Nordic Museology 2018 • 1, pp. 5–26

The birth of the museum in the Nordic countries Kunstkammer, museology and museography

Mattias Ekman

Abstract: The article positions early modern collecting in relation to wider cultures of knowledge production by using perspectives from the history of knowledge, memory studies, and recent studies of Kunstkammern. Some twenty-five years after the reawakened interest in early modern collections the author revisits the question if the museum in the Nordic countries was born in the mid-seventeenth century and asks if collections became museums and a museum culture was established with the appearance of, one, museography, theories and methods of classification and display, two, museology, a science or profession of museum organisation and management, and, three, designated, purpose-built architecture and furniture. The first part brings into play exemplary scholarly and monarchical collectors that contributed to the development of museography and museology. The second part addresses seventeenth-century museography by introducing two acts of knowledge production and retention in the Kunstkammern – asking questions and selecting and ordering. Finally, the author discusses the findings in relation to arguments for placing the museum’s birth in the decades around 1800.

Keywords: Ole Worm, Olaus Rudbeck the Elder, Johann Daniel Major, The Gottorf Kunstkammer, the Copenhagen Kunstkammer, Queen Christina’s Kunstkammer, classification, method of questioning, commonplacing, topics.

The publication of the first volumes of Nordic Its 1993 exhibition Museum Europa (Nielsen Museology in 1993 and 1994 coincided with a et al. 1993) projected beginnings of Nordic reawakened interest in early modern collections museum history on developments in the (here summarily referred to as Kunstkammern). seventeenth century. In Sweden, people like The Danish National Museum had just Arne Losman, Stig Fogelmarck, and Hans- completed a decade-long project, led by Bente Olof Boström (e.g. 1982) had applied new Gundestrup, on the Royal Danish Kunstkammer perspectives to collections among the royalty collections and catalogue (Gundestrup 1991). and nobility. Mattias Ekman

6 Out of thirty-five articles in the four issues century. I will show visions, ambitions, and of the first two volumes of Nordic Museology, trials that could indicate that collections were eight addressed early modern collecting. In in the process of becoming museums avant la the first volume, Mogens Bencard offered a lettre and a museum culture was in the making. history of Danish royal collections against an The latter was the result of, so I hypothesise, European backdrop. Arthur MacGregor wrote the appearance of, one, museography,1 theories about collections and antiquarianism, Gunnar and methods of classification and display, Broberg elucidated the concept of wonder, two, museology, a science or profession of and Krzysztof Pomian addressed history in museum organisation and management, and, paintings collections. In the second volume, three, designated, purpose-built architecture Bencard argued for the Kunstkammer as a and furniture. In the first part I will bring into museum avant la lettre, Losman postulated play a selection of exemplary collectors among Skokloster Castle as a memory theatre, Ella university professors and the royalty that in Hoch anchored the idea of the evolution in my understanding contributed the most to the early modern erudition, and Peter Wagner development of museography and museology. dealt with the cabinet of naturalia. In the second part, I take a look at the period’s The articles mirrored new approaches that museography by introducing two acts relating tried to counter a long-established image of the to knowledge production and retention that Kunstkammer as unsystematic and unscientific played out in the Kunstkammern. Finally, I which had dismissed it as a serious forerunner discuss the findings in relation to the question to the museum. Parallel to these developments, of the birth of the museum in the Nordic museum historians placed the birth of the countries. museum in the decades around 1800 (e.g. Can we speak of the Nordic countries Pomian 1994; Bennett 1995; Macdonald, Abt (Norden) in the seventeenth century? The terms & Giebelhausen in Macdonald 2006), arguing were in use, but nordisk (‘Nordic’) and Norden that it was not till then that collections were did not connote to a shared brotherhood and opened to a wider public, became publicly the vision of a political union as they came to owned, and ordered according to principles do in the nineteenth century. In early modern that we recognise today. Sweden and Denmark-Norway, nordisk was Twenty-five years later, I believe it is time used to refer to a linguistic, cultural, and to acknowledge and celebrate the work of the geographical commonality, for instance by one pioneers in the 1980s and 1990s by trying to of the protagonists of this article, Olaus (Olof) get an even more elaborate understanding Rudbeck the Elder (ODS 1933b; SAOB 1947a). of the Nordic cultures of collecting in the Norden, similarly referred to the geographic early modern period. Positioning collecting region of the commonality (ODS 1933a; SAOB in relation to wider cultures of knowledge 1947b) and was used as the translation of the production, using perspectives from the Latin septentrio (RSD 2018). Today’s Nordic history of knowledge, memory studies and countries are cultural and administrative recent studies of Kunstkammern, I want to inheritors of three states that operated and ask once more – like Bencard (1994:21, 24) interacted in our region: the Kingdom of and others did – if the museum in the Nordic Denmark-Norway which at that time also countries was not born in the seventeenth included territory that today belongs to The birth of the museum in the Nordic countries

Iceland, Sweden, and Germany; the Kingdom Franckenius (1590–1661), professor at Uppsala 7 of Sweden which included Finland, Estonia, University. Influential professor-collectors of Latvia, and territories in present-day Russia, the succeeding generations include Thomas Poland, and Germany; the semi-autonomous Bartholin (1616–1680) and Henrik Fuiren Duchy of Schleswig-Holstein-Gottorp which (1614–1659) in Copenhagen, Johannes today is split between Germany and Denmark. Schefferus (1621–1679) and Olaus Rudbeck The militarily weak duchy was under Swedish the Elder (1630–1702) in Uppsala, and Johann protection as a vassal state due to threats from Daniel Major (1634–1693) in Kiel. Denmark-Norway and several intermarriages Principally, it is to them and a handful of between the two royal houses. The museological other academics in the Nordic countries that and museographic developments took place we owe the development of museography. They mainly at the ducal court in Gottorf and the wrote inventories, catalogues, and descriptions royal courts in Copenhagen and Stockholm and struggled to improve methods for building and at universities, notably those in Kiel, up, ordering, arranging, and using collections. Copenhagen, and Uppsala. Despite continual As a rule, they were professors of medicine wars, there was a well-established cultural with responsibilities for teaching botany and scientific exchange between the states, and anatomy which was reflected in their and travellers’ accounts attest to the reciprocal teaching collections of herbaria, anatomical interest in and access to each other’s collections. preparations, and stuffed animals. Typically of the period they were also polymaths and eagerly amassed objects of diverse kinds to Professor-collectors use for research, teaching, and curiosity – Let me first turn to the professors. Starting antiquities, ethnographic objects, instruments, in the early 1620s, Ole Worm (1588–1654), scale models etc. The increasing preoccupation professor at the Copenhagen University, was with research based on observation and one of the first to systematically build up a experiment combined with inadequate or collection for teaching and research in the lacking institutional repositories contributed Nordic region. Worm was a student of the to the growth of the professors’ collections. famous botanist, Caspar Bauhin, and the influential encyclopaedist, Jakob Zwinger, and Dispositions he had visited famous collections like those of Francesco Calzolari, Ferrante Imperato, It was a new type of interior architecture and Bernhardus Paludanus (Schlee 1965:283; that the professor-collectors imported from Schepelern 1971:144, 145, 212). He had also the continent to the Nordic countries. The worked for Landgrave Moritz at the court predominant practice was to display all or in Kassel, which at the time housed several the majority of one’s collection, arranged Kunstkammer rooms and workshops, a library, according to a classification. The Kunstkammer and a laboratory. inventory thus took on a double role as an In Sweden, similar, but less systematic instrument for both practical management attempts at building collections were made and scientific method, commonly structured by Bishop Johannes Rudbeckius (1581–1646) as a movement through the rooms, along at Västerås gymnasium and by Johannes the walls and furniture, i.e. as a passage from Mattias Ekman

8 class to class (Gundestrup 1991:vol. i, XXIV; who admired Worm and Rudbeck (on Major Ekman 2012:79; Marx et al. 2014:173; Ekman and Worm, see Ekman forthcoming). He forthcoming). Let me shortly say something argued that the keeper of a Kunstkammer about how some of them organised their should be a learned man, not an artisan, and collections. ought to have wide interests, be technically The posthumously published description skilled, and speak several languages (Major of Worm’s collection Museum Wormianum c.1674:ch.VII §3). His organised his repository (1655) is divided into four books that equal in three classes for logical and didactic reasons: four classes (fig. 1). The first book is divided physis or naturalia, ordered systematically, into three sections: fossils, stones, and metals. techne or the art, ordered alphabetically, The second book covers plants, the third and antiquitas, ordered geographically and animals, and the fourth artificialia, or man- chronologically (Steckner 1994:618; Drees made objects. The book is accompanied with a 1996:47–48). The objects were arranged in two depiction of the chamber that the objects were and a half metre tall, decorated cabinets, each displayed in. Camilla Mordhorst (2002:205) with fifteen compartments (fig. 2). Painted has shown how the classificatory order in the titles such as Bibliotheca and Numismatica description largely is represented in the order reflected their position in the system and the of the display in the depiction. The actual contents (Major 1688:14). The logic of the chamber and the disseminated engraving collection was paramount, and Major advised both served to provide a quick reading of the to paint large objects in a smaller scale in order underlying taxonomy. that they might fit into their correct place A visitor to professor Rudbeck’s chamber in the system (Steckner 1994:618). He also of rarities in Uppsala described some of the advised to employ small cases in cardboard contents in his travel diary.2 One of the rooms or metal labelled with Latin names or classes contained the class instruments. Musical which served the orderliness, saved the trouble instruments adorned the walls, while the others of translating to visitors, and refreshed the were divided into subclasses: mathematical keeper’s memory (Major c.1674:ch.VIII §7– instruments, surgical instruments, anatomical 11). With reference to a scientific method instruments, instruments for metal engraving, (Ekman forthcoming), Major advanced that and tools for turning (Stalhoff 1896:298). The the architectural arrangement should reflect next room boasted tools divided in subclasses the classification of the objects as correctly as – axes, planes, lathes, and tools for firework. possible so that the catalogue could be read, as The classes were assigned particular rooms; the it were, by looking at the exhibited objects. subclasses – each relating to a course he taught or another preoccupation – were allocated to The three grand Kunstkammern particular walls, shelves or furniture. Despite its incompleteness, the diary betrays how Various collections already existed at the Rudbeck’s collection was organised, presented, Nordic courts in the sixteenth century (see e.g. and experienced as a sequential walk through Granberg 1929; Hein 2001:156–157). It is not classes and subclasses. until the mid-seventeenth century, however, Johann Daniel Major in Kiel was a systematic that the sovereigns ordered the establishment collector and inventive Kunstkammer theorist of Kunstkammern as separate institutions, with The birth of the museum in the Nordic countries

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Fig. 1. The first page of the index of headings in Ole Worm’s description of his own Kunstkammer in Museum Wormianum … (Leiden, 1655). The index is a topical and hierarchical disposition of places – books, sections, and headings – which point to the objects’ placement in the classification and in the Kunstkammer. Photo: Lund University Library urn:nbn:se:alvin:portal:record-104022. Mattias Ekman

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Fig. 2. Description of the numbered and titled cabinets and their contents in Johann Daniel Major’s Kunstkammer in Musei Cimbrici … (Kiel, 1689). When the doors of all cabinets on the east side of the Kunstkammer were opened at the same time, one and a half thousand objects were exposed to the visitor’s gaze in classificatory order, as a “friendly parade”. Photo Kiel University Library http://nbn-resolving.de/ urn/resolver.pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:gbv:8:2-2557817. The birth of the museum in the Nordic countries

designated premises and appointed keepers, Kunstkammer famous by publishing a catalogue 11 to be used for representation and learned of parts of the collections, in fact reproducing activities. It actually happened at the same many of the illustrations that Worm had used time, i.e. around 1650, at the Gottorf Castle (Olearius 1674, cf. Drees 1997:12, 25 n.16). under Duke Frederick III, at the Copenhagen During the reign of Frederick’s father, three Castle under King Frederick III, and at Tre library rooms had been installed below the Kronor Castle in Stockholm under Queen private apartments (Drees 1997:14). Frederick Christina. There are several reasons for this. himself ordered the building of a staircase One is that the Westphalian peace treaty of from the middle room to two rooms that 1648 stabilised the political and economic from 1652 came to house the Kunstkammer situations of Northern Europe. In addition, the (Drees 1997:15, Wiesinger 2015:137–138). The Thirty Years’ War had provided the Swedish library kept substantial collections of coins and royalty with a wealth of looted treasures, such scientific instruments (Drees 1997:26–27). The as the remains of Rudolf II’s Kunstkammer first of the twoKunstkammer rooms boasted in Prague. The patrons were also related and ethnographic objects from Russia, Persia, well informed of each other’s undertakings. Japan, China, Greenland, and the Americas Christina was Duke Frederick’s second cousin. such as clothes dressed on mechanical King Frederick was his first cousin. The latter mannequins (Olearius 1674:Tab III; fig. 3). was crowned in 1648, while Christina was The second Kunstkammer room contained crowned in 1650, when their collections were naturalia such as stuffed animals, but also enriched by gifts. rarities and art pieces of various kinds. As to its organisation, the three realms of nature were represented in the Kunstkammer – Gottorf animals, plants, and minerals. The second room In the Gottorf Castle, the Kunstkammer was was ordered according to the four elements, established by bringing together already one for each wall – water, fire, air, and earth existing collections with the Kunstkammer (Drees 1997:27). As an example, different kinds acquired from the famous Dutch physician of mirrors were among the things representing Bernardus Paludanus in 1651 (Drees 1997). fire, while air was represented by a basilisk and Duke Frederick was inspired by the grand salamanders – because they are living on air. Kunstkammer of his father-in-law, Elector The book collection was arranged according of Saxony John George I, in Dresden (Schlee to the planets and the zodiacal signs (Drees 1965:283). The Kunstkammer in Prague is 1997:19). The ordering principles served to assumed to have provided further influence present the library and Kunstkammer as one, as (Skougaard 2002:89), and the Danish humanist a model of the world which was the wondrous and collector, Heinrich Rantzau (1526–1598), book from which God taught men, his should have inspired to the establishment children and pupils (Olearius 1674:Vorrede, cf. of Gottorf as a court of the muses (Heiberg Drees 1997:21). These classifications were not 2002:24). The erudite Adam Olearius initiated original to Gottorf, but had been employed to the Kunstkammer institution and ordered provide logical and memorisable dispositions its objects (Drees 1997:13). He built on Ole of many preceding European collections, Worm’s methods and made the Gottorfische significantly the planets in Giulio Camillo’s Mattias Ekman

12 theatre of knowledge at Fontainebleau (Camillo countries, designed for the purpose of housing 1970:205, cf. e.g. Mummenhoff 1993:186– classified collections – arguably the first Nordic 187), the four elements in Vincenzo Borghini’s museum building. The upper floor housed studiolo for Francesco I of Medici in Palazzo the Kunstkammer, arranged according to the Vecchio, ultimately from Pliny the Elder same classes as it had been at the castle, and (Bolzoni 1984:31, 34–35, 2001:248), and the a paintings gallery. The engravings in the three realms of nature in Worm’s chamber of catalogue (Jacobaeus 1696; fig. 4) provides good rarities (Worm 1655, cf. Mordhorst 2002:209). insight as to how the objects were arranged on furniture or on the walls, fastened with hooks Copenhagen or strings. As typical of its time and just like the 1673 inventory, the catalogue is organised King Frederick III had travelled to the room by room, wall by wall. The forewords Netherlands and France, and as the to the catalogue portray the collection as administrator of the Prince-Archbishopric interplay between nature, with associations to of Bremen he had been close to Gottorf and God and the beauty of raw materials, and art, to the ports where exotic rarities were landed connoting to man as artisan and refiner.3 in large quantities (Liisberg 1897:14–17). He nurtured an interest in science, visited Stockholm several anatomical demonstrations and paid agents to acquire rarities abroad (Gamrath Queen Christina was an unusually well- 1975:125, Bruun 2012:145–146). In 1652, educated and erudite monarch (see e.g. he visited his first cousin’s Kunstkammer in Åkerman 1991, Åslund 2005), and the Gottorf, but by then he had already assembled institutionalisation of the Kunstkammer was his collections at the Copenhagen Castle. By paramount in her attempt to build up a learned 1650, the Kunstkammer in the Copenhagen court for European intellectuals.4 After a fire Castle seems to have been institutionalised in 1648, Christina, twenty-two years old, (Dam-Mikkelsen 1980:XIII), being installed commissioned considerable reconstructions in eight rooms near the royal library (Liisberg in the castle (Nordberg 1940:253). The queen’s 1897:18). Each room contained objects of one apartment was lavishly embellished and a of the classes: naturalia, artificialia, antiquities number of paintings pillaged in Prague were and arms, mathematical instruments, exotic hung on the walls. Immediately below her and ethnographic artefacts, coins and medals apartment, the royal library was arranged in as well as scale models. The inventory from six small, but lofty rooms (Nordberg 1940:267; 1673 (pub. Liisberg 1897:153–181) lists the Callmer 1977:34–35). The Kunstkammer objects room by room, wall by wall, cabinet by was installed on the top floor of an adjacent cabinet. castle wing which was probably built for Over time, the collections grew, and the king the purpose (Granberg 1929:92; Nordberg ordered the erection of a separate building 1940:267, 268). Inside the outer walls, it which was completed in 1673. I suggest that measured approximately twenty-nine times we recognise the Copenhagen library and five metres or about 145 square metres (Olsson Kunstkammer building as the first larger 1940:plansch 62), and it was sub-divided into and free-standing building in the Nordic an antechamber to the north and two vaulted The birth of the museum in the Nordic countries

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Fig. 3. Table of objects relating to the peoples of Greenland and the Sami and Nordic region in the Gottorf Kunstkammer. Adam Olearius, Gottorfische Kunstkammer … (Schleswig, 1666). The runic calendars have been copied from Worm’s Museum Wormianum. Note the depicted hooks on which some objects hang and the shadows that indicate the standing mannequins. Photo: Lund University Library urn:nbn:se:alvin:portal:record-104673. rooms. Most objects were probably displayed and small busts and statues of copper, ditto here, but the marble and copper statues were of marble, medals of different kinds of metal, displayed in a separate gallery (Bjurström different kinds of art pieces of ivory, rarities of 1966:417). Its location is uncertain, but it may amber, rarities of coral, rarities of mussel shell, already have been located on the ground floor vases of porcelain, Indian objects, cabinets, under the royal library, where it was in 1660 clocks, globes, mirrors, rarities of crystal, (Nordberg 1924:78). miniature mountains, gems, mathematical An inventory (Crumbügel 1652; fig. 5) lists instruments, horns, tables, sun hats, objects the objects according to these classes: large of wood, and diverse pieces, including e.g. Mattias Ekman

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Fig. 4. The first page of section IV of the catalogue of the Royal Kunstkammer in Copenhagen, which contained optical and mechanical objects. The two illustrations of objects mounted on the walls or placed on flat surfaces underscore the correspondence between the physical rooms of the Kunstkammer, the typographical space in the catalogue and the classificatory places in the taxonomy. Oligero Jacobaeus, Museum regium … (Hafniae, 1696). Photo: Lund University Library urn:nbn:se:alvin:portal:record-103981. The birth of the museum in the Nordic countries

a mummy, a tobacco pipe and a dragon.5 the natural extensions to the Kunstkammer, 15 In addition, there were several classes for because they could hold objects that were too paintings. large or alive and required conditions which There are indicia of the Kunstkammer the Kunstkammer could not meet. being arranged in the rooms according to the The Kunstkammer was not long-lived. In classes and sequence of the inventory. This 1654, Christina abdicated, left Sweden, and is how most contemporary collections were converted to Catholicism. She took with her inventoried, which was also the case for the substantial parts of the collections. Despite royal armouries at Tre Kronor (Meyerson this, the three grand Nordic Kunstkammern 1937–1939:35), managed by the royal tailor, attest to ambitions regarding the establishment Johan Holm Leijoncrona, who was also the of a museum culture. At them all, we see the keeper of the Kunstkammer. Also, the royal introduction of professional keepers who librarian Gabriel Naudé’s description of the managed, classified, and arranged the objects. collections (Bjurström 1966:417) repeats many They catered for scholarly use and presented the of the categories of the inventory more or less collections to visitors. Purpose-built buildings in the same order. and rooms were introduced at Gottorf and The Kunstkammer was classified – and Copenhagen and published catalogues also arguably exhibited – primarily according to contributed heavily to the reputation and the material that the objects were made of dissemination. and thus followed the arrangements in the Habsburg collections in Vienna (Kirchweger Asking questions 2012:38), at Ambras Castle (Scheicher 1979:81, Sandbichler 2015:175–176) and likely in Prague Early modern museography was not an (Bukovinská 1997:207). Sorting by material is autonomous field. Pomian (1990:275) has visually very evocative, with each class sharing reminded us of the importance of studying a range of colours, and at Ambras Castle the collections as multi-disciplinary expressions cabinets had been painted in contrasting hues at the intersections of various domains and to enhance the effect. The likely origin of the embedded in a culture. Along the same lines principle is found in the division of objects I want to underscore how museographic in Pliny the Elder’s Naturalis historia (books considerations were a constituent of a wider 33–37), a standard reference for early modern erudite culture. With a famous treatise as the scholars. point of departure, and in order to indicate the TheKunstkammer was the pièce de résistance interrelationship between museography and of a court that in addition to the library and other knowledge practices, I shall introduce sculpture gallery housed two armouries, a two acts that conditioned the arrangement of treasury, and a silver chamber. As was also the collections – asking questions and selecting the case in Copenhagen, the monarch had and ordering. a zoo, arranged as a theatre in the old moat, In the early eighteenth century, the German where lions, a deer, an aurochs, and a bear merchant Caspar Friedrich Neickelius set out were baited in front of an audience (Nordberg to define the Kunstkammer culture with his 1940:257). Gardens for animals and plants comprehensive Museographia (1727). He made – wrote Major (c.1674:ch.VIII §13) – were his own enquiries and made use of virtually Mattias Ekman

16 all well-known Kunstkammer catalogues and Denmark-Norway. Around 1580, the high- theoretical writings from the late sixteenth ranking Swedish nobleman Per Brahe the century to his time, some sixty of them. In a Elder (1520–1590) endorsed Melanchthon’s passage, which in my opinion well reflects late method of questioning for enquiring about seventeenth-century Kunstkammer culture, the constitution of foreign cities and states in Neickelius (1727:454–458) supplies the reader his advice on the young nobleman’s education with twenty-five rules of conduct when visiting (Brahe 1971:27).6 collections. Questioning was an integrative part of ars Several of them pertain to questioning. apodemica, a method of travelling, on which Arriving at the Kunstkammer, the visitor designated handbooks were published starting should enquire about the origins of the in the 1570s (Stagl 1995:57). Based on such collection, how it is arranged, which objects handbooks, in 1629 two Swedish noblemen can be regarded as a system of rarities, and if advised the Count Palatinate, later King Karl there are any particular rarities. The visitor X Gustav of Sweden, what to enquire about should not feel ashamed to ask for what is on his educational travels abroad (fig. 6). unknown with an object, its name, and if it is “In order to better perceive and grasp,” Jean artificialia, man-made, or naturalia, of God’s (Johan) Rosenhane (1611–1661; 1913:257. creation, If man-made, one should ask who My transl.) wrote, “one shall with purpose made it, what it can be used for, and what one search throughout the country and the city should admire. If natural, one should enquire that one comes to and inspect and get fully about its apothecary or medical use, where it informed of its entire constitution and – was found and by whom. Accounting for the after careful questioning – note down its finder or giver was linked to good scholarly particularities.” One of the things one should manners, and Ole Worm, for instance, credited enquire about is “Theatra and exicothamiae … the donors of objects in letters and in his or Kunstkammern – where there are rarities” published description (Schepelern 1971:ch. (Rosenhane 1913:260. My transl.). IV). The exploration of collections of rarities had Asking questions stood at the centre of by then become a constituent of an increasingly knowledge pursuits during the period. On methodical culture of travelling, in which the basis of four questions, which one can questioning was central. For instance, when ask about things, provided by Aristotle in Olaus Rudbeck the Elder’s son, Olaus Rudbeck Posterior Analytics, the Lutheran reformer the Younger (1660–1740), went abroad to Philip Melanchthon developed a dialectic study botany in 1687, the father asked him as a method, which proceeds by means of ten favour to collect seeds and roots and specified questions (Ong 2004:238): What does the seven questions which the son should ask word mean? Does the thing exist? What is about plants that did not grow in the Uppsala it? What are its parts? What are its various botanical garden (Annerstedt [1905]:320– species? What are its causes? Its effects? Its 321): Which plants are annual and which associations? What things are related to it? perennial? Which could ripen their seeds in What is contrary to it? Melanchthon had a Holland? Which require wet or dry earth? decisive influence on Protestant education Etc. We need to appreciate that the answers after the reformation, in Sweden as well as in to the questions commended by Rosenhane, The Birth of the museum in the nordic countries

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Fig. 5. The inventory of the Kunstkammer at the castle Tre Kronor in 1652, primarily ordered according to material. This page lists rarities of crystal. The left margin is used for noting provenance or the whereabouts of objects that are not in the Kunstkammer. Photo: Mattias Ekman. Source, The Royal Library, Stockholm (manuscript collection, MS S4a). Mattias Ekman

18 Rudbeck or Neickelius were the hard currency an abstract architecture, which could take the in an erudite culture that asked questions form of a diagram or list of headings. The places about everything. The answers were used for were also called commonplaces – in Greek the classification and arrangement according topoi koinoi, in Latin loci communes, in Danish to method, as advocated for instance by Major almene steder and in Swedish allmänna platser. (c.1674:ch.VI §5, ch.VIII §7, 9, 11), and were Commonplacing, the technique of selecting, entered into catalogues, written on labels, or classifying, and arranging arguments, examples, communicated verbally to visitors. or sententious phrases topically – i.e. in places and under headings – was recommended by tremendously influential thinkers like Selecting and ordering Erasmus of Rotterdam and Rudolf Agricola. Some of the Melanchthonian questions By the seventeenth century it had become a derived from the so-called topical tradition in preferred studying and research technique the rhetoric (Gilbert 1960:127). It prescribed (Lechner 1974, Blair 1992, Moss 1996). The processes for finding arguments according to places were not simply metaphorical places – Aristotelian logic by considering ‘definition, even if metaphors such as forests, gardens or property, genus, and accident under store-houses flourished. “Place” referred to categories such as quantity, quality, relation’ a logical position within a relational scheme (Moss 1996:4, cf. 10). The questioning in which served as the topography for thinking. the Kunstkammer was in fact a constituent This is most clearly seen in the dichotomous of the practice of logical ordering. In 1624, tree diagrams popularised by Petrus Ramus, the keeper of the electoral Kunstkammer in in which the dialectical places correspond Dresden asked for permission to reorganise it to a hierarchy of headings or categories. If a and establish an “honest order” according to theme had been logically arranged according the Aristotelian logic (Marx et al. 2014:112– to the “order found within things themselves” 113). Many objects were removed, and the (Ong 2004:195) – Ramus argued – the mind remainder was re-arranged logically according would more easily remember the places, and to their origin, relation to other objects, size, with them the things themselves. Ramus’ and quality so that visitors could better grasp topical method was immensely well received. the system of rarities and internalise the rooms One of his friends, Theodor Zwinger, used and furniture as a mnemonic scheme (Melzer it to underpin his method of travelling, but 2010:262–263, Marx et al. 2014:112–114). he also used Ramist diagrams to enable the The architectural position of each object was reader to grasp the system of the 1,500 page supposed to betray its logical place in the encyclopaedia Theatrum vitae humanae, classification, combining memorisation of published in 1565. Jakob Zwinger, Ole Worm’s particular objects with systemic learning. It was teacher in Basle, was Theodor Zwinger’s son this arrangement that became the model for and Ramus’ godson, and he continued to revise the Gottorf Kunstkammer (Schlee 1965:283; cf. his father’s encyclopaedia. Marx et al. 2014:114–116). I want to bring forward the idea that Topical thinking meant to conceive processes commonplacing, or the topical method, lies of ordering knowledge in spatial terms. Each at the very heart of the early modern culture class, heading, or entity equalled a place in of collecting, from the beginning of the The birth of the museum in the Nordic countries

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Fig. 6. Topically ordered diagram for what to observe when travelling abroad in Schering Rosenhane’s diary of 1629. The diagram has much in common with diagrams published to aid travelling, for instance by Theodor Zwinger. Photo: Mattias Ekman. Source Rosengren (1913:261). The diagram has been redrawn from the original in Uppsala University Library (manuscript collection, MS X. 351). Mattias Ekman

20 second half of the sixteenth century to at least catalogue that was ordered scientifically in the mid-eighteenth century. The Bavarian a topical structure of classes and subclasses. Kunstkammer in Munich is one of the first A study of Carl Linnaeus (1707–1778; Eddy where the objects were ordered by means of 2010) has shown how, towards the end of the places and titles – with reference to Zwinger Kunstkammer era, he ordered his systems (Kuwakino 2013, Pilaski Kaliardos 2013). topically in the same commonplacing tradition The topical order served as a classificatory and by using diagrams like those of Petrus device and as an architectural principle for Ramus. Linnaeus’s tables fuse taxonomic arranging physical objects. Walking through logic with a relational and spatial disposition, the four wings of the building, one would to provide a mental topography. Linnaeus move through the classes and the subclasses – advised that the specimens that are collected referred to as “inscriptions”, and from table to for research should be organised in cabinets, table to observe, touch, and enquire about the under headings or in places, according to the material specimens and artefacts. order of the systematic table (on Linnaeus With Worm, the commonplacing method and collecting, see also Becker 1996:103–117; was introduced to Nordic collecting. Worm, Segelken 2010:82–89). That the compartments who must have been well acquainted with the were called loculus, little place (Eddy 2010: topical tradition through his studies in Basle, 250), betrays their origin as logical positions in structured Museum Wormianum methodically the taxonomic space. and hierarchically on three levels, in books, sections, and under headings, as a topical The Kunstkammer as museum model of places for the reader to grasp and memorise (Ekman forthcoming; fig. 1). Reading Does the portray of Nordic Kunstkammern sequentially in the inventory or catalogue that I have sketched provide arguments for would simulate a physical promenade or a placing the birth of the museum in the Nordic movement of the gaze in the Kunstkammer countries in the seventeenth century? Did the (cf. Mordhorst 2002). Also the first published culture demonstrate visions, ambitions, and catalogue of the Royal Kunstkammer in trials that make Kunstkammern as an idea more Copenhagen (Jacobaeus 1696), into which similar to, than different from, the museums Worm’s collection was absorbed, was topically that appear from around 1800 in the Nordic structured. The headings equal classes as well countries? The last decades have witnessed an as rooms, the spatial character of which is increase in the research done on early modern underscored by the accompanying illustrations collections, and the availability of digitised of categories of objects placed or hung in archival and published source material have the very Kunstkammer (fig. 4). The ideal contributed to a more nuanced appreciation of Kunstkammer propagated by Major (c.1674) the culture. With the appreciation comes the borrowed heavily from Worm’s commonplace doubt of any clear-cut distinction between the practice and integrated it into late seventeenth- Kunstkammer and the “revolutionary museum” century museography (Ekman forthcoming). (Pomian 1990:263–264). While certainly, as For Major the epitome of a Kunstkammer Bennett (1995:27, 29) has pointed out, the was one where the architectural arrangement target audiences of museums changed from of the objects directly corresponded to a including only the ruling strata, which counted The birth of the museum in the Nordic countries

the royalty, nobility, the republic of letters, and property, taking parts of them out of the 21 the bourgeoisie, to eventually encompass a country (Granberg 1929:108). wider public and previously excluded groups, Pomian also requires that the public such as women. Nonetheless, the seventeenth- collection is ordered according to criteria of century Kunstkammer was an arena intended inter-subjective validity, something that I have for what was then perceived as the public demonstrated was the case with the exemplary sphere. Ole Worm (1655) was the first to collectors, who employed widely used and publish a Kunstkammer description that served easy intelligible classifications. Certainly, as his professor-colleagues and benefactors and Hooper-Greenhill (1992) was one of the first the 1696 catalogue for the Royal Kunstkammer to analyse, the inter-subjective criteria varied in Copenhagen was disseminated to other with changing epistemes (Foucault). This courts (Maar 1910:X). The ducal and royal did not mean that the preoccupation with Kunstkammern were constituents of larger curiosity and wonder – exceptional, singular, attempts at establishing the Nordic courts as and exotic objects – was not challenged by, intellectual and cultural forums for scholars, and co-existed with, the new science’s desire noblemen, and ambassadors. Representatives to collect normal and commonplace objects, of the same categories were often guests in which were representatives of a particular Rudbeck’s Kunstkammer in Uppsala, which place in a taxonomy (on this epistemic shift, counted as one of the city’s main attractions, see Pomian 1990:77–78; Hooper-Greenhill next to Rudbeck himself. Major opened his 1992:140; Bennett 1995:40–41). It was Worm Kunstkammer in 1688 to the “studying youth who proved the unicorn horns to be narwhale or other art- and virtue-loving persons” who tusks (Schepelern 1971:278–279) and highly nurtured an interest in the things of the world systematically built up his teaching collection (Kirschner 2002:73 My transl.). of naturalia. Rudbeck collected Swedish plants The self-imposed duty to receive visitors in his botanical garden and his Kunstkammer is one of the three features that Pomian boasted mathematical and anatomical (1994:112) requires from a public museum. instruments used in teaching and research. Public ownership through a corporation is Bennett (1995:42) recognises a new status of another. While corporate ownership was rare objects in public natural history displays of in the Nordic countries – to the exceptions the late nineteenth century as “an illustration count a few university and academy collections of certain general laws and tendencies”, – the history of the royal Kunstkammern shows disregarding the singular material object’s an awareness of the critical distinction between unique properties. I would argue that it is personal or crown ownership, although the precisely the view of the object as illustration latter was never equalled with the people (cf. and representative for a position in a system that Bennett 1995:35). When Prince Elect Christian underpinned endeavours such as Rudbeck’s died in 1647, his widow had to return his systematic botanical work with the Book of treasures on the request of King Christian IV, Flowers and Campus Elysii, which was based who regarded them as crown property (Hein on his collections of dried and living plants and 1998:122). When Queen Christina abdicated botanical books (Martinsson et al. 2008:20– and left Sweden, discontent was voiced with 33). The same view is recognisable in Major’s her treatment of the collections as private Kunstkammer vision, in which a classification Mattias Ekman

22 based on an order inherent in nature should Bjurström 1966:417–419). Inga Elmqvist correspond directly to the disposition of Söderlund at Stockholm University was studying objects in the Kunstkammer. Its rationale, the Kunstkammer and the treasury when she sadly as I have tried to illustrate, was developed passed away in 2017. Her preliminary findings, from prevailing knowledge techniques: the edited by Mårten Snickare, are planned to be method of questioning, with its focus on the published in an anthology edited by Merit Laine. properties of objects, and topical ordering, 5. My transl. from Swedish after Granberg’s with its relational and representative interplay (1929:182–227) transcriptions. between object and system. By increasing our 6. That Brahe’s method of questioning is sensibility towards the erudite culture that Melanchthon’s and not Artistotle’s (Brahe the Kunstkammer was a constituent of, and 1971:235) is clear by comparing with Ong recognising it as a novel and unprecedented (2004:362 n. 36). knowledge technology invented in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, we may be Unpublished sources able to appreciate how much the Kunstkammer shared with subsequent forms of museums. Its Crumbügel, Polycarpus 1652. “Inventarium Oppå transmutation into a more modern shape was Alle Dhe Rariteter Som Finnas Uthi H: K: M:ttz arguably a longer and more gradual process VÅR ALLERNÅDIGSTE DROTNINGS KONST- which in the Nordic countries started in the KAMMAR … Anno 1652”, The Royal Library, seventeenth century. Stockholm, Manuscript collection, MS S4a.

Notes Published sources

1. In this article, in order to be precise, I use the Annerstedt, Claes (ed.) [1905]. Bref af Olof Rudbeck definitions of “museography” and “museology” d. ä. rörande Upsala Universitet. 4 vols., iv: 1686– as of Merriam-Webster’s dictionary. Neickelius 1702. Upsala. (1727) uses the term “museography” in a similar Brahe, Per 1971/MS c.1580. Oeconomia eller Hushålls- manner. bok för ungt adelsfolk. Lund: Nordiska Museet. 2. There does not exist any comprehensive study Rosenhane, Jean 1913. “1. Instruction hwareffter man of Rudbeck’s chamber of rarities. An article is på en reessa nytteligen kan observera dee saacker, currently being prepared by the author. som nödigst äre at ackta.” In Hilding Rosengren. 3. I am grateful to Bente Gundestrup at the National Karl X Gustaf före tronbestigningen. Pfalzgrefven Museum in Denmark who provided me with an intill tronföljarvalet 1649. Akademisk afhandling. unpublished work translation into Danish of the Uppsala, 257–260. forewords. Stalhoff, Gerhard 1896. “Uppsala och dess 4. Christina’s Kunstkammer has not recently been omgifningar 1660.” Upplands fornminnesförenings subjected to any comprehensive study. This tidskrift, 288–305. account is based on the preliminary findings of my on-going research. Olof Granberg has Early modern publications principally focused on the paintings collection (1929:esp. 92–93). In addition there are a few Camillo, Giulio 1970. “L’idea del theatro [The Idea minor studies (e.g. Steneberg 1955:80–81, of the Theatre].” In Lu Beery Wenneker An The birth of the museum in the Nordic countries

Examination of L’idea del Theatro of Giulio Åslund, Leif 2005. Att fostra en kung: Om drotting 23 Camillo, Including an Annotated Translation, Kristinas utbildning. Stockholm: Atlantis. With Special Attention to his Influence on Emblem Becker, Christoph 1996. “Vom Raritaten-Kabinett zur Literature and Iconography. PhD thesis University Sammlung als Institution: Sammeln und Ordnen of Pittsburgh, 187–399. im Zeitalter der Aufklärung.” PhD thesis. Ludwig- Jacobaeus, Oligero 1696. Museum regium, seu, Maximilian-Universität. Catalogus rerum tam naturalium, quam Bencard, Mogens 1994. “Kunstkammers and artificialium … Hafniæ: Joachim Schmetgen. museums.” Nordisk museologi, 2:1, 21–24. (Digital facs.: urn:nbn:se:alvin:portal: Bennett, Tony 1995. The Birth of the Museum. History, record-103981) Theory, Politics. London: Routledge. Major, Johann Daniel c.1674. Unvorgreiffliches Bjurström, Per 1966. Christina, drottning av Sverige. Bedencken von Kunst= und Naturalien=Kammern En europeisk kulturpersonlighet. Stockholm: ins gemein. Kiel: Joachim Reuman. (Digital facs.: Nationalmuseum. http://diglib.hab.de/drucke/ub-4f-6/start.htm) Blair, Ann 1992. “Humanist methods in natural Major, Johann Daniel 1688. Kurzer Vorbericht philosophy: The commonplace book.” Journal of betreffende Johann-Daniel Majors ... Museum the History of Ideas, 53:4, 541–551. Cimbricum, oder insgemein so-genannte Kunst- Bolzoni, Lina 1984. Il teatro della memoria. Studi su Kammer ... Plön: Tobias Schmidt. (Digital facs.: Giulio Camillo. Padova: Liviana. http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver. Bolzoni, Lina 2001. The Gallery of Memory: Literary pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10660648-2) and Iconographic Models in the Age of the Printing Neickelius, Caspar Frid. 1727. Museographia Oder Press. Toronto: UTP. Anleitung Zum rechten Begriff und nützlicher Boström, Hans-Olof, Stig Fogelmarck & Arne Losman Anlegung der Museorum Oder Raritäten- 1982. En värld i miniatyr: Kring en samling från Kammern ... Leipzig: Hubert. (Digital facs.: Gustav II Adolfs tidevarv. Stockholm: Kungl. http://www.mdz-nbn-resolving.de/urn/resolver. husgerådskammaren. pl?urn=urn:nbn:de:bvb:12-bsb10051211-0) Bruun, Niels W. 2012. “Kongens stol i Domus Olearius, Adam 1674 (2nd edn)/1666. Gottorfische Anatomica Hafniensis.” Fund og forskning i det Kunst-kammer … Schleswig: Gottfriedt Kongelige Biblioteks Samlinger, 51, 131–147. Schultzens Buchladen. Bukovinská, Beket 1997. “The Kunstkammer of (Digital facs.: https://archive.org/details/ Rudolf II: Where it Was and What it Looked gottorffischekun00olea) like.” In Eliška Fučiková (ed.), Rudolf II and Worm, Olao 1655. Museum Wormianum, seu, Prague. The Court and the City. London, Historia rerum rariorum... Lugduni Batavorum: 199–201. A Iohannem Elsevirium. (Digital facs.: Callmer, Christian 1977. Königin Christina, ihre urn:nbn:se:alvin:portal:record-104022) Bibliothekare und ihre Handschriften. Beitrag zur europäischen Bibliotheksgeschichte. Stockholm: KB (The Royal Library). Literature Dam-Mikkelsen, Bente 1980. “Kunstkammeret: Åkerman, Susanna 1991. Queen Christina of The Kunstkammer.” In Bente Dam-Mikkelsen Sweden and Her Circle: The Transformation of & Torben Lundbaek (eds.) Etnografiske a Seventeenth-Century Philosophical Libertine. genstande i Det kongelige danske Kunstkammer Leiden: E. J. Brill. 1650–1800. Ethnographic Objects in the Royal Mattias Ekman

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