Life and Death at the Pe Ş Tera Cu Oase

Life and Death at the Pe ş tera cu Oase

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Series Editors Russell L. Ciochon, The University of Iowa Bernard A. Wood, George Washington University

Editorial Advisory Board Leslie C. Aiello, Wenner-Gren Foundation Susan Ant ó n, New York University Anna K. Behrensmeyer, Smithsonian Institution Alison Brooks, George Washington University Steven Churchill, Duke University Fred Grine, State University of New York, Stony Brook Katerina Harvati, Univertit ä t T ü bingen Jean-Jacques Hublin, Max Planck Institute Thomas Plummer, Queens College, City University of New York Yoel Rak, Tel-Aviv University Kaye Reed, Arizona State University Christopher Ruff, John Hopkins School of Medicine Erik Trinkaus, Washington University in St. Louis Carol Ward, University of Missouri

African Biogeography, Climate Change, and Human Evolution Edited by Timothy G. Bromage and Friedemann Schrenk Meat-Eating and Human Evolution Edited by Craig B. Stanford and Henry T. Bunn The Skull of Australopithecus afarensis William H. Kimbel, Yoel Rak, and Donald C. Johanson Early Modern Human Evolution in Central Europe: The People of Doln í V ĕ stonice and Pavlov Edited by Erik Trinkaus and Ji ří Svoboda Evolution of the Hominin Diet: The Known, the Unknown, and the Unknowable Edited by Peter S. Ungar Genes, Language, & Culture History in the Southwest Pacifi c Edited by Jonathan S. Friedlaender The Lithic Assemblages of Qafzeh Cave Erella Hovers Life and Death at the Pe ş tera cu Oase: A Setting for Modern Human Emergence in Europe Edited by Erik Trinkaus, Silviu Constantin, and Jo ã o Zilh ã o

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Life and Death at the Pe ş tera cu Oase A Setting for Modern Human Emergence in Europe

Edited by Erik Trinkaus , Silviu Constantin, Jo ã o Zilh ã o

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Life and death at the Pestera cu Oase : a setting for modern human emergence in Europe / edited by Erik Trinkaus, Silviu Constantin, and João Zilhão. p. cm. — (Human evolution series) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978–0–19–539822–9 (hardcover : alk. paper) 1. Prehistoric peoples—Romania. 2. Cave dwellers—Romania. 3. Human evolution—Romania. 4. Human remains (Archaeology)—Romania. 5. Animal remains (Archaeology)—Romania. 6. Romania—Antiquities. I. Trinkaus, Erik. II. Constantin, Silviu. III. Zilhão, João. GN776.R8L54 2012 599.93’8—dc23 2012005790

ISBN: 978–0–19–539822–9

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper

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Contributors xi

I. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1 1. Introduction (Erik Trinkaus, Silviu Constantin, Jo ã o Zilh ã o) 3

2. Exploration and Documentation of the Peş tera cu Oase (Ş tefan Milota, Mircea Gherase, Laurenţ iu Sarcină , Ricardo Rodrigo, Oana Moldovan, Erik Trinkaus, Silviu Constantin, Jo ã o Zilh ã o) 5

3. Problems, Approaches and Fieldwork: 2004–2005 (Jo ã o Zilh ã o, Ş tefan Milota, Ricardo Rodrigo, Silviu Constantin, Erik Trinkaus ) 16

II. THE CAVE AND ITS CONTENTS 31 4. The Karst Geology of the Ponor-Plopa System in Its Regional Context (Silviu Constantin) 33

5. The Ponor-Plopa Cave System: Description, Sediments, and Genesis (Silviu Constantin, Cristian-Mihai Munteanu, Ş tefan Milota, Lauren ţ iu Sarcina, Mircea Gherase, Ricardo Rodrigo, Jo ã o Zilh ã o) 41

6. Uranium-Series Dating on Speleothems from the Ponor-Plopa Cave System (Silviu Constantin, Stein-Erik Lauritzen) 56

7. Electron Spin Resonance Dating of Vertebrate Remains from the Peş tera cu Oase (Rainer Gr ü n, Tegan Kelly, Maxime Aubert) 73

8. Radiocarbon Dating of the Pe ş tera cu Oase Faunal Remains (Thomas Higham, Eva Maria Wild) 77

9. Rock Magnetic Data of Late Pleistocene Sediments from the Pe ş tera cu Oase and Their Paleoclimatic Signifi cance (Cristian Panaiotu, Silviu Constantin, Că t ă lin Petrea, Viorel Horoi, Cristina-Emilia Panaiotu) 86

10. The Distributions of Finds and Features (Jo ã o Zilh ã o, Ricardo Rodrigo, H é l è ne Rougier, Ş tefan Milota) 100

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III. THE CAVE BEARS 125 11. Cave Bear Paleontology and Paleobiology at the Pe ş tera cu Oase: Fossil Population Structure and Size Variability (Martina Pacher, J é r ô me Quil è s) 127

12. Taphonomic Analysis of the Cave Bear Remains from the Peş tera cu Oase (Martina Pacher, J é r ô me Quil è s) 147

13. An Ancient DNA Perspective on the Cave Bears from the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Mathias Stiller, Michael Hofreiter) 159

IV. THE OTHER VERTEBRATES 165 14. Hyena, Wolves, and Foxes from the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Emil Ş tiuc ă , Alexandru Petculescu) 167

15. Small Mammal Remains from the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Alexandru Petculescu) 185

16. The Ungulates from the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Simon A. Parfi tt, Adrian M. Lister) 189

17. Taphonomic Considerations of the Non-Ursid Vertebrate Remains (Erik Trinkaus, Martina Pacher) 204

18. Stable Isotopes and Dietary Patterns of the Faunal Species from the Peş tera cu Oase (Erik Trinkaus, Michael P. Richards) 211

V. THE HUMAN REMAINS 227 19. Radiocarbon Dating of the Pe ş tera cu Oase Human Remains (Erik Trinkaus) 229

20. The Human Mandible from the Pe ştera cu Oase, Oase 1 (Erik Trinkaus, Hé l è ne Rougier) 234

21. The Human Cranium from the Peş tera cu Oase, Oase 2 (Hé l è ne Rougier, Erik Trinkaus) 257

22. Frontal Bone Contours of the Oase 2 Cranium (Sheela Athreya, H é l è ne Rougier) 321

23. The Internal Cranial Morphology of Oase 2 (Marcia Ponce de Le ó n, Christoph P. E. Zollikofer) 332

24. The Dental and Alveolar Remains of Oase 1 and 2 (Erik Trinkaus, Shara E. Bailey, H é l è ne Rougier) 348

25. The Oase 1 Human Stable Isotopes (Michael P. Richards, Erik Trinkaus) 375

VI. DISCUSSION 383 26. The Paleoenvironmental Context of the Pe ş tera cu Oase (Silviu Constantin, Jo ã o Zilh ã o, Erik Trinkaus) 385

27. Paleoanthropological Implications of the Pe ş tera cu Oase and Its Contents (Erik Trinkaus, Jo ã o Zilh ã o) 389

VII. REFERENCES 401 28. References 403

00_Trinkaus_Prelims.indd x 8/31/2012 10:06:30 PM Contributors

Sheela Athreya Viorel Horoi Department of Anthropology, 234 Anthropology D é partement des Sciences de la Terre et de l’Atmosph è re, Building, 4352 Texas A&M University, College Station, Universit é de Qu é bec à Montr é al, Montr é al, Qu é bec TX 77843, USA H3C 3P8, Canada; and Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” str. Frumoasă 31, 010986 Bucharest, Maxime Aubert Romania Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Tegan Kelly Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National Shara E. Bailey University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Department Anthropology, New York University, 25 Waverly Place, New York NY 10003, USA Stein-Erik Lauritzen Department of Earth Sciences, Bergen University, Silviu Constantin Allegaten 41, N-5007, Bergen, Norway Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” Department of Geospeleology and Paleontology, str. Frumoasă 31, Adrian M. Lister 010986 Bucharest, Romania Department of Palaeontology, Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK Mircea Gherase Pro Acva Grup, Str. Surduc, Nr. 1 (Sc. A, Ap. 4), 300552 Ş tefan Milota Timi ş oara, Romania Pro Acva Grup, Str. Surduc, Nr. 1 (Sc. A, Ap. 4), 300552 Timi ş oara, Romania Rainer Gr ü n Research School of Earth Sciences, Australian National Oana Moldovan University, Canberra ACT 0200, Australia Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă,” Cluj Branch, Clinicilor 5, P.O. Box 58, 400006 Cluj-Napoca, Thomas Higham Romania Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology and the History of Art, Dyson Perrins Cristian-Mihai Munteanu Building, South Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” Calea 13 Septembrie, nr. 13, 050711 Bucharest, Romania Michael Hofreiter Evolutionary Biology and Ecology, Department Martina Pacher of Biology, University of York, Wentworth Way, Institut f ü r Pal ä ontologie, Universit ä t Wien, Heslington, York YO10 5DD, UK Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Wien, Austria

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Cristian Panaiotu Ricardo Rodrigo Bucharest University, Paleomagnetism Laboratory, Sociedade Torrejana de Espeleologia e Arqueologia, B ă lcescu 1, 010041 Bucharest, Romania Quinta da Lez í ria, 2350 Torres Novas, Portugal

Cristina-Emilia Panaiotu H é l è ne Rougier Bucharest University, Paleomagnetism Laboratory, Department of Anthropology, California State University B ă lcescu 1, 010041 Bucharest, Romania Northridge, 18111 Nordhoff St., Northridge, CA 91330, USA Simon A. Parfi tt Department of Palaeontology, Natural History Museum, Lauren ţ iu Sarcin ă Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK; and Institute Pro Acva Grup, Str. Surduc, Nr. 1 (Sc. A, Ap. 4), 300552 of Archaeology, University College London, 31–34 Timi ş oara, Romania Gordon Square, London WC1H 0PY, UK Mathias Stiller Alexandru Petculescu Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă,” str. Frumoas ă 31, University of California Santa Cruz, 1156 High Street, 010986 Bucharest, Romania Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA

C ă t ă lin Petrea Emil Ş tiuc ă Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” str. Frumoas ă 31, Institutul de Speologie “Emil Racovi ţă ,” str. Frumoas ă 31, 010986 Bucharest, Romania 010986 Bucharest, Romania

Marcia Ponce de Le ó n Erik Trinkaus Anthropologie, Y42 K 22, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Department of Anthropology, Washington University, Z ü rich, Switzerland Saint Louis MO 63130, USA

J é r ô me Quil è s Eva Wild Unit é Toulousaine d’Arch é ologie et d’Histoire (UMR Institut f ü r Isotopenforschung und Kernphysik der 5608), Maison de la Recherche, Universit é Toulouse Universit ä t Wien, VERA-Laboratorium, Waehringer Le Mirail, 5 all é es Antonio Machado, 31058 Toulouse Strasse 17, 1090 Wien, Austria c é dex 9, France Jo ã o Zilh ã o Universitat de Barcelona/ICREA, Departament de Michael P. Richards Prehistò ria, Historia Antiga i Arqueologia, Facultat de Department of Anthropology, University of British Geografi a i Hist ò ria, Montalegre 6, 08001 Barcelona, Spain Columbia, Vancouver, B.C. V6T 1Z1, Canada; and Department of Human Evolution, Max-Planck Christoph P.E. Zollikofer Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Deutscher Anthropologie, Y42 K 22, Winterthurerstrasse 190, 8057 Platz 6, 04103, Leipzig, Germany Z ü rich, Switzerland

xii

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P a r t O n e Introduction and Background

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3 Problems, Approaches, and Fieldwork: 2004–2005

Jo ã o Zilh ã o , Ş tefan Milota, Ricardo Rodrigo, Silviu Constantin, and Erik Trinkaus

Introduction of the Oase galleries was carried out on July 4, 2004, building on a preliminary map of the cave prepared by Milota The 2002–2003 discovery in the Peş tera cu Oase galleries and Rodrigo during 2003 and after the Pro Acva Grup had of the mandible and face of two early modern humans completed all the preparation work that needed to be car- (Chapter 2) raised a series of questions requiring an ried out on the access route. At the end of the day, the archeological approach: Did additional remains of those following relevant observations for decision-making had individuals exist? Did the cave also contain a material or been entered into the season’s fi eld book: behavioral context (e.g., artifacts or features) that could be associated with the fossil fi nds? Did such finds document 1. Cave bear nests (Figure 3.1) were concentrated in the evidence of human activity inside the cave (e.g., resulting Galeria Culcu ş urilor and adjacent areas of the Sala from intentional burial, body disposal, accidental death), Mandibulei, with a single, isolated instance in the or had they been brought in from the outside by natural Galeria Lung ă , indicating that these were the parts processes (e.g., sheet-wash, fl ooding, carnivores)? Were of the Oase system farther from the entrances orig- the human bones contemporary with the abundant cave inally used by the bears and where they had hiber- bear remains among which they were found? What site nated and sometimes died. formation and taphonomic processes explained the spa- 2. The communication between the Sala Mandibulei tial distribution of the different categories of osteological and the Galeria Culcuş urilor was effected through remains (of ursids, canids, caprines, cervids, and humans) a markedly sloping narrow passage (the Panta observed on the surface of the galleries? To answer these Stră mo ş ilor) featuring abundant osteological remains questions, two archeological fi eld seasons (July 2004 and in derived position, including the Oase 2 human face July 2005) were carried out in the Pe ş tera cu Oase. Here, and associated cranial material, recovered toward the we explain our approach and discuss the criteria under- lower end of that slope (Figures 3.2 and 3.3). lying the research strategy eventually adopted. 3. Since a rocky ledge (formed by outcropping blocks or areas of raised bedrock) separated the Sala Mandibulei from the Galeria celor Trei Cranii, the latter could be excluded as a likely source for the Preliminary Reconnaissance evidently displaced surfi cial material recovered in the former and in the Panta Stră mo ş ilor. The fi rst step of the work consisted of an assessment of 4. When found in 2002, the Oase 1 mandible was the site and fi nds from a speleoarcheological perspective, sitting directly on top of a calcite crust but not based on the experience accumulated since 1989 by Zilhã o cemented to it. In the vicinity of its original loca- and Rodrigo in the study of the Almonda karstic system, tion, some bones, all bear, were observed in a similar in Portugal, which had presented a set of similar problems position, while other bones were encrusted in the (Zilh ão et al., 1991, 1993). To that effect, a reconnaissance calcite. This area is immediately adjacent to, and in

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Problems, Approaches, and Fieldwork: 2004–2005

Figure 3.1 The Galeria Culcu ş urilor. Top: the mass of bones piled against the Poarta passage, from which Petrea is seen coming out. Middle: the middle part of the passage at the beginning of the 2004 fi eld season, with a view toward the excavation at the base of the Panta Str ă mo ş ilor. Bottom: bear nest number 5.

continuity with an also calcite-covered slope leading observed inside a burrow excavated through the to the Galeria celor Trei Cranii (Figure 3.4). Close crust into the underlying loose sediments. These to the bottom of this slope, bone fragments with no observations suggested that the human mandible adhering calcite and whose preservation condition and the bear bones sitting on top of the calcite prob- was similar to that of the Oase 1 mandible could be ably corresponded to material that was originally

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Life and Death at the Peştera cu Oase

Figure 3.2 Grid rows 33–36 of the Panta Str ă mo ş ilor in 2004, prior to excavation. The passage to the Sala Mandibulei is behind Gherase, who is seen squatting on row 37, 7 meters downslope from the fi ndspot of the Oase 1 mandible.

Figure 3.3 Sala Mandibulei: the calcite-covered slope at the base of which the Oase 1 mandible was found in 2002 (see Figure 2.4), and the passage to the Panta Str ă mo ş ilor (marked by the caver’s helmet on the fl oor behind the short stalagmite).

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Problems, Approaches, and Fieldwork: 2004–2005

Figure 3.4 The slope leading from the Oase 1 fi ndspot to the Galeria celor Trei Cranii. Top: topographic profi le with indication of the main burrows. Middle: the “femur-on-the-rock” and the adjacent depression (possibly a bear nest). Bottom: the burrow halfway up the slope; the nature of the deposit (a variably cemented open work accumulation of blocks and large boulders) can be appreciated in the right-hand close-up view.

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Life and Death at the Peştera cu Oase

subsurface and brought out by recent burrowing fi nd spot and several skulls in the Sala Mandibulei activity. (Figure 3.6). In the latter place, a young caprid 5. Additional evidence that small carnivores used or skull was closely associated with two maxillary lived in (and died) in the Oase galleries includes fragments, which had probably broken off it, a two aspects. The fi rst are the moving foxes , a set of scatter pattern similar to that of the Oase 2 pieces nonfossilized fox mandibles observed on the fl oor of further downslope. The coincidence in spatial the Galeria celor Trei Cranii (Figure 3.5) and whose distribution indicated that skeletons (or at least position changed at different points in time between complete skulls) of both human and ibex had 2002 and 2005, thereby indicating continued dis- been introduced in the cave and then broken and placement by animal activity in between the periods slightly scattered through similar processes and by of the project’s brief incursions. The second is an the same agents. articulated skeleton, still partly covered with soft 7. Sediment subsidence close to the collapse separat- tissues, of a weasel-size carnivore found in the gal- ing the Galeria Lung ă from the outside (Figure 3.7) leries leading to the Poarta. enabled subsurface observation of the fi ll over a 6. Aside from the human bones, all of the remains of thickness of > 50 cm, but no bones were observed noncave dwelling species that could be observed inside these deposits. The large number of huge on the surface were of ibex, including the two boulders accumulated here meant that reopening mandibles in the immediate vicinity of the Oase 2 the gallery would represent a major engineering

Figure 3.5 The Galeria celor Trei Cranii. Top: view toward the exterior, blocked by sediment building up against the roof of the gallery. Bottom: modern bones observed on the surface of this gallery (left, the moving foxes ; right, metapodial of a domestic goat directly dated to 129 ± 25 14 C BP).

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Problems, Approaches, and Fieldwork: 2004–2005

Figure 3.6 A pair of ibex horns with stalagmite overgrowth found on the surface of the Sala Mandibulei near the passage to the Panta Str ă mo ş ilor.

Figure 3.7 The end of the Galeria Lung ă . Note the blocking of the communication with the exterior by a huge collapse covered by fl owstone.

project in addition to posing a major security risk for up from the exterior against the roof of the gallery the integrity of the site. (Figure 3.5). 8. In contrast, the blocking of the Galeria celor Trei 9. In 2002, at the inner end of the Galeria celor Trei Cranii’s exit presented a less daunting reopening Cranii, close to the slope leading to the fi nd spot challenge since, when viewed from the inside, it of the Oase 1 mandible, the Pro Acva Grup team apparently resulted mostly from sediment building observed a bear femur sitting on a rock, some 60 cm

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above the fl oor, initially taken as suggestive of some individuals’ skeletons, or of additional ones, implied level of human involvement in the accumulation of deeming as appropriate the sacrifi ce of the cave bear sur- the deposits (Trinkaus et al., 2003a, 2003b). Adjacent faces and features and, given the dimensions of the enter- to that rock, however, a clear depression was prise, would be impossible without reopening one of the observed, in and around which there were numer- blocked original entrances or a new artifi cial one. Either ous other bear bones, some of which were in no less option, however, would by the same token eliminate “strange” attitudes (e.g., a bear mandible was lean- the one protection that had secured the preservation of ing vertically against one of the rock’s sides) (Figure the site for scientifi c investigation, namely, the diffi culty 3.4). A parsimonious explanation for these appar- of access, and expose it to intentional or unintentional ently nonnatural dispositions is that the depression destruction by fossil hunters and careless visitors pushed may have been used for nesting (although we did by curiosity. not count it as a nest because it was covered with In short, considerations of effi cacy (i.e., defi ning goals calcite and therefore could not ascertain whether that were realistic within the project’s time horizon and it had formed as a result of geological processes given the concrete situation on the ground) and conserva- or bear activity). The “femur-on-the-rock” may tion (i.e., obtaining as much information as possible while thus have been unintentionally raised by a bear’s at the same time causing the least possible disturbance of rotational movements in the nest. The reason it the pristine underground environment) dictated the twin remained in such an elevated position may well decisions that structured our research strategy: be that the rock has a tabular superior surface and 1. All research at the site would be carried out using water dripping from the roof quickly cemented the the speleodiving access path (i.e., via the spring, bone to that surface, preserving the “arrangement” passing the siphon, up the Pu ţ ul, and through the from further disturbance (e.g., by occasional fl ood- Poarta; Figure 3.8), which set limitations to the ing or the activity of small mammals). amount of excavation that was possible, given the 10. Neither during this reconnaissance, nor before (in technical diffi culty of the route, the bulky nature 2002–2003), nor after (in the framework of 2004–2005 of the fi nds that would have to be taken out (as we sample collection excursions conducted beyond the quickly found out, a single cave bear humerus can area eventually selected for excavation), were there be as long as an entire human arm) and the need to any archeological indicators of human activity (e.g., sieve the sediments (Figure 3.9). accidental black staining of the walls by lighting, 2. All excavation work would be restricted to the remains of burned-out torches, hearths, features, Panta Str ă mo ş ilor, where the Oase 2 face had been handprints or footprints, artifacts) observed any- found, where there was a strong probability that where in the Oase system. additional fragments of the corresponding skull These observations suggested that (1) the Oase gal- remained, and where postdepositional disturbance leries were a purely paleontological site; (2) the presence by clearly geological processes had already modi- of human remains was a by-product of natural processes; fi ed any arrangements left behind by cave bear uses and (3) the key to sorting out the site formation, taphon- of that passage. omy, and dating issues raised by those remains was to Consequently, after the preliminary reconnaissance be found in the Sala Mandibulei and the adjacent Panta of July 4, 2004, and throughout the two seasons of sub- Stră mo ş ilor. Moreover, in terms of natural history, the sequent work, conservation concerns dictated a self- extensive, pristine cave bear dwelling surfaces repre- imposed “prohibition” of access to the Sala Mandibulei, sented a major heritage value. The need to preserve these the Galeria Lung ă , and the Galeria celor Trei Cranii, except surfaces thus had to be duly considered when determin- when needed for mapping, image recording, sample col- ing the extent to which it was acceptable to bring into the lection, and in situ gamma-radiation measurement (for site the level of disturbance and destruction (albeit con- electron spin resonance [ESR] dating). trolled) that any archeological investigation inevitably entails. Another factor to bear in mind was that humans Research Strategy were a marginal component of the mammal bone accumulation and that the volume of subsurface deposits in Considering what has been outlined above, the following the Sala Mandibulei, from where the Oase 1 mandible list of tasks for the 2004–2005 fi eld seasons was outlined: and the Oase 2 face conceivably derived, was in the order of the tens of thousands of cubic meters. Defi ning as the 1. To record and map (topographically, videographi- project’s goal the recuperation of the remainder of these cally, and photographically) the features on the

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Problems, Approaches, and Fieldwork: 2004–2005

Figure 3.8 The access route. Top left: Sarcin ƾ negotiates the torrent on the way to the siphon. Top right, clockwise: Zilhã o going through the semi-sump; Rodrigo transporting a cargo of bones loaded onto a clothes hamper prepared to that effect; Zilhão diving through the siphon; Rougier gearing up for the dive; Zilhã o diving through the siphon. Middle left: Gherase coming out of the dive. Middle right: Horoi sampling in the Pu ţ ul. Bottom left: Petrea climbing the Puţ ul ladder. Bottom middle: Gherase in the Galeria Gururilor, between the Pu ţ ul and the Poarta. Bottom right: Zilh ã o going through the Poarta.

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Life and Death at the Peştera cu Oase

Figure 3.9 Sieving in the river (with Sarcin ƾ , Gherase and Milota).

cave fl oor (namely, the cave bear nests) and their down to the level of the stable surface established surroundings. at the base of the slope, i.e., in a thickness of some 2. In the Sala Mandibulei, the Galeria Lungă , and the 40–50 cm, which should be enough to recover fur- Galeria celor Trei Cranii, to conduct in situ identifi - ther remains [from that individual].” cation and measurement of the bones, when needed, 4. To conduct a speleological and geological study with no removal except when absolutely necessary of the entire karstic system and of the Quaternary (e.g., to sample for dating). deposits exposed at different points in the speleodiv- 3. To undertake limited excavation, after recording ing route, including extensive speleothem sampling of the surface material, in the Panta Str ă mo ş ilor, for dating and paleoclimate reconstruction. between stations 7a and 7 of the 2003 topography. 5. To locate from the outside the original entrances By limited excavation it was meant (quoting from to the system (i.e., the blocked exits of the Galeria the July 4 entry of the 2004 fi eld book): “mapping, Lung ă and the Galeria celor Trei Cranii as well as recording and removal of bones on the surface, at any possible connections of the Sala Mandibulei the base of the slope, until a stable surface from with the exterior) to see how they related to features which people can stand and work without destroy- of the exokarst (e.g., sinkholes) and to gain a bet- ing the bones lying there is obtained; at that point, ter understanding of the overall dynamics of the excavation will advance upslope, using the same system. strategy, perhaps leaving behind stepped surfaces, until the area where Oase 2 [was] found is attained; Additionally, it was decided to search for the archeo- here, if necessary, it will then be possible to excavate logical context of the human fossils lacking in the Oase

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Problems, Approaches, and Fieldwork: 2004–2005

passages in a large nearby cave belonging to the same and Queiroz, 2005; B ă ltean and Petrescu, 2007; Bă ltean karst network, the Peş tera La Hoţ u (a.k.a. Peş tera Ho ţ ilor; et al., 2008). Figure 3.10). This site had been identifi ed as a promising The locations of the original entrances to the Peş tera location for prehistoric settlement during a March 2004 cu Oase on the current plateau surface were determined visit by Moldovan, Trinkaus, and Zilhã o. After mapping on the last day, July 27, of the 2004 fi eld season. We used by Rodrigo and Zilhã o on July 5–6, 2004, an area for testing a SLOTER device, a transmitter/receiver system working was selected, and archeological excavation began, under- on very low-frequency electromagnetic wave lengths that taken by B ă ltean, Cinc ă, and Petrescu. Eventually, signifi - had been proven successful, under similar conditions, in cant levels dating to the Bronze Age, the Early Neolithic, the Almonda karstic system of Portugal (Carvalho and and the Late Mesolithic as well as traces of Tardiglacial Veiga, 1989; Zilhã o et al., 1991, 1993). The receiver was human uses of the site were uncovered, but Marine operated outside by Rodrigo, who could pick up clearly Isotope Stage (MIS) 3 deposits do not exist or have yet the signal of the transmitter, operated inside by Gherase, to be reached (B ă ltean and Cinc ă , 2004; van Leeuwaarden who successively turned it on at the different spots of the

Figure 3.10 P e ş tera La Hoţ u. Clockwise from top left: exterior view of the entrance; interior view of the porch area in March 2004 (note the ice stalagmites); the cave seen from the bottom end; Zilhã o, Cincƾ , and B ƾ ltean (left to right) squatting in the area selected for opening of the initial test trench.

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Life and Death at the Peştera cu Oase

Oase system previously identifi ed inside as possibly hav- Therefore, elevations were taken only for the top and the ing been anciently opened to the exterior: at the ends of base of the bone bed, not for the individual items recov- the Galeria Lungă (found to be ~15 m below ground sur- ered therein. Complete bones and larger bone fragments face) and the Galeria celor Trei Cranii (found to be ~6 m (> 20 cm long), however, were individually plotted, either below ground surface), and adjacent to the stalagmite cur- by drawing on millimeter graph paper or via labeling on tain forming the north wall of the Sala Mandibulei (where printouts of photos of the excavation areas orthorecti- the fi ndspot of the Oase 1 mandible was found to be ~30 fi ed with Photomodeler© software (Eos Systems, 2004) m below ground surface). (Figures 3.12 and 3.13). The exterior locations identifi ed broadly corre- The excavation proceeded upslope from row 32, leav- sponded to those inferred on the basis of a compass- ing column M of the grid as a witness block. The bone bed, and-clinometer map of the overall system that had been designated Level 1, was completely removed in columns drafted by Milota and indicated that the underground N and O, between the witness block and the left wall of Oase passages once opened onto different points that were the gallery, and in rows 32 to 36, plus quadrants C–D of all located alongside the edges of the largest sinkhole of row 37, up to nest 9, which was left intact (Figure 3.11). As this small limestone massif. To obtain a tool bridging the a rule, the underlying Level 2 was excavated over a very below- and above-ground landscapes relevant to the geo- reduced thickness (< 10 cm) and only inasmuch as neces- logical, geomorphological, speleological, and archeologi- sary to (1) allow for the retrieval of material from Level cal interpretation of the massif, the project then ordered a 1 sitting directly atop its surface (e.g., long bones whose detailed topographic map of the area, which was drafted bottom ends slightly penetrated it) or (2) recuperate Level in the winter of 2005–2006 by Bogdan Badescu, of the 2 bones protruding from the surface of the deposit and Asociatia Speologica “Exploratorii” de Reş i ţa, with the that, if not removed, risked damage or destruction by collaboration of the Pro Acva Grup (Figure 5.1). subsequent archeological excavation in adjacent squares. Exceptions to this rule were:

• Square N32, the fi rst to be excavated, where the Excavation Methodology bone jumble was very thin and, for stratigraphic recognition purposes, the dig was taken to a depth of A 1 m2 grid system using topographic station 7a as the 20 cm below the surface. starting point and the line joining stations 7a and 7 as • Squares N33C–D and O33D, taken down to the same ă ş the grid’s main axis was set up in the Panta Str mo ilor elevation as N32 to obtain a stable platform to facili- (Figure 3.11). Since the distance between the Poarta and tate the continuation of the work toward the upslope station 7a was about 30 m, the beginning of the number units (although, in O33D, the volume involved was sequence for the squares in the gridded area was set at 31, rather limited because, at these elevations, square increasing toward station 7. Along the width of the gallery, O33 was occupied by an erosional feature whose squares were designated with letters, from right to left formation implied almost total loss of the Level 2 (looking upslope), with the 7a–7 segment of the topogra- deposits that once existed here). phy’s polygonal line marking the separation between col- • Squares O34B–D, where Level 2 was excavated umns M and N. Zero-level (datum) points were marked down to some 55 cm below surface to obtain deeply on the wall, on both sides, with the help of a laser level, buried tooth samples for ESR dating. used throughout for the defi nition of horizontal planes. • Squares N35B and N36B, in an area of the Panta The different squares were further subdivided into where, closer to the right-hand wall, Level 2 was 0.25 m2 excavation units (A, B, C, and D) for a fi ner posi- exposed on the surface, Level 1 fi lled a shallow gully tioning of small fi nds and sieve material. Examination against the left wall, and, given the overall slope, the of the surface indicated that the surfi cial bone bed in the excavation, therefore penetrated deeper into Level ă ş Panta Str mo ilor was a jumble of densely intertwined 2 in the B quadrants to obtain stepped surfaces to material generated by geological processes in the frame- facilitate further work upslope. work of a single event or within a very short time span • Squares N37C–D, where the excavation was taken (which the excavation eventually confi rmed; see Chapter to some 90 cm below the surface to produce a profi le 10). Moreover, it was inferred that the entire (but reduced) for stratigraphic reference. thickness of the jumble should be treated as a single plane of accumulation, given this formation process and The elevations reached in the different units are given the large size of many of its components (e.g., bear ribs, in Figure 3.11. which are long and curved could have one end at the In 2004, the excavated sediment was bagged and bottom of the jumble and the other exposed on the sur- transported to the outside for wet sieving by Codrea and face, as was subsequently observed during excavation). Moldovan, under good lighting and with a fi ne 0.5 mm

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Problems, Approaches, and Fieldwork: 2004–2005

44 Nest 11 +68

42 +160 Nest 10 +112 +88 P7 41

39 +120

+80 38 Nest 9 +31 +40 +2 +2 37 profile –80 –80 –80

0 –80 –80 –80

36 –80 –80 –80

–40 –105–105–105–105 35 –110–110–110–110

–80 –115–115–135–115 34 –115–115–145–115

–120 –120–120–120 33 –140–140–140 –120 –140 –140–140 32 –140–140

y AB Nest 8 31 CD

0 x P7a –120 30

29 Nest 7 –165

28 –160

RQPONMLKJI

Figure 3.11 Topography of the surface of the deposits in the Panta Str ă mo ş ilor and adjacent areas of the Sala Mandibulei and the Galeria Culcu ş urilor. In the excavation area (shaded units of the grid system), the outline of the left wall is that visible at the end of the dig; the dash-dotted line indicates the vertical projection of that wall over the surface of the deposit, prior to excavation, in rows 35–37 of the grid, where a narrow fi ssure separated that surface from the markedly inward sloping encasing rock. The rectangular insert gives the elevations below or above datum reached in the different units that were excavated in 2004–2005.

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Life and Death at the Peştera cu Oase

Figure 3.12 The Panta Str ă mo ş ilor dig. Top: excavating square N33 (left to right, Milota, Rougier, and Moldovan). Bottom: one of the plans produced in the process of documenting the excavation of the bone bed.

mesh, until an adequate sample for the study of micro- 2005 dig, and with a 2 mm mesh, as the main purpose mammals was obtained. The remainder was stored inside of the operation was now the recovery of small-sized and eventually sieved by the underground team at the cave bear remains, namely, the teeth of fetal or lactating siphon, together with the sediments generated by the individuals.

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Problems, Approaches, and Fieldwork: 2004–2005

Figure 3.13 Using Photomodeler© to map the surface of the bone bed in the Panta Stră mo ş ilor. Three oblique views of grid unit N33 and the reconstructed orthophotograph.

Piece-plotted fi nds were wrapped up, together with kilograms of cargo, were transported through the Poarta, their identifi cation labels, in humidifi ed toilet paper, via the Galeria Gururilor and down the Puţ ul, for siev- to protect them against damage during transportation. ing at the siphon or further transportation to the outside The smaller pieces were then packed and cushioned in for lab treatment, via the remaining speleodiving route. watertight containers. These containers were removed The coarser component of the deposits (blocks, pebbles, from the cave inside the kinds of yellow “banana” sacks gravel) was bagged and transported through the Poarta commonly used in speleology to transport equipment. for inconspicuous discard in an adjacent, marginal area The larger pieces were further bundled in bubble wrap of the cave. prior to packing them in a plastic clothes hamper fi tted Given space limitations in the Panta Stră moş ilor, the into a backpack, an arrangement that permitted its pass- excavation team on any one day usually consisted of one ing through the siphon and the water to drain out when it person excavating, one person mapping in and numbering emerged exterior of the cave. At the end of each fi eld day, bones, and a third person wrapping and storing the exca- both fi nds and sediments, often totaling a couple hundred vated material. Additional individuals helped move the

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Life and Death at the Peştera cu Oase

Figure 3.14 The project’s home base and lab at the Hotel Steier, in Steierdorf at the southern end of the town of Anina. Upper left: Trinkaus washing bear bones in 2004. Upper right: the Timi ş oara and foreign portions of the 2005 fi eld team with the project’s van at the end of the fi eld season (from left to right: Trinkaus, Zilhã o, Rougier, Quil è s, Gherase, Sarcin ƾ , and Rodrigo standing; Danciu and Milota, squatting); the Bucharest portion of the fi eld team (Constantin, Horoi, Petrea, Sofi caru, and Constandache) had left shortly before. Lower left: part of a day’s bone catch in 2004 drying and waiting to be processed. Lower right: Sarcinƾ and Milota fi lling diving tanks with the compressor in 2005.

bones and sediment through the Poarta, sieved sediment the bones were covered only in the soft, if adherent, cave in the siphon (in 2005), photographically documented earth of the Panta Stră mo ş ilor, and only a few of them the process, and rotated jobs with the three individuals had carbonate encrustations on them. The bones were excavating. unwrapped, washed in water, set to dry in plastic trays, labeled with square number plus either quadrant letter or specimen number, and then sorted anatomically. Each Laboratory Procedure bone was accompanied by its excavation tag until prop- erly dried and labeled, then entered into a spreadsheet, All of the further processing of the fi nds from the cave, the “bone log,” which became expanded and corrected as brought out each evening, was done in the rear building anatomical and species identifi cations were verifi ed in the and courtyard of the Hotel Steier (Figure 3.14). Most of fi eld and subsequently in Cluj-Napoca.

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Part Seven References

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