs for all geographic areas consensus as to the various roles and has been completed, a cost estimate should be responsibilities of each. While somewhat prepared. If the number of FSMPs is relatively onerous, this task is central to ensuring that large, the overall workplan can be divided into later implementation of the FSMP can succeed. Successfully phases, with the work being undertaken for Simulation Exercise concluding groups of geographic areas arranged in order interagency of priority. Higher priority will be assigned to Simulation exercises and mock drills are an agreements is not places posing the greatest risk of causing important part of the process, helping to a trivial task, as it transboundary haze. enhance an FSMP. An example involving a “dry generally results A financing plan to meet estimated costs is exercise” and “wet exercise” was carried out in from then prepared; and technical assistance should Riau province in October 1999, funded by negotiations also be sought from countries well advanced in UNEP’s Environment Assessment Programme enabling all wildland fire management. for Asia Pacific. It was conducted by Indonesian agencies to arrive Government agencies connected with fire Institutional Collaboration at a consensus as suppression, with BAPPEDAL acting as the to the various While preparing FSMPs, every effort should coordinator, in collaboration with the ASEAN roles and be made to simultaneously create a transparent Secretariat/CSU. responsibilities of and operational institutional structure for fire This joint activity was a part of the each management for the country as a whole. In Immediate Action Plan—Field Training several countries (including countries highly Exercise Phase 1,33 which comprises activities advanced in fire management) many agencies not only for mitigation, but includes ones aimed cooperate in fire management initiatives. But at prevention and monitoring of forest fires and the countries with the most efficient fire haze in the most haze-prone areas in Riau and management regimes are those that succeed in South Sumatra provinces. designating a single body as the lead agency in The objectives of the fire suppression fire management. The lead agency takes simulation were to create a practice arena for responsibility for working out, in consultation learning and strengthening existing institutional with all agencies involved in fire management, structures involved with fire suppression at the the details of all collaborative working province and district levels. The dry exercise arrangements. consisted of a “Tactical Exercise without These details, including the roles and Troops” (TEWT) at the provincial and district responsibilities of each particular agency, should levels and the wet exercise consisted of a full- then be enshrined in written interagency scale drill at four priority districts. The purpose
118 THE PROGRAM was learning while doing. The observations Level of Details in FSMPs recorded indicate that there was confusion in FSMPs are the most detailed at the base (i.e., the division of responsibilities among national community) level, since it is here that agencies. Institutional weaknesses, including predetermined arrangements for mobilizing and poor coordination, were evident. These need dispatching suppression resources must be to be addressed in order to enhance FSMPs. specifically stated. When base FSMPs are linked together at successively more aggregated levels Resource Constraints of government (subdistrict, district, province, The personnel, training, equipment, and national), the amount of details decreases (with other input requirements for particular FSMPs each higher level of aggregation). arise as part of the process of preparing or FSMPs at the national level generally do little upgrading FSMPs. more than indicate the role each national-level Once the input requirements are derived, agency associated with fire suppression is to play. an inventory of tools, equipment, and skilled National-level FSMPs tend to be short, thin personnel for that geographic area should be documents, while those at the community level The cost of undertaken, and the results of the inventory tend to be highly detailed. FSMPs at the district implementing the compared with the operational requirements and provincial levels simply contain standard FSMP should be of implementing the FSMP concerned. operating procedures (SOPs) for sharing of fire kept to a Requirements for additional training, and fire suppression resources among subdistricts within minimum, for management and communications equipment, a particular district, or districts within a example, by are then derived by comparing the overall province. District- and provincial-level FSMPs using volunteers, requirements of the plan with the results of the are thus similar in format to those for the SRFAs. labor-intensive inventory. SRFA-level FSMPs need not be highly detailed fire suppression The cost of implementing the FSMP should documents, since they essentially comprise techniques, and be kept to a minimum, for example, by using interagency agreements specifying the SOPs for community- or volunteers, labor-intensive fire suppression activating SRFA-level fire suppression resource- village-level techniques, and community- or village-level sharing arrangements. resources resources wherever possible. Local manufacture As the process of formulating or upgrading wherever possible of tools and equipment or adaptation of FSMPs is completed for the various areas of agricultural tools for fire management should the country, a database containing all relevant become part of the overall plan. information such as the training and equipment Precise costings for the necessary training requirements, the operational costs of and equipment should then be formulated, and implementing the FSMPs, and the inventory of a proposed schedule for their provision devised. skilled personnel and equipment should be Funding can be arranged, in part from third- assembled. party sources, if necessary. If funds for meeting This should be performed individually for the training and equipment requirements are each geographic area, and the results aggregated insufficient or not forthcoming, the at the national level. Updating of this database requirements should be reviewed and scaled should be continually carried out. The back, or provision of lower-priority items and government agency performing this task at the training deferred. This should be brought to national level should be assigned the lead role the notice of HTTF. in fire management.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 119 Subregional Cooperation in Fire activities under the ORHAP. The same is true Regional or Suppression of monitoring that directly supports fire subregional As outlined earlier, once FSMPs have been management, such as detecting large-scale fires, sharing of fire formulated and implemented at the community and tracking or predicting their future suppression level, they are linked through an FSMP at the movements. The subregional level is, therefore, resources is a district level. District-level FSMPs are likewise an important focus of activities under all three form of linked through an FSMP at the provincial level. of the RHAP’s components, not just risk-pooling For instance, for the fire-prone areas that fall “firefighting,” as the designation “Subregional within the jurisdiction of the SRFA for Borneo Firefighting Arrangement” may imply. and Sumatra, the provincial-level FSMPs are linked together through FSMPs at the SRFA Additional Factors and Issues level. Risk-pooling among AMCs via sharing of Since the subregion is the highest level of fire suppression resources during periods of aggregation at which economies of scale in fire peak demand makes eminent sense also from suppression activities exist, this interlinkage of the point of view of efficiency. FSMPs does not extend to the regional (i.e., Operationally, there are many ways in which ASEAN) level. risk-pooling might be implemented. Not all of these are practical. For example, the concept of Rationale for Subregional Cooperation all AMCs sharing fire suppression resources The main rationale for subregional would appear to have much to recommend it. cooperation in fire management and An obvious advantage at the regional level suppression is its cost-effectiveness. One means would be that the wet and dry seasons in the of increasing this is via risk-pooling at northern and southern portions of the ASEAN international level. This involves supranational grouping are reversed. This fact would appear sharing of fire suppression resources during to give rise to complementarities in the sharing periods of peak demand. of fire suppression resources among the AMCs. Regional or subregional sharing of fire But from a logistical and operational point of suppression resources is a form of risk-pooling. view, this possibility is not encouraging. The Because the risk of large-scale fires occurring practical problems involved in shipping fire simultaneously in all countries in a regional or suppression equipment and personnel from, say, subregional grouping is slight, resources on Singapore overland via Malaysia and Thailand standby in a member country not threatened to the Lao People’s Democratic Republic (Lao by fire can be used to augment those in the PDR) would pose daunting practical problems. country or countries where fire suppression Myanmar assisting the Philippines in fire resources are fully employed. This form of risk- suppression would be equally impractical. Thus, pooling forms the basis of, and economic the SRFAs were formed as a logical and efficient justification for, the two SRFAs.34 response to the possibilities offered by risk- Because the overall risk of transboundary pooling and resource-sharing at the international haze and the fires that cause it is so unevenly level, as well as the limitations imposed by spread across the various areas of the region, geography and transport. the subregional level is the key in organizing Ultimately, considerations led to SRFAs and carrying out cooperative mitigation-related forming the foundation for regional
120 THE PROGRAM cooperation in fire management and be held in a joint inventory. The answer to this suppression. question ultimately depends on how the SRFA’s Although formulation of SRFAs took account fire suppression capability has been of both the potential for resource-sharing as well programmed to complement a member as its limitations, effective cooperation at the country’s national-level suppression capabilities. SRFA level has posed operational issues that the This in turn depends on national-level FSMPs ORHAP must address if SRFA member already in place, and the provisions they contain countries are to reap maximum benefits. for using complementary suppression resources sourced from the SRFA level. A major obstacle Means of Resource-Sharing to ASEAN resolving its transboundary haze Ultimately, fire suppression resource-sharing pollution problem is the fact that not all haze- must be able to be activated quickly if it is to source AMCs have FSMPs in place. Because of be cost-effective. In addition to shipping this, a joint-inventory approach to fire arrangements for personnel and equipment suppression resource-sharing at the SRFA level being agreed in advance, immigration and does not appear to be feasible. customs preclearance procedures must also be Operationally, this reflects a fire management in place if movement of personnel and capacity that falls short of the required level. equipment is to be carried out at short notice. Immediate action at the subregional level is But putting preclearance procedures into place therefore critical to ensure that the risk of presumes that a number of fundamental choices economic, social, and environmental damage have already been made. These relate to exactly resulting from further transboundary haze is what is meant by “resource-sharing” in the reduced to the absolute minimum, given SRFA context, since this is a concept that can existing time, resource, and other constraints. be operationalized in a number of ways. Concerted measures for immediately upgrading The ORHAP rules out the possibility of each fire management capacity in the region’s most SRFA maintaining a physical inventory of fire haze-prone geographic areas must be suppression equipment warehoused within one undertaken at the subregional level emphasizing of its member countries, since this would cost-effectiveness. require a large number of difficult issues to be The ORHAP resolved. Examples include the following. What Resource-Sharing Agreements rules out the types of equipment are to be kept in the In the context of the ORHAP, “resource- possibility of each inventory? Is it permissible for the equipment sharing” means that an agreement would have SRFA to be used by individual member countries at been reached among SRFA member countries maintaining a their own discretion, or must the decision for that allows fire suppression personnel and physical use be made jointly? How will duplication of equipment from one SRFA member country to inventory of fire equipment and effort be avoided? More be temporarily used in another, upon activation suppression important, who is to finance the initial purchase of the arrangement by the country requesting equipment of equipment, its warehousing, and assistance in fire suppression. warehoused maintenance costs, and its upgrading as and However, even this system of resource within one of its when required? sharing requires a number of issues to be member Perhaps a more important question than any addressed, most of which relate to how the countries of the above is that of which equipment should personnel and equipment from the providing
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 121 country are to complement personnel and National and Subregional Level Operational equipment in the recipient country. For Linkages example, how will geographic positioning of A basic issue behind the regional cooperation the SRFA-provided equipment and personnel to address fires and haze is the fundamental be determined? Which country’s chain-of- conflict between natural resource management command will be used, or how will chains-of- (land conversion) policy at the national level, command be harmonized or integrated? How and the obligations of the countries to ensure will language differences (if any) be addressed? that haze pollution originating within their Will suppression teams from the two countries territorial boundaries does not violate the be merged, work in tandem, or work in parallel airspace of other countries. It is a basic as independent units? assumption of the ORHAP that this conflict Resolving these issues essentially requires will remain in the foreseeable future. that a subregional-level FSMP incorporating Before describing the legal framework for resource-sharing arrangements be formulated the subregional FSMP, it is necessary to clarify The ORHAP and implemented. the linkage between the national and subregional identifies the Such a plan should also incorporate relevant levels, since these have important implications national level as resource-sharing arrangements for monitoring on national sovereignty within ASEAN. being the key in and prevention in addition to fire management. ORHAP activities to be carried out at the activating fire Implementation of these arrangements would subregional level must avoid violating an management and require negotiation of international agreements individual member country’s national suppression Finally, the issue of whether the national, sovereignty in two key areas. resources from subregional, or regional level is the appropriate First, the physical entry of fire management outside the point of contact when activating fire personnel and equipment from one member region suppression resources originating from outside country into another’s territorial boundaries the ASEAN region must be clarified. The may be triggered only by the requesting country. ORHAP identifies the national level as being The host country alone must decide when the the key in activating fire management and threshold at which large-scale fires can no longer suppression resources from outside the region. be contained by national fire management Requests for assistance in fire suppression resources has been breached, and suppression directed to countries outside the ASEAN region resources drawn from the supranational level have in the past efficiently come from the will be required to prevent haze from violating national level. another country’s airspace. There are numerous operational reasons Second, the deployment of resources drawn (e.g., the need to arrange preclearance of from the supranational level must take place on personnel and equipment) why this approach the basis of an agreed subregional FSMP, rather allows deployment of external resources in the than on an ad hoc basis. The subregional FSMP shortest possible time. should, as a first step, sort out efficient This historically-evolved arrangement of deployment of national fire management mobilizing fire suppression resources from resources. outside the ASEAN region by national-level Only then should deployment of authorities is therefore retained under the supranational resources be integrated into the ORHAP. national-level framework.
122 THE PROGRAM This would appear to leave some issues As long as the relevant authorities in those SRFAs have a unresolved. First, the matter of requiring that a specified areas agree to participate in the mandate to national mobilization plan include provisions formulation and implementation of the plan, provide for fire suppression resource contributions from national sovereignty is in no way compromised. organized the supranational level could seem to contravene Sharing of resources drawn from the arrangements for national sovereignty. Second, and more important supranational level will be significant during supranational fire if no mobilization plan yet exists (or ever will) at the FSMP’s formulation phase. Both the panel suppression the national level, this would negate the possibility of national fire management experts and the resource-sharing of organized supranational resource-sharing at the donors should remain closely involved in the subregional level. These points underscore the formulation of the plan, which is a process that need for a clear legal framework. must ultimately be endorsed by HTTF and AMMH. The formulation stage of the SRFA- Legal Framework for SRFA-Level FSMP level FSMP should sort out the issues relating These problems become irrelevant unless and to its personnel, training, equipment, and until the national sovereignty issues relating to communications requirements. The recurrent SRFAs are sorted out. SRFAs (or any other costs of maintaining the level of readiness supranational ASEAN bodies) do not have a designed to be achieved will also be derived mandate to sort out the national FSMPs of from the plan as the formulation process individual AMCs, or even to require that such proceeds. plans be prepared. But SRFAs do have a mandate The fire management personnel of the to provide organized arrangements for transboundary-haze-source-countries must take supranational fire suppression resource-sharing. due responsibility for the FSMP, since it is their Several aspects of the rationale for country that must implement and execute the establishing SRFAs are relevant. They are a plan. Donors also have an important role to form of risk-pooling; the least-cost way of play through technical and financial support. collective action in preventing haze pollution In all matters relating to the functioning of from crossing international boundaries; and they SRFAs, HTTF’s, and AMMH’s, close are cost effective. Taking these considerations supervision is essential in solving issues and into account, the most efficient framework for providing guidance. organizing fire suppression resource-sharing Since the most haze-prone areas of the arrangements is through SRFA-level FSMPs ASEAN region lie within the jurisdiction of prepared only for those areas, within the relevant SRFA-Sumatra, its FSMP will be formulated SRFA’s geographical jurisdiction, with the first. From this plan, all relevant training, highest level of perceived risk of generating equipment, communications, and other transboundary haze. requirements for implementing the plan will Thus, the FSMP into which fire suppression be derived, and cost estimates and financing resources drawn from the supranational level plans worked out. are to be integrated is not an overall national Once the FSMP for SRFA-Sumatra has been FSMP. Instead, it is a geographically-specified formulated, complementary monitoring and FSMP that intensively focuses suppression prevention can be identified and integrated into resources into those areas of an SRFA’s the plan. This will be accomplished by adding jurisdiction that carry an extreme level of risk. (and properly integrating) all relevant
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 123 monitoring and prevention to be carried out at areas of Brunei Darussalam and Malaysia the SRFA level, into the FSMP. (chiefly, Sabah and Sarawak states). Emphasis If the FSMP of SRFA-Sumatra were must therefore be placed on using regional successful in reducing the risk of transboundary resources to the fullest extent to promote FSMPs haze within its member countries, it would in the eight Indonesian provinces. serve an important wider purpose of providing On the legal framework for activating a model for other subregional FSMPs. SRFA-level fire suppression resource sharing arrangements at the subregional level, it has Time Frame to Implement the Operating been proposed that these interagency Procedure agreements be negotiated and finalized over two The Operating Procedure for activating years, as part of the negotiation of an umbrella firefighting resources spans all actions relating ASEAN Agreement or Protocol on to formulation, linkages, and implementation Transboundary Haze Pollution. of the FSMPs. As conceived in the ORHAP, Considering the nature of the process formulation and implementation of FSMPs in involved, it is apparent that pursuing the If the FSMP of eight provinces of Indonesia, linking of these simultaneous formulation and implementation SRFA-Sumatra eight FSMPs at a national level, and its of FSMPs in eight provinces of Indonesia would were successful in formulation and implementation for SRFA- not be pragmatic. Emphasis must instead be reducing the risk Sumatra and SRFA-Borneo would complete the placed on getting FSMPs up and running in a of transboundary Operating Procedure as currently envisaged. restricted number of locales, and on making haze within its The time frame for full-scale implementation the process of formulating and implementing member of the operating procedure depends chiefly on such plans a sustainable and replicable process. countries, it two variables.35 The first and most important ADB’s RETA 5778 has been able to catalyze would serve an of these is the amount of time required for agreement with donors for support. important wider formulating and implementing FSMPs in the It has been estimated that upgrading of fire purpose of most haze-prone geographic areas of the management and linking of FSMPs at the providing a ASEAN region. The other is the time needed community, subdistrict, district, provincial, model for other for putting into place legal agreements for national, and subregional levels would take six subregional resource-sharing arrangements at the calendar years beginning in April 1999. This FSMPs subregional level. time frame and program for implementing the The geographic areas requiring the greatest Operating Procedure for activating forest fire degree of upgrading of fire management suppression resources is described on an action- capacity comprise eight provinces of Indonesia. by-action basis in the DIPs for SRFA-Sumatra The first four of these include Jambi, and SRFA-Borneo. Lampung, Riau, and South Sumatra provinces While it may be tempting, considering the on Sumatra. The other four are Central, East, possible proximity of the next ENSO, to reduce South, and West Kalimantan provinces, which the time frame, it should be remembered that together comprise the Indonesian portion of achieving sustainable gains in fire management Borneo. capacity is the primary goal of this exercise. Fire management capacity upgrading The implementation of the six-year program programs based on existing FSMPs are taking ultimately depends on the assent of Indonesia. place and progressing rapidly in the haze-prone From the Indonesian Government’s point of
124 THE PROGRAM view, a limited first phase of formulation and prepare logistics (field strategies) for different implementation of base-level FSMPs would give terrains and land types (steep hills, vast plains, it sufficient time to work out the details of its grass lands, peatswamps) and nature of fire program of decentralization of fire suppression (ground fire, crown fire, coal seam fire, etc.), activities. In this regard, the sequencing of the varying from beating the fire, counter firing, six-year program appears appropriate. The digging trenches to chemical spraying, and actual time frame for implementation of the water bombing. program is flexible. However, the high Central to the action is surveillance, fire economic, social, and environmental costs of monitoring, and detection as immediately as future transboundary haze will hopefully act as possible, and communicating the details of an impetus for it to be implemented as fast as location of fire spotted, nature, and type of fire possible. at detection, wind speed, and temperature, etc., as precisely as possible to the coordinating and Activities Under Threat of Fire Danger firefighting units. The information may come The fire danger warning is a critical period of from satellite monitoring, observation towers, high alert and of great significance in fire airlines, military patrols, or informants. In some management. This is because there is still the instances it will be necessary (if possible) to possibility to prevent fires breaking out through crosscheck and verify the information to avoid proper surveillance and by defusing ignition confusion and time wastage. sources. Appropriate action during this period The components of an effective system for can also help to prevent a spot fire becoming a suppression—readiness and actual fire conflagration. However, an important suppression—would involve coordinating preoccupation during this period should be mechanisms, human resources, funding complete readiness to attack any fire that breaks mechanisms, community response capability, out and to reduce its impact to the lowest adequacy of tools and equipment, fire training, possible level. logistical support, and cooperative The main activities during this period would arrangements. However, lack of attention to be to further review and fully understand all this phase was evident in many cases in field conditions; ensure the fitness of the crew Indonesia during the 1997-1998 fires. Field and adequacy of crew structure, equipment, and investigations in Riau and South Sumatra have facilities; go over possible alternative responses shown that during the fires of 1997-1998 there and fallback plans; establish the adequacy of were several lapses (ADB/ASEAN 1999). skills and competency in fire and rescue operations (such as pump operation, use of Fire Surveillance and Warning The breathing apparatus, assessing wind direction Vital information required for fire implementation and counter firing, fire jumping, water suppression and haze management is the of the six-year bombing, etc.); inform and alert the local location and extent of all fires. To strengthen program community and collaborating partners in surveillance capability, the Working Group of ultimately firefighting (e.g., fire service, forest service, SRFA-Sumatra implemented a fire surveillance depends on the police force, civil defense, armed forces, pilot project in Riau with support from assent of departments of health, information, civil Indonesia, Singapore, CIDA, and UNEP. The Indonesia aviation, transportation, information, etc.); and main activities were early detection of fires
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 125 using aircraft, near real-time remote and ground crew transport organized; equipment and tools To strengthen based information, photo documentation of fire in position; and the coordinated action (say, surveillance sites, communication of fire information to involving ground and aerial attacks) starts to capability, the ground fire stations, rapid ground checking, put out the fire—all in an efficient and Working Group and fire suppression. coordinated manner. Aspects such as standby of SRFA-Sumatra Fire detection is also carried out through relief teams, medical assistance, provision of implemented a surveillance by ground patrols and local food and drinking water, evacuation fire surveillance community members and by enlisting the arrangements, etc., should be such that the pilot project in cooperation of commercial airlines. A system firefighting could be conducted uninterruptedly, Riau with of fully equipped fire observation towers is as long as needed. support from normally an effective means to detect and In remote and inaccessible areas, it may be Indonesia, pinpoint the location of fire. But there are only necessary to airlift the crew or resort to aerial Singapore, a few functioning fire observation towers in fire control. Wherever feasible, ground efforts CIDA, and the AMCs. Communication has been an area can be supported through water bombing. In UNEP of weakness, particularly at the subnational the cases of large fire events, firefighters will (provincial and district) and local levels (Anon need to be supported by voluntary fire brigades, 1997a). forest workers, armed forces, etc. Smoke Fire danger warning is an area of obvious control, through efforts to isolate the fire and overlap between mitigation and monitoring to reduce the volume and effects of smoke, is programs. Since monitoring has to do more with an integral part of fire management. Mopping fire danger rating and early warning, these have up or post-fire suppression (including felling been discussed at length under that section. of smoldering trees) is important to ensure that the fire is fully extinguished. When a Blaze Blows Reports indicate that during the 1997-1998 The efficiency and effectiveness of the FSMP fires in Indonesia, several measures were taken and dispatch system will be put to test during in the forestry sector: direct suppression by local an actual fire, i.e., fire suppression. The fire crews (forest rangers) in cooperation with response time should be as short as possible army and police personnel; mobilization of fire and this will happen if the fire location is crews from neighboring provinces; organizing correctly identified in maps and with reference local people and concession staff to fight fires; to quick access. water bombing (also using chemical retardants) from aircrafts; and cloud seeding to induce rain. ‘Combat’ Plan and Action International emergency assistance, in addition The fire “combat” plan, which has been to long-term development assistance, was (hopefully) well rehearsed, is to be put into received in the form of services of trained action instantly, once the news of a blaze arrives. firefighters (e.g., from Malaysia), aircraft, and The crew(s) and volunteers are assembled; water bombing facilities (from the United mission explained, and directions given in quick States), along with firefighting supplies, hand briefing (e.g., regarding fire intensity, wind tools, and other equipment (e.g., from direction, water sources, escape routes, relief Germany). Sophisticated technology (water arrangements); tasks are clearly assigned; bombing, cloud seeding) was used only on a deployment prioritized in cases of multiple fires; limited scale and its success was undetermined.
126 THE PROGRAM In 1997, Indonesia reportedly had some types of fires (MOE-UNDP 1998, BAPPENAS 14,000 persons trained in firefighting of whom 1999). Effective fire control at the local level only 1,400 were regular staff of MOFEC (forest depends on understanding of simple techniques; rangers), 8,500 persons were with forest and at this level fires can be contained using concessions, 3,500 were with State-owned locally available resources of personnel and enterprises, and 600 were members of the equipment. public. These numbers appear highly A good fire suppression strategy will more insufficient. Some 8,000 firefighters battled the than compensate the cost of upkeep of blaze in Indonesia for months in 1997 and preparedness, when compared to the value of 1998. Additionally, MOFEC operated its the risks and losses averted. command posts for 24 hours a day at the central level in Jakarta and Bogor, and in each province. Post-Fire Action Through these posts, information and In the case of small fires, economic and directions on fire situation and control were environmental impacts are likely to be low. With exchanged. In spite of involving a large number large fires, such as those experienced in the of agencies/institutions at the central, region in 1982-1983, 1994, and 1997-1998, The failures of provincial, district, and local levels, the fires there will be multiple impacts—in-boundary and 1997-1998 offer could not be fully controlled and final respite transboundary. Transboundary impacts are felt several lessons for came only with the rains. primarily in the form of haze pollution. Thus, the future The failures of 1997-1998 offer several the post-fire measures needed will be of two lessons for the future. categories: (i) mitigation of environmental emergency, and (ii) rehabilitation of material Coordination and Logistics damages. Lack of effective and meaningful coordination involving a large number of Mitigation of Environmental Emergency agencies/institutions at the central, provincial, This activity is to be started almost district, and local levels was a serious problem immediately after the onset of a large fire and during the 1997-1998 fire disaster. Similar may have to continue for days after the fire is deficiencies in coordination were also seen extinguished. elsewhere. For example, aerial support for firefighting provided as part of emergency Suffocating and Blinding Impacts assistance could not be coordinated with ground Transboundary atmospheric haze pollution action and it was, therefore, not effective. If there can result in an environmental emergency with is no effective and efficient system in place to “suffocating and blinding” impacts on public prevent, control, and combat fires at site, any health, shipping and transport, civil aviation, amount of technological inputs elsewhere will agricultural and industrial production, tourism, not be of much use. A balancing of equipment, and on the general welfare of the people. It is technology, and training is required for necessary to establish and operate a system of optimizing benefits. alertness or warning based on the PSI and API Several recent reviews of the fire situation indicating public health impacts of different in Indonesia conclude that fire suppression levels of pollution. Simultaneously, it is necessary measures undertaken were not effective for all to specify the actions individuals and institutions
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 127 BOX 13 Fire Suppression—Minimum Requirements of Personnel and Equipment
The ITTO/CFC/IPB Project: National • two sets of hand tools; and field conditions. The team is Guidelines (for Indonesia) on the • eight backpack pumps; equipped with one HT, and Protection of Forests Against Fire • one portable pump; communication kits including specifies the following minimum • 33 units of protective equipment; whistles and semaphore flags. personnel and equipment require- and (iv) One team of heavyweight ments for every 30,000 ha of forest. • one unit of logistic support such as equipment. The team is supplied (i) One mobile suppression team tents, cooking equipment, first aid, with kits similar to the pump team. consisting of 34 people. The team and maps. Although these specifications includes one team leader, one (ii) One mobile detection team appear to be appropriate for general person responsible for logistics, comprising two people (one driver, conditions, the circumstances at two drivers, and three fire crews of one passenger). The team rides a trail national as well as lower levels require 10, each consisting of one crew motorcycle and is supplied with one standards unique to local conditions. boss and nine crew members. This pair of binoculars, one HT-5 watts, two Land type, landscape, topography, team is supplied with: forester’s bolos, one backpack pump, vegetative cover, and demography are • one 4WD pick-up truck (1 ton); situation maps, and logistical support. factors to be taken into account in • four Handy Talkys (HT-5 watts), The equipment is used for initial determining specific equipment one each for the team leader attack. requirements. and group leaders; (iii) One pump team. The number of team • one radio station (40 watts); members depends on fire magnitude (Source: ITTO/IPB/MOFEC 1999).
need to take to reduce the impact. Relevant community awareness raising and education actions to be undertaken at institutional level programs, structured data collecting systems, include dissemination of information about the and rapid response mechanisms. These should pollution level; alerting medical institutions; be properly coordinated. emergency medical relief; supplying smoke masks, oxygen cylinders, and other emergency Demobilization needs; restricting civil, industrial, educational, Demobilization procedure would be and cultural activities; and closing of airports undertaken after the fire suppression has been and transport systems to avert accidents. completed, including: (a) personnel demobilization: (i) recount of Health Care total personnel, (ii) checking of There is insufficient knowledge on the public personnel health, (iii) rehabilitation health implications of haze on growing children, support, and (iv) repatriation and return There is elderly, and the infirm; and this would call for of persons to their respective agency; insufficient long-term monitoring. A post-haze assessment (b) equipment demobilization: (i) each unit knowledge on of losses or costs (direct and indirect), and collects all equipment that has been the public health identification and mapping of major haze used, cleans it, and fixes it if broken; implications of sources and haze-prone areas is required to (ii) checks the amount, type, and haze on growing impress on the need to avert similar (human- ownership of equipment before children, elderly, caused) disasters in the future, at all costs. returning to Command Post/Policy and the infirm; There is also a need for long-term planning in Level Crisis Center (POSKO); (iii) and this would the health sector to mitigate the effects of forest POSKO officer checks all equipment, call for long-term and land fires, supported by infrastructure referring to the equipment inventory list; monitoring development, equipment and skills for air (iv) if all equipment has been collected, quality monitoring, health-effect alleviation, it will be returned to the owners
128 THE PROGRAM according to the inventory list of damaging influences, cutting back of seedlings borrowed equipment; (v) owners store and saplings capable of sprouting, and a phased the equipment in warehouses; and (vi) replanting program depending on the condition replacement of damaged equipment of the burned area. within a reasonable period. When the area and damage involved is large In normal cases of annual or periodic fires (consequently requiring heavy investment), it where the extent and damage is limited, the will be necessary to address the situation based main post-fire activity will be demobilization. on a detailed rehabilitation plan. The area to Even in cases where the impact has been heavy be rehabilitated may include plantation forests, and multi-faceted, demobilization (as far as it peat swamps, mixed hill forests (some having relates to firefighting) has to take place. The coal seam fires), and protected areas. Each of serious post-fire problems are to be addressed the different forest types would require different on a different footing and level. silvicultural treatments: sanitary felling, cleaning, promoting natural regeneration, enrichment Rehabilitation of Material Damages planting, etc., in some cases; salvage felling, Salvage and Rehabilitation of burned forests, lands, and land preparation, disposal of inflammable sanitary other properties would involve inventory and materials, and replanting in other cases; and operations to classification of fire damage; fire scar reinforced protection measures as required, in save usable evaluation; loss or cost estimation; salvage all cases, to ensure that another fire is avoided. timber and to operations (to remove recoverable/reusable Rehabilitation can be taken up as part of an dispose of the materials); planning and implementing overall IFFM for a defined geographic area. combustible revegetation and replanting measures to nurture Salvaging of the residual stock, depending materials to avoid back damaged areas; and compensation for on the nature of burn, can be in the form of future fires are an private loss to innocent persons. Mopping up logs, fuel and charcoal, chips, or briquettes essential post-fire of the burned area is to be undertaken before a made out of pulverized wood. In most cases, activity post-fire inventory and classification is carried however, it may not be economical and out. A plan of action for follow-up has to be pulverized wood may have to be mixed with decided accordingly—for example, to salvage soil and allowed to disintegrate. the usable materials, carry out sanitary Post-fire rehabilitation often turns out to be operations, rehabilitate the area by natural a major investment activity.36 For lack of regeneration or artificial means, etc. resources, this important aspect of forest fire Salvage and sanitary operations to save usable management is often neglected, leaving the timber and to dispose of the combustible remnants as a future source of fire. materials to avoid future fires are an essential post-fire activity. The dead materials would also Monitoring serve as a sanctuary for pests and diseases. ORHAP’s Monitoring Program Another important but often neglected part of For effective monitoring, numerous activities the post-fire process is to assess the damage will have to be undertaken at the ASEAN and to make a report on it, including important regional, subregional, national, provincial observations. Post-fire silvicultural operations (subnational), and local levels. The program would cover short- and long-term rehabilitation activities included under the ORHAP do not measures involving complete protection from necessarily cover the entire spectrum of
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 129 monitoring, but represent those that are continuous, or incremental; it can be done required at the ASEAN level to remove binding directly, indirectly, or by proxy measures; and it constraints and to ensure effective functioning can be done from ground (site) or air (remote). of the monitoring system. It can employ simple methods or measures The activities that define the monitoring (number, area, volume, profit) or sophisticated program of the ORHAP at present include the technology involving satellites, computers, and following: systems science, providing for multiple linkages (i) detecting wildfires; (e.g., weather data, economic data, GIS) and (ii) predicting and tracking their facilities to import and export information. movements and the movement of the The data needs of sophisticated monitoring resulting haze; systems are often tremendous, ranging from (iii) forecasting the degree to which land-use changes and demographic trends to wildfires are likely to generate haze, as socioeconomic indicators, hydrometeorological well as the type or composition of factors, spatial and temporal distribution of emissions likely to be generated; relevant factors, and environmental standards. (iv) determining the likely health impacts In the case of forest fires and haze, resulting from typical or particular haze; monitoring covers: (v) determining the areas historically (i) fire factors (e.g., weather, human Monitoring affected by forest fires and haze in the activity, danger level); covers all aspects region, or those likely to be affected by (ii) atmospheric factors (e.g., air quality, of planning and particular types; and visibility) including factors of human implementation— vi) assessing the impact of past forest fires, health and welfare (e.g., PSI/API, the causes, the including the extent of the area burned, concentration of particulate matter); context, and the the composition of flora and fauna and consequences destroyed, and the socioeconomic cost (iii) predictions (about drought, ENSOs). of particular forest fires at the local, Depending on the nature of activity (e.g., national, and global levels. detection of land clearing or incipient fires, Monitoring of the implementation of the recording of weather data, tracking the ORHAP per se will be dealt with under the movement of haze), monitoring, including section, “Strengthening of Institutions.” information gathering, can be carried out from the ground or from the air. Scope and Purpose Monitoring requires several related actions: Fire- and Haze-Related Monitors overseeing, observing, watching, checking, Fire and haze and their consequences are linked keeping track of, warning, regulating, testing, to a large number of monitoring variables— measuring, etc. Monitoring covers all aspects covering climatic factors, economic and land- of planning and implementation—the causes, use policies, civil defense systems, technological the context, and the consequences. capability, public health and welfare, and other There are, thus, large variations in the scope, related aspects. methods, types, purposes, and outputs of Actions for prevention and mitigation of fire monitoring. Monitoring can be of an event, a and haze involve prediction and detection of process, or an output; it can be discreet, fires, and assessments of impacts. These require
130 THE PROGRAM a combination of monitoring efforts of different regions of the tropics. Climate change models The manifold nature and complexity, and coordination and for assessing the interactions and impacts of interactions integration of information from various expected changes in temperatures, precipitation, between climate monitoring sources. How the information and length of dry season can help to predict changes and (message) is communicated and acted upon is such developments. human-caused also a matter to be monitored for assessing the An assessment of the potential impacts of disturbances of efficiency and effectiveness, as well as the need climate change on fire regimes in the tropics ecosystems often for undertaking refinement or improvement. based on Global Climate Models (GCMs) result in changes Types of monitoring data and measurements (Goldammer and Price 1998) recently indicated of fire regimes, involved, with respect to fire and haze, are with a high degree of certainty that tropical particularly in the varied in nature, e.g., land-based measurements, closed-evergreen forests will become densely ship-platform-borne measurements, aircraft- increasingly subjected to high wildfire risk populated borne measurements, satellite and spacecraft- because of land-use changes, increasing fire regions of the borne measurements, and a wide range of sources (use of fire as a land-clearing tool), and tropics meteorological information. climate change (prolonged dry seasons, To obtain high accuracy, the data need to be increasing occurrence of extreme droughts). properly calibrated and validated. The analysis International fire managers need to be of data will require the availability of a GIS prepared for situations that in the near future database that must comprise regional vegetation may require the development of innovative distribution map, fuel map, fire risk map, and technologies and the preparedness to land use map with information on fire agents, accomplish tasks that may differ from today’s causes, etc. For combined fire-smoke analysis, situation. This implies a perpetual alertness. this kind of database can then be linked to While warning of potential disaster implies a high atmospheric chemical analyses. level of confidence, a second level, or alert level, The fire monitoring system based on remote with lower level of confidence is useful from the sensing must provide spatio-temporal standpoint of strategic or contingency planning. information on fire activities that will allow the This alert level is intended to convey the message production of datasets useful for a variety of that the potential for disaster has increased, but purposes. Information on the location of fire that actions would still be limited to planning. requires geographic accuracy in order to know in which ecosystem type or in which land-use Upgrading Needs of the Monitoring system individual fires or a sequence of fires are System burning. The timing of fire monitoring within There are at present no satellites solely a season and within the day as well as frequency dedicated to monitoring (including quantifying of observation (e.g., daily, weekly, etc.) and geographical extent and environmental impact) periods of observation (e.g., continuous or at of forest fires and haze. intervals) are critical. The resolution of data must However, there are systems (satellite be determined in accordance with specific needs. networks) from where relevant observations can The manifold interactions between climate be downloaded. changes and human-caused disturbances of The “Guidelines on Fire Management in ecosystems often result in changes of fire Tropical Forests” (ITTO 1997a), targeting regimes, particularly in the densely populated developing regions of the tropics, state that:
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 131 “Assessment, prediction and monitoring The CWFIS incorporates several functions There are several of fire risk and means of quantification of and aspects: weather observations, weather forest fire forest fires and other rural fires are forecasts, fire danger, fire behavior, fire activity, monitoring and prerequisites for fire management planning resource status, situation reports, decision information purposes. Statistical data sets can also be support systems, technology transfer, and systems, mainly used to call attention of authorities, information exchange. The Canadian in industrialized policymakers and the general public. In experience has shown that exchanging countries, that the tropics, it is difficult to gather such information among fire agencies is a precursor can serve as information by ground-based methods. to developing mutual understanding. This, in prototypes Air- and space-borne sensors offer turn, fosters agreements to exchange resources possibilities to less accessible and sparsely as no agency or nation can be completely self- populated land areas with inadequate sufficient in fire management. Prior interagency ground-based infrastructures.” and intergovernmental agreements are the key The Guidelines recommended that AMCs: to avoiding delays that can preclude effective (a) seek access to weather information from exchanges of resources. ground stations and space-borne systems, using this information for fire ORHAP and Functional Role of intelligence (the risk assessment); Monitoring (b) use existing remote sensing systems for The monitoring program of the ORHAP covers fire detection and prediction to obtain three broad areas—monitoring for prevention, real-time information on the location of monitoring for mitigation, and ex post fires; and monitoring. There are obvious overlaps among (c) join others in supporting the them. development of international Monitoring for prevention includes: mechanisms (early warning systems), to forecasting weather variations that are likely to predict wildfires. Such a system would increase the risk of fire and haze, monitoring not predict occurrence, but rather would changes in meteorological variables, and using report the development of conditions the resulting data and information as inputs into that could result in serous fires. It would the operation of the region’s fire danger rating have to gather and interpret information system (FDRS). The FDRS provides from several sources, including satellites quantitative measurements of the level of risk and land-based stations. of fire and haze to which a particular geographic area is exposed. Prototypes Monitoring for mitigation includes detecting There are several forest fire monitoring and wildfires, and predicting and tracking their information systems, mainly in industrialized movements; detecting haze pollution resulting countries, that can serve as prototypes. from wildfires, and predicting and tracking its Integrated systems, such as the Canadian movement; forecasting the composition/type of Wildland Fire Information System (CWFIS), emissions; and determining the health impacts developed by the Canadian Forest Service, is a of typical or particular haze occurrences in the prototype system that is adaptable to other region. Ex post monitoring includes: countries. determining the areas historically affected by
132 THE PROGRAM fire and haze in the region, and assessing the (a) an early warning system that predicts impact of previous instances. The ORHAP’s extended dry periods by forecasting long- monitoring program provides information that: term changes in weather variables; (i) permits fire management and (b) a fire danger rating system that identifies suppression resources to be prepared areas subject to heightened risk of fire; and positioned in a way that allows them (c) a large-scale fire management assistance to be used as efficiently as possible in component that detects outbreaks of managing large-scale fires; wildfires and haze, and tracks and (ii) allows haze-affected populations predicts their movements; additional time to take precautions (d) a haze, atmospheric pollution, and health against the adverse health impacts of component that determines the intensity impending haze; and composition of emissions from forest (iii) allows haze-prone jurisdictions fires, and their impacts on human health; additional time to take actions that and counterbalance an impending increase (e) an ex post monitoring component that in the risk of large-scale fires and haze assesses the damage caused by fires and pollution; haze. (iv) allows potential haze-affected populations to be informed of the Early Warning nature of the adverse human health Early warning is an essential component of impacts of haze pollution, and of the any fire and haze monitoring program. An steps they can take to reduce these appropriate early warning system is required impacts; and to alert authorities of the need to intensify (v) helps sum up the ex post estimates of preventive measures, and when appropriate, to the economic costs of fires and haze deploy fire suppression resources to areas of that may be used as a guide for heightened risk. determining the appropriate level of This is performed by an assessment and future investment to offset such evaluation of the contributory factors such as disasters. temperature, humidity, wind speed and Thus, the rationale of monitoring is that direction, vegetation dryness, fuel load and it greatly increases the efficiency of measures activities in the neighborhood; by generating aimed at reducing the impacts of fires and forecasts of long-term changes in climatological haze. While monitoring tends to exhibit variables; and monitoring short- to medium- powerful economies of scale, future investment term changes in the meteorological variables should be evaluated mainly on the basis of its that provide data inputs into the operation of Monitoring capacity to reduce haze pollution. the region’s FDRS. greatly increases Early warning of fire and atmospheric the efficiency of Categorization of Component pollution hazards may involve locally-generated measures aimed Activities indicators, such as local fire-weather forecasts at reducing the The ORHAP’s regional monitoring system for and assessment of vegetation dryness, or impacts of fires responding to forest fires and haze consists of advanced technologies that rely on remotely and haze five broad categories of activities: sensed data, evaluation of synoptic weather
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 133 information, and international communication The ENSO Index systems (Goldammer 1997b). Forest fire models The ENSO Index (ENSOI) has been found generally concentrate on determining if weather to be a useful indicator for drought (and conditions offer the possibility of starting and consequently for potential fire) in Indonesia. spreading forest fires, supported by studies on ENSOI is a standard value of the pressure properties of forest combustible matters, the difference between Tahiti and Darwin, influence of combustion, and investigations on Australia. This index is inversely correlated with the geometry of forest fire spreading. sea surface temperature (SST) anomaly. A more There are two levels of early warning: long- sensitive (warmer) SST anomaly implies a more term early warning mainly linked to climate negative ENSOI value, which in turn implies a factors; and medium- to short-term early stronger ENSO occurrence. warning, which considers other fire precursors ENSOs are associated with global scale for fire danger rating. variations in sea surface temperature and pressure. Since there is good degree of The Climate Factor persistence and predictability in some of the Despite their coarse spatial and temporal parameters, this offers possibilities for statistical There are two resolution, global climate models (GCMs) forecasting, at least three months in advance. levels of early provide the best means currently available to An extensive array of buoys, collectively warning: predict future climate and fire danger (and hence known as the Tropical Atmospheric Ocean long-term early early warning) on a broad scale. Regional climate (TAO) array,37 provides continuous monitoring warning mainly models (RCMs), with much higher resolution, of SST in the Pacific Ocean. The data from linked to climate are under development and will permit more this array, combined with observations from factors; and accurate regional-scale climate projections. various other systems in the Global Climate medium- to Observing System (GCOS),38 is analyzed by short-term early The Canadian Fire Weather Index renowned climate centers, such as the NOAA warning, which The Canadian Fire Weather Index (FWI) is Climate Prediction Center. The analyzed data considers other an example that serves as a means of early are used for input to climate prediction models fire precursors warning. Noon measurements of temperature, that will predict global weather patterns three for fire relative humidity, windspeed, and precipitation to six months ahead. Institutions such as the danger rating for different weather stations are used to International Research Institute (IRI), United calculate the component codes of the FWI. Daily Kingdom Meteorological Office (UKMO), and FWI values are converted to Daily Severity European Center for Medium-Range Weather Rating (DSR) values using a technique Forecasting (ECMWF) undertake climate developed in 1959 and modified by Van Wagner prediction. Most of the climate centers make (1987). This severity rating technique permits their forecast products available on the Internet the integration of fire severity over periods of (Goldammer 1997d). various lengths, from daily (DSR) through monthly (MSR) to seasonal (SSR) values. Country-Level Capability The FWI System provides an assessment of Most national meteorological services (NMS) relative fire potential based solely on weather have developed a certain level of capability in observations, and does not take forest type into long-range climate forecasting for them to consideration. predict ENSOs well in advance of their onset.
134 THE PROGRAM They can therefore assist their respective burning something when the fire hazard is national authorities directly in taking high. Fire risk can also be raised by natural appropriate fire management and drought factors, such as burning coal seams. Fire hazard prevention measures well in advance. Further, can be rated with a reasonable degree of climate products by well-respected scientific accuracy, while assessing the level of meteorological centers are available on the risk is much more subjective because human Internet that would provide further guidance attitudes and motivation must be taken into and support to NMS. account. FDRSs have been devised by fire authorities Developments in Forecasting to provide early warning of conditions Meteorological Trends conducive to the onset and development of Until recently, long-term forecasts could only extreme wildfires. The factors that predispose provide meteorological trends one to six months a particular location to an extreme wildfire in advance. However, modern long-term threat change over time scales that are measured seasonal and interannual climate prediction in decades, years, months, days, and hours. The models are now available that can predict concept of fire danger involves tangible and weather changes such as ENSOs up to one year intangible factors, physical processes, and Climate in advance with relative accuracy. hazards. By definition, “fire danger” is a general prediction In addition to the long-term climate term used to express an assessment of constant models are now prediction models available, traditional and variable fire danger factors affecting the available that can meteorological statistics can be used to predict inception, spread, intensity, and difficulty to predict weather climatological changes. control fires and the impact they cause (Chandler changes such as ASEAN’s early warning system should et al. 1983). ENSOs up to include capabilities for both long-term climate The constant factors in this definition are one year in prediction modeling and long-range those that do not change rapidly with time but advance with climatological forecasts using traditional vary with location: e.g., slope, fuel, resource relative accuracy meteorological statistics. values, etc. The variable factors are those that In addition to generating long-term weather change rapidly with time and can influence forecasts, the ASEAN early warning system extensive areas at one time. These are primarily should also have the capability to perform short- the weather variables that affect fire behavior. to medium-term monitoring of weather All the potential factors referred to in the variables used as inputs into the operation of definition must be present. If there is absolutely the region’s FDRS. no chance of ignition, then there is no fire danger. If fuels are absent or cannot burn, then Fire Danger Rating there is no fire danger. If fires can start and The danger that a forest will burn depends spread but there are no values at risk as may be on the levels of fire hazard and fire risk. Fire perceived for remote areas managed for hazard is a measure of the amount, type, and ecological diversity, there is no fire danger for dryness of potential fuel in the forest. Fire risk values at risk. is a measure of the probability that the fuel FDRSs produce qualitative and/or numerical will ignite. The level of risk is usually related indexes of fire potential that can be used as to careless human action, such as deliberately guides in a variety of fire management activities
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 135 including early warning of fire threat. Different total fuel loads, which may be changing over It is impossible to systems of widely varying complexity have been periods of decades or even centuries. Fuel communicate a developed throughout the world, reflecting the changes start immediately after the cessation complete picture severity of the fire climate and the needs of fire of cultural or agricultural burning. This change of the daily fire management. The simplest systems use only usually runs in parallel with increased danger with a temperature and relative humidity to provide suppression efficiency whereby small fires under single index an index of the potential for fire starts (e.g., moderate fire danger conditions are suppressed Chandler et al. 1983). FDRSs of intermediate early in their life. In this situation, one may be complexity combine measures of drought and lulled into a false sense of security because the weather as applied to a standard fuel type to potential for high-intensity forest fires is not predict the speed of a fire or its difficulty of manifest except in extreme weather. suppression (e.g., McArthur 1966, 1967; Thus, the first element of early warning for Sneeuwjagt and Peet 1985). The most complex a potential fire risk is a major shift in the total systems have been developed in Canada and forest fuel complex toward denser forests, with the United States (Deeming et al. 1978) that a large build-up of surface debris and a change combine measures of fuel, topography, in vulnerability of the population by living more weather, and risk of ignition to provide indexes intimately with these fuels. of fire occurrence or fire behavior, which can be used either separately or combined to Fuel Availability produce a single index of fire load. The seasonal change in fuel availability as While a single fire danger index may be fuels dry out during the onset of the fire danger useful to provide early warning of wildfire period sets the stage for severe wildfires. Under activity over broad areas, it is impossible to drought conditions more of the total fuel communicate a complete picture of the daily complex is available for combustion. Deep litter fire danger with a single index. Therefore, it is beds and even organic soils may dry out and necessary to break a fire danger rating into its become combustible. Large fuels such as major components to appreciate where early downed logs and branches may burn completely. warning systems for single factors fall into the Drought stress on living vegetation not only overall picture of fire danger rating. These, reduces the moisture content of the green foliage relating to fire precursors, fall into three broad but also dried plant matter such as leaves and categories of (i) changes in fuel load; (ii) bark can be shed, adding to the total load of changes in fuel availability or combustion; and the surface fuel. In extreme droughts, moist (iii) changes in weather variables that influence areas such as swamps dry out and are no longer fire behavior (spread and intensity). a barrier to the spread of fires as might be expected in a normal fire season. Long-term Warning Regarding Fire Precursors moisture deficiency in itself cannot be used to Changes in Fuel Load forecast critical fire situations because if the In all fire danger ratings, fuel load is assumed smaller fine fuels are wet or green, serious fires to be constant although specific fuel will not occur at any time of the year.39 characteristics may be formulated for specific However, most devastating fires occur when vegetation types or for specific fuel models. severe fire weather variables are combined with These fuel models may overlook major shifts in extreme drought.
136 THE PROGRAM Fire Behavior As improved fire behavior models for The fire spread component of FDRSs is specific fuel types are developed, there is an designed to combine the weather elements increasing need to separate the functions of fire affecting fire behavior and provide a prediction danger and fire spread (Cheney 1991). A of how fires will change hourly during the day. regional fire weather index based on either fire Most indexes use 24-hour rain, and daily spread or suppression difficulty in a standard extremes or hourly measurements of fuel type and uniform topography is required temperature, relative humidity, and wind speed to provide public warnings, set fire restrictions, to predict the rate of spread of forest fires. In and establish levels of readiness for fire some systems, notably the US National Fire suppression. At a local level, fire spread models Danger Rating System and the Canadian Fire that predict the development and spread of a Weather Index System, indexes of fire spread fire across the landscape through different are combined with a long-term measure of topography and through a number of fuel types drought to provide an index of the total are required for prescribed burning, severity of the fire. This is termed a Burning suppression planning, and tactical operations. Index in the United States system or a Fire However, these systems can be confusing on a Weather Index in the Canadian system. broader scale by providing too much detail. Fire spread indexes are essentially weather They may be influenced by atypical variation processors (Andrews 1991) and the data of critical factors at the measuring site and may required to provide early warning of severe fire lose the broad-scale appreciation of regional fire conditions depend primarily on the ability to danger that is required for early warning provide adequate space and time forecasts of purposes. the weather. The synoptic systems that are likely to Different Variables and Different produce severe fire weather tend to be well Models known but the ability to predict their onset The basic variables used in virtually all FDRSs depend largely on the regularity of movement are rain, temperature, and humidity. More and formation of atmospheric pressure systems. sophisticated fire danger rating systems also In Australia, the genesis of severe fire weather incorporate data on fuel types, land-use patterns, synoptic systems has, at times, been recognized and other variables. Most indexes use up to three days in advance; more often less A basic FDRS is indicated in the ORHAP 24-hour rain, than 24 hours warning is available before the for the ASEAN region because of its cost- and daily severity of fire weather variables can be effectiveness and minimal data requirements. extremes or determined. Extended and long-range forecasts Moreover, nearly all large-scale fires in the hourly contain greater uncertainty, and there is less region are caused by direct human intervention. measurements of confidence in fire severity forecasts at these time A blunt measure of fire danger rating is more temperature, scales. appropriate and cost-effective in this context relative humidity, Even so, these forecasts are useful in fire than a sophisticated one. and wind speed management in that they can be used to develop Incorporating data on fuel types, land-use to predict the contingency plans, that is, developing options, patterns, and other variables significantly rate of spread of but not to implement them until the forecasts increases the cost of operating FDRSs, since it forest fires are more certain. expands data requirements and requires
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 137 frequent updating of nonmeteorological data. proven to be a useful early warning tool and is The increased cost of a sophisticated FDRS is now incorporated into the US National Fire difficult to justify in a context of deliberate Danger Rating System (Pyne et al. 1996) and setting of fires, since the level of activity of Australian Forest Fire Danger Rating System perpetrators closely tracks increases in dryness (McArthur 1967). and temperature, which create conditions ideal ASMC currently generates short- to medium- for burning of biomass generated from land- range weather forecasts daily and compiles and clearing. In such a context, perpetrator activity updates the regional rainfall data charts weekly. is only distantly related to fuel type. As for land- It can therefore forecast the location of dry spots use patterns, the only reliable relationship in the region that would potentially be subject between these and perpetrator activity is that to heightened risk of forest fires. This data and specific geographic areas have been earmarked information can be used in the operation of a for land conversion. Obviously, such areas face basic early warning system, such as the KBDI, a higher risk of deliberately set fires than do a simplified variant of which may serve the needs Data on the three areas not slated for land clearing. of the ASEAN region, given current conditions important Data on the three important weather and constraints. weather variables variables required for operating a basic FDRS Basic FDRSs based on the KBDI are already required for are routinely collected by ASEAN’s network of in operation in two high-risk areas of Indonesia. operating a basic ground stations. The most cost-effective means IFFM has institutionalized a KBDI-type FDRS are of investing in a FDRS for the region appears system in East Kalimantan. KBDI also forms routinely to be to upgrade reporting of the data collected, the basis of the system used by FFPCP based collected by and if appropriate, expand or upgrade the in Palembang, Sumatra. ASMC has been ASEAN’s existing network of ground stations. This would calculating the KBDI for both Sumatra and network of allow an operable and reliable regionwide Kalimantan using rainfall data from selected ground stations FDRS to be put in place in the shortest possible stations in Indonesia. Operation of KBDI-based time. Upgrading the system to include systems in these pilot areas over several years additional variables such as fuel types and land- demonstrates that such a system can be use patterns could be undertaken later, if this is sustained in high-risk areas of the region deemed appropriate in the face of changing (Schindler 1998b). circumstances. However, establishing and operating a KBDI-based FDRS on an ASEAN-wide basis The Keetch-Byram Drought Index is limited by two factors. First, the system must There are several bookkeeping methods of be adopted on a regionwide basis. This monitoring the seasonal development of constraint can be easily addressed under the drought. The Keetch-Byram (1968) Drought umbrella of an ASEAN-wide agreement on fires Index (KBDI) is a number representing the and haze, provided it is agreeable to all of the net effect of evapotranspiration and precipitation member states. To be effective, such an in producing a cumulative measure of moisture agreement, including any provisions relating deficiency in the deep duff and soil layers. It is to regional cooperation in operating the FDRS, a continuous index, which can be related to the would have to be unanimously adopted. changes in fuel availability mentioned above and The second constraint is that data must be the occurrence of severe fires. The index has provided on a regular and timely basis by
138 THE PROGRAM national-level government agencies. The Other Indexes accuracy of the regional FDRS would greatly Other similar drought indexes used elsewhere depend on timely reporting of weather data. include the drought code component of the All AMCs are now collecting data on the three Canadian Fire Weather Index System, Australian base meteorological variables required for Mount Soil Dryness Index (Mount 1972), and operating a KBDI-based system. However, the Drought Index used in France (Goldammer absence of a satisfactory formal arrangement 1997c). to ensure regular relaying of such data to ASMC Although drought indexes can be built into has been a problem. This results in uneven a broader FDRS, they are most effective as an reporting of data to ASMC, and wide variation early warning system when they are maintained in the timeliness of reports. separately and charted to illustrate the In the absence of data from verified progressive moisture deficit for a specific observations, ASMC must “fill in” the missing location. This allows the fire manager to data by interpolation or estimation. This compare the current season with historical problem can be overcome by putting into place records of past seasons. The fire manager can formal arrangements for reporting of the relevant also make associations between level of drought data to ASMC. index and levels of fire that are specific to the region. This overcomes the problems caused Rainfall Deficit by variation of both forest and soil type, which Rainfall deficit is used as a local area early can mask the recognition of severe drought warning indicator. As the maximum when a drought index is applied across broad temperature and relative humidity in the areas. tropical areas are almost constant, then the Regular charting of bookkeeping-type systems information content of any warning index is such as KBDI or the Mount Soil Dryness Index increased minimally by incorporating these are particularly useful in monitoring the effects measures. The most important and probably of below-average rainfall during the normal wet the only important parameter will be rainfall. or winter season. Moisture deficits from the An alternative simpler index with more previous dry season may be carried over to information than KBDI would be the 30-day winter. As the next fire season develops, high running mean rainfall. levels of drought may occur early in the season It is the variation from normal or average when, under the normal seasonal pattern, large conditions that signals when warnings need and intense fires rarely occur. In some parts of to take place. the world, there are indexes that indicate the Relative rainfall Relative rainfall deficit would be changes in the global circulation patterns, which deficit would be comprehensible to the public as it takes into may provide warning as much as six to nine comprehensible account the environment of the area and its months in advance of dry conditions. One of to the public as it behavior. It relates to the community’s these is the ENSOI. takes into experience of dryness and could be observed account the Initiative on a FDRS for the Region and calculated by simply having a rain gauge environment of and keeping records, thus opening up the CIDA is reviewing the possibility of the area and its prospect of grassroots participation and supporting establishment of a KBDI-based behavior ownership. FDRS.40 If adopted, the CIDA initiative could
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 139 be a welcome means of extending the existing A pilot program of aerial surveillance was If a wildfire pilot KBDI-based systems (or a simplified conducted with UNEP assistance in Riau occurs, in spite of variant of them such as the Rainfall Debt province of Indonesia, under the auspices of the the early warning proposed in the ADTA 2999 final report, which SRFA-Sumatra. The use of SPOT imagery to system and the takes dryness41 as the predictor) to AMCs, by further support SRFA-Sumatra’s aerial preventive stages. surveillance program is being explored via a measures taken SRFA-Sumatra is a likely candidate for the RHAP initiative supported by UNEP. It is by the launching of the systems. Training of the planned that the aerial surveillance program will authorities, the meteorological staff in the use of a common be further supported by ground surveillance monitoring index will be a relatively easy affair (see also under the pilot FSMP for SRFA-Sumatra. SRFA- system should Appendix 4). Borneo is, meanwhile, considering its own aerial then be able to surveillance program. detect the fire and Large-Scale Fire Management Assistance Ground surveillance, which would ideally be begin tracking If a wildfire occurs in spite of the early used to complement aerial surveillance, is of changes in its warning system and the preventive measures limited effectiveness in some areas of the status taken by the authorities, the monitoring system ASEAN region, since it directly depends on should then be able to detect the fire and begin the availability of road or river transport. tracking changes in its status. The system should However, ground surveillance can be highly first determine the precise location of the fire, cost-effective in areas where transport so that fire management resources can be infrastructure is relatively well developed, or quickly deployed to the fire site. The system population densities are high. should then track any spread of the fires and In addition to using satellite imagery, resulting haze, in order to assist national and ASEAN’s monitoring system for detecting and regional authorities in managing the fire, and tracking fires and haze should include activate any pre-established haze response information from ground stations on weather systems. conditions (visibility, weather type, and The important technical assistance activities temperature), ideally reported at three- to six- that comprise an appropriate fire-and-haze hour intervals. These reports should also be used detection and tracking system include the to keep fire management authorities abreast of following. changes in the status of particular forest fires, and to help support confirmation from the Intensive Surveillance ground of hot spot and haze information derived Aerial surveillance can be used to detect forest from satellite imagery. fires when they are still too small to be picked An appropriate monitoring system for the up via satellite imagery. Aerial surveillance region would also detect, track, and predict represents a first line of defense. The major movements of haze generated from wildfires. drawback is its cost compared to other means The negative impacts of haze on human health of detecting fires. can be greatly reduced if communities at risk However, aerial surveillance can be cost- are given even minimal advance warning of effective under certain circumstances, haze. For the region’s monitoring system to be particularly when it is targeted to relatively small able to give such warnings, it must be capable geographic areas facing the highest risk of fire.42 of performing haze transport modeling.
140 THE PROGRAM Transport Models Atmospheric Pollution and Health Impact Haze transport modeling allows of Haze meteorologists to predict the areas likely to be The nature and severity of the smoke affected by haze, and the concentration (or in emission, the direction and velocity of its some cases, even the composition) of emissions dispersion, its persistence and duration in downwind areas of large-scale fires. In order (atmospheric residence-lifetime), the height at to perform haze transport modeling, the which it resides, its impacts on the economy region’s monitoring system must possess two and society, and smoke attenuation are distinct types of capability. First, it needs the influenced by various factors and these form expertise and facilities to run the haze transport the specifics of haze monitoring. models; second, it needs high-quality data to The nature and chemistry of the smoke, its ensure accuracy of atmospheric diffusion models particulate conversion ratio43 and carbon (e.g., wind velocity and direction, precipitation, monoxide/carbon dioxide ratio44 in haze as well rate of emission of pollutants, pollutant release as its impact on visibility are influenced by the height, and particle size). fuel type and the interaction of haze with other ASEAN’s capacity to perform haze transport atmospheric pollutants. These in turn define modeling is constrained by lack of such PSI/API. The negative capabilities. Wind movement and velocity and other impacts of haze The WMO Workshop on Regional climatic factors decide the residence time of on human health Transboundary Smoke and Haze in Southeast haze over the atmosphere. are closely related Asia, held in Singapore on 2-5 June 1998, But a considerable amount of research is still to the density and recognized the need to enhance regional needed to fully understand the haze chemical capabilities to provide improved predictions of phenomenon. composition of daily smoke trajectories and dispersion forecasts The negative impacts of haze on human the emissions that by the use of atmospheric transport models health are closely related to the density and escape from (ATMs). This would help improve understanding chemical composition of the emissions that large-scale fires of atmospheric pollution in the region. Since escape from large-scale fires. During and after most ATMs have been developed in other the 1997 haze disaster, most AMCs carried out regions, models have to be adapted to AMCs. studies of the health impacts on their Several aspects such as location of fires, and populations. Most of these studies matched air source intensity characterization will have to quality monitoring data with haze-related be improved. complaints of patients visiting hospitals, During the haze of 1997-1998, ASMC used emergency rooms, or clinics during or shortly ATMs to generate smoke trajectory forecasts after the haze. and distributed the forecasts to the AMCs In addition to generating valuable data that through the ASMC Intranet. At the WMO assist the formulation of haze response systems, meeting, the need for AMCs to have a strong the results of these studies provided a basis for regional monitoring network for fires and haze, estimating the economic, financial, and social and an upgrading of ASMC and NMS, was costs of exposure to haze. stressed. It was also highlighted that there has While this aspect of monitoring of fires and to be improved capability for atmospheric haze may at first appear to be of secondary transport modeling. importance, it is ultimately the cost of these
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 141 disasters to the region that justifies investments systems, or to inform affected communities of in fire prevention, management, and appropriate steps to take in reducing the monitoring. Estimating the costs of fire and negative health impacts during fires and haze. haze thus provides important information to The capacity of the NMS to perform all of the the region’s decision makers in determining above roles allows them to directly support their appropriate levels of investment to be made to national governments in implementing the prevent or reduce the impacts of such events. respective NHAPs and any pre-established haze Many of the data sets generated by the response systems. national-level studies on the health impacts of haze are disaggregated by a wide range of Air Quality and Pollution Indexes variables (e.g., age, gender, occupational Weather and atmospheric aspects are closely category, income, days of work lost, and days linked, and there is an obvious relationship of healthy life lost). The data set generated by between atmospheric changes and climatic the bilateral program of WHO in Indonesia is changes. Estimating the particularly valuable, since it includes a large Among the many components under the costs of fire and number of observations of haze-related health GCOS program of WMO, there is one program haze thus provides complaints, some of which are derived from known as the Global Atmospheric Watch important geographic areas considerably closer to the (GAW). The aim of this program is to provide information to the source of emissions than those generated by data, scientific assessments, and other region’s decision studies in other AMCs. Regionwide information on the atmospheric composition makers in comparison of the results of these studies would and related physical characteristics of the determining be desirable, since this would improve the background atmosphere from all parts of the appropriate levels region’s understanding of how the health globe. of investment to impacts of haze change when it is transported The measurement program includes be made to over relatively long distances. Such studies are greenhouse gases, ozone, radiation and optical prevent or reduce candidate initiatives under the ORHAP’s depth, precipitation chemistry, chemical and the impacts of monitoring component, which would be physical properties of aerosols, reactive gases, such events undertaken by national- and regional-level radionuclides, and related meteorological institutions. parameters. There is a GAW station located at Bukit Koto Tabang, Indonesia. Haze Warning System In addition to the WMO-GAW station, A warning system for haze relies on the another source of air quality data comes from ability to predict deterioration in visibility in local environmental agencies. Many such any place for as long as weather forecasting agencies in AMCs operate a local network of skills will permit. The most basic forecasting monitoring stations within their country, tool is a box model that accepts the generated which measure standard pollutants. In some smoke into a fixed volume of air. countries, the measurements are automated ASMC is the primary institution that and online, which have improved the efficiency produces regional haze prediction. The air of the data collection. The data are used to quality monitoring capabilities of national-level calculate a pollution index, either the PSI or environmental protection agencies also enable API. AMCs to implement public health haze response PSI is based on a set of criteria devised by
142 THE PROGRAM the US Environmental Protection Agency WMO convened a Workshop on Regional (EPA). A PSI value of 100 equals legal air quality Transboundary Smoke and Haze in Southeast standard (or limit) and is based on risk to human Asia on 2-5 June 1998, to prepare an health (primary standard) or nonhuman health internationally supported plan to enhance the (animals, plants; secondary standard). Under capabilities of national weather and hydrological this system, the levels of key pollutants such as services in transboundary haze issues. The sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, carbon Workshop recommendations included the monoxide, ozone, and respirable suspended following: particles (PM10) are used to come up with a • enhance regional capabilities to provide single index, the PSI. The PSI is a health-related needed meteorological support in the form index, averaged over a 24-hour period, on a of improved predictions of ENSO and scale of 0-500 (see Box 8). API is a similar climate variability, and daily smoke health related index being used in Malaysia. The trajectory and dispersion forecasts from other AMCs use PSI. ATMs; Air quality data reported in standardized • improve the ability to characterize fire Air quality data format using air pollution indexes assist the activity and track the movement of smoke reported in authorities in implementing haze response and haze by strengthening present satellite- standardized systems. Even in the absence of pre-established usage capabilities; format using air response systems, air quality data provide a • strengthen regional monitoring efforts to pollution indexes quantitative measure of risk that is easily assess the effects of smoke and haze on assist the understood by the general population. Air human health, to evaluate ecosystem authorities in quality data reporting should thus form an impacts, to help validate atmospheric implementing integral part of the large-scale fire management transport models, and characterize haze response assistance component of ASEAN’s monitoring emission sources; systems system. In some countries, e.g., Malaysia, the • enhance the existing monitoring networks index is also incorporated into the NHAP, which to measure smoke and haze-related stipulates appropriate action for different air quantities including aerosol mass (PM2.5, quality levels. PM10), visibility, optical depth, and Another potentially useful tool for analyzing meteorological parameters. Two levels of fire-generated smoke sources, as detected or observing stations are envisaged, a base monitored by space-borne sensors, is the rose- level comprising fewer measurement diagram technique (Brivio et al. 1997). In parameters but with a high level of conjunction with trajectory analysis, this spatial consistency across the network, and a analysis technique allows the establishment of second level with a more comprehensive relationships between smoke pollution and measurement suite. At selected sites, potential sources, e.g., wildfires vs. industrial targeted chemical quantities including pollution (IDNDR 1997). aldehydes and other trace pollutants, In view of the meteorological influences on aerosol composition, and ultraviolet haze and their health impacts, WMO and WHO radiation are to be measured; have been actively associated with the measures • establishment of additional monitoring taken to mitigate the haze problem. stations at areas not presently covered by As a response to the 1997-1998 fires and haze, existing networks (e.g., Kalimantan);
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 143 • promotion of the development of the next of ex post monitoring is that it assists decision Once the fires generation of satellites. The need for makers in determining appropriate levels of have been dedicated fire satellites to monitor fires investment in fire management, monitoring, extinguished, and more precisely, and the use of space-borne and prevention of the effects of fire and haze, haze pollution radar for burned area and vegetation and in rehabilitation initiatives, such as indexes have dryness assessment and of lidar45 systems reforestation programs, that in part reverse the fallen to more to measure the vertical distribution of trace impacts of these occurrences. normal levels, gases and aerosols was underlined; and ex post • improve the management of smoke, haze, Different Initiatives monitoring is and other transboundary pollution through Several ex post monitoring initiatives relating used to assess all enhanced efforts directed at improved to the impacts of the 1997-1998 forest fires the impacts of the information exchange and coordination. and haze are either underway or have been fires and haze Transboundary issues related to haze completed. The most extensive of these pollution, among others, require studies on the initiatives is a phased, three-year study nature and intensity of haze, nature of pollutants, organized jointly by CIFOR and ICRAF, both and their effects; surveillance of incidences of located in Bogor, Indonesia. Financial assistance diseases; health assessment studies and medical for this study is being provided by the US, with emergency services; dissemination of cofinancing by the European Community and information; policies on haze mitigation; and Japan. regional cooperation and coordination of The CIFOR/ICRAF initiative will use activities. satellite and (possibly) aerial digital photography to determine the extent and distribution of the Ex Post Monitoring areas burned. Ex post monitoring documents the impacts It will combine this information with and damages of fire and haze. Once the fires socioeconomic data collected by the two have been extinguished, and haze pollution organizations to address the underlying causes indexes have fallen to more normal levels, ex of the fires. The study’s analysis of the causes post monitoring is used to assess all the impacts of the fires will explore a number of areas, of the fires and haze including forest policy, valuation of forest Ex post monitoring of the impacts of fire resources, fiscal incentives for forest conversion, includes assessing the extent of land and forest and the adequacy of emergency response area burned. The least-cost means of estimating coordination. this is by using vegetation indexes derived from A comprehensive assessment of the impact satellite imagery.46 of the 1997-1998 fires in Indonesia has been From the assessment of total area burned, completed by the ADB-financed ADTA in rough estimates of the economic and social cost Indonesia. The results of this study were of the direct destruction resulting from the fires discussed in Chapter 2. and haze can be made. Although the type and Because the results of the ongoing and extent of ex post monitoring undertaken proposed studies are expected to be widely depends on the objective of the exercise, applicable, no additional investments by AMC virtually all information produced is of use in governments in assessments of this type are managing future fires and haze. The major value deemed necessary.
144 THE PROGRAM Improved Information Flow for currently via ordinary dialup telephone lines, Monitoring which means that users must pay international A detailed treatment of information needs of call rates in order to access the facility. When fire and haze management is given later in the digitized, most of the satellite images are to be section on Institutions. The purpose here is only accessed from large computer files, in some to flag the crucial importance of precise and cases requiring a full hour to download. reliable information for effective monitoring of The above constraint is being overcome as fires and haze. ASMC upgrades its intranet to allow user access The ORHAP has assigned ASMC the lead via an Internet link instead of dialup telephone role in long-range climatological forecasting, services. Recent advances in Internet security early warning activities, and detection and technology will allow ASMC to lower the cost of monitoring of fires and haze. As part of its NMS’ access to its products without responsibilities, ASMC must communicate the compromising computer security. This will outputs of these functions to the NMS. greatly reduce the cost of using the ASMC Conversely, many of ASMC’s activities rely on intranet, and encourage expansion of its use. the NMS for data inputs collected at the national level. The NMS thus form an important Monitoring Linkages part of the region’s monitoring system Once the ASMC intranet is upgraded to allow network. For these reasons, efficient flow of use of the Internet instead of dialup access, all information between ASMC and the NMS is SRFA member countries will immediately have necessary. access to all of the outputs of the ASEAN-wide The ASMC intranet, which was established regional monitoring system, making the linkage in early 1998, is the focal point for information between the regional and subregional levels exchange between ASMC and NMS. Over the complete. past two years, ASMC has made long-range The linkages of monitoring activities climate forecasts with the support of the NMS, between the subregional and national levels are and the results of these forecasts have been put important and have been discussed in the context on its intranet. ASMC regularly obtains long- of the FSMP of SRFA-Sumatra. This is intended range climatological forecasts from international to be used as a template for other such plans at climate centers, updates the NOAA satellite the subregional (and even the national) level, images and hot spot information (if any) on a so the linkages involved would be similar. daily basis, and also places this information on the intranet. In addition, ASMC provides wind Monitoring under the FSMP of The ASMC forecasts and trajectory tracks of pollutants SRFA-Sumatra intranet, which during periods when large-scale fires threaten In the process of formulating the FSMP for was established in the region. SRFA-Sumatra, complementary monitoring early 1998, is the While the ASMC intranet is capable of activities to be carried out at the SRFA level focal point for meeting the information requirements of even will be identified and integrated into the plan. information the upgraded version of the ASEAN-wide To maximize the chances of the success of exchange regional monitoring system proposed in the the FSMP of SRFA-Sumatra, several monitoring between ASMC ORHAP, its use is constrained by the high cost activities should be carried out. First, pollution and NMS involved. User access to the ASMC intranet is indexes across SRFA-Sumatra member
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 145 countries should be harmonized. Since all fire-and-haze prone areas. This in turn would AMCs use PSI as the standard (apart from reduce both the prevalence of, and the cost of, Malaysia, which uses API), standardization of managing forest fires and haze in the ASEAN the PSI and API will not only benefit the SRFA- region. Sumatra member countries, but the entire region. Regional Monitoring Network Harmonization of pollution indexes is not the The centerpiece of the ORHAP’s monitoring same as standardization. Standardization implies program is a network of national- and regional- that all SRFA-Sumatra (or ASEAN) member level institutions that include ASMC, the AMCs’ countries adopt the same air pollution index. national meteorological agencies, and related Standardization is, therefore, a much more agencies such as the national-level aerospace stringent action than harmonization. and technological agencies. Together, they Harmonization would merely involve creation receive and collect the latest information on fires of a table of equivalent values for PSI and the and transboundary haze; where local capabilities API, so that each given value on the PSI would are available, they will undertake analysis and have a corresponding equivalent value on the processing of the data; and finally disseminate API. This could be accomplished at a relatively the outputs to concerned agencies and national low cost. authorities for appropriate action. Under the To ensure that the FDRS estimates the risk monitoring program, upgrading of the national- of large-scale fires and haze in the region as level agencies will occur, with emphasis being accurately as possible, an international placed on communication links with ASMC, agreement may be necessary in order to provide for enhancing two-way exchange of data and the legal basis and mandate for sharing information. information in a systematic and timely manner. One of the most critical areas of management The absence of this remains a serious constraint of fire and haze information is data exchange to the establishment of an effective monitoring and coordination. This is particularly true for system. institutions such as ASMC, which process Finally, the algorithms used in the satellite information for the region. It is equally detection of hot spots should be harmonized, important that output products of ASMC be both for the ASEAN region as a whole, as well efficiently disseminated to the NMSs. The as for existing (and future) SRFAs. Since at WMO Workshop held in Singapore, 2-5 June present, the algorithms used in hot spot 1998, recommended the enhancement of the An international detection differ (e.g., the threshold temperature system for dissemination of data products and agreement may at which a red-color hot spot indicator appears other relevant information, through the use of be necessary in on the monitor), their harmonization would the Global Telecommunication System (GTS) order to provide allow the region’s various satellite-based large- for meteorological data and gridded model the legal basis scale fire detection systems to be fully integrated. outputs, and the Internet or intranet systems and mandate for This would enhance hot spot detection and for nonstandard products. It also recommended sharing tracking capability at both the ASEAN and that there be an increased exchange of critical information in a SRFA levels. The end result would be improved information on fires and haze, especially rainfall systematic and efficiency in the positioning of fire management data, air quality data, trajectory and dispersion timely manner resources on the ground in the region’s most forecasts, hot spot data, and climate forecast
146 THE PROGRAM information. It also suggested that such possibilities for using the Defense products be harmonized to support effective Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) real-time decision making. satellite, which can image nighttime fires in While ASMC will be the regional center for visible light. fire and haze information and forecasts, there Satellite imagery is the primary tool that ASMC is an option for NMSs to seek input from other uses to detect and locate fires, but this is only a Regional Specialized Meteorological Centers part of the mitigation program. The other aspect (RSMCs) through bilateral arrangements. In is locating, tracking, and predicting the this way, NMS can further enhance information movements of haze resulting from large-scale exchanges by linking up with other national, fires. regional, and international organizations and To perform this task, ASMC must be capable scientific programs, sharing common interests. of performing atmospheric transport modeling. This capability would also allow it to monitor Role of ASMC the concentration of the particulate matter that ASMC plays a lead role in detecting and makes up haze pollution, which is what monitoring large-scale fires and haze in the ultimately has an impact on human health. But region. Its mitigation assistance activities upgrading of ASMC’s capability in haze include detecting and locating large-scale fires transport modeling and monitoring will only While ASMC will and haze, and predicting and tracking their produce maximum benefits if complementary be the regional movements using satellite imagery and its capabilities at the national level are also center for fire and existing haze transport model. Once ASMC upgraded. haze information enhances its modeling capability further by and forecasts, using a more advanced model, its role in large- Strengthening of ASMC there is an option scale fire management assistance will be Successful implementation of the ORHAP’s for NMS to seek considerably expanded. monitoring component requires a strong input from other In carrying out its large-scale fire regional network of national-level Regional management assistance activities, ASMC uses hydrometeorological institutions. Prior to Specialized a suite of satellites for detecting and locating commencement of ADB’s RETA Project, a Meteorological hot spots and smoke plumes. The two NOAA significant amount of progress had already been Centers through satellites currently in use orbit the earth around achieved by ASEAN in formulating and bilateral the north and south poles. Upgrading of ASMC’s establishing this network. ASMC had already arrangements system to allow it to combine GIS techniques been designated as the institution to serve as with its current hot spot detection capability is the hub of this network and as the regional under consideration. Relaying the exact monitoring center for land and forest fires and coordinates of detected fires to fire management transboundary haze. It has computing resources command posts on the ground would allow and systems available to perform a range of them to be positioned for maximum efficiency. monitoring activities, from detecting land and In addition to the NOAA satellites, ASMC forest fires using satellite imagery to forecasting also uses GMS, which produces an image of the spread and development of the the same location every hour. This is useful to transboundary haze in the region using ATMs. track the spread of haze in the region. ASMC To enable ASMC to disseminate these processed and other agencies are at present exploring products to the AMCs, it has set up an intranet
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 147 system. The project activities, therefore, usually performed through institutions In order to included a program for further strengthening established by WMO, which sets guidelines and upgrade ASMC’s ASMC. basic requirements of systems needed to exchange capability, a In order to upgrade ASMC’s capability, a data between its member countries. At the significant significant amount of donor support has been national level, each member country establishes amount of donor catalyzed, particularly in three key areas: long- its own weather-observing network to fulfil its support has been range climatological forecasting, monitoring of needs. As a result, the more advanced NMS in catalyzed, transboundary haze pollution, and haze transport the region, such as that in Thailand, have an particularly in modeling.47 PARTS has been an effective vehicle efficient system to collect meteorological data three key areas: for upgrading the links of ASMC with national inclusive of ground and satellite data. The long-range level hydrometeorological institutions. countries with lesser developed NMS, e.g., the climatological ASMC’s access to the supercomputer at the Lao PDR, have a limited capacity to collect forecasting, Meteorological Service of Singapore would meteorological data from its network of land monitoring of theoretically allow it to run any computer-based stations and no means of reception of satellite transboundary meteorological model in existence. However, data. There is a need to strengthen the capacities haze pollution, the center has yet to use such models. This of the NMS to provide timely warnings and and haze capability will be improved via one of the forecasts needed to anticipate fires and haze, and transport subprojects under the US-funded SEA-EI. thus to assist decisions made to carry out modeling Under this subproject (Climate Impact appropriate action plans. Forecasting—Climate Information System for As remote sensing to detect land and forest Southeast Asia), a state-of-the-art regional fires provides an invaluable source of fire climate change model will be installed at ASMC. information, NMS have called for the setting On-the-job training at ASMC, secondments, and up of backup facilities in the event of failure of exchange visits of ASMC staff to the facilities their systems. of NOAA, which is the agency implementing In addition to remote sensing information the subproject, have been proposed. on fire and haze, it is also necessary to collect ASMC already has the capability to forecast relevant information from the ground. Ground long-term weather variations (e.g., ENSO) measurements provide an indication of the from analysis of statistics. No upgrading of the exposure of the population to haze pollution, statistical forecasting capability is therefore affecting their health. The ground measurements required for the region to produce long-range also serve as a basis for the issuance of low forecasts of this type. visibility warnings for land transport, sea For its own part, ASMC will extend its navigation, and air travel. Other reasons include training program for staff from national the usage of such data for validating ATMs as meteorological institutions of AMCs. well as verifying of remotely sensed parameters. The information gathering capacity supports Strengthening of NMSs the NMS’ initiatives to forecast smoke and haze. The NMS have varying capacities to carry There are three types of forecasts: long-, out collection, processing, and dissemination of medium-, and short-term. Long-term forecasts information on fires and transboundary haze. are associated with improved predictions of ENSO Basically, each NMS is responsible for collecting and climate variability. Medium-term forecasts fire and haze data in its own country. This is refer to monthly or quarterly forecasts. Short-term
148 THE PROGRAM forecasting is linked to daily smoke trajectory and Local Level dispersion forecasts from ATMs and the Monitoring at the local level is divided into corresponding Numerical Weather Prediction two categories, based on assignment of (NWP) models that provide the input data for responsibility: local village communities and fire the ATMs. While there is no capacity in the region control groups. In the first, monitoring is to run climate models, regional NMS see the emphasized as a community effort in preventing potential for developing customized local medium- fires. To carry out monitoring at the local level, and long-term climate products to predict effects the following are required: basic data (detailed of ENSOs on their country. One suggestion is to topographic map of 1:50.000 or smaller scale); establish climate centers within AMCs to produce an observation tower to locate fire position; more frequent updates of the climate forecasts ground positioning system to find and map the and disseminate them through the Internet. fire location; flags and appropriate equipment NMS have expressed interest in running to determine speed and direction of wind at ATMs to produce their own short-term forecasts the fire location; and the necessary skills to of smoke and haze trajectories and dispersion. analyze fire behavior. However, the accuracy of such forecasts is linked with the accuracy of the NWP input Program Support winds that drives the ATM. To improve the The ORHAP’s monitoring program performance of the ATM, it is desirable to use provides for strengthening capacity of National NWP input winds from a high-resolution Local Meteorological Institutions by sponsoring and Area Model (LAM). Currently, ASMC produces financing training programs. NMS’ information trajectory and dispersion forecasts using winds management capacity needs to be expanded to from a LAM that it runs daily at the center. provide weather forecasts as an essential part The importance of ensuring national-level of a National Early Warning System (NEWS). capability for monitoring forest fires and haze These capacities include (i) its extensive has already been underscored in several contexts. network of weather stations; (ii) its linkages The need is to improve the capability, with international meteorological organizations emphasizing a system that can cover vast areas involved in global weather forecasting; (iii) its While there is no simultaneously. The geographic and network of radiosonde (sound radio) sounding capacity in the administrative division of the country is stations; and (iv) its research and climate region to run important in this regard. modeling capabilities. climate models, Because of its recent fire and haze problems, regional NMS see Provincial Level Indonesia needs to strengthen institutions such the potential for Provincial level monitoring capability as BMG. developing should be aimed at decision makers. At this Further, there is need for a network of customized local level, monitoring should be more accurate, provincial fire management centers with medium- and and relayed faster. It will often be difficult to computer facilities able to access and analyze long-term climate conduct monitoring directly at the provincial weather and fire information derived from products to level due to vast areas involved. In national national and international sources. Each predict effects of and provincial levels, use of NOAA satellite province should maintain a “Provincial Fire ENSOs on their receivers supplemented by GMS and LandSat Danger Index” and regularly inform the public country is feasible. of fire danger conditions.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 149 Consultative Group on Satellite Detection training. In addition, it will develop software of Fire to measure optical depth using NOAA AVHRR This regional group consists of remote data for input into the ATMs. sensing experts from MACRES, LAPAN, Under its second component—modeling of CRISP, ASMC, UNEP, NOAA, and long-range transport of smoke, haze, and other representatives from WMO and pollutants—NOAA will install ATMs, in UN-ESCAP. They meet regularly to discuss and particular the HYSPLIT model, in ASMC and develop applications using new remote sensing portable versions in selected NMS. technologies to detect land and forest fires in The aim is to help ASMC and NMS to the region. acquire the capability to better utilize Two meetings of the group were held in transport and trajectory models to estimate ASMC and issues discussed included the pollution dispersion, deposition, and weather. harmonization of hot spot algorithms, a Activities include a workshop on long-range layperson’s definition of hot spot, and transport modeling, installation of operational One of the main development of a GIS for a fire danger rating models at ASMC and selected NMS, a international index. training workshop for NMS on the use of assistance these models, and a short course in the programs to Focus of International Assistance general area of air quality modeling and strengthen fire One of the main international assistance atmospheric chemistry. and haze programs to strengthen fire and haze Under the third component48 —monitoring monitoring is monitoring is PARTS, which materialized in strategy for regional smoke, haze, and PA RT S response to a request by the Subcommittee on transboundary pollution for ensuring meaningful Meteorology and Geophysics of the ASEAN inputs into long-range transport models—it is Committee on Science and Technology (see also necessary to select appropriate sites and identify International Assistance in Chapter 3). variables for monitoring. One important Under its first component, relating to satellite variable is the optical depth. To address this, usage, NOAA will help to upgrade the NOAA’s Air Resource Laboratory (ARL) will capabilities of ASMC and regional NMS install portable optical depth devices at selected through technology transfer and training. This NMS. will strengthen present capabilities and prepare In addition, WMO will launch a GAW49 the region for the use of the next generation of aerosol program within AMCs. The regional satellite products. First, it will provide software IGBP START Secretariat in Bangkok provides and training on the Automated Biomass Burn a location to focus some of the activities. The Algorithm (ABBA) to ASMC to do hot spot basic elements of the Aerosol Project in Southeast analysis using data from the NOAA AVHRR. Asia include the following. In addition, it will provide software compatible (a) measurement of PM associated with
with the new Japanese Multi-functional haze and health concerns (e.g., PM2.5
Telecommunication Satellite (MTS), when it and PM10), with chemical composition is launched. NOAA will also make available at a number of sites, taking advantage data from the Defense Meteorological Satellite of existing GAW stations in the region; Program (DMSP), which has the capacity to (b) measurement of aerosol optical depth detect fires. This will include software and using shadow-band radiometers; and
150 THE PROGRAM (c) augmented measurements of gas phase International Involvement in Haze and components (e.g., sulfur dioxide, ozone, Health carbon monoxide, etc.) using passive Initiatives on the monitoring of haze are samplers (with analysis carried out at either taking place or planned under the existing laboratories involved in ORHAP. Several international organizations are precipitation chemistry analysis) to help engaged in initiatives relating to health impacts interpret the aerosol data, and to help of haze that will ultimately benefit the region. characterize the chemical composition WHO has formulated guidelines (WHO Health of the haze. Guidelines for Episodic Vegetation Fire Events) Yet another assistance project, outside of on transboundary atmospheric pollution for use PARTS, is of the USAID Office of Foreign worldwide, which may be applicable to the Disaster Assistance (OFDA) supporting region in formulating haze response systems at ADPC in Thailand, to improve access to the national, subregional, or regional levels. climate-related information to be used by Other donor agencies are directly analyzing decision makers, program designers, and the health impacts of transboundary haze that implementers for improved disaster affected the ASEAN region during 1997. One WMO will launch contingency planning. of the subprojects under the US-financed a GAW aerosol Activities include the development of a SEA-EI will advance regional understanding of program within climate information system that will improve the chemical composition of transboundary AMCs climate forecasting and access by regional haze produced during 1997, particularly with institutions in Asia to help them either to respect to the negative impacts of the haze on mitigate negative impacts or take advantage of human health, and analyze the risk factors positive impacts of climate variations. The associated with adverse health impacts. This is program will also include training specific to a cooperative effort linking the national ministries climate variability impacts. of health in a number of AMCs, the Malaysia A project on environmental monitoring Institute of Medical Research, and the Indonesian funded by USAID and implemented by the EPA National Institute of Health Research and includes the provision of technical assistance Development, with the CDC (US). A particular and training to regional governments to develop focus is to identify respiratory and cardiac an early warning system to predict air quality conditions warranting further investigation problems. within the participating countries. It will also include the development of a Under its bilateral program, GTZ is pollution index as a common standard for undertaking an initiative to analyze the health measuring air quality in the region (PSI/API). impacts of the 1997 fires and haze in Indonesia. This will help with data exchange of air quality This study has since been linked with the health indexes between AMCs and enhance public impacts of haze project sponsored by the Impacts awareness of air pollution. Center for Southeast Asia in Bogor, Indonesia. All these efforts will help to improve the A three-year study funded by the Australian regional understanding of atmospheric Government and carried out by the pollution and promote collaboration between Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial ASMC, ASEAN NMS, and international Research Organisation (CSIRO) will analyze institutions. the composition of emissions from the
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 151 transboundary haze generated during 1997, and forest fire management, covering organizational No additional their impacts on human health. This analysis arrangements, regulatory and legal instruments, investments in will form one part of a broader initiative that capacity building, donor collaboration and monitoring of includes other sources of emissions such as partnerships, system or planning, and health impacts of power and industrial plants, motor vehicles, and information management. haze are deemed open burning. Although the study is still in its While the focus of this chapter is the to be required early stage, CSIRO expects that the results, institutional arrangements for the satisfactory which will focus on Malaysia, will also be implementation of the ORHAP, some of the applicable to other AMCs. related concepts are discussed to indicate the Because of the number of initiatives, as well scope and need for further institutional as likely downstream financing that will result enhancement. from these, no additional investments in monitoring of health impacts of haze are deemed Organizational Arrangements for the to be required. What is required is to ensure ORHAP that the results of these studies are linked with The ORHAP is an “instrument” of ASEAN to ex post monitoring initiatives that estimate the address the environmental hazards repeatedly cost of recurrent fire and haze problems in the facing the region arising from fires and haze. ASEAN region. In aggregate, the estimates ASEAN is a formal and legal regional entity, from the ex post monitoring initiatives will an association of 10 Southeast Asian countries, provide a rough guide to an appropriate with its own institutional arrangements— minimum level of investment in preventing or policies, legal instruments, organizational mitigating the impacts of fires and haze in the structure, coordinating mechanisms, defined region. They will also indicate the investment roles and responsibilities for members, and required to undo the negative impacts of the subregional groups. Therefore, any discussion fires themselves (to the extent possible) via of arrangements and assigning of responsibilities rehabilitation programs. for ORHAP will revolve around ASEAN institutions and institutional instruments. Institutions Importance and Scope Responsibility for Forest Fires and Haze Institutions and institutional instruments are While most countries have fire services or vital for ensuring efficient conduct of plans, brigades to attend to fires in cities, wharfs, and programs, and activities at all levels. Weak airports, etc., forest and land fires are attended institutions lead to failures and unaccomplished on a routine basis by a section (or subsection) missions. of the Forest Service or National Disaster A recent International Forum on Forest Fire Agency. The meteorological and health Management in Southeast Asia found that departments, meanwhile, are the ones most institutional weaknesses are a paramount factor concerned with the haze and atmospheric causing inefficiencies in forest fire management pollution. But the system governing this hardly (BAPPENAS/JICA/ITTO 1999). The situation exists or is extremely weak. calls for several measures to reorient and In regional organizations such as ASEAN, strengthen institutions and institutional where countries are the members, it is often instruments to ensure integrated and sustainable not possible, for practical reasons, to have
152 THE PROGRAM elaborate sectoral units to correspond to the COST, and ASEAN Committee on Culture and system of administration in member countries; Information (COCI). and business is transacted through designated focal points, representing the institutions COST and ASMC responsible for environmental management COST is responsible for coordinating efforts (including fires and haze). in the field of science and technology. ASMC is under the Subcommittee on Meteorology and Niche of the ORHAP within ASEAN Geophysics of COST and was established on The structure of ASEAN and the system of 2 January 1993, following an endorsement of combating fires and haze within its the proposal for COST by the ASEAN Standing organizational structure are detailed below. Committee. It is colocated with the Singapore Meteorological Services (SMS). A wide range The ASEAN Secretariat of computer and information processing The ASEAN Secretariat was established in facilities are available at ASMC. Facilities 1976 to provide secretarial services to various include the computer network of the SMS, committees of ASEAN as well as to serve as a UNIX graphics workstation, network station central administrative machinery to coordinate and mainframe computer, and supercomputer. Since its and carry out ASEAN programs, projects, and ASMC also shares a library, conference room, establishment, activities. training room, and data archives with SMS. ASEAN scientists Since its establishment, ASEAN scientists have have conducted The Functional Coordination Bureau conducted research and development work in research and The Bureau of Economic and Functional ASMC. development Cooperation (BEFC) is one of the four major work in ASMC bureaus that constitute the ASEAN Secretariat. ASOEN and HTTF The other bureaus include the Bureau of Trade, ASOEN coordinates resource conservation Industry and Services; Bureau of Investment, and environmental protection, including such Finance and Surveillance; and Bureau of aspects as environmental management; nature Program Coordination and External Relations. conservation and terrestrial ecosystems; industry BEFC is headed by a Director who reports to and environment; urban environment; marine the Secretary General through the Deputy environment; environmental economics; Secretary General responsible for operations. transboundary pollution; environmental The Director of BEFC is assisted by five education; training; and information. Assistant Directors, one each for Agriculture, Established in 1989, ASOEN had six working Food and Forestry; Environment; Social groups to help coordinate regional programs Development; Culture and Information; and and projects under its purview: (i) Nature Science and Technology. The Assistant Conservation; (ii) ASEAN Seas and Marine Directors are assisted by senior officers and Environment; (iii) Transboundary Pollution; other support staff. BEFC covers a wide (iv) Environmental Management; (v) spectrum of activities coordinated by the Environmental Economics; and (vi) following five committees: ASOEN, ASEAN Environmental Information, Public Awareness, Committee on Social Development (ACSD), and Education. ASOEN reports to the ASEAN ASEAN Senior Officials on Drugs (ASOD), Environmental Ministers Meeting, and in
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 153 parallel through the ASEAN Standing Indonesia Committee to the ASEAN Foreign Ministers. Three separate national-level organizations In September 1998, ASOEN was manage forest and land fires in Indonesia. reorganized around three Working Groups and BAKORNAS PB (the National Coordination one Task Force: Agency for Disaster Management), an • Working Group on Nature Conservation intersectoral agency chaired by the Coordinating (chaired by the Philippines); Minister for Public Welfare, coordinates fire • Working Group on Marine and Coastal management when fires reach a magnitude at Environment (chaired by Thailand); which they are declared national disasters (such • Working Group on Multilateral as those during 1997-1998). Inclusion of forest Environment Agreements (chaired by and land fires into the overall responsibility of Malaysia); and BAKORNAS PB is under consideration. So • HTTF (chaired by Indonesia). far, BAKORNAS PB has addressed all types of The information services and products disasters other than fires. BAKORNAS PB also generated by ASOEN consist of its periodic has counterpart agencies at the provincial and reports on its regular and informal meetings, district levels (SATKORLAK PB and SATLAK and the reports of its Working Groups and Task PB, respectively). Forces, including those of SRFAs. An interdepartment organization, the Putting the ORHAP into operation and TKNPKHL (the National Coordinating Team formulating a system for monitoring progress has for Land and Forest Fire Control Management) been left to HTTF, which has been given a wide was established by the State Minister of latitude in interpreting the ORHAP document, Environment. The membership of the team is and in shaping the region’s infrastructure for similar to that of BAKORNAS PB. preventing and monitoring forest fires and haze, TKNPKHL operates only at the national level, and mitigating their impacts. and is not mandated to operate at either the HTTF organizes its work around the three provincial or the district level. BAPEDAL (the ORHAP programs: prevention, mitigation, and National Environmental Impact Management monitoring. Prevention activities are Agency), which functions as the secretariat for coordinated by HTTF-Malaysia. while HTTF- the TKNPKHL, used BAPEDALDA Indonesia is tasked with coordinating the (BAPEDAL’s provincial-level counterpart) as its mitigation activities. contact point during the 1997-1998 fires. Monitoring activities are coordinated by The third fire organization, HTTF-Singapore. HTTF has established PUSDALKARHUTNAS (National Center for Putting the Working Groups on Subregional Firefighting Forest Fire Control) of MOFEC was established ORHAP into Arrangements—one for Sumatra and the other in 1995, following the large-scale fires of 1994. operation and for Borneo. PUSDALKARHUTNAS mobilizes firefighters formulating a at the provincial, district, and field levels. At system for Arrangements at the National Level the provincial level, forest fire management is monitoring Institutional arrangements for various tasked to PUSDALKARHUTLA, which falls progress has been functions relating to protection, mitigation, and under the responsibility of the Provincial left to HTTF monitoring of forest fires and haze vary Governor. At the district level, forest fire considerably among the AMCs. management is tasked to SATLAK
154 THE PROGRAM KEHUTANAN (District Forestry Response Controller, cuts, destroys and burns vegetation Team for Fire Control), which falls under the in any area which is not a Native Customary responsibility of the Bupati (regent). Land, shall be guilty of an offence. Penalty: a Membership at the provincial and district levels fine of thirty thousand ringgit and imprisonment is similar to that of the units under BAKORNAS for three years.” PB. The fire permit granted will specify the period The absence of a single line organization and extent covered, nature of permit, and the for fire management in Indonesia has made fire conditions to be complied with: e.g., the suppression ineffective and inefficient. phasing of burning and the area to be burned Suggestions have been put forward that an each week, period within which burning is to integrated fire management system could be be completed, reduction of flame, precautions developed under a single line organization that to be taken, etc. is given the responsibility, authority, and The Fire and Rescue Department is informed adequate funding for fire suppression. As of all the fire permits granted. The Board itself MOFEC already has a significant degree of fire has no trained firefighters. During 1997, a few management capacity, it would seem hundred fire permits were granted, covering The absence of a appropriate for that agency to function as the an area of 2,429 ha. single line coordinating organization for agencies involved NREB monitors open burnings on a daily organization for in fire suppression at all levels. basis to prevent their spread. It also monitors fire management the level of atmospheric pollution. There are in Indonesia has Malaysia three API machines installed in the border areas made fire Responsibility for fire management in of Sarawak. In due course, the Board will suppression Sarawak, Malaysia, is distributed among three establish a fire danger warning system. ineffective and agencies, whose efforts are closely coordinated: inefficient the Sarawak Forest Department (forest fire Other ASEAN Countries protection measures, rehabilitation of fire The fire management structures in Brunei burned areas); the Sarawak Natural Resources Darussalam, Philippines, and Singapore have and Environment Board (NREB) (for direct-line organizational structures. Brunei implementation of regulations under the Darussalam has a specialized fire organization, Natural Resources and Environment the Brunei Fire Service. Other AMCs entrust Ordinance); and the Fire and Rescue fire responsibility to a department or a ministry. Department of Malaysia (fire suppression). The Singapore Civil Defense Force (SCDF) The distribution of responsibility (to take the under the Ministry of Home Affairs is the lead role) is based on the technical national emergency authority providing specialization of the respective agencies. emergency fire, rescue, and ambulance services The Natural Resources and Environment all levels. Ordinance (amended up to 1 March 1998) In the Philippines, forest fire management specifies that open burning of refuse or other falls under the Environment Management Bureau combustible materials and use of any land to (EMB) at the Department of Environment and deposit refuse without permission are offenses. Natural Resources (DENR). DENR staff are The relevant provision reads: “Any person who, represented at all levels of government from the without the written permission of the national down to the community level.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 155 Thus, in the AMCs, there are no separate fire • establishment of a national fire At the national management agencies. Since several agencies management unit, with wider scope and level, institutional share the responsibility, coordination becomes a responsibility, within the existing (or weaknesses are a serious problem. As yet, there are no reformed) system of public forest paramount factor arrangements for single window coordination. administration and/or a single-window causing coordinating mechanism, capable of inefficiencies in Proposals for Strengthening National addressing all situations; and forest fire Organizations • national fire management guidelines and management At the national level, institutional weaknesses manuals for component activities such as are a big factor causing inefficiencies in forest fire protection, prescribed burning, fire management. The situation calls for equipment maintenance, and firefighting measures to reorient and strengthen the operations. institutions and institutional instruments for ensuring integrated and sustainable forest fire National Fire Management Institutions management. Measures needed include: Institutional development has been identified • policy reforms for assigning appropriate as the cornerstone of any efficient fire priority to forest fire management. Clear management system. policies relating to land management and Organizational structure and linkages of land clearance that take into account the component units, and decentralization of roles land requirements for various purposes is and responsibilities, should be clearly defined. an important aspect in this regard; It should be capable of involving (and obtaining • revision/reformulation of laws, and their constructive cooperation of) people. While effective implementation; decentralization in the form of delegation of • informed and organized participation of authority and decision powers to the local units the community; is effected, it should also ensure that there is an • organizational reforms for effective and adequate number of staff active at the efficient functioning of sustainable forest decentralized level. The potential and feasibility management, which would call for of establishing a system of honorary fire definition of clear functions, devolution wardens with a reserve fire protection force of responsibility and authority, meaningful provided with training and periodic upgrading decentralization, and smooth and speedy of skills should be investigated. flow of information; Funding for fire-management-related • NHAP to be in the form of a activities (as in the case of many other forestry comprehensive and integrated National activities) should be available on an adequate Fire Plan within the overall framework of scale and in a timely manner. A cost-effective a National Forest Program; management is not necessarily a low budget • adequate (and additional, as required) plan. In Indonesia, forest fires and haze should provision of funds for fire management is be a prime candidate for the use of the an important requirement and can be reforestation fund/tax on timber extracted. achieved through innovative measures Often, a distorted incentives system can work such as objective-oriented taxes/charges, counter to the objectives envisaged. The and targeted funding facilities; unnecessarily large size of forest concessions, lack
156 THE PROGRAM of adequate control over the way the concessions individually recruited consultants from AMCs are operated, lack of attention to the hardships (a forest fire management specialist, a policy caused to people by tenurial inequities, and and legislation specialist, a meteorologist, and conflicts are some of the details that require close an information management specialist). attention. An additional incentive component is Most of the field operations under the RETA creation of income earning opportunities for the Project were concluded by the end of September local community. What is needed is to ensure that 1999. The responsibility for implementation of people do not cause fires due to indifference and the ORHAP has also been handed over to the ignorance, or intentionally to register ASEAN Secretariat. Accordingly, the PMU was dissatisfaction or a social protest. terminated and CSU took over the coordination Coordination is an important institutional and support functions effective 1 October 1999. function. National and regional activities of the The period of transition started from April 1999 ORHAP will require a high degree of with PMU and CSU working side by side, and coordination because of the multisectoral and CSU progressively taking over more functions multilevel approach involved and to ensure to phase out PMU by the end of September effective liaison between the government, 1999. Since CSU was installed only toward the nongovernment, and international agencies and end of the Project, the initial six-year program the private sector. of the ORHAP was prepared by PMU. The inadequacies of the present coordination arrangements are well recognized. Indonesia Coordination and Support Unit is in the process of working out new CSU is a unit within the ASEAN Secretariat arrangements specifying the authority and that now fulfills the support functions for responsibility of involved institutions. The ORHAP implementation. These functions importance of this initiative cannot be include day-to-day support to HTTF, AMMH, overstressed. It is necessary to have a single, and SRFA meetings, preparation of relevant rationally decentralized, coordinating documents (e.g., memorandums of organization with special skills and capable of understanding [MOUs]), and other working professionally at central and provincial administrative tasks necessary for ensuring the levels to prevent and mitigate forest fires. ORHAP’s smooth implementation. While many of the activities undertaken by the RETA From PMU to CSU Project operationalizing the RHAP were of a National and Project Management Unit startup nature, others will have to be sustained. regional activities During the period when the RHAP was The central role of CSU is to formulate an of the ORHAP being put into operation through ADB ORHAP implementation strategy over six years, will require a assistance, a PMU was established in the using the generic guidelines laid out in the high degree of ASEAN Secretariat for day-to-day ORHAP document, and to present its results coordination administration and management of the technical to HTTF and AMMH for consideration. All because of the assistance. The PMU was headed by the CSU activities are derived from this six-year multisectoral and Director of BEFC, assisted by a Project rolling ORHAP. multilevel Manager and an international Senior Technical CSU will further assist HTTF and AMMH approach Adviser, supported by an Assistant Project in donor coordination, ensuring that programs involved Manager and staff. The PMU also included four are undertaken efficiently.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 157 To ensure proper sequencing and timing of and haze (e.g., forests, environment, tourism). donor-assisted activities, funding agencies must ADB’s RETA Project reviewed national and be made aware of upcoming changes in international policies and regulations impacting implementation strategy, in order to give their on forest fires and air pollution in the ASEAN principal organizations time to adjust their own region. It identified their strengths and programs to reflect the changes. weaknesses, to determine where improvement It is the intention of ASEAN and its partners is required. The desirable features of these that CSU act as a clearinghouse for programs policies, which contribute to a healthy fire sponsored by bilateral and multilateral assistance regime within the all-embracing criteria of agencies that help prevent and mitigate forest environmental conservation and economic fires and transboundary haze pollution. Funding efficiency, can be brought together as agencies are expected to put in extra resources, components of the fire policy. Such a fire policy by providing technical advisors, to strengthen should include other relevant aspects on which CSU. there is a policy vacuum (e.g., incentive system, public participation, international/regional Regulatory and Legal Instruments cooperation). It is encouraging that several It is the intention In the ORHAP context, regulatory and legal countries are now taking action to formulate of ASEAN and arrangements work at three levels: regional, fire policies consistent with other national its partners that subregional, and national. In terms of content policies. An important objective of the fire CSU act as a and nature of enforcement, the regulatory and policies should be to establish a sustainable and clearinghouse for legal instruments may vary at these different functional system of fire management. programs levels. sponsored by The instruments may be categorized as Lessons from Indonesia bilateral and policies and legal arrangements. A number of policy and regulatory acts in multilateral Indonesia mention fires—e.g., Basic Forestry assistance Policies Relating to Fire and Haze Act No. 5/1967, Conservation of Natural agencies that help There are as yet no separate policies (or Resources and Their Ecosystem Act No. 5/ prevent and legislation) relating exclusively to forest fires 1990, Act No. 5/1994 on Acknowledgement mitigate forest and haze in any of the AMCs. Some of the of the UN Convention on Biodiversity, and fires and policy aspects relevant to the issues of fire and Environmental Conservation Act No. 23/1997. transboundary haze are referred to, cursorily, in other policy A note provided to an ITTO Mission by haze pollution documents. This is true at all levels, national MOFEC (GOI/MOFEC 1998c) listed 23 and supranational. There are new moves, technical and procedural guidelines relating to however, as a consequence of the recent various aspects of fire management: fire disasters caused by fires and haze, toward clear prevention and mitigation, controlled burning, and definite policies covering all aspects of Center for National Fire Control, land uses and fire management. forest fire suppression, use of forest fire Existing policies with special reference to suppression equipment, forest fire mitigation fire management are those concerned with supplies, forest fire signposts, safety in forest factors influencing or contributing to fire fire suppression, forest fire suppression occurrence (e.g., agriculture, industry, land use, command systems, land clearing without land tenure) or of those sectors affected by fires burning, and alertness and safety.
158 THE PROGRAM Reports indicate that these guidelines were • to organize and strengthen community not adequately complied with by the parties members to enable them to work toward concerned (the public, concessionaires, a common goal; landowners) during the 1997-1998 fires and • to strengthen the political will of the haze, in spite of warnings about fire risk. There community and the local government units is no adequate machinery to enforce the toward conservation and protection of guidelines/instructions relating to zero-burning forest resources; and land preparation, maintenance of firebreaks, • to incorporate forest conservation and conduct of prescribed burning, and protection initiatives within the development establishment of water storage dams. attempts at the community level. Specific objectives: Lessons on Incentives—The Philippine Case To attain the general objectives, specific Incentives, if rationally used, can be an objectives were set as follows: effective tool of fire and haze management. An • to limit or prevent, if not eradicate, forest effective fire prevention incentive mechanism fires in every barangay of the province; can ensure that a forest resource is maintained, • to regulate the use of fire as a tool by protected, enhanced, and expanded. The farmers through the issuance of a permit Incentives, if Philippine example of the No-Fire Bonus Plan, to burn plant residues and debris so that rationally used, employed in the Mountain Province, is control measures are ensured; can be an instructive. Before it was enacted, the plan and • to regularly monitor and record the effective tool of its objectives were fully discussed at provincial occurrence of fire in each barangay; and fire and haze level. • to continuously investigate the causes of management The Mountain Province, categorized as one fire and recommend policies to concerned of the 20 poorest provinces in the country, had agencies for implementation. obtained commitments from local and national Implementation strategy: leadership to focus development activities in The plan aims to provide a coordinated effort these areas under the administration’s Social between and among local government units, Reform Agenda. Included in this program are other government agencies concerned, and the sustainable development strategies and human community toward achieving the objectives. To ecological security. The socioecological aspects attain these, the political leadership in the of development had to be considered as the main province shall provide the following: factor in carrying out development projects, • coordinate development funds; especially in a province with rugged and • determine from the barangay development mountainous terrain. Details of the plan were plans where project funds shall be utilized; as follows: • mobilize all barangay communities to General Objectives: participate in the plan; The following general objectives were • the provincial government of the Mountain decided upon: Province to set up a committee to select • to motivate and encourage people’s recipient barangays for the No-Fire-Bonus- participation in forest conservation/ Plan. The committee formulates its own protection measures against fire criteria and guidelines; and outbreaks; • award projects to winning barangays.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 159 As an absolute requirement, barangays that Policy objectives and measures need to be The present have not had any forest fires in their respective clearly articulated, and in tune with the national policy approach areas during the dry season, nor forest environmental and socioeconomic policies. to wildfires and destruction through illegal logging and illegal Forest fire laws and regulations should be land-use fires is occupation, shall be awarded development developed and translated realistically into action, often an ad hoc projects worth P200,000 (about $4,000). The linking to the overall environmental and forest reaction to a program adopts community-based involvement laws. There should also be mechanisms with situation that has in decision making relating to the identification, adequate capability and powers to deal with already planning, and implementation of projects under environmental crimes relating to fire. Adequate developed, rather it. The projects shall include, but are not limited fire management involving prevention, than proactive to, environment-related projects such as garbage mitigation, and monitoring should be mitigation before and waste disposal, water impounding projects, incorporated into the criteria and indicators of the emergency and erosion control measures. SFM. arises In this regard, it is imperative that the people Suggestions Regarding Fire and Haze are consulted regarding their needs and concerns Policies about forest fire regulations. Forest Previous chapters have highlighted the rehabilitation, a post-fire activity, is also a vital urgent need for clear and comprehensive aspect. Other policy concerns include policies at the national (and correspondingly rationalization of shifting cultivation, also at the regional) level, covering all aspects optimizing size of timber concessions, local of prevention and mitigation of forest fires and participation, and integrated planning for fire haze. Such a policy should spell out the management. principles and imperatives (e.g., efficiency, Public policy on fire should be a dynamic social equity, people’s involvement, and political manifestation of the people’s concerns sustainability); development objectives and for their environment, health, and social welfare, operational goals; policy measures and and their trust in the system of resource strategies (e.g., coordination, programming, governance. Their trust should not be betrayed, and planning; resource mobilization and and policymakers will have to take advantage capacity building). of the science and technology relating to fire The present policy approach to wildfires and management as well as lessons learned from land-use fires is often an ad hoc reaction to a historical experience. situation that has already developed, rather than At the national level, there should be a lead proactive mitigation before the emergency arises. coordinating agency to deal with all aspects of Policy development often does not consider the forest fires, with a concomitant and coordinated underlying causes of fire incidence and spread, assignment of other tasks to other appropriate which may lie outside the forest sector, such as government bodies. Because most fires occur rural poverty and deprivation, or the effects of within the forest estate and plantation sector, other public policies related to land use and the lead agencies must have the legal authority incentives. Sometimes, forest fires may be caused to issue and to enforce all necessary rules and by ill-conceived forest management policies, in regulations for preventing and suppressing of particular, policies of total fire exclusion that have fires. It must also have the capacity to operate led to fuel accumulation. effectively from the center down to the village.
160 THE PROGRAM In the case of Indonesia, the ITTO project, Legal Instruments National Guidelines on the Protection of Forests A viable and efficient legal system is Against Fire, has drafted a national policy for important for translating policies into action. fire protection and management along with Any failure in the implementation of rules and other ideas concerning institutional regulations is a major institutional weakness. strengthening. Various factors combine to stall environmental The proposal highlights zero-burning for land laws or blunt their power. preparation, control over the forest and estate crops, and improvements in eight vital aspects: Fire and Haze-Related National Legal i.e., personnel, organization, facilities and Instruments infrastructure, fire prevention and suppression, The legal (and institutional) instruments for funding, law enforcement, research and addressing fires and haze in the AMCs need to development, and rehabilitation of fire-affected be mutually compatible, and consistent with the areas. common needs of ASEAN. ADB’s RETA Other recommendations tackle Project carried out a review of the situation in organizational structure of the central forest fire the AMCs in this regard and the outcome was management organization, a fire incident generally satisfactory. At the national monitoring and reporting system, a national Brunei Darussalam. The legal framework for level, there network for communication, a national addressing forest fires is well developed. Igniting should be a lead standard to guide the fast burning system, a fires is a serious offence in the country. In coordinating national standard for forest fire equipment, a response to the 1997-1998 fires in the ASEAN agency to deal national and regional coordination guide to region, the mandatory fine for deliberately with all aspects of prevent and suppress forest fires involving igniting a fire without a permit was raised from forest fires related agencies and local people, and a national B$20,000 to B$120,000, a sixfold increase. forest fire prevention education program Indonesia. At the national level, policy and (ITTO-IPB-MOFEC 1999). legal instruments relating to the use of fire for Based on studies and related land-clearing purposes is in a state of disarray. recommendations, Indonesia is carrying out MOFEC has issued a directive that all land will major policy reforms. Possibilities for far- be cleared using mechanical means, and that reaching changes are now being debated at all the use of fire to clear land is therefore illegal levels, nationally and locally. It is out of this and will not be tolerated. At the same time, debate that future policies will emerge. Some there exists a directive that allows open burning, broader level aims and imperatives are already so long as a permit has been granted, but no clear—regional autonomy and political procedure for obtaining such a permit has yet democracy, decentralization and devolution of been put into place. authority (greater functional and budgetary None of the directives, decrees, legislation, authority to the provinces in the use of natural or policies at the national level have much impact resources), economic liberalization, increased at the provincial level where actual land clearing opportunities to small- and medium-sized takes place. enterprises and local communities, participation Operationally, plantation firms are free to and social audit, and focus on sustainable use open burning to clear land with impunity. development. In the few instances in which firms using open
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 161 burning to clear land have been brought to the which is community-level (informal) FSMPs. court, none has been convicted. Since these community-level informal plans all Indonesia’s institutional framework for link with one another, the overall fire addressing fires and haze is too fragmented to suppression effort automatically increases, as be effective. No fewer than 24 different the threat of a spreading forest fire increases. government agencies are responsible for Finally, at the national level, any forest fire that controlling land and forest fires and haze. With exceeds 25 ha in total area is declared a national responsibility so widely scattered, effective disaster, allowing personnel from the military control is an organizational nightmare. The and additional financial resources to be used in existing legal instruments are without adequate suppressing such fires. capability to enforce compliance. Substantial Singapore. A highly urbanized country, upgrading of Indonesia’s capacity to formulate Singapore’s natural forest is limited to only a and enforce legal instruments will be necessary few hectares. Most of Singapore’s fire for it to fully support the ORHAP. management infrastructure is geared to Malaysia. Malaysia’s legal framework for structural rather than wildland firefighting. controlling forest fires and haze pollution With regard to its legal framework relating to Indonesia’s includes strict fines for open burning without a fire prevention, open burning without a permit institutional permit, although these are not always enforced is strictly prohibited in Singapore and anyone framework for in remote areas. The roads and communication caught contravening relevant statutes is swiftly addressing fires infrastructure that serve the areas to be cleared brought to justice. and haze is too are of relatively high quality, complementing Thailand. Two decades of improving fire fragmented to be Malaysia’s existing enforcement capacity. management infrastructure and institutional effective Given that Malaysia is in the process of arrangements have left the country capable of strengthening its enforcement capacity to managing the threat of forest fires and haze prevent open burning without a permit, and pollution. Thailand has, for the most part, that the country is nearing the end of the land completed the process of land conversion, so conversion process, both its legal and the country’s legal and institutional framework institutional framework for addressing forest relative to the threat of forest fires and haze fires and haze pollution are commensurate with pollution is adequate. the threat of forest fires the country faces. There The Assessment. The RETA Project appear to exist no inconsistencies between its concluded that except for Indonesia, the legal legal and institutional framework for addressing and institutional frameworks for addressing forest fires and haze pollution. forest fire and haze pollution in the AMCs Philippines. The legal and institutional reviewed are consistent with one another and framework of the Philippines for addressing with the needs of ASEAN as a whole to enable forest fires and haze pollution is adequate, given full implementation of the ORHAP. the fact that the country has essentially completed the land conversion process. The only area in Forest Fires and Haze-Related which sufficient virgin forest for land conversion Supra-National Legal Instruments remains is in Palawan, the frontier province. International Environmental Agreements The Philippines has a well-developed fire Many environmental problems cross management infrastructure, the foundation of international political boundaries and their
162 THE PROGRAM solution requires cooperation between countries “action plans” relating to fires and on an unprecedented scale. In most cases, the transboundary haze pollution, which included approach to tackle problems of transboundary legal principles relating to ASEAN Regional environment issues has been through Cooperation on Environmental Issues: international agreements. Through the (i) the Long-Term Integrated Forest Fire initiatives of UNEP, more than 170 multilateral Management Strategy for Indonesia, agreements pertaining to the environment have which was one of the outputs of the been signed. Bandung (Indonesia) Conference of The success of any agreement depends on 1992; and how it is formulated and what it contains. The (ii) the ASEAN Cooperation Plan on most difficult part is in its implementation. The Transboundary Pollution, an ASEAN- Achilles heel of most of these agreements is the wide plan of action adopted at the action to be taken if the signatory countries fail ASEAN Meeting on the Management to take the necessary steps. Since many of them of Transboundary Pollution held in are “soft” instruments, there are no effective Kuala Lumpur in June 1995. enforcement mechanisms. However, since no specific operational Even if they cannot have powers of statutory measures were identified for these, they sanction, often they exert considerable moral ultimately had little impact on fires or haze At the regional influence. pollution; and ASEAN faced more level, ASEAN’s transboundary pollution in 1997. response to fires The ASEAN Situation ASEAN’s current legal and institutional and haze has At the regional level, ASEAN’s response to framework is weak for the following reasons: included fires and haze has included resolutions, • the regional legal framework consists resolutions, declarations, communiqués, and MOUs. These solely of “soft-law” agreements that state declarations, instruments have increasingly focused on the an intent to cooperate, with no sanctions communiqués, transboundary haze pollution issue. From the imposed against member states that fail and MOUs longer-term perspective of regional cooperation, to comply; these documents collectively constitute a legal • other than commitments to act as “lead” framework for concerted action by member countries in fire prevention, mitigation, countries. and monitoring under the ORHAP, and a Key among these documents are the statement that all AMCs are preparing following: NHAPs, no definitive commitments have • 1985: Agreement on the Conservation of been made to take specific actions to Nature and Natural Resources; address forest fires and haze either now • 1990: Kuala Lumpur Accord on or in the future; and Environment and Development; • the regional and subregional institutional • 1992: Singapore Resolution on arrangements for jointly responding to fire- Environment and Development; and and-haze emergencies are simply • 1994: Bandar Seri Begawan Resolution expressions of intent to allow joint on Environment and Development. responses, and as such, contain no The meetings that spawned these operational details or commitments to instruments also led to the endorsement of two undertake any action.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 163 Analysis of ASEAN Legal Instruments on to occur. It may be argued that the Agreement Fire and Haze on Conservation of Nature and Natural Supported by ASEAN/UNEP/ADB, a Resources is not specifically about air pollution. significant amount of background legal analysis If that argument is true, then an agreement connected with ASEAN’s regional and dealing with transboundary air pollution may subregional legal framework was carried out be the answer to the problem. But it will by the Indonesian Center for Environmental certainly take a long time to have any effect. Law (ICEL), and it provided considerable Apart from this disadvantage, the argument insight about the situation. for a new agreement is basically flawed. Article Soft Laws and Hard Laws. Experience 19 of the Agreement on Conservation of Nature indicates that states are not legally committed to and Natural Resources specifically stipulates the observe the principles and provisions of the soft state’s obligation not to generate transboundary laws. If states are to be legally bound to those air pollution, which is accepted as an principles, they must be incorporated into a hard international principle. The actual problem is The experiences law50 such as treaties or conventions. that the Agreement does not contain measures from the The 1979 ECE Convention on Long-Range or standards that are useful in preventing the Convention Transboundary Air Pollution is an example of pollution. Accordingly, the conclusion of a illustrate the an effort to make an international principle protocol under the Agreement is likely to be correlation work. This Convention was the first treaty that the most possible and practicable solution to between addressed transboundary atmospheric pollution. the growing transboundary atmospheric principles in a Because it was a framework agreement that pollution in the AMCs. In addition, Article 24 declaration as a merely sets out the principles to guide future of the Agreement on the Conservation of Nature soft law on the action, and because it did not formulate and Natural Resources stipulates that in order one hand, and measures to which the parties must comply, it to implement the Agreement, the state parties conventions and was not possible to implement its provisions. may adopt protocols. If this is related to Article protocols as a Therefore, the Convention did not change the 19, which obliges countries to prevent hard law on the status quo. The most affected parties then transboundary air pollution, then a protocol to other insisted on the formulation of emission cope is the most possible and practicable way standards. The Secretariat of the Convention forward. later proposed, and the parties to the Convention At this moment, however, it is not possible approved, the 1985 Sulfur Protocol, 1988 NOx to conclude protocols because the Agreement Protocol, and 1991 Volatile Organic has no legal effect (Brunei Darussalam, Compounds Protocol. Malaysia, and Singapore have not ratified it). The experiences from the Convention If for any valid reason, three countries or at illustrate the correlation between principles in least one of them still do not want to ratify it, a declaration as a soft law on the one hand, and the preparation of an independent mother conventions and protocols as a hard law on the agreement and its protocol becomes a must. other. One of the disadvantages of having to go for a Alternatives for ASEAN. ASEAN has new mother agreement and protocol is the introduced a wide range of environmental legal negotiation process, which will be more instruments. These notwithstanding, complex with an increased number of transboundary atmospheric pollution continues members. Nevertheless, one of the advantages
164 THE PROGRAM is the opportunity for AMCs to have a focused the various parties sharing fire and specialized agreement concerning suppression resources across transboundary haze pollution in the region international boundaries under SRFAs; followed by comprehensive, detailed protocols. (ii) an agreement officially harmonizing The other advantage is the opportunity for the (but not necessarily standardizing) the AMCs to develop new and stronger provisions air pollution indexes used in AMCs; that were not addressed in the 1985 Agreement (iii) an agreement specifying a common (Santosa et al. 1999). terminology for fire management and a common ASEAN standard specification Required Changes for tools and equipment used in joint If ASEAN is to improve its capacity to fire suppression within ASEAN; address fires and haze, several changes to the (iv) an agreement specifying a common current supranational legal and institutional core curriculum for training of fire framework are required. management personnel at the basic level The existing “soft-law” documents can, (to promote subregional sharing of fire however, serve as a basis for a strengthened management personnel); regional legal framework for addressing forest (v) an agreement endorsing universal fires and transboundary haze pollution. This adoption of a common FDRS and would consist of (i) a “mother document,” to allowing universal sharing of all data provide a mandate for international agreements necessary for operation of the system to be concluded for specific purposes such as on an ASEAN-wide basis; and addressing transboundary pollution; and (ii) a (vi) an agreement on the roles and series of supporting international agreements responsibilities of specialized regional relating to the operational aspects of addressing centers such as ASMC. forest fires and transboundary haze pollution— e.g., common system of fire danger rating, The Current Initiative sharing of meteorological information, Promoted by ADB’s RETA Project, UNEP establishment of ASEAN-wide fire monitoring and the ASEAN Secretariat are collaborating network, and regional training arrangements. in developing a legal framework to address The “mother document” would ideally take transboundary air pollution, in particular haze If ASEAN is to the form of an ASEAN Framework Agreement pollution. Based on various documents improve its on Transboundary Pollution, which would be prepared by UNEP and the ASEAN Secretariat, capacity to broad enough to subsume any number of ASOEN/HTTF and AMMH at their meetings address fires and subagreements on its various aspects such as in Singapore on 25-26 August 1999 organized haze, several transboundary haze pollution from forest fires. a feasibility study to be prepared for a single changes to the Agreements relating to, say, marine pollution ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze current could be just as easily included in the “mother Pollution. In practical terms, this feasibility study supranational document.” The subagreements to address the will prepare for the negotiation of such an legal and various aspects of transboundary haze pollution agreement. institutional would include: The Ministerial Meeting also decided to framework are (i) a set of detailed agreements specifying establish a Working Group of Legal and required the roles, rights, and responsibilities of Technical Experts (WGLTE) to serve as a
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 165 negotiating forum. Another decision stipulated air pollution beyond haze pollution. The ASEAN that the negotiation of the agreement should haze agreement may be complemented by a be completed within two years. UNEP was more general Framework Convention on requested to assist in the preparation of the Transboundary Air Pollution to be negotiated feasibility study and in subsequent action. After and adopted at a later stage. This convention completion, the feasibility study shall be would consolidate gains achieved by the haze submitted to the AMMH for endorsement and agreement and could also provide a parental negotiation of the agreement may start shortly framework to it. Establishing a parental link after that. would require transformation of the ASEAN The Ministers agreed to proceed with the haze agreement into a Protocol to the negotiation for the development of an ASEAN Framework Convention, which can be Agreement on Transboundary Haze as soon as accomplished through technical revision of the possible (quoted from the Joint Press Statement agreement by the parties. The framework of the 8th ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on convention would allow for development of The ASEAN haze Environment [6-7 October 2000, Kota more protocols addressing other issues of agreement Kinabalu, Malaysia]). Based on the experience transboundary air pollution. Further, it could may be of environmental negotiations of similar be made open for accession by states outside complemented magnitude, five sessions of WGLTE would be the ASEAN region, widening not only the by a more required to complete the negotiations. The substantive but also the geographical scope. general deliberations of WGLTE shall be governed by Thus, a comprehensive and coherent system of Framework procedural rules based on the ASEAN Protocol legal instruments could be created, expanding Convention on and Practices. Observers from selected donor from ASEAN to the rest of the region. Transboundary agencies and regional organizations may be Air Pollution to invited to the meetings of WGLTE. The Capacity Building be negotiated and ASEAN Secretariat will serve as the Secretariat Capacity building promotes the improvement adopted at a of WGLTE. UNEP has agreed to provide of efficiency. Improved capacity is reflected in later stage WGLTE with legal assistance, including help effectiveness of action. As a program area, this in preparing the consecutive drafts of the would cover research and development agreement, and will serve as Legal Counsel. involving basic and applied research; WGLTE shall report on progress of its work to technology acquisition and transfer; HTTF and AMMH. establishment of a database; skills development The primary objective of this initiative is to in all aspects of fire and haze management and enable AMCs to develop and adopt a legally- related education and training needs; public binding agreement to combat and mitigate education and extension; improved capacity transboundary haze pollution. In the longer for planning, evaluation, and monitoring; term, such an agreement may evolve into a updated and strengthened system of wider legal regime addressing transboundary information; reorientation and strengthening air pollution in the Asian and Pacific region. of institutional instruments; infrastructure The negotiation and adoption of the ASEAN development; and coordination to ensure Agreement on Transboundary Haze Pollution proactive responses. This is a broader concept will not preclude from widening the scope of and includes all factors that would add to the the legal framework to address transboundary capacity and effectiveness of institutions.
166 THE PROGRAM Since some of the components of capacity on fire-related subjects) exist. It should be building have been separately dealt with, the possible to adapt some of this knowledge for emphasis here will be on the two core aspects: tropical countries. research (science and technology development), The tendency to concentrate on high and human resource development (education technology inputs should be avoided, as it leads and training). to the neglect of equally (if not more) important field actions such as fire protection measures. Research and Development Research promotes technological innovation, Education and Training which has a strategically important dimension. Fire Management Training Development of science and technology on The scope of training covers in-country fire and haze management includes several training (upgrading, refresher courses), external related aspects. Examples are tools and training, and exchanging. General aspects techniques of fire control, prescribed fires, covered in training include land and forest fire optimal fire regimes, beneficial uses of fire, detection using satellite data, GIS, image land conversion methods without the use of fire, processing techniques, hot spot algorithms, fire behavior, monitoring systems, fire-related regional climate prediction, climate forecasting, A comprehensive climate models, emission characteristics of fires, methods and applications of disaster prediction, and coherent and socioeconomic and health impacts of haze. satellite monitoring, atmospheric transport system of legal An important area is epidemiological studies modeling, atmospheric monitoring, Internet instruments on short- and long-term effects of haze on health, and intranet use, aerial surveillance, use of site could be created, including effects of exposure to known and navigation tools, and fire suppression and expanding from potentially harmful substances such as PM10, mitigation techniques. Training is required at ASEAN to all sulfur dioxide, heavy metals, hydrocarbons, and all levels. countries in the solvent extractable compounds in haze aerosols Several studies were undertaken by ADB’s Asian and Pacific (Abraham 1998). RETA Project resulting in suggestions to region With an increased number of fires improve training methodology, course design, (damaging hitherto safe areas such as rain program delivery, and training levels for forests and wetlands), and greater intensity of implementing the ORHAP. In this regard, three their impacts, it has become necessary to meet categories of training are required. (i) the challenge on a scientific basis. Forest fire- firefighter training, (ii) train-the-trainer related research has been neglected in the past training, and (iii) incident management and efforts must be made to improve the training. A need has also been identified for situation, including provision of funds, facilities, training the public, including volunteers, forest and expertise to undertake research. communities (including loggers and A related consideration is acquisition of concessionaires), and army and police technology from outside, suitably balanced to personnel. the situations in a country. A considerable amount of forest fire research has been Situation Assessment and Improvement conducted in temperate countries. It has been Forest Firefighter Training. Forest estimated that more than 100,000 publications firefighter training falls into two categories. The (books, scientific papers, and meeting reports first is where the primary responsibility is
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 167 carried out by forestry service-based agencies, developing or enhancing firefighter training in as is the case in Indonesia, Philippines, and other AMCs. Thailand. The second is where it is carried out Directions for Regional Forest Firefighter by professional firefighting and emergency Training. The right atmospheric and services as is the case in Brunei Darussalam, environmental conditions for another incidence Malaysia, and Singapore (although in the of transboundary haze are likely to occur before Malaysian state of Sabah, the forestry service 2002. This would require firefighting personnel also plays a significant role). from the various national agencies of the AMCs The first category requires the greatest to work alongside one another. There is an degree of development, particularly in urgent need for a common approach to Indonesia. In the second category the firefighter training, at least at the most basic professional fire and emergency services possess levels, to combat this. the resources to deliver training to meet their The same basic forest firefighter training is own needs. However, they are often yet to conducted throughout the region, despite there acquire and develop broad-based institutional being no collaboration in this regard. The and personnel expertise in forest firefighting. general scope and content of this training is With the exception of RFD in Thailand, the also quite similar to that carried out in countries Sabah State Forestry Service in Malaysia, and a considered to face a consistently high annual number of donor-assisted projects in Indonesia, forest fire threat and which maintain large, Forest firefighter forest firefighter training within the region is structured firefighting organizations (e.g., training within generally limited in scope. Australia, Canada, and United States). the region is There tends to be a paucity of trained and Taking into account the existing degree of generally limited experienced personnel at all levels; and there is commonality in forest firefighter training in scope little in the way of national programs that can throughout the region, a common core meet the regions’ needs for future haze curriculum can be designed and implemented mitigation operations. by all AMCs. Such a common core curriculum Thailand has developed unparalleled should not replace the existing training expertise within the region in the field of forest programs, but should rather be used as the firefighting over the past 20 years. nucleus curriculum for enhancing existing It has devised systems, structures, and programs. training programs based on best practice seen In addition to the regular forest fire crew, around the world, which it has adapted to wet training in forest firefighting should be given and dry tropical environments. In addition to to voluntary fire forces, police and military, fire the basic fireline levels, the agency also conducts and rescue services, and staff of the private training in the more specialized techniques sector and NGOs. including Remote Area Fire Teams (RAFT), For the most part, training at the level of the helicopter insertion teams (HeliTack), and fireline team—the basic component in the chain aircraft fire attack. of mitigation action—is more efficient when The systems in use by RFD for forest fire carried out locally; and this does not offer scope mitigation, suppression, and training have been for centralization at the regional level. developed primarily to meet national and Train the trainer and incident management agency needs. They offer a good model for training. Training of this nature is carried out
168 THE PROGRAM through short courses, workshops, study tours, research in one of the universities in Given that fire orientation programs, and fellowships. Kalimantan, possibly at the University of suppression Fire management skills occur at two levels: Palangkaraya; techniques are (a) operational level, and (b) management level. • determine how military personnel and similar among Training at the operational level imparts skills equipment could be used in fire AMCs it would necessary for physically performing fire suppression efforts; seem desirable to management and suppression. Training at the • encourage intra-ASEAN joint training centralize at least management level imparts the skills necessary curricula or programs for efficiency, cost- some aspects of for efficiently organizing operational-level effectiveness, and for cross-border training of fire activities. mobilization of personnel, especially under management Given that fire suppression techniques are the auspices of SRFAs; and personnel similar among AMCs it would seem desirable • develop and implement regional training to centralize at least some aspects of training of programs via exchange visits, fire management personnel. Most economies secondments, and joint training exercises. of scale occur at the management rather than the operational level. Applied Study on Training and Research In the case of training for fire management There are several ongoing or planned fire trainers, the question of whether sufficient scale suppression training programs at the national, economies exist at the subregional level can be subregional, regional, and international levels answered only as programs for this develop in aimed at improving ASEAN’s capability to the region. mitigate future large-scale fires in the region. Efforts are now underway to integrate all of Strengthening Existing Training Programs these programs into a regional fire suppression ADB’s RETA Project made a number of training and research package. An initial step recommendations to improve fire in formulating this package is the Australian management training programs in the Government-financed Applied Study on ASEAN region, with particular reference to Formulation of a Regional Fire Suppression Indonesia, as follows: Training and Research Program. This study is • develop national competency-based surveying and inventorying all the fire training standards and implement these at management training programs in the ASEAN all levels; region. The overall purpose is to ensure that • increase the number of qualified fire individual training programs avoid overlaps and instructors at all levels and locations. This that they collectively provide the ASEAN region would allow more local and volunteer with appropriate training in fire management firefighters to be trained; at all levels. The study is also assessing ASEAN’s • organize volunteer fire brigades and capacity to provide fire management personnel provide training to them; in adequate numbers to support the ORHAP’s • increase the number of training centers at mitigation program. Since the proposed the provincial level as a means of ensuring Regional Research and Training Center for training under local conditions and to Land and Forest Fire Management at the reduce travel costs. Establish a center for University of Palangkaraya could function as peat fire management training and the apex institution for any regional fire
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 169 management training program, its suggested 2004; and AMMH requested HTTF to prepare The challenge development path is also being closely examined a plan of action to implement the proposal. now is to use the by this study. ADB’s RETA Project supported the preparation period between of the implementation plan. the last ENSO Regional Fires Research and and the next to Training Center Donor Collaboration and Partnerships put into place an Following meetings of HTTF in 1998, Funding agencies have made a vital institutional ASEAN decided that a regional research and contribution to addressing the impacts of framework that training facility should be established at repeated forest fires and haze, providing a will prepare the the University of Palangkaraya in Kalimantan, substantial amount of funding to short-term region for Indonesia. suppression actions. While this has no doubt subsequent The idea of establishing the center itself grew been appreciated by AMCs, sustained funding periods of out of a grassroots approach to adapting peat of short-term fire suppression over an indefinite vulnerability to fire suppression technology to local conditions period is neither feasible, nor would it be an forest fires and in Indonesia’s Central Kalimantan province, efficient use of scarce donor or affected-country haze under conditions of severely constrained resources. financial and technical resources. This The challenge now is to use the period notwithstanding, a substantial amount of between the last ENSO and the next to put research relating to peat forests and fire into place an institutional framework that will management is being conducted at the prepare the region for subsequent periods of university in association with recognized vulnerability to forest fires and haze. This international institutions. preparation should be such that ASEAN will Considering that the proposed center meets never again have to resort to crisis management the criterion of economy of scale, the ORHAP as it did during the 1997-1998 fires and haze. supports its establishment and will actively play Accomplishing this will require donor funds a part in initiatives aimed at achieving this goal. to be used as efficiently as possible. While There was concern that the concept for a assistance projects play vital roles, it is crucial regional training facility may have been that it to ensure that they are fully owned by the AMCs would conduct primary fireline training on a and integrated into the ORHAP, such that the regional basis. This is not considered to be a activities can run on effectively even after the viable training concept at the regional level for external assistance is terminated. The role of logistical, financial, and practical reasons. A donors in addressing the fire-and-haze issue will regional training center would need to conduct also have to be redefined. In short, their training and more particularly research aimed responses will have to be integrated through at a higher level of fire management than simply explicit partnerships, rather than each of the firefighter training. Accordingly, modifications donors simply becoming aware of other donors’ were made to enhance the scope of the center. involvement. The Hanoi Plan of Action approved by the sixth A start has been made by integrating all ASEAN Summit on 16 December 1998 donor activities directly into the ORHAP-DIP. confirmed that the “ASEAN Regional Research When used as intended, the DIP places the and Training Center for Land and Forest Fire onus of developing an integrated operational Management” will be established by the year plan for confronting the fire-and-haze issue
170 THE PROGRAM directly on to the AMCs and ASEAN itself. Being operation-oriented, the ORHAP has Once ASEAN has determined what actions are no long-term or perspective design. The plan is needed, the financial costs can be estimated, and divided into three operational programs with an the areas where gaps between available AMC additional component of institutional resources and requirements exist can be identified. arrangements supporting these. The components International organizations should determine and subcomponents of programs are vertically which of these gaps each can most efficiently fill, linked. Spatially, there are 12 geographic entities: given their particular area of expertise. nine component national plans (NFAPs), two In order to underpin implementation of the subregional plans, and one plan covering the ORHAP, RETA 5770 promoted partnerships entire ASEAN region. between international agencies, HTTF, and The subdivisions within a national plan will AMMH. At the outset of the ORHAP, an be the responsibility of the country concerned. Informal Meeting of Donors was convened to At the lower national levels, (e.g., districts, inform them of the opportunities to forge subdistricts, villages) an FSMP is regarded as partnerships with ASEAN. At that meeting, an integral part of the haze action plan. several donor partnerships were formalized and Implementation is based on a DIP of programs a number of others agreed in principle. and program components (and each geographic The process of partnership formation and unit has a DIP). The DIP contains details of discussions about the tasks facing partnerships activities and actions to be taken by major formalized earlier followed, and this process is programs. still continuing, through informal contacts and The consideration for inclusion of an activity discussions at SRFA, HTTF, and AMMH in a DIP is the availability (or commitment) of meetings, and at workshops and special funds. Such a commitment can be on the part discussion sessions (see Box 14 and of national governments, ASEAN, or a partner, Appendix 5). particularly funding agencies. Accordingly, the DIP can be modified or updated continuously, System of Continuous Planning Planning is an institutional responsibility, and BOX 14 preparation of a plan involves several Institutions Responsible for the ORHAP institutional players, and inputs from experts • ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment and stakeholders. • ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze • ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment • Haze Technical Task Force The Plan Design • HTTF-Indonesia (Mitigation) Conceptually, the ORHAP has all the • HTTF-Malayasia (Prevention) • HTTF-Singapore (Monitoring) important characteristics of a formal plan, or • Working Group on SRFA-Borneo specifically of an action plan. But the nature • Working Group on SRFA–Sumatra • ASEAN Secretariat–Environment Unit and emphasis of certain levels of actions may • ASEAN Secretariat–Agriculture and Forestry Unit vary when compared to a sector plan or a • ASEAN Secretariat-Information and Library Unit • ASEAN Secretariat–Computer Unit development plan. • ASEAN Secretariat-Culture and Information Unit However, the ORHAP can and does • ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC) • Dialogue Partners/Collaborative Partnerships function within the confines of a broader • NGOs/Private Sector planning framework.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 171 as and when resources become available or (d) the complete financial cost of Once ASEAN committed. The various programs and spatial undertaking the action, has determined components are linked by an appropriate (e) the time frame during which the action what actions are coordination mechanism. The changes to DIP is to be undertaken or completed, and needed, the at the ASEAN regional level are monitored and (f) the monitoring variable that is triggered financial costs endorsed by HTTF and AMMH. when the action has been (or is being) can be estimated, successfully implemented. and the areas Defining of Activities where gaps The strategic formulation for action plans Prioritization of Activities between available with objectives that can be reached only in the Implementation of the ORHAP is to be AMC resources medium and the long term share a common carried out in a balanced manner, with due and requirements architecture. The elements of this architecture emphasis on the relationship of development exist can be and the sequence in which these are executed, and short-term objectives, and assigning identified are as follows. First, the problem to be addressed appropriate priority to the program activities. (or the objectives to be achieved) is stated. Normally, the priority provided to a planned Second, the vehicle for fulfilling the plan’s action is based on its level of net contribution objectives is determined. Third, the parameters toward achieving the objectives with least cost of the strategy (or pathway) for achieving the and within a minimum time. For pragmatic plan’s objectives are formulated. Fourth, the reasons, the ORHAP assumes that the level of outputs (intermediate goals or milestones) in priority attached to a particular action is solely achieving the plan’s objectives are identified. determined by whether or not funding for the Fifth, the tasks required for achieving the action under consideration has been secured outputs are detailed. Finally, the inputs required (this probably is a good enough proxy to perform the tasks are derived from the tasks. measure). Even though activities in the ORHAP are Thus, a country’s priorities in addressing the scheduled for implementation in the short to threat of fire-and-haze disasters are to be medium term, the objectives to be achieved are determined solely by the level of funding it of a medium- and long-term nature. This attaches to particular actions. characterizes ORHAP as a strategic plan, to In the most general sense, there are, address a perceived environmental problem, therefore, only two levels of priority that can i.e., forest fires and haze. be attached to actions relating to fires and The ORHAP assumes that implementation haze: those that are funded, and those that are of the plan can succeed only if all the concrete not. measures incorporated into it are described in By default, unfunded actions are deemed to exact detail, including the following variables: have received zero priority. (a) the exact action to be undertaken, The implications are that an additional including its major parameters, variable g must be added to the list a-f given (b) the organization taking the lead in earlier, and it is the source of funding. undertaking the action, This variable often comprises two (c) the position designation of the person components: the portion of the cost of the action ultimately responsible for ensuring that that is funded by the government and the the action is undertaken, portion that is funded by other sources.
172 THE PROGRAM Detailed Implementation Plan may change over time and these changes are to The core of the ORHAP is a DIP containing be reflected in the DIP. the provision for actually carrying out the DIPs have been prepared for each of the nine activities. DIPs are prepared based on NHAPs, and for each of the two SRFAs. An commitments from ASEAN, member umbrella DIP has also been prepared for governments, assistance agencies, and donor measures to be taken at the regional level. countries, and also of NGOs, community Donor-sponsored or initiated programs, groups, and other voluntary organizations. projects, or initiatives incorporated into the In addition to detailing the organization ORHAP are also integrated into the appropriate responsible for each action (and the designation DIPs. For example, a donor project that of the person responsible in that organization), promotes the ORHAP at the regional level is DIPs also present a detailed matrix of the incorporated into the regional-level DIP, budget, source of funding, time frame for whereas a project that supports implementation implementation of action, and a monitoring of a particular NHAP51 is integrated into the variable to determine whether or not the action DIP for the country concerned. has been (or is being) successfully implemented. Of the three levels of DIPs, the national-level Inclusion of the monitoring variable allows the DIPs tend to be the most extensive. This is The core of the DIP matrix to function also as a vehicle for understandable, since the national-level plans ORHAP is a DIP monitoring RHAP implementation. (NHAPs) form the foundation for all resource- that contains the Transparency in monitoring is assured by real- sharing arrangements and actions cooperatively provision for time dissemination of the entire DIP matrix to undertaken at the subregional or regional level, actually carrying all parties concerned via a restricted-access (i.e., without which the entire ORHAP mechanism out the activities password-required) intranet. would be ineffective. A substantial amount of While the ORHAP details the steps that time and resources has thus been devoted to ASEAN itself is to take (donor assistance only the preparation of the NHAP-DIPs, which are supports the steps taken by ASEAN), the full collectively subsumed by the overall ORHAP- complement of concrete measures that are to DIP. comprise the implementation strategy also need Efficient implementation of the ORHAP to be laid out. demands that all parties involved (AMCs, Since the actions are undertaken at three subregional groupings, ASEAN itself, and the different levels (regional, subregional, and international agencies concerned) have access national), the DIP is divided correspondingly at all times to the entire list of actions being into three. The DIPs relating to the various or to be undertaken under the ORHAP. levels together comprise the ORHAP-DIP, Thus a “working” version of the ORHAP- which collectively forms the detailed “to-do” DIP used by authorized members is the list that guides implementation over a six-year continuously updated, online, intranet version. period. The DIP developed and/or modified The online up-to-date version of the RHAP at (by CSU), is presented to the HTTF and a particular point can be obtained as a printout. AMMH for approval. Once approved, it gets incorporated into the formal DIP matrix, and The DIP Matrix implementation is monitored. The actions The format used for presenting the required to support ORHAP implementation ORHAP-DIP is that of a matrix, in which each
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 173 of the variables identified above appears as a The computer software used to manage the column heading. Each action, along with the ORHAP-DIP matrix gives all users with information corresponding to variables, appears intranet access to the ORHAP-DIP the ability as one row of the ORHAP-DIP matrix, referred to sort out action lines by any variable they wish. to as an “action line.” For example, any user could query the matrix All updates and changes to a particular for actions that have not been undertaken within portion of the DIP are received by the CSU via a time frame specified. The system would then the ORHAP intranet. CSU then updates the return a list of all actions from all sections of master ORHAP-DIP, and immediately places the ORHAP-DIP that fulfill this condition. it on the intranet, making it available to all authorized persons. While monitoring the Organic Link between ORHAP and DIP implementation of the ORHAP-DIP is All of the details of the individual actions ultimately the responsibility of the HTTF, any contained in the DIP are summarized in the user with ORHAP intranet access can monitor Operational Plan for Implementing RHAP. This implementation at will, and can (via HTTF short, written summary is convenient for HTTF In the case of representatives) raise implementation issues at and AMMH since it states, in an abbreviated donor-funded meetings of HTTF. Donor organizations can form, the core initiatives that ASEAN itself is projects, the use the ORHAP-DIP matrix to determine how to undertake. donor agency their contribution could complement ongoing For example, one of these core initiatives is itself is the or planned actions by AMCs or other donors, the formulation of FSMPs for the two SRFAs. organization based on the amount of their financial Successfully completing this initiative will responsible for contributions serving as a rough proxy for the require many actions (e.g., negotiation of ensuring that the scope and coverage of the various actions. international agreements, deciding how project activities Moreover, any particular country, subregional personnel and equipment are to be mobilized, and related body, or donor organization can specify an who pays for the mobilization and actions are action that it has decided to undertake in demobilization, etc.). All of these actions for fulfilled support of the ORHAP and the six-year successfully completing this initiative are program. As long as the other relevant contained in the SRFA-level DIPs. Each of the information is also specified, and the desire to actions must be implemented by a particular have this action included in the ORHAP-DIP agency or organization. Each action has a cost is communicated to HTTF, then this estimate associated with it; so it must have an information will be inserted as an action line identified source of funding. Each action also into the ORHAP-DIP matrix in the appropriate must have attached to it a monitoring variable. section. This action line becomes, in essence, However, in order to be able to manage all of a “contract” or a promise to undertake the this at HTTF and AMMH meetings, an particular action, during the time frame abbreviated (and aggregated) statement at the specified, with the organization and person core initiative level was required. This is the named being responsible to see that action Operational Plan for Implementing RHAP. through to completion. All other persons or In the case of donor-funded projects, the bodies with intranet access to the ORHAP-DIP donor agency itself is the organization matrix will then be made immediately aware of responsible for ensuring that the project the commitment to undertake this action. activities and related actions are fulfilled.
174 THE PROGRAM Actions to be undertaken by the donors that conceptual content, may undergo changes, its support implementation of the ORHAP are implementation can proceed uninterruptedly via therefore treated in exactly the same way as the ORHAP-DIP. Based on the experience of actions to be performed by ASEAN or the about the first two years, it is possible to give national governments. Since the DIP is an interim report on the progress of the segregated into prevention, mitigation, and ORHAP, and to give some idea of the direction monitoring, each donor action is inserted into it will take in the future. the section of the DIP that corresponds to the Overall, the progress achieved has been particular ORHAP component to which it substantial. The scope and range of relates. collaborative activities is impressive. However, progress has been uneven across the ORHAP’s Monitoring and Evaluation of ORHAP three programs (prevention, mitigation, and Implementation monitoring) and their components. The main objective of monitoring and evaluation is to refine the implementation of Uneven Progress plans, projects, and activities. While monitoring By far, progress has been the most rapid in shows achievements and failures, evaluation goes the program components of monitoring, in part into the contributing factors or causes and how because this has been a major focus of donor Progress has been the problems can be solved. It thus provides an initiatives. Progress in the prevention program the most rapid in efficient feedback loop for improving and has been less rapid, and mitigation has lagged the program upgrading the systems and procedures of behind prevention. components of implementation. Evaluation is a simultaneous This outcome was to be expected. Given the monitoring, in process to analyze the factors that had contributed centralized and relatively technology-intensive part because this to the monitored outcome. It is designed to nature of monitoring, as well as the donor has been a major trigger management action at critical points. support for this component, it was clear from focus of donor Monitoring and evaluation is associated with the beginning that this program would progress initiatives. specified C&Is (e.g., of sustainable forest quickly. The magnitude of the task of Progress in the management). C&Is provide standards to judge implementing the mitigation program is much prevention (as well as ways to measure) the performance greater, given that this requires formulating and program has and progress toward achieving the stated goals. implementing FSMPs at the national and been less rapid, Apart from helping to judge the results, regional levels. It was also expected that and mitigation quantitatively and qualitatively, C&Is practically prevention would unfold at a slower pace than has lagged serve to enhance the design of program monitoring, as this needs a somewhat more behind components and actions, adding a new flexible timescale, and in some cases would prevention dimension to strategic planning. require radical policy shifts that are impossible to achieve in the short run. Status of ORHAP Implementation Once this unevenness in the progress of In order to provide the greatest chance of implementation became apparent, HTTF and successful preparation for future fires and haze, AMMH took swift action. Since members of regardless of when they occur, the ORHAP both these bodies are drawn solely from will remain a continuing process. While the national-level environment ministries, an ORHAP document, and even some of its immediate priority was to expand the pool of
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 175 prevention and mitigation expertise available Constant monitoring should be emphasized for A study to to both bodies. This is being achieved by the early and less costly action. determine the creation of a panel of national experts in feasibility, prevention and mitigation who will work with, Conceptual Options purpose, concept, and advise, their respective HTTF and AMMH The study has identified two conceptual and alternative members in accelerating the pace of progress options for consideration. Elements in Option financing vehicles in the implementation of these programs. A include equal contribution from AMCs; funds to establish an to be provided to the requesting transboundary ASEAN Haze ASEAN Haze Fund to Implement the ORHAP haze source country; and periodic contributions Fund was carried A study to determine the feasibility, purpose, from AMCs to replenish the fund. out under ADB’s concept, and alternative financing vehicles to Elements in Option B include AMCs’ RETA Project establish an ASEAN Haze Fund was carried contribution to the fund varying according to out under ADB’s RETA Project. It also risk; part of the funds provided to the identified various management and institutional transboundary haze source country for fire arrangements, including operational guidelines. suppression operations to be returned, interest- The study concluded that the creation of the free; private polluters should be made liable for ASEAN Haze Fund is not only feasible, but their acts; and where necessary AMCs will be urgent in order to finance ORHAP-related required to replenish the fund. activities, particularly fire suppression and mitigation operations. This can be conducted Other Proposed Features through a cohesive and integrated framework, The study has proposed measures for drawing on the resources of AMCs and other expanding the financial sources of the fund (e.g., sources of funding. linking it to ASEAN economic schemes, obtaining company sponsorships and Purpose of the Fund contributions from private interests, and inviting The main purpose of the fund is to provide donor [dialogue partner] contributions). The quick and emergency access to a pool of funds study also has provided suggestions for fund that will enable AMCs to implement their FSMPs management, including institutional to suppress forest fires that result in, or threaten arrangements, procedures for invoking the use to create, a significant degree of transboundary of the fund, expenditure and financial haze. guidelines, and investment guidelines. This assumes efficient, effective, and cost- Consideration of, and a decision on, the haze effective FSMPs and SRFAs. In the medium to fund proposed in the study is pending. longer term, the fund could be used for upgrading FSMPs, preventive measures, and Information Management monitoring, when the level of its resources have An effective information system is an open- increased over time. ended system, with continuous add-on capability. Guidelines on trigger levels would need to The system, depending on its nature and scope, be created in order to invoke access to the fund. can vary from simple and crude methods to Factors to be taken into account include air highly sophisticated ones involving computer pollution indexes, FDRSs, haze transport networks, the Internet, and web sites with the modeling, and size and location of affected areas. capability of online information exchange and
176 THE PROGRAM updating facilities. Still, those near the fires in ORHAP, and to recommend an appropriate comparatively underdeveloped areas often do information management system. not have access to such new systems of The study conducted several activities. communication. • Reviewed available documentation related Some of the important problems relating to to fires and haze in the ASEAN fire information management identified during Secretariat. the1997-1998 fires and haze are as follows: • Reviewed the types of data and information • data are spread out in various institutions collected by the ASEAN Secretariat. Data processing that are often reluctant to provide • Established categorization of the was not adequate information. If available, data are not in information to be included in the Internet to produce compatible format, are of low quality, and and intranet site structure. information to expensive; • Reviewed data processing and support fire • data cannot be communicated in time dissemination procedures in the ASEAN management when needed because telecommunications Secretariat’s units. are not adequate; • Assessed the information flow in and • reliable human resources to gather and between relevant ASEAN bodies and the process data are limited. Data on the ASEAN Secretariat. 1997-1998 fires were mostly monitored • Assessed the institutional capacity and by three foreign-funded satellite- functional skills required for fire and haze monitoring projects operated by foreign data collection, processing, and experts; and dissemination. • data processing was not adequate to • Assessed the facilities (including hardware produce information to support fire and software) for fire and haze data management. collection, processing, and dissemination. • Assessed the ASEAN Secretariat’s Assessment of the Information System relationship and coordination activities The information system involves several with other institutions. interrelated actions to deliver the required data Apart from the assessment of fire- and haze- to the users: data collection and generation, related information management systems processing and analysis, development of useful (IMS), the output of the study included other information, updating of information, assessments such as establishment of the public- communication, and dissemination. access web site; formulation and implementation of training programs for staff ADB Study on Information Management in the use and maintenance of the web site; a Systems restricted-access intranet for parties directly ADB’s RETA Project, as part of its TOR, associated with implementing the ORHAP; and carried out a Study on Assessment of staff training programs. Information Management Systems on Forest Fire and Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution Information Management Capability at the ASEAN Secretariat and Related ASEAN of NMS Institutions. A key objective of the study was The NMS have varying capacities to carry to assess the information network of the out collection, processing, and dissemination
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 177 of information on fires and transboundary haze. The results of the assessments, as well as updates Basically each NMS is responsible for collecting will be posted on the restricted-access intranet, fire and haze data in their own country. which will be maintained by CSU. Capability in this regard varies from country to country. ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre During the 1997-1998 ENSO-induced The ASMC has been designated as a regional drought, NMS played a limited though critical information center for compiling, analyzing, role in the response and management of the and disseminating information derived from regional and national smoke and haze problem. satellite imagery and weather data necessary to They contributed through: (i) weather detect and monitor land and forest fires and monitoring and forecasting; (ii) monitoring and the occurrence of smoke and haze. In line with surveillance, including hot spot identification this, ASMC operates an intranet for NMS to using satellite imageries, haze trajectory access fire and haze products. The products modeling, compiling monthly and seasonal available on the intranet include trajectory climate prediction information, and activities forecasts, regional climate forecasts, latest hot related to air quality monitoring; and (iii) spot maps and satellite data, latest forecast of effective and prompt dissemination of winds, visibility information, air quality, and information to environmental and other haze analyses. Other information services agencies engaged in fire and haze response and generated by ASMC for the ORHAP consist management, and to the public, through the of its periodic reports to the HTTF and SRFA Internet and news releases. meetings. The NMS’ capacities need to be strengthened to better provide timely warnings Role of the ASEAN Computer Unit and forecasts to anticipate the risks of fire and While the computer unit of the ASEAN haze, and assist decision makers in taking Secretariat does not operate and maintain fire- appropriate action. and-haze related information management systems per se, its resources and infrastructure Information Management Function of are an essential vehicle in internal The NMS’ HTTFs and SRFAs communications, given the LAN’s broadcasting capacities need to The HTTFs of Indonesia, Malaysia, and and messaging abilities. be strengthened Singapore and SRFAs do not yet have a clearly In addition, Internet technologies such as to better provide defined information management function; nor E-mail and web development tools are timely warnings are formalized or nonformalized referenced data expanding the communication potential beyond and forecasts to sets maintained. the LAN. To this end, the computer unit jointly anticipate the At the regional level, inventories and manages the ASEAN web site with the office risks of fire and assessments of fire management and of the Secretary-General. haze, and assist suppression capability were carried out under decision makers the auspices of the ORHAP, initially to establish Information Flow Analysis in taking a benchmark. An analysis of the current information flows, appropriate These are to be repeated periodically, to keep products, and services revealed several issues action plans HTTF and AMMH abreast of any changes in that will require attention in establishing an a particular AMC’s fire management capacity. integrated IMS. These include the following.
178 THE PROGRAM • The processing of cross-sectoral The ASEAN Secretariat can develop information products in the ASEAN information materials and communicate Secretariat needs strengthening. ASEAN- to the public through news releases. wide information flows run vertically and However, this capacity should be are highly sectoral. Within the ASEAN supplemented with an ability to develop Secretariat, the units responsible for effective communications and strategic processing cross-sectoral flows of internal plans to assist the appropriate units, information are: (i) Public Information particularly those comprising the Unit of Office of the Secretary-General information nexus, in more effectively (OSG); (ii) the Library and Publications making use of information services and Unit; (iii) the Culture and Information resources. The data sets Unit; and (iv) the Computer Unit. maintained by Together these units comprise the internal Other Findings of the Study each ASEAN ASEAN Secretariat “Information Nexus,” Several findings and issues emerged during Secretariat unit or key points in the information flow that the ADB study on information management are largely limited provide value-added processing of various system, relating to forest fires and to decisions of information products. However, no unit transboundary haze pollution. sectoral meetings has a clear role in assigning priority to • Scattered Information Resources on Fires and and project cross-sectoral information, largely due to Haze. The current ORHAP information implementation the absence of a clear information strategy. management system is comprised of status There is thus a need to better define roles discrete and largely independent and responsibilities of the units to optimize information subsystems that public information activities. There is also predominantly address service-oriented scope for tightening this arrangement functions and inadequately address the either by designating a central unit or other information management functions, reducing the number of units involved in i.e., planning and policy, and regulatory processing information. and technical aspects. • There is a lack of consistency in the • Fire-and-Haze Policy and Planning maintenance of data sets. The data sets Information System required. There is a maintained by each ASEAN Secretariat need for an integrated information unit are largely limited to decisions of management system to address the policy, sectoral meetings and project planning, and program development implementation status. Further, the data functions of the ORHAP implementation. sets are maintained in different and The targeted users for such a system would sometimes incompatible electronic be AMME, AMMH, and ASOEN. formats. The introduction of a universal Similarly, a database on fire-and-haze- data model for the data set should be related international and regional explored to provide consistency, ease of agreements and protocols would greatly accessing, and to facilitate database help in carrying out the ORHAP. HTTF management. and the Asia-Pacific Centre for • There is a need for an ASEAN Secretariat Environmental Law (APCEL) would be Communications and Information Plan. the main beneficiary of such a system.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 179 Currently, the management and potential impact on policy, planning, and There is a need supervisory levels of the ORHAP rely program development of ORHAP for a centralized almost entirely on information compiled implementation. Therefore, there is a need regulatory and and collected by the respective national to develop a mechanism to monitor cross- technical service agencies. sectoral activities to ensure internal information • Emergency Response Mobilization consistency, particularly in ASEAN system for the Information System required. There is a approaches to agriculture, forestry, culture, ORHAP to help need for a centralized regulatory and and information areas. HTTF and the in the activation technical service information system for ASEAN Secretariat would be the principal of emergency the ORHAP to help in the activation of end-users for such a system. response and emergency response and mobilization • Need for an Integrated Fire-and-Haze mobilization systems, including monitoring of the DIPs. Corporate Data Model. Each substantive systems, The targeted users would be the HTTF unit in the ASEAN Secretariat possesses including Chairperson; the HTTF member its own project database system, which monitoring of countries; the lead countries responsible uses standard, off-the-shelf software such the DIPs for ORHAP’s prevention; mitigation, and as Microsoft Word and Access. There is, monitoring components; and collaborative however, no standardized corporate data partners. model for such critical information. The • Programs and Projects Information resulting disparate data sets and database required. A database of programs and management systems therefore require projects of regional and national initiatives, rationalization and integration. including those supported and catalyzed • Need for an ASEAN Secretariat Fire-and- through collaborative partnerships, is an Haze Information Strategy. The flow of important requirement for the ORHAP. information resources among the The establishment of a data set on haze substantive units within the ASEAN programs and projects is required to work Secretariat should be strengthened. This in conjunction with a database on DIPs. may be done through the introduction of • ORHAP Information System on Supporting an information management strategy on Services required. There is a need for an fire-and-haze data collection and information system that addresses the areas dissemination. As a first step, further of technical services and support. Such a integration of information resources would system would incorporate the firefighting, be improved by coordinating and training, and public awareness programs synchronizing the development of related and activities. The end-users for such database management systems. There is systems would be ASMC, the ASEAN also a need to closely follow reorganization Regional Research and Training Center and restructuring plans at the ASEAN for Land and Forest Fire Management in Secretariat as these may affect units Palangkaraya, national firefighting handling fire-and-haze information. services, and public information agencies. • Institutional Cross-Sectoral Coordination ORHAP Information Systems Architecture Mechanism needed. Several ASEAN The study on IMS by ADB’s RETA Project bodies are undertaking initiatives that have identified four broad categories of information
180 THE PROGRAM management functions: (i) policy, planning, and each of the DIP levels will be continuously program development; (ii) regulatory and available. The data maintenance of the DIP technical services; (iii) administrative services information system is assigned to the respective and support; and (iv) internal information focal points, designated bodies, and personnel management, which together formed the assigned by ORHAP institutions responsible ORHAP information systems architecture. for carrying out a specific action. DIPs will be The purpose was to summarize the periodically published and distributed separately information packages and database to support as hard copy. these broad categories and their information Collaborative Partnerships Program and management functions. Projects Information System. This information These information databases were developed system provides the vehicle to manage and integrated into the ORHAP information information on all funding agency, NGO, and management system—the ASEAN Haze Action private sector programs and projects, and is a Online Internet and intranet systems. Through tool to better coordinate development assistance the ASEAN Haze Action Online web site these by matching specific needs to assistance information databases can be exchanged and priorities. A full range of functions—searching, DIPs will be disseminated among ORHAP institutions and querying, reporting—is available for planning, periodically the public. implementation, and monitoring of funding published and agency-assisted projects. The maintenance of distributed Information Packages and Databases this database will be assigned to the respective separately as hard The information packages provided below funding agency (along with the CSU) and the copy are arranged according to information system coordinator of the assistance project. architecture given above. Agreement and Protocol Monitoring System. The Document Center Database Policy, Planning, and Program Development System maintains the data set on agreements The databases that support this information and protocols to enable ORHAP management function are as follows: implementation. Data maintenance of this ORHAP/SRFA/NHAP Status Monitoring information system will be carried out by CSU System. This information system is a higher- at the ASEAN Secretariat. level search and query engine (index server) that accesses all the other information systems Regulatory and Technical Services in the ASEAN Haze Action Online Internet The functions of the ASEAN-CSU under and intranet web site (see Appendix 6). Data the ORHAP include management of technical maintenance of the site index is performed services and support relating to the ORHAP, automatically by the index server as soon as SRFAs, and NHAP-DIPs. An important new data are added to the system. function is servicing and maintaining the fire- Detailed Implementation Plan Information and-haze Information Clearinghouse, and System. This information system manages the maintaining the Internet and intranet. The tasks entire DIP data set at ORHAP, SRFA, and also include reviewing, analyzing, and processing NHAP levels. This system fulfills the need for information from fire-and-haze related web sites an ORHAP monitoring system since for possible incorporation into the ASEAN Fire information concerning the status of actions at and Haze web site (see Appendix 6). This
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 181 ORHAP information management function ASMC and NMS Information System. The would require the following information systems: IMS of the ORHAP would require a linkage Mobilization and Response Information with key information and dissemination System. This system is intended to help activities carried out by the ASMC and affiliated maintain information and data sets on field- NMSs. This linkage is available in the level fire suppression, in particular on facilitating Monitoring Section of the ASEAN Haze Action the formulation of FSMP documents, Online web site. At present, this section contains maintaining the detailed inventory and tracking hyperlinks to the web sites of various institutions system, and formulation of the TEWT, in specializing in monitoring of fires and haze (see conjunction with the Firefighting Resources Box 15). Hyperlinks/linkages in this section Inventory Tracking System. Data maintenance are maintained by CSU. of the system is carried out by CSU. Future Training and Skills Information System. An development of the system will include a status information system on training and skills of tracking system to monitor FSMP in each of prevention, suppression, and monitoring the targeted regions and subregions. personnel would be required to indicate the capacity of regional human resources. This Administrative Services and Support system is implemented in the ASEAN Haze The functions under this category include: Action Online—Firefighting Resource ORHAP monitoring support to, and secretariat Inventory System, Document Center, and support for, the HTTF; recording and Calendar. The Firefighting Resource Inventory documenting haze-related meetings; maintaining System keeps track of firefighting personnel and updating the regional inventory of fire with the skill level information; the Document management capability; and monitoring the Center maintains the available training and skills regional fire-and-haze response system. This documentation; and the Calendar System ORHAP information management function provides the schedule and venue of all past, would require the following information systems: present, and future training activities. The ASEAN Firefighting Resources Inventory Tracking Haze Action System. This information system contains the Internal Information Management Online Contact data set on the firefighting suppression The system is concerned with information information personnel, and suppression and management functions, which are internal to Database communications equipment. This system will ORHAP implementation. These include: maintains data of keep track of the fire suppression resources at AMME/AMMH and HTTF/SRFA all persons and the regional, subregional, national, and Decisions and Report Tracking System. The institutions provincial levels. The firefighting agencies at ORHAP IMS should also provide the means concerned with the national and subregional levels will be to maintain, archive, and access decisions and ORHAP responsible for keeping this database up-to-date. reports by AMME, AMMH, HTTF, and SRFA. implementation Contact Information System. The ASEAN This system is incorporated in the ASEAN Haze Action Online Contact information Haze Action Online Document Center Module Database maintains data of all persons and that keeps track of all reports produced by institutions concerned with ORHAP ORHAP institutions and meetings. CSU implementation. This database is maintained carries out data maintenance of the Document by CSU. Center.
182 THE PROGRAM General Documentation and Reference BOX 15 Some Important Fire and Haze Web Sites System. The ORHAP’s IMS also comprises an information system that maintains other • http://www.unifreiburg.de/fireglobe • http://smd.mega.net.id/iffm documentation and referencing required for • http://www.neotecinc.com/wildfire ORHAP implementation. This system is also • http://www.mpch-mainz.mpg.de/~bibex • http://www.iffm.or.id/> incorporated in the ASEAN Haze Action • http://www.mtv.sai.jrc.it/projects/fire Online Document Center that keeps track of • http://modarch.gsfc.nasa.gov/fireatlas/fires.html • http://www.anu.edu.au/Forestry/fire/firenet.html all documentation and referencing required for ORHAP implementation. Data maintenance of the Document Center is carried out by CSU. Training programs in the operation and maintenance of the public-access web sites were Regional Information Center and formulated and conducted by RETA 5778. Clearinghouse Trainees included ASEAN Secretariat staff who Based on the assessment of the IMS, a regional would maintain the web site’s content, as well information center and clearinghouse was as staff from the Secretariat’s Computer Unit, established at the ASEAN Secretariat. It includes: who would be responsible for integrating the real-time satellite imagery; a continuously- web site into the ASEAN Secretariat’s overall updated inventory of relevant funding agency- network of computer users. Separate training assisted initiatives; information on past, present, programs were conducted for staff who support and future meetings, workshops, seminars, and the work of HTTF members to ensure that the training programs relating to transboundary haze; latter would have continuous access to the and numerous other features. information posted on the ORHAP intranet.
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 183 Notes West Kalimantan. Australia’s contribution 29 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Fire is $173,000. BAPEDAL will implement Prevention and Drought Management, 1998. the monitoring and prevention components, 30 The application of market-based while MOFEC will develop the mitigation instruments to environmental issues was component. RHAP-CSU of the ASEAN originally developed to address problems Secretariat will serve as the coordinator for such as pollution and traffic congestion. the project. The intention is to use the market system Riau and West Kalimantan are regarded to reduce negative factors or social cost. A as the first priority areas. Similar Field tradable pollution permit is a market-based Training Exercises will also be conducted instrument. for other haze-prone areas in Sumatra and 31 The factors determining the choice of Kalimantan. technique are (i) terrain and topographical 34 The two SRFAs currently in place are SRFA features, and (ii) the crop involved. The Sumatra, whose membership comprises techniques in use in the region are the Indonesia (lead country), Malaysia, and windrow method, the skyline method, and Singapore; and SRFA Borneo, whose the bunching method. In situ chipping and membership comprises Brunei Darussalam accelerated decomposition are technically (lead country), Indonesia, and Malaysia. feasible, but financially not yet viable. The idea of forming a third SRFA for the 32 ADTA INO 2999: Planning for Fire Greater Mekong subregion (SRFA-GMS) Prevention and Drought Management, 1998. has been mooted. SRFA-GMS has yet to 33 Phase I of the Immediate Action Plan— be officially formed, because the impetus Field Training Exercise for Prevention and for this (i.e., extensive large-scale fires Control of Land and Forest Fire and Haze within the GMS) has not yet arisen. SRFA- in Riau Province, Sumatra (1999/2000), GMS would group all ASEAN member funded by UNEP is ongoing. countries through which the Mekong River In addition the MOU for Immediate Action flows (Cambodia, the Lao PDR, Myanmar, Plan—Field Training Exercise for Thailand, and Viet Nam). Its formation Prevention and Control of Land and Forest would leave the Philippines as the only Fire and Haze in West Kalimantan, (2000/ ASEAN country not a member of an SRFA. 2001) between ASEAN and Australia was This deficiency could easily be repaired by signed on 28 January 2000 at the ASEAN the Philippines joining SRFA Borneo, Secretariat, Jakarta. The Field Training which would be fitting, due to the Exercise is designed to assist local Philippines’ geographic proximity to the government officers and the community in island of Borneo. West Kalimantan, Indonesia, to develop a 35 The best case time frame required for comprehensive action plan for forest fire completing an individual FSMP exercise is management and their capacity in forest 18-24 months (Appendix 3). firefighting. It also aims to monitor forest 36 In East Kalimantan alone, where it has been fires to prevent them from getting out of estimated that some 95,000 ha of industrial control during the dry season and to develop plantations were burned in the 1997-1998 a Fire Suppression Mobilization Plan in fires, replanting costs have been estimated
184 THE PROGRAM to be around $20 million (personal aircraft in some circumstances. The communication from Alastair Fraser, advantages of this approach are low 10 September 1998). operating and maintenance costs, and the 37 The TAO array consists of about 70 buoys fact that such aircraft may be able to be in the tropical Pacific Ocean, measuring manufactured locally. The greatest oceanographic and meteorological data in disadvantage of ultralight aircraft is their real-time via the Argos satellite system. low average airspeed, which lengthens the 38 The objectives of the GCOS program of flight time of patrols relative to faster, more WMO include providing the data required costly aircraft. In some ASEAN countries, to meet the needs of the climate system government regulations require that aircraft monitoring, climate change detection, used for aerial surveillance be powered by research toward improved understanding, a minimum of two engines. This effectively and modeling and prediction of the climate rules out the possibility of using ultralight system. aircraft for aerial surveillance, since virtually 39 Lyons and Weber (1991) developed a all of them are powered by a single engine. simple burning test to estimate fuel 43 Particulate conversion ratio (PCR) is the moisture. The test consists of lighting a proportion of fuel mass that becomes total single dead leaf or pine needle, etc., suspended particulates. The ratio is often representative of the fuel that will burn. measured by the relationship: PCR = 1.83 The leaf is held horizontally to be ignited c/d, where 1.83 represents the constant and then pointed down or up until the that relates to the carbon content of the extinguishment angle is found. This test is fuel that is converted to carbon dioxide, c repeated a few times to obtain is the mass of carbon dioxide in 1 m3, and representative results and the fuel moisture d the mass of total suspended particulates is related to the angle. Such a simple test if in 1 m3. 44 shown to be valid would be cheap and could CO/CO2 Ratio: The ratio CO/CO2 be easily conducted by landholders and provides information about the nature of forest rangers. the combustion generating haze. For 40 Canada is also considering another project, example, if the ratio is 0.04, it is considered a “Fire Danger Rating System for that flaming combustion is involved. If the Indonesia: An Adaptation of the Canadian ratio is 0.25 then smoldering combustion Fire Behaviour Prediction System.” It will is involved. be an important contribution toward 45 A meteorological instrument using improving the basic knowledge on weather- transmitted and reflected laser light for fuel-fire and fire behavior relationships. detecting atmospheric particles and 41 Dryness maps can be easily and inexpensively pollutants. prepared from rainfall data. The rainfall debt 46 An appropriate index for use in the region index uses the deficit between average and is the Normalized Difference Vegetation current rainfall levels as the sole variable for Index (NDVI), which is derived from a assessing the risk of fire. simple formula that uses data generated 42 It may also be possible to reduce the cost from two satellite channels, one that records of aerial surveillance by using ultralight infrared (i.e., heat) information, the other
CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 185 recording light (i.e., visual) information. information on the atmospheric The NDVI provides a crude estimate of composition and related physical vegetation health, which makes it an characteristics of the background appropriate means of monitoring changes in atmosphere from all parts of the globe. The vegetation health and cover over time. NDVI measurement program includes: is considered the most appropriate for the greenhouse gases, ozone, radiation and AMCs, given the recurrent nature of fires optical depth, precipitation chemistry, and haze in the region. chemical and physical properties of 47 Haze transport modeling relates to aerosols, reactive gases, radionuclides, and numerous issues in addition to the related meteorological parameters. movements of haze pollution such as the 50 Hard-law international instruments are likely composition of the haze when it arrives legally binding in that they include at a particular predicted destination point. provisions for sanctions (e.g., trade Haze transport modeling thus encompasses boycotts or monetary compensation) in the the formation, movement, and dispersion event they are contravened. Soft-law of haze pollution, as well as its chemical international instruments such as principles composition and density, both of which and declarations include no such determine its human health impacts. provisions. Their purpose is simply to 48 Component I of PARTS is being funded formally state the intent on the part of the by the Australian Government. signatories to take concerted action toward Components 2 and 3 are being funded by a mutually agreed goal at some point in the US Government under two of the 10 the future. subprojects that compromise SEA-EI. 51 While NHAPs form part of the overall 49 The purpose of WMO’s Global system of the ORHAP, the responsibility Atmospheric Watch program is to provide for their formulation rests with the data, scientific assessments, and other respective national governments.
186 THE PROGRAM CHAPTER 5: OPERATIONALIZED REGIONAL HAZE ACTION PLAN 187 CHAPTER 6 The Way Ahead
[This chapter looks into the important actions required to consolidate the initiatives so far undertaken and to promote appropriate forest fire management in the ASEAN region, to support rational land use and development.]
Introduction amount of work to consolidate the gains and to Having formulated the ORHAP for ASEAN, institutionalize a system in order to sustain covering the period 1999-2005, one might development. assume that the way ahead is clear and effortless; and what is required is to carry out the activities The Way to be Negotiated listed under prevention, mitigation, and The path to be negotiated toward achieving monitoring programs, as far as possible. the objectives of the RHAP, i.e., an effective Firm action will be The situation is not that simple or and efficient system of fire and haze needed to prevent a straightforward. The concept of the RHAP was management in the region, is not easy or clear recurrence of the fires and haze- formally approved by AMMH in December of hurdles. Most of the assumptions relating to producing smoke 1997; and the ASEAN/ADB efforts to put the infrastructure, institutions, and institutional from the 1997 conflagration in RHAP into operation through the ADB-funded instruments would require enormous effort and Indonesia. RETA Project continued from April 1998 to investment to materialize.
Photo: Integrated December 1999. The ORHAP, for now, having been defined Forest Fire The RETA Project registered significant for a period of only six years, represents the Management Project, Indonesia (Courtesy: achievements, in the short term, most of which first (or the first few) steps of a long journey. Ludwig Schindler) are of a startup nature. It calls for a considerable To start implementing the ORHAP and carry it forward as long as is required through all the imaginable constraints would require constant, consistent, and cooperative efforts by the involved parties and partners—national, regional, and international.
The Transition The DIPs have given details about the activities to be carried out under expected core funding from ASEAN and AMCs, donor assistance catalyzed by ADB’s RETA Project, and other sources, as well as areas where there are funding gaps. Timely mobilization of resources from all sources is vital if the ORHAP is to show positive results.
188 THE PROGRAM The RETA Project has been formally the global impact of forest fires, in the form of terminated and the onus for carrying forward transboundary pollution, climate change, and the implementation of the ORHAP now rests loss of biodiversity, are very real. with CSU. However, it was agreed the RETA Being prepared for future forest fires and Project would fund some actions to promote a haze should consist of a balanced package of smooth transition. These include (i) $50,000 measures to prevent unwanted fires, to control for implementation of the IAP Field Training and suppress fires when they occur, to monitor Exercise for Prevention and Control of Land all developments relating to fires (including and Forest Fire and Haze in Sumatra, Phase 2 predisposing, feeding, impact-generating, and (Phase 1 at an estimated cost of $50,000 was post-event factors), and to establish an effective funded by UNEP); (ii) Support to the ASEAN institutional mechanism to manage the package. Regional Haze Fund Study, estimated to cost An all-embracing lesson from the last 20 about $20,000; and (iii) a feasibility study for years of experience with forest fires and haze is an ASEAN Agreement on Transboundary Haze that the combined effects of causes, constraints, Pollution, to be cofinanced with UNEP and and contributory factors tend to come together other donors. and conquer, unless an adequate defense force Actions are To obtain a better vision of what is to be (a combination of policies, strategies, systems, urgently required carried out, it is useful to go over some of the technology, and human resources) is maintained to avoid not only relevant lessons from past experience. in prime condition to provide readiness. further recurrence of the Lessons and Experience General Lessons devastation from The land and forest fires that ravaged large areas The weaknesses and failures identified each forest fires, but of Sumatra and Kalimantan in 1997-1998 added time fires and haze occur in the region resurface also the a new urgency to the issue of forest fire again and again—followed by resumption of complacency and prevention and management, because this was abandoned remedial attempts that will be later lack of the fifth time in 15 years for such an occurrence. discarded yet again. Can we expect that there compliance with The emergency caused by the forest fires and will be a change in the “touch-and-go” trend? regulations in the the associated transboundary haze problem is Will there be drastic action to address the past for the time being over. The damage and weaknesses and failures, and an institutional negative impacts caused were considerable and system (instruments, organizations, their scars remain. Investigations carried out coordination mechanisms) to carry it through so far on the underlying causes, consequences, in a sustainable manner? As long as there is and constraints provide reasonable insight into inadequate understanding and appreciation of the serious lapses of the past and the potential decision makers about (i) the impacts of fires fire threat looming over the future. Actions are and haze on society, economy, and the urgently required to avoid not only further environment; and (ii) the positive relationship recurrence of the devastation from forest fires, of the benefit of the disaster averted to the cost but also the complacency and lack of compliance involved in fire and haze management, it will with regulations in the past. be difficult to maintain a sustained assault. Multidisciplinary investigations on the The urge to make private gains by flouting different aspects of forest fires and haze the policies and regulations relating to land worldwide have confirmed that concerns about clearance has been found to be an important
CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 189 factor in the spread of fires. If there is no • harmonization of air pollution indexes; If there is no effective, efficient, and impartial enforcement • standardization and enhancement of fire effective, efficient, mechanism, policies and regulations will not management training curricula; and impartial be of much use in addressing fires and haze. • immigration and customs preclearance enforcement An assumption that past failures will not be procedures for cross-border sharing of fire mechanism, repeated in the future needs to be based on suppression personnel and equipment; policies and firm and timely action to remove the • supranational administrative arrangements regulations will institutional, social, cultural, and other factors and joint firefighting teams; not be of much that have led to failure. • data sharing among weather monitoring use in addressing Globally, there is a trend of shrinking agencies; and fires and haze government budgets for forest protection, while • access to the airspace of neighboring many nations are not able to support a well- countries for aerial surveillance of fires to functioning fire management organization. The determine optimal fire suppression standards required by the initial agreements of strategies. IDNDR are not met in most signatory These should be addressed thoroughly, countries. Can they be in the future? systematically, and expeditiously. International sharing of fire management It is to be underlined that, formal agreements expertise and resources may provide a solution, apart, the pervading spirit of cooperation is an at the same time demonstrating solidarity attitudinal development that comes through among nations to protect forest and other continuous attunement. vegetation resources. There is considerable Even within countries, policy and international interest to address the situation institutional changes are slow to emerge and that needs to be channeled in a coordinated slower still to be put into practice, unless there manner. More than seeking financial grants and is adequate political will to see them through. material support from donors, mechanisms for Earlier, the need for several policy changes was appropriate and sustained international highlighted, such as introducing market-based collaboration and with a long-range perspective instruments for promoting mechanical land need to be established and maintained. clearing. These are of vital importance. Inaction due to a lack of political will can lead to serious Specific Lessons consequences. Regional collaboration and sharing of Transboundary haze pollution in the ASEAN resources across national boundaries (e.g., in region is primarily caused by large land-clearing SRFAs) to address forest fires and haze have fires deliberately set by commercial scale been accepted, in principle, as a feasible and companies and others. Experience from ADB’s efficient approach. In the outbreaks of 1997- RETA Project suggests that this causes 1998, and in the pilot trial runs later in Sumatra, smallholders, individuals, and community it has become evident that there are several groups to often develop a sense of acceptance practical problems covering legal, procedural, of periodic haze caused by large-scale land logistic, and diplomatic aspects, involving clearing, since they feel powerless to alter such institutions representing different sectors. Legal occurrences. Integrating public awareness agreements are essential to ensure smooth programs into the FSMP exercise can help to functioning of joint activities, including: empower these persons and groups, rather than
190 THE PROGRAM simply providing them with additional the extent of assistance, how regional assistance information, as long as they are complemented is to be financed, and the responsibilities of the by relevant policies and systems favoring providing and the receiving countries) have yet rational land tenure and land use. Without to be hammered out. This is the purpose of the willing participation of the people, public SRFA-level FSMPs. So far, little emphasis has policies and programs cannot succeed in been placed on initiating the FSMP formulation achieving the objectives. and implementation exercise for the SRFAs. Policy conflicts within countries are often This process must be accelerated if the reflected at the regional level through their SRFAs—which were established as fire impacts. For example, land use in many suppression organizations—are to function as countries, historically, has been rife with intended during subsequent ENSOs. conflicts—putting individuals, families, The magnitude of the task involved is communities, and resource users constantly at enormous, calling for focused attention in the loggerheads with each other and creating an period ahead. atmosphere of hostility, social tension, and Monitoring (also some other elements of fire unsocial acts. Conflict resolution based on equity management) has two broad components and fairness should be a necessary component complementing each other: (i) remote level, high The magnitude of any program associated with resource use technology-based and (ii) local level, manual or of the task and management. low-technology-based. Extreme care is involved is The RETA Project has pointed out two necessary to establish a proper balance between enormous, aspects that need to be assigned priority if the these two aspects, and not to be enamoured calling for region is to have sufficient capacity to alter the solely by one. The 1997-1998 fires and haze focused attention level of transboundary haze pollution during showed that overreliance on satellite monitoring in the period subsequent ENSOs. and neglect of local surveillance and ahead First, the process of implementing FSMPs communication systems can produce seriously for the most haze-prone areas of the region must adverse results. Further, the experience of the be brought soon to fruition. This involves far RETA Project with regard to implementing the more than formulation of FSMP documents. It ORHAP’s monitoring component is that it can encompasses building fire management capacity be relatively easy and quick to formulate, design, at the community through district levels to and implement. which ASEAN- and donor-provided fire The monitoring component of the ORHAP suppression resources can link. The impact of has seen relatively rapid progress. A related issue other activities such as ground surveillance and is that in the future, emphasis should shift from monitoring would also be magnified by their the regional level to upgrading the capacity of being directly integrated into the FSMP the national-level weather institutions. In the exercise. medium term, particular attention should be Second, the need to adequately meet the paid to reducing the differences in monitoring challenge of formulation and implementation capacity among the various AMCs. Basic-level of the FSMPs for the SRFAs is urgent. The communication facilities (e.g., access to ASMC’s experience so far in cooperative fire suppression intranet) should be assured for all member- initiatives in the region is that most of the country weather institutions. Here again concrete details on how to carry them out (e.g., commitment is a prime condition.
CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 191 Forest Fire and The most popular view holds that for several Participation Haze Outlook in the years in the future, population growth and should ASEAN Region pressure on natural resources will keep the fires continue in Future Forest Fires and Haze and associated haze a live issue. implementation Experience tells us that forest fires are likely as of the plan, long as there are forests. However, the number Influence of Climate Change Convention particularly at and intensity of fires can be reduced through The UN Framework Convention on Climate local levels rational and balanced management Change (UNFCCC) on land use and land-use interventions. changes may indirectly influence forest Fire risk modeling in expected future climate protection, positively or negatively. If change scenarios and other influencing factors deforestation is effectively controlled, reduced indicate that within the next three to four impact logging is seriously practiced, and forest decades, the destructiveness of human-caused fire management measures are intensified, forest and natural wildfires will increase. Due to the fires and haze will, in all likelihood, be reduced multidirectional and multidimensional effects in number and intensity. In this regard, it is of fire on the different vegetation zones and necessary that forest and forest fire managers ecosystems, and the manifold cultural, social, follow the evolution of climate change policy and economic factors involved, suitable fire to assess its implications on fires and haze. management strategies will have to be evolved to counter the predicted situations. People’s Participation In strategic planning, a participatory process Influence of Demographic Changes envisages that consultations should take place Human population growth can make a bad at all stages, so that the plan will be owned by situation worse by putting ever more pressure all those involved, which in turn will help in on available land and other resources. the effective achievement of objectives. According to the UN’s middle estimate among Participation should continue in implementation seven fertility scenarios, the human population of the plan, particularly at local levels. This will will rise (from the present six billion) to 9.4 bring dynamism into the planning process, and billion by the year 2050, then to 10.8 billion by will ensure that planning will be made more 2150 before leveling off at the end of the 22nd effective and responsive to real needs. century. The collective impact of this growth Participation is a process of social action and will be overwhelming. The impact, however, social change. Millions of people living in rural cannot be measured simply by population areas, in and around forests, depend on forests figures. It will be a product of three variables: for their livelihood. Often, their aspirations for population size, consumption level, and a more decent, secure, and equitable way of technology. High consumption increases the life are tied up with forestry development. impact of a given population; whereas Organized and informed participation of these technological developments may either people can help all parties involved to find exacerbate (by excessive exploitation) or solutions to their problems. mitigate it (by improving efficiency). In any Local membership organizations such as case, more people will need more total land. cooperatives, tenant leagues, and women’s And, possibly, more open fires to clear the land. groups constitute a third sector, balanced
192 THE PROGRAM between the public and private sector, to ensure Strengthening Regional that the group’s problem is appropriately Collaboration considered in the development planning process The way ahead to achieve the ORHAP’s (Esman and Uphoff 1982). Grassroots groups objectives should be by unflagging efforts to will have to interlock with governments, private continuously strengthen regional collaboration companies, and NGOs as a strategic alliance. and cooperation. This can be achieved through Participation and intensive consultation joint activities, fine-tuning of policies, adopting strengthen the planning process by encouraging common standards and approaches, establishing transparency, improving access to information legal instruments on important aspects of and ideas, helping in conflict resolution and regional collaboration, effectively feasible choices, and enabling general institutionalizing management of forest fires and acceptance of decisions. haze, formulating a long-term framework and People’s participation in formulating and perspective plan for fire management, and implementing FSMPs will be a feasible and ensuring proper balance of the program useful approach. If smallholders, community structure. It is also necessary to provide groups, and local NGOs are also parties to the increasing clarity to the functions of the different interagency agreements that define the roles and ASEAN bodies concerned with fire and haze The way ahead to responsibilities of those undertaking the FSMPs, management. achieve the it will provide a forum to sort out conflicts. ORHAP’s But, in most cases, in forestry, participation is Joint Activities objectives should peripheral and symbolic, more to legitimize the Joint activities suitable for the different contexts be by unflagging process than to produce results. and circumstances are an important means of efforts to Nonmaterial motivation, through allowing strengthening the regional approach. Policy continuously participation in discussions, though laudable, studies, research and development, specialized strengthen is not a practical system; improvement in social training, remote sensing and satellite-based regional conditions and living standards is the basic urge monitoring, and SRFAs are some of the collaboration and that drives people to participate. Under these activities on which cooperation has been cooperation circumstances, participation should involve initiated. This cooperation needs to be further productive engagement. strengthened. As and when conditions become more conducive, and if economy and efficiency The Larger Context warrant it, more and more activities relating to ASEAN is a rich region in terms of natural fire management can be brought under the flora and fauna, timber, and NWFPs. In its regional preview. larger context, fire and haze management in AMCs is also an issue of environmental Continuation and Completion of Ongoing security covering resource development, Activities biodiversity conservation, sustainable Several activities have been initiated by the management of forests, food security, ORHAP under the auspices of ADB’s RETA employment, related institutions, and Project. Some activities have been started and infrastructure. The need for a holistic approach are ongoing, some are in a nascent stage, and to address forest fires and haze is, therefore, others are still in the form of a plan awaiting evident. approval for funding. Some activities are of
CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 193 considerable magnitude, some are complex in the emphasis should shift from the regional level nature; some are of short-term, and others are to upgrading the capacity of national-level of medium-term implication. meteorological institutions. In the medium An important task ahead is to carry these term, particular attention should be paid to forward, enhance their functioning or complete reducing the differences in monitoring capacity them as necessary in order to realize the goals. among the various AMCs. Basic-level There are various activities to be seen through. communication facilities (e.g., access to ASMC’s These include completing the network of intranet) should be assured for all AMC FSMPs, linking village units all the way up to meteorological institutions. the subregional (SRFA) level; increasing and improving the monitoring capacity of AMSC Consultation and New Activities and establishing an effective monitoring system A means of strengthening regional collaboration network; pursuing and completing the work is through regular consultation among the on policy changes involving introduction of AMCs to review the implementation of the market-based instruments, a system of ORHAP and to assess the need for program There is a clear responsible land clearance bonds, mechanical modification, including new activities. Some need for proper land clearing, and model codes of practice; ideas have already come up. documentation starting training programs on firefighting, fire • A proposal is being considered regarding of fires across the management and monitoring; and establishing publication and distribution of an ASEAN ASEAN region the Regional Research and Training Center for Forest Fire Bulletin on a regular basis to Land and Forest Fire Management. disseminate information on occurrence Some of the areas where focused attention and extent of fires, estimated impacts, is required in the short term would include research results, technological working toward common standards and breakthroughs, experience with approaches (e.g., haze pollution indexes, fire application of specific technologies, monitoring standards, and capability); and information on weather patterns, policy establishment of an ASEAN Haze Fund. developments, etc., from within and There is a clear need for proper outside ASEAN. documentation of fires across the ASEAN • Considering the commonality of forest region. While general occurrence of fire and fire-related issues and problems, apart fire-generated smoke at regional level is known, from cost-effectiveness, AMCs can gain there is still a lack of information on seasonal considerable advantages by establishing and spatial distribution of fires in the various pan-ASEAN fire centers or land-use systems and wildlands. Fire monitoring strengthening existing ones, while on a regional scale is not necessarily aimed at sharing facilities, knowledge and firefighting operations. They must be arranged experience in aspects such as fire science within the individual countries. Regional fire and technology, and fire management activity monitoring should include the evaluation planning. These can be linked to the of archives with historic satellite data in order Regional Research and Training Center to identify possible changes of fire regimes. for Land and Forest Fire Management. Another issue, relating to implementation • The ORHAP at present does not include of the monitoring program, is that in the future, activities relating to the effects of forest
194 THE PROGRAM fires and haze on public health, and following accepted procedures involving policy measures to mitigate such impacts. The articulation and formulation. An ASEAN NHAP (draft) of Malaysia has Promoting policy changes relating to the use regional incorporated public health warning and of fires that cause atmospheric pollution is framework policy mitigation measures in its activities. It difficult. This is a medium-term task that is on forest fires would be appropriate to acknowledge the being undertaken by some countries with and associated relevance of it, through incorporating a bilateral support from international donors. haze can serve as corresponding activity in the ORHAP, a model for the even if on a token scale. ASEAN Regional Framework Policy AMCs to • There are no separate entities dealing An ASEAN regional framework policy on formulate their with fire weather, nor are there forest fires and associated haze can serve as a own policies dedicated satellites for fire monitoring. model for the AMCs to formulate their own A recommendation has been made at the policies (or modify the existing policy WMO Workshop (2-5 June 1998) held provisions) to suit their needs. in Singapore to develop dedicated No single policy formula can cover the wide satellites for fire monitoring that will range of ecological, socioeconomic, and cultural have better spatial and temporal conditions found in AMCs. But there are certain resolution than existing satellites. It was broad principles common to all situations, also suggested that the next generation including: fire satellites should provide for better • the need for formulation of policies characterization of fire temperature and specifically addressing forest fires and haze resulting gaseous and particulate autonomously or as an integral component emission measurements. The latter of land-use policies; information can be used to initialize • flexibility in policy implementation, and ATMs that can forecast the development the capability to review and revise fire- and dispersal of pollutants in the region. related policies; This idea needs to be pursued. • clear and measurable policy objectives and implementation strategies; and Fine-Tuning of Policies • involvement of all stakeholders in policy There are no separate forest fire policies in the development, especially through devolved AMCs. Fire-related policies are included as or community participatory approaches. clauses or provisions in other related policies; Formulating and promulgating a policy does e.g., in a forest policy, environmental policy, or not necessarily guarantee that it will be followed. land development policy. Separate regulations Policy implementation needs to be ensured corresponding to these policy clauses are often through strict enforcement. issued. These lead to inconsistencies and even conflicts as far as forest fire- and haze-related Common Standards and Approaches policies are concerned. There is need to fine- For joint efforts, as envisaged in the ORHAP, tune fire-related policy provisions by removing to succeed, common standards and common inconsistencies and providing for appropriate approaches are required. The need for focus. Better still, a separate policy statement harmonization of haze pollution indexes, on forest fires and haze can be formulated— standardization of the FDRS and hot spot
CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 195 algorithms, a common curriculum for fire (such as cross-border transfers of firefighting management training, standard terms and equipment). definitions, and a common/harmonized system of weights and measures exemplify the Instrument for Transboundary Haze importance of common standards. Pollution Control Similarly, there are several aspects (e.g., For international agreements to be drawn policy and regulations) where common up covering various aspects of the ORHAP, it approaches will help to strengthen regional is necessary to have an enabling legal cooperation. Methods of land clearance and instrument. Sustained implementation of the preparation, reduced-impact forest harvesting, ORHAP would significantly be helped by a use of market-based instruments, and land mother agreement or a comparable legal clearance bonds, and institutional arrangements instrument that embodies the various are cases where common approaches and agreements at the bilateral, subregional, and For international guidelines can be applied. regional levels. The ASEAN Regional Agreement agreements to be Before common adoption by all AMCs, the on Transboundary Haze Pollution Control drawn up merits and demerits of the standards and initiative needs to be pursued as a priority. covering various approaches should be discussed in specially Other Legal Aspects aspects of the organized workshops to clarify issues and ORHAP, it is implications and to make necessary Some of the other important activities that necessary to have modifications. Training for staff, including have a legal dimension include the following: an enabling legal demonstration of the use of common standards • ASEAN Haze Fund to support the instrument and approaches, should be provided. ORHAP, and its legal status; • partnership agreements with donors for Legal System for Regional specified support; and Cooperation • the ORHAP’s claim to be qualified for A legal system for the ORHAP will involve coverage under the Clean Development various levels and types. ASEAN’s legal system Mechanism (CDM). may be sufficient to cover some of the ORHAP’s general aspects (e.g., personnel, CDM and Forest Fire Management financial control). In the case of fire and haze The eligibility of land-use activities for the management involving more than one country, CDM is a gray area. Forest fire management, specific agreements are needed, enabled by a rehabilitation of fire-affected areas, and haze superior instrument such as a protocol or a pollution control are, at present, not qualified mother agreement. for CDM support. The interpretation is that The different levels in the legal system of the only fossil-based emission reduction activities ORHAP will roughly be as follows: regional- are allowed. level convention or a mother agreement; specific protocol(s) (e.g., on transboundary haze Institutionalizing Forest Fire and pollution control); agreements relating to a Haze Management specific situation (e.g., an agreement for sharing The sustainability of human-made systems (such weather information); and SOPs for actions as forest fire and haze management) depends falling within the purview of specific agreements on how effectively it has been institutionalized
196 THE PROGRAM with appropriate mission, structure, and controls program structure and balance, to achieve the for continued and efficient functioning. The goals in the shortest possible time. As the institutional framework has to be sound and perspective plan, by definition, will be closely capable of systematic enhancement. linked with other related sectors, it also helps ADB is finalizing an advisory and operational to obtain a holistic understanding of the technical assistance for institutionalization of ecological and human aspects of forest fires and forest fire and haze management in Indonesia. haze. This is an aspect to be considered in the The objectives of the technical assistance are future and acted upon. to assist Indonesian institutions to develop and design appropriate policies, legislation, Program Status for Institutional guidelines, structures, and procedures to Strengthening institutionalize prevention, mitigation, control, In spite of the ORHAP principle that and monitoring of land and forest fires and ASEAN’s fire and haze problem cannot be fixed associated haze pollution. It will also determine but should be managed, there is the danger that The three the need for capacity building at various levels it may still concentrate on technical aspects. programs of the of government and related NGOs; and develop However, the most important impediment in ORHAP a nationwide extension and education program. fire and haze management has been institutional (prevention, This would require identification of a single lead weaknesses. The three programs of the mitigation and institution that would have the authority and be ORHAP (prevention, mitigation and monitoring) are accountable for all operations dealing with land monitoring) are technical programs; it may be technical and forest fire management. The lead institution worthwhile to add institutions (or institutional programs; it may would establish legally binding coordination and strengthening) as another. be worthwhile to collaboration mechanisms and relationships with add institutions Upgrading of CSU other institutions in the country for effective (or institutional management. The process can, as appropriate, The ORHAP’s success in the years to come strengthening) as be extended to other AMCs. will depend on CSU’s dynamism. It must be another program provided with adequate resources and skills/ A Perspective Framework expertise, in view of its singularly vital role. for the ORHAP The emphasis of the ORHAP is on Conclusion implementation and action. As a rolling six- The ORHAP has been designed as a people- year plan, its horizon is short. While this has oriented, public-interest-propelled system that merits from the short-term operational point aims to defend the human environment, and of view, its lack of a long-term perspective has particularly to prevent transboundary haze serious disadvantages, particularly affecting the pollution. Through its mission to manage forest consistency of approach and direction. This will fires and associated haze, the ORHAP can and cause the planners’ bias to be reflected in the should serve as a stabilizing force to support add-on plans—potentially leading to unsteady land- and forest-based development in the or lack of progress. region. The laudable commitment of ASEAN On the other hand a long-term perspective in this regard needs to be kept undiminished. plan (of which the ORHAP will be a part) has Complacency should be avoided if this the advantage that it can better rationalize the commitment is not to be blunted.
CHAPTER 6: THE WAY AHEAD 197
Appendixes
1 Glossary—Local and Technical Terms 200
2 Regional Haze Action Plan 207 3 Procedure for Formulating and Implementing
Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans 212
4 Fire Danger Rating Systems 215 5 Donor and Partnership Activities 219
6 Outline of the Haze Action Online and
Aspects of the Design Standards 225
APPENDIXES 199 APPENDIX 1 Glossary—Local and Technical Terms
Aerial fuels The standing and supported forest combustibles not in direct contact with the ground and consisting mainly of foliage, twigs, branches, stems, bark, lianas, and other vines. In general, they easily dry out and may carry surface fires into the canopy. Afforestation Establishment of a forest by artificial means on an area from which forest vegetation has always or for a long time been absent. Agroforestry Land use system in which woody perennials are grown and/ or used on the same land as agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. Alang-alang Imperata grass (in Indonesia and Malaysia). Atmospheric mixing depth The vertical depth of atmospheric mixing (usually away from the surface) determined mainly by the atmospheric temperature profile. Backfire A fire set along the inner edge of a control line to consume the fuel in the path of a forest fire and/or change the direction of force of the fire’s convection column. Note: A small-scale fire with closer control, in order to consume patches of unburned fuel and aid control-line construction, is distinguished as “burning out,” “firing out,” or a “clean burning.” Barangay Village, organized community (in the Philippines). Biodiversity The variety and abundance of plants, animals, and microorganisms as well as the ecosystem and ecological processes to which they belong. This includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems. Broadcast burning Allowing a prescribed fire to burn over a designated area within well-defined boundaries for reduction of fuel hazard, as a silvicultural treatment, or both. Center firing A method of broadcast burning in which fires are set in the center of the area to create a strong indraft; additional fires are then set progressively nearer the outer control lines as indraft builds up so as to draw them in toward the center. Closed forest Forest with stand density greater than 20 percent and the crowns approaching general contact with one another. Controlled burns Fires started purposely to achieve specific objectives. Control a fire To complete a control line around a fire, any spot fires therefrom, and any interior islands to be saved, and cool down all hot spots that are immediate threats to the control line,
200 PART II: THE PROGRAM until the line can reasonably be expected to hold under foreseeable conditions. Convection Vertical exchange of air parcels, sometimes resulting in cloud formation. Counterfire Fire set between main fire and backfire to hasten spread of backfire. Also called draft fire. The act of setting counterfires is sometimes called “front firing” or “strip firing.” Crown fire A fire that advances from top to top of trees or shrubs more or less independently of the surface fire. Deforestation To remove, kill, or destroy all or most of the trees of a forest so that reproduction is impossible except by artificial means. Drip torch A hand-held apparatus for igniting prescribed fires and backfires by dripping flaming fuel on the materials to be burned. The device consists of a fuel fount, burner arm, and igniter. The fuel used is generally diesel or stove oil with gasoline added. Early burning Prescribed burning early in the dry season before grass, tree leaves, and undergrowth are completely dry, or before the leaves are shed; as an insurance against more severe fire damage later on. Ecosystem An ecological system, the basic functional unit in ecology, a dynamic complex of plant, animal, and microorganism communities and their associated nonliving environment interacting as an ecological unit. El Niño Southern Oscillation A fluctuation in interpolitical pressure, wind, sea surface temp- (ENSO) erature, and rainfall and an exchange of air between the southeast Pacific subtropical high and the Indonesian equatorial low. Environmental services: Includes the maintenance of biodiversity, protection of soil and water resources, moderation of climate, influencing of rainfall, sequestering of carbon dioxide, providing habitat for wildlife, and maintenance of the earth’s natural balance. Fine fuel The component of the biomass that, when burning, contributes to the flame front. (Forest fires have a flame height and flame depth that are approximately equal. The flame front moves through the fuel matrix with a speed of propagation that depends on the dryness of the fine fuel, the wind speed, and the quantity of fine fuel. Thick fuels burn after the passage of the flame front. Fine fuels are usually defined in terms of the thickness of the thinnest dimension. A leaf that may be 2.5 mm thick, 100 mm long, and 40 mm wide would be classified as a 2.5 mm fuel. Fine fuels usually range between 0 t per ha (for freshly burned country) to 4-10 t per ha for
APPENDIXES 201 grasslands, 5-25 t per ha for dry forests, and up to 45 t per ha for wet forests. Firebreak Any natural or constructed discontinuity in a fuelbed utilized to segregate, stop, and control the spread of fire; or to provide a control line from which to suppress a fire; characterized by complete lack of combustibles down to mineral soil (as distinguished from fuelbreak). Fire climax Vegetational climax maintained by occurrence of fires at regular intervals (also known as pyric climax). Fire danger rating A component of a fire management system that integrates the effects of selected fire danger factors into one or more qualitative or numerical indexes of current protection needs. Fire hazard A fuel complex, defined by volume, type, condition, arrangement, and location, that determines the degree both of ease of ignition and of fire suppression difficulty. Fire intelligence All infrastructures, communication, base data, and other hard- and software that provide the inputs to an information and decision support system in fire management. Fire intensity The quantity of heat liberated in the flame front for every meter of fire width. It is calculated by the Byram Line Intensity Index (I megawatts per meter where I = HWR. H is the calorific value of the fuel and can be taken as 17 megajoules per kilogram, W is the fuel concentration in kilograms per square meter, R is the rate of spread in meters per second). Fire retardant Any substance except plain water that by chemical or physical action reduces the flammability of fuels or slows their rate of combustion, e.g., a liquid or slurry applied aerially or from the ground during a fire suppression operation. Fire risk Measure of the likelihood that a wildfire will be ignited naturally or through human action. Flame depth The distance from the leading edge of the flame front to the point at the back of the flame front just outside the flame mantle. Forestry The scientific management of forests and trees for the continuous production of goods and services. Forestry has evolved to include, in many countries, groups of scattered trees, agroforestry plots, urban tree planting, small woodlots, and also wildlands that do not support tree populations. In fact, forestry has evolved from tree management to the management of complex ecosystems, and their utilization. Forest influences All effects upon water supply, soil, climate, and health resulting from the presence of forests.
202 PART II: THE PROGRAM Forest residue The accumulation in the forest of living or dead, mostly woody, material that is added to and rearranged by human activities such as forest harvest, cultural operations, and land clearing. Forest type A descriptive term used to group stands of similar character with regard to composition and development due to certain ecological factors by which they may be differentiated from other groups of stands. Fuel All combustible organic material in forests and other vegetation types, including agricultural residue. Fuelbreak Generally wide (20-30 m) strips of land on which either less flammable native vegetation is maintained and integrated into fire management planning, or vegetation has been permanently modified so that fires burning into them can be more readily controlled as distinguished from firebreak. Some fuelbreaks contain narrow firebreaks that may be roads or narrower hand- constructed lines. During fires, they can quickly be widened either with hand tools or by firing out. Fuelbreaks have the advantages of preventing erosion, offering a safe place for firefighters to work, low maintenance, and a pleasing appearance. Genetic resources Actual or potential characteristics of plants and animals that are transmitted genetically and may include disease resistance, rapid growth, yield or quality factor, or the presence or absence of a chemical. These characteristics, i.e., genetic diversity, reside in the germ plasm of different cultivars, races, and varieties of a species. Greenhouse warming A possible increase in global temperatures associated with changes in atmospheric trace gases. Ground fire A fire burning in organic terrain, e.g., dried tropical swamps and peat layers. Hadley circulation A north-south circulation of air in low latitudes, with air rising in the intertropical convergence zone and sinking in the adjacent subtropical zone. Intertropical convergence zone The zone of persistent convergence of trade wind airflow in the lower troposphere in low latitudes. Kabupaten Regency (subdivision of a province, in Indonesia). Kecamatan Subregency (district, in Indonesia). Ladder fuels Fuels that provide vertical continuity between stratums. Fire is able to carry from surface fuels into the crowns of trees or shrubs with relative ease and help assure initiation and continuation of crown fires.
APPENDIXES 203 Land-use capability The production capacity or usefulness of soil based upon its quality with reference to nutrient status, climatic factors, drainage, degree of slope, etc. Mass fire A fire resulting from many simultaneous ignitions. These fires generate high levels of energy output. Mesoscale A spatial scale for weather systems with typical horizontal dimensions of ~10-1,000 km. Nonwood forest products Consist of goods of biological origin other than wood, as well as services, derived from forests and allied land uses. Pioneer species A plant species capable of establishing itself in a bare or barren area and initiating an ecological cycle. Preattack planning Fire planning within designated blocks of land, covering the following items: locations of firelines, base camps, water sources, helispots, transportation systems, probable routes of travel, constraints of travel on various type of attack units, determining of construction of particular firelines, the probable rate of line construction, topographic constraints on line construction, etc. Prescribed burning The controlled application of fire to wildland fuels in either natural or modified state, under specified environmental conditions that allow the fire to be confined to a predetermined area and at the same time to produce the intensity of heat and rate of spread required to attain planned resource management objectives. Prescribed fire A fire burning within prescription. The fire may result from either planned or unplanned ignitions. Presuppression planning All measures of fire intelligence and preparedness for fire suppression actions. Primary forest Unlogged forest. Productivity The relationship between the output of goods and services and the input of resources (factors of production) used to produce them. Production forest Forest designated for the sustained production of timber and other forest products, often with protection and/or nature conservation as recognized secondary objectives, chosen because of their potential to provide a yield of high-quality timber in perpetuity. This category may also include degraded areas appropriate for reforestation. In general usage, the term covers natural forests, forest plantations, woodlots, agroforestry plots, homestead forests, etc. Protection forest An area wholly or partly covered with woody growth, managed primarily for its beneficial effects on water, climate, or soil
204 PART II: THE PROGRAM rather than for forest products or services, and involving fragile lands, critical soils, catchment areas, steep slopes, and land at high altitudes. Controlled sustainable extraction of nonwood forest products is often allowed in protection forests. Quasi-biennial oscillation An (approximately) two yearly reversal in wind direction that occurs in a number of parts of the earth’s atmosphere. Radiosonde A balloon-borne device allowing upper air measurements of temperature, humidity, pressure and/or height, wind speed, and direction. Rate of speed The speed that a fire front travels ranges up to 25 kilometers per hour (km/h) for grasslands to about 12 km/h for forests. Most fires travel at much slower speeds and typical speeds are usually less than 1 km/h for grasslands and 0.5 km/h for forests. Reforestation Restocking and/or replanting of an area that has been cleared of its forests earlier. Rotation The period of years required to establish and grow forest crops to a specified condition of maturity. Seasonal forest A closed deciduous forest, or an open forest with continuous grass cover, distinguished from other tropical forests by distinct seasonality and low rainfall. Includes closed forests made up of deciduous hardwoods that shed their leaves during the dry season and woody and/or tree savannahs. Secondary forest A forest subjected to a light cycle of shifting cultivation or to various intensities of logging but still containing indigenous trees or shrubs. Shaded fuelbreak Fuelbreaks built in forest areas where the trees on the break are thinned and pruned to reduce the fire potential, yet retain enough crown canopy to make it possible to control surface fires more easily. Shifting cultivation Farming system, carried out in the forest areas, in which the land is periodically cleared, farmed, and then returned to fallow. Slash-and-burn agriculture Farming, (usually small-scale), in which plots are prepared by cutting and burning off vegetative cover. Smoke management The application of knowledge of fire behavior and meteorological processes to minimize air quality degradation during prescribed fires. Stand An aggregation of trees or other growth occupying a specific area and sufficiently uniform in composition, age arrangement, and condition so as to be distinguishable from the forests or other growth on adjoining areas. Succession The gradual supplanting of one community of plants by another. Inherent in the definition are three considerations:
APPENDIXES 205 (i) succession is orderly, directional, and therefore predictable; (ii) succession can occur when the community itself modifies the physical environment so that other populations can be established; and (iii) succession culminates in a relative stable community. Surface fire Fire that burns only surface litter, other loose debris of the forest floor, and small vegetation. Sustainable forest management Forest management for multiple uses (including biodiversity preservation, timber harvesting, extraction of nonwood products, soil and water conservation, tourism, recreation, and enjoyment of natural amenities) based on an ecosystem concept that allows utilization of forests without undermining their use by present and future generations. Different systems of management would be required for each category of forests depending on the intended output. Sustained yield As applied to policy, method, or plan of forest management, implies continuous production with the aim of achieving at the earliest time an approximate balance between net growth and harvest, either by annual or somewhat longer periods. Sustainable yield: The measure of material that a resource can yield annually or periodically in perpetuity. Swidden See “slash-and-burn agriculture.” Trade wind Low-level tropical easterly winds representing the lower component of the Hadley circulation. Troposphere The lowest part of the atmosphere, where temperatures generally decrease away from the surface. Vegetation fires Fires in all vegetation types including forests, grasslands, scrublands, and agricultural lands. Walker circulation A thermally driven east-west cellular circulation extending across the Pacific Ocean, from Indonesia to close to the Peruvian coast. Wildfire Any fire occurring on wildland except under prescription.
206 PART II: THE PROGRAM APPENDIX 2 Regional Haze Action Plan (Approved in December 1997)
A. Introduction 1. Smoke haze affected Southeast Asian countries during the dry seasons in 1991, 1994, and 1997. From July to October 1997, members of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN), in particular Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore, were badly affected by smoke haze caused by land and forest fires. The Philippines and Thailand were affected to a lesser degree. The severity and extent of the smoke haze pollution were unprecedented, affecting millions of people across the region. 2. The economic loss suffered by countries during this environmental disaster was enormous and has yet to be fully determined. Several economic sectors, including air, water and land transport, shipping, construction, tourism, forestry, and agriculture, were severely affected. The haze pollution also resulted in a considerable health impact on the people of the countries affected; the long-term health effects have yet to be determined. 3. In June 1995, ASEAN Environment Ministers agreed on an ASEAN Cooperation Plan on Transboundary Pollution. The Cooperation Plan contains broad policies and strategies to deal with transboundary pollution. In light of the latest haze experience, the ASEAN Environment Ministers agreed on a Regional Haze Action Plan (Action Plan), which sets out cooperative measures needed among ASEAN member countries (AMCs) to address the problem of smoke haze arising from land and forest fires in the region.
B. Objectives 4. The primary objectives of the Action Plan are to: (i) prevent land and forest fires through better management policies and enforcement; (ii) establish operational mechanisms to monitor land and forest fires; and (iii) strengthen regional land and forest firefighting capability and other mitigating measures.
C. Preventive Measures 5. AMCs recognize the need to strengthen national policies and strategies to prevent and mitigate land and forest fires. While some AMCs have already developed their national policies and strategies, others are in the process of advancing them based on their own development needs, priorities, and concerns. 6. AMCs will develop national plans to encapsulate their policies and strategies to prevent and mitigate land and forest fires. The plans should contain the following common elements: (i) policies to curb activities that may lead to land and forest fires and control emissions from mobile and stationary sources, including the prohibition of open burning and the strict control of slash-and-burn practices during the dry period;
APPENDIXES 207 (ii) strategies to curb activities that may lead to land and forest fires and control emissions from mobile and stationary sources, including the following: (a) formulation of air quality management legislation to prohibit open burning; (b) strict enforcement of laws and legislation; (c) implementation of air quality monitoring and reporting regimes, and setting up surveillance on local sources of emissions, both mobile and stationary; (d) establishment of a national task force and/or committee to develop strategies and response plans to deal with fires and smoke haze; and (e) utilization of information technology to provide haze-related information to relevant agencies to prevent and control spread of fire, and to enhance public awareness on the haze situation; (iii) guidelines and support services to discourage activities that can lead to land and forest fires; (iv) operating procedures for the early mobilization of resources to prevent the spread of fires; and (v) development of markets for the economic recovery and utilization of biomass (e.g., briquette) and appropriate methods for the disposal of agricultural waste. 7. These national plans were completed by March 1998. An ASEAN workshop was conducted in April 1998 to facilitate cross-comparison of the National Plans and exchange of information, including the exchange of legal experience in managing land and forest fires.
C. Regional Monitoring Mechanisms 8. The Action Plan will strengthen the region’s early warning and monitoring system to provide an alert of the first outbreak of land and forest fires, an assessment of meteorological conditions, a prediction of the spread of smoke haze, a systematic tracking of the control and spread of fires and haze, and the necessary data to support enforcement action. As part of this effort, the ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC) will be further streamlined and strengthened. ASMC will serve as a regional information center for compiling, analyzing, and disseminating information derived from satellite imagery and meteorological data necessary to detect and monitor land and forest fires and the occurrence of haze. 9. ASMC will operate by March 1998 an intranet among the relevant ASEAN meteorological service and environmental agencies to improve communications and enhance the effectiveness of existing early warning and monitoring systems. Information that will be made available on the intranet will include the following: satellite imagery, wind charts, visibility information, air quality information, and other meteorological and environmental information useful for haze monitoring. 10. In early 1998, the ASMC will conduct a regional workshop involving meteorological experts from within and outside ASEAN to discuss climate prediction for the region in 1998-1999. In the longer term, ASMC will further enhance the intranet system by including the following: seasonal climate prediction, haze dispersion modeling products, and a forest fire danger rating index.
208 PART II: THE PROGRAM D. Firefighting Capability 11. National and regional land and forest firefighting capability will be strengthened through the following measures: (i) Complete by March 1998 the ongoing preparation of the inventory of land and forest firefighting capability of each country (agencies, human resources, equipment, available land and forest fire hazard maps, and other resources) and identify resources that can be made available for regional firefighting efforts. (ii) Formulate by March 1998 a program to strengthen the firefighting capability of individual countries and the region, and compile a list of equipment and technical expertise that is needed at the regional level to tackle land and forest fires. (iii) Identify by March 1998 the sources of technical assistance for within and outside ASEAN and, if required, formalize an assistance program with each donor country. Technical assistance may include forest firefighting equipment, aircraft such as water bombers, and high-tech equipment and experts for command post operations. (iv) Establish by June 1998 an operating procedure to activate the deployment of the firefighting resources in each country for regional firefighting operations. (v) Establish by June 1998 a mechanism in each country to provide, in the event of an outbreak of land and forest fires, regular updates to the Haze Technical Task Force (HTTF) on progress made in efforts to fight the fires. The updates would include the number of hot spots and their locations, analysis of fire types, problems encountered, adequacy of deployed resources, and effectiveness of enforcement and ground operations.
E. Detailed Scope of Technical Assistance 12. ADB’s assistance was sought to provide consultancy services in support of the Action Plan. The scope of the technical assistance is as follows. 13. The following short-term measures will be completed within three months of commencement: (i) Compile and analyze ongoing national and regional fire and haze prevention programs with a view to sharing relevant experience, improving coordination, and avoiding duplication of effort. Based on the findings, make recommendations how national and regional fire and haze prevention measures can be improved in the short and medium term. (ii) Inventory existing fire management and suppression capabilities in the affected AMCs, and develop technical assistance programs and partnerships within and beyond the region to strengthen these capabilities. (Several international and bilateral organizations had expressed interest during the 1997 fires and haze to offer assistance in this area). (iii) Strengthen the capacity of the ASEAN Secretariat, ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment (ASOEN), the working group on transboundary pollution, and the Haze Technical Task Force (HTTF), in the effective delivery of their functions in fire and haze prevention and mitigation.
APPENDIXES 209 (iv) Improve information management and dissemination in the ASEAN Secretariat related to fire and haze prevention and mitigation, including the sharing of knowledge and experience, dissemination, coordination, and monitoring of national, regional, and international initiatives with institutions concerned in the region. This includes the establishment and maintenance of an intranet between institutions in the region and a public information service through the ASEAN worldwide web home page. (v) Compile initial results of ongoing studies on the impact of transboundary atmospheric haze pollution on affected ASEAN countries, collect additional information where required, and compile a comprehensive impact assessment covering all economic sectors concerned as well as social (including health related), and environmental impacts. Detailed assessment would be carried out over the medium term. (vi) Compile and analyze existing policies and legislation in countries concerned regarding sustainable land-use practices with and without the use of fire for land clearing, and recommend appropriate changes. (vii) Compile experience within and beyond the region with fire prevention and control, including land-clearing fires and wildfires, mitigation strategies, etc., and document relevant lessons learned. (viii) Based on the outcome of the above items (i-vii), provide assistance to the HTTF in finalization of the Action Plan, identification of institutions responsible for various implementation actions, including institutionalized monitoring and review of policies, strategies, legislation, guidelines, early warning pertaining to fire danger and potential pollution hazard, personnel mobilization for prevention of spread of fires, and other aspects of the Action Plan; and providing regular updates to members concerned on the progress of actions taken or pending and need for follow-up actions. 14. The following medium-term measures will be completed within 12 months (several of these measures will be initiated concurrently with the short-term measures): (i) Strengthen the capacity of ASMC in Singapore to compile and analyze available ground, atmospheric, and remotely sensed data on land and forest fires, haze, related climate and weather patterns, and other relevant environmental parameters, in collaboration with national meteorological agencies, and to disseminate the information, including early detection and warning through established institutional arrangements with national agencies concerned. The collaboration with national agencies is particularly necessary to compile data from a larger geographical area. (ii) Compile available information within and beyond the region regarding the use and marketing of biomass and logging residue products, such as briquettes, mulch, and compost. This includes a study of market-based instruments to promote such products and thereby stimulate mechanical land-clearing methods. (iii) Taking due account of various national and regional initiatives, evaluate the existing and proposed systems pertaining to fire danger rating, and fire detection and monitoring: based on these initiatives and the information thus generated, promote the development of land and forest fire hazard maps, and standardized national and regional fire danger rating and fire detection and monitoring systems.
210 PART II: THE PROGRAM (iv) Develop regional training programs, exchange visits, secondments, partnerships, joint training exercises, in fire management, remote sensing of fires and haze, the application of geographic information systems (GIS), and other priority subjects. (v) Compile the results of ongoing studies on the impact of transboundary atmospheric pollution on affected AMCs, collect additional information where required, and compile a comprehensive impact assessment covering all economic sectors concerned as well as social (including health related) and environmental impacts. The assessment would include the results from the national impact assessment in Indonesia financed under the complementary advisory technical assistance. It would compare the impact of the 1997 fires and haze with that of previous episodes, and would provide scenarios of possible future impact according to the level of concerted preventive action taken by affected AMCs. (vi) Develop technical assistance programs and partnerships to undertake scientific studies to improve the monitoring and prediction of transboundary atmospheric pollution, including analysis of the chemistry of emissions, climate, and meteorological patterns affecting pollution formation and dispersal. Such programs would likely involve ASMC, national institutions in AMCs, and partner institutions within and beyond the region, including the World Meteorological Organization and interested bilateral organizations. This would be based on an inventory and analysis of ongoing and planned scientific studies related to forest fires and haze. The project would financially support selected studies to improve the knowledge of haze formation and distribution. One such study could gather information on the chemistry of emissions of land-use fires, to support the haze transport modeling being undertaken by ASMC. 15. Based on the outcome of the above items ( i-vi), and in support of and complementary to the earlier developed Action Plan, develop a comprehensive time-bound plan for prevention, monitoring, mitigation, and institutional strengthening, identifying required investments, both at the national and at the regional levels. 16. HTTF will meet monthly to review the progress of implementation of the Action Plan. The ASEAN Environment Ministers will meet regularly to provide guidance on implementation of the Action Plan.
APPENDIXES 211 APPENDIX 3 Procedure for Formulating and Implementing Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans
Fourteen Steps for Implementing FSMPs 1. The first step in the exercise is formulation of the initial FSMP document. This requires dispatching a team of fire management specialists with expertise in FSMP drafting to the geographic area to which the FSMP relates. The FSMP drafting team must at the minimum meet with all agencies, organizations, and groups that might cooperate in fire suppression activities in the area. These are likely to comprise local representation of government agencies, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), civic organizations, religious groups, and virtually anyone wishing to cooperate in community-based fire suppression activities. 2. Agreement in principle must at this stage be achieved by all parties that have agreed to cooperate in implementing the FSMP. Without their later support, fire suppression activities will most certainly be compromised. During this step, FSMP formulation comprises the writing out of all resources (personnel, fire suppression tools, communications equipment) available for mobilization in the geographic area to which the particular FSMP relates. The model FSMP is used as a template for this purpose. 3. The output of this step is an initial draft of the FSMP document. Initial FSMP documents are rarely “complete,” in the sense of describing all of the implementation details of upgraded fire management capacity in the geographic area to which they relate. The initial FSMP document instead describes how existing fire suppression resources could most efficiently be mobilized. The actual procedures for organizing and mobilizing fire suppression resources in the geographic area in question are sorted out as part of the overall FSMP exercise. The sorting out of standard operating procedures (SOPs) for mobilizing existing resources in the most efficient manner possible takes place during the FSMP exercise. As these SOPs are sorted out, the initial FSMP document is amended to reflect the SOPs and other measures for improving efficiency of fire suppression activities in the geographic area to which the FSMP relates. 4. The initial FSMP could therefore correctly be thought of as a vehicle for arriving at a destination (i.e., efficient fire suppression operations using existing resources), rather than as a destination in and of itself. In short, FSMPs are meant to evolve as the exercise proceeds, rather than sketching out in advance a description of the evolved fire suppression capacity that is the goal of the FSMP exercise. Thus, while a base time frame for formulation of an initial FSMP document would be somewhere of the order of 2-20 weeks, a best-case scenario time frame for completing the FSMP exercise would be a minimum of 18-24 months. 5. The second step in the FSMP exercise is to put into place an iron-clad, detailed inventorying and tracking system for all equipment and personnel that will be mobilized when the
212 PART II: THE PROGRAM mobilization plan is activated. This system must be sustainable without outside support. The recording system to be used in the Borneo and Sumatra cases should assume a complete lack of computer facilities. Manual recording should thus be assumed to be the basis of the inventorying and tracking system. 6. While at first glance such a system might seem technologically unsophisticated, this is the system used successfully for inventorying and tracking equipment and personnel in several countries with advanced wildland fire suppression capability. Until recently, computer-based systems were used as an adjunct to such manual recording systems. Manual-recording-based inventorying and tracking systems can function efficiently, and are often the best means of mobilizing resources from neighboring jurisdictions. 7. Computerized or not, all inventorying and tracking systems must—at the minimum— include the following information for each piece of fire suppression equipment: description, model number and specification; current status (available, unavailable, or committed); exact location; and most important, the contact information for the person authorized to release the piece of equipment in question. A similarly-detailed inventorying and tracking system must be put into place to catalogue contact information for personnel. 8. Once the inventorying and tracking systems for equipment and personnel have been put into place, the third step is undertaken, which is to conclude simple, written interagency agreements among all parties that have agreed to participate in the plan. This is perhaps the critical step in the FSMP exercise, since the details of how each agency cooperates in fire suppression activities must be agreed upon and specified in writing well in advance before addressing any fire emergency the FSMP is to address. 9. The fourth and fifth steps comprise the formulation and execution of a desktop mock drill, or Tactical Exercise without Troops (TEWT [pronounced “toot”], to use the correct fire suppression terminology). Formulating a TEWT is a more extensive process than executing a TEWT, and therefore is likely to require external expertise (either from a Subregional Firefighting Arrangement [SRFA] member country or an international fire management agency). The purpose of the TEWT is to test the adequacy of the FSMP, and to determine how it should be revised so as to strengthen it. TEWTs are preferred to real-world mock drills in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) setting, since they can adequately point out weaknesses in existing FSMPs. 10. Following execution of the TEWT, the sixth step is undertaken, which is revision of the FSMP, so as to address any weaknesses uncovered by the TEWT. The seventh step is then ratification of the TEWT. The eighth step comprises formulating and implementing an annual review of the FSMP. 11. The 9th, 10th, 11th, and 12th steps pertain to formulating a program for upgrading of fire suppression capability under the auspices of the FSMP to an objectively-defined, predetermined level. The ninth step involves determining the personnel and training requirements for executing the upgrading program, while the 10th and 11th steps comprise determining the equipment and communications requirements for executing the upgrading program. 12. The 12th step is formulation of the upgrading program, which requires time, since all details of procurement, payment, inventorying, training must be transparently stated in the program.
APPENDIXES 213 13. The 13th step is the execution of the upgrading program, which includes the assimilation of all new equipment and training into the inventorying and tracking systems for equipment and personnel. 14. The 14th and final step is incorporating provisions for sustaining the FSMP over time. (A summary outline of generic FSMP is given as Attachment 1)
Attachment 1 Summary Outline of Generic FSMP
Section 10 Objectives, Overall Procedures, and Participating Agencies 11 Objectives 12 Overall Procedures 13 Participating Agencies Section 20 Administrative Procedures 21 Terminology 22 Scope of Operations 23 Levels of Coordination 23.1 Communications Procedures 23.2 Reporting Procedures 23.3 Procedures Governing the Use of Satellite Imagery 24 Dispatch Procedures 24.1 Mobilization 24.2 Safety 24.3 Accident and Incident Reporting 24.4 Requests for Assistance 24.5 Financial Procedures 24.6 Demobilization Procedures 25 Incident Priorities 26 Aircraft Operations 26.1 Procedures Governing Aircraft Operations 26.2 Communications 26.3 Funding Arrangements Section 30 Organization Section 40 Cooperation 41 Cooperative Arrangements Section 50 Directory Section 60 Personnel Section 70 Equipment 71 Fire Suppression Equipment 72 Radio Equipment 73 Specialized Equipment Section 80 Aircraft Inventory (if any)
214 PART II: THE PROGRAM APPENDIX 4 Fire Danger Rating Systems
Introduction There are several fire danger rating systems (FDRS) available globally. They are, however, not being proposed for the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region and will not be considered here. It is sufficient to say that most of these systems are fairly complex systems designed for the fuel types, soil behavior, and atmospheric conditions characteristic of their regions. Furthermore, some systems would require specific inputs that may not be readily available in the region or may entail additional measurement techniques. The purpose of a FDRS is to alert the relevant authorities to a buildup of a seasonal fire risk so that appropriate preventive measures can be taken to reduce fires. In the tropics, the single most important factor that can lead to a buildup of fire risk is a deficit of rainfall. Vegetation that is moist is not susceptible to fire or does not burn easily. However, in the absence of rainfall, vegetation will start to dry out and fire risk increases. The extent of the drying out of the vegetation should be conveyed by a suitable fire risk index. Factors that can also affect the drying out process are temperature, wind, and humidity. In the tropics, these three factors do not vary significantly and may not add new information to a fire risk index. An appropriate FDRS for this region needs to be: 1. simple and intuitive, 2. easy to implement, 3. economical to maintain, 4. requiring minimal input data, 5. yielding easy classification of fire risks, and 6. flexible for further development and expansion.
Canadian Fire Danger Rating System The Canadian system is a comprehensive FDRS consisting of five components. It is also the most complex system that is proposed and comprises five subsystems: 1. Fire Weather Index system, 2. Fuel Classification and Maps, 3. Fire Behavior Prediction system, 4. Wildfire Threat Assessment, and 5. Fire History. Although there are five subsystems, the first component is considered the most important module of the whole system and can adequately perform as a stand-alone system. The inputs to this component are temperature, relative humidity, wind, and rainfall. (Refer to the flow chart overleaf for calculation of the fire weather index.) The flow chart suggests that three important fuel types contribute to the computation of the final index. However, these fuel types are probably not applicable to the region and the appropriate fuel components need to be identified for the index to work properly. It could be a lengthy
APPENDIXES 215 FIGURE 5 Flow Chart of Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index System
Temperature Meteorological Relative Humidity Temperature Wind Temperature Observations Wind Relative Humidity Rain Rain Rain
Fuel Moisture FFMC DMC Fine Fuel DC Duff Moisture Drought Code Code Moisture Code Code
Fire Behavior ISI BUI Indexes Initial Spread Index Build-up Index
FWI Fire Weather Index
Source: RETA 5778: Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent and Mitigate Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution Draft Final Report.
exercise to determine moisture characteristics of tropical forests, plantations, peatswamps, etc., for the region. If it is recognized that the majority of forest fires are due to human activities, such a study while useful in the long term, may not address the immediate needs of the region. The implementation of the index requires investment in new computing resources and extensive adaptation studies of the index to the region. Furthermore, the maintenance of the system within the Indonesian or ASEAN context may not be feasible.
Keetch-Byram The Keetch-Byram Drought Index (KBDI) was originally developed to describe the dryness of fuels in the southeastern United States. It is basically a cumulative or bookkeeping index. To use the index requires heavy rainfall exceeding 200 millimeters when the index is set to zero. Subsequently, on a daily basis, an amount is subtracted (to represent drying by evaporation during the last 24 hours from a look-up table) on a no-rain day or the rainfall equivalent is added if there has been rain during the last 24 hours. The other meteorological inputs are maximum temperature and relative humidity. The advantage of the KBDI is its simplicity of usage and familiarity among fire managers. The KBDI has been used by the Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) for East Kalimantan for some years already. The ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC) is testing a trial system of the KBDI for Sumatra and Kalimantan. The disadvantage is that there has not been any rigorous validation or calibration of the KBDI either in the tropics or elsewhere outside the region of the southeastern United States. It assumes
216 PART II: THE PROGRAM a maximum of 2,000 for the index and drying factors of the fuel, forest type, and soil structure similar to those of the southeastern United States. This is not strictly correct since the drying force of a dry and arid environment would be different from the moist and hot environment of the tropics. Without a proper recalibration of the drying tables, the KBDI will seriously overestimate the fire risk in the tropics. However, some compensation has been incorporated in the KBDI by having different drying tables based upon average rainfall, assuming that more humid environments have a higher rainfall. Despite its weaknesses, it is a simple and intuitive index. The input meteorological parameters are readily available to ASEAN National Meteorological Services and can be easily computed with existing resources. ASMC can extend the KBDI to other parts of ASEAN when the trials have been completed.
Rainfall Debt The Report of the ADTA INO 2999 recommends the use of a rainfall debt as an early warning indicator of fire risk. In the tropics, where maximum temperature and relative humidity do not vary significantly from day to day, the information content of an index is not substantially increased by incorporating these two parameters. Similar arguments apply to wind and other classic parameters of a fire danger model. The most important parameter is the last 24-hour rainfall. Solar radiation as expressed through cloudiness may affect evaporation rates to some extent and should be evaluated for its contribution to the rainfall debt. The calculation of this simpler index consists of subtracting the 30-day running rainfall total against the normal monthly mean rainfall. This rainfall deficit can then be expressed as a percentage of the normal monthly mean rainfall. Thereafter, this value is to be known as rainfall debt. Rainfall debt is an intuitive concept and relates to the relative dryness of a region with respect to its monthly mean rainfall. At selected rainfall debt levels, fire risk warning levels can be triggered and relevant authorities can take the appropriate action. Such a value can be easily calculated as long as one has daily rainfall measurements in the region. The rainfall debt concept is still in its developmental stage for the region and has to be evaluated for its appeal and effectiveness as a fire risk indicator. The rainfall debt values can be evaluated for a period of several months prior to the haze in 1997 until several months after the haze in 1998. The exercise could determine the rainfall debt levels appropriate to trigger heightened fire risk level warnings to be set in place.
Recommendations The recommendations of the ADTA and RETA 5778 are for the KBDI and Rainfall Debt to be implemented concurrently. The KBDI is readily acceptable to fire managers and is already being operationally implemented in East Kalimantan by GTZ. ASMC is evaluating the KBDI against the haze of 1997 and 1998 for the regions of Kalimantan and Sumatra. Simultaneously, a trial is being carried out to operationally calculate the KBDI for Kalimantan and Sumatra using daily meteorological data. ASMC has carefully selected a list of stations on Kalimantan and Sumatra that have available daily rainfall and maximum
APPENDIXES 217 temperature data to compute the KBDI. The number of stations will be expanded when more data become available. Rainfall debt is a new suggestion but the concept is simple and practical. It is likely to gain acceptance in the region because it is easy to implement and economical to maintain. Further, fire risk associated with rainfall deficit is intuitive as well as common knowledge. ASMC can evaluate the rainfall debt for the haze of 1997 and 1998 in order to assess its suitability as a fire risk indicator. If the evaluation is positive, the rainfall debt can be first implemented by ASMC for Kalimantan and Sumatra. At a later stage, the rainfall debt computation can be expanded to other ASEAN member countries (AMCs).
Technical Expertise and Training Requirements Both KBDI and Rainfall Debt can be easily implemented by national meteorological services. The meteorological data required is already available on a daily basis, and past climatological data can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of the indexes in each country. ASMC can provide basic training, if any is necessary, to help set up the capability in individual AMCs.
Source: RETA 5578: Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent and Mitigate Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution Draft Final Report.
218 PART II: THE PROGRAM APPENDIX 5 Donor and Partnership Activities
There has been a general concurrence throughout the Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan (ORHAP) process that the fire-and-transboundary-haze issue confronting the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) region is a problem that is so large that no single agency can address it. Funding agencies have been equally aware of this fact throughout the fires and haze that have impacted the region over the past two decades. In fact, donors have provided a substantial amount of funding to short-term suppression activities. While this has no doubt been appreciated by the ASEAN member countries (AMCs), sustained funding of short-term fire suppression over an indefinite period is neither feasible, nor would it be an efficient use of scarce funding or affected-country resources. The challenge now is to use the intervening period between the end of the recent El Niño and the onset of the next to put into place an institutional framework that will prepare the ASEAN region for subsequent periods of vulnerability to fires and transboundary haze. This preparation should enhance ASEAN’s capability to manage periods of heightened risk of large-scale fires without resorting to a crisis management mode of response, as it did during the 1997-1998 fire- and-haze disaster. Accomplishing this will require funds to be used as efficiently as possible. This means that the role of the funding agencies in addressing the fire-and-haze issue will also have to evolve. In short, fire- and-haze-related activities must now be integrated via explicit partnerships, rather than simply becoming aware of “what other funding agencies are doing about the fires and haze.” A start has been made in this direction by integrating funding agencies’ activities directly into the RHAP Detailed Implementation Plan (DIP). When used as it was intended, the DIP places the onus of developing an integrated operational plan for confronting the fire-and-haze issue directly on to the AMCs and ASEAN itself. Once the ASEAN region has determined the actions it needs to take to address fires and transboundary haze, the financial costs of these actions can be determined, and the areas where gaps between available AMC resources and requirements exist can be identified. At this point, it is appropriate for funding agencies to determine which of these gaps they can most efficiently fill, given their particular emphasis or area of expertise. The scenario described directly above is the manner in which the funding agencies can most effectively make use of the RHAP DIP. Because of the urgency of the fire-and-transboundary-haze issue, RETA 5778 temporarily performed the dual role of operationalizing the concept of DIP as a planning tool, and simultaneously catalyzing integration of fire-and-haze-related funding agency activities directly into the emerging ORHAP DIP. Once the plan is fully operationalized, it is more important to manage the information necessary for funding agencies to be able to use the ORHAP DIP as their own planning tool. Several funding agencies have become directly involved and integrated into the ORHAP DIP process. The activities of these donors are briefly described (in alphabetical order by donor
APPENDIXES 219 name) below, in order to make funding agencies new to the ORHAP DIP process more conversant with the roles that those already involved are playing, and how these roles fit into the overall ORHAP DIP. * * * Australia announced a contribution of A$660,000 to the ASEAN fire-and-transboundary-haze initiative in late July 1998. These funds were to be used to support three separate components. First, a contribution of $100,000 equivalent will be used to directly support the ADB RETA Project’s program of activities, and will include funding for three applied studies: (a) Operationalization and Refinement of AMC National Haze Action Plans, with particular reference to Indonesia; (b) Formulation of a Fire Mitigation Training Program for the ASEAN Region; and (c) Formulation of an operating procedure for activating fire suppression resources in AMCs, with particular reference to Indonesia (other outputs, including formulation of possible long- term solutions to the fire-and-haze issue, and a broad-brush plan for upgrading Indonesia’s communication infrastructure for fire suppression, will also be generated by this study). The second component of Australia’s contribution will support component 1 of the Programme to Address Regional Transboundary Smoke (PARTS), which was formulated by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). PARTS component 1 will increase ASEAN’s capability in using satellite monitoring to prevent, detect, and track fires and haze in the region. Support for this component will be channeled through the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UN-ESCAP). The third component of the Australian contribution (now being programmed) will support fire mitigation activities, or more likely, training of firefighters. * * * BIOTROP-GCTE Impacts Center for Southeast Asia (IC-SEA) is now actively studying the many facets of the link between national level economic and natural resource policy with the use of fire as a tool for land-clearing or a weapon. Three studies of this type are ongoing and a fourth study on the health impacts of haze will integrate the work that Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) and the World Health Organization (WHO) have done in this area. * * * The Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) is preparing a system for implementation of its Fire Danger Rating System (FDRS) in the region. This system, which includes fire risk mapping, will initially be implemented in three AMCs: Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. In order to ensure AMCs’ ownership of the system, counterpart funding will account for about half of total direct implementation costs. * * * The European Union (EU) is linking activities under its ongoing Forest Fire Prevention and Control Project with activities of the SRFA-Sumatra. This project operates at community level and includes training, satellite monitoring, early warning and fire danger rating, and other activities. The early warning and/or fire danger rating system is being integrated with CIDA’s FDRS described. * * * GTZ has an ongoing Integrated Forest Fire Management Project (IFFM) in East Kalimantan that includes numerous components, one of which is fire danger rating. Like the EU early
220 PART II: THE PROGRAM warning system, the GTZ system is being integrated with CIDA’s FDRS. GTZ is also actively involved with the Consultative Group on Indonesian Forestry in numerous forestry policy areas, and has ongoing work on the health impacts of haze in Indonesia. * * * Hanns Seidel Foundation (Germany) is directly supporting the activities of RETA 5778 by providing the costs of air transport and sponsorship for three German interns (two to six person- months each) that will work together with the Project Management Unit (PMU) specialists in the areas of forest fire management, information management, and policy and legislation analysis. The newly-established Southeast Asia Fire Monitoring Center (University of Freiburg, Germany) is planning to link up with ASMC and activities of the ORHAP. * * * Japan International Cooperation Agency has a satellite monitoring initiative based in Kalimantan, and a community-based Forest Fire Prevention and Management Project (FFPMP) in Indonesia. * * * The United Nations Environment Programme is supporting a number of activities relating to operationalization of the RHAP via its Emergency Response to Southeast Asian Fires Project. Major components supported by this $750,000 project include: (a) funding agencies’ coordination, (b) an international meeting for organizing short-term fire suppression activities, (c) aerial surveillance operations under the SRFAs, (d) training for firefighters, (e) public awareness, and (f) early warning and/or fire danger rating. Component f will complement and be integrated with the CIDA FDRS. * * * United States is supporting operationalization of the RHAP via its Southeast Asian Environment Initiative (SEA-EI). The SEA-EI includes two components: (a) a regional component that will support 10 subprojects, for a total amount of $4 million, and (b) an Indonesia-only component, for a total amount $2 million. The SEA-EI’s regional component, each of which will be implemented by a US Government agency, includes the following subprojects: (1) upgrading of ASMC’s capacity in climatological forecasting (US National Oceanic and Aeronautics Administration [NOAA]); (2) upgrading of ASMC’s capacity in haze transport modeling (Environmental Protection Agency [EPA]); (3) upgrading of ASMC’s capacity in haze monitoring (EPA); (4) analysis of the health impacts of haze (EPA); (5) guidelines on the health impacts of haze (Center for Disease Control and Prevention [CDCP]); (6) technical assistance on peat fire suppression (US Forest Service); (7) technical assistance on coal seam fire suppression (Office of Mines, US Department of the Interior); (8) reduced impact timber harvesting (to make logged forests less vulnerable to fire) (US Forest Service); (9) support to the Asian Disaster Preparedness Centre, Bangkok (US Office of Foreign Disaster Assistance); and (10) analysis of the impact of the 1997-1998 Fires and Haze (partial funding to a project undertaking this work that will be performed by the Centre for International Forestry Research in conjunction with the International Center for Research in Agroforestry, both located in Bogor, Indonesia). The regional component also supported provision of a forest fire management expert from the US Forest Service directly to the PMU, who worked together with the regional technical assistance forest fire management specialist.
APPENDIXES 221 WHO prepared Guidelines on the Health Impacts of Haze, which will be valid worldwide for all haze generated by large-scale land and forest fires. * * * WMO has formulated PARTS (described above), and is actively involved in numerous activities that support upgrading of the ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre (ASMC). These activities include a series of workshops on transboundary atmospheric pollution, the first of which was held in Singapore on 2-5 June 1998. * * * The World Bank has rechanneled $300,000 in unused funds from an earlier project with the BAPEDAL, Indonesia. These funds will now be used for three initiatives relating to fires and haze, one of which is formulation of a proposal for an ASEAN-wide Firefighting Training and Research Center at the University of Palangkaraya, Indonesia. * * * The wide-ranging support described above is clear evidence of funding agencies’ commitment to address the problems related to the forest fires and associated transboundary haze. It augurs well for the ORHAP. Nevertheless, numerous gaps still remain, as is apparent from even a casual analysis of the DIP. This would point to the need for enhanced and targeted funding agency support and collaboration. As all participating funding agencies will ultimately have access to the intranet version of the ORHAP, the opportunities available and the roles each can play will become increasingly apparent (see Attachment 1).
Attachment 1 Updated Position of Funded Projects in Direct Support of ORHAP Implementation (catalyzed by the Asian Development Bank Regional Technical Assistance Project)
AusAID 1. Three-component program of support to ASEAN in addressing fires and transboundary haze (A$660,000); • $100,000 (A$160,00) direct to RETA-PMU to support: – Study on Formulation of Operating Procedure for Activating Forest Firefighting Resources in the ASEAN Region with Particular Reference to Indonesia. (Mitigation) – Study on Training in Fire Management in the ASEAN Region. (Mitigation) – Applied Study on Formulation of National Haze Action Plans with Particular Reference to Indonesia. (Mitigation) • A$200,000 direct support to training in fire management (with option to switch these funds to the component directly below. (Mitigation) • A$300,000 direct support (via UN-ESCAP) for implementation of PARTS component 1. (Monitoring)
222 PART II: THE PROGRAM 2. Direct support (provision of one forest fire management specialist) to the Inventory and Assessment of Fire Management Capacity in the ASEAN region. (Mitigation)
CIDA 1. Funding of a feasibility study on a Fire Danger Rating System for the ASEAN Region. (Prevention) 2. Direct support (provision of one forest fire management specialist) to the inventory and assessment of fire management capacity in the ASEAN region. (Mitigation) 3. Funding of implementation of the Haze Technical Task Force (HTTF)-endorsed Fire Danger Rating System for the ASEAN Region. (Prevention)
EU 1. Direct support in the form of backstopping to the Inventory and Assessment of Fire Management Capacity in the ASEAN Region. (Mitigation) 2. Direct support in the form of backstopping to the formulation of Prototype Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans for critical districts in Riau and South Sumatra Provinces. (Mitigation)
GTZ Implementation of a study on the health impacts of haze in Indonesia. (Prevention)
Hanns Seidel Foundation Catalyzing of interns from the University of Passau that provided direct general support to RETA PMU, and direct support in the form of backstopping to the Inventory and Assessment of Fire Management Capacity in the ASEAN Region. (Mitigation)
WHO Convening of a Workshop on the Health Impacts of Transboundary Haze Pollution in the ASEAN region. (Prevention)
WMO Convening and cofinancing (with RETA 5778) of a workshop on Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution in the ASEAN Region. (Monitoring)
UNEP Provision of experts in international legal instruments relating to negative environmental effects. These experts wrote the concept paper for a Framework Agreement on Transboundary Pollution in the ASEAN Region, as well as terms of reference for a feasibility study on Formulation of a Framework Agreement on Transboundary Pollution in the ASEAN Region. (Prevention)
USAID Implementation of the Southeast Asia Environment Initiative, which included 10 subprojects as follows:
APPENDIXES 223 Related to Prevention Program of ORHAP • Strengthening Capacity in Disaster Readiness in the ASEAN Region (with the Asian Disaster Preparedness Center). • Analysis of the Human Health Impacts of Transboundary Haze in the ASEAN Region during the 1997-1998 fires and haze (US EPA). • Identification of a further research agenda on the Human Health Impacts of Transboundary Haze in the ASEAN Region (US CDCP).
Mitigation Program of ORHAP • Technical Assistance to Development of Techniques for Coal Seam Fire Suppression in the ASEAN Region. • Technical Assistance to Development of Techniques for Peat Fire Suppression in the ASEAN Region. • Strengthening Fire Management Capacity in the ASEAN Region (three components). – Direct support to RETA-PMU in the form of assistance to the RETA Forest Fire Management Specialist. – Funding and provision of six senior fire management experts for the Inventory and Assessment of Fire Management Capacity in the ASEAN Region. – Funding and provision of six senior fire management experts for the formulation of Prototype Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans for critical districts in Riau and South Sumatra Provinces.
Monitoring Program of ORHAP • Provision of financing and technical expertise for implementing PARTS component 2 (US NOAA with ASMC). • Provision of financing and technical expertise for implementing PARTS component 3 (US NOAA with ASMC). • Study on the formation, transport, and dispersion of transboundary haze pollution in the ASEAN region (US NOAA with ASMC). • Study on strengthening the monitoring of transboundary haze pollution in the ASEAN region (US NOAA with ASMC).
224 PART II: THE PROGRAM APPENDIX 6 Outline of the Haze Action Online and Some Aspects of the Design Standards
Part I. Outline of the Haze Action Online
Introduction The Operationalized Regional Haze Action Plan (ORHAP) is a complex undertaking. Apart from the regional level plan, it involves implementing the nine (soon to become 10) National Haze Action Plans (NHAPs) and two (and possibly more) Subregional Firefighting Arrangements (SRFAs). Separate Detailed Implementation Plans (DIPs) (12 soon to become 13) have been correspondingly formulated to supplement each action plan and to help determine the minimum implementation strategy of actions, activities, and funding and investment requirements necessary to implement the ORHAP. While the various Action Plans and their corresponding DIPs provide a medium-term accounting and projection of efforts required to mobilize the ORHAP, a six-year implementation program has also been established to strengthen regional fire suppression capacity, principally through Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans (FSMPs) and SRFAs. Three high-level Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) bodies (ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Environment [AMME], ASEAN Ministerial Meeting on Haze [AMMH], and ASEAN Senior Officials on Environment [ASOEN]) are accountable for ORHAP implementation, while specialized ASEAN agencies and subgroupings (the ASEAN Secretariat, the Haze Technical Task Force [HTTF], the three HTTF lead countries, the HTTF Working Groups of SRFA- Borneo and SRFA-Sumatra, and ASEAN Specialized Meteorological Centre [ASMC]) are responsible for technical implementation of the ORHAP. Also included are the national meteorological services (NMS), the national fire suppression agencies, the national disaster coordination authorities, funding agency collaborative partnerships, nongovernment organizations (NGOs), and private sector organizations. Within the ASEAN Secretariat alone there are six different units that collect and disseminate fire-and-haze-related information. The key informational materials of this operational structure and framework comprise the following constituent elements: • RHAP umbrella document; • ORHAP document elucidating the general strategy and guidelines for RHAP implementation along with a six-year operational program; • DIP of the ORHAP; • DIPs for the SRFAs (Borneo and Sumatra); • DIPs for the NHAPs (for all ASEAN member countries); • Fire Suppression Mobilization Plans (FSMPs); • Inventorying and Tracking System for Fire Suppression Resources; • ASMC-Centered Monitoring and Hydrological-Meteorological Information System;
APPENDIXES 225 • collaborative partnership programs and projects; and • framework of international agreements and protocols. The documents and informational materials can be categorized into formalized (dynamic and static), nonformalized referenced, and nonformalized, plus other information and data sets. The complexity of the ORHAP operational framework necessitates a carefully planned and designed information technology solution. For this purpose, the establishment of an Information Management System (IMS) is highly necessary and feasible. The IMS will be at the core of the Regional Information Center and Clearinghouse. Details of the requirement analysis, logical and physical design, conversion requirements, and implementation are provided.
Requirement Analysis External connectivity through the Internet allows for the exchange of data interactively. The Internet is recognized as a reliable medium to share data of all types. It is also possible to utilize the Internet for secure data transmission cost-effectively by utilizing the “intranet” aspect (ADB/ ASEAN 1999).
Feasibility of Intranet Utilization The term intranet defines a computer network, or the sum of several networks in a certain geographical area, which runs on the Internet protocol. This approach enables the use of the same type of data servers and data browsers used for the World Wide Web for internal applications distributed over a Local Area Network (LAN), or Wide Area Network (WAN). Because intranets are based on the Internet protocol, they are platform-independent. Hence Windows, Macintosh, Novell, and UNIX networks can all share information by overlying TCP/IP on their existing network transmission protocol. In economic terms and because of this feature, intranets are generally inexpensive to implement. The majority of HTTF member countries, their focal points, key supporting agencies, and the ASEAN Secretariat have Internet connectivity, making the use of the Internet as a way of networking, broadcasting and transmission, and database management highly feasible. All information, data sets, and databases of the IMS could be adopted to suit Internet technologies.
Logical Design The IMS study of RETA 5778 recommends the bifurcation of the IMS into a publicly accessible Internet system and a virtual private network utilizing the Intranet. Internet technologies make it possible for such a system to reside in one web site. The focus here is on the requirements for an intranet system, which will be the most vital component in direct ORHAP IMS implementation. To implement an intranet within any organization it is important to distinguish between two distinct components: content and transport. The term “content” describes the actual data distributed through the intranet, while the “transport” is the mechanism that carries the data from its origin to its destination(s). Virtually all the information systems identified can be computer-automated, but certain systems comprise of, or are supplemented by, a manually driven system.
226 PART II: THE PROGRAM Physical Design There are several design options in linking the ASEAN bodies responsible for ORHAP implementation. These are summarized in the following table:
TABLE 6 Design Options
Type Advantages Disadvantages
Dedicated connection High level of security; high speed Very high cost (leased line circuit between Secretariat and other countries)
Internet connection Good security with secure-server Lower speed than dedicated connections (depends software; low cost on country access speed, in most case acceptable)
Internet connection Security almost at same level of Lower speed than dedicated connection (depends on with tunneling protocol dedicated connection; low cost. country access speed, usually acceptable)
The table shows the most common solutions. Initially, the system can be operated by restricting external users access through user name and/or password requirements. Once the intranet is in place, external users can access the information and update database forms through a log on process. This is usually secure enough for piloting purposes. After the system is stabilized, the LAN manager can install a tunneling protocol for additional security. A tunneling protocol is a set of data transmission rules that establish a virtual “pipe.” Data can then be securely moved inside the pipe between two points. Although the pipe itself is not considered secure, the data it contains are accessible only from the originating and destination points. Tunneling protocol is used today to establish inexpensive Private, Virtual Networks (PVNs) using regular Internet Service Provider (ISP) networks. A specialized ASEAN Internet and intranet web site without a tunneling protocol, based on a Windows NT operating system (and the related Microsoft Internet information services and other Internet network services that the Windows NT offers) named “ASEAN Haze Action Online” has already been established.
Implementation ADB’s RETA Project had installed for its Project Management Unit (PMU) and Coordination and Support Unit (CSU) a Sub-LAN Windows NT operating system for networking the project among staff and consultants within the ASEAN Secretariat. This system has been upgraded with the appropriate Internet technology into a full-service web server for the enhanced IMS of ORHAP with the site address: www.haze-online-or.id CSU will be responsible for the content of the web site, that is, the overall “look and feel” of the intranet site, and for keeping the information fresh and well organized, This requires updating the material to the site on a daily basis, or sometimes continuously through the day. It is also necessary to establish “entry points” throughout the ORHAP institutional arrangement to input
APPENDIXES 227 data directly into the Intranet. CSU should also be responsible for maintaining a logical, coherent, and easily navigable menu structure. Other CSU responsibilities include the creation of hypertext markup language (HTML) pages, the creation of the forms used in formulating and returning database queries, and sometimes even the programming of the query mechanism itself. Competence and training in the following areas are required: • HTML language; • use of graphic applications and image manipulation; • scanning techniques; • database technology; and • office procedures and archival schemes.
Part II. Design Standards
Based on the regional fire and haze information and web design techniques available to date, the following design standards have been compiled for designing the ASEAN Haze Action Online web site. When designing or redesigning a web site, each of these guidelines should be applied where appropriate.
Background and Objectives Operationalizing the RHAP ultimately depends on an efficient flow of information among the various parties, agencies, and countries implementing the Plan at the national, subregional, and regional levels. The information management system is the means by which implementation of each action defined in the DIP at each of the levels is monitored. The heart of the ORHAP information management system is a computerized retrieval system that can be accessed through the Internet. The Intranet Information System also provides up-to- date information to help in decision making. ASEAN Haze Action Online allows the sharing of knowledge and experience, and coordination and monitoring of national, regional, and international initiatives with institutions in the region. This includes an intranet linking institutions in the region and a public information service. The establishment of the ASEAN Haze Action Online Internet/intranet information system is based on one of the RETA 5778 terms of reference components to develop, establish, and operationalize an improved information management, exchange, and dissemination system in the ASEAN Secretariat related to fires and haze prevention and mitigation. The objectives of the establishment of the ASEAN Haze Action Online Internet/Intranet Information System are to: 1. provide a medium for information exchange between institutions at the regional and national levels; 2. support and monitor implementation of regional, subregional, and national haze action plans; 3. provide a link to ASMC’s products;
228 PART II: THE PROGRAM 4. support and monitor implementation of the ASEAN Regional Fire Suppression Mobilization Plan; 5. provide a database and/or inventory of equipment, firefighters, fire experts, and addresses of contact persons and institutions at regional and national levels; 6. provide information on meetings and events, a calendar, and scheduling; 7. provide a library of information and/or document center related to fires and haze; 8. provide linkages to all of the available fire and haze information sources on the Internet; 9. provide comprehensive, accurate, and up-to-date information on all funding agency projects that are supporting the regional, subregional, and national haze action plans; 10. provide funding agencies with a full range of project coordination functions to better target development assistance by matching specific needs to funding agency priorities; 11. provide the ASEAN Secretariat with an alternative medium for public awareness, education, and outreach programs on fire-and-haze-related information; and 12. provide the ASEAN Secretariat with a medium for internal awareness and outreach program on fire-and-haze-related information.
Target Users In order to create compelling and useful content and applications, target users should be defined. Once the site is implemented, user feedback and analysis of user log files generated by the web tracking system should be used both to fine-tune the site and to confirm the users. The ASEAN Haze Action Online web site will target the following: • AMME; • AMMH; • HTTF; • government agencies responsible for the fire and haze prevention, monitoring, and mitigation activities; • ASEAN Secretariat: – Environment Unit, – Information and Library Unit, – Culture and Information Unit, – Agriculture and Forestry Unit, – Computer Unit, and – Coordination Support Unit; • collaborative partners; and • the general public. Any addition to the web site should be tailored to these users.
APPENDIXES 229 Site Structure Users need predictability and structure with clear functional and graphic continuity between a site’s sections and subsections. Below is the structure of the ASEAN Haze Action Online web site and a short description of the major sections. Any new content to be added to the web site should fit into this structure. • ASEAN Haze Action Online Homepage: www.haze-online.or.id • Search: Search ASEAN Haze Action Online web site. • Site Index: Table of Contents to quickly locate information within the site. • Help Center: Help on how to access and/or navigate through the site.
Section 1 drill-downs • About: A brief introduction to ASEAN transboundary haze initiatives and the RHAP • Intranet: Registered users (HTTF members, partners) can access the following RHAP information management tools: – DIP information system, – information on donors’ collaborative partnership program and projects, – RHAP Document Center, – contact information databases for all persons and institutions concerned with RHAP implementation, – Calendar of Events and Activities database, and – Firefighting Resources Inventory System and Intranet Discussion Forum. • Monitoring Links: Hyperlinks to the web sites of institutions specializing in monitoring of fires and haze in the region. • Mobilization Plan: Information on ASEAN regional FSMP initiatives.
FIGURE 6 Site Structure
Search
ASEAN Haze Action Online Homepage Site Index
Help Center Section 1st drill-down
Monitoring Mobilization Haze Haze Calendar Fire and About Intranet Links Plan Inventory News Forum of Events Haze Links
Source: ASEAN, RHAP-C54.
230 PART II: THE PROGRAM • Inventory: Information on the regional inventory and assessment of fire management capability. • Haze News: New reports, press releases, situation summaries, links to the online version of the International Forest Fire News, and other information about the current fire-and-haze situation in the region. Users can also use this feature to suggest additional fire-and-haze hyperlinks. • Haze Forum: An electronic forum allowing users to post their views and opinions on fire- and-haze-related issues, and to discuss them with other users. • Calendar of Events: This feature gives the schedule and venue of all past, present, and future fire-and-haze-related events including seminars, workshops, training classes, and other activities. • Haze Links: Links to other fire-and-haze-related web sites. Users can also use this feature to add Uniform Resource Locator (URL) links to the fire-and-haze-related web sites.
Supported Browsers The ASEAN Haze Action Online web site is designed for the latest release versions of the Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer browsers. The reasoning for this decision is as follows: • Cost: The more browsers that are supported, the greater the cost to develop the web site. • Popularity: Netscape and Microsoft clearly lead the Internet browser market. • Supported features: Both Netscape and Microsoft’s browsers support many advanced technology features (i.e., Java, Shockwave, etc.). These companies are pushing each other to add functionality, which is causing their products to converge. The ASEAN Haze Action Online web site is not implementing features that are not common to the identified browsers. If a feature is supported by one of the identified browsers and not by the other (i.e., VBScript), it should not adversely affect the look and feel of the site when viewed in the unsupported browser. And as Internet Explorer and Navigator converge, this issue will become negligible.
[Note: For details on Standard Page Design, HTML Coding Standards, System Architecture, etc., see the Final Report of ADB’s RETA 5778: Strengthening the Capacity of the ASEAN to Prevent and Mitigate Transboundary Atmospheric Pollution.]
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