Do Others Understand Us? Fighting Game Community member

perceptions of others’ views of the FGC

Crystal N. Steltenpohl, Jordan Reed, and Christopher B. Keys

Author Biographies: Crystal Steltenpohl, is an assistant professor of psychology at the University of Southern Indiana. She holds an MA in applied psychology from Southern Illinois University Carbondale and a PhD in community psychology from DePaul University. She is a co-founder of the Online Technologies Lab, which studies the way people interact with and through technology. The Online Technologies Lab received a SCRA Community Mini-Grant in 2017 to conduct interviews at a fighting game tournament to explore fighting game community members’ sense of community, social responsibility, and reactions to other fighting game community members’ helpful and harmful behaviors. Jordan Reed, is a graduate student in the community psychology program at DePaul University. He is a founding member of the Online Technologies Lab, receiving a SCRA Community Mini-Grant with Dr. Steltenpohl. He examines metastereotypes and community prototypes held by members of the fighting game community. Christopher Keys, is professor emeritus and former chair of the psychology departments at the University of Illinois at Chicago and DePaul University. He was also the founding associate dean for research and faculty development in the College of Science and Health at DePaul. A fellow of APA, MPA, and SCRA, Chris served as President of the Society for Community Research and Action. He has received the SCRA Distinguished Contribution to Community Psychology Theory and Research. Chris is a co-founder of the Online Technologies Lab. Chris enjoyed playing video games when his sons were growing up. Recommended Citation: Steltenpohl, C. N., Reed, J., & Keys, C.B.(2018). Do Others Understand Us? Fighting Game Community member perceptions of others’ views of the FGC. Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, 9(1), 1- 21. Retrieved Day/Month/Year, from (http://www.gjcpp.org/).

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Do Others Understand Us? Fighting Game Community member perceptions of Others’ views of the FGC

Abstract Our perceptions of how well others understand us and our communities can affect how we see ourselves, as well as how we perceive and interact with others. Community psychologists may be interested in examining community meta-stereotypes, or how community members believe outsiders see them. The current mixed-methods study asked fighting game community (FGC) members about their perceptions of outsiders’ understanding of the FGC. We collected data from 496 FGC members, who provided descriptions of others’ perceptions of the FGC, reasons these perceptions exist, and their reactions to these perceptions. The data supported our hypotheses that FGC members feel misunderstood by non-members; gaming affiliation and media affiliation each had significant effects on FGC members’ ratings of others’ understanding. Non- gaming media were perceived as exhibiting especially high levels of misunderstanding. Respondents’ negative comments focused on non-gaming media’s overreliance on outdated stereotypes and lack of research into the community. Recommendations for community psychologists, researchers, FGC members, and media outlets are included, which may allow various stakeholders to explore key issues and sources of friction. Finally, future research directions are discussed.

Community psychology has struggled over (Saroglou, Yzerbyt, & Kaschten, 2011). Either the years to define community (Krause & scenario—exaggeration or minimization— Montenegro, 2017). There has been less can have implications for group relations. attention to how community members see Meta-stereotypes play a significant role in the outsiders and believe outsiders see them. identity development of in-group members Interactions with outsiders may influence the and can negatively affect self-perceptions ways people think about and identify with (Haslam, Oakes, Reynolds, & Turner, 1999; their communities (Haslam, Oakes, Reynolds, Torres & Charles, 2004). Negative meta- & Turner, 1999; Torres & Charles, 2004). If stereotypes are associated with anxiety and a community members feel misunderstood by decrease in self-esteem for in-group outsiders, it may be due to members’ beliefs members, as well as intergroup tension that others hold negative stereotypes of them. (Finchilescu, 2010; Vorauer, Main, & Community meta-stereotypes are views held O’Connell, 1998). by community members about outsiders’ views of that community. Meta-stereotypes How out-group members see in-group can have a profound effect on individual in- members is particularly relevant if the views group members and interactions between of more dominant groups are affecting those groups (Klein & Azzi, 2001). from marginal communities. Those in the margins are more likely to be influenced by In-group members can accurately identify those in power than the other way around meta-stereotypes (Lichtenberger, 2004; (Lammers, Gordijn, & Otten, 2008; Vorauer & Saroglou, Yzerbyt, & Kaschten, 2011; Torres Sakamoto, 2008) and are less likely to have & Charles, 2004), but can also exaggerate or their perspectives shared and known by minimize others’ perceptions of them others (Dello Stritto, Loomis, & Allen, 2012).

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One of community psychology’s enduring 2011). Its roots in arcades may have created values is to help those be heard who often are an environment inclusive of people of color not (Bond, Serrano-Garcia and Keys, 2017; (Bowman, 2014). This inclusiveness is Society for Community Research and Action, contradicted by games’ often stereotypical or n.d.). Therefore, it would behoove the field to racist portrayals of some of the otherwise understand the meta-stereotypes held by diverse cast of characters (Demby, 2014). marginal communities with which we work. Moreover, tournament enrollment data One community with much experience in suggest less than 5% of competitive FGC dealing with meta-stereotypes regarding players are female (Kong & Theodore, 2011). larger outside communities is the fighting A few well-known players have received game community (FGC), a sub-group of the attention for engaging in domestic abuse larger gaming community where people play (Schreier, 2013) or arguing sexual games involving combat, such as Tekken, harassment is inherent to the FGC (Hamilton, Mortal Kombat, Persona 4 Arena, and Super 2012), which may serve to reinforce negative Smash Bros. The FGC is a niche within the stereotypes held by outsiders. Some FGC gaming community; games in this genre members insist players who engage in these comprised only 6.7% of games sold in negative behaviors do not reflect FGC values America in 2015, compared to the largest and denounce both the players and behaviors, group, shooters, which comprised of 24.5% while others argue such behavior is inherent (Entertainment Software Association, 2016). to the FGC and is why the community is not more diverse. Regardless how accurate or FGC members may find the perceptions of inaccurate the FGC’s image is, this groups dominant relative to them—groups complicated image may have a stifling effect like non-FGC gamers or other, non-gaming on the community. Some women may feel less individuals—relevant, and may be easily able comfortable engaging with the FGC. Then, to identify stereotypes these outsiders have some outsiders may view the FGC as about FGC members. Virtually no gamer inherently unwelcoming toward women. In surveyed by Dial (2013) believed violence turn, more women may become more and gaming are associated; however, they uncomfortable with the FGC. were aware others held those beliefs. Parents tend to associate their children playing video The cycle continues, fulfills itself and games with more conduct and peer problems strengthens. and less prosocial behavior, but their children do not make these same associations (Lobel, Communities may hold different meta- Granic, Stone, & Engels, 2014). Being aware of stereotypes for different out-groups. Non- these negative perceptions or stereotypes believers may distinguish between the about gaming may affect players’ willingness stereotypes Catholics or Muslims may have of to be associated with gaming communities. them, if there is reason to believe those stereotypes would differ in content or Despite popular belief, online gaming may severity. Whether FGC members would provide opportunities for shy individuals to distinguish between the stereotype(s) those generate new friendships and strengthen old in the wider (i.e., non-FGC) gaming ones (Kowert, Domahidi, & Quandt, 2014). community and non-gamers hold is unclear. More specifically, the FGC may facilitate social However, an intuitive anticipation of interaction between players and allow for the experiences congruent with intergroup formation of social capital among players contact theory (Pettigrew, 1998) suggests from diverse backgrounds (Kong & Theodore, other gamers who do not play fighting games

Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, http://www.gjcpp.org/ Page 3 Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice Volume 9, Issue 1 June 2018 may be seen as more understanding of the FGC members may not trust non-gaming FGC than non-gamers. media due to the “games cause violence” narrative seen throughout media coverage of Would FGC members differentiate between psychological research since the 1990s. The stereotypes they believe individuals hold and media often forms tenuous connections those held by the media? We may be able to between video games and what sometimes infer their feelings from previous research. In feels like anyone who has committed a interviews with FGC members, Harper (2010) notable violent crime. Mainstream news noted a “community perception of the press outlets suggested Adam Lanza, the gunman as insincere and lacking in genuine interest” involved in the Sandy Hook massacre, may (p. 65). Some exasperation with games media have been influenced by video games (Orr & may come from the gaming community’s Milton, 2013; Twenge, 2012); others include frustration over the role and expectations of Red Lake shooter Jeff Weise (De, 2005), games journalists. Some games journalists see Aurora shooter James Holmes (Stevens, themselves as traditional journalists, while 2012), and Rep. Gabrielle Gifford’s shooter, others describe themselves as commentators Jared Lee Loughner (Berzon, Emshwiller, & or bloggers, who have a very different set of Guth, 2011). Gaming news sites largely responsibilities to their audience (Fisher, discount articles linking violent criminals to 2012). Journalists tend to be held to higher video games, and, unlike many mainstream standards accuracy and allowing all sides of media outlets, publish about studies with null an issue to be appropriately reported. In or contradictory findings (Karmali, 2013; contrast, bloggers and commentators may Schreier, 2015). have more leeway to be opinionated. To slightly modify a quote from The Big Taking all of this together, FGC members may Lebowski¸ gaming-related bloggers and feel more understood by individuals rather commentators are in a “better” position to than the media. Outsiders closer to the FGC respond to gamers’ critiques about fairness (e.g. people who play non-fighting games) and completeness with, “Yeah, well, that’s just may be perceived as more understanding like, my opinion, man” (Coen & Coen, 2009). than those who do not play games at all. To this end, we designed an exploratory mixed Gaming-related media may be considered methods study examining FGC members’ ultimately more understanding than perceptions of outsiders’ understanding of mainstream media. Williams (2003) found the FGC. We hypothesize the following for our Time, Newsweek, US World News & Report, quantitative data: and the New York Times have all historically characterized video games as a social threat • FGC members do not feel understood (McKernan, 2013). On the other hand, Kotaku by outsiders, and (a popular gaming outlet) treated gaming as a • FGC members perceive varying levels valuable form of artistic expression and of understanding from outsiders, such explored a broad range of gaming-related that: topics. Kotaku presented critiques of the o those with gaming affiliation negative views about the gaming community are perceived as more held by influential public figures and understanding than those institutions including politicians, academia, without gaming affiliation, and mainstream media outlets, and even other that individuals will be video game media outlets. perceived as more understanding of the FGC than those with media affiliation.

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About Fighting Games (But Were Afraid to For our qualitative data, our research Ask)”) inconsistent with how FGC members questions are: perceived his and his co-presenter’s actual knowledge and understanding of the • What stereotypes do FGC members community (Miller, 2013; Newsman, 2013). think exist for their community? In addition, some FGC members took issues • In the views of FGC members, do the with perceived confirmation bias and the way stereotypes held by gaming group and with which the presenters positioned by media group differ? Put another themselves (as simultaneously experts and way, for example, will the stereotypes non-experts) relative to the community (a about FGC members held by non- curiosity rather than a “community to be gamers be the same as those held by loved” (Miller, 2013)). Some FGC members the non-gaming media? also disliked statements Harper had made • What reasons do FGC members give that were perceived as him downplaying the to explain why these stereotypes significance his research (and by extension, exist? the FGC) has to academia. • How do FGC members react to these stereotypes? While there were some positive reactions from community members (FGCRequiem, 2014), the negative reactions motivated us to Based on our experiences with the FGC, we ensure we were open with the community anticipate FGC members largely agree the about our intentions, cultivated an stereotypes others have about their understanding of the FGC’s culture and community tend to be negative, but these history, and remained as non-judgmental as stereotypes may vary across groups. FGC possible. We are not members of the FGC, and members may believe gamers have fewer or we have sought to have an open and engaged stance toward the community. Some FGC less severe negative stereotypes of the FGC members have perceived our efforts to than non-gamers. Moreover, we anticipate highlight how the FGC is a unique and FGC members think individuals are less meaningful community to be in good faith negative in their stereotypes than the media. (dpu_fgc_study, 2017). We also anticipate FGC members have a variety of explanations for why these Methods stereotypes exist, but negative motivations Participants will likely be attached more readily to the We obtained 496 FGC member responses to general (non-gaming) media. Lastly, we an online survey. Of these, 360 FGC members anticipate FGC members will vary on the provided complete responses on quantitative perceived effects of these stereotypes on the questions about community, but the effects will largely be understanding/misunderstanding of the FGC, negative. while 338 and 328 members responded to qualitative questions about what portrayals We spent time trying to understand various of the FGC are and what they think of these responses to previous research by Harper portrayals, respectively. Respondents were (2010) to find the best ways to build trust on average 24.4 years old (SD = 5.15, range between us and the various fighting game 18-41) and reported varying levels of time communities. Complaints about Harper’s spent on video games in general as well as research included the cost of his book ($125 fighting games more specifically. On average, at the time) creating access issues for FGC respondents have been playing video games members, and a presentation title (“Everything You Always Wanted to Know for 18.89 years (SD = 5.32, range 0-37) and

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Table 1: Demographic Information of FGC Members Characteristic N (%) Race/Ethnicity White/Caucasian 188 (37.9) Black/African (American) 21 (4.23) Asian 31 (6.25) Middle Eastern 3 (0.60) Latinx/Hispanic 37 (7.46) Multiracial/ethnic 43 (8.67) Decline to answer 173 (34.88) Gender Identity Male 309 (62.30) Female 15 (3.02) Trans/Non-Binary1 3 (0.60) Decline to answer 169 (34.07) Sexual Orientation Heterosexual 262 (52.82) Lesbian/Gay 12 (2.42) Bi-/Pansexual 39 (7.86) Asexual 3 (0.60) Sexually fluid/Queer 1 (0.20) Decline to answer2 179 (36.09) Disability Status Yes3 34 (6.85) No 292 (58.87) Decline to answer 170 (34.27) Education status No schooling completed 1 (0.20) Kindergarten/nursery school to 8th grade 1 (0.20) Some high school, no diploma 12 (2.42) High school graduate, diploma or equivalent 52 (10.48) Some college credit, no degree 109 (21.98) Trade/technical/vocational training 12 (2.42) Associate degree 27 (5.44) Bachelor’s degree 92 (18.55) Master’s degree 17 (3.43) Professional degree 3 (0.60) Doctorate degree 2 (0.40) Declined to answer 168 (33.88) Location United States 270 (54.44) Canada 21 (4.23) Mexico 3 (0.60) South America 1 (0.20) Asia 3 (0.60) Africa 1 (0.20) Europe4 27 (5.44) Australia/New Zealand 4 (0.81) Declined to answer 166 (33.47)

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1Numbers on trans identity may be underrepresented; we did not specifically ask respondents if they identify as trans. 2If a respondent answered in a manner where it was not possible to determine their sexuality (e.g. “male” may be interpreted as “I am interested in males” or “I identify as male”), we placed them in the Decline to answer category. 3Of those who provided information on their disability status, the most common responses were ADD/ADHD, anxiety, depression, and Asperger’s, while the most common physical disabilities were deafness and visual impairment. 4We included Russia as a European country. fighting games for 11.21 years (SD = 7.38, misunderstood (2), somewhat misunderstood range 0-28). Respondents were diverse on a (3), somewhat understood (4), understood number of demographic characteristics (See (5), and completely understood (6). That is, Table 1). higher scores denote greater understanding. Respondents interacted with their top Respondents were also asked open-ended community in a number of ways, including questions about what the portrayals of the in-person gaming nights, streaming, and community are and what they thought of social media, each of which roughly three these portrayals. As this study was quarters of respondents used to interact with exploratory in nature, the questions were their communities. While our respondents framed broadly to prevent respondents from came from a variety of specific game being led to specific response patterns. communities, the most popular responses were communities relating to fighting games Respondents were also asked the following like Street Fighter, Super Smash Bros., Guilty open response qualitative questions: Gear, and Mortal Kombat. 1) Please tell us more about your thoughts of others' understanding of Instrumentation the FGC. What are these other portrayals of the FGC? The first and third authors worked with FGC members to create an original online survey, 2) What do you think of these which can be accessed on the Open Science portrayals? Framework (Steltenpohl & Keys, 2017). In line with Creswell’s (2013) description of Procedure concurrent embedded strategies, we utilized quantitative data to explore outcomes (e.g. After obtaining IRB approval and support perceived understanding or lack thereof) and from an array of FGC members, we invited qualitative data to explore processes (e.g. people with experiences with the FGC perceived origins of misunderstanding, (positive or negative) to participate in the effects on community members). Survey study via postings on social media (e.g. respondents were asked how well they Facebook, Twitter, various FGC-related thought fighting games and their subreddits) and on gaming sites. communities are understood by four groups: Respondents who identified their “top other (non-FGC) gamers, non-gamers, games community” as anything other than a media (e.g. Kotaku, Polygon, IGN), and other fighting game (e.g. League of Legends) or non-gaming media (e.g. CNN, Fox News, BBC). who were under 18 were excluded from the Responses were provided on a six-point sample, as we were primarily interested in bipolar scale: completely misunderstood (1), the experiences of adult FGC members. Adult members are likely

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to be able to make a larger comparative time results of the coding process with members commitment to the community (when to ensure the quality of the analysis. Finally, considering available leisure time) and are we obtained feedback on our manuscript thereby likely to have relatively stable views draft from several community members. and remain in the community in the long term. Researcher Positionality. The three authors have varying levels of engagement with Analysis different gaming communities. The first author has been playing video games since For the quantitative analysis, we computed she was four years old, has been involved descriptive statistics (average, SD) for all four with gaming-related forums since 2003, and groups combined to examine whether FGC has written for a few gaming websites; the members felt understood. A within-subjects second author plays a variety of video games 2x2 ANOVA was conducted to test the second and has been active on several gaming- hypothesis by comparing the effect of gaming related subreddits; and the final author has affiliation (gamer, non-gamer) and media had experience gaming with family members. affiliation (individual, media) on FGC players’ While none of the authors identify as FGC perceptions of the group’s understanding of members, the first two authors attended an the FGC. anime fighting game tournament and the first author has personal and professional contacts In line with consensual qualitative research within the community. All three authors approaches the first author created a believe communities should be allowed to codebook using open coding and data speak for themselves, and have made reduction. The second author independently concerted efforts not to overinterpret examined the data and checked his own qualitative responses. Having a member of understanding of the responses against the the author team who was highly involved codebook (Hill, Thompson, & Williams, 1997; with gaming facilitated entry and participant Williams & Morrow, 2009). The first and recruitment. These different degrees of second authors met to discuss codes until engagement also enabled the authors to view consensus was reached, with the third author the FGC and the results from diverse acting as an outside auditor. The full perspectives that, taken together, yield quantitative analyses and qualitative valuable insights. codebook are accessible on the Open Science Framework (Steltenpohl, Reed, & Keys, Results 2017). The quantitative findings for each hypothesis Further, to ensure the accuracy and and qualitative findings for each research credibility of the analysis, FGC members were question are presented in order. Hypothesis 1 invited to participate in member checks three states members do not feel understood by times. When designing the survey, we asked outsiders. Based on the distribution and several FGC members for feedback on mean of the data, FGC members rated others’ question wording and relevance to overall understanding of the FGC somewhere community needs. We also shared initial between “somewhat misunderstood” and “misunderstood” (M = 2.63, SD = 1.35, 95% CI [2.57, 2.70]), in support of the first hypothesis.

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The second hypothesis states FGC members In support of hypothesis 2a, there was a perceive varying levels of understanding from significant main effect of gaming affiliation outsiders, such that: those with gaming accounting for a small amount of variance in affiliation are perceived as more perceptions of understanding, F(1,359) = understanding than those without gaming 38.90, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.026, such that FGC affiliation, and that individuals will be players perceived slightly greater perceived as more understanding of the FGC understanding from gaming-affiliated sources than those with media affiliation. than non-gaming-affiliated sources (Table 2).

Table 2. Repeated Measures ANOVA Summary Table Source df SS MS F p η2 Gaming Affiliation 1 49.1 49.1 38.9 <.001 0.026 Media Affiliation 1 733.9 733.9 580.49 <.001 0.287 A x B Interaction 1 5.4 5.4 5.94 0.004 0.003 Residuals 1,436 1815.5 1.3 Total 359 Note. – MS = Mean Squares.

As predicted in hypothesis 2b, there was a [2.06, 2.27]) as “misunderstanding” of the significant main effect of media accounting FGC, but reported non-gaming media for a large amount of variance in ratings of misunderstood them the most, with a rating understanding, F (1,359) = 580.49, p < 0.001, somewhere between “misunderstanding” and η2 = 0.287, such that those affiliated with the “completely misunderstanding” the FGC (M = media were seen as less understanding than 1.68, SD = 0.87, 95% CI [1.58, 1.77]). those not assumed to be affiliated with the media (Table 2). Overall perceptions of understanding and meta-stereotypes. In line with research In addition to the hypothesized quantitative question 1 about what stereotypes FGC results, there was also a significant members believe exist of the FGC, our interaction effect between the gaming and thematic analysis indicated respondents paid media factors accounting for a very modest far more attention to negative rather than amount of variance in ratings of positive portrayals of the community. The understanding, F(1,359) = 5.94, p =.004, η2 = following prominent subthemes emerged 0.003 (Table 2, Figure 1). Other individual under negative portrayals: aggressively gamers were seen as the most understanding competitive, antisocial/jerks, childish, of the FGC, while non-gaming media was elitist/arrogant, isms (any comments relating reported to to understand the FGC the least to homophobia, sexism, racism, etc.), having by a fair margin. Using the language reflected no skill (the games do not require skill or the in the survey, FGC members rated non-FGC players do not have skill), and creating gamers between “somewhat understanding” barriers to entry. Other negative portrayal and “somewhat misunderstanding” of the FGC subthemes were: reduced legitimacy (M = 3.47, SD = 1.18, 95% CI [3.35, 3.59]). compared to other communities, negative Respondents felt non-gamers “somewhat generalizations (both general gamer and FGC- misunderstood” the FGC (M = 3.23, SD = 1.37, specific), players take the game too seriously 95% CI [3.08, 3.37]). Respondents rated for the games to be fun, players are gaming media (M =2.17, SD = 1.01, 95% CI violent/dangerous, fighting games are a

Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, http://www.gjcpp.org/ Page 9 Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice Volume 9, Issue 1 June 2018 waste of time, and general negative interpretation of perceptions around entrée), responses. A few other comments mentioned passionate (a possible alternative perceptions that the community is not interpretation of tryhards), and general diverse. Responses usually mentioned at least positive responses. Like the frequency of one of these negative themes. Another group positive responding, there were also few of FGC members mentioned being completely mentions of neutral or mixed portrayals. invisible to one or more outside groups. These portrayals focused on comparisons to esports and other activities or statements In contrast, only a few responses indicated indicating the FGC was simply seen as a group positive outside portrayals; subthemes were like any other. friendly/tight-knit (a possible alternative

Figure 1. Perceptions of understanding of the Fighting Game Community

Note. Responses were provided on a six-point bipolar scale from “completely misunderstood (1)” to “completely understood (6).”

Gaming affiliation. Exploratory research groups. Qualitative statements mirror the question 2 concerns differences in game affiliation effect hypothesized and perceptions of the FGC by various outsider reported above in direction and intensity.

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Many respondents made distinctions respondents referenced use of outdated and between gamers and non-gamers, indicating inaccurate stereotypes of the gaming those further from the FGC (the general community or a lack of coverage: Among non- media and non-gamers in this case) are less gaming media [the FGC is] portrayed just like likely to understand the community. One FGC any other e-sport, as nerds with too much member stated, “Non-gamers usually share time that don't get out much, but in fact the the [negative opinion] of the mainstream fighting game community is at best a reason media. Lack of knowledge coupled with to get out and be social with others at ancient stereotypes.” FGC members tournaments and events. mentioned common meta-stereotypes including non-gamer and general media The consensus among respondents was that descriptions of players as being virgins, those with no gaming affiliation do not know parents’ basement dwellers, low-lifes, and or care about the FGC, although a few nerds. mentioned this reliance on negative stereotypes seems to be declining with time. In contrast, gaming media (e.g. Kotaku, IGN) were seen in a mixed light. Some comments Media affiliation. As reported in support of painted a grim portrait, citing a history of hypothesis 2b and in response to research misrepresentation of the community. As one question 2 about differences in perceptions of respondent noted, “It's a real shame what the various outsider groups, FGC players gaming media has done to set back gaming as perceived far greater understanding from a whole. Colin Cowherd [a former ESPN individuals than from the media. Some sports commentator who was known for respondents highlighted the difference making distasteful and controversial between “actual people” and the media: comments about esports and esports players] is a person who thinks of gamers as basement Actual people are a little more reasonable dwellers who never get out in the sun.” [than the media]. At heart, eve[r]yone However, others said things were mixed but understands competition. It's in our nature to improving, with more accurate coverage from compete; fighting games, like chess, various gaming media sources. One FGC basketball, drinking games, allow us to member stated: express our competitive side in a more Aside from the articles about EVO [major civilized way than simply screaming at one tournament] that come around every another and beating each other to death with summer, a majority of coverage the FC gets in sticks and rocks. gaming media is either about Smash [a popular fighting game], or it’s criticism As noted above, the most negative comments regarding some gender based social justice were directed toward non-gaming media, issue, either accusing the community of being with respondents describing non-gaming sexist, or accusing developers of putting media as being behind the times, associating sexist characters/outfits in their games. On the FGC with “violent nerds,” and positioning the bright side Redbull [an energy drink FGC members as wasting their time. One FGC company that has taken a recent interest in member noted: esports] has been writing really good FGC- Other Media always reports these games as a related articles [on their website, Red Bull horrible thing to be introduced to people eSports] … because of its violent nature. Fighting games are usually depicted as extremely violent Few comments about non-gamers and non- games because it's two people fighting each gaming media were positive. Most other, sometimes to death other times not.

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Many will instantly believe, for those who Regarding bias and favoritism, FGC members have a poor perception of these games, that if noted a difference in the amount of coverage one plays them they'll instantly become fighting games received in comparison to extremely violent and show off being very other (larger) gaming communities, for aggressive towards their family and peers. example RTS (real-time strategy games; e.g. FGC members noted a general invisibility in StarCraft), FPS (first person shooters, e.g. the media, especially non-gaming media. As Halo), or MOBA (multiplayer online battle one FGC member put it, “Other media... Do arenas; e.g. League of Legends). Others noted they even know that fighting games exist?” the quality of reporting of negative events within these communities is also more lenient FGC members’ beliefs about why portrayals than reporting on similar events in the FGC. exist. An exploration of research question 3 One FGC member asserted, regarding why these portrayals emerged yielded four explanations: the FGC is different When someone in the FGC makes a dumb from other communities, lack of mistake or says something repugnant, it is knowledge/understanding (almost immediately looked at as a blemish on the universally applied to negative portrayals), community as a whole. We're held to the shared understanding/values (almost words that came out of Aris's [a prominent universally applied to positive portrayals), FGC member who made sexist remarks] and ulterior motives (specifically: agendas mouth some 4 years ago, meanwhile, and favoritism). The explanations that the professional CS:GO [Counter-Strike: Global FGC is different from other communities and Offensive, a FPS] players use homophobic these portrayals come from a shared speech almost constantly with no understanding/values were infrequently repercussions. There are no thinkpieces in given and applied with some consistency major eSports publications about how the across all target groups. The most popular CS:GO competitive community needs to clean explanation given was lack of up its act, despite the callout for every hiding understanding/knowledge, and it was also space being "gay spot" and players frequently applied fairly evenly across all groups, calling each other "faggots." […] It's clear that regardless of understanding respondents felt the big money involved in CS:GO allows it a any particular group was of the FGC. level of legitimacy in the public eye that is not Most interesting, however, was the claim of afforded to the FGC. ulterior motives, which was far more likely to be applied to the media than to individuals. FGC members’ responses to portrayals. While individuals were often described as Regarding research question 4, respondents being ignorant or unaware of the community, had a variety of responses to these meta- the media was accused of being interested stereotypic portrayals. There are those who only in sensationalism and clickbait (articles had negative responses; subthemes here containing little actual substance--or in some included frustration, a feeling that things will cases, misinformation--but have catchy titles not change, being sad or upset, and general intended to catch readers’ attention), with negativity. As one participant put it, [These one FGC member going so far as to say, “It’s portrayals] are often infuriating because mostly fed by clickbait. Fuck games media. neither [the portrayals from those who play Kotaku especially.” Another FGC member games nor those who do not] give a positive posited that “in the case of fighting game view of the situation. They assume we are communities, acts of sexism [are] easy to cheaters or play bad games when they don't sensationalize.” even know what they're talking about.

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A number of respondents indicated these Understandably, FGC members had positive portrayals hurt the FGC, namely by hurting responses to positive portrayals. Positive the scene (e.g. making fighting games look responses fell under three main subthemes— boring, events not receiving enough the portrayals help the community (by coverage) or driving away potential and attracting new players or changing current members. One respondent shared, perceptions about the community), the “The only one that really pisses me off is the portrayals are improving, or general positive media's portrayal, because I believe it's done responses—with improvement being by and maliciously, and I believe it has the potential large the most common response among to be harmful to both the gaming community positive reactions. One FGC member said, and the gaming industry.” As a young gamer, these portrayals used to Others expressed more neutral or mixed bother me a lot. Today, not so much. I think reactions. Emergent themes here involved the negative portrayal of the fighting game resignation (“I understand”), a desire for community from non-gamers and other change, requests for outsiders to give the media will, in time, dissipate. As technology community a chance, minimization of the grows, and the generation of people who portrayals’ effects on the community, and grew up playing these games become the statements assuming responsibility (either leaders of today's general demographic and through stating it is the community’s fault community, mainstream media will see an these portrayals exist or by saying it is the acceptance of the fighting game community. FGC’s responsibility to make the community a That's already happening today. fun place to be). The most popular responses—statements involving resignation Beyond these reactions, FGC members and statements involving minimization— commented on the accuracy of the portrayals. were almost antithetical to one another. Few As might be expected, far more respondents of these responses indicated a sense of felt the negative portrayals were inaccurate, responsibility for the perceptions. As one although a few did comment the negative respondent put it, I feel like other portrayals were accurate. As one respondent communities only look at the face value of the noted about perceived sexism and community. They don't understand the core homophobia within the community, “I think idea behind the games that they see. They it[‘]s shockingly accurate and we as gamers only see a bunch of people yelling or getting need to step it up and help become guides to excited over some stuff on a screen. Which is getting involved, instead of gatekeepers completely understandable, don't get me against women/lgbtq+/etc.” One participant wrong? I think that the community needs to who self-identified as a trans lesbian woman make the information that makes these shared a specific example where she was games exciting for the better players, made watching an online stream of a tournament available in SOME way. Whether it's books, or where a woman was doing very well. The some online articles. I feel the current media stream chat during this time was filled with sites do a horrible job at letting outsiders memes about women, comments about know of the information that actually could “trannies,” and suggestions for the men not to be available. Again, the information that IS bother because “her twitter says she’s a available only gives a face value to the games lesbian feminist.” The respondent stopped being played or shown. This actually does watching the stream, noting it was NOT represent what really goes on in a game “discouraging and downright scary and or a match being played. having people also say ‘OH SHES ACTUALLY GOOD’ hurts because there’s this huge ‘boys

Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, http://www.gjcpp.org/ Page 13 Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice Volume 9, Issue 1 June 2018 club’ mentality and you won’t be able to fit in media affiliation. We asked (1) what unless you got something to show.” She closes stereotypes FGC members think exist for her statement noting this forces people to their community, (2) whether these stay away from the community, which is not stereotypes differ by the group they were something she wants to happen. describing, and (3) what reasons FGC members give to explain why these About a third of respondents who found stereotypes exist. We found FGC members’ negative portrayals to be inaccurate noted opinions on gaming-related entities appear to while there were “bad apples”—that is, be more positive in part due the perception of people who fit these negative portrayals— shared knowledge or values. FGC members these individuals were not representative of report thinking gamers and gaming media the FGC. These assertions were often were more likely than their non-gaming followed by comments indicating these counterparts to understand competition and people ruin the fun for everyone. One social norms like trash-talking. However, respondent noted, “Some think of the fighting even other gamers were still seen as only game community as very toxic, douchey, or between “somewhat understanding” and sexist. This is based off of a few occurrences “somewhat misunderstanding” of the FGC. that grow into blanket generalizations about FGC members saw the media as our community. We are not hateful and we misunderstanding them more than like to embrace everyone.” In contrast to the individuals. Non-gaming media was seen as woman’s experience above, another woman the least understanding group, and both noted, I think they are blown completely out gaming and non-gaming media were seen as of proportion. I am a woman, and the motivated by popularity and monetary stereotypes of sexism in the community are agendas to portray the FGC in a negative light. generally exaggerated and only expressed by Lastly, we asked (4) how FGC members react those who are not actually part of the to these meta-stereotypes. While FGC community. Like any community, most times members reacted in a variety of ways, many the only things outsiders hear about are the felt the FGC is hurt by negative portrayals, negative experiences, and then they [are] which they saw as largely inaccurate. blown out of proportion and repeated by people who don't know anything about the Given the niche status of fighting games community themselves. compared to the larger gaming market Even among respondents who felt these bad (Entertainment Software Association, 2016), apples did not represent the community at popular beliefs about gamers more generally large, a few did note the FGC “needs better (Dial, 2013), and media coverage (and lack PR” or does “little to prevent the negative way thereof) of the FGC specifically (Hamilton, in which [FGC members] are portrayed.” 2012; Schreier, 2013) it is not surprising FGC members feel generally misunderstood. More Discussion interestingly, the strength of negative meta- stereotypes and reasons FGC members gave Our quantitative hypotheses were confirmed for the existence of primarily negative in that: (1) FGC members generally consider portrayals differed across out-groups. their community to be misunderstood by outsiders, (2a) those with gaming affiliation Those with gaming affiliation were seen as were seen as more understanding than those more understanding of the FGC than those without gaming affiliation, and (2b) without gaming affiliation. This gaming individuals were perceived as more affiliation effect appears to be, in part, due to understanding of the FGC than those with the belief some FGC members have regarding

Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, http://www.gjcpp.org/ Page 14 Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice Volume 9, Issue 1 June 2018 shared experiences and values. This belief is stereotypes exist was ignorance, often due to in line with intergroup contact theory a lack of interest or willingness to put forth (Pettigrew, 1998), but not with research done effort into understanding the community and by Sigelman & Tuch (1997) suggesting the fighting games. As we have seen in previous more contact the in-group had with the out- research, many gamers believe media outlets group, the worse the in-group’s meta- may be motivated by money, misinformation, stereotypes were. It is possible to reconcile or popularity to misrepresent the community these discrepancies if the FGC, being a (Walker, 2013). In short, there are three subgroup of the gaming community, is possible explanations for the media affiliation perceived as more similar to—and having effect, namely, the greater availability and more similar experiences with—the general thus greater impact of media perspectives gaming community than other groups, like than those of individuals, the perceptions of a non-gaming media. For example, white and relative lack of power, and the perceptions of black university students may see themselves the media’s business motivations. and their experiences as fundamentally different from one another, despite their shared status as university students. Since the Study Strengths FGC is a subgroup of the larger gaming community and the two shares being To our knowledge, this is the first study to stereotyped by outsiders, among other examine community meta-stereotypes in experiences, the larger gaming community community psychology. Given the centrality may not be as much of an out-group as people of the concept of community in community who do not play video games. Future research psychology, it is helpful to examine how may test such a hypothesis. members of communities, especially marginalized communities, believe they are Individuals may be perceived as more being viewed by others. Moreover, since the understanding because respondents felt a number of people who play games continues sense of control over changing those to grow, it is important for community misperceptions, a sense they did not express psychologists to become more knowledgeable with those affiliated with the media. In about this new ecology and the communities addition, media outlets reach more people within it. This study is also, to the best we can and, given their negative portrayals of the determine, the first community psychological FGC, are likely to disseminate more negative study of this rapidly growing gaming ecology information about the FGC than individuals. and one of the first studies of any sort with On the other hand, it is not difficult to imagine constituent validity (cf. Keys & Frank, 1987) a scenario where an FGC member explains concerning the FGC. It also offers the first fighting games to another person in a one-on- quantitative demonstrations of the gaming one setting, possibly increasing the interest affiliation effect, the media affiliation effect, and understanding of the other party. and their related interaction effect on However, it seems less likely FGC members understanding in meta-stereotypes held by believe a media conglomerate representative people who play games. would be reachable for and also swayed in such a scenario. Our study’s strengths draw upon our efforts to understand the FGC before designing our We also asked what reasons FGC members to study. We spent time watching videos and give to explain why these stereotypes exist, as streams of competitions, scouring news sites well as how they react to these stereotypes. for news and thinkpieces about the The most popular reason given for why these community (and its responses to such

Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, http://www.gjcpp.org/ Page 15 Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice Volume 9, Issue 1 June 2018 pieces), reading blogs and popular forums suggested by Armstrong & Overton (1977). like Shoryuken, and talking to FGC members. Given the proportion of missing responses, This allowed to us to design a study focused caution is suggested in generalizing too on issues the community found important, strongly from these data. speak in a language we both would It had likely not gone unnoticed we were not understand, and ultimately gain trust and visible members of the FGC. Prominent make our entrée into the community easier. members of some FGC groups, as well as As noted above, we also engaged in member some gaming-related publications and checks at various points in our research businesses, did promote the survey, which process by reaching out to FGC members likely modulated this perception, but it is about our coding scheme and initial results possible some FGC members may have opted across our various projects, which appears to out of completing the survey, given the have been well-received by members of the conflictual history between researchers and community (dpu_fgc_study, 2017). These the community. Given the blunt nature of member checks were also instrumental in the many of the responses, we think any negative creation of a follow-up study where we perceptions surrounding our intentions were interviewed FGC members at an anime likely no more than modest inhibitors. fighting game tournament (Steltenpohl, 2017). We believe these efforts, along with Implications and Future Research the use of mixed methods to triangulate FGC members’ perceptions, improved the validity Future research may examine whether FGC of our results. members who are more aware of or apply negative stereotypes to the FGC identify as These findings support both empirical strongly as FGC members as those who are research (e.g. Dial, 2013; Fisher, 2012; not as aware or apply the negative Harper, 2010) and our lived experiences stereotypes less often (Owuamalam & within the gaming community at large. This Zagefka, 2011). FGC members understand study also contributes to the research done many outsiders perceive the community as thus far on meta-stereotypes, much of which being sexist and homophobic. This awareness appears to have primarily focused on a of outsiders’ negative stereotypes may affect specific community’s meta-stereotypes with how some FGC members—particularly those regard to another, specific outside group who identify with or are perceived to be a (Finchilescu, 2010; Saroglou, Yzerbyt, & member of groups affected by sexism and Kaschten, 2011; Torres & Charles, 2004). Our homophobia—interact with the community. results also suggest it would be wise for community psychologists to pay attention to Some FGC members seem to think negative the influence of the media in shaping stereotypes prevent people from joining the communities and their perspectives. community, but negative stereotypes may Study Limitations. Of the 495 respondents also keep members in the community from who completed the survey, 135 (roughly fully participating. If being perceived as more 27%) chose not to provide responses for the inclusive is important to FGC members, they quantitative questions, while 157 (roughly may have to make changes based on 32%) and 167 (roughly 34%) did not provide conversations they have within their responses for the two qualitative questions. It communities about what may lead the FGC to is difficult to ascertain why respondents be considered more accessible. One would not complete these questions. It is community “soft banned” certain sexy possible they only responded to questions costumes for offline tournaments in the Dead they were interested in answering, as or Alive community, viz., it was up to the

Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice, http://www.gjcpp.org/ Page 16 Global Journal of Community Psychology Practice Volume 9, Issue 1 June 2018 discretion of the tournament organizer. This community. Future research might explore community voiced a desire for people to focus how much a community’s sense of outsiders’ more on the gameplay aspect of the games misunderstanding is influenced by how much and wanting to avoid pushing people away control they feel they have over changing from trying the game (Fahey, 2015). As those misperceptions. This research could be expected, there were a variety of responses to particularly useful for those wishing for this change. Previous research suggests better relations with amorphous entities such community members will respond more as gaming and non-gaming media, which may positively to internal changes when they can be more difficult to access and persuade than see the value in them (Vakola, Armenakis, & individuals. FGC members—and members of Oreg, 2013). If FGC members value making other communities—may discount negative spaces more inclusive and agree with the way stereotypes held by those in the media in which these changes are made, they may because the media is seen as difficult to respond positively. Community psychologists influence. On the other hand, FGC members interested in membership and community may feel a greater impact from close friends development may be interested in how or people they feel should understand them community values and changing such values (e.g. other gamers) because of the possibility can affect participation and feelings of of changing their minds. This sense of efficacy inclusion among newer and more established could either change outsiders’ stereotypes of members alike. the FGC or minimize the negative effects of FGC members’ meta-stereotypes. Community researchers working with gaming communities may anticipate members’ Community psychologists focus on a wide perception of outsiders’ misunderstanding. range of psychological phenomena, as our They may need not only to invest time in social world is incredibly complex, and understanding the community, but also to recognize our own positions of power relative make explicit where they and the community to the communities with which we work share values and interests. Researchers who (Dzidic, Breen, & Bishop, 2013). More have written on their experiences gaining specifically, it is important for community entrée into communities have described the psychologists to understand the intricacies of importance of aligning their own goals with community members’ meta-stereotypes, as it the goals of the community, understanding is likely perceptions apply to researchers. the history of the community, and People who play games are aware others understanding community members’ regard believe violence and gaming are associated for the research community (Quandt, (Dial, 2013) and researchers have McDonald, Bell, & Acury, 1999). Researchers continuously asserted video games produce can facilitate community members’ comfort only negative results (American Psychological and willingness to participate in research Association, 2005, 2013, 2015). Given our through discussing project expectations and commitment to participatory community outcomes with community members, research and empowerment (Bond, Serrano- entering the community without García, & Keys, 2017; Keys et al., 2017), preconceived notions, and expressing community psychologists are in a good understanding and compassion without position to explore effects of meta- forcing it (Matthew, 2017). stereotypes on building relationships with those perceived as outsiders, and help Like other groups, some FGC members also communities design and implement minimized negative stereotypes and the strategies to change outsiders’ perceptions of effects these stereotypes may have on their their group, if that is what they desire.

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(2011). Postings of a troubled mind. Conclusion The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB100 This study provides evidence meta- 01424052748703791904576075851 stereotypes exist within and affect the FGC. It 892478080 also expands upon the literature by Bond, M., Serrano-García, I., & Keys, C. (2017) suggesting meta-stereotypes may differ Community psychology for the 21st depending on the out-group being discussed century. In M. Bond, I. Serrano-García and encourages researchers to develop & C. Keys (Eds.) Handbook of theory to include community meta- Community Psychology. Washington, stereotypes. Understanding meta-stereotypes DC: American Psychological from a community perspective allows us to Association. anticipate challenges and opportunities with Bowman, M. (2014). Why the fighting game working with communities, particularly if community is color blind. Polygon. they are marginalized or otherwise inhabit a http://www.polygon.com/features/2 niche. To the extent we can understand 014/2/6/5361004/fighting-game- community meta-stereotypes and how they diversity affect relationships with outsiders and within Coen, E., & Coen, J. (2009). The Big Lebowski. the community, we can also take them into Faber & Faber. consideration when working with and within Creswell, J.W. (2013). Research design: communities to foster change. Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. Sage References Publications. De, S. (2005). School shooter followed video American Psychological Association. (2005). game-like “script.” NBC News. Review of research shows that http://www.nbcnews.com/id/72883 playing violent video games can 81/ns/us_news- heighten aggression. Washington, D.C. crime_and_courts/t/school-shooter- http://www.apa.org/news/press/rel followed-video-game-like-script/ eases/2005/08/violent-video.aspx Dello Stritto, M.E., Loomis, C., & Allen, N. American Psychological Association. (2013). (2012). Countering silencing: A Violence in the media - Psychologists summary of the dialogue and study TV and video game violence for deliberation. Global Journal of potential harmful effects. Community Psychology Practice, 2, 1- http://www.apa.org/action/resource 5. http://www.gjcpp.org/pdfs/v2i3- s/research-in-action/protect.aspx 0019-SpecSession-final.pdf American Psychological Association. (2015). Demby, G. (2014). “Street Fighter II”: Most APA review confirms link between racist nostalgic video game ever? playing violent video games and NPR. aggression. Washington, D.C. http://www.npr.org/sections/codes http://www.apa.org/news/press/rel witch/2014/03/16/290119728/stre eases/2015/08/violent-video- et-fighter-ii-most-racist-nostalgic- games.aspx video-game-ever Armstrong, J.S., & Overton, T.S. (1977). Dial, G.S. (2013). A misunderstood identity: Estimating nonresponse bias in mail The violent gamer. Austin State surveys. Journal of Marketing University. Dissertation. Research, 14, 396-402. Dpu_fgc_study. (2017). Some preliminary Berzon, A., Emshwiller, J.R., & Guth, R.A.

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Steltenpohl, C.N., & Keys, C.B. (2017). Fighting Walker, J. (2013). The lies that bind us: The Game Study. http://osf.io/qtmwn mainstream media and gaming. Rock Steltenpohl, C.N., Reed, J., & Keys, C.B. (2017). Paper Shotgun. Codebooks. http://osf.io/bmqvs https://www.rockpapershotgun.com/ Stevens, M. (2012). Colorado shooting: 2013/09/18/the-lies-that-bind-us- Suspect enjoyed video games, movies, the-mainstream-media-and-gaming/ school friend says. Los Angeles Times. Williams, D. (2003). The videogame lightning http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lano rod. Information, Communication, & w/2012/07/colorado-shooter- Society, 6, 523-550. enjoyed-video-games-movies-school- Williams, E.N., & Morrow, S.L. (2009). friend-says.html Achieving trustworthiness in Torres, K.C., & Charles, C.Z. (2004). Meta- qualitative research: A pan- stereotypes and the black-white paradigmatic divide: A qualitative view of race on perspective. Psychotherapy an elite college campus. Du Bois Research, 19, 576-582. Review, 1, 115-149. Twenge, J.M. (2012). Yes, violent video games Acknowledgements do cause aggression. Psychology Today. The authors would like to acknowledge https://www.psychologytoday.com/b Joshua Moore, Mark Belcher, and Robert log/our-changing- Hubbs for giving feedback on the survey and culture/201212/yes-violent-video- for sharing the survey on social media. We games-do-cause-aggression also thank DieHard GameFAN, Evansville Vakola, M., Armenakis, A., & Oreg, S. (2013). Esports, Game Informer, and others for Reactions to organizational change publicizing the survey. Thank you from an individual differences Christopher Shorten for helping with the data perspective: A review of empirical analyses, and to the Online Technologies Lab research. The psychology of for continued help with the project. Lastly, we organizational change: Viewing thank various FGC members on Reddit and change from the employee's elsewhere on social media for providing perspective, 95-122. ongoing feedback on our data analyses and Vorauer, J.D., Main, K.J., & O’Connell, G.B. interpretation of results. (1998). How do individuals expect to be viewed by members of lower Disclosure Statement status groups? Content and implications of meta-stereotypes. None of the authors have any commercial Journal of Personality and Social associations or financial interests that might Psychology, 75, 917-937. create a conflict of interest in connection with Vorauer, J.D., & Sakamoto, Y. (2008). Who this manuscript. cares what the out-group thinks? Testing an information search model Corresponding Author of the importance individuals accord to an out-group member’s view of Crystal N. Steltenpohl, College of Liberal Arts them during intergroup interaction. 3046, 8600 University Boulevard, University Journal of Personality and Social of Southern Indiana, Evansville, IN, 47712, Psychology 2008, 95, 1467-1480. [email protected].

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