Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area of Abia State, Nigeria

Home , Aba North, Aba South, Enugu, Ngwa, Nsukka, Osisioma Ngwa

TITLE PAGE

INDUSTRIAL NOISE LEVELS IN ABA URBAN AREA OF ABIA STATE, NIGERIA.

MADUKO, CHIOMA ELIZABETH PG/M.Sc/13/66382

A PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF POSTGRADUATE STUDIES AND THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY,UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS OF SCIENCE DEGREE IN GEOGRAPHY (ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT)

DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY

JUNE, 2016

APPROVAL/CERTIFICATION

Maduko, Chioma Elizabeth, a postgraduate student in the Department of Geography, specialized in Environmental Management, has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the course and research work for the award of the degree of Master of Science (M.Sc) in Geography

(Environmental Management). The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other Diploma or Degree of this or any other university.

------DR. M.C. OBETA PROF. P.A.O. ODJUGO (Supervisor) (External Examiner)

------PROF. P.O PHIL-EZE (Head, Department of Geography)

------PROF. H.C. ACHUNIKE (Dean, Faculty of Social Science)

JUNE, 2016.

iii

DEDICATION

This thesis is dedicated to -

The Magnanimity of the Almighty God and,

My Parents and Siblings.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title Page i

Approval/Certification ii

Dedication iii

Table of Contents iv

Acknowledgement viii

List of Figures ix

List of Tables xi

List of Plates xii

List of Abbreviations/Acronyms xiii

Abstract xiv

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study 1

1.2 Statement of the Research Problem 4

1.3 Aim and Objectives of the Study 10

1.4 Study Area 11

1.4.1 Location 11

1.4.2 Geology 14

1.4.3 Climate 14

1.4.4 Vegetation 15

1.4.5 Relief and Drainage 15

1.4.6 Population and Urban Development 16

1.4.7 Industrial and Social Activities 17

1.4.8 Land-Use Type 19

1.5 Literature Review 23

1.6 Theoretical Framework 35 v

1.6.1 Arousal Theory 35

1.6.2 Composite Theory 36

1.6.3 Maximum Adaptability Theory 37

1.7 The Research Hypotheses 39

1.8 Research Methodology 39

1.8.1 Reconnaissance Survey 40

1.8.1.1 Selection of Industries Used in the Study 40

1.8.2 Data Collection 44

1.8.2.1 Noise Level Measurements 44

1.8.2.2 Use of Research Assistants 44

1.8.2.3 Key Informant Interviews 44

1.8.2.4 Questionnaire Administration 45

1.8.2.5 Validation of the Instrument 45

1.8.2.5.1 Test of Reliability 45

1.8.3 Secondary Data 46

1.8.4 Data Analysis 46

1.8.4.1 Noise Maps 46

1.9 Plan of the Project 47

CHAPTER TWO: SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL NOISE

2.1 Sources of Industrial Noise 50 2.1.1 Equipment Induced Noise 50 2.1.2 Machine Induced Noise 51 2.1.3 Metal Processing 51 2.1.4 Wood Processing 51 2.1.5 Power Generation 52 2.1.6 Assembling of Products 52 vi

2.1.7 Loading and Offloading of Products 52 2.1.8 Maintenance Induced Noise 53 2.1.9 Product Painting 53 2.1.10 Branding and Rebranding of Products 53 2.1.11 Product Sorting 54 2.1.12 Industrial Accidents 54 2.1.13 Product Fabrication 54 2.2 Respondents' Perception of Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban 55 CHAPTER THREE: SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL NOISE LEVELS IN ABA URBAN AREA OF ABIA STATE, NIGERIA. 3.1 Spatial Variations of Industrial Noise 59 3.2 Temporal Variations of Industrial Noise 64 CHAPTER FOUR- THE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL NOISE LEVELS ON PEOPLES' HEALTH IN ABA URBAN AREA OF ABIA STATE, NIGERIA. 4.1 The Effects of Industrial Noise Levels on Peoples' Health in Aba Urban Area 91 4.1.1 Sleep Interference 91 4.1.2 Stress 92 4.1.3 Speech Interference 92 4.1.4 Annoyance 93 4.1.5 Fatigue 93 4.1.6 Hearing Defects 93 4.1.7 Increased Blood Pressure 94 4.1.8 Irregularity of Heart Rhythms 95 4.1.9 Reduction in Productivity 95 4.1.10 Accidents and Injuries 95 CHAPTER FIVE: PROBLEMS MILITATING AGAINST INDUSTRIAL NOISE CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT IN ABA URBAN AREA OF ABIA STATE, NIGERIA.

5.1 Problems Militating Industrial Noise Control and Management in Aba Urban Area 98 vii

5.1.1 Epileptic Power Supply 98

5.1.2 Low Commitment to Implementation and Enforcement of Existing Laws 99

5.1.3 Insufficient Funding of Regulatory Agencies 99

5.1.4 Inadequate Access to Information 99

5.1.5 Multiplicity of Agencies 100

5.1.6 Corruption 100

5.1.7 Insufficient Noise Laws 101

5.1.8 Rapid Population Growth 101

CHAPTER SIX: SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION. 6.1 Summary of Research Findings 103

6.2 Recommendations 104

6.3 Conclusion 106

REFERENCES 108

APPENDICES 125

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am indebted particularly to my supervisor Dr. M.C. Obeta, for his constructive criticisms, patience, support and useful suggestions to ensure that this project work turns out well. His contributions to this work is immeasurable and I will forever be grateful to him.

My sincere appreciation goes to my parents, Engr. and Mrs. Dickson Maduko; to my wonderful siblings, Mrs. Maureen, Dr Frank, Doris, Engr. Chike and Engr. Nnamdi; to my grandma, Ezinne Catherine Maduko and to my cousins. Your contributions, supports and prayers to the success of my study cannot be quantified. May the good Lord continue to bless you all abundantly.

I wish to thank the entire staff and students of the Department of Geography and Dr. L.O

Amazue of the Department Psychology, University of Nigeria, Nsukka for their various contribut ions and assistance towards the successful completion of this work. I will not fail to thank my friends and colleagues Mrs. Ossai, Mrs Aduba, Mr. Okafor, Mr Ogbodo, Miss Ify Johnson and

Mrs. Jenny Nwosu for their various contributions. Your efforts are highly appreciated.

To my amiable roommate, Pharm. Osifo Itohan; I couldn't have asked for a better roomy.

And to my friends in the hostel; Obasi Chinyere, Okoro Blessing, Ihedike Odili and Michael

Nwankwo, thank you for your love and care.

Finally, I wish to thank Mr. Isiguzo, Mr. Moses, all the research assistants employed in the course of carrying out this project and to everyone who contributed to the successful completion of this work. May God Almighty bless you all.

JUNE, 2016 Maduko, Chioma Elizabeth.

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1: Abia State Showing the Study Area 12

Fig. 2: Aba Urban Area Showing the Local Government Areas 13

Fig. 3: Arousal Theory of Stress and Performance 36

Fig. 4: Poulton's Composite Model 37

Fig. 5: Trinity of Stress 38

Fig. 6: Maximum Adaptability of Stress and Performance 38

Fig. 7: Extension of the Maximum Adaptability Model 39

Fig. 8: Aba Urban Showing Sample Industry 43

Fig. 9: Respondents' Perception of Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban 57

Fig. 10: Maximum Spatial Variations in Industrial Noise Levels 62

Fig. 11: Minimum Spatial Variations in Industrial Noise Levels 63

Fig. 12: Maximum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Morning Period (9a.m-11a.m, November, 2015) 69

Fig. 13:Minimum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Morning Period (9a.m-11a.m, November, 2015) 70

Fig. 14: Maximum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Afternoon Period (12noon-2p.m, November, 2015) 71

Fig. 15: Minimum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Afternoon Period (12noon-2p.m, November, 2015) 72

Fig. 16: Maximum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Evening Period (3p.m-5p.m, November, 2015) 73

Fig. 17: Minimum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Evening Period (3p.m-5p.m, November, 2015) 74

Fig. 18: Maximum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Morning Period (9a.m-11a.m, December, 2015) 79 x

Fig. 19: Minimum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Morning Period (9a.m-11a.m, December, 2015) 80

Fig. 20: Maximum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Afternoon Period (12noon-2p.m, December, 2015) 81

Fig. 21: Minimum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Afternoon Period (12noon-2p.m, December, 2015) 82

Fig. 22: Maximum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Evening Period (3p.m-5p.m, December, 2015) 83

Fig. 23: Minimum Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels During the Evening Period (3p.m-5p.m, December, 2015) 84

Fig. 24: Trend in Industrial Noise Over Time ` 85

Fig. 25: Clusters of Industries in The Study Area 87

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Noise Level Standards for Industrial Areas of Some Selected Countries 6

Table 2: Approved Guidelines Values for Community Noise in Nigeria 7

Table 3: Population of Aba Urban Area 17

Table 4:Location of Sampled Industries 42

Table 5: Respondents Identified Sources of Industrial Noise in Percentages 50 Table 6: Respondents' Perception of Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban 56 Table 7: Noise Sensitivity Classification 59

Table 8:Spatial Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area 60

Table 9:Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area during the Morning Period (9a.m-11a.m, November, 2015) 65

Table 10:Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area during the Afternoon Period (12noon-2p.m, November, 2015) 66

Table 11:Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area during the Evening Period (3p.m-5p.m, November, 2015) 67

Table 12:Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area during the Morning Period (9a.m-11a.m, December, 2015) 75

Table 13:Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area during the Afternoon Period (12noon-2p.m, December, 2015) 76

Table 14:Table 4:Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area during the Evening Period (3p.m-5p.m, December, 2015) 77

Table 15: Respondents Identified Health Effects of Industrial Noise 91 Table 16: Respondents Identified Problems Militating Against Industrial Noise Control 98 xii

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1: Aluminum Industry Located in a Residential Area 9

Plate 2: An Artisan Operating the Grinding Machine 9

Plate 3: Use of Machines for Production 9

Plate 4: Nigerian Breweries Aba Plant 22

Plate 5: Aria Aria International Market, Aba 22

Plate 6: Abia State Polytechnic, Aba 22

Plate 7: Abia Line Park, Aba 22

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LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS/ACRONYMS

Below are the list of abbreviations/acronyms used in this research and their meaning-

ACCIMA Aba Chambers of Commerce, Industry, Mining and Agriculture

ALIS Abia Land Information System

ANOVA Analysis of Variance

CEF Conserve Energy Future

CPCB Central Pollution Control Board

DALYs Daily-Adjusted Life Years dB Decibel

DBP Diastolic Blood Pressure

EU European Union

EPA Environmental Protection Agency

FEPA Federal Environmental Protection Agency

FMENV Federal Ministry of Environment

GIS Geographic Information System

IDW Inverse Distance Weighted

NCI National Council For Industry

NIHL Noise-Induced Hearing Loss

NIOSH National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health

NESREA Nigerian Environmental Standards and Regulatory Enforcement Agency

NNPC Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation

PHC Primary Health Care

WHO World Health Organization

SBP Systolic Blood Pressure

xiv

ABSTRACT

This study examined the industrial noise levels in Aba Urban Area of Abia State, Nigeria. Four objectives were pursued to achieve the aim of the study which is industrial noise levels in Aba Urban Area of Abia State, Nigeria. The needed data were sourced through primary and secondary methods. Noise level values were collected through measurements; while other primary data were collected through the use of key informants interviews and questionnaire administration. Secondary data were sourced from journals, seminar papers, textbooks, newspape rs and internet. Noise level measurements was carried out in twenty selected industries, which comprises small, medium and large scaled industries. The data collected were analyzed with the use of inferential statistics (Regression, Cluster Analysis and ANOVA) and descriptive statistics (totals, mean, percentages and graphs). Regression was used to show the trend in industrial noise over time. The industries selected were grouped into 3 clusters based on the sound levels generated. Also, ANOVA was used to test if there were significant variations in the noise levels generated by the identified clusters of industries. The results of the analysis revealed that Aba is exceedingly a noisy urban area and that industrial noise levels varied spatially and temporally within the three industrial clusters in the urban landscape. John Chuks Metal and Guinness Plc returned the highest and lowest noise levels of 95.7 dB and 70.7 dB. Similarly, noise varied temporally as John Chuks Metals had the highest noise levels of 99.2 dB and 98.1 dB in November during the morning and evening periods respectively and 95.5 dB in December during the evening period. Emma Best Steel had the highest noise levels of 100.3 dB and 99.3 dB respectively in November and December during the afternoon periods. Ceejay Steel Co. had the highest noise level in December during the morning period. Furthermore, Guinness Plc had the lowest noise levels of 71.5 dB, 70.9 dB and 70.3 dB in November during the evening period and December during the morning and evening periods respectively. New Erra Foods and G&C Sachet Water had the lowest noise levels of 64.8 dB and 68.7 dB respectively during the morning and afternoon periods in November and Tonimas Oil & Gas also had the lowest noise levels of 72.1 dB during the evening period in December respectively. Measured noise values were compared with the WHO and EC allowed limits for industries and the results showed that noise exceeded the allowed standards. The implications of these findings were analyzed and several suggestions were proposed for industrial noise control and management in Aba Urban.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Noise is one of the major environmental hazards of the modern world which originates from a wide variety of sources such as traffic (air, road, rail), urbanization, industrial facilities, or social activities like fire cracker and is sometimes harmful to living organisms (Krause, 2002;

Gangwar, Joshi and Swami, 2006; Jakovljevic, Belojevic, Paunovic and Stojanov, 2006;

Baubonyte and Grazulevicience, 2007; Singh and Joshi, 2010 and Haq, Hussain, Farooq and

Ahmed, 2014). Noise pollution is becoming more severe and widespread due to population growth and industrialization in the cities (Ralte, Ralte and Lalramnghinglova, 2013).

Noise is derived from the Latin word ''nausea'' implying unwanted sound or sound that is loud, unpleasant or unexpected (Chauhan, 2008). Noise is a special type of environmental pollution which affects man's state of mental, physical and social wellbeing (Nubi,2014). Noise has gradually and steadily increased as civilization advanced and is considered among the most pervasive and frustrating sources of everyday annoyance. A developed transportation system also play a significant role behind the increase in noise levels globally (Hunashal and Patil, 2012).

Noise is considered an environmental pollutant because of the danger it poses to health and the way it affects our well being and quality of life (Ugbeide, 2011).

Braj and Jain (1995) and Schwartz (2011), describe noise as air pollutant, which differs from other pollutants in the sense that it is transient in nature, and is not a continuing or persisting phenomenon. Once the noise pollution stops, the environment becomes free of its effects. Garg (2010) expands this concept when he noted that noise is any unwanted sound that is not necessarily random. He noted that noise, particularly loud ones disturb people or make it 2 difficult for people to hear, and that conversations of other people may also be described as noise by people not involved. He added that any unwanted sound, such as barking of domesticated dogs, neighbors playing loud music, port mechanical saws, road traffic sounds which have now become a part of the urban culture, qualify as noise pollution. Ogwo, Etusi and Egbu (2014), define noise pollution as periodic fluctuation of air pressure. They described noise as a kind of sound wave action transmitted through air and received by hearing apparatuses of animals, including man. The waves are transformed into electrical impulses in the ear and carried to the brain which enables the individual to hear.

Noise pollution consists of two components (Lang, 1981). The first component is ambient noise which always exists even in the absence of seismic energy source. Ambient noise has its origin in waves, wind, tectonic disturbance and human activity. It is random in nature and is attenuated by the redundancy filter while sporadic noises are static flicks and vehicle noise. This second component, i.e. sporadic noise, is source generated noise whose origin lies in the use of seismic energy, Industrial noise falls into this second category.

Industrial noise has been described as 'work-place' noise (Bugliarello, Alexandre,

Barners and Wakstein, 1976). Krause (2002) point that this type of noise springs from natural, urban or rural landscapes while Tak, Davis and Calvert (2009) added that the sources of industrial noise includes; production, packaging, refining, branding, loading and display of industrial materials. Uchegbu (1998) observe that during the processes of manufacturing, the noise generated have psychological effects, such as disorientation, loss of hearing, sleeplessness, nervousness, hypertension and other related health challenges depending on its magnitude, and as a result, noise measurement is usually undertaken in order to determine the noise level generated. 3

Noise pollution emanating from industrial sources affects a large number of individuals, including industrial workforce and people living in the vicinity of these industries (Sultan, 2012 and Sunny, Karimanzira and Huang, 2012). Premature hearing loss, blood pressure alteration, hypertension, severe cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular diseases among industrial workers are well-known outcomes of noise exposure at work (Eleftheriou, 2002; Lockwood, Jordan and

Kunda, 2002; Atmaca, Peker and Altin, 2005; Chang, Chen, Lien and Sung, 2006; Rabinowitz,

Galusha, Kirsche, Cullen Slade and Dixon-Ernst, 2010; Sisman and Unver, 2011; Nawaz and

Hasnain, 2013). Louder occupational noises can cause a reduction in behavioral efficacy and may lead to workers being predisposed to aggressive behavior (Ali, 2011). Also, workers exposed to high noise levels have more social conflicts both at home and work, consequently decreasing confidence and leading to consistent deterioration in performance (Nelson, Nelson,

Concha-Barrientos and Fingerhut, 2005).

Noise measurement is an important diagnostic tool in noise control technology because its accurate measurement gives a purposeful act of comparing noise under different conditions for assessment of adverse impacts as well as for adopting suitable controls techniques for noise reduction (Rao, 1995 and Shilpy, 2007). The commonest measurement method for assessing the magnitude of sound is the decibel (dB) scale. Decibels represent a logarithmic scale based on the intensity of the stimulus using sound pressure measurement (CEF, 2014).

Industrial noise affects people both in the developed and developing countries as well as in all areas and sectors of the economy, and is currently worsened by science and technology

(Rosenhouse, 2012). Asthana and Asthana (1998), observes that industrial noise pollution is often more severe in urban areas and that it affects the cardiovascular systems, which tends to decrease the output of blood from the heart. Similarly, industrial noise levels has been shown to 4 cause sleep loss, stress, distraction, social behavioral problems and overall decrease in quality of living (Schomer, 2001 and Kelly, 2003).

Aba, our study area, is an urban environment where industrial activities take place continually and where the urban population is rapidly increasing due to influx of people from the countryside. Industrial noise is a growing phenomenally as a result of the presence of many industries as well as modernizations and expansion of commercial and social services. There is, however, a stark lack of information regarding the extent of noise exposure at industrial environments in various parts of the city. Also, lacking are quality information on the health and other effects of prolonged exposure to noise as well as the challenges mitigating against noise levels control in industrial arenas in Aba Urban Area. Studies on workplace noise exposure and its associated effects have been carried out in various countries such as India, Turkey and United

States of America (Jain and Rao, 2014, Narlawar et al. 2006 and Guvercin and Aybek, 2003). In

Aba Urban Area, however, no study have been carried out in this very important sector of urban life. The present study is, therefore, an attempt to bridge this long standing gap in knowledge.

1.2 STATEMENT OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

There is a mounting confirmation that noise above 80 dB in the workplace are hazardous to health (Mackenzie and David, 2006). Workers and other people who are exposed to high noise levels have more social conflicts both at home and work places and, in addition, experience consistent deterioration in performance (Khitoliya, 2004, Enger and Smith, 2010, Hunashala and

Patil, 2012 & Kumar, Kumar and Kumar, 2015). Frequent exposure to high level of noise can cause severe stress on auditory and nervous system (Subramani, Kavitha and Sivaraj, 2012).

Many cities of the world are now facing problems of increase in noise levels due to commercial and industrial activities, population increase, transportation development and congestion 5

(Mansouri, Pourmahabadian and Ghasenkhani 2006). High noise levels are now recognized worldwide as a major environmental problem affecting the quality of life in urban areas.

The effects of noise on human health and comfort are usually discussed under four categories; namely Physical effects, such as hearing defects, Physiological effects, such as increased blood pressure, irregularity of heart rhythms and ulcers, Psychological effects, such as disorders, sleeplessness, irritability and stress, and finally Effects on work performance, such as reduction of productivity and misunderstanding what is heard (Evans and Hygge, 2000;

Stansfield, Haines and Brown, 2000; Passchier-Vermeer and Passchier, 2000; Srivastava, 2012,

Vidya and Nageshwara, 2012, Nubi, 2014). Similarly, psychiatrists and psychologists have repeatedly observed that noise pollution has certain relationship with healthy living, causing tension that leads to problems such as speech interference, annoyance, fatigue, sleep interference and emotional distress (CEF, 2014).

In 1972, United State came up with her popular Noise Control Act because most human activities in the country especially construction, transportation, housing, commercial, industrial, educational, recreational, social and religious activities were generating much noise which adversely affected people and environmental quality (WHO, 2005b). Noise that exceeded the permissible limits for a long time led to serious health problems, such as, hearing effects, disturbance in sleep patterns and stress related health problems (Tsitsoni, Batala and Zagas,

2005; Samara and Tsitsoni, 2007; WHO, 2011 and Anomohanran, 2013). Essandoh and Armah,

(2011), also discovered that abnormal noise level elevated blood pressure, caused heart attack and fatigue, increased frustration and anxiety while persistent loud noise can eventually lead to deafness. 6

Industrial noise pollution as noted earlier is now one of the major problems facing people in developing countries. As such, there is a need to characterize, manage, and control the noise exposure levels of workers in industries and people living close to the industries (Mitra, 2008;

Oyedepo and Abdullahi, 2009; Noori and Zand, 2013; Amin, Sikder, Zafor and Chowdhury,

2014; Marriscal-Rammires, Fernandes-Prieto, Canada-Bago and Gadeo-Martos, 2014 and

Mukhola, 2014). This is because abnormal noise levels in industries cause interference in efficiency and communication and raises possibilities of accidents (Mehta, 2007). Therefore, measuring noise levels and workers' extent of exposures is an important part of a workplace planning, urban development and noise control programs. It also helps to identify work locations where there is a noise problem, employees affected and where additional noise measurements need to be made (Asthana and Asthana, 2013). This situation has led to the introduction of noise levels standards for industrial areas in some countries (Table 1), protective noise-control legislations, such as the Occupational Safety and Health Act, the Noise Control Act, European

Directive 2002/49/EC and the Quiet Communities Act (Farooque and Hasan, 1996; Moudon,

2009 and Chauhan, Pawar, Kumar, Kumar and Kumar, 2010).

TABLE 1: Noise Level Standards for Industrial Areas of Some Selected Countries Country Noise Levels for Industrial zone (dBA) Day/Night Bangladesh 75/70 Australia 65/55 India 75/70 Japan 60/50 U.S (E.P.A) 70/60 WHO and EC 65 Source: Chauhan et al., 2010, pp. 60.

In Nigeria, the federal government, in the 1980s, established agencies both at federal and state levels to improve the quality of the environment and to free it from pollutants and other environmental hazards. Specifically, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) was 7 established and saddled with the responsibility to protect, restore and preserve the ecosystem. To achieve this laudable goal, the agency established guidelines and standards for various types of pollutants such as industrial effluents disposal, gaseous emissions, hazardous wastes disposal as well as permissible noise levels. The 1991 approved permissible sound levels and their durations without difference between day/night and industrial/domestic are presented in Table 2.

TABLE 2: Approved Guidelines Values for Community Noise in Nigeria. Duration Per Day , Hour Permissible Exposure Limit dB 8 90 6 92 4 95 3 97 2 100 1.5 102 1 105 0.5 110 0.25 or less 115 Source: National Guidelines and Standards for Environmental Control and Management in Nigeria, 1991.

In 2007, the Federal Environmental Protection Agency (FEPA) Act was repealed and replaced by the Nigerian Environmental Standards and Regulatory Enforcement Agency

(NESREA). This agency made efforts to examine that existing legislations on abnormal noise levels must be enforced. By the year 2009, the National Environmental (Noise Standards and

Control) Regulation Act of, S.I.35 was formed. The purpose of the new regulation were to:

(1.) Identify major noise sources, noise criteria and noise control technology

(2.) Make regulations on noise emission, control, abatement as may be necessary to preserve and maintain public health and welfare

(3.) Enforce compliance with existing regulations and recommend program for noise control originating from industrial, commercial, domestic, sports, recreational, transportation or other 8 similar activities by prescribing the maximum permissible noise level or activity to which a person may be exposed to and,

(4.) Implement noise control and mitigating measures for reduction of noise.

The Act stipulates that anybody, whether individual or corporate body that exceeds permissible noise limits of 90 decibels for a period of eight (8) hours has committed an offense and will have to pay fine of #50,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or both, and, or pay an additional fine of #5,000 for every day the offence subsists for individuals.

Whereas, for corporate body, fine of #500,000 and an additional fine of #10,000 for every day the offence subsists.

In Aba urban area, industrial noise is currently a major environmental concern and it is an everyday occurrence within the city. Many industries are located in residential areas (Plate 1),

Artisans use grinding machines of various shapes and sizes to dish out loud noise (Plate 2),

Industries use machines that release high sound level for production (Plate 3).

Plate 1: Aluminum Industry located in a residential area.

Plate 2: Artisans operating the grinding machines Plate 3: Use of Machines for Production

Industrial noise is, therefore, a major environmental hazard affecting the quality of life in

Aba urban area because of the rapid increase in the number and size of industries, types of machines used by the industries and the seemingly absence of institutional control/enforcements of existing laws. The industrial noise situation in Aba urban may be similar to that of many other urban areas in Nigeria because the city is relatively large and has experienced rapid increases in 10

population over the years. The area has expanded continuously in all directions for decades.

Many significant changes have also been experienced in the areas of urbanization and

industrialization.

People living, working and visiting near or within the industrial noise sources are

exposed to the high noise impacts. Unfortunately, the pattern, intensity and frequency as well as

the duration of noise in these areas are largely unknown. The degree of risks to which affected

individuals are exposed to as well as the effects which they presently contend with are also

unknown. Information of this nature are essential for planning as well as for developing and

establishing effective control policies. Against the background, therefore this study has

attempted to examine the sources, intensity and effects of industrial noise generated from the

rapid industrial developments and continuous influx of people in Aba urban area. Understanding

the nature, spatial dimensions and human health effects of high levels of industrial noise in Aba

Urban is necessary in order to enable urban planners isolate effective strategies for control and

management as well as to create the desired awareness. This has become, even more pertinent

for Aba urban area, where people are calling for policies that may help in creating a healthy,

friendly and productive urban environment.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The aim of this research is to examine industrial noise levels in Aba Urban Area of Abia

State, Nigeria. To achieve this aim, the following objectives were pursued; to: i. Identify the sources of industrial noise in Aba Urban.

ii. Determine the industrial noise magnitudes and describe the spatial and temporal variations

in Aba Urban.

iii. Describe the effects of industrial noise on peoples' health in Aba Urban. 11 iv. Establish the problems militating against industrial noise control and management in Aba

Urban.

1.4 THE STUDY AREA

1.4.1 Location

The urban area of Aba is in Abia State and it is located between latitudes 5 °6'N and 5°

7'N and longitudes 7° 18'E and 7° 22'E (Fig. 1). Aba Urban Area is bounded by the rural communities of Osisioma-Ngwa on the west and north, it is bounded by Obingwa rural communities on the east and Ugwunagbo rural communities on the south (Nwoko, 2013). The present Aba Urban area is both a commercial and industrial centre in Abia State. The study area covers an estimated area of 105km² (Nwoko, 2013). It includes the entire Aba North, Aba South and some parts of Osisioma-Ngwa, Obingwa and Ugwunagbo Local Government Areas (Fig. 2).

The area is a major market and industrial centre in south-eastern Nigeria which provides goods and services to the urban areas of Calabar, Enugu, Owerri, Port Harcourt, Umuahia and Uyo because of its relative location and proximity to these areas. Aba was established as a market town and then later a military post was sited there by the British colonial administration in 1901.

The city became a collecting point for agricultural products following the British made railway running through it to Port Harcourt in the South, Enugu and up to the North. 12

Fig. 1: ABIA STATE SHOWING ABA URBAN AREA Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN.

Fig. 2: ABA URBAN AREA SHOWING THE LOCAL GOVERNMENT AREAS. Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN.

1.4.2 Geology Aba consists of the formerly coastal plain sands now known as Benin formation of the tertiary period. This geologic formation is of the cenozoic age, cross-bedded, and only occasionally are pebbly sands and some beds of grey and clay found (Umeji, 2002). The Benin formation has a maximum thickness of 1,200m and contains oil reserves. Within the geologic formation area are found some oil production wells of Imo river oil fields around Owaza

(Ikejiani-Clark, 2002). The geology of the area supports good aquifers and these aquifers have been extensively developed for urban water supplies. The coarse-grained, poorly-cement, and porous sand stone of the area is a suitable medium for groundwater recharge, hence, the aquifers

(Umeji, 2002).

1.4.3 Climate

The climate of Aba Urban is of the humid tropical type (Njike, Igbokwe and Orisakwe

2011). Aba falls under the Aw climate of Koppen's classification with two distinct seasons namely, the rainy and dry seasons. By Koppen's classification, the coolest month has a mean temperature above 18°C, annual rainfall is greater than annual evapo-transpiration resulting in moisture surplus. Convectional precipitation originates from the rising and condensation of the humid mT mass and occurs mainly in the late afternoon (Anyadike, 2002). Aba records a high mean annual rainfall of more than 2,250mm. The study area also experiences double rainfall maxima in July and September. The length of the rainy season varies between 8-10 months. The little dry season also characterizes the rainfall in the study area (Anyadike, 2002).

Temperature recorded in the study area range between 26-27°C (Monanu, 1975a;

Anyadike, 2002). Diurnal temperatures ranges are also much higher than the seasonal ranges. In

January relative humidity for Aba is 70-80% while July relative humidity is 80-90% (Monanu, 15

1975b). Relative humidity reaches a maximum between June and September, coinciding with the double rainfall maxima.

1.4.4 Vegetation

The study area lies within the tropical rain forest zone of West Africa (Njike et al., 2011).

Trees found in the area are very tall, characteristics of the rainforest vegetation zone. These trees are about 30metres tall and are evergreen with branches which interlace themselves to form canopies. The trees are close to each other in pure stands; this arrangement prevents intense rainfall and temperature from impacting directly on the soil (Nwoko, 2013). The vegetation of

Aba was formerly lowland rainforest. Dominant tree species in this area include- Ceiba petandra, Milicia spp., Elaeis guineensis, Musanga smithii, Albizzia zygia and some grass species such as Pennisetum purpurem, Andropogon spp., Geophilia and Costus spp. (Igbozurike,

1975; Anyadike, 2002). The few remaining plant species conform to the storeyed sequence of canopies found in tropical rainforests.

1.4.5 Relief and Drainage

Aba is located on a plain with an altitude of between 50-100m above sea level. It falls under the undulating lowland and coastal plains landform region (Ofomata, 2002). There is little physiographic differentiation over the entire area, which is generally uniformly undulating. The major river that drains the study area is Aba River, which its source from Okpulumbu in the northern part of the town, flows in North-South direction and joins the Imo River (Ezigbo, 1989).

The river is recharged by precipitation and groundwater (Uma, 1989; Amadi, Olaseheinde,

Okosun and Yisa, 2010). Other minor water bodies such as Ogbor Hill waterside also drain Aba.

River Aba forms part of Imo drainage system, which has a total drainage area of about 8,288km² with Imo as its most important river. Aba River together with the Otamiri River have a total 16 length of about 220km of the Imo River System.

1.4.6 Population and Urban Development

The population of Aba has been growing steadily since the first census conducted in the study area in 1931. In roughly 20 years between the 1931 and 1952/53 censuses, the population of Aba increased fourfold from 13,000 to 58,000 (Okoye, 1975, 2002). By 1953, Aba was classified among the urban centers in Nigeria with fifty thousand or more inhabitants in Eastern

Nigeria (East Central State of Nigeria, 1972; Okoye, 1975). In 1963, the population was 131,003 and 180,558 in 1973 (Okoroafor, 1975). The population of Aba rose to 494,152 in 1991

(National Population Commission, 1991).

As of 2006, Aba Urban had an estimated population of 1,022,138 as shown in Table 3

(Federal Republic of Nigerian, 2009). Originally, Aba was a small market town. It grew after the establishment of a British military camp and administrative centre in the early 1900s. In 1929, the city experienced a riot known as the Aba women's riot. Angry at high taxes imposed by

British officials and the low return on the palm kernel crops, the women of the area rose up in mass protests, burning buildings and driving off government officials. Government troops were sent in, and approximately fifty women were killed in the conflict. Aba is also a rapidly growing city in terms of concentration of socio-economic activities and general urban expansion.

Ayeni (1978) and Nwafor (2002), observe that the PH-Makurdi-Jos railway track in Aba is an important factor in industrial concentration and urbanization of the study area. The creation of states in Nigeria in 1967 and 1991, (which excised Aba from the then East-Central state and

Imo State respectively into the present Abia State also) had significant impact on urban development. These creation of Imo State in 1976 and Abia in 1992 made Aba the largest urban area in Abia State, even larger than Umuahia the state capital. 17

Aba is a nodal point and is served by roads and railways. The city is highly accessible and accessibility is one of the essential factors of industrial agglomeration in the city (Nwafor,

2002). It is connected by road to four major urban areas in Southern Nigeria; namely Owerri,

Umuahia, Uyo and Port Harcourt. The three major roads linking Aba with these other urban area are the Aba-Owerri, Aba-Port Harcourt and Aba-Ikot Epene roads. Aba is about 64km by road and 62km by rail to Port Harcourt. The study area is also 64km to Uyo and 59.4km to Umuahia by road (Nwafor, 2002).

TABLE 3: Population of Aba Urban Area Local Government Areas Population Aba North 115, 471 Aba South 423, 852 Osisioma-Ngwa 219, 632 Obingwa 181, 439 Ugwunagbo 97, 710 Source: Federal Republic of Nigerian, 2009. Urban growth and development in Aba have been largely unplanned, resulting in the location of various incompatible land use activities in close proximity. Residential, Industrial and Commercial land uses are frequently found in juxtaposition, thus creating or exacerbating urban environmental problems such as noise, flooding, traffic congestion, air pollution and indiscriminate solid waste in the city. 1.4.7 Industrial and Social Activities

Industry is the production of goods or services within an economy (Nwafor, 2002).

Industries are grouped into 3 according to varied factors, such as their size, into small-scale, medium-scale and large-scale. The precise definition of small, medium and large scale varies depending on a number of factors such as number of employees, amount of revenue and annual sales (turnover), and from country to country. For instance, in the United States, small scale industry generally specifies a small business as having fewer than 500 employees for manufacturing businesses and less than $7.5 million in annual receipts (Meryl, 2010). In 18

European Union, small scale industry is defined as one that has fewer than 50 employees while in Australia, a small scale industry is defined by the Fair Work Act of 2009 as one with fewer than 15 employees (Richbell, Warde and Watts, 2006). In Nigeria, following the national council for industry, small-scale business is defined when capital outlay is between #1.5 million- #50 million including working capital but excluding cost of land and or work force between 11-100 employees (NCI, 2002). Aba is the industrial and commercial nerve of Abia State, Nigeria as earlier stated. In fact, it is second to Onitsha in its scale of commerce in South Eastern Nigeria.

During a personal interview with Mr. Isiguzo at Aba Chamber of Commerce, Industry, Mining and Agriculture (ACCIMA), he pointed out that Aba had over 2000 industries though some are moribund and many small scaled industries spring up every day. Apart from the large industries, thousands of small and medium scale industries and artisans are found. Meagher (2006,2010b) cited in Nzeadibe (2011) estimates that the shoe and garment clusters in Aba together accounted for thousands of firms and employed over 58,000 people with a combined annual turnover of over 200 million US dollars. Large-scale industries in the area includes Guinness Plc, Nigerian

Breweries Plc, 7up Bottling Company, Tonimas Oil and Gas. Medium scale industry includes;

Clover Paint, Afro Beverages and Distillers, Nicen Paint, New Erra Foods, Hanonimbiz Foods,

Starline Nig. Ltd etc., while small scale industry includes G&C sachet water, Divine Gate

Aluminium Ltd, Okoson Aluminum, Aku Plastic, John Chuks Metal Ltd etc. The major markets in Aba include the Ariaria International market, Old Court Market, Ngwa Road Market, Eke

Akpara, Over Rail Market and Eziukwu Market. The heavily industrialized and commercialized nature of the study area has also attracted other businesses such as commercial banks, insurance firms, transportation companies and ancillary services. The Nigerian National Petroleum

Corporation (NNPC) has a major depot for refined petroleum products in Aba. Aba also has 19 many hotels and recreation centres such as Crystal Park Hotels, Binez Hotel, Enitona Hotel and many fast food outlets and drinking pubs. Aba is also home to the elitist Aba Sports Club and the

Enyimba International Football Club, a leading football club with wide support in the African

Continent. In addition, some educational and health institutions such as Abia State Polytechnic,

Abia State University Teaching Hospital, Aba Campus of the University of Nigeria located in

Aba, School of Nursing and Health Technology. Supported Primary Health Care (PHC) centres are also located all over the urban area (Nzeadibe, 2011)

1.4.8 Land Use Types

Land use comprises of all human activities that take place on the land (Gove, Edwards and Conquest, 2001). It is the combination of land cover and human activities which take place on the land. Land could be used for grazing, agriculture, urban development, logging, industrial and many other uses (Musa, Adeyemi and Ifatimehin, 2011). The proportion of land allocated to various land uses over time and space depend on level of development and compliance with the planning regulations. Distinctive land use practices were observed within the study area; however, there are areas of mix up of land uses with no distinct segregation among agricultural, residential, institutional, commercial and industrial land uses. The dominant ones are briefly discussed below. According to statistics from the Abia Land Information System (ALIS, 2009),

Aba urban has the highest land consumption rate in Abia State.

Industrial Land-use Areas

The main industrial land use in the study area is at Osisioma Industrial Layout, Industry

Road, Ikot Epene Road where both small and large scale industries and manufacturing plants are found. Major manufacturing industries found in Aba are; Patterson Zochonis (PZ) Plc,

International Equitable Association Limited, Standard Shoe Company, International Glass 20 industry, Nigeria Breweries (plate 4 ), Nicen Paints, Valleumbra, Tonimas Oil and Gas, New Era foods, Hanombizu Industrial limited, Clover Paints, Guinness Plc, 7up Bottling Company, Allied foods etc. There are bakeries and local craft industries.

Commercial Land-use Areas

The main commercial land use in Aba is located at the urban area. There are presence of retail shops, departmental stores and markets, other commercial activities are concentrated in the central business district. The major markets in Aba includes; Aria Aria International Market

(Plate 5), Ngwa Road Market, Over Rail Market, Old Court Market, Ekeoha Shopping Centre and Eziukwu Road Market. Minor markets includes Ahia Nkwo, Ahia Umungasi, Afor Ule located along Aba-Owerri road, etc. and they are basically for food stuffs. In addition, some of the buildings along the road sides in the area that were initially meant for residential units have been renovated and converted for commercial purposes such hotels, stores and fast foods.

Educational Land-use Areas

The educational land uses in Aba Urban include institutions such as Abia State

Polytechnic (Plate 6), Abia State University Teaching Hospital, Rhema University, Temple Gate

Polytechnic, School of Nursing and Health Technology both state and private primary and secondary schools. Some of these institutions are located in residential land use areas in the study area and which attract thousands of people on a daily basis.

Residential Land-use Areas

It is one of the dominant land use types in Aba Urban. It occupies a central position in urban space because people live and recreate there. The observed residential land use type in Aba urban can be grouped into high, medium and low density residential areas. High density residential areas are found in areas such as Faulks Road, Port Harcourt road, Ngwa Road and 21

Obohia Road. Medium density residential areas are found at Abayi, Umungansi, Government

Residential Area (G.R.A), Asa road. While low density residential are found in areas like Ngwa road by east, some part of Ogbor Hill, factory road etc.

Agricultural Land-use Areas

The agricultural practices depend solely on the annual rainfall which has a mean value of

200cm and relative humidity of 80% (Njike et al., 2011). The predominant food crops of the study area are yam, maize, cassava, cocoyam, vegetables, oranges, palms and fruits. Aba urban area and its environs have predominantly sandy and loamy soil which is a characteristic of coastal areas. This two soil types have relatively high porosity, infiltration capacity and low water retention capacity. Unprecedented loss of agriculture land use space has intensified agriculture in this area. Continuous cropping is the predominant agricultural practice in Aba and its environs. Crops cultivated include; yam, cassava, maize, cocoa, Oil palm etc. (Nwoko, 2013).

Agricultural practices occur at Okpulo-umuobom, Umuakapara, Nkwo-Ngwa, Ogbor hill and

Ikot Ekpene Road.

Transportation Land-use Areas

The transportation land use in Aba Urban includes urban road network, railway located along Aba- Owerri road that connects Port Harcourt- Makurdi- Jos and Parks such as Aba Main

Park, Ahia Ohuru Park, Abia Line Park (Plate 7), Peace Parks, Akwa Ibom Transport Park, etc.

Major road network that connect the urban area are: Aba- Port Harcourt Road, Aba- Ikot Ekpene

Road, Aba- Enugu express road. All the urban road networks do not have pedestrian walkways and designated bus stops unlike cities like Enugu and Port Harcourt. 22

PLATE 4: Nigerian Breweries, Aba Plant. PLATE 5: Aria-Aria International Market, Aba.

PLATE 6: Abia State Polytechnic, Aba. PLATE 7: Abia Line Park, Aba.

1.5 LITERATURE REVIEW

Studies on industrial noise levels and work place noise exposure have been conducted in many cities and countries in the world such as Curitiba, Delhi, Badajoz, Bangladesh, Erzurum,

Corlu, Tokat, Cape Coast, Konya, Kaunas, New Delhi, Port Harcourt, Owerri etc by numerous scholars- such as Abumere, Ebeniro and Ogbodo, (1999); Bhargawa (2001); Li, Tao and

Dawson, (2002); Ali and Tamura, (2003); Singh and Daver, (2004); Alberola, Flindell and

Bullmore, (2005); Eleftheriou, (2005); Lebiedowska, (2005); Marius, Tijunelis, Fitzsullivan,

Sean and Henderson,(2005); Morillas, Escobar, Vaquero, Sierra and Gomez (2005); Nelson,

Nelson, Concha-Barrientos and Fingerhut, (2005); Pucher, (2005); Tansatcha, (2005); Zannin,

Calixto and Ferreira, (2002); Narlawar, Surjuse and Thakre, (2006); Rabinowitz, Slade, Galusha,

Dixon-Ernst and Cullen, (2006); Zannin, Diniz and Barbosa, (2006); Chang, Lai, Hsieh, Lai and

Liu, (2009); Haider, Taous, Rahim, Huq and Abdullahi, (2009); Kerketta, Dash and Narayan,

(2009); Paunovic, Belojevic, Jakovijevic, Stojanov and Illic, (2009); Tak, Davis and Calvert,

(2009); Garg, Gupta and Vyas, (2010); Rabinowitz, Galusha, Kirschie, Cullen, Slade and Dixon-

Ernst, (2010); Essandah and Armah, (2011); Fritschi et al., (2011); Sultana, Jahan, Islam and

Masum, (2011); Belojevic, Evans, Paunovic and Jakovljevic, (2012); Ubuoh, Akhionbare,

Onifade and Ogbuji(2012); Bockstael, (2013); Liu, Fuertes, Tiesler, Birik and Babisch, (2014);

Razavi and Bagherzadeh, (2014).

Sirajus, Nazmul, Mohammad and Mohammad (2014), evaluate environmental noise levels of eight industries in Nasirabad industrial area of Chittagong, Bangladesh and reported that the mean maximum and minimum sound levels ranged between 77.26 to 96.53. They discovered that noise levels exceeded the permissible limit and that aluminum industries are the most noise-generating industries having more than 50% of the recorded data set of maximum and 24 minimum sound levels of 95 dB(A) and 84 dB(A). This study tried to relate the findings with occupational health of workers and possible health injuries. Although, the study did not point out the effects of noise levels on workers' health.

Similarly, Al-Shauk (2014), evaluate noise levels in Al-Najaf and Al-Ashraf city, Iraq.

The study showed that the average sound intensity for all study sites exceeded the limits permitted by the World Health Organization within commercial and administrative center of the city. He reported that Najaf- Karbala main street had the highest decibel of 79.3 while Abu-

Taleb had the lowest decibel of 71.3 and that noise has clear effect on comfort, productivity, health and psychological aspects in levels differs depending on source type, intensity and duration. Ali (2011), study the relationships between industrial noise levels and annoyance in

Egypt and he discovered that noise level exceeded the Egyptian noise standard and policy ranging from 70 to 100 dB(A). Also, this study shows that 47% of the industrial workers contending that workplace noise disturbs their peace of mind while 31% of them were of the view that high work place noise makes them angry.

Eleftheriou (2002), also study the effects of industrial noise on hearing loss of workers in

Cyprus over the period of 1996-1999 and discovered that 27.8% of workers similarly, suffered hearing damage while 7.7% suffered serious hearing loss. Similarly, Chauchan, Pawar, Kumar,

Kumar and Kumar (2010), assess noise levels in different areas of Moradabad city, India, and discovered that noise levels in the city ranged from 88.56-109.16 dB(A) and was found to be above prescribed noise standard level of Central Pollution Control Board owing to transportation and electricity generator noise. They also reported much higher maximum 94.6 dB(A) and minimum 82.6 dB(A) sound levels in the industrial zone. 25

Nelson et al. (2005), in a more elaborate study examined the global burden of occupational noise-induced hearing loss and discovered that worldwide, 16% of the disability hearing loss in adults (over 40 million disability-adjusted life years) was attributed to occupational noise ranging from 7 to 21% in the various sub regions. This study shows that the effects of occupational noise exposure were larger for males (2.8 million disability-adjusted life years) in comparison with female workers at 1.4 million DALYs. Narlawar et al. (2006), expands the above study by examining the effects of noise on hypertension and hearing impairment in workers of iron and steel industry in India. His findings showed significant positive association between duration of exposure and prevalence of hypertension with a proportional association of occurrence of hearing impairment and duration of exposure among workers of metal industries.

The study revealed that hypertension prevails among the continuously exposed workers of

25.51% was significantly higher than the intermittently exposed workers of 14.05%, and prevalence of hearing impairment was more significant in the first category of workers (20.5%) than the second category (8.91%). Chang et al. (2009), also report that young females are more susceptible to occupational or environmental noise exposure causing elevated systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP and DBP) on adults. The study showed that an increase of 5 dB(A) in noise exposure significantly causes transient elevations of 1.15mm Hg SBP and 1.16mm Hg

DBP in daytime and 0.74 mm Hg SBP and 0.77 mm Hg DBP at night, respectively, in all the subjects. In contrast, Ahmed, Dennis, Badran, Ismail, Ballal and Ashoor (2001), study occupational noise exposure and hearing loss of workers in two plants in eastern Saudi Arabia and revealed that 38% of exposed industrial workers in a steel and air conditioning unit manufacturing plant had hearing impairment 8-fold higher than non-exposed workers and for hearing impairment, high noise exposure in the workplace is the primary and age is 26 the secondary interpreter.

Richard (2001), in his work on understanding industrial noise in United State referred to noise as aggravating, dangerous and expensive environmental hazard, which, if not properly controlled in the workplace can be illegal. He revealed that excessive noise exposure can result in noise-induced hearing loss, hypertension and elevated blood pressure. Also, WHO (2001,

2005a) and Zannin et al. (2006), reveals that noise is a dangerous agent which affects human health and the environment and that, noise has been attributed to increasing annoyance state, reduced performance for example, in reading, attentiveness and inability to understand speech under normal conditions. Similarly, Yilmaz and Ozer (2005), analyse and evaluate environmental noise pollution in Erzurum, Turkey and they discovered that noise pollutions causes stress related health problems. They observed that the government of Turkey has recognized noise as a serious public health concerns and that this has accounted for many studies that have been carried out to determine the noise level of major cities in Turkey by scholar such as (Kelkit, 2003; Zannin et al., 2006; Doygun and Gurun, 2008; Erdogan and Yazgan, 2009;

Ozer, Irmak and Hasan, 2009; Ozer, Yilmaz, Yesil and Yesil, 2009; Ozyonar and Peker, 2009;

Bekci, Taskan and Bogenic, 2013 and Buket, Elif and Oner, 2014).

Kelly (2003) and Praag, Bernard and Barbara (2005), assess implications of increasing man made noise levels in Canada and reported that atmospheric noise which is a natural type of noise is primarily caused by lightning, and as such, varies due to the proximity to storm and the time of the year. They elaborated that there are several sources of noise even though, most studies paid emphasis on noise mainly from roads (vehicular movement), industry and especially from airports. According to Ozer et al. (2009), evaluate noise pollution caused by vehicles in

Tokat, Turkey discovered that noise pollution is a major problem for the quality of life in urban 27 areas all over the world because of the increase in the number of cars and industrialization, noise levels has also increased. They elaborated that noise in cities, especially along main arteries has reached up disturbing levels and residences that are far from noise sources and near silent secondary roads are currently very popular, people prefer to live far from noisy urban areas.

Dursun, Ozdemir, Karabork and Kocak (2006), also analyze noise pollution in Konya city, Turkey and discovered that city noise levels can be investigated in three different ways as traffic and transportation, industrial activities, sport, marketing and entertainment facilities. In contrast, Tang and Tong (2004), in their study estimating traffic noise for inclined roads with freely flowing traffic in India, revealed that the important factors affecting noise values are continuity of the city traffic, dimension of the roads, position of the roads and the road surface materials with city centre crossroad signal system.

Mujahid, Shafaqat, Muhammad, Ahmad, Sana, Hafiz and Usman (2013), in a study of comparative study of noise levels in various areas of Faisalabad, Pakistan, concluded that noise pollution was high in the various land use at the day time and minimal at night time but were higher than the permissible limits, noise effects was not considered in this work. Chauchan

(2008), in his study of noise pollution level in Haridwar and Dehradun cities in India reported that noise level in the cities were higher than the prescribed limit of Central Pollution Control

Board (CPCB).

According to CCOH (2009), the degree of risk of noise is affected by the intensity, frequency as well as duration and pattern of exposure and individual susceptibility of hearing impairment and as a result planning, developing and establishing a noise control capacity is an important consideration in the aspect of noise control. Similarly, Quis (2001), study annoyance from road traffic noise and discovered that depending on its duration and volume, the effects of 28 noise on human health and comfort are hearing effects, disorders, sleeplessness and going to sleep late, irritability and stress and finally, effects on work performance such as reduction of productivity and misunderstanding what is heard.

Also, WHO (2001, 2005a) and Zannin et al. (2006), reveals that noise is a dangerous agent which affects human health and the environment and that, noise has been attributed to increasing annoyance state, reduced performance for example, in reading, attentiveness and inability to understand speech under normal conditions. Marks and Griefahn (2007), in their study discovered that there were anxiety and difficulty in falling asleep in the people who were subjected to 39, 44 and 50 dB(A) noise levels and as a result led to sleeplessness. In addition,

Lutman (2000), in his work revealed that workers who are exposed to average noise level of 85 dB(A) for 8hours experience significant hearing impairment problems from a lifetime of exposure.

Deka (2000), monitor the noise quality of Guwahati city and also reported that the average noise level at residential and commercial area were reported as 68dB(A) and 83dB(A), respectively, which was 23.6 and 27.7 dB higher than as compared to Indian standard limit of noise in residential and commercial zones. Gangwar et al.,(2006), examined noise pollution status at four selected intersections in commercial areas of barely metropolitan city reported that noise level was slightly higher than prescribed limit of the central pollution control board of

India.

Amin, Sikder, Zafor and Chowdury (2014) assess noise pollution in Sylhet city of

Bangladesh and reported that noise levels in the sites was much higher than the acceptable limit.

In contrast, Guvercin and Aybek (2003), study noise problem in stone pulverizing and sieving plants and revealed that the noise level of 80 dB(A) and less may not result in significant 29 problems on human health and suggested that its effect can be prevented by using personal hearing protections such as earplugs or earmuffs.

Miedema (2007), evaluate annoyance caused by environmental noise and reported that about 80 million people suffer from unacceptable noise levels and 170 million experience serious annoyances during daytime in the European Union (EU). Bond (1996), study plagued by noise, and reported that 16% of the people in Europe are exposed to 40 dB or more of traffic noise pollution at night in their bedrooms as compared to W.H.O which is average estimates of 30 to

35dB while considering undisrupted sleep.

Khitoliya (2004), study environmental pollution management and control for sustainable development in India and revealed that the generation of unreasonable noise within the environment is regarded as a form of pollutant because it lowers the quality of life, contaminates the environment and consequently, becomes a nuisance to the extent that it affects the health of a person, their activities and mental abilities. Gorai and Pal (2006), examine noise and its impacts on human being in India and discovered that the impacts of noise on environment has become unjustifiable interferences and imposition upon human health, comfort and qualitative of human life. Haines, Brentnall, Stansfeld and Klineberg (2005), study qualitative responses of children to environmental noise and discovered that permanent hearing loss, muscle tension, high blood pressure, increased aggression, headaches, migraine, high cholesterol levels, irritability, insomnia, gastric ulcers and psychological disorder are the important health hazards caused by noise pollution. In addition, Mrena, Savolainen, Kuokkanen and Ylikoski (2002), discover that excessive noise can cause tinnitus. Tinnitus is often referred to as ringing in the ears, reflecting a characterization of the sound that individuals commonly report. They elaborated that other descriptions of the perceived sound include buzzing, hissing, whistling, humming and other 30 conditions that may cause or be accompanied by tinnitus are Presbycusis, Ménière’s disease,

Otosclerosis, Head injury, Cerebellar Pontine Angle Tumors, Otitis Media, Mningitis, Dental disorders, and Exposure certain medications like- Salicylates, Aminoglycoside Antibiotics, and some Chemotherapy agents. Continuous noise can create panic episodes in a person, and can even increase frustration levels. Noise takes a toll on the heart, it was observed that the rate at which heart pumps blood increases when there is constant stimulus of high intensity sound. This could lead to side effects like elevated heartbeat frequencies, palpitations, breathlessness etc. which may even culminate into seizures. It can cause dilation in the pupils of the eye, which could interfere in ocular health in the later stage of life. It is also known to increase digestive spasms. This could be the precursor of chronic gastrointestinal problems. Noise is known to elevate blood pressure, causes heart attack and fatigue, disturb sleep, increases frustration and anxiety in concentrating (U. S. EPA, 2003 and, Agarwal and Swami, 2009).

Leth (2003) and Stansfeld and Mark (2003), study train noise and they described noise as a major environmental stressor in urban areas. They discovered that ability to measure ambient noise levels and represent them on a map should provide a powerful tool for spatially identifying noise sources, its spread and its impact and make decisions relating to its control and management. In contrast, Atmaca et al. (2005), evaluate industrial noise and its effects on humans and discovered that during measurements of noise levels in the industries (Iron & Steel,

Textile, Cement and Concrete Traverse), the noise levels were above 80 decibels specified in the noise control regulation and suggested that hearing tests should be performed periodically each year at noisy work places and the use of modern technologies and machineries that generate less noise be provide in the industries.

In Africa, Essandah and Armah (2011), evaluate ambient noise levels in Cape Coast, 31

Ghana and discovered that about 82.1% of the respondents complained that the noise from the audio music shops and traffic is a nuisance. The study show that noise levels at all the measurement points exceeded the Ghana Environmental Protection Agency recommended upper limit by values of 1-15 dB(A) hence, poses severe health risk to the residents.

In Nigeria, the problem of noise pollution is widespread. Several studies report that noise level in metropolis exceeds specified standard limits. For instance, A study by Ugwuanyi,

Ahemen and Agbendeh (2004), conducted in Makurdi, Nigeria found that noise pollution level in the city was about 3 dB (A) to 10 dB(A) above the recommended upper limit of 82 dB (A).

Also, Ighoroje, Marchie and Nwobodo (2004), investigates the level of noise pollution in selected industrial locations in Benin City and discovered that the average ambient noise level in sawmills, electro-acoustic market and food processing industrial areas was determined to be above 90 dB(A). This noise level is well above the healthy noise level of 60 dB(A).

Anomohanran, Iserhen and Emekeme (2004), investigate noise levels in Agbor and found that the peak noise level at road junction in Agbor, Nigeria to be 100 dB(A). This noise level is higher than the recommended level of 60 dB(A) for commercial and residential areas and if measures to control noise level are not taken seriously, the ongoing urbanization and industrialization may complicate the problem so much that it becomes incurable and growth in terms of economic, social development and population increases the tendency towards increasing

noise generation. Olayinka and Oyedepo, (2010), in their study evaluate and analyze of noise levels in Illorin Metropolis and revealed that 30 out 42 measurement points exceeded the recommended limit of 82 dB (A) by values of 1-27 dB (A). Olayinka, (2013), in his study of effective noise control measures and sustainable development in Nigeria described traffic noise as the major source of noise in Ilorin metropolis and noted that out of 42 wards sampled, only six 32 did not exceed the permissible noise level.

Similarly, Ijaiya (2014), examine the legal regime of noise pollution in Nigeria and he discovered that noise is not inherently harmful to human and environment but it is when it becomes unusually loud and uncontrolled that it diminishes the quality of air and adversely affects the environment, public health and welfare. According to him, the main sources of noise in Nigeria are- electricity generating plants, vehicular traffic noise engine and pressure horns, construction and industrial noise, machinery noise, noise from religious worship, institutions and household noise. Also, John (2014), noise levels in Port Harcourt Metropolis and he reported that the most common sources of noise is from the religious/worship organization because there are lot of churches and mosques, and, they dish out noise from their loudspeaker during prayers and it occurs daily and for a long period.

Nwaogozie and Owate (2000), examine the noise activities in the Port Harcourt refinery and reported that the noise level generated within the Port Harcourt refinery premises are spatially well dispersed and at the fenced boundaries, noise levels are well below FEPA's permissible limit of 90dB(A) and any noise emitted in the neighborhood may not constitute a health hazard. Also, Fadairo (2013), evaluate noise pollution in Akure, Ondo state and he discovered that religious and commercial sources of noise have assumed a serious factor of decay in the country's urban settlements. He identified the source of urban noise in Akure- commercial, socio-cultural, religion, industrial, automobiles, political and domestic sources. He went further to suggest the ways of controlling urban noise as- urban designers should adhere to master plan of the city, they should monitor and control development to follow the already approved land use for any sector of the urban land.

Adejobi (2012), examine spatial-temporal analysis of noise pollution levels in Oshodi- 33

Agege route, Lagos state and his work stated that an important factor for the quality of life in urban centers is related to the noise levels to which the population is submitted. Several factors interfere with the amount of noise pollution throughout a city. A major challenge is the quantification of the noise effects on the population. Growth in terms of economic, social development and population increases the tendency towards increasing noise generation.

Considering the connectivity of vicinity, transport routes could result to an increase in noise volume generated. Noise is considered a growing health threat, and if, left unchecked could result to hazardous conditions.

Avwiri and Nte (2003), studies environmental sound quality of some selected flow stations in Niger delta of Nigeria and they discovered some negative effects of noise such as loss of hearing ability, headaches, interference with communication, nervousness and lack of concentration, insomnia and impairment of efficiency. They elaborated that noise levels will not only constitute noise hazards leading to physiological or psychological damages on the short term but could have a long term effects on the host communities due to the continuous daylong activities of the stations. This work failed to realize that once noise stops, the environment become free from its effects on like other pollutants like gases and particulate matter that continues to linger on after once entering the air.

Also, Anomohanran and Osemeikhian (2006), studies day and night noise pollution in major towns in Delta state, Nigeria and they discovered automobiles, commercial motorcycles, recording houses and the use of electricity generators as the factors responsible for most of the noise experienced in Nigeria. Similarly, Anomohanran et al. (2004), in their study conducted at

Agbor, Nigeria shows that noise from most points in the city are caused by big trucks such as lorries and luxurious buses and also by commercial activities. These did not examine the effects 34 of noise on people in the area.

In 2008, Anomohanran, Iwegbe, Oghenedero and Egbai, investigate environmental noise pollution level in Abraka, Delta state and stated that noise is an environmental pollutant that is increasing very rapidly as a result of improvement in commercial and social activities. They discovered noise effect includes various impacts on mental and physical health and disturbance of daily activities which may affect sleep, conversation, lead to perception of annoyance, cause hearing loss, instigate cardiovascular problems as well as affect human judgment and performanc e.

Osuntogun and Koko (2007), in another study revealS that noise levels beyond the WHO limit of 70 to 75 dB were associated with high blood pressure, abnormal foetal development, extreme emotions and behavior. In addition, such noise levels have also been reported to cause instantaneous hearing impairment as well as complaints and friction among neighbors (Minja,

2003, Boateng and Amedofu, 2004, Akande and Owoyemi, 2008 & Sonibare, Akeredolu,

Latinwo and Solomon (2004). Recently, Ogwo et al. (2013), in a study of comparative assessment of noise impact in Abia State University, Uturu , Nigeria and WHO Standards reported that noise levels at university library was 55 dB in the day and 45 dB at night, lecture hall was 75 dB in the day and 55 dB at night, student hostels on-campus was 65 dB in the day and 80 dB at night and student hostels off-campus was 70 dB in the day and 85 dB at night exceeded WHO standards and was attributed to student gossips, the use of lecture halls as churches using microphones and loudspeakers, playing of musical instruments and the use of own electricity generating sets in off-campus residential area. This work did not examine the effects of noise on people. 35

Adimekwe (2013), also examine the impact of environmental pollution in Okigwe, Imo state and discovered that the most readily measurable physiological effect of noise is damage of hearing which maybe either temporary or permanent and may cause distraction of normal activities or general annoyance. Several factors interfere with the amount of noise pollution throughout the city. There are laws to regulate noise generation in most places in the world, for instance, the noise control act of 1972 in United States was the first federal law to regulate noise pollution. It acknowledged the harms and established the office of noise abatement and control within the environmental protection agency (EPA).

From the above review, it is clear that noise comes from both industries and other sources and that many people do not see noise as an environmental problem. The review has also shown that it is essential to take noise measurements in order to ascertain the noise levels at which people (especially workers) are exposed to. Although, works on waste management, flooding etc. have been conducted respectively in Aba urban by scholars such as Nzeadibe (2011), Nzeadibe

(2012), Nzeadibe and Anyadike, (2012) and Nwoko, (2013) but no in-depth work has been done on industrial noise levels in our study area. This therefore justifies the reason for the present study.

1.6 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

There are number of theories in literature which are frequently used in the analysis of noise levels and its associated impacts. Some of the theories are reviewed below:

1.6.1 Arousal Theory of Stress and Performance

This theory was developed by Broadbent in 1978 and was used to explain noise effects on performance as shown in Fig. 3. This theory stipulates that noise is a source of stress. The higher the noise, the greater the arousal and it results to decrease in attention. He stated that at 36 lower level of arousal, the effects of noise decreases. Furthermore, at relatively increase in noise, the effects increases and it leads to reduction in performance.

Fig. 3: Arousal Theory of Stress and Performance. Source: Broadbent, (1978), pp. 1052.

1.6.2 Composite Theory

Poulton (1979) developed composite theory and he used this theory to explain the effects of noise on speech. This theory stipulates that the effects of noise depends on the noise type, duration or intensity but degrade performance only for those conditions in which inner speech is masked. Poulton's work revealed that arousal and masking of inner speech are noise effects as shown in Fig. 4. From his perspective, the gains in performance from continuous noise early in the task occur because the increase in arousal compensates for the deleterious effects of masking.

However, with time on task, arousal decreases, and masking effects subsequently dominate.

Fig. 4: Composite Theory of Noise Source: Poulton, (1979), pp. 362. 1.6.3 Maximum Adaptability Theory

The maximal adaptability theory was developed by Hancock and Warm (1989). It stipulates that stress can be represented in three forms as shown in Fig. 5.

1. Input consists of all environmental and task factors that affect performance such as noise,

task-related memory demand, etc.

2. The adaptive process involves ones' ability to cope with noisy environment such as physi

ological coping responses and psychological adjustment and appraisal.

3. Output refers to the way people respond in relation to noisy environment (typically, the

efficiency of task performance most often reflected as response speed and response

accuracy). According to Hancock and warm, the output is heavily dependent on the

characteristics of individual performers themselves. The direct effects of noise on

performance manifest themselves in changing output. Noise can also disturb or mask an

individual’s vocal response in the same manner.

Fig. 5: A Tripartite Descriptive Framework For Environmental Origin of Input, Adaptation and Output. Source: Hancock & Warm, (1989), pp. 520

According to the maximal adaptability theory, the lower the noise, the lesser the magnitudes of stress as shown in Fig. 6. Howbeit, at the extremes of overload and under load, adaptation fails, and precipitous performance decrements become evident. In this theory, noise was typically cited as an example in which the input would be biased toward the overload side of the model.

Fig. 6: The Maximal Adaptability Model of Stress and Performance. Source: Hancock &Warm, (1989), pp. 528.

Hancock and Warm (1989), further declared that stress could be divided into two dimensions- information structure and information rate. Information structure refers to the spatial organization of the input stressor or task, and information rate reflects the temporal properties of that input. As shown in Fig. 7, these dimensions together determine the level of adaptive function of an individual performing under stress.

Fig. 7: Extension of the Maximal Adaptability Model Source: Hancock and Warm, (1989), pp. 529.

This theory has been applied by scholars such as Conway et al. (2007), Hancock et al.

(2007) and Szalma and Hancock (2011).

The maximum adaptability theory was applied in this research because it helped in explaining the effects of industrial noise on peoples' health and characterized the intensity because this theory stipulates that noise is a stressor and as noise levels increases, the effects increases.

1.7 THE RESEARCH HYPOTHESES

The following Hypotheses were formulated and tested to establish empirical evidence on the variations in sound levels between different clusters of industries in Aba Urban Area.

I. H0- There is no statistically significant variation in industrial noise levels generated by different cluster of industries in Aba Urban Area.

II. H1- There is a statistically significant variation in industrial noise levels generated by different cluster of industries in Aba Urban Area.

1.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

The steps adopted for data collection and analysis are briefly discussed below. 40

1.8.1 Reconnaissance Survey

A reconnaissance survey was carried out at the beginning of this study to identify the relevant issues that must be taken into consideration in designing the study methodologies. This involved physical observation of the study area. This survey enabled us to identify the listed industries, their location, functional status and surrounding environment. About 76% of industries are small scaled (Aku Palstic, Okoson Aluminium, John Chuks Metal, Ceejay

Aluminium, e.t.c.), about 19% are medium scaled industries (Starline Nig Ltd, New Era Foods,

Clover Paint, Nicen Paint, e.t.c.), while about 5% are large scaled industries (Nigerian Breweries

Plc, Guinness Plc, 7up Bottling company, e.t.c.). Many industries were found in residential areas, although there is an industrial layout in Osisioma Ngwa Local Government area where many large and medium scale industries such as Guinness Plc, Nicen Paints and Clover Paints are located. We also found that many unlisted small scale industries have emerged in the urban area

(although not registered). Presently, existing industries in the area could be classified, into; petrochemical, agro-allied, food processing, sawmills, plastic, textile, oil and gas, construction, pulp and paper, beverage, iron and steel etc. Some of these industries were non-functional during

the survey.

1.8.1.1 Selection of Industries Used in the Study

According to Isiguzo (2015), about 2000 industries are located within the urban area.

Although, Field observations show that many small scale industries were not listed, many of the listed industries have relocated and many are non functional presently. The industries were selected through cluster and simple random sampling techniques. The existing industries were first classified into three major groups, namely, large, medium and small scaled then the simple random sampling technique was used to select 2% (represents reasonable number) of the 41 functional industries from the three clusters identified earlier (large, medium and small). Twenty industries were selected consisting of 12 small scaled industries, 5 medium scaled industries and

3 large scaled industries. The industries are shown in Table 4 and Fig. 8.

TABLE 4: List of Sampled Industry S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Type of Category of Local Govt. North East Industry Industry Areas 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Agro-allied Small Scale Obingwa 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Food Small Scale Aba South Processing 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Oil and Gas Medium Osisioma- Scale Ngwa 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Food Small Scale Aba South Processing 5 G&C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Beverage Small Scale Osisioma- Ngwa 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Petrochemical Medium Osisioma- Scale Ngwa 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Petrochemical Medium Osisioma- Scale Ngwa 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Beverage and Small Scale Osisioma- Plastic Ngwa 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Agro-allied Small Scale Obingwa

10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Plastic Small Scale Aba South

11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Beverage Large Scale Obingwa

12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Steel Small Scale Ugwunagbo

13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aluminum Small Scale Aba South 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Beverage Medium Osisioma- Distillers Scale Ngwa 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Cosmetics and Medium Aba North Disinfectant Scale 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Metal Small Scale Osisioma- Ngwa 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Aluminum Small Scale Osisioma- Ngwa 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Steel Small Scale Osisioma- Ngwa 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc 5.1180 7.3750 Beverage Large Scale Aba North

20 Guinness Plc 5.1000 7.3740 Beverage Large Scale Osisioma- Ngwa Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015. 43

Fig. 8: ABA URBAN AREA SHOWING THE SAMPLED INDUSTRIES. Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 44

1.8.2 Data Collection

Also, to achieve the stated objectives of this study, relevant and detailed data were collected through the primary and secondary data. Primary data were collected with the aid of noise meter, issuance of questionnaires and key informant interviews.

1.8.2.1 Noise Level Measurements

. Noise measurements were collected three days in a week for two weeks (1week in

November and 1week in December). Maximum and minimum sound levels were recorded on each spot in each of the selected industries during three different time periods of the day (9.00-

11.00 a.m, 12.00-2p.m and 3.00-5.00 p.m) using multifunctional digital sound level meter

(MASTECH Digital Sound Level Meter, MS 6708). Co-ordinates of the measurement stations where noise measurement took place was determined using a Garmin Oregon 450 Handheld

Global Positioning System Navigator.

1.8.2.2 Use of Research Assistants

Ten research assistants with HND and OND qualifications were recruited, trained and used in data collection, particularly noise measurements. The purpose was to ensure that measurements took place effectively at different locations within the given time frame (9.00 a.m-

5p.m).

1.8.2.3 Key Informant Interviews

Key informants interviews were conducted with a company worker, a staff of Aba

Chamber of Commerce, Industry, Mines and Agriculture (ACCIMA) and a staff of Abia State

Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Umuahia. The outcome of the interview provided information on the- effects of noise on workers' health and problems militating industrial noise control and management. 45

1.8.2.4 Questionnaire Administration

In order to obtain information on the sources, effects and problems of industrial noise, a questionnaire was designed in this regard (Appendix A). A random sampling method was adopted in the administration of the questionnaire. The targeted respondents were company workers and people living close to the industries. It was administered to Three hundred persons.

The sample size was determined by the method used by Yamane (1967), using the formular;

n=N/[1+N(e)^2] ...... (1)

where n= sample size

N= population size

e= sampling error (usually 0.10, 0.05 and 0.01)

1.8.2.5 Validation of the Instrument

The instrument was validated by three experts; Dr M.C. Obeta and Dr T.C. Nzeadibe, from the Department of Geography, UNN and Dr. L.O. Amazue from the Department of

Psychology, UNN. Their corrections and comments were used to modify the content of the questionnaire in terms of appropriateness and relevance.

1.8.2.5.1 Test of Reliability

The questionnaire was further subjected to pre-test interview to establish the degree of reliability of the questions in the questionnaire. Also, data collected were subjected to Cronbach

Alpha Reliability test. An overall co-efficient of internal consistency of 0.82 was observed. This value was an indication of high reliability. Some of the respondents provided suggestion to improve the clarity of some questions in the questionnaire to enable respondents to provide appropriate information.

1.8.3 Secondary Data

The secondary data for this project were derived from existing information that are registered in journals of learned academic societies, seminar papers, maps, textbooks, newspapers and internet. Data were also sourced from the Aba Chamber of Commerce,

Industries, Mines and Agriculture and Abia State Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Umuahia.

1.8.4 Data Analysis

Regression was employed to determine the trend in industrial noise over time using the formular;

Y= a+bx...... (2) where Y= dependent variables a= base constant b= slope of the regression line x= independent variables Cluster Analysis was employed to classify the sampled industries into three distinct categories based on similar ranges of sound levels generated. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was employed to test whether there were significant variations in the noise levels generated by the identified groups of industries. Basic statistical parameters such as pie charts, percentages, mean, average and standard deviation were used to present the results and findings of the study.

The analysis was done using SPSS version 20.0 and Microsoft Excel, while minor computation was done using scientific calculator.

1.8.4.1 Noise Maps

Noise maps describe spatial distributions of noise levels (Coelho and Alarcao, 2006). 47

However, noise levels measurements were used to produce noise maps with the aid of ARCGIS

Software 12.0 in this study.

1.9 PLAN OF THE PROJECT

The thesis is anchored in six (6) chapters:

Chapter One: Introduction.

This chapter discussed the background to the study, the research problem, aims and objectives, the study area, literature review, theoretical framework, research methodology and plan of the project.

Chapter Two: Sources of Industrial Noise in Aba Urban Area.

This chapter discussed the various sources of industrial noise; machine-induced noise, maintenance-induced noise, branding and rebranding of products, product painting, administrative-induced noise, power generation, equipment-induced noise, assembling of products, loading and offloading of products, industrial accidents, product sorting, metal fabrication and wood processing

Chapter Three: Spatial and Temporal Variations of Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area.

The chapter focused on introduction, spatial and temporal variations of industrial noise levels in Aba Urban using sound meter and production of noise maps. The noise measurement were compared with WHO/EC industrial noise limit and FMENV guideline for permissible community noise limits. Regression was employed to determine trend in industrial noise over time, Cluster Analysis was employed to group industries according the noise levels they generate while, ANOVA were used to determine the significant variations in noise levels in the identified clusters of sampled industries. 48

Chapter Four: Effects of Industrial Noise Levels on Peoples' Health in Aba Urban Area.

This chapter identified and discussed the reported effects of industrial noise levels on peoples' health.

Chapter Five: Problems Militating Against Industrial Noise Control and Management in Aba Urban Area.

The problems militating against industrial noise control and management were identified and discussed here.

Chapter Six : Summary of Research Findings, Recommendations and Conclusion.

This chapter consist of summary of research findings, conclusion and recommendation.

CHAPTER TWO SOURCES OF INDUSTRIAL NOISE Bugliarello, Alexandre, Barners and Wakstein (1976), categorize industrial activities that generate noise in New York City into four, namely: product fabrication, product assembly, power generation, and processing of raw materials. Gerges (2001), also listed seven industrial activities that generate noise as the operation of machines, fan, transformer, aerodynamic noise, hydraulic system, gear noise and vibration-induced noise.

Aba urban, as noted previously is a densely built-up area; houses, hotels, supermarkets and small-scale industrial and commercial establishments are spaced close to each other. Some residential buildings also serve as warehouses, worship centers and manufacturing units. Within the residential and rapidly expanding industrial zones, industrial noise was found to be a very common feature of the urban landscape. It was clearly evident that industrialization, along with rapid urbanization and dense network of roads play important role in the current pattern of noise generation within the urban area.

We located and noted noise generating industrial activities and interviewed company workers within the study area. Through these, we were able to establish the exact sources of industrial noise from the industries in Aba urban area and suburbs. From our findings, industrial noise ranging from mild to severe emanates from various industrial activities. The number and percentages of respondents that identified each of the sources is presented in Table 5.

TABLE 5: Respondents Identified Sources of Industrial Noise in Aba Urban Area

S/N Respondents Identified Sources of Number of Responses Percentages 0f the Industrial Noise Total Responses 1 Equipment-Induced 20 6.89% 2 Machine-Induced 30 10.34% 3 Metal Processing 20 6.89% 4 Wood Processing 10 3.44% 5 Power Generation 78 26.8% 6 Assembling of Products 25 8.62% 7 Loading and Unloading of Products 20 6.89% 8 Maintenance-Induced 12 4.13% 9 Product Painting 10 3.44% 10 Branding and Rebranding of Products 15 5.17% 11 Product Fabrication 25 8.62% 12 Industrial Accidents 10 3.44% 13 Product Sorting 15 5.17% Total 290 99.92% Source: Authors' Field Survey and Computation, 2015.

From table 5, power generation is the most frequently identified source of industrial noise in Aba Urban with a total of fifty responses (26.8%), while wood processing, product painting and industrial accidents are considered the lowest source of industrial noise in Aba

Urban with a total of ten responses (3.44%). These sources of industrial noise are discussed:-

2.1 Sources of Industrial Noise.

This section discussed of the sources of industrial noise generated in the study area.

2.1.1 Equipment-Induced Noise

Equipment-induced noise emanate mainly from hand-held tools such as drills, grinders, chipping hammers, etc. which are widely used in the different industries in Aba urban.

The questionnaire issued revealed that 6.89% of the respondents chose equipment-induced noise as a source of industrial noise. There are three basic noise types that fall within this category, namely- Noise produced by contact between the machine and the working surface, exhaust air noise, sound radiation from tool vibration caused by air flow inside the tool. 51

2.1.2 Machine-Induced Noise

Industrial machinery and processes constitute important sources of industrial noise in Aba

Urban and machines such as rotors, stators, gears, ventilator and exhaust fans, vibrating panels, electrical motors, internal combustion engines etc. are noise sources. The mechanisms of noise generation depends on the processes involved. The operations and functioning of the equipment including pneumatic equipment (e.g. jack hammers, chipping hammers, etc.), electric furnaces, boiler making, dividing and metal cutting, such as punching, pressing and shearing, lathes, milling machines and grinders, as well as textile machines, beverage filling machines and print machines, pumps and compressors, drive units, hand-guided machines, self-propelled working machines and in-plant conveying systems generates noise of high magnitude. The questionnaire issued revealed that 10.34% of the respondents chose machine induced noise as a source of industrial noise.

2.1.3 Metal Processing

Metal processing is the building of metal structures by cutting, bending and assembly processes. Cutting is done by sawing, shearing or chiseling. Bending is done by hammering

(manual or powered). Modern metal fabricators use press brakes to either coin or air-bend metal sheet into form. Assembling is done by welding, binding with adhesives, riveting, threaded fasteners. Structural steel and sheet metal are the usual starting materials for fabrication along with the welding wire, flux and fasteners that will join the cut pieces. The questionnaire revealed that 6.89% chose metal processing as a source of industrial noise.

2.1.4 Wood Processing

The woodworking industry in Aba urban area generates noise as a result of the use of modern, higher speed, and more compact machines. The basic noise elements in woodworking 52 machines are cutter heads and circular saws. Woodworking machinery uses operations, such as cutting, milling, shaping, etc. The questionnaire revealed that 3.44% chose wood processing as a source of industrial noise. Here, basic noise sources involved are structure vibration and noise radiation of the work piece or cutting tool, fan dust and chip removal air carrying systems.

2.1.5 Power Generation

Nigeria’s power situation is very poor and as a result there is an upsurge in the use of electricity generating plants which leads to noise pollution affects both man and environment.

We discovered that most industries and workplaces use generating plants 24 hours in alternative to power supply. Most of the noise emitted in power generation is produced by turbine generators and air compressors, though some noise originates from devices such as fans and blowers. The questionnaire revealed that 26.8% chose power generation as a source of industrial noise.

2.1.6 Assembling of Products

Product assembly also produces dangerous noise levels. The activities within this category often produce broad-band noise that includes high levels of higher-frequency noise due to the operation of electric and pneumatic tools. The questionnaire revealed that 8.62% chose assembling of product as a source of industrial noise.

2.1.7 Loading and Offloading of Products

Loading involves putting a large amount of tools on or in a vehicle, container etc. After production of goods, they load and dispatch them to where they will be sold. Unloading on the other hand, means to remove the contents of something especially a load of goods from a vehicle. During the unloading process of raw materials by the industries, noise is generated and it could be from the sound of vehicle or horn. The questionnaire revealed that 6.89% chose loading 53 and unloading as a source of industrial noise.

2.1.8 Maintenance-Induced Noise

Machines used by industries are usually serviced from time to time. During this process, the noise generated could be high because maintenance processes often requires power supply but due to the erratic power supply in the study area, generating plants which is an alternative source of electricity is used and this generating plant produce noise that can affect the life of people. The questionnaire revealed that 4.13% chose maintenance-induced noise as a source of industrial noise.

2.1.9 Product Painting

This source of industrial noise is common in the steel and aluminum companies. These industries after production use paint of various colours to beautify their goods. The painting process involves the use of machine in order to make it easy and more efficient. Those machines usually release noise that can be harmful to human. The questionnaire revealed that 3.44% chose product painting as a source of industrial noise.

2.1.10 Branding and Rebranding of Products

Branding is the term used to describe the overall design and promotion of a company, its products and services. It involves selecting the code name and design elements used in creating a logo and consistently labeling and packaging all products using similar elements to brand the recognition of the company into the mind of consumers. Rebranding, on the other hand is a marketing strategy in which a new name, term, symbol, design or combination thereof is created for an established brand with the intention of developing a new, differentiated identity in the minds of consumers, investors, competitors and other stakeholders. The questionnaire revealed that 5.17% chose branding and rebranding of products as a source of industrial noise. 54

2.1.11 Product Sorting

Product sorting is any process of arranging items systemically and has two common yet distinct meaning. Ordering - arranging items in a sequence ordered by some criterion and categorizing- grouping items with similar properties. Various sorting tasks are essential in industrial processes and it generates noise. The questionnaire revealed that 5.17% chose product sorting as a source of industrial noise.

2.1.12 Industrial Accidents

Industrial accident is a sudden and unforeseen event, attributable to any cause which happens to a person , persons, or other objects, arising out of or in the course of his or her work and resulting to an injury or damage. Industrial accidents also known as work accidents, occupational accidents or accidents at work, is a discrete occurrence in the course of work leading to physical or mental injury (E.C, 2001). Different forms of accidents emanating from industries in the study generate noise. The questionnaire revealed that 3.44% chose industrial accidents as a source of industrial noise.

2.1.13 Product Fabrication

Product fabrication can be a highly noisy operation. In metal fabrication for instance, the cutting, shearing, pressing, and riveting of metal products were found to be very noisy. Molding, another type of product fabrication, were also found highly noisy with its use of high-pressure air in the operation, pneumatic control, and cooling of molding machinery. Plastic molding were found to produce noise at levels greater than 100 dB. The questionnaire revealed that 8.62% chose product fabrication as a source of industrial noise. Specific sources of industrial noise have their levels as shown below:

1.) Chain saw, riveting small structures and chipping operations on a large steel casting (80 55 and above dB)

2.) Food canning, food preparation, most textile operations, small printing presses, welding and cutting, machinery assembly lines, farm machinery and sawing, surfacing, etc. of small wood pieces (75 and above dB)

2.2 Respondents' Perception of Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban

The respondents requested to classify the noise generated from the sources described above as severe or mild. 'Severe' industrial noise levels, is used in this essay to refers to sound levels which the respondents consider to be capable of causing discomfort and/or injury to individuals within the noise environments while 'mild sound levels' refers to noise levels which the respondent consider to be incapable of causing discomfort to those who operate within the noise environment. The respondents perception of the level of sound generated by the sampled industries are summarized in Table 6.

TABLE 6: Respondents' Perception of Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban S/N Source of Industrial Noise No of the % of the No of the % of the Respondents Total No of Respondent Total No that Responses s that of Classified Classified Respons Noise as Noise as es Severe Mild 1 Equipment-Induced 15 5.17% 5 1.72% 2 Machine-Induced 25 8.62% 5 1.72% 3 Metal Processing 15 5.17% 5 1.72% 4 Wood Processing 5 1.72% 5 1.72% 5 Power Generation 60 20.62% 18 6.20% 6 Assembling of Products 12 4.13% 13 4.48% 7 Loading and Unloading of Products 10 3.44% 10 3.44% 8 Maintenance-Induced 9 3.10% 3 1.03% 9 Product Painting 6 2.06% 4 1.37% 10 Branding and Rebranding of 5 1.72% 10 3.44% Products 11 Product Fabrication 15 5.17% 10 3.44% 12 Industrial Accidents 5 1.72% 5 1.72% 13 Product Sorting 5 1.72% 10 3.44% Tot 187 64.35% 103 35.64% al Source: Authors’ Field Survey and Compilation, 2015.

Power generation was considered the most severe by most of the respondents (20.62%);

this is followed by machine induced noise (8.62%); equipment induced noise, metal processing,

product fabrication and industrial accidents (5.17%). 4.13% of the respondents considered sound

originating from the assembling of products as severe ; loading and unloading of products

(3.44%); maintenance induced sound (3.10%); product painting (2.06%); wood processing and

branding and rebranding of products(1.72%). When aggregated, 64.35% of the respondents

considered sound from various sources to be severe while 35.64% considered noise levels from

different sources to be mild (see Fig. 9). 57

35.64%

Severe 64.35% Mild

Fig. 9: Respondents' Perception of Industrial Noise Levels from Different Sources in Aba Urban. Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

CHAPTER THREE SPATIAL AND TEMPORAL VARIATIONS OF INDUSTRIAL NOISE LEVELS IN ABA URBAN AREA OF ABIA STATE, NIGERIA.

The section focuses on the identification, description and mapping of the spatial and temporal variations in industrial noise levels in the study area. Findings reveal that the 1970s were years of marked infrastructural development in Aba Urban Area. This led to the migration of many rural residents to the urban centre in search of more lucrative jobs in construction and other industries. The rapid growth of the city brought about radical rise in noise levels in the study area and the noise originates from numerous human activities, especially those discussed in the previous chapter. The standard guideline for the measurement of noise states that industrial noise levels must not exceed 70dB (A) all time (IFC, 2007). Mapping of industrial noise variations has currently been assisted by the development of various softwares which aided in the mapping of noise levels and interpreting noise data. For instance, Adejobi, (2012) monitor noise assessment in Oshodi-Agege route and created boundaries of decibel generation using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW). For the purpose of this research, ARCGIS software version 12.0 was used to map industrial noise and to produce noise maps. The maps were produced by entering the co ordinates of the sample industries. Noise sensitivity classification given by WHO (2009) as shown in Table 7 was adopted as the benchmarks in this research.

TABLE 7: Noise Sensitivity Classification for Industries. dB (A) Sensitivity (level of risk exposure) 55-60 Risk 60-65 Medium risk 65-70 High risk 70-75 Dangerous 75-80 Highly dangerous 80 and above Extremely Dangerous Source: World Health Organization, 2009, pp.50. 3.1 Spatial Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area, AbiaState.

The name of industries, co-ordinates, local governments and average mean maximum and minimum values of industrial noise are presented in table 8.

Table 8: Spatial Variations in Industrial Noise levels in Aba Urban Area

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Noise Level Db (A)

Northings Eastings

Mean Max. Mean Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 81.2** 64.8 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 88.1** 68.3 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma – 78.6* 62.4 Ngwa 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 83.5** 67.9 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma- 78.1* 62.2 Ngwa 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma- 85.6** 70.4 Limited Ngwa 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma- 76.5* 61.5 Ngwa 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma- 81** 65.9 Ngwa 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 82.3** 65.8 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 75.1* 61.8 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 81.2** 66 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 95** 78.9* 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 91** 75.8* 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma- 78.5* 64.1 Distillers Ngwa 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 82.8** 68.7 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma- 95.7** 77.8* Ngwa 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma- 76.2* 63.1 Ngwa 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma- 95.4** 79.5* Ngwa 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 78.1* 64.3 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma- 70.7 59.7 Ngwa Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

1.)*Values that fall within the range classified as ''Highly Dangerous'' by WHO & E.C Allowable

Limits for industries.

2.)**Values that fall within the range classified as ''Extremely Dangerous'' by WHO& E.C

Allowable Limits for industries. 61

As shown in table 8, 12 values fall within the range classified as ''extremely dangerous'';1 value falls within the range classified as ''highly dangerous'', 2 values fall within the range classified as ''dangerous'', 6 values fall within the range classified as ''high risk''; 8 values fall within the range classified as ''medium risk'' while 1 value falls within the range classified as

''risk''.

Industrial Noise Maps of Aba Urban Area.

Noise maps as noted earlier describe the spatial distribution of industrial noise levels.

They allow an efficient visualization of the noise distributions in area the land uses are sensitive to noise. Noise mapping is a very efficient noise assessment method in urban areas. In this work, noise maps are presented for easier understanding of the patterns of noise generation in the area.

The spatial distribution of these noise levels over the Aba urban landscape is shown in Figs. 10 and 11 below. 62

Fig. 10: Maximum Spatial Variations. Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 63

Fig. 11: Minimum Spatial Variations Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 64

3.2 Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area, Abia State. Industrial noise levels measurements in Aba Urban Area of Abia State was carried out based on the time groups- 9.00a.m-11.00a.m, 12noon-2.00p.m and 3.00p.m-5.00p.m on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays in November and December, 2015 (see Appendix C). The mean maximum values and mean minimum values were derived by adding the total noise levels of each time groups for each week divided by the number of days as presented in the Tables 9- 14. The mean minimum noise values were used to produce noise maps.

TABLE 9: Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Morning Period ( 9a.m-11a.m November, 2015) S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Max. Mean Values Min. Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 9 – 11a.m 64.8 59.4 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 9 – 11a.m 88.1** 69.4 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 79.2* 62.8 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 9 – 11a.m 83.2** 68.6 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 81.2** 65.1 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 81.8** 72.8 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 74.9 61.7 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 78.8* 63.4 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 9 – 11a.m 84.0** 64.8 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 9 – 11a.m 74.2 62.6 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 9 – 11a.m 76.8* 61.0 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 9 – 11a.m 96.5** 80.5** 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 9 – 11a.m 93.8** 78.6* 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 75.6* 58.4* Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 9 – 11a.m 81.7** 67.6*** 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 99.2** 82.1***** * 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 76.2* 64.6** 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 96.7** 82.8***** * 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 9 – 11a.m 79* 62.0** 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 74.8 62.8** Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

1.)*Values that fall within the range classified as ''Highly Dangerous'' by WHO& E.C Allowable

Limits for industries.

2.)**Values that fall within the range classified as ''Extremely Dangerous'' by WHO& E.C

Allowable Limits for industries.

As shown in Table 9, 14 values fall within the range classified as ''extremely dangerous''; 6

values fall within the range classified as ''highly dangerous'', 4 values fall within the range

classified as ''dangerous'', 4 values fall within the range classified as ''high risk''; 10 values fall

within the range classified as ''medium risk'' while 2 values fall within the range classified as

''risk''. 66

TABLE 10: Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Afternoon Period ( 12noon-2p.m November, 2015)

S/ Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A) N Northings Eastings Mean Max. Mean Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 12noon-2p.m 83.4** 66.5 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 12noon-2p.m 87** 71.6 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 81.1** 66.5 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 12noon-2p.m 77.8* 63.7 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 68.7 57.1 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 89.1** 73.2 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 78.8* 63.3 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 81.4** 65.7 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 12noon-2p.m 83.8** 67.1 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 12noon-2p.m 78* 63.8 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 12noon-2p.m 78.5* 62.3 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 12noon-2p.m 96** 79.2* 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 12noon-2p.m 92** 77.6* 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 78.7* 62 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 12noon-2p.m 82.5** 68.5 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 89.5** 73.5 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 77.5* 65.9 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 100.3** 83.6** 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 12noon-2p.m 75.3* 60.4 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 71.1* 62.3 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

1.)*Values that fall within the range classified as ''Highly Dangerous'' by WHO& E.C Allowable

Limits for industries.

2.)**Values that fall within the range classified as ''Extremely Dangerous'' by WHO& E.C

Allowable Limits for industries.

As shown in Table 10, 12 values fall within the range classified as ''extremely dangerous''

; 10 values fall within the range classified as ''highly dangerous'', 4 values fall within the range

classified as ''dangerous'', 6 values fall within the range classified as ''high risk''; 7 values fall

within the range classified as ''medium risk'' while 1 values fall within the range classified as

''risk''. 67

TABLE 11: Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Evening Period ( 3p.m-5p.m November, 2015)

S/ Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A) N Northings Eastings Mean Max. Mean Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 85.5** 69.1 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 90.8** 72.5 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 83.1** 65.6 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 93.4** 77.4* 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 81.1** 63.8 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 86.1** 72.2 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 73.6* 59.5 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 82.6** 66 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 82.1** 66.5 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 77.3* 65 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 85.8** 70.8 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 3p.m-5p.m 94.2** 76.8* 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 89.6** 74.1 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 81.4** 65.5 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 86.1** 70.7 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 98.1** 79* 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 78.4* 66.8 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 89.3** 73 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 82** 69 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 71.5 60.3 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

1.)*Values that fall within the range classified as ''Highly Dangerous'' by WHO& E.C Allowable

Limits for industries.

2.)**Values that fall within the range classified as ''Extremely Dangerous'' by WHO& E.C

Allowable Limits for industries.

As shown in Table 11, 16 values fall within the range classified as ''extremely dangerous'';5

values fall within the range classified as ''highly dangerous'', 8 values fall within the range

classified as ''dangerous'', 7 values fall within the range classified as ''high risk''; 3 values fall

within the range classified as ''medium risk'' while 1 values fall within the range classified as

''risk''. 68

Noise Maps for Mornings, Afternoons and Evenings in November, 2015.

The data collected in the sampling sites were used to develop noise maps based on various periods daytime noise levels (mornings, afternoon and evenings in November,2015) The maps are shown in Figs. 12 to 17.

Fig. 12: Maximum Temporal Variations (9a.m-11a.m, November, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 70

Fig. 13: Minimum Temporal Variations (9a.m-11a.m, November, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN.

Fig. 14: Maximum Temporal Variations (12noon-2p.m, November, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 72

Fig. 15: Minimum Temporal Variations (12noon-2p.m, November, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 73

Fig. 16: Maximum Temporal Variations (3p.m-5p.m, November, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 74

Fig. 17: Minimum Temporal Variations (3p.m-5p.m, November, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 75

TABLE 12: Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Morning Period ( 9a.m-11a.m December, 2015)

S/ Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A) N Northings Eastings Mean Max. Mean Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 9 – 11a.m 78.7* 62.1 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 9 – 11a.m 81.9** 64.9 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 76* 60 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 9 – 11a.m 82.6** 66.5 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 80.7** 63.7 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 81.4** 63.7 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 75.6* 60.7 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 80.3** 64.8 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 9 – 11a.m 84.2** 69.2 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 9 – 11a.m 75* 61.3 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 9 – 11a.m 82.4** 66.6 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 9 – 11a.m 98.6** 81** 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 9 – 11a.m 88.5** 72.3 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 78.1* 63.8 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 9 – 11a.m 80.1** 65.4 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 95.9** 77.6* 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 73.4 60.3 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 97** 80.4** 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 9 – 11a.m 72.4 58.7 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 – 11a.m 70.9 57.8 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

1.)*Values that fall within the range classified as ''Highly Dangerous'' by WHO & E.C Allowable

Limits for industries.

2.)**Values that fall within the range classified as ''Extremely Dangerous'' by WHO& E.C

Allowable Limits for industries.

As shown in Table 12, 14 values fall within the range classified as ''extremely

dangerous'';6 values fall within the range classified as ''highly dangerous'', 5 values fall within

the range classified as ''dangerous'', 4 values fall within the range classified as ''high risk''; 9

values fall within the range classified as ''medium risk'' while 2 values fall within the range

classified as ''risk''. 76

TABLE 13: Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Afternoon Period ( 12noon-2p.m December, 2015)

S/ Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt. Time Noise Level Db(A) N Northings Eastings Mean Max. Mean Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 12noon-2p.m 75.7* 60 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 12noon-2p.m 78.8* 63.3 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 78.1* 61.4 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 12noon-2p.m 75.6* 61 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 73.6 58.8 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 87** 70.1 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 74.9 60.8 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 80.9** 65.3 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 12noon-2p.m 81.1** 64.9 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 12noon-2p.m 73 59.7 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 12noon-2p.m 81** 67.1 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 12noon-2p.m 96.4** 79* 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 12noon-2p.m 91.1** 74.6 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 77* 62.3 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 12noon-2p.m 82.4** 68.6 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 96.3** 77.7* 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 75.6* 61.3 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 99.3** 81.9** 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 12noon-2p.m 80.7** 67.6 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 12noon-2p.m 70.3 56.3* Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

1.)*Values that fall within the range classified as ''Highly Dangerous'' by WHO & E.C Allowable

Limits for industries.

2.)**Values that fall within the range classified as ''Extremely Dangerous'' by WHO& E.C

Allowable Limits for industries.

As shown in Table 13, 11 values fall within the range classified as ''extremely dangerous''

; 8 values fall within the range classified as ''highly dangerous'', 6 values fall within the range

classified as ''dangerous'', 4 values fall within the range classified as ''high risk''; 8 values fall

within the range classified as ''medium risk'' while 3 values fall within the range classified as

''risk''. 77

TABLE 14: Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Evening Period ( 3p.m-5p.m December, 2015)

S/ Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt. Time Noise Level Db(A) N Northings Eastings Mean Max. Mean Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 79.1* 63.2 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 86.2** 68.4 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 74.1 58.7 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 88.6** 70.4 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 81.8** 64.1 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 88.4** 70.8 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 81.4** 63.3 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 84.7** 70.7 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 77.6* 62.4 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 73 58.7 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 83.8** 68.4 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 3p.m-5p.m 93.7** 77.2* 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 94.3** 77.9* 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 79* 66.9 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 86.5** 71.6 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 95.5** 77* 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 74.4 61.6 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 93.2** 75.5* 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 82.3** 68 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 72.1 59.2 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

1.)*Values that fall within the range classified as ''Highly Dangerous'' by WHO & E.C Allowable

Limits for industries.

2.)**Values that fall within the range classified as 'Extremely Dangerous'' by WHO &E.C

Allowable Limits for industries.

As shown in Table14, 13 values fall within the range classified as ''extremely

dangerous'';7 values fall within the range classified as ''highly dangerous'', 8 values fall within

the range classified as ''dangerous'', 4 values fall within the range classified as ''high risk''; 5

values fall within the range classified as ''medium risk'' while 3 values fall within the range

classified as ''risk''. 78

Noise Maps for Mornings, Afternoons and Evenings in December, 2015.

The data collected in the sampling sites were used to develop noise maps based on various periods daytime noise levels (mornings, afternoon and evenings in December,2015) The maps are shown in Figures 18 to 23.

Fig. 18: Maximum Temporal Variations (9a.m-11a.m, December, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN 80

Fig. 19:Minimum Temporal Variations (9 a.m-11a.m, December, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 81

Fig. 20: Maximum Temporal Variations (12noon-2p.m, December). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 82

Fig. 21:Minimum Temporal Variations (12noon-2p.m, December, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 83

Fig. 22: Maximum Temporal Variations (3p.m-5p.m, December, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 84

Fig. 23:Minimum Temporal Variations (3p.m-5p.m, December, 2015). Source: GIS Laboratory, Department of Geography, UNN. 85

Regression Analysis

Regression was employed to determine the trend in industrial noise over time as shown in Fig.

24 below using the formulae;

Y= a+bx...... (2) where Y= dependent variables a= base constant b= slope of the regression line x= independent variables

84.5

83.5

83 y = 82.513+0.02

Noise Levels Noise 82.5 R² = 0.0009

81.5

81 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Time

Fig. 24: A Scatter Gram Showing The Trends in Industrial Noise Over Time. Source: Authors' Field Survey and Compilation, 2015. Fig. 24 shows a regression co-efficient of 82.513+0.02x which indicates that for every unit increase in X (time), there is a 0.02 increase in noise level while other factor being constant.

Also, time explained 2% of variation in noise level and a positive relationship. Noise level varies over time because some industries produce more in the morning period than afternoon or 86 evening, some industries more in the afternoon period than morning and evening while for some industries, production takes place most during the evening period.

Classification of The Sampled Industries

Cluster analysis was employed to classify the sampled industries on the basis of the noise levels generated. Clustering is the act of grouping a set of objects in such a way that objects in the same group called a cluster are more similar to each other than to those in other groups or clusters. Cluster analysis was originated in anthropology by Driver and Kroeber in 1932 and fruitfully used by Cattell beginning in 1943 for trait theory classification in personality psychology. Similarly, cluster analysis has been applied by geographers and used in other disciplines by different scholars. Connectivity based clustering, also known as hierarchical clustering was used in this study to examine the relationship between industries and the noise levels they generated, as is represented in a derived dendrogram. Cluster analysis classified the sampled industries into three distinct categories based on similar ranges of sound levels generated (Fig. 25).

Distance Cluster Combine

C A S E 0 5 10 15 20 25 Label Num +------+------+------+------+------+

Zandob Limited 8 ─┐ 7up Bottling Company 11 ─┤ Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 9 ─┼─┐ New Erra Foods 1 ─┘ │ A Nnaji Bakery 4 ─┐ ├─────┐ Starline Nig. Ltd. 15 ─┤ │ │ Daily Manna Bakery 2 ─┼─┘ │ Nicen Industries Limited 6 ─┘ │ Clover paint 7 ─┐ ├───────────────────────────────────────┐ Aku Plastic 10 ─┼───┐ │ │ G&C Sachet Water 5 ─┤ │ │ │ Divine Gate Aluminum 17 ─┤ │ B │ │ Tonimas Oil and Gas 3 ─┤ ├───┘ │ Afro Beverages & Dist 14 ─┤ │ │ Nigeria Brewery Plc. 19 ─┘ │ │ Guinness Plc. 20 ─────┘ │ Ceejay Construction Co. 12 ─┐ │ Emma Best Steel 18 ─┼─┐ │ John Chuks Metal 16 ─┘ ├─────────────────────────────────────────────┘ Okoson Aluminum Co. 13 ───┘ C

Fig. 25:Dendogram Showing the Clusters of Industries in The Study Area. Source: Authors Computation, 2015. The indentified clusters are briefly outlined and discussed below;

 Group A- Eight industries in this group fall within noise range of 80-90dB, with a mean

of 83.2 dB. They include-New Erra Foods (81.2). This industry produce vegetable oil and

it is located at Ikot Epene Road, Daily Manna Bakery (88.1) & Nnaji Bakery (83.5). The

y are located in Degema and Obohia roads respectively and specialize in baking of bread,

Nicen Industries (85.6).This industry is located at Osisioma Industrial Layout and they

produce paints and plastics, Zandob Industries (81). This industry is located at Umuode.

They produce table water and plastics, Hanonimbizu Ind. (82.3) is located at Opobo road.

They produce soap and vegetable oil. 7up Bottling Company (81.2 ) is located at 7up road

and they produce soft drinks while Starline Nig. Ltd (82.8) is located at Eziama. They

produce cosmetics and disinfectants. They are mainly agro-allied industries and food and

beverages.

• Group B- Eight industries in this group fall within noise range of 70-80dB, with a 88

mean of 76.4dB. They include Tonimas Oil and Gas (78.6) located at Aba PH express

way. They produce lubricants for both cars, generators etc, G&C Sachet Water (78.1)

located at Onwuka nails. They produce bottled and sachet water, Clover Paint (76.5)

located at Osisioma Industrial Layout, Aku Plastic (75.1) located at Ojike lane, Afro

Beverages & Distillers (78.5) located at Aba PH Expressway (OsisiomaNgwa), Divine

Gate Aluminum (76.2) are located in Aba PH Expressway. They produce aluminum for

roofing of buildings, Nigeria Brewery Plc. (78.1) and Guinness Plc. (70.7) are located at

Industry road and Osisioma Industrial Layout respectively. They are mainly food and

beverage and petrochemical industries.

 Group C- Four industries in this group fall within noise range of 90dB and above, with a

mean of 94.2 dB. They include- Ceejay Steel Co. (95dB) is located at Ugwunagbo. They

construct carts, wheel barrows etc., Okoson Aluminum Co. (91dB) is located at Azikiwe

road. They produce doors and windows, John Chuks Metal (95.7 dB) and Emma Best

Steel (95.4). They are both located in Aba-PH expressway. They produce steel/iron gate,

carts etc.

Testing of Hypotheses

Hypotheses were formulated and tested to establish empirical evidence on the variations in sound levels between different clusters of industries in Aba Urban Area.

I. H0- There is no statistically significant variation in industrial noise levels generated by different cluster of industries in Aba Urban Area.

II. H1- There is a statistically significant variation in industrial noise levels generated by

different cluster of industries in Aba Urban Area.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical models used to analyze the 89 differences among group mean and their associated procedures (such as variation among and between groups), developed by statistician and evolutionary biologist Ronald Fisher. It is a particular form of statistical hypothesis testing heavily used in the analysis of experimental data. One Way ANOVA was employed in this study to investigate if there is any significant variations in industrial noise levels between the three indentified industrial clusters in the study area. This statistical tool has been employed by various workers investigating noise pollution levels in urban areas. For instance, Oyedepo and Saada(2009) employed ANOVA in a study of noise levels in Ilorin, Nigeria. The results of the ANOVA in this study

(Appendix D) revealed that the calculated value of 114.531 is greater than the critical value of

3.59, therefore, Ho is rejected and H1 accepted it means that there is a statistically significant variations in the noise levels generated by the clusters of industries.

CHAPTER FOUR

THE EFFECTS OF INDUSTRIAL NOISE LEVELS ON PEOPLE'S HEALTH IN ABA URBAN AREA OF ABIA STATE, NIGERIA. Noise in work environments is a major cause of concern for the health and safety of factory workers (Noorpoor and Orkomi, 2014). Regulations limiting noise exposure to industrial workers have been instituted in different countries For example, in the United State, the

Occupational Noise Exposure Regulation states that industrial employers must limit noise exposure of their employees to 70 decibels (Eleftheriou, 2002), in Bangladesh 75/70 decibels for day and night respectively, Australia 65/55 decibels for night and day respectively, India 75/70 decibels for night and day, Japan 60/50 decibels for night and day(Chauhan et al., 2010) and

Nigeria 90 decibels for night/day. The aim of these noise regulations is to ensure that workers’ hearing is protected from excessive noise at their place of work, which could cause them to lose their hearing or to suffer from tinnitus. In this study, Maximum Adaptability Theory of Hancock and Warm (1989) was applied to locate and analyze the effects of industrial noise on human health. As earlier discussed, theory stipulates that noise is a stressors and the higher the noise levels and period of time people are exposed to it, the greater the effects. The respondents identified 10 effects of industrial noise (as shown in Table 15) and each of the effects are discussed below.

TABLE 15: Respondents Identified Health Effects of Industrial Noise. S/N Health Effects Number of Percentages Rank Responses (%) of the Total Responses 1 Sleep Interference 45 15.51% 2nd 2 Stress 20 6.89% 6th 3 Speech Interference 35 12.06% 3rd 4 Annoyance 25 8.62% 5th 5 Fatigue 20 6.89% 6th 6 Hearing Defects 55 18.96% 1st 7 Increased Blood Pressure 30 10.34% 4th 8 Irregularity of Heart Rhythms 15 5.17% 7th 9 Reduction in Productivity 25 8.62% 5th 10 Accidents and Injuries 20 6.89% 6th Total 290 99.96% Source: Authors' Field Survey and Computation, 2015.

From the table above, hearing defects (18.96%) is the highest effects of industrial noise while the lowest effects of industrial noise is stress, fatigue and accidents/injuries (6.89%).

These health effects can be grouped into four categories-

1. Physical effects, for example, hearing defects.

2. Physiological effects, such as increased blood pressure and irregularity of heart rhythms.

3. Psychological effects, such as speech interference, sleep interference, annoyance, fatigue

and stress .

4. Effects on work performance, such as reduction of productivity, accidents and injuries

(Job,1996; Evans and Hygge, 2000; Stansfield et al., 2000; Passchier-Vermeer and

Passchier, 2000; Quis, 2001;Marius et al., 2005).

4.1 The Effects of Industrial Noise Levels on People's Health in Aba Urban

4.1.1 Sleep Interference

Noise is one of the most common forms of sleep disturbance, and sleep disturbance is a critical component of noise related annoyance. Noise can cause the sleeper to awaken 92 repeatedly and to report poor sleep quality the next day. It can also produce reactions of which the individual is unaware of. These reactions includes changes from heavier to lighter stages of sleep, increases in body movements during the night, changes in the heart rate and mood swings.

This can all lead to a diminished work performance or productivity. According to Walker and

Fahy (1998), noise level as low as 45dB or less, disturbs sleep. The result from the questionnaire issued revealed that 15.51% of respondents' complained of sleep interference.

4.1.2 Stress

Industrial noise can result to stress and stress related diseases. Studies have proven that noise can cause stress and irritability. For instance, a research commissioned by Rockwool, a

United Kingdom insulation manufacturer, reveals that 33% of victims of domestic disturbances claim industrial noise have left them stressed. Also, about 9% of those affected by industrial noise in the UK claims it has left them continually disturbed and stressed (Stansfeld, Haines and

Brown, 2000). The questionnaire issued, revealed that 6.89% of the respondents complained of stress.

4.1.3 Speech Interference

Industrial noise can mask important sounds and disrupt communication between individuals in a variety of settings. This process can cause anything from slight irritation to a serious safety hazard involving an accident or even a fatality because of the failure to hear the warning sounds of imminent danger. Noise can disrupt face to face conversation, the enjoyment of radio and television in the home. It can also disrupt effective communication between employers and employees at work and can cause vocal strain. One important effect of noise is to make a person's speech less easy to hear which can make messages or instructions to be misunderstood. This can create confusion, frustration and safety problems. Also, constant 93 shouting to be heard above noise can lead to throat irritation. The questionnaire revealed that

12.06% of the respondent suffer this health problem.

4.1.4 Annoyance

Industrial noise is a common source of annoyance. It has been found in workplace surveys in the study area that noise is often the chief complaint workers have about their working conditions. Because some stressful effects depend on qualities of the sound, sound levels as low as 40 dB(A) can generate noise complaints (Gelfand, 2001). In the workplace, noise pollution is generally a problem once the noise level is greater than 55 dB(A). A study showed that approximately 35% to 40% of office workers find noise levels from 55 to 60 dB(A) annoying

(Passchier and Passchier, 2000).The questionnaire issued, revealed that 8.62% of the total responses suffer this health problem

4.1.5 Fatigue

The questionnaire revealed that 6.89% of people complained that industrial noise adds to fatigue of work and makes it difficult to concentrate and productivity can suffer as a result.

Similarly, industrial noise pollution makes concentration difficult. Thus more time is given for completing work and they feel tiring.

4.1.6 Hearing Defects

Hearing defects has been described as primarily a condition of modern society (Maschke,

2003). The terms hearing impairment or hard of hearing are usually reserved for people who have relative insensitivity to sound in the speech frequencies. The severity of a hearing loss is categorized according to the increase in volume above the usual level necessary before the listener can detect it. There are two types of hearing loss or impairment- acoustic trauma that consists of instantaneous damage to the ear from a sharply rising wave, such as occurs in an 94 explosion, and may produce rupture of the ear drum, dislodgement of the middle ear ossicles and injury to the inner ear's organ of corti. The second type is noise induced hearing loss and it is more common. It results from long-term exposure to intense sound (Jain and Rao, 2014). Too much noise causes permanent hearing damage and a reduced quality of life because there is no remedial medical treatment and hearing aids are of very limited benefit. Hearing loss exists when there is diminished sensitivity to the sounds normally heard. According to Oishi and Schacht

(2011), approximately 5% of the population worldwide suffer from industrial noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL) at great economic cost and detriment to the quality of life of affected individuals. It can be attributed to auditory damage caused by exposure to intense noise.

Industrial noise trauma can result in two types of injury to the inner ear, depending on the intensity and duration of the exposure; transient attenuation of hearing acuity, a so called temporary threshold shift, or a permanent threshold shift (Daniel, 2007).The questionnaire revealed that 18.96% suffer from this health problem.

4.1.7 Increased Blood Pressure

Increased Blood Pressure also known as hypertension, high blood pressure or arterial hypertension is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. Blood pressure is expressed by two measurements- systolic and diastolic pressures which are the maximum and minimum pressures respectively in the arterial system.

The systolic pressure occurs when the left ventricle is most contracted and the diastolic pressure occurs when the right ventricle is most relaxed prior to the next contraction. Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100/140 millimeters mercury systolic and 60/90 millimeters mercury diastolic. Hypertension is present if the blood pressure is persistently at or above 140/90 millimeters mercury for most adults while different numbers apply to children (James, 95

Oparil,Carter, Cushman, Dennison Himmelfarb, Handler, Lackland and Lefevre, 2013).

Increased blood pressure usually does not cause symptoms initially, but sustained hypertension over time is a major risk factor for hypertensive heart disease, coronary artery disease, stroke, aortic aneurysm, peripheral artery disease, and chronic kidney disease (Lewington, Clarke,

Qizilbash, Peto and Collins, 2002). The questionnaire issued revealed that 10.34% of the respondents suffer from this health problem.

4.1.8 Irregularity of Heart Rhythms

A normal heart rate is 50 to 100 beats per minute and an irregular heartbeat is called arrhythmia or dysrhythmia. Arrhythmias and abnormal heart rates can occur together depending on the intensity and duration of noise. Arrhythmias can occur with a heart rate less than 50 beats per minute or with rapid heart rates called tachyarrhythmias, faster than 100 beats per minute.

The questionnaire issued, revealed that 5.17% suffer from this health problem.

4.1.9 Reduction in Productivity

According to Al-Shauk, (2014), industrial noise decreases the productive efficiency of humans. Since industrial noise can lead to reactions such as changes from heavier to lighter stages of sleep, increases in body movements during the night, changes in the heart rate and mood, etc, work performance and productivity is affected leading to reduction in production. The questionnaire issued revealed that 8.62% of the respondents complained that their productivity reduces as a result of noise exposure.

4.1.10 Accidents and Injuries

Accident is a sudden and unexpected occurrence which interrupts the orderly progress of work. On the other hand, industrial injury is defined as a personal injury to an employee which has been caused by an accident or an occupational disease and which arises out of or in the 96 course of employment. The danger originating from technological or industrial accidents, dangerous procedures or infrastructure failures can cause the loss of life or injury, social and economic disruption and even environmental degradation. As earlier stated, since excessive noise can disrupts ones' hearing, accidents that can result to injuries may occur. The questionnaire revealed that 6.89% of the respondents suffer from this health problem.

Hearing defects was the highest identified effects of noise (18.96%), while stress, fatigue and accidents were the lowest noise effects (6.89%) identified in the study area. These effects might continue if the problems that result to high noise generation by industries are not addressed.

CHAPTER FIVE

PROBLEMS MILITATING AGAINST INDUSTRIAL NOISE CONTROL AND MANAGEMENT IN ABA URBAN.

Industrial noise is an environmental pollution which have been associated with persistent human interaction with the environment through industrial and agricultural processes (Aja,

2005). Industrial activities, in its modern forms, are relatively recent in the history of Nigeria’s economic development (Ocheri, 2003). During the pre-colonial period, Nigeria featured considerably in the craft industry as modern factory activities were largely unknown. With the advent of the

Second World War and its aftermath, the economy of Nigeria changed tremendously and there were demands from Europe for industrial raw materials. With time, due to the low technological base, industrial development took on the assembly-type pattern of import substitution (Moses,

2015). In addition, political self determination since 1960 did provide the opportunity for improving on its import substitution strategy as well as developing its potentials for real industrial take off through capital (Nwosu, 2014). Irrespective of the numerous environmental laws enacted to protect the environment, environmental degradation has continued unabated. The respondents identified eight problems militating against industrial noise control and management as shown in Table 16.

Table 16: Respondents Identified Problems Militating Against Industrial Noise Control and Management S/N Problems Militating Against Number of Percentages (%) Rank Industrial Noise Control and Responses of the Total Management Responses 1 Epileptic power supply 100 34.47% 1st 2 Low commitment to implementation 40 13.79% 2nd and enforcement of existing laws 3 Insufficient funding of regulatory 30 10.34% 3rd agencies 4 Inadequate access to information 20 6.89% 5th 5 Multiplicity of agencies 20 6.89% 5th 6 Corruption 40 13.79% 2nd 7 Insufficient noise laws 25 8.62% 4th 8 Rapid population growth 15 5.17% 6th Total 290 96.6% Source: Authors' Field Survey and Computation, 2015.

From the above, power generation (34.47%) is the most identified problems militating against industrial noise control and management while multiplicity of agencies and inadequate access to information (6.89%) were the least identified problems. The problems militating against industrial noise control and management in Aba Urban Area of Abia State are further discussed below-

5.1 Problems Militating Against Industrial Noise Control and Management in Aba Urban Area The problems militating against industrial noise control and management are discussed below-

5.1.1 Epileptic Power Supply

Due to the epileptic nature of the electricity supply in Aba Urban, industries, business firms and companies depend largely on generators for power supply. The use of power 99 generating sets constitutes a nuisance and causes disturbance to the public due to the noise it usually generates. The questionnaires issued revealed that 34.47% of the total respondent perceived epileptic power supply as the major problem that limits industrial noise control and management in Aba Urban.

5.1.2 Low Commitment to Implementation and Enforcement of Existing Laws

The existing environmental regulations which have been in place as regards to noise for many years are not effectively implemented. The major practical problem results from the difficulty to set up an efficient control and enforcement mechanism to apply the legal provisions because enforcement requires adequate monitoring equipment, staff and funding. The questionnaires issued revealed that 13.79% of the responses sees low commitment to implementation and enforcement as one of the problems militating industrial noise control and management in Aba Urban.

5.1.3 Insufficient Funding of Regulatory Agencies

Evidences from the field indicates that in Aba Urban, there are inadequate well trained personnel and equipments and it is partly as a result of insufficient funding of regulatory body. In other to achieve adequate well trained personnel, sufficient funds should be provided (Moses,

2015). The questionnaires issued revealed that 10.34% of the respondents views insufficient funding of regulatory agencies as a problem militating against industrial noise control and management.

5.1.4 Inadequate Access to Information

Due to the relatively low degree of access to information in Aba Urban, especially in environmental matters (industrial noise), adequate and reliable data on sources, types, control and preventive measures taken in noise control and management are not usually available. In 100 some cases, it is virtually impossible to get access to any timely information. 6.89% of the responses revealed that inadequate access to information is a problem militating against industrial noise control and management.

5.1.5 Multiplicity of Agencies

One of the problems mitigating against an effective enforcement industrial of noise control and management program in Aba Urban is the multiplicity or conflict of roles by the agencies involved in noise management and there is duplication of functions and overlapping responsibilities. Consequently, serious bottlenecks and bureaucratic confusion are created in the process. Findings revealed that 6.89% of the responses pointed out that multiplicity of agencies is a problem of industrial noise control and management. In addition, two forms of role conflicts can be identified:- Conflicts in Environmental-Line Ministries/Agencies relations and Conflicts in Federal/States/Local Government relations i Conflicts in Environmental-Line Ministries/Agencies relations

One of such problems is the multiplicity of environmental protection agencies with overlapping responsibilities rather than complementary relationships. For instance, at the Federal level in addition to Federal ministry of environment, there are six other departments and units from various ministries that control or manage environmental degradation (Moses, 2015). ii Conflicts in States/Local Government Relations.

Another problem that has limited the effectiveness of environmental protection and management at the state level is the undue controversies as to which tier (state or local government) should be charged with environmental protection.

5.1.6 Corruption

One of the greatest challenges of an enforcement department in Aba Urban comes in 101 form of corruption as powerful individuals or groups that own big industries become extremely formidable. For instance, Nwosu (2014), stated that in1998, during one of the early widely publicized inspections of highly polluting industrial facilities in Nigeria, the chief executive of

NESREA personally led a team to a detergent factory which was discharging its effluents into an open drain and generating high noise levels. The facility was given a maximum of 90 days to correct the situation and the news about the inspection which was to serve as a warning to other polluting facilities, was meant to be carried out that night on the national television networks and in the newspaper the following morning. The owner of the facilities ensured that news of the inspection was blacked out. The questionnaire revealed that 13.79% of the total responses accounts for corruption as a problem militating against industrial noise control and management.

5.1.7 Insufficient Laws on Noise

Laws regarding noise control and management in Aba Urban is inadequate. These act of legislation require review as they were enacted years ago. For instance, the penalty for exceeding

90 decibels for a period of eight hours is #50,000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding one year or both, and, or pay an additional fine of #5,000 for every day the offence subsists for individuals. Whereas, for corporate body, fine of #500,000 and an additional fine of #10,000 for every day the offence subsists. Evidence from the field shows also that the urban area of Aba has no laws at the state level for industrial noise even though there are thousands of companies and firms scattered all over the study area. 8.62% of the total responses account for insufficient laws on noise as a problem militating against industrial noise control and management.

5.1.8 Rapid Population Growth

As earlier stated in chapter 1, the population of Aba urban has been growing steadily since the first census conducted in 1931. In roughly 20 years between the 1931 and 1952/1953 102 censuses, the population of Aba have increased fourfold from 13,000 to 58, 000 (Okoye, 1975,

2002). Also, in 1963 and 1973, the population was 131, 003 and 180, 558 respectively. The population rose to 494, 152 in 1991(National Population Commission, 1991). Then in 2006, the last population census had an estimate of 1,022,338 (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2009). In other to meet the needs of the increasing population in Aba urban as well as those from the countryside and neighbouring towns, more industries spring up in order to satisfy the demand and noise generated from the industries in turn, increases. The questionnaires issued revealed that 5.17% of the respondents are of the view that rapid population is a problems militating against industrial noise control and management in the study area.

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CHAPTER SIX

SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION.

6.1 SUMMARY OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

The study of the industrial noise levels in Aba Urban Area of Abia State, Nigeria has produced some remarkable key findings. The findings are itemized below; Firstly, the sources of industrial noise were identified and includes; equipment induced, machine induced, metal processing, wood processing, power generation, assembling of products, loading and unloading of products, maintenance induced, product painting, branding and rebranding of products, product fabrication, industrial accidents and product sorting.

Secondly, the spatial and temporal variations in industrial noise levels in the study area were carried out. Arcview version 12 Geographic Information System software was used to produce noise maps from the measurement derived at different times, days and weeks as well as the co-ordinate of the industries sampled in order to ascertain spatial distribution of noise levels.

The highest and lowest noise levels obtained were 100 and 65 dB respectively. Regression was employed to determine the trends in industrial noise over time. Cluster analysis was used to group industries based on the noise levels they generate and it gave rise to 3 clusters. Analysis of

Variance (ANOVA) was employed to test whether there were significant variations in the noise levels generated by the identified clusters of industries. The results of the ANOVA revealed that the calculate value is greater than the critical value, therefore, H0 is rejected and H1 accepted and it means that there is a statistically significant variations in the noise levels generated by the clusters of industries. 104

Thirdly, the health effects of industrial noise in the study area were identified. They include; sleep interference, speech interference, fatigue, annoyance, stress, hearing defects, increased blood pressure, irregularity of the heart rhythms, reduction in productivity and accidents/injuries

Fourthly, the problems militating against industrial noise control and management were identified by the respondents. They include: epileptic power supply, low commitment to implementation and enforcement, insufficient funding of regulatory agencies, inadequate access to information, multiplicity of agencies, corruption, insufficient noise laws and rapid population growth.

Planning Implication of The Research Findings

The mapping of industrial noise within urban areas are very powerful tools for communicating results of environmental assessments of noise pollution hazards. It enables the governments (local and national) to devise noise correction measures. The noise maps itself with the values of noise descriptors, provides baseline data for town planners, engineers, and other professionals and researchers for the planning and execution of their projects, especially in urban areas. They create awareness on the extent of noise exposure, the probable health challenges and on the most suitable areas for habitation.

6.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

Considering the adverse effects of industrial noise pollution on human health and environment, it is important to evolve proper strategies to address the issue. To achieve this, the following were recommended;

I. Laws Governing Industrial Noise Limits

The Federal Ministry of Environment should enact laws separately for permissible 105 industrial noise levels like that of some countries listed above or they can adopt the World Health

Organisation recommended standards.

II. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

Environmental Impact Assessment should be carried before the establishment of any company or industry in order to access the impact of noise to which the people will be exposed to and which will provide mitigation measure.

III. Use of Personal Protective Equipments

Personal protective equipments for noise control such as earmuffs and ear plugs should be provided for company workers and they should be trained on regular usage of such accessories. Also, latest technology such as the use of insulator and sound proofing to doors, walls, ceilings and planting vegetation is important because it helps to reduce noise (Akunbulire,

Awosope and Oluseyi, 2007).

IV. Technological Innovations

To reduce noise at machines, standards have been drawn up which deal with the planning and design of low-noise machines (ISO/TR 11688 Parts 1, 2), the collection and evaluation of emission data (ISO 11689) and noise-related requirements for noise control devices and materials (silencers, enclosures, noise absorbers, baffles). The standard ISO/TR 11688-1 gives an overview of the principles and methods a design engineer needs to design a low-noise machine or to communicate with an acoustic professional (Ali, Amir and Seyed, 2015).

V. Public Awareness Campaign

Public enlightenment, education and sensitization on the hazard and danger associated with industrial noise pollution in Aba Urban should be conducted or carried out particularly for company workers. This is very paramount, because many people are still ignorant of the effects 106 of noise pollution.

VI. Proper Land-Use Planning

During the course of this research, it was discovered that most industries are located in different land-use type particularly, residential land-use. This study recommends that the government of Abia State should expand the existing industrial layout and possibly establish more industrial areas. When they are achieved, company owners or intending owners will be compelled to move or build their firms in the industrial zones.

VII. Laws Governing the Use of Generators

Due to the erratic power supply in Aba Urban, there is an increase in the use of generators for production and processing of goods so as to meet the needs of the people. This has led to the increase in noise generation. The government of Abia State should enact laws on the us e of sound proof generators .

VIII. Auditory Test

Hearing tests should be performed periodically (at least twice a year) particularly for the company workers to ascertain the extent of the noise levels they are exposed to.

VIX. Forestation

Attention should be given to planting of trees in Aba urban area, particularly in the industries or areas close to the industries so as to absorb sounds and reduce the severity especially in crowded neighborhoods.

6.3 CONCLUSION

The high industrial noise levels in Aba Urban is caused by various factors including epileptic power supply, corruption, low commitment to the implementation and enforcement of environmental laws, insufficient funding of regulatory agencies, inadequate access to 107 information, multiplicity of agencies, insufficient noise law, rapid population growth and absence of laws governing the use of generator. The noise levels obtained is detrimental because most industries exceeded World Health Organization(WHO)/E.C limit for industrial zones and

Nigerian Environmental Standards and Regulatory Enforcement Agency (NESREA) guideline for community noise. Since industries spring up on a daily basis, there is need for closer monitoring of industrial noise levels in the study area. This can be achieved by enacting laws pertaining to industrial noise and enforcing the already existing noise laws. Spatially, John

Chuks Metal had the highest noise level of 95.7 dB, while Guinness Plc had the lowest noise level of 70.7 dB. Temporally, John Chuks Metal had the highest noise levels of 99.2 dB, 98.5 dB and 95.5 dB respectively in November during the morning and afternoon periods and in

December during the evening period, while Emma Best Steel had the highest noise levels of

100.3 dB and 99.3dB respectively in November and December during the afternoon periods and finally, Ceejay Steel Co. had the highest noise level of 98.6dB in December during morning period. Therefore, conclusion is drawn based on the noise measurements obtained that industrial noise pollution is widespread in Aba Urban and can cause serious health challenges.

Suggestions for further studies

The research has shown that noise levels from industries are high in magnitude.

However, during the course of this research work, twenty industries were sampled due to problem of logistics. Therefore, further studies are encouraged to cover more industries, compare noise levels between small-scaled, medium-scaled and large-scaled industries, compare industrial noise levels between Aba Urban and other cities or monitor noise levels from other land-use types.

108

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APPENDIX A

Department of Geography,

University of Nigeria,

Nsukka.

Enugu State.

Dear Respondent,

QUESTIONNAIRE ON ANALYSIS OF INDUSTRIAL NOISE LEVELS IN ABA URBAN AREA OF ABIA STATE, NIGERIA.

I am a postgraduate (M.Sc) student in the Department of Geography, University of

Nigeria, Nsukka, specializing in Environmental Management. I am carrying out research on the above topic. You are please requested to supply information for the following questions which will be used in my research. The information you give will be used strictly for academic purpose and be treated confidentially.

In answering the questions, you are expected to fill the blank spaces and tick ( ) the correct options provided where necessary.

Thanks for your anticipated co-operation.

Yours faithfully,

______Maduko, Chioma Elizabeth

126

PART A i. Local Government Area ______ii. Sex: (a) Male [ ] (b) Female [ ] iii. Age: (a) Less than 20 [ ] (b) 20-29 [ ] (c) 30-39 [ ] (D) 40-49 [ ] (e) 50-59 [ ] (f) 60 and above [ ]. iv. Marital Status: (a) Single [ ] (b) Married [ ] (c) Widowed [ ] (d) Divorced [ ] (e) Separated [ ]. v. Highest educational qualification (a) FSLC [ ] (b) SSCE [ ] (c) ND/NCE [ ] (d) HND/BSC [ ] (e) MSC/Ph.D [ ]. vi. Occupation: (a) Civil Servant [ ] (b) Company Workers [ ] (c) Trader [ ] (d) Student [ ] (e) Apprentice [ ]. Sources of Industrial Noise 1. What are the sources of industrial noise? (a) Metal Processing [ ] (b) Assembling of product [ ] (c) Power Generation [ ] (d) Equipment-Induced Noise [ ] (e) Product Fabrication [ ] (f) Machine-Induced Noise [ ] (g) Branding and Rebranding [ ] (h) Product Sorting [ ] (i) Wood Processing [ ] (j) Product Painting [ ] (k) Loading and Unloading [ ] (l) Maintenance-Induced Noise [ ] (m) Industrial Accidents [ ] (n)Administrative-Induced Noise [ ] 2. How will you rate industrial noise? (a) Severe [ ] (b) Mild [ ]

Effects of Industrial Noise Pollution on Peoples' Health

3. What effects does noise have on you? (a) It interferes your sleep [ ] (b) It stresses you [ ] (c) It interferes with your speech [ ] (d) It annoys you [ ] (e) It causes fatigue [ ] (f) It affects your hearing [ ] (g) It increases your blood pressure [ ] (h) It cause irregularity of heart rhythms [ ] (i) It reduces your productivity [ ] (j) Accidents/Injuries [ ].

Problems Militating Against Industrial Noise Management

4. What problems militates against industrial noise management? (a) Epileptic power supply [ ] (b) Low commitment to implementation and enforcement [ ] (c) Insufficient funding of regulatory agencies [ ] (d) Inadequate access to information [ ] (e) Multiplicity of agencies [ 127

] (f) Corruption [ ] (g) Insufficient noise laws [ ] (h) Rapid population growth [ ] (i) Absence of laws governing the use of generator [ ].

128

APPENDIX B

SOUND LEVEL METER

129

APPENDIX C

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Morning Period on Monday (9a.m-11a.m November, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 9a.m–11a.m 90.6 75.4 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 9a.m – 11a.m 90.4 70.8 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma – 9a.m – 11a.m 73.6 61.4 Ngwa 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 9a.m – 11a.m 91.3 72.5 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 88.4 69.5 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 82.6 72.1 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 72.3 60.3 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 70.2 59.1 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 9a.m – 11a.m 81.3 61.7 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 9a.m – 11a.m 70.3 59.6 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 9a.m – 11a.m 70.8 51.8 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 9a.m – 11a.m 98.4 81.8 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 9a.m – 11a.m 90.6 70.1 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 73.6 54.3 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 9 a.m– 11a.m 81.3 70.8 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 105.3 89.7 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 77.4 66.7 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 98.1 81.4 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 9a.m – 11a.m 71.2 60.1 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 70.1 62.8 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

130

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Afternoon Period on Monday (12noon-2p.m November, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 12-2p.m 79.2 64.8 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 12-2p.m 88.5 73.7 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma – 12-2p.m 80.1 70.8 Ngwa 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 12-2p.m 77.2 63.4 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 72.1 61.6 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 93.3 74.3 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 74.8 62.4 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 72.8 60.3 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 12-2p.m 80.8 60.5 Ltd. 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 12-2p.m 77.6 63.3 11 7up Bottling 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 12-2p.m 69.5 51.2 Company 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 12-2p.m 102.3 85.2 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 12-2p.m 94.2 75.9 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 75.1 56.4 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 12-2p.m 86.1 71.7 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 81.2 69.1 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 75.2 62.1 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 105.1 89.8 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 12-2p.m 69.7 53.5 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 72.3 66.5 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

131

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Evening Period on Monday (3p.m-5p.m November, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 81.3 72.5 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 92.4 74.8 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 85.9 73.3 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 96.8 79.6 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 80.2 66.3 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 92.5 77.8 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 70.1 57.7 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 80.1 65.4 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 70.4 55.1 Ltd. 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 81.3 69.5 11 7up Bottling 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 87.1 70.6 Company 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 3p.m-5p.m 81.3 60.8 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 92.7 71.2 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 80.5 63.8 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 84.5 70.4 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 93.8 73.6 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 82.1 70.3 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 78.7 65.1 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 80.2 70.8 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 65.4 54.2 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

132

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Morning Period on Wednesday (9a.m-11a.m November, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 9a.m – 11a.m 85.4 66.7 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 9a.m – 11a.m 85.6 66.2 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 82.4 61.7 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 9a.m – 11a.m 85.3 73.8 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 78.4 59.6 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 88.1 78.5 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m– 11a.m 72.2 58.7 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m– 11a.m 85.7 69.8 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 9a.m– 11a.m 88.4 73.1 Ltd. 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 9a.m– 11a.m 72.1 60.1 11 7up Bottling 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 9a.m– 11a.m 79.2 61.7 Company 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 9a.m– 11a.m 95.7 81.5 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 9a.m– 11a.m 99.4 85.7 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m– 11a.m 80.7 60.6 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 9a.m– 11a.m 86.7 71.6 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m– 11a.m 98.6 83.4 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m– 11a.m 74.5 62.3 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m– 11a.m 102.4 90.8 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 9a.m– 11a.m 78.2 63.4 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m– 11a.m 72.8 61.4 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

133

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Afternoon Period on Wednesday (12noon-2p.m November, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 12-2p.m 87.8 70.1 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 12-2p.m 92.3 72.5 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 12-2p.m 79.6 63.2 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 12-2p.m 83.6 70.4 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 70.2 57.3 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 86.5 75.3 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 83.4 63.8 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 83.4 68.1 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 12-2p.m 90.1 74.2 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 12-2p.m 77.6 63.5 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 12-2p.m 80.4 65.5 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 12-2p.m 88.4 73.2 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 12-2p.m 85.2 73.2 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 82.5 63.8 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 12-2p.m 80.2 68.6 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 96.2 80.8 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 77.2 66.3 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 97.3 81.2 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 12-2p.m 76.9 60.7 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 70.4 65.5 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

134

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Evening Period on Wednesday (3p.m-5p.m November, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 89.6 66.7 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 90.4 70.8 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma – 3p.m-5p.m 83.4 62.8 Ngwa 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 92.1 80.5 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 81.7 60.8 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 83.4 73.2 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 75.1 60.4 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 89.6 72.4 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 86.7 70.8 Ltd. 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 75.2 62.8 11 7up Bottling 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 87.8 71.3 Company 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 3p.m-5p.m 102.6 89.1 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 82.6 69.8 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 87.3 69.4 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 88.3 73.2 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 102.4 85.6 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 70.6 59.8 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 94.1 79.6 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 84.7 65.8 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 76.6 65.5 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

135

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Morning Period on Friday (9a.m-11a.m November, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 78.4 60.4 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 9a.m – 11a.m 88.5 71.4 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 81.7 65.4 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 73.2 59.6 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 82.3 66.2 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 85.2 67.8 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 80.5 66.2 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 80.5 61.5 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 82.4 59.6 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 80.2 68.3 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 80.4 69.7 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 9 a.m– 11a.m 95.4 78.2 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 91.4 80.2 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 72.5 60.4 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 9 a.m– 11a.m 77.1 60.5 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 93.7 73.4 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 78.2 63.8 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 96.7 76.3 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 9 a.m– 11a.m 75.1 62.7 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 73.4 64.2 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

136

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Afternoon Period on Friday (12noon-2p.m November, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 12-2p.m 83.2 64.8 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 12-2p.m 80.4 68.6 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 12-2p.m 83.6 68.5 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 12-2p.m 72.6 57.4 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 63.8 52.4 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 87.5 70.2 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 78.4 63.8 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 88.2 68.8 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 12-2p.m 80.6 66.8 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 12-2p.m 78.8 64.6 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 12-2p.m 85.6 72.4 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 12-2p.m 97.3 79.4 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 12-2p.m 96.8 83.7 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 78.7 65.8 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 12-2p.m 81.2 65.3 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 91.2 70.8 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 80.3 67.2 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 98.5 79.8 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 12-2p.m 79.4 67.2 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 70.8 60.3 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

137

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Evening Period on Friday (3p.m-5p.m November, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 85.6 66.3 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 89.7 72.1 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 80.2 60.7 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 91.3 72.3 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 81.5 64.4 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 82.4 65.6 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 75.6 60.4 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 78.3 65.2 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 89.3 73.8 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 75.6 62.8 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 82.5 70.8 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 3p.m-5p.m 98.7 80.5 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 93.7 81.4 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 76.4 63.3 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 85.7 68.7 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 98.1 77.8 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 82.6 70.3 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 95.1 74.3 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 81.3 70.4 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 72.6 61.2 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

138

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Morning Period on Monday (9a.m-11a.m December, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A) Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 83.4 65.7 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 75.2 60.2 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 75.2 57.2 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 9a.m – 11a.m 76.3 60.8 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 78.4 60.3 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 83.4 62.6 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 73.4 61.2 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 80.3 65.6 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 80.2 65.2 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 72.1 60.3 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 88.5 70.3 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 9a.m – 11a.m 95.2 78.5 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 9a.m – 11a.m 91.2 78.3 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 77.3 60.8 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 9a.m – 11a.m 83.4 70.6 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 94.6 77.1 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 75.5 60.2 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 95.3 79.4 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 9 a.m– 11a.m 70.5 55.3 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 70.3 57.2 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

139

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Afternoon Period on Monday (12noon-2p.m December, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 12-2p.m 80.1 62.4 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 12-2p.m 74.3 59.4 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 12-2p.m 77.6 60.3 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 12-2p.m 72.6 58.5 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 70.3 55.5 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 87.5 67.3 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 76.5 62.8 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 83.2 68.5 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 12-2p.m 75.4 55.3 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 12-2p.m 74.3 61.3 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 12-2p.m 82.1 68.6 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 12-2p.m 97.6 80.2 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 12-2p.m 93.7 80.3 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 79.5 63.4 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 12-2p.m 85.3 73.4 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 90.3 71.3 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 79.3 63.7 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 103.2 85.3 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 12-2p.m 92.6 80.2 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 71.3 58.1 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

140

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Evening Period on Monday (3p.m-5p.m December, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 84.6 66.3 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 80.6 65.2 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 72.8 56.5 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 83.4 64.6 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 84.3 66.4 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 89.3 69.1 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 79.8 64.3 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 85.4 71.4 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 77.3 60.8 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 70.3 55.8 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 85.7 69.2 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 3p.m-5p.m 90.4 74.6 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 97.4 82.4 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 81.4 69.2 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 89.6 75.2 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 98.7 80.2 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 73.7 59.6 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 90.5 70.7 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 90.4 77.6 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 3p.m-5p.m 72.5 58.8 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

141

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Morning Period on Wednesday (9a.m-11a.m December, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 74.6 57.4 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 85.2 65.2 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma – 9a.m – 11a.m 73.5 61.3 Ngwa 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 82.4 69.4 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 83.6 68.3 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 78.5 63.2 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 72.1 59.4 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 78.3 63.4 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 83.3 69.7 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 74.8 61.5 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 81.3 69.3 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 9a.m – 11a.m 98.3 79.2 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 88.6 70.4 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 79.4 65.4 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 9 a.m– 11a.m 73.7 60.3 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 99.3 81.6 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 72.4 60.8 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 102.3 83.6 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 9 a.m– 11a.m 73.6 60.5 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 9a.m – 11a.m 70.2 55.8 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

142

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Afternoon Period on Wednesday (12noon-2p.m December, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 12-2p.m 72.4 56.2 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 12-2p.m 82.1 63.4 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 12-2p.m 79.2 63.8 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 12-2p.m 73.3 62.1 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 77.2 60.4 6 Nicen Industries Limited 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 88.2 74.5 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 72.7 60.5 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 81.2 67.3 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 12-2p.m 85.6 70.3 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 12-2p.m 72.2 58.4 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 12-2p.m 80.4 67.4 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 12-2p.m 96.5 76.5 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 12-2p.m 87.2 68.4 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 78.3 63.2 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 12-2p.m 75.4 65.2 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 93.6 76.4 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 77.2 62.7 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 98.6 80.3 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 12-2p.m 78.1 63.4 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 12-2p.m 73.4 56.6 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

143

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Evening Period on Wednesday (3p.m-5p.m December, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 76.3 60.3 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 88.7 66.7 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma – 3p.m-5p.m 71.3 60.3 Ngwa 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 89.1 73.2 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 80.7 64.7 Ngwa 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 86.3 73.1 Limited Ngwa 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 81.2 61.3 Ngwa 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 83.5 70.5 Ngwa 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 72.1 56.2 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 73.6 60.2 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 84.5 70.6 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 3p.m-5p.m 98.2 78.6 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 92.2 74.3 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 76.5 63.5 Distillers Ngwa 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 81.4 69.5 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 97.5 80.7 Ngwa 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 74.1 61.2 Ngwa 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 94.5 77.2 Ngwa 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 75.4 61.4 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 78.6 65.5 Ngwa Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

144

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Morning Period on Friday (9a.m-11a.m December, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 9a.m – 11a.m 78.3 63.4 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 85.4 69.3 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma –Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 79.3 61.5 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 89.3 69.5 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 80.1 62.5 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 82.3 65.4 Limited 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m – 11a.m 81.4 61.6 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 82.3 65.4 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 9 a.m – 11a.m 89.2 72.8 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 9 a.m– 11a.m 78.3 62.3 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 77.5 60.4 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 9 a.m– 11a.m 102.4 85.3 13 Okoson Aluminum 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 9 a.m – 11a.m 85.7 65.4 Co. 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 77.6 65.4 Distillers 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 9 a.m – 11a.m 83.4 65.5 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m – 11a.m 93.8 74.5 17 Divine Gate 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m – 11a.m 72.3 61.4 Aluminum 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m – 11a.m 93.5 78.4 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 9 a.m – 11a.m 73.2 60.5 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma-Ngwa 9 a.m– 11a.m 72.3 60.2 Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

145

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Afternoon Period on Friday (12noon-2p.m December, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 12-2p.m 74.6 61.5 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 12-2p.m 80.2 67.2 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma – 12-2p.m 77.6 60.2 Ngwa 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 12-2p.m 80.5 62.4 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma- 12-2p.m 73.4 60.7 Ngwa 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma- 12-2p.m 85.5 68.5 Limited Ngwa 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma- 12-2p.m 75.6 59.3 Ngwa 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma- 12-2p.m 78.5 60.3 Ngwa 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 12-2p.m 82.4 69.3 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 12-2p.m 72.5 59.4 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 12-2p.m 80.5 65.3 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 12-2p.m 95.3 80.4 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 12-2p.m 92.4 75.3 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma- 12-2p.m 73.4 60.5 Distillers Ngwa 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 12-2p.m 86.6 67.2 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma- 12-2p.m 105.3 85.4 Ngwa 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma- 12-2p.m 70.4 57.6 Ngwa 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma- 12-2p.m 96.3 80.3 Ngwa 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 12-2p.m 71.4 59.4 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma- 12-2p.m 66.4 54.4 Ngwa Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

146

Temporal Variations in Industrial Noise Levels in Aba Urban Area During Evening Period on Friday (3p.m-5p.m December, 2015)

S/N Name of Industry Co-ordinates Local Govt Time Noise Level Db(A)

Northings Eastings Mean Mean Max. Min. Values Values 1 New Erra Foods 5.1120 7.4220 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 76.5 63.2 2 Daily Manna Bakery 5.0930 7.3670 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 89.5 73.4 3 Tonimas Oil and Gas 5.1890 7.3260 Osisioma – 3p.m-5p.m 78.4 59.4 Ngwa 4 Nnaji Bakery 5.0970 7.3640 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 93.4 73.6 5 G & C Sachet Water 5.1410 7.3350 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 80.4 61.3 Ngwa 6 Nicen Industries 5.1550 7.3160 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 89.6 70.2 Limited Ngwa 7 Clover Paint 5.1600 7.3140 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 83.2 64.5 Ngwa 8 Zandob Limited 5.1270 7.3230 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 85.4 70.4 Ngwa 9 Hanonimbizu Ind. Ltd. 5.0980 7.4060 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 83.5 70.2 10 Aku Plastic 5.1160 7.3700 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 75.3 60.2 11 7up Bottling Company 5.1330 7.3870 Obingwa 3p.m-5p.m 81.3 65.6 12 Ceejay Steel Co. 5.1250 7.3270 Ugwunagbo 3p.m-5p.m 92.6 78.5 13 Okoson Aluminum Co. 5.1090 7.3650 Aba South 3p.m-5p.m 93.5 77.2 14 Afro Beverages and 5.1820 7.3270 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 79.3 67.2 Distillers Ngwa 15 Starline Nig. Ltd. 5.1310 7.3280 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 88.5 70.3 16 John Chuks Metal 5.1680 7.3280 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 90.4 70.3 Ngwa 17 Divine Gate Aluminum 5.1660 7.3280 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 75.6 62.1 Ngwa 18 Emma Best Steel 5.1630 7.3310 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 94.6 78.6 Ngwa 19 Nigeria Brewery Plc. 5.1180 7.3750 Aba North 3p.m-5p.m 81.2 66.2 20 Guinness Plc. 5.1000 7.3740 Osisioma- 3p.m-5p.m 65.3 53.3 Ngwa Source: Authors' Field Survey, 2015.

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APPENDIX D

ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA) TABLE. Analysis of Variance of Industrial Noise Levels

Source Type III Sum Df Mean Square F Sig. of Squares Corrected 774.816a 2 387.408 114.531 .000 Model Intercept 106861.223 1 106861.223 3.159E4 .000 Sample 774.816 2 387.408 114.531 .000 Error 57.503 17 3.383 Total 113816.339 20 Corrected 832.319 19 Total a. R Squared = .931 (Adjusted R Squared = .923) Source: Authors' Computation, 2015.