stage, affecting yield which was no more than 129 kg ha present beginning in April coincided withthereproductive In Las Cruces (LC), at higher latitude, low temperatures Key words:Chia,datesowing,grainyield,photoperiod. they haveaccumulated600-700ºCd. day length is not adequate only begin to flower when shorter days flower initiation is more precocious, but when to exposed are plants when flowering; of beginning the for This study also determined an 11.8 hday length threshold thus thiszoneisnotrecommendable for chiacultivation. yield (>2900kgha provided betterconditionsforplantgrowth;thehighest conditions in the Valle de Azapa (VA) andCanchones (CH) phenotypes: whiteanddark.Resultsindicated that Mediterranean climate with marine influence, and two chia (20°26’ Slat), and Las Cruces (33°30’ Slat) with dry coastal desert climate, normal desert climate in Canchones areas ofChile: Valle de Azapa (18°30’ Slat) with a production ofchiaunderirrigation inthreegeographic climatic conditions on the growth, yield and oil of the present study wasto determine the effect of different sensitive adapted to areas without cold. The objective expansion ofchiaislimited because itisaphotoperiod- increased crop production worldwide. However, the high content, which has encouraged Chia (SalviahispanicaL.)isaspecieswithseedsthat have ABSTRACT 4 Septiembre 2221, Arica, Chile. 3 Av. Arturo Prat2120,Iquique,Chile. 2 * Rosa 11315, LaPintana,Santiago,Chile. 1 Alimentos, doi:10.4067/S0718-58392016000300001 Accepted: 20June2016. Received: of Chile in theMediterranean anddesertclimates Cecilia Baginsky Growth andyieldof chia ( Tello Universidad Universidad de Tarapacá, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, 18 de Universidad Arturo Prat,FacultaddeRecursosNaturalesRenovables, Corresponding author( Universidad deChile, Facultad de Ciencias Agronómicas, Santa CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURALCHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3) JULY RESEARCH 76(1)JANUARY 1 , Leslie Pizarro 20 April 2016. 20 April El de Líbano Chile, 5524, -1 [email protected] 1 Instituto , Jorge Arenas ) andoilproduction(>550L ha 3 Santiago, , Alfonso Valenzuela CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3)JULY de Nutrición ). Chile. 2 , HugoEscobar

y Tecnología 4 , Luís Morales - de los SEPTEMBER 2016 -1 -1 ). 3 - ; , Marco Garrido MARCH 2016 hispanica Salvia in greenhouse and in the field with a photoperiod of 14 h 41 min. 41 h 14 of photoperiod a with field the in and greenhouse in h 15:9 a photoperiod with flower to able were which flowering, (2012) demonstrated the existence of new chia varieties with early and regionssuchastheMediterranean basin. Jamboonsrietal. with theideaofwidening cultivated area totemperate zones with daylengthsgreater than 12hhavefailed (Cahill, 2004), flower to chia induce to Efforts 2005). (AyerzaCoates, frosts and the crop reaching maturity is low, since plants die due to early to 22°55’ N-25°05’ S. At higherlatitudes, the probability of germplasm, distributionofchiaforgrainproductionisrestricted in April. Hildebrandetal.(2013)indicated that withexistingplant Hemisphere of Southern the in and photoperiod October in flower to induction begins flowering a approximately 12:12 h. Thus inthe Northern Hemisphere chia has germplasm chia it grows. Jamboonsri et al. (2012) indicated that domesticated its periodofgrowthandfruitingdependonthelatitude where h (Jamboonsrietal.,2012;Busilacchi et al.,2013),andassuch, It is considered to be a short-day plant with a threshold of 12-13 with anoptimum range of16-26°C(Ayerza and Coates,2009). maximum growth temperatures are 11° and 36 °C,respectively, (Lobo etal.,2011; Bochicchio et al.,2015).Itsminimum and et al., 2014).Itisintolerant to freezing in all development stages below 200melevation are notadequate for itscultivation (Orozco is optimally established from400to2500ma.s.l.,butconditions Chia grows naturally in tropical and subtropical environments; it exports seedstoJapan,USA,andEurope (Alenbrant et al., 2014). The largest productioncenter is located in ; it currently , Mexico, Peru, and Argentina (Busilacchi et al., 2013). increase itsproductionworldwide. 2008; Ayerza, 2013). These characteristics are helping to rapidly proteins, and required by humans (Reyes-Caudillo et al., exchange capacity thatincreasesavailability of severalminerals, of thegrain)thatexpandswhenhydratedandhasalowcation (27% content fiber mucilaginous 3) and 2009), Gai, and (Peiretti extractable), 2) polyunsaturated fatty acids omega 3 andomega 6 include 1) a high concentration of essential fatty acids (29%-32% because of itsnumerouspositivenutritional characteristics. These epoch. Today chiaisbeingre-introducedintowesterndiets in the diet of Central American civilizations in the pre-Columbian (Cahill, 2004). It was traditionally one of the four basic elements its center oforiginisinmountain areas ofMexico and Guatemala Chia (Salvia hispanica L.) belongs to the family and INTRODUCTION 1 Chia is currently cultivated in Australia, Bolivia, Colombia, , andHermanSilva 1 - , Natalia Valero SEPTEMBER 2016 1* 1 , Diego L.) L.)

255 RESEARCHRESEARCH CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURALCHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3) JULY RESEARCH 76(1)JANUARY each experimental site. number offreezesrecorded during January-June2013in the experimental sites,and Tablethermal 2shows sum and a.s.l. Table 1summarizes climate and soilcharacteristics of very lowincidence offrost,located at analtitude of 12m 2005). LasCruceshasamild Mediterranean climate with and thereforeexposedtofrostthatbeginsinwinter(Lanino, relative humidity. Itislocated at analtitude of 990ma.s.l. absence of rainfall and strongthermal oscillation and low Canchones Experiment Station hasadesertclimate, hot with solar radiation throughout the year (González et al., 2013). abundant cloudiness,nofrost,highhumidity and high lat) prevailing conditions are acoastal desert climate with Valparaiso Region, Chile. In the Valle de Azapa (18°30’ S in Alto Hospicio, Tarapacá Region, andLasCrucesin Valle de Azapa in the Arica y Parinacota Region, Canchones The study wasperformed from January toJune2013in MATERIALSMETHODS AND quality inchiathedifferent studyareas. the most promising sowing date in terms of yield and oil grown withirrigation. This studyalsoproposestodetermine of Chile onthegrowth,yield and oil composition of chia desert, and dry Mediterranean with marine influence climates of climatic conditions inregionsofcoastal desert, normal al., 2003). increase the level of unsaturation of fattyacids(Thomaset Schneid.; Ayerza, 2001).Coldertemperatures generally oil cropssuchasjojoba (Simmondsia chinensis(Link)C.K. in themetabolic processes ashasbeendemonstratedinother between altitude andtemperature, which produceschanges (Ayerza, 2011). This would be related to the negative relation indicating that oil saturation decreased at higheraltitude α-linolenic acid, but lower values for linoleic and oleic acids, environment (1600 ma.s.l.)showedahigherpercentage of different inter-Andean valleysofEcuador, theloweraltitude and oil saturation. Ayerza and Coates (2009) foundthat in has beenfoundbetween altitude, fatty acid composition, in theproductionofpolyunsaturated fatty acids. A relation temperature during grain development produces a reduction affects thetypeoffattyacidspresentinoil;increase of environment also modifies oil composition. The temperature with altitude in whichseedsaregrown;however, the Studies have shown that oil content tends toincrease technique usedforitsextraction (Ayerza andCoates,2009). on theareaoforiginchia, climatic conditions andthe seed quality(Ayerza, 2010;2011). conditions are mostly responsible for the potential yield and day lengthtowhichitisexposed(Loboetal.,2011). These the crop duetovariations in environmental temperature and since itdetermines theduration of thedevelopment period of variety. The sowing date is anextremely relevant variable, 2014), howeveritisnotyetacommercial 914’; Sorondo, There is a new photoperiod-insensitive variety (‘Sahi Alba The objective ofthisstudywastodetermine the effect Grain oil yield ranges from 29.4%to 33.5% depending - SEPTEMBER 2016 - MARCH 2016 Salinity, dSm pH Order Soil VPD, kPa Precipitation, mm Sodium, mmolL Temperature, °C Elevation (ma.s.l.) Boron, mgL Salinity, dSm pH Irrigation water Organic matter, % Carbonate, mmolL Nutrient, mgkg Total June May April May February January Chloride, mgL Sulfate, mgL Longitude Latitude Climate General quality from sowing to harvest waterin the sites where chia and was sown. soil and characteristics, climatic Location 1. Table ha wide, with0.6mbetweenrows. experimental unit was defined as a plot 5.0 m long and 2.4 m was randomized complete blocks withsixreplicates. The sowing dates × 2phenotypes). The experimental design locality (Table 2), constituting 10 treatments per locality (5 company Benexia S.A. Fivesowingdates were usedforeach and from SantaCruzdelaSierra(Bolivia) provided bythe experiment We usedphenotypesofwhiteanddark(blackspotted)chia the agricultural management of Configuration number. frost and (GDDi) degree-days growing Accumulated 2. Table unfolded, plantswerethinnedtoadensityof80-90m 160 plantsm (50 to 60 plants m GDDi: Accumulated growingdegreedays(>10ºC). nd: notdetected. VPD: Vapor pressuredeficit. * Month Dry Mediterraneanwithmaritimeinfluence(Csb). Seeds weresownbyhandat1cmdepthwith5kg

Characteristics -1 -1 -1 , producingplantdensitiesbetween120and -1 1549.1 0 -1

1.1 GDDi

176.9 0 183.5 0 196.0 0 310.2 0 350.2 0 332.3 0 -1 7.9 -1 Vallede Azapa Cl -1

-2 Na -1

. Once the first pair of had completely HCO -1 Mean Mean number Max. Min. SO

Frost ). Plants were fertilized by fertirrigation K 914.0 N 123.0 B P 7.8 Aridisol 7.8 37.0 - -2 + 146.0 2 4.2 239.0 -3 Vallede Azapa 2.1 Coastal Desert 70°00’ W 18°30’ S 230 18.6 13.3 24.1 1638.8 GDDi 1.1 0.0 0.7 1.4 161.0 9 207.8 4 223.1 0 337.7 0 346.0 0 363.2 0 Canchones Locality Aridisol

number Normal Desert Frost 13 Location 69°32’ W Canchones 20°26’ S 1060.0 996 286.0 113.0 117.0 19.2 nd 33.8 20.0 28.4 8.1 1.2 0.0 3.7 8.2 1.5 8.2 1.4 7.7 Mollisol

GDDi 610.3 5 181.6 0 194.2 0 113.9 0 22.0 5 44.3 0 54.3 0 Mediterranean Las Cruces Las Cruces 71°36’ W 33°30’ S 166.0 258.0 264.0 262.0 12.2 nd 22.5 12 92.0 10.0 number 7.8 0.9 1.8 7.5 2.3 7.8 0.8 5.3 7.5 Frost -2 *

256 CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURALCHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3) JULY RESEARCH 76(1)JANUARY pests ordiseaseswereobserved. Weeds werecontrolled by handwhentheyappeared; no to maintain 45, 60, and 100 units N, P completely separated (1.5-3h). Two phases wereobtained, vigorously for2minandthen lefttostanduntilphaseswere funnel and40-50mL distilledwaterwasadded,agitated then filtered twice, obtained filtrate was placed in a decantation chloroform:methanol andmixed for5min.Mixtureswere chia seeds g 100 each ground in a processor we added 500 mL To 2:1 (v:v) mixture of oil sample. each of profile lipid method ofFolchetal.(1957)toextractoilanddetermine sampled 500 g seeds per treatment; we used the modified cold stations closesttothestudysites. and disthecorrespondingcalendarday. where of originthespecies. development temperature, in thiscase 10 °C,given the area Ti where GDDiisthe accumulated growing degree days, following function: (HI) asthequotientofdryweighttototalplantweight. randomly were weighed. We calculated the harvest index the separating . Yield per threshed, plant was estimated and 500 grains were sampled inflorescences Dry weight. were driedinaforcedairovenat40°Cuntil constant inflorescences The plant. the of rest the from inflorescences measured along3mperexperimental was unit byseparating inflorescences.of number and length, and height plant Yield measurement was repeated at harvest, when wealso evaluated experimental unit. These weredriedinanovenat70°C. This biomass wasmeasured by sampling 0.5 mofplants per experimental unitreachedthatstage. the of plants 50% when defined was stage development The withbrown stalk central color), and harvestmaturity (grains with 14%humidity). the of physiological (inflorescence open), flower maturity first with stalk central the of (aerial branches with a node), flower initiation (inflorescence completely expanded overthesoil),initiation of branching phenological stages ofemergence (visiblecotyledonsand Plants were evaluated every 2-3 dtodetermine their Sampling andanalysis (ET to replenish 70%ofreference evapotranspiration demand , USA). Water requirements were programmed by aRainBirdprogrammer(RainCorporation, Tucson, respectively, inthesoil. We useddripirrigation controlled is the mean air temperature on day To quantify oil content and lipid profile after harvest we we harvest after profile lipid and content oil quantify To The meteorological variables wereobtainedfromweather The daylength foreachlocality wasestimatedas: Growing degreedays(GDDi)werecalculated with the aerial of accumulation the flowering of beginning the At 0 GDDi = ), calculated daily usingthePenmanMonteithmethod. DL isdaylength, DL = ACOS = ACOS DL Σ ( 24 π t t i f

(T ) SIN( d+284) i

_ T 365 360 b ) ifGDDi<0then= [ _ LAT LAT TAN is thelatitude of the locality, (LAT )TAN ) ] i and 23.45 ( 2 O Tb 5 - , and K SEPTEMBER 2016 is the base - MARCH 2016 2 [2] [1] O, with boron trifluoride (BF trifluoride boron with methylated first was it extracted fraction fatty of profile acid the totallipidfractionavailableinseeds. To determinefatty with 0.5 N Mg fatty compoundswereextractedinmethanol:chloroform2:1 samples ofeachtreatmentwerehomogenizedandthentotal remaining chiaoilwas25%-39%totalseedweight. The oil evaporation at60°Cinavacuum. This separatedthesolvent, the lowerphaseischloroform,whichwasrescuedbyrotary and yield)withthecombination of locality and sowingdate. inflorescences of length and number height, plant harvest, and flowering at (biomass parameters growth associate to date and chia accession, and aprincipal components analysis combined ANOVA toevaluate the effect oflocality on sowing a performed also means. We different significantly identify among found were treatments (P < 0.05), Duncan differences significant when 2011); ANOVA usingtheInfostatGenprogram (Balzarini et al., The resultsobtained for each locality were submitted to Statistical analyses necessary toinitiate flowering(Figures1and 3). °C d,while longer day length increases the thermal time 500 about to of corresponded which requirement flowering, start thermal to plants lower the define h 11.8 than less thermal Chia requirements were affected by day length. Photoperiods of filling. grain for phase adequate an not was development. This is shownbythe lack of yield, since there dueto LC, in which theycouldnotadequately complete their phenological temperature sufficient accumulate not did sowing (F1)onlyaccumulated 585.1 °Cdatharvest.Plants maturity with athermal sum of728.7°Cd,whileinLCtheearliest physiological reached (F5) date sowing fifth the their phenological development (Figures 1, 2, and 3). In VA, LC didnotallowplantstoreachandcomplete adequately dates (Figures 1 and 2). The low thermal accumulation in did not allow them to reach maturity on the latest sowing were sownlater (Figure 2).InCH,frostsaffected plants and plants when rapid more were maturity VAin and flowering date did not modify cycle length in VA orCH.However, cycle length, values of each type were averaged. Sowing between white and dark chia phenotypes in their growing in LC (Figure 1). Since there were nonsignificant differences Mean temperatures weresimilar in VAand lower andCH, had thegreatest temperature oscillation and LCtheleast. the autumn equinoxand shorter days afterwards. Canchones lat, respectively). At 33°30’ Slat, LC hadlonger days before at VA andCH,whichareatsimilar latitudes (18º and20ºS The day lengths to whichthe crops wereexposedsimilar Climatic conditionandcrop development RESULTS into a gas chromatograph. into agaschromatograph. acids. These weresuspendedinhexaneordertobeinjected NaOH inmethanoltoobtainfreemethylatedestersoffatty recovered; thelatterwasevaporatedusingN 2 Cl. Total fatty compounds and chloroform were 3 ) in 12% methanol and then with ) in12%methanolandthenwith post hoc test was used to 2 , thus obtaining , thusobtaining

257 CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURALCHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3) JULY RESEARCH 76(1)JANUARY effect offrost and/orthe lowtemperature. to due death plant from resulted Cruces Las and Canchones for maturity physiological of data missing The localities. three in (F1-F5) different dates with sowing plants chia of (B) maturity physiological and flower (A) afterto initiation FigureDays sowing 2. (ET Figure 1. Variation of photoperiod (A), minimum temperature (B), maximum temperature (C), and accumulated evapotranspiration 0 ) (D)from JanuarytoJune2013ineachexperimentalsite. - SEPTEMBER 2016 - MARCH 2016

258 CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURALCHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3) JULY RESEARCH 76(1)JANUARY there were periods ofcold during the day and freezes in temperature accumulation, however at the end ofsummer case there was less thermal oscillation, which implies high but yieldandharvestindexdecreased(Table 3).Inthis Biomass production increased in CHwithlater sowing, and thusincreaseyield and harvestindex(Tables 3 and4). filling grain of period the prolong which damage, plant of there were lowertemperatures, which didnotreach the level This isexplained bythefactthatinlatest sowing dates and increaseinyieldharvestindex. with latersowing thus <0.01), the tendencyin VA (P wasadecreaseinbiomassproduction significant was date sowing of effect the are notclear(Table 3);however, inallexperimental sites effect of the individual factors (sowing date and accession) between sowing dateandphenotype(P <0.05),thusinthislocality the interaction significant a had VA Only 4). (Table did not present the same tendency in the different localities The behaviorofbiomassproduction,yield,andharvestindex Growth parameters andcrop yield each locality. for stages development different in plants chia in days degreegrowing accumulated and planting after days date, TablePlanting 3. of chiaindifferent localitiesandsowingdates. initiation flowering and [2], Equation to according length day and °C 10 of temperature base and [1] Equation to according days degree growing accumulated between Relation 3. Figure DAS: Daysaftersowing; GDDi:accumulatedgrowing degreedays(>10ºC). Las Cruces Canchones Vallede Azapa Locality F5 F4 F3 F2 F1 F5 F4 F3 F2 F1 F5 F4 F3 F2 F1 4 March 1 March 6 March 18 Feb 18 Feb 18 18 Feb Planting 18 Jan 18 Jan 18 Jan 2 Feb 1 Feb 4 Feb 4 Jan 4 Jan 4 Jan date

DAS 111 81 84 97 60 54 51 53 58 48 49 49 47 56 -

Flowering beginning 25 March 11 March 3 March 6 March 1 March 27 April 25 April 25 April 30 April 13 April 24 April 23 April 10 May 8 April Date -

- SEPTEMBER 2016 - GDDi 238.1 333.4 436.5 519.1 547.6 568.2 606.9 643.5 MARCH 2016 709.3 392.6 489.0 551.4 558.0 649.1 -

DAS 109 106 105 96 87 84 93 110 delayed plantingdate(49%reductionbetweenF1andF3). with yield in reduction significant a produced F3 where CH and stableyieldsindependent of sowingdate,incontrastto lowest yieldswereobservedinLC(70to129kgha only inLC;darkphenotypeproducedgreatervalues. The variables index harvest and biomass for significant was chia dates. with latersowing The difference betweentypesof 4). InLC,the three parameters mentioned above decreased This resulted in lower yield in thelater sowing dates (Table grain filling due to cold stress and later damage from freezes. dates, butthelatersowingshadlessmetabolic activity during sowing between constant relatively was period fill grain of autumn (Figure1B,1C).Duetotheseconditions,length this tendency without significant differences (P > 0.05) between all localitiesexceptCH,wheretheincidenceoffrostaltered in dates sowing later with increased inflorescences of number The 5). (Table inflorescences small relatively generated earliest date the at planted phenotype, white the Here 0.05). ≤ (P was a significant interaction between sowing date and accession in alllocalities(from13.6to34.1cm).However, inCHthere inflorescences larger generate to tended date sowing Delaying among variables Components ofyieldandassociation of 105kgha yields were obtained in LCforall sowing dates, withamean of 2500and1900kgha achieved duringperiodsF5andF1in VA andCH,withyields between locality and sowingdate. The greatestyieldswere two sowingdates(F4andF5). last the for temperature low by flowering during damaged Similarly, F5. were period plants in CH flowering start even not reaching necessary physiological maturity, some did not during sowingdatesF1,F2,andF3,resultedinmostplants filling grain affected which stage, reproductive plant during presumed reasonwasthat low temperatures experienced ------Physiological maturity The combined The ANOVA interaction significant a indicated 20 April 12 April 21 May 19 June 25 May 7 April 8 May 2 May Date ------

-1 (Figure4). Valle de Azapa producedhigh 1048.4 1067.2 1001.4 1165.3 1110.4 GDDi 728.7 782.9 811.6 ------

-1 , respectively, while the lowest DAS 144 158 170 130 137 139 148 123 134 136 136 - - - - Harvest maturity 26 June 26 June 23 June 23 May 18 June 20 May 11 June 21 July 5 June 4 June 1 Aug Date - - - -

1.159.4 1.282.8 1.393.0 1.115.3 1.084.7 1.186.1 1.271.6 -1 GDDi ). The 927.7 396.8 502.6 585.1 - - - -

259 CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURALCHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3) JULY RESEARCH 76(1)JANUARY thus with important components in determining yield. Yielddetermining in components important with thus and 0.001) 0.85, ≤ = P (r plant per inflorescences of number the with and 0.001), ≤ P 0.85, = (r index harvest 0.05), ≤ P = 0.48, (r length inflorescence with associated significantly 76% oftheobservedvariance; seed yield was positively and generated different situations. Components 1 and 2 explained of thermal accumulation (Tables 2and3Figure3)that Las Cruceswasexcluded from thisanalysisduetothelack among growthvariables with sowingdatesin VA andCH. association significant a was There 5. Figure in represented differences betweenthephenotypesforanyofthesevariables. nonsignificant were there that noted be of rest should the It treatments. than less inflorescences two of mean a produced date andphenotypeonlyinLC;whiteseedssownearlier(F1) sowing dates(Table 5). There wasinteractionbetweensowing sowing between dates andlocalities,accordingtoDuncantest(P <0.05).n=12. differences significant indicate bars on letters Different Table 4.Biomass,yieldandharvestindexfor chiagrown indifferent localitiesandwithdifferent sowingdates(SD). HI: Harvestindex; VA: Valle de Azapa; CH:Canchones;LC:LasCruces;ns:nonsignificant. *, **Significantatthe0.05and0.01probabilitylevels,respectively SD × Accession SD Accession in three locations(Valle de Azapa, Canchones,andLasCruces). Figure 4. Effect of five sowing dates on chia grain yield established Factor F5 F4 F3 F2 F1 F5×Dark F5×White F4×Dark F4×White F3×Dark F3×White F2×Dark F2×White F1×Dark F1×White Dark White The results ofthe principal components analysis are 2.285a 3.710c 3.529c 4.151c 7.300a 6.604bc 4.618cd 3.860d 3.559d 3.559d 3.498d 4.667cd 3.635d 5.629bc 8.971a 4.864a 9.660a 4.856a 9.817a 2.468a 5.611b VA ** ** ns

8.684a 6.504a 12.330a 9.291b 7.594b 12.415a 12.245a 7.879a 10.703a Biomass CH ** ns ns

2.051c 3.066b 5.152a 2.248a 1.854a 3.473a 2.660a 6.024a 4.281a 3.915a 2.931b LC - ** ** SEPTEMBER 2016 ns

kg ha - MARCH 2016 . -1 1.337b 1.375b 1.479b 2.903a 2.032c 2.085c 2.484b 1.393d 1.280d 1.527d 1.222d 1.634d 1.324d 1.908a 1.669b VA ** ** **

a lnts Pooeid a pstvl ad significantly associated with plantheightandbiomassat flowering. and positively was Photoperiod lengths. day CH and sowing dates F1andF2in VAin wereassociatedwiththelongest observed yields lowest The flowering. of beginning the at length day with associated and significantly negatively were inflorescence main the of length and of inflorescences per plant of chia in different localities and localities in different different sowingdates (SD). ofchia plant per inflorescences number of and inflorescence axis central of length The 5. Table Accession SD × Accession SD VA: Valle de Azapa; CH:Canchones;LC:LasCruces;ns:nonsignificant. *, **Significantatthe0.05and0.01probabilitylevels,respectively Factor Dark White F5 F4 F3 F2 F1 F5×Dark F5×White F4×Dark F4×White F3×Dark F3×White F2×Dark F2×White F1×Dark F1×White Yield 941c 1.622b 1.912a 941c 1.437a 1.808a 2.002a 1.823a 1.524a 1.460a 941c CH ** ns ns

20.1a 19.3a 10.1b 34.1a 19.6b 17.3c 14.0d 13.6d 14.0a 13.7a 10.3a 32.9a 35.3a 22.2a 17.0a 17.0a 17.5a 14.5a 13.4a 14.0a 13.3a 127a 81a 70a 125a 129a 107a 104a 114a 115a 113a VA ** LC ns ns 75b ** ns ns inflorescence length

Central axis 17.5bc 19.0ab 17.8a 17.7a 16.5a 20.4a 18.2b 14.6c 20.2a 20.5a 15.8c 13.5d CH cm ** ns * 0.44b 0.44b 0.54a 0.58a 0.39bc 0.33cd 0.34cd 0.29d 0.15e ** ns 0.56a 0.38c 0.34c 0.22d 0.44b * 0.37bcd 0.40a 0.38a VA 16.7a 18.6a 16.1b 15.1c 19.1a 18.1a 16.2a 16.1a 14.9a 15.4a LC ** ns ns Harvest index 10.8a 13.8 a 9.8b 10.3b 11.3a 9.8a 9.8a 9.7a 9.3a 10.8a 11.2a 11.2b 11.2a 11.5a 0.09b 0.21a 0.27a 0.10a 0.08a 0.22a 0.20a 0.25a 0.28a 0.19a 0.04a 0.19a 0.03b ** VA ns ns CH Nr inflorescences ** ns ns **

per plant 8.7a 10.0a 6.1a 8.2a 8.6a 8.1a 8.3a 9.0a 13.6a 9.2a 8.0a CH ns ** ns ns . 0.03b 0.04a 0.04a 0.03a 0.02a 0.04a 0.03a 0.04a 0.04a LC 6.3a 6.5a 6.8a 5.4b 6.1a 7.0a 6.6a 6.9a 6.2a 4.5b ** LC

260 CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURALCHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3) JULY RESEARCH 76(1)JANUARY flower induction to occur at the beginning of autumn, when autumn, of beginning the at occur to induction flower - normaldesert,and LC-Mediterranean) caused desert, CH S lat)andtheclimatic conditions ofthe sites (VA -coastal et al.,2013). The geographiclocation (between 18°and33° warmest time of year (Jamboonsri et al., 2012; Busilacchi development with therainyseason,whichoccurs inthe crops such as chia and this helpsthe plant to synchronize Flower induction by shortdays is common in tropical DISCUSSION phenotype was more relevant in this case, as indicated above. was noclear tendency inCHwithrespect tosowingdate; in white and darkphenotypes, respectively (Table values 6). There greater significantly showed 6) (March F5 and 18) acid linoleic and α-linolenic content were foundin the latest sowing dates; F4 (February content, oil total of values no difference between sowing dates(Table 6). The highest where there was nointeraction with total oil content and sowing date and phenotype in all localities except CH, to between interaction significant tended was VA.in There higher content be acid linoleic and α-linolenic however, differences between phenotypes for total oil content; nonsignificant were there filling. that grain show results The observed inthemasaresultofthelowtemperatures during scarce seedproductionandthenotoriousdamageeffect 6. These parameters werenotdetermined for LCduetothe linoleic acids obtained in VA and CH are shown in Table and α-linolenic of content the and content oil seed total The acid content inseeds Total oil,-linolenic(omega3)andlinoleic and F5,respectively. sowing dates inlocalities of Valle different represent de Pentagons Azapa (VA) flowering. of beginning B: darkchiaaccession; and Canchones(CH). W: the F4, F2, F3, dates F1, whitechiaphenotype;1,2,3,4and5:sowing at biomass BF: flowering; of beginning the at length day Photoperiod: index; Harvest HI: axis central of length inflorescence, harvest, number ofinflorescences per plant,plantheight,andharvestindex. and flowering at Biomass variables: growth and yield for components principal of Biplot 5. Figure - SEPTEMBER 2016 - MARCH 2016 established indifferent sowingdates(SD). acid content in linoleic seeds in and two localities (Valle 3) (omega de Azapa alpha-linolenic and Canchones) oil, Total 6. Table SD ×Phenotype Phenotype SD VA: Valle de Azapa; CH:Canchones; LC:LasCruces;ns:nonsignificant. *, **Significantatthe0.05and0.01 probabilitylevels,respectively of flowering, which was stable in VA and CH independent CH in and VA stable was which flowering, of timing the by reflected was chia of character short-day The flowering sowings, later the occurred in thepresence of lowtemperatures and evenfrosts. for LC, and CH in that was temperatures were decreasing (Figure 1). The resultofthis Factor F5×Dark F5×White F4×Dark F4×White F3×Dark F3×White F2×Dark F2×White F1×Dark F1×White Dark White F5 F4 F3 F2 F1 588.9a 427.3bc 309.0c 583.9a 321.5c 321.0c 324.7c 325.0c 361.7bc 324.8c 238.4b 381.2a 303.7a 396.4a 291.2a 295.6a 267.3a 508.1a 446.5b 321.3c 324.9c 343.2c 249.1a *** *** VA ns Total oil 379.4a 282.1ab 272.0ab 162.1cd127.3c 353.1ab 152.6d 259.7ab 195.8cd203.2ab 330.7a 312.5a 157.3c147.2b CH ns *** ns ns *** - 332.7a - 258.6b - 158.1cd - 376.5a 183.2cd 201.2c 181.3cd 206.4a 234.0a 192.2bc 188.5bc VA ns Omega 3 L ha -1 238.8a 99.6c 167.2b 185.4b 189.8a 150.7b 169.2ab 194.3a CH *** ------104.1a 97.0a 72.5b 45.3cd 52.3cd 77.8a 54.7cd 47.5cd 43.2d 58.7c 53.8c 67.8ab 60.2a 64.4a 65.7a 53.2b 84.8a 74.7b 53.5cd 55.5a 45.4d 56.3c 70.1a *** *** VA Linoleic acid ** *** . 33.1c 43.1c 58.6b 72.4a 50.9a *** *** CH ------

261 CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURALCHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3) JULY RESEARCH 76(1)JANUARY genus development have alsobeenobservedinvariousspeciesof for flower and initiation flower for periods Critical 2012). been reportedattemperatures close to5°C(Lukatkinetal., slightly below 0°Candcold damage has been sometimes important frost damage when theyareexposedtotemperatures lower than5°Cduringflowering(Lukatkinetal.,2012). no freezing eventsortoareaswithtemperatures that are not or few with zones to chia of development the confines frost of frostduringthereproductive stages. This sensitivity to sowing atalater date could beriskybecause of thepossibility is at a similar latitude (Table 3). These authors indicated that 160 d,whichisverysimilar to thatobservedinLC,which generated plants withadevelopment cycle of approximately (2011) in Tucumán, Argentina, showedthatJanuarysowing (Ritchie and Alagarswamy, 1989). The study of Lobo et al. (Jensen etal.,2013)andsorghum whichrequires870°Cd flowering to d °C 600 requires which such asMiscanthus, other quantitative short-day speciesfromtropicalclimates temperature of 10°C. These resultsconcurwithstudiesin was between600and700°Cd,withabasedevelopment accumulated. In this study the quantity of daydegrees will occur when acertain quantity of daydegrees is flowering length, day long sufficiently a ifplants experience not do However, is accelerated. initiation floral lengths of chia is quantitative; when exposedtodecreasing day (Jiang etal.,2011) undertheseconditions. sacchariflorus (Jensenetal.,2013)andsoybean Miscanthus short-day species such assorghum (Craufurd andQi,2001), some of characteristic is situation This filling. grain allow as aproductoflowerthermal accumulation, which didnot longer in LC (Table 2) due to a slower development rate day lengthbelowthisthreshold.However, lifecycleswere VA andCH,sinceinLCtheplantsalwaysexperienced a that chiathermal requirements in LCwerelowerthan and below the threshold (Figure 3).Oneresult of this was a difference ofupto200°Cdbetweendaylengthsabove thermal requirements of the crop increased linearly, with al. (2013)indicate values of12-13h. Above thisthreshold, 12 hfordomesticated chia germplasm, while Busilacchi et to that indicated byJamboonsriet al. (2012), whoreported similar initiation, flower 11.8for of h threshold photoperiod photoperiod (Christiansenetal.,2010). We founda has beenobservedinotherspeciesthataresensitiveto initiation as thedaylengthdecreased.Similar behavior flower to days in reduction a was there greater, was length season (Figure 1). By contrast, in LC, where variation in day largeday lengthdidnotshow variation during thegrowing of sowingdate(Figure3)andwheremeantemperature and where low temperatures during flowering and grain-filling and flowering during temperatures low where been reported in the literature with the exception of LC, studies areneededtoverifyif chiabehavessimilarly. development (Armitage and Laushman, 1989). Further flower continue to light h 10 and induction floral for light h It hasbeenobservedthatmanytropical plants suffer Together, theseresultssuggestthat daylengthsensitivity Our observed yields were all superior to those that have Salvia . Forexample, Salvia leucantha Cav. requires 12 - SEPTEMBER 2016 - MARCH 2016 oil content and fatty acids profile between spotted-black between profile seeds and white seed of chia grown in different . acids fatty and content oil in difference nonsignificant found 2013) (2011; Ayerza of conditions inwhichitwasgrowing. However, otherstudies probably has greater capacity to adapt to the environmental Ayerza andCoates (2009),whoindicated that thisphenotype which seedswereobtained),coinciding with thereportof only hadagreater level in CH(inthethree sowing datesin such asjojoba (Ayerza and Zeaser, 1987). The dark phenotype limits, as hasbeenobservedforotherspeciesofaridzones Bolivia) andthatbothweregrowingwithintheiradaptation both came from thesamearea (Santa Cruz delaSierrain similarity between phenotypesmaybeduetothefactthat acids, The CH. linoleic in significant only and were differences α-linolenic the although of levels higher showed phenotype dark the where profile, acid fatty the in occurred in significant only was this VA (Table similar Something 4). in bothlocalities(Figure1). since temperatures observed in these three dates were similar in dates sowing three first VA CH, the and in contents oil in significance of lack the explain also would This altitudes. in whichtemperature was lowerthan in localities at lower unsaturation of fatty acids) in higher altitude ecosystems who foundchangesinchiaoilcomposition(higherlevelof and linoleic (Table 6). This wasreported by Ayerza (2011), α-linolenic as such acids fatty unsaturated of levels higher in these two sowing dates in VA would have generated that characterize theselatitudes. The lowertemperatures lower mean temperatures and the high levels of radiation in VA were associated with favorable day-length conditions, the latter locality. The high yields obtained from F4andF5 in VA, whichmayexplainlowyieldinthirdsowing(F3) minimum temperatures inCHweresubstantially less than similar at the beginning of the season, fromFebruaryonthe 495 mminCH. Although themeteorological conditions were accumulated to Julianday100)of387.7mm,compared to and anatmospheric demand (reference evapotranspiration higher minimum andlowermaximum temperatures than CH, climate differences, given that VA has coastal influence, with being at similar latitudes, these localities have important of spite In 4). of (Figure VA those to superior significantly 4 JanuaryandFebruary)inCHweresystematically and In ourstudy, theyields of sowingdatesF1andF2(between in thiscountry, meanyieldsof1200kgha the state ofJalisco,Mexico, the main productive zone of chia 1600 kgha 1400 kgha fluctuate between 11 and36°C(Ayerza andCoates,2009). considering that the species is adapted to temperatures that that lowtemperaturesaffect growthandyieldofchia, surprising not is It flowering. before freezing to due died Tucson (31°14’ Slat; such as in Choele-Choel (39°11’ S lat), Argentina, and 4). (Figure similar tostudiesperformedatrelativelyhighlatitudes, yields reduced significantly periods The dark phenotype tended to have higher yield, although Studies performedin Argentina yieldedfrom606 to -1 -1 werereported(Bochicchio et al.,2015),whilein (Loboetal.,2011). InParaguayyieldsof Arizona, USA),wherechiaplants -1 wereobtained. This is

262 CHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURALCHILEAN JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH 76(3) JULY RESEARCH 76(1)JANUARY provide thebest conditionsforchiaproduction underthe in Valle de Azapa (VA) and Canchones (CH), respectively, The conditions of coastal desert and normal desert climates CONCLUSIONS using mechanizedharvestingmethods. higher yielding plants can also be more efficiently harvested implications for themanagement ofchia, since shorter, with longerdaylengths. These resultshave important the highestyieldswerealsoassociated with latitudes resources andthushadhigherharvestindices. Additionally, shorter on inflorescences plants. These wereplantsthathadbetterassignationoftheir large producing by generated with greater biomass accumulation, which was mainly number ofvegetativephytomers(Jensenetal.,2013). critical a by determined also is flowering which in plant day as inChrysanthemum(MattsonandErwin,2005),ashort completely (data notshown),andbythenumberofvegetative nodes isalmost in chia determined by the interaction of daylength and photoperiod dynamics flowering Thus was positively associated with day length (data not shown). number of vegetative nodes, and number of vegetative nodes to theseeds. shorter days in autumn promoted the partition of dry material of Hanetal.(2006)inshort-daysoybeanplants,which lower harvestindex(Table 4). This concurswiththereport indicate less assimilates used forgrainproductionandthus inflorescences shorter (Tableinflorescences and smallernumberof with which allof 5), along shown), not (data days sativa [L.]Crantz). Plants hadgreater height underlong with theresultsofBertietal.(2011) incamelina (Camelina chia was linked to alowerharvestindex(Figure5),consistent the harvestindex(Zapata et al.,2004).Greater plant height in yields relative to thoseobtainedintaller plants byincreasing introduction of dwarfing genes in varieties produced superior in chia, in contrast with species such aswheat, in which been observedinsoybean(Hanetal.,2006). be associatedwithbetterdistributionofassimilates, as has (Table 5). Larger inflorescence found in later sowings would of the central axis, whichaveraged more than 30 cm in length cm (data not shown) due to the large size of the inflorescence VA (beginning of March, F5); plant height reached almost 90 2011). However, plant height was greater in the last sowing in as al. (2013)inchia as wellinothershortdayplantssuch Similar resultswereobtainedbyBusilacchi not shown).et when plantsweresowninthemiddleofFebruary(F4,data thus shorterdaylength;in VA60 cm heightsdidnotsurpass coat color(Ayerza, 2010). (because of environmental differences) rather than oil contentandfatty acid composition areduetolocation The studiesindicate that thelarger differences foundin Amaranthus The greatest yields observedinthisstudywereassociated withthe associated negatively was height Inflorescence Plant height was not positively associated with yield Plant height generally decreased with later sowing and (Al Hakimi, 2005) andsoybean(Jiangetal., - SEPTEMBER 2016 - MARCH 2016 Ayerza, R., and W. Coates.2005.Groundchia seed andchia oil Ayerza, R. 2013.Seedcomposition oftwochia (Salvia hispanica Ayerza, R. 2011. The seed’s oilcontent and fatty acid composition Ayerza, R.2010.Effects ofseedcolorandgrowinglocations on Ayerza, R. 2001. Wax/ester composition of ten jojoba clones above 550 L ha may produce yields greater than 2000 kg ha sowing between middle of Februaryand middle of March appropriate for theproduction ofthisspecies. Thus inthe VA without freezes during the entire season,make VA even more with lessthermal oscillation, less extremetemperatures and conditions of this study. However, the coastal desert climate, above 350and90L ha Armitage, A., and J. Laushman. 1989. Photoperiodic control Alenbrant, R., T. BenetolidaSilva, A. Soaresde Vasconcelos, W. Al Hakimi, A. 2005.Determination ofthecritical day lengthof REFERENCES CONICYT, GovernmentofChile. This work was supported by grant FONDECYT Nº1120202, ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS required tocorroboratethishypothesis. type daylengthsensitivity;however, further studiesare 600-700 °Cd. 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