EŠolutionary Social human beings as it has been to the study of all other Kenrick D T, Gabrielidis C, Keefe R C, Cornelius J S 1996 living species. Adolescents’ age preferences for dating partners: Support for an evolutionary model of life-history strategies. Child De- Šelopment 67: 1499–511 See also: ; Gender Differ- Kenrick D T, Keefe R C 1992 Age preferences in mates reflect ences in Personality and Social Behavior; Genes and sex differences in human reproductive strategies. BehaŠioral Behavior: Animal Models; Primate Socioecology; and Brain Sciences 15: 75–133 Primates, Social Behavior of; : Kenrick D T, Neuberg S L, Zierk K L, Krones J M 1994 Research Methods; , of; Writing, Evolution and social : Contrast effects as a function Evolution of of sex, dominance, and . Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 20: 210–17 Kenrick D T, Sadalla E K, Keefe R C 1998 Evolutionary . In: Crawford C, Krebs D (eds.) EŠolu- tion and Human BehaŠior: Ideas, Issues, and Applications. Bibliography Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ Kenrick D T, Trost M R 1993 The evolutionary perspective. In: Š Alcock J 1998 Animal Beha ior, 6th edn. Sinauer Associates, Beall A, Sternberg R J (eds.) PerspectiŠes on the Psychology of Sunderland, MA Gender. Guilford Press, New York Burnstein E, Crandall C, Kitayama S 1994 Some neo-Darwinian Sherman P W 1981 demography and Belding’s ground decision rules for : Weighing cues for inclusive fitness squirrel nepotism. BehaŠioral Ecology and 8: as a function of the biological importance of the decision. 251–59 Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 67: 773–89 Simpson J A, Kenrick D T (eds.) 1997 EŠolutionary Social Š Buss D M 1999 E olutionary Psychology: The New Science of Psychology. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ . Allyn and Bacon, Boston, MA Tooby J, Cosmides L 1992 The psychological foundations of Buss D M, Kenrick D T 1998 Evolutionary social psychology. culture. In: Barkow J H, Cosmides L, Tooby J (eds.) The In: Gilbert D T, Fiske S T, Lindzey G (eds.) Handbook of Adapted Mind: EŠolutionary Psychology and the Generation of Social Psychology, 4th edn. McGraw-Hill, New York Culture. Oxford University Press, New York Cosmides L, Tooby J 1992 Cognitive for social Trivers R L 1972 and . In: exchange. In: Barkow J H, Cosmides L, Tooby J (eds.) The Campbell B (ed.) Sexual Selection and the Descent of Š Adapted Mind: E olutionary Psychology and the Generation of 1871–1971. Aldine, Chicago, IL Culture. Oxford University Press, New York Wilson E O 1975 Sociobiology: The New Synthesis. Belknap Crawford C, Krebs D L 1998 Handbook of EŠolutionary Psy- Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA chology: Ideas, Issues, and Applications. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ D. T. Kenrick Crook J H, Crook S J 1988 Tibetan polyandry: Problems of and fitness. In: Betzig L, Borgerhoff-Mulder M, Turke P (eds.) Human ReproductiŠe BehaŠiour: A Darwinian PerspectiŠe. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Cunningam M R 1981 Sociobiology as a supplementary para- digm for social . In: Wheeler L (ed.) ReŠiew of Personality & Social Psychology. Sage, Beverly Evolutionary Theory and Education Hills, CA Daly M, Wilson M 1983 Sex, EŠolution, and BehaŠior, 2nd edn. Willard Grant Press, Boston 1. Introduction Daly M, Wilson M 1988 Homicide. de Gruyter, New York Daly M, Salmon C, Wilson M 1997 Kinship: The conceptual In recent years, Darwin’s (1859) theory of evolution hole in psychological studies of and close has guided the theoretical and empirical research of an relationships. In: Simpson J A, Kenrick D T (eds.) EŠolu- increasing number of social and behavioral , tionary Social Psychology. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ an approach that is often called evolutionary Darwin C 1872 The Expression of in Man and Animals. psychology. The goals here are to consider how Murray, London evolutionary theory and research in evolutionary psyc- Gangestad S W, Thornhill R 1997 Human sexual selection and hology can be used to understand children’s academic developmental stability. In: Simpson J A, Kenrick D T (eds.) EŠolutionary Social Psychology. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ development and to explore related educational Graziano W G, Jensen-Campbell L A, Todd M, Finch J F 1997 issues. Before these issues can be fully appreciated, an Interpersonal attraction from an evolutionary perspective: overview of the evolutionary approach to cognition Reactions to dominant and prosocial men. In: Simpson J A, and development is needed. Kenrick D T (eds.) EŠolutionary Social Psychology. Erlbaum, Mahwah, NJ Gutierres S E, Kenrick D T, Partch J J 1999 , dominance, and the game: Contrast effects in -assessment 2. EŠolution and Cognition reflect gender differences in mate selection. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin 25: 1126–34 One basic assumption of evolutionary is Kenrick D T 1995 Evolutionary theory versus the confederacy that has resulted in the evolution of of dunces. Psychological Inquiry 6: 56–61 cognitive competencies that facilitated the survival

5024 EŠolutionary Theory and Education and of our ancestors (Cosmides and in all cultures are biologically prepared to process and Tooby 1994). It is further assumed that most of these respond to the sounds of all human languages, but the competencies are modular and domain specific, that is, language that eventually emerges is the specific lan- they are supported by neural and cognitive systems guage to which they are exposed (Kuhl et al. 1997). In that are designed to process only certain types of other words, the neural and cognitive systems that information. For example, there are dedicated neural respond to language sounds—and later enable the and cognitive systems that process basic language comprehension and production of human language— sounds (e.g., ‘ba,’ ‘pa’) and different systems that are inherent, but the normal development and func- process other types of information, such as the tioning of these systems requires exposure to language. visuospatial information involved in navigating in the environment. There are, of course, more general cognitive systems that coordinate and integrate the workings of these specialized systems (Smith and 3. EŠolution and DeŠelopment Jonides 1999), but research in evolutionary psychology A long period of development, as is found in humans, tends to be focused on domain-specific cognitive has a clear risk— before the age of reproduc- modules, such as those associated with language. tion—and thus would only evolve if there were benefits The issues of , domain specificity, and that outweighed this risk. Comparative studies suggest the number and organization of any associated cog- that one purpose, and an important adaptive benefit, nitive systems are currently debated. Nonetheless, it is of delayed maturation is the accompanying ability to clear that there is some degree of inherent and modular refine the physical, social and cognitive competencies structure to the and mind, in keeping that support survival and reproduction. As an ex- with evolutionary theory. The associated neural and ample, a long developmental period is found in all cognitive systems appear to be designed to process social and the length of this period increases information corresponding to the domains of folk with the increases in the complexity of the species’ psychology, folk , and intuitive physics (Geary social system (Joffe 1997). These patterns suggest that 1998), although there are other modules as well (e.g., one purpose of childhood is to practice and refine for basic numerical abilities; Geary 1995). The cog- sociocognitive competencies, such as language and nitive modules associated with include other social skills. In short, delayed maturation allows language, (e.g., being able to make children to practice and refine the physical, social, and inferences about the intentions of other people), and cognitive skills associated with the survival (e.g., competencies that allow people to interpret the body hunting) and reproduction (e.g., parenting skills) of language and facial expressions of other people. These our ancestors. skills allow people to monitor and regulate dyadic Play, social interactions, and exploration of the social interactions and to establish and maintain social environment and objects appear to be the mechanisms relationships. The competencies associated with folk through which these emerging competencies are prac- biology include the ability to classify flora and fauna in ticed and refined during development. Child-initiated the local ecology, and learn about the associated social play, exploration, and so forth are intimately growth and behavioral patterns (Atran 1998, Keil linked to cognitive and neural development, in that 1992). This folk biological knowledge allows people in these activities provide experiences with the social, preindustrial cultures to classify and categorize local biological, and physical world. These experiences, in species, hunt some of these species, and use plants as turn, interact with the inherent, but skeletal structure medicines, for food and social rituals. Intuitive physics of cognitive modules and ensure their normal de- refers to the neural and cognitive systems that engage velopment and adaptation to local conditions. In this the physical world, and enable people to navigate in 3- view, children are biologically prepared to learn about dimensional space; remember the location of objects other people, and the biological and physical world in the environment, and use objects (e.g., stones) to and are inherently motivated to seek out experiences make tools (Shepard 1994). that will facilitate this learning. The inherent structure and functioning of these modules appears to be skeletal in nature (Gelman 1990). Early in life, the associated neural and cognitive systems direct attention to and the initial processing of 4. Implications for Education domain-specific information, but the normal devel- opment of these systems requires input from the A basic assumption of evolutionary psychology is that environment. Environmental input, in turn, shapes the modern humans evolved domain-specific cognitive development of these cognitive modules so that they abilities and behavioral strategies to deal with condi- are adapted, during childhood, to local conditions— tions in the environments of our ancestors, but these nature provides the skeletal structure of evolved abilities and strategies may not always be well-suited cognitive domains and this structure is fleshed out to contemporary conditions. In fact, much formal with experience. For example, it appears that children education is ‘unnatural’ in that much of what children

5025 EŠolutionary Theory and Education are expected to learn in school involves tasks never and cognitive systems that support navigation. The encountered by our ancestors (Geary 1995, Rozin latter was discovered, that is, made explicit, by Euclid. 1976). The basic goals of schools and schooling are Once explicit, this knowledge was integrated into the thus to organize the activities of children so that they formal discipline of geometry and became socially acquire competencies, such as the ability to read, that transmittable and teachable. are important in the wider culture but have no evolutionary history. There follows discussion on some of the basic issues that arise from this perspective of education. 4.2 MotiŠation to Learn One very important implication of the evolutionary perspective is that the to acquire school- taught secondary abilities is based on the requirements 4.1 EŠolution and Academic DeŠelopment of the larger society and not on the inherent interests of children. Given the relatively recent advent of near Geary (1995) referred to language and other evolved universal schooling in contemporary societies, there is forms of cognition as biologically primary abilities, no reason to believe that the skills that are taught in and skills that build upon these primary abilities but school are inherently interesting or enjoyable for are principally cultural inventions (e.g., reading) as children to learn. In other words, one important biologically secondary abilities. The mechanisms by difference between primary and secondary cognitive which evolved systems are adapted to produce sec- abilities is the level and source of motivation to engage ondary competencies are not yet fully understood, but in the activities that are necessary for their ac- appear to involve the co-optation of primary systems quisition. This does not, however, preclude the self- for secondary learning and access to knowledge motivated engagement in some secondary activities. implicit in these primary systems (Geary 1995, Rozin Even though reading is a secondary ability that 1976). involves the co-optation of primary language systems, As an example of the former, consider the relation many children and are motivated to read. The between language, a primary ability, and reading, a motivation to read, however, is probably driven by the secondary ability. The acquisition of reading-related content of what is being read rather than by the abilities (e.g., word decoding) appears to involve the process itself. In fact, the content of many stories and co-option of primary language and language-related other secondary activities (e.g., video games, tele- systems, among others (e.g., visual scanning; Rozin vision) might reflect evolutionarily relevant themes 1976). Wagner et al. (1994), reported that individual that motivate engagement in these activities, such as differences in the fidelity of kindergarten children’s social relationships and social competition. Further- phonological processing systems, which are basic more, the finding that intellectual curiosity is a basic features of the language domain, are strongly pre- dimension of human personality (Goldberg 1993) dictive of the ease with which basic reading skills (e.g., suggests that there will be a number of intellectually word decoding) are acquired in first grade. In other curious individuals who will pursue secondary ac- words, the evolutionary pressures that are selected for tivities. Euclid’s investment in formalizing and proving phonological processing systems, such as the ability to the principles of geometry is one example. However, segment language sounds, were unrelated to reading, this type of discovery typically reflects the activities but these systems are used, or co-opted, when children and insights of only a few individuals, and the learn how to read. associated advances spread through the larger society As an example of the latter, consider that the only by means of informal (e.g., newspapers) and development of geometry may have been initially formal education. The point is, the motivation to based on access to knowledge implicit in the primary engage in the activities that will promote the ac- systems that support navigation in the physical world. quisition of secondary abilities is not likely to be In the development of the basic principles of classical universal. geometry, Euclid apparently ‘started with what he thought were self-evident truths and then proceeded to prove all the rest by logic’ (West et al. 1982, p. 220). For example, the implicit understanding that the fastest 4.3 Instructional ActiŠities way to get from one place to another is to go ‘as the crow flies,’ was made explicit in the formal Euclidean The basic structure of primary abilities is inherent postulate, ‘a line can be drawn from any point to any (Gelman 1990), that is, the supporting neural and point (In Euclidean geometry, a line is a straight line)’ cognitive systems automatically orient children to (West et al. 1982, p. 221). From an evolutionary relevant features of the environment (e.g., other perspective, the former reflects an implicit under- people) and process the associated information (e.g., standing of how to quickly get from one place to facial expressions or language sounds). As noted another and is knowledge that is built into the neural above, children are inherently motivated to seek out

5026 EŠolutionary Theory and Education experiences, for example, through social play, that In closing, although not enough is known to draw ensure the appropriate development of these primary firm conclusions about which instructional practices systems. In contrast, there is no inherent structure can most effectively adapt primary cognitive systems supporting the acquisition of secondary abilities, nor for the secondary learning, the following principles are most children inherently motivated to engage in can be used to guide future educational research. First, the activities that are necessary for secondary learning. the process of evolution has provided the basic neural While this conclusion might seem self evident, it runs and cognitive structure to primary abilities, such as counter to many assumptions about children’s learn- language, but for secondary abilities, such as reading, ing in contemporary education; for example, that this basic structure and organization must come from children are inherently motivated to learn secondary instructional practices. Second, children are inherently abilities and will do so through activities that involve motivated to engage in the types of activities, such as play and social discourse. social play, that will facilitate the development of Thus, from the evolutionary perspective, one es- primary abilities, but it is not likely that these same sential goal of schooling is to provide content, organi- activities will be sufficient for the acquisition of zation, and structure to the teaching of secondary secondary abilities. This is because the brain and mind abilities, features that have been provided by evolution are inherently designed to be sensitive to and respond to primary abilities. Moreover, it cannot be assumed to primary activities, as they are related to the that children’s inherent interests, such as social rela- development of primary abilities. It cannot be assumed tionships, and preferred learning activities, such as that the brain and mind are equally responsive to the play, will be sufficient for the acquisition of secondary activities that are needed to master secondary compe- abilities, even though they appear to be sufficient for tencies, nor can it be assumed that children are the fleshing out of primary abilities. Instruction must inherently motivated to engage in these activities. therefore involve engaging children in activities that Finally, primary abilities are universal, but secondary facilitate the acquisition of secondary abilities, abilities are culturally derived. Thus, educational whether or not children are inherently interested in research must be an on-going process designed to engaging in these activities. This does not mean that determine the most effective means of instruction for play and social activities cannot be used to engage the ever-changing array of secondary competencies children in some forms of secondary learning. It does, needed to function in contemporary society. however, mean that it is very unlikely that the mastery of many secondary domains (e.g., reading or algebra) See also: Cognitive Development: Child Education; will occur with only these types of primary activities. : Overview; Developmental Behav- In fact, research in cognitive and educational ioral and Education; Evolutionary Theory, psychology indicates that some forms of secondary Structure of; Human Cognition, Evolution of; Life- learning will require activities that differ from those span Development: Evolutionary Perspectives; Modu- associated with the fleshing out of primary abilities larity versus Interactive Processing, Psychology of; (see Geary 1995, for related discussion). These would Psychological Development: Ethological and Evol- include, among others, direct instruction, where tea- utionary Approaches chers’ provide the goals, organization and structure to instructional activities and explicitly teach basic com- petencies, such as how to sound out unfamiliar words or manipulate algebraic equations. The mastery of Bibliography secondary domains also requires extensive exposure to Atran S 1998 Folk biology and the of science: the material, distributed over many contexts and Š oftentimes over many years, as well as extensive Cognitive universals and cultural particulars. Beha ioral and Brain Sciences 21: 547–609 practice in using any associated procedures (e.g., to Cosmides L, Tooby J 1994 Origins of domain specificity: The solve mathematics problems). Extensive exposure and evolution of functional organization. In: Hirschfeld L A, practice also appear to be needed for the development Gelman S A (eds.) Mapping the Mind: Domain Specificity in of primary abilities, but this exposure and practice Cognition and Culture. Cambridge University Press, New automatically occur as children engage in social York, pp. 85–116 discourse, play, and exploration. In contrast, most Darwin C 1859 by Means of Natural children will not automatically engage in the practice Selection. John Murray, London needed to master secondary domains, and, as a result, Geary D C 1995 Reflections of evolution and culture in this practice needs to be built into instructional children’s cognition: Implications for mathematical devel- activities. For some domains, such as in the biological opment and instruction. American 50: 24–37 Geary D C 1998 Male, Female: The EŠolution of Human Sex and physical sciences, mastery will also require many Differences. American Psychological Association, Washing- ‘hands on’ activities, as in conducting experiments, ton, DC although more traditional methods will be needed as Gelman R 1990 First principles organize attention to and well (e.g., learning basic facts and principles, such as learning about relevant data: Number and animate-inanimate the theory of evolution). distinction as examples. CognitiŠe Science 14: 79–106

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Goldberg L R 1993 The structure of phenotypic personality structure of the theory itself therefore only involves traits. American Psychologist 48: 26–34 the description of the of models, which make up the Joffe T H 1997 Social pressures have selected for an extended Š theory. juvenile period in primates. Journal of Human E olution 32: Construction of a model within the theory involves 593–605 Keil F C 1992 The origins of an autonomous biology. In: assignment of a location in the state space of the Gunnar M R, Maratsos M (eds.) Modularity and Constraints theory to a system of the kind defined by the theory. in Language and Cognition: The Minnesota Symposia on Child Potentially, there are many kinds of systems that a Psychology. Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, Vol. 25, pp. 103–37 given theory can be used to describe—limitations Kuhl P K, Andruski J E, Chistovich I A, Chistovich L A, come from the dynamical sufficiency (whether it can Kozhevnikova E V, Ryskina V L, Stolyarova E I, Sundberg be used to describe the system accurately and com- U, Lacerda F 1997 Cross-language analysis of phonetic units pletely) and the accuracy and effectiveness of the laws in language addressed to infants. Science 277: 684–6 used to describe the system and its changes. Thus, Rozin P 1976 The evolution of and access to the there are two main aspects to defining a model. First, cognitive unconscious. In: Sprague J M, Epstein A N (eds.) Progress in Psychobiology and . the state space must be defined—this involves choosing Academic Press, New York, Vol. 6, pp. 245–80 the variables and parameters with which the system Shepard R N 1994 Perceptual-cognitive universals as reflections will be described; second, coexistence laws, which of the world. Psychonomic Bulletin and ReŠiew 1: 2–28 describe the structure of the system and laws of Smith E E, Jonides J 1999 Storage and executive processes in the succession, which describe changes in its structure, frontal lobes. Science 283: 1657–61 must be defined. Wagner R K, Torgesen J K, Rashotte C A 1994 Development of Defining the state space involves defining the set of reading-related phonological processing abilities: New evi- all the states the system could possibly exhibit. Certain dence of bidirectional causality from a latent variable longi- mathematical entities—in the case of many evolution- tudinal study. DeŠelopmental Psychology 30: 73–87 West B H, Griesbach E N, Taylor J D, Taylor L T 1982 The ary models, these are vectors—are chosen to represent Prentice-Hall Encyclopedia of Mathematics. Prentice-Hall, these states. The collection of all the possible values Englewood Cliffs, NJ for each variable assigned a place in the vector is the state space of the system. The system and its states can D. C. Geary have a geometrical interpretation: the variables used in the state description (i.e., state variables) can be conceived as the axes of a Cartesian space. The state of the system at any time may be represented as a point in that space, located by projection on the various axes. The family of measurable physical magnitudes, in Evolutionary Theory, Structure of terms of which a given system is defined, also includes a set of parameters. Parameters are values that are not 1. The Structure of EŠolutionary Models themselves a function of the state of the system. Thus, a parameter can be understood as a fixed of a Much of evolutionary theory is represented at the variable in the state space—topologically, setting a beginning of the twenty-first century through math- parameter amounts to limiting the number of possible ematical models, especially through the models of structures in the state space by reducing the dimen- , of the evolution of states of a sionality of the model. given system, both in isolation and interaction, Laws, used to describe the behavior of the system in through time. This is done by conceiving of the model question, must also be defined in a description of a as capable of a certain set of states—these states are model or set of models. Laws have various forms: in represented by elements of a certain mathematical general, coexistence laws describe the possible states of space, the state space. (Generally speaking, ‘models’ the system, while laws of succession describe changes and ‘systems’ always refer to ideal systems; when the in the state of the system. actual biological systems are being discussed, they are Let us discuss in more detail the description of the called ‘empirical’ or ‘natural’ systems.) The variables evolutionary models that make up evolutionary the- used in each mathematical model represent distinct ory. The main items needed for this description are the measurable or potentially quantifiable, physical mag- definition of a state space, state variables, parameters, nitudes. Classically, any particular configuration of and a set of laws of succession and coexistence for the values for these variables is a ‘state’ of the system, the system. Choosing a ‘state space’ (and thereby, a set of ‘state space’ being the collection of all possible state variables) for the representation of genetic states configurations of the variables. and changes in a population is a crucial part of The theory itself represents the behavior of the population genetics theory. system in terms of its states: the rules or laws of the Paul Thompson suggests that the state space for theory (i.e., laws of coexistence, succession, or in- population genetics would include the physically teraction) can delineate various configurations and possible states of populations in terms of genotype trajectories on the state space. A description of the frequencies. The state space would be ‘a Cartesian n-

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