Journal of Pharmaceutical Research International

32(41): 15-26, 2020; Article no.JPRI.63887 ISSN: 2456-9119 (Past name: British Journal of Pharmaceutical Research, Past ISSN: 2231-2919, NLM ID: 101631759)

Medicinal and Nutraceutical Benefits of Chia ( hispanica)

Loai F. Felemban1*, Atef M. Al-Attar2,3 and Isam M. Abu Zeid2,3

1Department of Biological Sciences, Rabigh-Faculty of Science and Arts, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box 344, Rabigh 21911, Saudi Arabia. 2Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, King Abdulaziz University, P.O. Box: 8023, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. 3Princess Dr Najla Bint Saud Al-Saud Center for Excellence Research in Biotechnology, King Abdulaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

Authors’ contributions

This work was carried out in collaboration among all authors. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.

Article Information

DOI: 10.9734/JPRI/2020/v32i4131040 Editor(s): (1) Dr. Francisco Cruz-Sosa, Metropolitan Autonomous University, México. Reviewers: (1) B. N. Hazarika, College of Horticulture and Forestry, Pasighat, India. (2) A. Viaya Anand, Bharathiar University, India Complete Peer review History: http://www.sdiarticle4.com/review-history/63887

Received 10 October 2020 Accepted 15 December 2020 Review Article Published 13 January 2021

ABSTRACT

Chia ( L.) are small seeds that develop on an annual herbaceous . Recently, there has been tremendous growth in the use of chia seeds because of their associated medicinal as well as high nutritional values. Initially, chia cultivation took place in Mesopotamian cultures, eventually disappearing for some centuries before being rediscovered in the mid-20th Century. In this paper, the main aim has been to provide an overview of in relation to its perceived medicinal properties. From the majority of scholarly affirmations, it has been established that some of the compounds that chia seeds contain, explain its associated healthful effects include minerals, , , , polyunsaturated fatty acids, and ω-3 fatty acids. Also, the literature contends that chia seeds are excellent sources of antioxidants and polyphenols, which include quercetin, myricetin, rosmarinic acid, and caffeic acid. Around the world, therefore, more and more scholarly investigations have focused on some of the beneficial effects of chia seeds, including the food, pharmaceutical, and medicinal industries. In this paper, it has been established that chia seeds have their medicinal properties gained in terms of pharmacological activities that ______

*Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected];

Felemban et al.; JPRI, 32(41): 15-26, 2020; Article no.JPRI.63887

include steatohepatitis and acute dyslipidemia improvement, sensory attributes, bioactive peptide and source, metabolic profile, and antioxidant and appetite suppressing properties. Important to note is that while most studies concur regarding these medicinal properties, in a few investigations, findings suggest that chia seeds do not pose significant beneficial effects, especially concerning health improvements in human subjects. As such, there is a need for future research to examine some of the parameters that could explain this variation, upon which more valid and informed conclusions and inferences might be made.

Keywords: Salvia hispanica; chia seed; antioxidant activity; nutritional properties; nutraceutical.

1. INTRODUCTION and . Particularly, the seed would be used for food and folk medicine preparation. For Also referred to as Chia, Salvia hispanica L. societies in pre-Columbia, Chia existed as the exists as an ancient food, providing balanced second main crop, coming after beans. From the amounts of minerals, high content of contexts of Aztecs communities, some of the antioxidants, proteins with amino acids in functions that Chia played included religious excellent quantity, high omega-3/-6 fatty acids, rituals, making cosmetics, and consumption as and insoluble fiber [1]. For the chia seed coat, it food [4]. comes with , which aids in the protection of the seed nutrients in the entirety, as Mainly, the growing of Chia is for seeds. well as participate in the foods’ water retention The plant also produces purple and white process. Thus, this seed forms a crucial source flowers. Important to note is that it remains of α-linoleic, which is among the most beneficial sensitive to daylight, and its growth can ω-3 fatty acids. For the chia seed storage extend to 1 meter high, with the being proteins, in most cases, they constitute glutelin serrated and reverse petiole, extending to three fractions, prolamin, albumin, and globulin. For to 5 cm wide and four to 8 cm centimeters long. the seed’s main phenolic compounds, they For Chia seeds, generally, they are small include gallic, caffeic, and rosmarinic acids. because they are less than 1 mm thick, Thus, due to its outstanding benefits, chia seed one to 1-1.5 mm wide, and 2 mm long [5,6]. has attracted the attention and scholarly Also, there are marked variations in the color of interest of industry, researchers, and nutritionists Chia seeds, ranging from white to black-spotted, [1]. In the 21st century, this seed continues grey, and black. From scholarly reports [6], to be recognized due to the provision of marginal variations exist between white and invaluable nutraceutical benefits, examples black Chia seeds, with most considering being antioxidant and antihypertensive them as equal. Regarding their nutritional values, functions. they are similar, with white Chia seeds having 16.5% protein content and 32.4% fiber content, Originally from Northern and while black Chia seeds are documented to Southern , Chia has been documented to exhibit 16.9% protein content and 32.6% fiber exist as an annual , whereby it content. Hence, it is only in their morphology that belongs to the genus Salvia, subfamily the black Chia seeds and white Chia seeds Nepetoidae, mint family Labiate, and the order exhibit a marked variation or difference. . With about 900 species making up the Particularly, when compared to black seeds, genus Salvia, it has been distributed widely for white seeds tend to be broader, thicker, and many years and in the world’s various zones, larger [6]. Fig. (1) illustrates the Chia plant and its including South East Asia, South and North seeds. America, Central America, and Southern Africa [2-4]. From the literature, currently, Chia’s From recent statistical outcomes, Chia seeds cultivation is not just limited to Guatemala and have been the most recognized foods around the Mexico. Rather, it has extended to Europe, world, a trend attributed to their medicinal values, America, Argentina, Peru, Columbia, Bolivia, and as well as nutritional properties [8,9]. In the study Australia, coming at a time when Mexico is still by Coory et al. [10]. It was established that Chia recognized as the largest producer of Chia in the forms a promising ingredient because of α- world [3]. From historical records, Chia was used linolenic acid that exists in the highest amount, by ancient cultures in Mesopotamia (beside making it easier to add to commercial food [10]. , bean, and corn), especially the Mayas In other studies, it has been observed

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Fig. 1. Chia plant and its seeds [7] that because of fatty acids that exist in a high found to be adversely affected by low percentage in Chia seeds, they are crucial for temperatures that coincide with the reproductive antimicrobial activity, antioxidants, and health. stage in April, making the yield to be less than When used as a nutritional element, Chia seeds 129 kg ha-1. It has been documented further that have yielded enormous positive benefits in terms the exposure of Chia to shorter days of reducing the risk of diabetes and heart translates into precocious flower initiation, with disease, promoting stronger muscles and bones inadequate day lengths implying that it is after and healthy skin, and supporting the digestive the plants’ accumulation of 600-700°C d. that system [11-14]. In this study, the central purpose they begin to flower [15]. Overall, therefore, it is is to provide an overview of Chia seeds, with a worth inferring that Chia exhibits quantitative type particular emphasis on their medicinal properties. day length sensitivities.

2. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AND CHIA OIL 3. PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF PRODUCTION, YIELD, AND CHIA OIL GROWTH For Chia seed oil, studies have also focused on Chia’s seeds have been documented to exhibit its phenolic content, tocopherols, unsaponifiable high contents of essential fatty acids, and the matter, composition, and physic- composition explains increasing crop production chemical properties. From the affirmations, Chia around the world. However, the crop’s expansion oil has shown better saponification, iodine, and faces challenges because the plant is peroxide values, as well as better overall quality. photoperiod-sensitive, implying that it does well For sterol fractions, they have been observed to in regions without cold. Thus, the impact of be rich in 5-avenasterol (3.55%), campesterol various climatic conditions on oil production, crop (3.77%), and stigmasterol (4.83%). Also, omega- yield, and the growth of Chia have been studied. 6 fatty acid (60.93%) has been found to be the In Chile, some of the areas that have been main fatty acid in Chia seed oil. However, upon studied include Las Cruces, Canchones, and measuring the serum contents (for low and high- Valle de Azapa. In the findings, it has been density lipoproteins, total , and total documented that in Canchones and Valle de lipids) and conducting kidney and liver tests (for Azapa, which exhibit conditions, the alkaline phosphatase activities, alanine amino regions have offered better conditions that have, transferase, and aspartate amino transferase), it in turn, promoted oil production (> 550 L ha-1), has been established that Chia oil does not yield the highest yield ((> 2900 kg ha-1), and plant significant effects on serum contents and kidney growth. However, at a higher altitude, such as and liver function [16]. Hence, Chia oil is only rich the context of Las Cruces, the yield has been in essential fatty acids.

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4. CHIA SEED TERAPEUTIC VALUE improvement in emerging and major risk factors for type-2 diabetes. The insights, thus, Some studies have concentrated on the demonstrate that apart from weight maintenance, therapeutic value with which Chia seeds could be Chia seed exhibits a cardioprotective potential. associated. From the study by Munoz et al. [17], The authors also conducted a related the main aim was to analyze tye cardio- investigation and found that for Salba-chia, its protective effects of the seed. Due to the use leads to the acute reduction of postprandial presence of a-linolenic acid, Chia seeds are glycemia, especially after adding it to meals, crucial for certain biochemical compounds’ aiding further in the reduction of prolonged formation, including thromboxanes, and satiety. Given calorie-restricted diets, also, upon leukotrienes – that are linked to the human adding Salba-chia for 6 months, scholarly body’s vital physiological functions. Also, Chia insights have demonstrated that, along with seeds’ fatty acid has been observed to be standard medical care, there tend to be minor yet capable of blocking sodium and channel crucial weight losses among obese and dysfunctions, averting possible hypertension. overweight individuals with type 2 diabetes Similarly, the fatty acids are seen to aid in [4,18]. protecting ventricular arrhythmia and steering marked improvements in the parasympathetic 5. ECOLOGY AND HABITAT tone. During pregnancy, Chia seed consumption has been found to help in the fetus’ brain and So far, Chia has been observed to be retina development [4]. dominant in gravel riverbeds. However, other investigations suggest that the plant is located on When a-linolenic fatty acids and dietary fiber are soil and waste heaps. An additional habitat incorporated into diets, they make Salba-chia the where Chia plant is commonly found is along key contenders in body weight regulation, as well traffic routes, cemeteries, parking lots, and the as other comorbidities with which diabetes tends vicinity of ports. In new regions, the main to be associated. From the investigation by features of Chia involve gravelly or sandy soils, Vuksan et al. [18], it was established that upon as well as highly distributed habitats, whether having 37 g/day supplementation of Salba-chia natural or anthropogenic. Hence, Chia tends to to isocaloric diets, there tends to be an occur along plant invasions’ corridors [25].

Fig. 2. An illustration of the habitat-based grouping of European localities with Chia Source: [25]

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Table 1. Insights from clinical studies and chia seed therapeutic value outcomes

S/No. Purpose Research context Description of study Findings Ref. 1 The main purpose of this The study involved or targeted Participants were selected in There was an increase in [18] investigation lay in the obesity-related satiety two groups, with 77 individuals plasma adiponectin, reduced evaluation of the impact posed hormones and C-reactive on the focus. C-reactive protein and waist by Salba-Chia on obesity-related protein levels. Also, the focus circumference, and significant risk factors, visceral obesity, and was on glycemic control, body loss in weight. body weight among obese and composition, and alterations in overweight adults experiencing waist circumference and body type 2 diabetes. weight. 2 The study strived to compare The study involved the There was the randomization In the results, it was indicated [19] the behavior of Salba-chia with collection of satiety ratings and of 15 healthy individuals, who that Salba-chia exhibited a as two seed types in relation blood glucose samples during received a 50-gram glucose marked ability to convert to their impact on satiety scores fasting, as well as more than challenge, both when glucose into slow-release and postprandial glycemia. two hours postprandially. supplemented with 31.5 grams . Also, Salba- of flax or 25 grams of ground Chia was found to affect Salba-Chia or alone. satiety significantly, outperforming flax. A factor that explained this state of superiority for Salba-chia was its associated higher fiber viscosity. 3 The motivation of this study was The study was randomized, With 8:00 am selected as the In the results, it was noted [20] to find out how Chia seed oil with a crossover approach time at which blood samples that Chia seed oil ingestion ingestion affects running seeing individuals run to were offered, the participants about half an hour prior to performance in humans. exhaustion, following acute ingested 0.5 liters of flavored running increases the levels Chia-seed oil-flavored water water with 7 kcal kg-1 Chia of plasma ALA. However, in ingestion. Also, there was seed oil or flavored water the study, discernible benefits acute ingestion of flavored alone, with the order being were observed for the water alone, followed by a random. At 8:30 am, there was athletes. washout period of at least two the provision of another weeks. sample before participating in running until exhaustion. At an

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S/No. Purpose Research context Description of study Findings Ref. hour post-exercise, blood samples were collected. Other samples had been collected immediately post-exercise. 4 This study sought to find out The study focused on males There was the clinical In the findings, with the [21] how the supplementation of and females experiencing measurement of blood placebo or Chia consumption, Chia affects blood pressure, as hypertension. Also, the focus pressure, the assessment of no renal disorders, hepatic well as the impact on related was on the implementation of a the nutritional status, blood disorders, or gastrointestinal cardiometabolic factors. placebo-controlled, sample collection, and the disorders were reported. Also, experimental, double-blind, and monitoring of ambulatory blood given the selected randomized research. pressure. hypertensive individuals, there was a marked. reduction in blood pressure. 5 This study sought to find out With gas chromatography on The selected individuals Results demonstrated that [22] how whole and milled Chia the focus, the study employed ingested 25 grams of placebo upon ingesting milled Chia seeds could be effective relative a metabolomics technique in or Chia seed supplements on seed, 25 grams per day, in to the alteration of risk factors. which, alongside multivariate daily basis, stretching to ten this case, a comparison of the The study population constituted statistics, there was mass weeks. Measurements that ten-week outcome relative to postmenopausal and overweight spectrometry. Also, the partial were taken included metabolic the use of placebo or whole women. least-square discriminant and profiling, plasma fatty acids, Chia seed indicated a marked principal component analytical and fasting blood samples increase in plasma EPA and approaches were implemented. (relative to inflammation ALA in overweight women. markers), as well as the serum Thus, milled Chia seed lipid profile, the augmentation ingestion proved more index, blood pressure, and beneficial than placebo or body mass and composition. whole Chia seed ingestion. However, the ingestion of milled Chia seed did not pose a statistically significant impact on disease risk factors or inflammation, regardless of whether metabolomics-based or traditional measures were employed.

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S/No. Purpose Research context Description of study Findings Ref. 6 Here, the purpose lay in the The study was conducted in The initial stage constituted the In the results, the study [23] evaluation of how dietary the form of a parallel-alarm, instruction of participants to demonstrated a decrease in patterns of , Chia seed, double-blind, placebo- have them consume reduced WC, BMI, and BW. However, nopal, and soy protein affects controlled, randomized, single- energy diets. Also, the diets the percentage of the or biochemical variables, which center investigation or consumed contained low lean mass did not change included Metabolic syndrome research. cholesterol and low-saturated significantly in either group, (MetS). Also, the study strived to fat, a process that extended for results that were found to be unearth the response to dietary two weeks. As the second consistent even after the final patterns, the aspect of glucose stage set in, there was a dietary treatment. intolerance, and AUC for insulin random assignment of the and glucose. participants to have them consume either the placebo or dietary pattern, adding to the initial diet that constituted reduced energy. This second stage extended for two months. 7 The main aim of the selected The body weight of the study For the performance testing In the results, this study [24] study was to assess the subjects determined CHO- outcomes, there was a indicated that there was no relationship between loading treatments, implying comparison between two forms marked variation in CHO loading and that they remained isocaloric. of CHO-loading treatment. loading and omega-3 Chia omega-3 Chia seed loading. loading.

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In autumn 2018, Slovenia experienced a fast on unbalanced diets have also been studied. In Chia outbreak. Mainly, the occurrence of these particular, the motivation has been to examine species was on gravel bars, stretching to about how the process of metabolic biomarker 2,000 square kilometers. For most of the modulation is influenced. In the findings, Chia observed sites, the majority existed along rivers has been affirmed to exhibit the capacity of of catchment basins. In the floristic composition, yielding AMPK modulation, coming in the form of Chia’s natural plant communities have been improved inflammation, antioxidant activity, documented, and they form riverine gravel lipogenesis, and insulin and glucose tolerance terraces’ initial plant communities. The [29]. Additional scholarly investigations and associations into which these plant communities descriptions have focused on how long-chain have been classified include Bidenti frondosae- consumptions of fatty acids intersect with human Panicetum barbipulvinati, Chaerophyllo- health. In type-2 diabetes mellitus, findings Petasitetum officinalis, and Polygono suggest that the anti-inflammatory and lapathifoliae-Salicetum eleagni [26]. antioxidant properties of the fatty acids associated with Chia are confirmed, aiding Steatohepatitis and Acute Dyslipidemia further in cancer prevention, as well as the Improvement: Recognized for their richness in prevention of stroke and omega fatty acids, Chia seeds have been studied [30]. The findings are seen to concur with those relative to their ability to improve steatohepatitis reported in [31], whereby Chia was confirmed to and dyslipidemia, especial in animal studies. be a disease remedy, especially because the Thus, the focus of the latter study was to constituents of the seeds make it to be a determine the impact of using Chia on acute functional or nutraceutical food. tyloxapol (TI)-induced dyslipidemia, as well as the impact on acute carbon tetrachloride (TC)- Bioactive Peptide and Protein Source: for induced steatohepatitis. The study also focused studies that have delved into this subject [32], the on how Chia intake affects mixed damage main aim has been to unearth how the high combining the two conditions, with a particular content of dietary fiber and omega-3 fatty acids emphasis on non-obese rats. With four with which Chia seeds are associated poses experimental groups selected and put on a diet medicinal value if any. In the results, it has been containing 15% added Chia and other four reported that amino acid analysis depicts groups exposed to a diet with established rodent peptides containing antioxidant capacity, food, findings indicated that Chia intake angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors, and prevented steatohepatitis totally or partially. Also, dipeptidyl peptidase-IV inhibitors. Hence, similar in the dyslipidemic groups, Chia intake led to a to other studies [33-36], in humans, whole Chia notable reduction in lipids. In the study, Chia’s seed is seen to exhibit anticholesterolemic, hepatoprotective and hypolipidemic effects were hypoglycemic, and hypotensive effects, as well attributed to the high content of phenolics, as as antioxidant capacity. However, in the study by well as omega-3 [27]. Overall, it was inferred that de Miranda et al. [37], Chia seed upon including Chia in non-obese patients’ diets, supplementation failed to reduce some of the cirrhosis is likely to be prevented, with the deleterious effects with which lipid-rich diets are individuals’ health state also improved associated, especially concerning aspects such significantly. as the activity of the liver’s anti-oxidants Sensory Attributes: Chia seed has also been enzymes, glucose intolerance, and body studied to determine how its incorporation composition. Given such mixed results, it towards optimized nutria bar development could becomes imperative for future research to focus yield beneficial outcomes if any .In the latter on some of the factors that could explain the study, Chia seed formulations of 20%, 15%, variations in Chia seed effects when investigated 10%, and 5% were used. The resultant bar that in different research settings and under different was developed was evaluated relative to its experimental conditions [37]. storage quality, physiochemical properties, sensory attributes, and nutritional quality. In the Metabolic Profile: Through ferric-reducing findings, it was reported that for Chia seed, the antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2, 2-diphenyl-1- 10% incorporation with antioxidant activity, picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays, Chia seed total carbohydrate, crude fat, ash, crude fiber, and antioxidant capacity was measured. Other protein content was the most acceptable and that parameters that were investigated included for the nutria bars, their shelf proved stable [28]. carotenoid concentrations, chlorophyll, cellulose Molecular mechanisms and effects of Chia seeds content, ascorbic acid, and total phenolics. In the

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outcome analysis, it was established that through potentiality for use as nutraceutical compounds dark-grown Chia microgreen illumination, there hence, proving beneficial to human health. The tends to be a marked or significant increase in seeds’ crucial compounds that account for such the content of the bioactive compounds that were scholarly inferences include phytochemicals (that measured in the entirety. Also, illumination was come with high antioxidant activities such as found to increase Chia seed antioxidant capacity, isoflavones and phenolics), vitamins, minerals, with more pronounced effects felt about 48 hours and essential amino acids, oil (with high amounts after the illumination or exposure to the light of omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids), and process [38]. The results are, therefore, seen to insoluble and soluble fiber [1]. concur with other studies, which avow that: cassava-chia seed blends have good functional 6. CONCLUSION and physical properties – due to nutritive extruded instant porridge flour production In summary, this paper has provided an overview potential [39]. Chia supplementation reduces the of Chia seeds in relation to their medicinal incidence of celiac disease, pruritus, diabetes, properties. From the literature, animal studies cancer, hypertension, obesity, and and those that have focused on human cardiovascular disease [40], dietary chia offers participants have investigated the seeds’ pharmaceutical properties such as acting as an main components by isolating and evaluating antioxidant and modulating antioxidant enzyme them to gain knowledge of their health and activities – besides alleviating diabetic severity nutrition benefits, as well as functional properties. and serum lipid profiles [41], and Chia seeds From the results, most of the studies concur that form a potential antioxidant source due to the Chia seeds exhibit active compounds that presence of kaemprefrol, quercetin, myricetin, explain their antioxidant and antihypertensive caffeic acid, and chlorogenic acid – that exhibit potential. In the future, these findings point to the anti-carcinogenic and anti-ageing characteristics, need for advanced molecular technologies (in the as well as hepatic protective and cardiac effects form of novel technologies and DNA editing to [42]. pave the way for the development of new associated with superior attributes, Antioxidant and Appetite Suppressing allowing further for the rational and intelligent use Properties: Investigations on Chia seed as an of Chia seeds in an industry such appetite suppressant have been motivated by its as the pharmaceutical sector. Important to note remarkable binding and gelling capacities, as is that even though most of the studies contend well as Chia seed flour’s oil holding and water that Chia seeds come with promising medicinal holding potential [43]. For such investigations, properties, a few studies, as revealed in this findings demonstrate that the plant’s high paper, point to a less significant intersection healthful potential could be attributed to its between the use of Chia-seeds (or Chia innovative properties and concoction seed supplementation) and improvements in arrangement, pharmacologically beneficial human health. As such, future research needs to features linked further to Chia seed-associated focus on some of the factors that could polyunsaturated that occur in the form of explain this variation in previous scholarly dissolvable dietary fiber and omega-6 and findings, upon which more valid conclusions and omega-3 [43]. Also, it has been established in more informed and reliable inferences might be the literature that when Chia seed’s hydrolyzed made. and crude extracts are evaluated, the resulting phenolic compounds include derivatives of CONSENT danshensu (that include alvianolic and rosmarinic) and caffeic acid, which reflect crucial dietary sources for establishing natural It is not applicable. antioxidants responsible for disease prevention, especially conditions arising from oxidative stress ETHICAL APPROVAL [44]. Lastly, neutraceutical properties of Chia seeds have been investigated with the aim of It is not applicable. determining their feasibility and potential for commercial production, especially in relation to COMPETING INTERESTS the field of pharmacology. In the results, it has been avowed that due to several nutrients that Authors have declared that no competing they possess, Chia seeds exhibit great interests exist.

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