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Interviewing for Research and Analysing Qualitative Data Interview methods – for what purpose? Interviewing for research and • Large amounts of relevant information about the analysing qualitative data: experiences of others may be collected by directly An overview questioning or talking to people. (revised May, 2011) • Some research questions are better answered in such a fashion. “The interview method is a conversation • Interviews, especially unstructured or semi- with a purpose” structured ones, offer considerable researcher flexibility. Martin Woods School of Health & Social Services • A great deal of research within at least the social Massey University sciences depends on them! The interview method Types of interviews for research …is non-experimental in design. 1) Brief survey The interview is used widely to supplement and extend 2) Extensive survey our knowledge about individual(s) thoughts, feelings and behaviours, meanings, interpretations, etc. 3) In-depth interviews One of the best ways to achieve this… 4) Monologue, narrative, etc The interviewer collects detailed personal information from individuals usually in one to one situations 5) Case study… using oral questions. Uses of interview materials Categories of interviews 1. The structured interview Interview material may provide either quantitative or • The key feature of the structured interview is in the qualitative data. pre-planning of all the questions asked. • Structured interviews also allow for exact replication Some argue that quantitative data is considered to be of the interview with others. easier to analyse and more ‘reliable’ than qualitative • To an extent, it is possible to generalise what you data. find out about the population from which your interview sample came. Others argue that qualitative data is less structured, • Structured interviews are conducted in various more difficult to analyse but the results are as valid as modes: face-to-face, by telephone, videophone and those in quantitative research. the Internet. However, qualitative data may help to explain some very • Questionnaires and surveys are common examples difficult questions or issues… of structured interview tools. this presentation covers mainly this aspect. 1 2. the semi-structured interview The semi-structured interview: • A key feature of the semi-structured interview is in the partial pre-planning of the questions. benefits and disadvantages • Semi-structured interviews still allow for replication The primary advantage of in-depth interviews is that they provide of the interview with others, but are be less much more detailed information than what is available through controlled. other data collection methods, such as surveys. • Semi-structured interviews may be conducted in • Standardisation of at least some of the questions increases data various modes: face-to-face, by telephone, reliability. videophone… but face-to face is probably best. • Replication possible. • A great deal of qualitative research (grounded • Ability to ask some spontaneous questions is sensitive to participants need to express themselves. theory, thematic analysis, etc) uses semi-structured interview material). They also may provide a more relaxed atmosphere in which to collect information—people may feel more comfortable having a conversation with you as opposed to filling out a survey. Limitations of in-depth interviews Pre-interview preparation • The use of an occasional spontaneous question makes the Planning answers difficult to quantify and analyse. Identify likely participants to be interviewed. • Spontaneous questions asked of some and not of others can be seen as unfair, or possibly misleading. Determine an adequate sample size if • Can be time-intensive necessary. • The interviewer must be capable of performing reliable interviews Ensure research will follow international and • Not generalisable national ethical research standards, including review by ethical research committees. • Prone to possible bias Pre-interview II Stages of an interview Developing • What to say to interviewees when setting up the interview; There are at least five • What to say to interviewees when beginning the stages: interview - including ensuring informed consent and 1. Arrival process... confidentiality of the interviewee – and what to say to ItIntro duc tions, interviewees in concluding the interview; background noise • What to do during the interview (e.g. take notes, checks, getting to audiotape, etc); know each other, • What to do following the interview (e.g. more notes Setting up and/or check audiotape for clarity; perhaps audiotape/ recording summarize key thoughts). equipment, settling down, etc. 2 2.Introducing the research 3.Starting the interview Explain: Gradually, unhurried, relaxing…using open-ended • the purpose of the interview, questions. • why the participant has been chosen, and • Semi-structured format… • the expected duration of the interview. • Although you should have some pre-planned questions to ask during the interview, you must also SkifSeek informe d consen tfthitit of the interviewee: allow questi ons to flow na tura lly, b ase d on • Use the information sheet, information provided by the respondent. • explanation of how the information is confidential, • Do not insist upon asking specific questions in a etc., specific order. • the use of note taking and/or the tape recorder, • In fact, the flow of the conversation dictates the • written or documented oral consent. questions asked, and those omitted, as well as the order of the questions. If the interviewee has consented, conduct the interview. Issues to remember when Questions to avoid when interviewing interviewing The interviewer: • Biased questions: • must make the interviewee comfortable. • Questions that assume what they ask: • appear interested in what they are saying. • Double-barrelled questions: • avoid ‘yes/no’ and leading questions. • Questions that do not directly relate to what you • Use appropriate body language. want to find out: • Confusing or complicated • Keep personal opinions in check. questions: 4. Keeping focussed: More interview tips Keeping focussed II Questions should be open-ended rather than closed- Seek understanding and interpretation... ended. You should usually ask a factual question before an Try to interpret what you are hearing, as well as seek clarity opinion question. and a deeper understanding from the respondent throughout the interview. Use probing questions as needed... These include: Remain conversational but remember your role is primarily • Would you give me an example? that of a listener. • Can you elaborate on that idea? Do not force or push the pace unnecessarily, or ‘put words • Would you explain that further? into the participant’s mouth’. • I’m not sure I understand what you’re saying... • Is there anything else? There should be smooth transitions from one topic to the next. 3 5.Ending the interview Interviewing… some basic things to remember Finish on time if possible, but try to make sure 1. Background noises can really affect the quality of any everything has been covered sufficiently. recording. 2. Faulty recording equipment can be disastrous. 3. Peoppyyggle often say some very interesting things after the MkMake sure t hat you have ma de a su ita ble arrangement recording device has been turned off. with the participant concerning the reviewing of the 4. Not every session will last the full amount of time. transcript material. 5. What is not said may sometimes be of considerable interest in an interview. 6. Participant body and facial gestures, pauses, silence, Thank the participant for their valuable time. laughter, etc can be of interest. 7. Transcribing is a lot of hard work. 8. Good transcribers are worth their weight in gold. Tips on the preliminary analysis What to do with all that data? of interview data Qualitative research results in large amounts of richly detailed data that • Read through the interview responses and look for is contextually laden and subjective. patterns or themes among the data. This data usually originates from • You should be able to discover a variety of themes, interview transcripts and/or observation notes and must be codes,,p or even possible categ ories that will p rovide reworked or ‘reduced’ to represent the beginnings of analysis, and/or ideas for future major themes or categories that interviews. describe the phenomenon being studied. You may, for example, find that younger participants tend to think and feel differently from older ones, or Data reduction facilitates the revealing that men and women respond differently to the same of findings simply and efficiently. questions, etc. This process depends upon the nature of the research, and especially on • You can also get some useful ideas for how to improve the chosen analytical approach. the next interviews, or which areas to pursue, etc. Qualitative data analysis; Qualitative data analysis- a few possible approaches Potential issues/pitfalls 1. Data shock! 1. Thematic analysis 2. The problem of methodology. 3.What to do about a va ilab le lite ratu re . 2. Grounded theory 4. The ‘wandering in the desert’ syndrome; i.e. issues surrounding the identification of relevant data (includes data coding concerns). 3. Discourse analysis 5. The need for adequate reflection to allow the “aha!” moments to filter through. 6. Managing all the various elements... ‘mind mapping’. 4. Others… 7. Writing it all up. 4 Qualitative data analysis The use of literature in data Qualitative data analysis consists of identifying, coding, management/analysis and
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