United Nations Children's Fund No. 2 International Child Development Centre innocenti digest Florence - Italy CHILDREN AND VIOLENCE MAIN ISSUES ▼

INTRODUCTION 2 THE CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD AND VIOLENCE 3 Protecting children from violence 3 DISCUSSION SITE Responding to violence by children 3 ➣ Combating violence PREVALENCE OF VIOLENCE TO CHILDREN 4 involving children INTRAFAMILIAL VIOLENCE TO CHILDREN 5 Infanticide and homicide of children 5 Physical assault 6 LINKS Sexual abuse 7 ➣ Contact and programme details Illicit transfer 8 of NGOs working in areas related Traditional practices involving violence 8 to children and violence Mental violence 8 EXTRAFAMILIAL VIOLENCE 9 INFORMATION SOURCES Children and armed conflict 9 Homicide of street children 9 ➣ Selected readings Violence in institutions 10 ➣ General references Sexual exploitation 10 Sport and violence 11 PAST AND FUTURE ISSUES PREVALENCE OF VIOLENCE BY CHILDREN 14 Violent crimes 14 ➣ Ordering information Children’s self-inflicted violence 14 ➣ Feedback WHY DO CHILDREN BECOME VIOLENT? 15 The cycle of violence 15 Violent images 16

The Innocenti Digest is compiled by UNICEF International Child Development Centre to provide reliable and easily accessed information on a critical children’s rights concern. It is designed as a working tool for executive decision- makers, programme managers and other practitioners in child-related fields. ------. ------eli om ov ticu otec s sta ms of ecog ecog - - equently mit any otection ventions, en. In addi en, and tradi e institutions, eflection on national moni owing r om all for equests for help esponses to vio 49 s right to pr easingly active and en’ mal inter ed; these assumptions egimes in which vio e’, has often involved ents’ and other adults’ end is the Committee on otection that adults enjoy otection fr e is now gr ting childr ovide ‘car en as witnesses have fr en, and incr , to pr ecognition of the scale of vio outine’ physical violence in the t their equal right to pr osecutions. ecognition of and r en may cause and be compounded by s violence to other childr om ‘r equent subjects of violence – just as tra . Leading this tr theless, ther eater r outine violence in the home and the com en’ en the same pr en in schools and child car ------essive, authoritarian r ng body for the Convention, which has The further back in history one goes, the lower the level of child care, and the more likely chil dren are to be killed, abandoned, beaten, terror ized and sexually abused. . . . That this pattern has not been previously noted by historians is because serious history has long been considered a record of public not private events. The dependent status of childr Gr ers om ed violence to women. Institutionalization of e in om physical assault. In most states violent y’ of om r emain common and sanctioned by the law epr ms of tori consistently challenged laws that per lence to childr consistent challenging of it, follows on fr societies’ r lence to women. It is a sad r human civilizations that the smallest and most vulnerable of people should have had to wait until last for consistent social and legal r nition of their equal right to physical and per sonal integrity home and in institutions is as vital to impr ing their status as it has been to women’ tus to asser fr munity the Rights of the Child, the inter interpersonal violence. Only a handful of countries have as yet adopted laws to give childr fr punishments, including beatings with tools, r Never nition that asser tion fr tional assumptions of par authority over them, has made them par larly fr ditional assumptions of male authority have br childr ostensibly to pr r lence is endemic, and in which adult violence to childr childr tion, traditional assumptions about the unr ability of childr led to their complaints or r being disbelieved or ignor continue to inhibit for including pr ch fr en ar e immedi ganized sex esear e most at risk en in the fam ealization that ostitution, ‘sex en ar haps mor ents and other car one to violent victim elude, it is hoped, to vailable r om the adults closest to e pr e has been the ‘discover nography and other for en comes the r en by par eflection of the low status of eater sensitivity is leading to eased visibility of violence , a r evention. A e far mor en, gr eflection of the individual and collect deliberate behaviour by people against ead sexual abuse of childr en, and the low political priority ecently ther en ar , borrowing and adapting a definition used en. ith incr ent countries suggests that, at least out ded to them – and per - - - e r - - - - It is only in the last few decades that the W The history of childhood is a nightmare from which we have only recently begun to awaken. In the case of many categories of violence o ected at childr fer evalence of deliberate physical and mental eater visibility – a pr fective pr tic , the ately a r to ive guilt of adult perpetrators of violence childr pr violence to childr ily and in institutions, and also or has begun to be widely acknowledged. Even mor widespr dir ef ual abuse, including child pr tourism’, child por of violence, including sexual violence, within their own homes and fr them. But generally attempts to document the overall extent of violence to childr their infancy childr accor sexual exploitation. childr to childr gr side active war zones, childr ization than adults: dif ms of ms of en live fects of e par But the focus here is on interpersonal violence to eased tar esponses to rific indi evention, and s childr easing con en – violence om all for en ar om the ef med conflict evalence. In the . , violence is defined as en fr en and violence by ms of physical or mental fers hope of accelerating eas of child policy om inhuman or degrading n weapons. Digest ehabilitative r eater pr s rights to physical and per eduction and pr ticularly hor en’ , and States’ obligations to pr enas of ar om sexual and other for otect childr om “all for . Sexual abuse and exploitation are included because, although (as defined in uctive, r s violent behaviour en, suggests – not necessarily en – is causing incr ts childr en’ m to pr n in many if not all countries of the ected at childr Violence and children defined As in all other ar ound the world, childr ▼ iolence involving childr ovides a framework of principles and stand NTRODUCTION med conflict, and fr ds for violence r eatment or punishment. The Convention also For the purpose of this efor geting of civilian populations, often with lethal moder ularly vulnerable to the incr cer world. The intense media spotlight, often on par vidual cases of violence involving childr accurately – gr V dir childr varied ar ar I r 1989 United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child of in countries that have ratified the Convention. It asser violence. Almost all of the world’ ar tr pr ar for constr childr sonal integrity tect them fr violence”, fr exploitation and abduction, fr by various national commissions set up to consider violence and its prevention. The definition could, of course, range wider to include societal forms of violence – the effects of poverty, exploitative child labour, and lack of adequate health care and education, and non-deliberate neglect by the state, parents and others. people liable to cause physical or psychological harm The focus is not simply on the widely used term ‘child abuse’, because its definition in A ‘child’ is defined, as in the Convention, as everyone from birth to his or her 18th Innocenti Digest 2 - Children and Violence 2 most countries) they do not necessarily involve violence or coercion, the vast majority of most countries) they do not necessarily involve violence or coercion, the vast majority evidence indicates their generally harmful effects. Children’s involvement in armed conflict and its effects on them also have strong links to the forms of violence considered here. forms policy and practice differs so greatly from country to country, culture to culture. Many The of violence that are harmful to children lie outside common definitions of child abuse. Convention on the Rights of the Child, on the other hand, now almost universally ratified, emphasizes all children’s right to physical integrity – to protection from “all forms of physical or mental violence”. birthday. and by children The issues - e. - - s ty – en has immense om e’ or Children and Violence

Innocenti Digest 2 - 3 ds for -olds, e is no s sense uments etribution 44 s assum ticle 6); the omoting otection of opriate time t- and long- ty 1990. ming societies for the bet s. Ther -18-year eventing vio ds: The issues tained and taken en’ ests of the child, ce the child’ . iolence: s shor e is evidence fr 3). Such a system d Minimum Rules for juvenile justice test appr espected (Ar einfor , ther y vival of human societies in the futur vival of human societies s right to life and maximum th, r educing or pr ole in society omotion of the child’ esponses based on r y sur . As stated by the Australian National e detailed standar - ticle 3); ticle 12). Restriction of liber HILD Innocenti Digest ver Reducing violence to childr potential for transfor ter Committee on V ticle 40 gives detailed standar (Ar ests as well as childr the child’ eintegration and the child’ C uctive r ehabilitation and public safety rather s r ticle 37 also sets out an absolute ban on - fective in r s views should be ascer etribution, is in society’ t and for the shor eas Ar THE ee other United Nations instr - - - evention of Juvenile Delinquency (‘The en - - - s ticle 37). Ar en, ess The greatest chance we have to prevent violence in society is to raise children who reject violence as a method of problem-solving, who believe in the right of the individual to grow in a safe environment. The focus on the best inter s age and the desirability of pr fences committed by under m inter en en United Nations Standar the Administration of Juvenile Justice (‘The Beijing Rules’) 1985; United Nations Guidelines for the Pr Riyadh Guidelines’) 1990; United Nations Rules for the Pr Juveniles Deprived of their Liber e ef esor . Thr eatens seriously (Ar whether in the penal system or in ‘welfar other systems – should be used only as a last r development must be r ● ● ● child’ (Ar capital punishment and life imprisonment for of wher developing a distinct system of mful and on r than r ter evidence that r ar lence. On the contrar ovide even mor eedoms of others, and take into account the , but the espect for the human rights and fundamental the child’ ing a constr of dignity and wor fr child’ r pr must emphasize pr vival and develop OF ticle 38); otect chil (the subject of e or other ests of the eatment or e sur elevant to all tur mity with the e r s right to expr e for victims of onment, thr iolence to childr y consideration en’ ticle 36); ficking of childr en. Insensitive and vio om “tor en, like insensitive and ovides clear principles om all other har om abduction and to s rights to physical and om sexual exploitation esponses to violent behav med conflict (Ar IGHTS en fr en fr en fr . The best inter en fr esponses to violence by chil ticle 28.2); s r ticle 37); es to abolish traditional prac R THE en ehabilitative car ticles oblige States: ticle 39). en and young people. None con ds for r e that school discipline is adminis ment to the maximum extent possible; and States’ duty to ensur ejudicial to the health of childr eatment of the envir fected by ar otect childr otect childr otect childr ovide r y can be complacent about any level of otect childr eatment of childr ON - - ticle 24.3); ticle 35); ticle 34); ms of exploitation (Ar ed “in a manner consistent with the child’ ticle 12 underlines childr event sale and traf - - e en af uel, inhuman or degrading tr - - - ds en. Its “General Principles” ar o cr punishment” (Ar human dignity and in confor Convention” (Ar to use all feasible methods to pr dr to pr Ar to take measur (Ar to ensur to pr to pr pr to pr to pr violence (Ar their views and have them taken seriously tices pr ter for (Ar (Ar - violent tr not just the quality of human lives today in childhood and later life. V in childhood and later and to manifestations of adult violence. No countr violence involving childr lent tr is inextricably linked to violence by childr ● ● Responding to violence by childr The Convention also pr and standar ● In addition, ar ● ● ● ● ● ● dr aspects of society’ iour of childr flicts with other people’ personal integrity child should be a primar elev en ound. ts that ests of - - - evalence of eatment e also r ecommend owing awar s right to life, ounds of tradi en, r en; s countries, y consideration in en en cannot be justified, y child’ m and educational pr eligion; otection of childr esent, on gr ch, of the dangers of it, and , “needs special safeguar ning childr en has come gr es that the best inter efor

(para. 1) e, or r ecognition of the pr eason of his or her physical and esear ONVENTION ticle 19 obliges ratifying States to: equir ticles, which have been elevated by C ough r

eamble of the Convention asser e”. Ar ticle 2 of the Convention insists that all ticle 3 r ticle 6 upholds ever ds for the pr en without discrimination on any gr otecting childr HE om violence Alongside r ▼ ovides clear principles and stan take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental vio Other ar lence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treat ment, maltreatment or exploitation including sex ual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person who has the care of the child. om violence, and for the tr Thus violence to childr as it often is at pr tion, or cultur rights within it must be available to all chil dr Ar Ar the child must be a primar Ar all actions concer ing clear legal r grammes. physical punishment of childr physical punishment of ● ● ● of child perpetrators of violence. fr Pr fr The pr the child, by r mental immaturity The Convention on the Rights of the Child, adopted by the United Nations General Assembly in 1989 all and ratified as of August 1997 by but two of the world’ dar and car pr T of the links between early experience of vio ness, thr lence, and violent and other antisocial behaviour violence to childr the Committee on the Rights of the Child to the status of “General Principles”, ar ant to the issue of violence: VIOLENCE AND ------e eased en. dinated veys. In tment of e as possi ts or car o take just - - - - e esponses to es for 1993. ts have been ue extent of . T eater sensitiv mal tion epor for ovide t of a single con ch that oach will develop opor e it exists , and to see all vio esear ch evidence favouring cement bod otection Unit in 1994, a om self-r ted to the South African en, and for om available data in most ehabilitative r , as sensitivity to e some centrally otection systems t instances of, or ows, many coun eater visibility ge-scale national sur esear view r . epor fences against chil ease on the figur ehensively e ar e r uelty (wher epor en as being par en gr osecutions and convic ds, and fr easingly easing, or whether gr ts to lar 57 om those countries wher om law enfor vice Child Pr ecor esent only a tiny pr e emphasized that the tr epor en compr fence), rape and other sexual ting system in place. epr e is no centralized database or coor Attempts to look at violent victimization of elfar en is incr om 1993 to 1994, child rape cases incr om 4,736 to 7,559 (by 62.7 per cent). But a e know fr egimes, despite r epor fences. Incr es r community-based r childr criminal behaviour agency r taker r the United Kingdom, similar ef made to sketch as complete a pictur ble of the incidence of violence to childr 36 per cent incr Fr fr White Paper drafted by the Depar W child abuse in South Africa is unknown because ther r r lence to childr tinuum, fit well with the framework of the is Convention on the Rights of the Child. It hoped that this kind of appr universally within the context of implementa is tion of the Convention. For the moment, it impossible to tell fr countries whether violent victimization of chil dr ity is leading to gr one example, in South Africa 22,911 cases of child abuse wer Police Ser ------e has been in-depth inter en In most countries ther ds, om en, including assault, cr en, fences. W fects , and en; of actual of violence involving childr tries have developed child pr including obligations to r suspicions of, violence to childr duties for investigation. These too will pr ther these figur ies of investigations, pr tions of adults for violent of dr as a separate of of collected statistics fr nment CHILDREN - - - - ehensive en (child der of in ehensively en; 12 en. The two d of those vic esult of their easingly puni esponsible for ted having suf evious year ous ‘boot camp’ fects most chil TO ficial gover ter of the childr oup of childr oad categories of mation came fr easing or national standar epor ovide a compr ee br oup of childr ovide national statistics for es; a quar d a completed or attempted e adopting incr y”, such as homicide, which fenders becoming violent. e as yet to look compr fenders and rigor y small gr ranged in incr ding such inter om 0.03 per 1,000 childr dinar ficial figur e able to pr ms of violence to childr egar 11 ger but still minority gr - - ted a completed victimization (excluding - - e than a thir ed en. - - fects a ver e, ed physical injuries as a r e en en In their attempt to pr It is also rar Although in recent years there has been a great deal of public and media attention to victimized children, the concern has been largely frag mented. Professionals have focused on specific forms of victimization, such as child abuse, sex ual abuse, handgun violence, and kidnaping, mostly as separate problems. But the fragmenta tion has inhibited a comprehensive perspective on the overall victimization of children. Such a comprehensive perspective would emphasize better the true toll of violent victimization. For ex ample, one reality, not widely appreciated, because of the fragmentation, is that children are far more prone to victimization than adults. Disr en - - - VIOLENCE y young of af “extraor “acute”, such as physical abuse, which af “pandemic”, such as physical punishment and assault by siblings, which af a lar dr ominent US commentators r epor statistics. The rate for rape was five times as statistics. The rate for rape was five times high as of r mor corporal punishment) in the pr ● ● ● non-violent of exceeding those found in of victimization. Just less than a thir timized in the last year r fer assault. epar They wer the United States for the various types of vic timization, ar cidence, fr victims of homicide) to 800 per 1,000 (victims of sibling assaults). The infor analysis of violent victimization of US childr at all for the authors defined thr victimization: pr this study suggest that some countries ar tive policies involving use of custody for even ver ted in taken in en aged vey of a y little is , pr epor ticular of . The execu OF , it is likely to oblem. Much ents and other eases the likeli egional Crime and en themselves, in ch into levels esentative natur r mation on childr epr , even if under en incr esear y uneven develop e invited to fill out a 60 e published in the United e anonymously on, among , r 59 ue level of violence. Other view childr elative privacy of insti views with par fending, and in par national bibliography and litera ch and infor eover ch Institute in Rome, of the over ALENCE 31 ge-scale attempt to ask childr y emphasizes that “ver gely a hidden pr view adults about their childhood e-of esentative sample of childr esear e lar ence in the family and institu epr n world”. , or the r estimate the tr eview on violence in the family REV ent r chers to inter ▼ A national in-depth telephone sur In addition to its unr In an inter A rar r etakers. Consequently ectly about their violent experiences took e r ge r ester emains lar elies on inter of it occurs within the privacy of the family r P In many countries, violence to childr many countries that harsh and humiliating many countries that punishment is a significant factor in the devel opment of violent attitudes and actions, and that imprisoning childr hood of r 10–16 years in the United States, r confidence, about their experiences. lar cur studies inter experiences. It is still uncommon for r sear 1994, found rates of violent victimization far under and violence is also flawed in that it generally r conditions of strict confidentiality dir place in Finland in 1990: about 9,000 15-year olds in schools wer detailed questionnair other things, their experiences of violence and their sexual experiences. car known about family violence outside the W tive summar tur by the United Nations Inter Justice Resear 1,500 entries covering the period 1985 to 1992, about 79 per cent wer States; adding those published in the United Kingdom, Australia and Canada accounted for over 90 per cent of the bibliography ment. tutions. Mor tions has had a ver of viol

Innocenti Digest 2 - Children and Violence 4 The issues The issues

statistics, but again with no clear relationship Incidence of violence to children in the UK (per 1,000 children per year) to the true level of violence. Homicide 0.007 In a report calling for more consistent reporting and recording of physical violence to Child abduction 0.026 children, the World Health Organization com- Sexual assault 0.26 mented that “conflicting definitions of child Emotional abuse 0.3 abuse and neglect, difficulties in identifying Sexual abuse 0.7 cases of child abuse and neglect, and variations Physical abuse 1 in reporting requirements make cross-national 4 Assault outside the home 330 comparisons virtually impossible”. WHO has tentatively sought some agreement on common Bullying at school 580 definitions of physical violence to children, Physical punishment 770 developing a protocol, which it hopes will be 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1,000 used in particular by health care workers to col- Rate per 1,000 children per year lect comparable statistics. 42 Source: Children and Violence, Report of the Commission on Children and Violence convened by the Gulbenkian Foundation, Gulbenkian Foundation, London, 1995. ▼ INTRAFAMILIAL VIOLENCE TO CHILDREN

Children are most at risk where they systems as a lesser crime than murder, although should be safest: within their families. it involves the intentional killing of a baby. The Violence in the family Children are in fact far more likely to rationale is to provide a special defence for “Although it may appear in different forms, be murdered, physically assaulted, mothers suffering psychological trauma as a and the level of people’s awareness of, and sexually abused, abducted and sub- result of birth. However, in many of the same reaction to the phenomenon may vary, the jected to harmful traditional practices legal systems, there are general recognized gravity and extent of the problem [of family defences of ‘diminished responsibility’ to violence] is worldwide. The family is the pri- and mental violence by family mem- mary and most important social institution for bers than by strangers. Extrafamilial charges of murder which could be applied in the upbringing, education and protection of its forms of violence such as armed conflict special cases. It therefore seems clear that the members, but it can often become an arena for and high levels of community violence roots of the special status of this crime lie in suffering and violence. All over the world place dramatic stress on families – and regarding an infant’s life as of less worth than women and children are murdered, mutilated, assaulted, battered or sold. Millions of human thus affect intrafamilial violence too. that of an older person. Contrary to the usual assumption that infan- beings are suffering within their family ‘walls’, and the weakest members of society are the ticide is an Eastern rather than a Western prob- most vulnerable: ethnic minorities, refugees, Infanticide and homicide lem, Lloyd deMause in his classic History of migrant families, children and women in armed of children Childhood documents that infanticide of legiti- conflicts. They are most at risk and have the mate as well as ‘illegitimate’ children least legal, economic and social protection. An analysis of 285 homicides committed in the was a regular practice of antiquity, that the “Data, information and knowledge of the United Kingdom from 1989 to 1991 involving killing of legitimate children was only slowly problem merely represent the tip of an iceberg, a tip that is still considered by many as a ‘pri- victims under the age of 18 years found just 13 reduced during the Middle Ages (hence the 31 per cent had been killed by strangers; 60 per grossly unequal ratios of men to women in many vate’ domain.” cent were killed by parents. 56 Similar results societies) and that illegitimate children continued have been reported in the United States and in to be regularly killed right up into the nineteenth socially, above girls, unequal gender population Innocenti Digest 2 - Australia. In countries where homicide statistics century. . . . Even though Thomas Coram figures indicate that it remains widespread. opened his foundling hospital in 1741 because he Government attempts to restrict population are analysed according to age of victim, infants couldn’t bear to see the dying babies lying in the and very young children are often found to be gutters and rotting in the dung-heaps of London, growth, often without providing adequate and Children and Violence the age group most at risk. In the United by the 1890s dead babies were still a common effective family planning education and resources, Kingdom, under-one-year-olds are four times as sight in London streets . . . 50 provide another impetus for infanticide. likely to be victims of homicide as any other Infanticide has been practised as a brutal Traditional attitudes in societies in which age group – almost all killed by their parents. method of family planning, and in societies where disabled children, or children born on certain Infanticide remains defined in many legal boy children are still valued, economically and days, bring shame to the family can encourage 5 The issues

infanticide. Similar pressures arise in societies nificant injuries, remains common and supported previous year, and that about a third of 15- to that strongly disapprove of the children born by the law in family homes in almost all coun- 17-year-olds had been hit. to very young mothers or to unmarried or inap- tries of the world. In most countries, in fact, In a concluding statement to the General propriately matched couples. physical punishment of children is the only form Discussion on Children’s Rights in the Family, The lack of efficient and comprehensive of interpersonal violence sanctioned by the law, organized by the Committee on the Rights of methods for registering each and every birth whereas even trivial assaults on adults are crimi- the Child as a contribution to the International leaves babies at risk of murder, abduction, sale or nalized. Where children have been interviewed Year of the Family in October 1994, a disappearance in many countries: the process of about violent assaults by adults and by other Committee member stated: registration, according the newborn baby an offi- children in their community, they report far As for corporal punishment, few countries have cial status, is an essential method of protection. higher victimization rates than adults. This situa- clear laws on this question. Certain States have tried to distinguish between the correction of chil- Where research studies have looked in tion is in stark contrast to the principles set out depth at a random sample of child deaths, they dren and excessive violence. In reality the divid- by the Convention on the Rights of the Child, ing line between the two is artificial. It is very invariably find a number, beyond those already which asserts in its preamble that the child, by easy to pass from one stage to the other. It is also formally recorded as homicide, in which vio- reason of his or her physical and mental imma- a question of principle. If it is not permissible to lence has played a significant part. A reflection turity, “needs special safeguards and care”. beat an adult, why should it be permissible to do of the growing sensitivity of societies to vio- Research from countries in all continents, so to a child? One of the contributions of the lence to children is the development of special Convention is to call attention to the contradic- as reported by Rädda Barnen and 61 legislation and procedures for investigating tions in our attitudes and cultures. EPOCH–Worldwide, has found consistently The Committee has indicated that the child deaths in detail and making formal high levels of violent punishment in the home. 33 reports, with the primary aim of prevention. Convention requires a review of legislation to In Barbados, a 1987 survey found 70 per cent of ensure that no level of violence to children is In one of the very few international attempts respondents “generally approving” of parental to compare rates of violence to children across condoned. In the official report of its seventh physical punishment; of these, 76 per cent countries and continents, WHO has collected session in November 1994, the Committee endorsed beating children with belts or straps. statistics from more than 60 countries on homi- stated: In India, a 1991 survey of university students cide deaths and deaths from injury of undeter- In the framework of its mandate, the Committee found 91 per cent of males and 86 per cent of has paid particular attention to the child’s right mined origin in infants less than one year old. females had been physically punished in their to physical integrity. In the same spirit, it has But, as mentioned earlier, WHO and other childhoods. In Romania, a 1992 survey found stressed that corporal punishment of children is commentators have emphasized the unreli- that 84 per cent of a sample of parents regarded incompatible with the Convention and has often ability of such comparisons, owing to the varying proposed the revision of existing legislation, as spanking as a normal method of child-rearing, definitions and methods of reporting and the well as the development of awareness and educa- very variable reliability in the collection and and 96 per cent did not regard it as humiliating. tional campaigns, to prevent child abuse and the central collation of statistics. 4 In the United Kingdom, government-sponsored physical punishment of children. Overall homicide rates vary remarkably research published in 1995 found that almost The Official Report goes on to note that the from country to country and provide one meas- one in six children had experienced “severe” Committee’s concerns have been shared ure of the level of serious violence in different physical punishment; the large majority (91 per recently by various other United Nations en- societies. For example, the US homicide rate cent) had been hit, 77 per cent in the last year. tities. The Commission on Crime Prevention for certain age groups of young people as vic- In the United States, a 1985 survey of 3,232 and Criminal Justice, for example, adopted a tims far exceeded that in all countries studied families found that 89 per cent of the parents resolution in April 1994 specifically stressing by WHO, with the exception of the Bahamas had hit their three-year-old child during the the importance of Article 19 of the and Ecuador. Aggregating data for the period 1987–1990, WHO statistics show that annual Investigating child deaths: a preventive response deaths by homicide of people aged 15 to 24 In several states of the USA, legislation sets out obligations to hold a formal inquiry into all were 15.3 per 100,000 in the United States, ‘unnatural’ deaths of children. For example, the South Carolina Child Fatality Review and compared with 0.9 per 100,000 in both the Prevention Act creates a Department of Child Fatalities within the State Law Enforcement United Kingdom and the Netherlands, 0.7 in Division, and a multidisciplinary State Child Fatality Advisory Committee. The Act states: France, and 0.4 in Japan. Indeed, the United It is the policy of this State that States has significantly higher rates for most ■ Every child is entitled to live in safety and in health and to survive into adulthood; Innocenti Digest 2 - violent crimes than almost all other industrial- ■ Responding to child death is a state and community responsibility; ized nations. The more serious the crime, the ■ When a child dies, the response of the State and the community to the death must include an accurate greater the difference between the US rate and and complete determination of the cause of death, the provision of services to surviving family members, those of other developed nations. 34 and the development and implementation of measures to prevent future deaths from similar causes. Children and Violence The Act places a duty on coroners and medical examiners to notify the Department within 24 hours when a child dies as a result of violence, when unattended by a physician Physical assault or in any suspicious or unusual manner, or when the death is unexpected or unexplained. The results of investigation are reported to the Advisory Committee, whose purpose is to Hitting children as a form of discipline, even make recommendations aimed at decreasing the number of preventable deaths. 6 beating them with sticks and belts causing sig------

ms, Children and Violence

Innocenti Digest 2 - 7 oducing efor tainly not ecognition fective child elatives. ecognition of The issues ds ef en, is cer gely to outlaw sex riage, and this step cion is now consis ner”. esponsible commitment en follows r 55 en, like other manifesta e men. In most societies, sex en takes place in their own m of coer ents and other close r eased visibility in all societies must ence or assault without consent or chy or authoritarianism and intr chy or authoritarianism ohibited, whatever the age or status of fer 53 ticipants. The last step in these r s y e , - - As with physical violence, r otection. It seems clear that, although it can tant way Sexual abuse Sexual abuse of childr of hierar tions of violence to childr new; its incr be welcomed as a move towar pr occur outside the family setting, most sexual abuse of childr homes, by par the ideas of social and r which should characterize the position of the educator vis-à-vis the lear esses a sexual violence to childr of sexual violence to women. And in most cases the perpetrators ar ual inter involving any for tently pr the par whose purpose has been lar ual violence to women, tends to be the crimi nalizing of rape within mar has still not been taken in all countries. ohibited ohibition ents.” 64 e so impor 36 en. Pr ed unlawful any ming that “the ver , which expr en ecommendations, as easingly being con fir en wer s r e incr ms of discipline. Summing us). And in 1996, Italy’ ved to educate par earing that is both culturally ms ar ning childr t in Rome declar ection of childr ohibit all violence r en themselves. In countries wher efor cor edefined, abolishing any connotation en esulted in a flood of complaints to the (Swedish Parenthood and Guardianship Code) onistic and historically outdated, should ded to have found that “few aspects of - - - - - ed in countries in all continents in the , - eme Cour t but it had ser ession - - - law concer In 16 years there has only been one prosecution in Sweden for what might be regarded In 1994, research commissioned by the Swedish Department of Health and Social Affairs Implementing equal protection for children in Sweden for Children are entitled to care, security and a good upbringing. Children are to be treated with respect The In 1979, Sweden became the first country to ban all physical punishment of children. In a significant case in 1982, the European Human Rights Commission rejected an t, it en (Sweden, Finland, Denmark, Nor omote positive for ts to their person and individuality and may not be subjected to corporal punishment or any other humiliating treatment. ecor in other countries as ‘ordinary’ physical punishment: a father was given a small fine for spanking his 11-year-old son. Implementation of the law was accompanied by a large-scale educational campaign, building information about the new law and its purpose into the education system, and into all forms of parenting education and support. a found just 11 per cent still approved of physical punishment, compared with 65 per cent few decades ago. And only 1 per cent of a large sample of Swedish 15-year-olds reported in ever having been hit with an implement (compared with up to 25 per cent of children legal some age groups in the United Kingdom and other countries which so far have resisted reform against physical punishment). emphatic aim of the new law was educational – not to prosecute more parents, or increase state intervention in family life, but to change attitudes and practice and to make hitting children as unacceptable as hitting adults. As one Swedish Ministry of Justice official said when explaining the new law, “By the prohibition of physical punishment, the legislator for wanted to show that a child is an independent individual who can command full respect his or her person, and who should thus have the same protection against physical punishment or violence as we adults see as being totally natural for ourselves.” application by a group of Swedish parents who alleged that the 1979 ban on parental physical punishment breached their right to respect for family life. The Commission concluded, “The actual effects of the law are to encourage a positive review of the which punishment of children by their parents, to discourage abuse and to prevent excesses could properly be described as violence against children.” . The use of violence for educational purposes within the family or in schools, af the legislation clearly banned corporal punishment, it gave a message to the childr Austria and Cypr Supr pr is up this position, one Committee member r for the childr Laws that pr to childr Although r expr view of child-r anachr in fact be r had not r cour sider on light of the Convention and the Committee the Rights of the Child’ dr yet only a handful of countries have pr all violent and humiliating punishment of chil eason opean mation om in ticle 154 epor - - ovides that eatment, in t of the 62 63 ohibit, with ers’ rights to use epor en s initial r ding of Ar ds a comment by easonable” violence y levels opean Convention, ed by the Eur 65 ecor otect the boy fr opean Human Rights ficial r t r ticles. ed admissible an application epor ticle 19 of the Convention”. n at the wor dance with the Convention. eted to allow for actions in con epeatedly caned by his stepfather s consideration of the United ticle 3 of the Eur -old boy and his natural father ms of punishment, often with the stip easonably and in moderation’, which s initial r en. The Committee on the Rights of the osecution had failed. The application, otection workers and ultimately cour , or both, includes specific confir ecommended that States pr ents’ and some other car en r en in accor mine what constitutes “r t of Human Rights, alleged that domestic essed “concer ents ‘may administer punishment to their The Committee has on many occasions for Similarly the of It was the Committee’s experience that difficulties arose whenever a ‘reasonable’ level of corporal punishment was permitted under a State’s inter nal law. To draw an analogy, no one would argue that a ‘reasonable’ level of wife-beating should be permitted. His conclusion was that the United Kingdom position represented a vestige of the outdated view that children were in a sense their parents’ chattels. In the Scandinavian countries and Austria, stricter legislation had resulted in fewer cases going to court than in the United Kingdom, rather than the reverse. . . . The notion of a permissible level of corporal pun ishment was thus best avoided. In 1996, the Eur oposed the use of educational campaigns to each of Ar of ‘legal’ violence to childr Laws that define arbitrar In many countries, either criminal or civil (fam ily) law of par Convention, and calling on States to take all Convention, and calling possible steps to eliminate violence against childr violent for ulation that such punishment must be “r able” or “moderate”, leaving individual adults, child pr to childr Child has singled out such legislation for par ticular criticism. For example, when the Committee examined Spain’ expr par childr may be interpr tradiction with Ar deter of the Spanish Civil Code which pr the Deputy Chair of the Committee: Kingdom’ Committee’ mally r out ambiguity of any kind, all violent punish ment in the family and in institutions, and it has pr as well as of other ar human or degrading punishment or tr br but a pr which is likely to be consider Cour legislation failed to pr Commission declar by a 12-year boy had been r - fering - - - - - s - - - o e - m en om eju e of ed to r efor elation eligion uments en, ar e unequi en should ticle 24.3. efer eased by their per otection of ead practice of male ticle 2, and the eviewed in the eness-raising, and e of disabled chil eedom of r . ejudicial to health tain days ticle 14) must not ms of mental vio ticle 3, ar eatment of childr esponsibility to pr mful traditional prac y widespr y tr ning, branding, coin- e not significantly pr eligion of their families s principles include: ential feeding and car ents’ r otection of women fr s own fr n on cer ticle 19 and/or Ar y young and unable to con ection and guidance to chil eligious leaders. ead in conjunction with the en’ efer en, of course, should have the en. cumcision and genital muti e or r , as adults have under the law in cise of their rights (r eligion in Ar ring, bur en bor emonies involving, for example, ticle 5, and specifically in r opriate anaesthesia intensifies the suf en and lack of car mance by people with no medical training, cumcision – may be incr e childr example the ver cir for of and in unhygienic conditions. The lack appr of childr es to combat har - eaches of Ar ests principle in Ar opriate dir ovisions, r es ms of cir m”. ead education and awar en, especially dependent childr omoted by the Committee on the Rights - - - n of - e y e - - - en what other United Nations instr ced holding under water; es “to eedom of r - - en or childr e ee of violence but ar ticularly vulnerable to for ticle 14). These practices often take place Justifications that assume that childr Practices that should be r Measur ubbing, tattooing; mful traditional practices. e on etur male childr dr all for binding, scar r initiation cer for deliberate discriminator involving violence and/or pr – for instance, pr lation; national en in the exer mful nment ejudi Mental violence Childr par ● ● ● ● light of the Convention’ tices pr of the Child include legislation and education. Many States now have explicit bans on female genital mutilation, but it is clear that legal r will achieve little unless it is combined with widespr unequivocal statements condemning the practice by community and r har to fr involve br These pr non-discrimination principle in Ar best inter vocal. The Convention does for pr childr have done for the pr same rights, if any a each society to consent to practices that involve degr sent. Matur (Ar when the child is ver generally in Ar dicial to health. But par vide appr dr follow the cultur and/or communities challenge the Convention’ upholding of childr es with ovision. es measur oblem, no 71 ument, and, es measur equir en. eligions ther ticles challenging equir cement of Decisions tance of inter e common traditional ees of physical and/or n of Minors, and the 1980 e of the pr opriate measur en”. During the draft ticle 35 r en and that may be pr . national instr ope Convention on the e ar eview of such practices. elevant ar s health. The Convention ence to traditional practices ticle 11 r mful traditional practices ar ence, female genital mutila en’ oad”; Ar en for any purpose or in any for efer , of such practices). The health efer es a r national consensus at gover riages and diet, among others. ounds of cultural identity and/or ess the impor national Retur oots, or both, and that may in them ning Custody of Childr ticle 24.3, which obliges States to eviewing practices that have cultural en abr event the abduction of, the sale of or traf eat sensitivity fective and appr s bodily integrity – including for equir national agency level, it is clear that, th, the debate should not centr , r The Convention on the Rights of the Child y to what might have been expected es gr “to pr fic in childr Both str cooperation in combating these practices. Council of Eur Recognition and Enfor Concer includes two r abduction: Ar combat the illicit transfer and non-r childr the Inter vations have been made to this pr opriate’ means of bringing this about. - - - eligious r in , and morality Adults often seek to justify traditional prac The specific r ge ticle 24.3 is significant because it is the ver en and adults, sometimes on a nationwide basis, raditional practices ried e now authoritative challenges to the neces fects – son pr eser equir en eligious practice (but within all r selves contribute to the cultural identity of chil dr r or r judicial to childr clearly r However practices that involve degr mental violence to childr first mention of the abolition of traditional prac T involving violence In many societies ther Ar tices in a binding inter whether or not har r and inter hencefor contrar given the ‘delicate’ natur Given the inter to be abolished, but only on what constitute ‘appr tices on the gr r ar sity risks of practices that involve some invasion of the child’ cial to the health of childr ing of the Convention, a deliberate decision was taken not to single out any specific practice, given the wide range that can have har a view to abolishing traditional practices pr ef tion, early mar comes in Ar “take all ef - - owing u n means oss der en, when e car ned childr e is a evalent. In etur . The defini med consent, e pr s business n and Far t’ en wer tner om the gr efuse to or s infor ce was used against eaties with similar n a child, in violation of Recognition of its e they have habitual etained (that is, in t may r e a family member took a obably mor 73 etur y to still-developing bodies es comes fr ovisions, in brief, enable -American Convention on m of violence. It is one that has efused consent. Thus, a char s rights of custody) between egional tr eement); between 3,200 and 4,600 e visible and, given moder e a final decision as to their tation, pr , most notably the 1980 Hague emoved or r tainly a for ental and other abduction of childr The definition of sexual abuse of The definition of sexual e various r otective measur en under the age of 16 who had been n countries. Its pr m, or has been over a year in the new envi out in 1988. These studies found 345,000 fam ily abductions (wher child, or failed to r a custody agr non-family abductions (for 87 per cent of the victims, involving a weapon in 75 per cent of cases); and 114,600 attempted non-family abductions. the United States, detailed National Incidence Studies of all abducted childr is cer Illicit transfer Par it occurs without the child’ become mor of transpor many societies covers any sexual activity with someone who is not legally competent to give consent, or has r of sexual abuse would apply even in cases when a a person below the age of consent appears willing or even an initiating par tion of criminal sexual activities also includes sexual activities at any age with close adult fam ily members – incest. The justification for these pr body of evidence that such activity can cause both physical injur and serious psychological damage. national Child Abduction. national law e can be made. A cour e ar ders, has led to specific developments in The Hague Convention is a global instr ongfully r evalence, both within countries and acr each of someone’ omptly to the place wher esidence, wher onment and is settled – but the cour pr bor inter Convention on the Civil Aspects of Inter ment. As of June 1997, 43 countries had ratified or acceded to the Convention, though ther significant absence of Middle Easter Easter Children and Violence childr wr br two Hague Convention countries to be r pr this if the child objects, or might be at grave risk of har is not to investigate the merits of the dispute itself. In addition to the Hague Convention, ther r futur Innocentir Digest 2 - aims, such as the Inter 8 The issues The issues lence by parents and others – ranging from ver- the effects on the child might better be termed on children. Research into violence within the bal abuse, sarcasm and belittling, through forms psychological. Article 19 also implies, in the family has highlighted the potentially adverse of humiliation, harassment and isolation not wording “all forms of physical or mental vio- psychological effects on children of witnessing involving physical violence. The Convention lence”, the need to consider not only the direct or hearing violence – both physical and mental uses the term “mental violence” in Article 19; but also the indirect effects of family violence – between their parents. ▼ EXTRAFAMILIAL VIOLENCE Extrafamilial violence is experienced from 5 per cent to more than 90 per cent, with The study provides a detailed analysis of the most dramatically by children caught women and children particularly targeted. direct and indirect effects of armed conflict on up in armed conflicts and by chil- Involving children as soldiers has been made children, and makes detailed recommendations dren living on the streets in poor easier by the proliferation of inexpensive light for the world community: “Children are both urban areas. Other forms of extra- weapons – guns so light that children can use our reason to struggle to eliminate the worst familial violence to children involve them and so simple that even a child as young as aspects of warfare, and our best hope for suc- 23 the ‘legalized’ use (or continued use ten can strip and reassemble them. ceeding at it.” despite prohibition) of violent and/or humiliating discipline or Direct and indirect effects of armed conflict on children: treatment in institutions, sexual Highlights of the Graça Machel Study exploitation, child pornography and Armed conflict affects all aspects of child development – physical, mental and emotional: physical violence in sport. Health and psychosocial well-being: “Thousands of children are killed every year as a direct result of fighting, from knife wounds, bullets, bombs and landmines, but many more die from malnutrition and disease caused or increased by armed conflicts. The interruption of food Children and armed conflict supplies, the destruction of food crops and agricultural infrastructures, the disintegration of The introduction to the United Nations study families and communities, the displacement of populations, the destruction of health services of the impact of armed conflict on children, led and programmes and of water and sanitation systems all take a heavy toll on children. Many die by Graça Machel, emphasizes that millions of as a direct result of diminished food intake that causes acute and severe malnutrition, while children are caught up in conflicts in which others, compromised by malnutrition, become unable to resist common childhood diseases and infections.” (para. 137) they are “not merely bystanders, but deliberate Refugees and internally displaced children: Of the estimated 27.4 million refugees targets”. They are “slaughtered, raped, and worldwide and the 30 million displaced people, at least half are children. “At a crucial and maimed . . . exploited as soldiers . . . starved vulnerable time in their lives, they have been brutally uprooted and exposed to danger and and exposed to extreme brutality”. Because of insecurity. In the course of displacement, millions of children have been separated from their the length of recent conflicts, many children families, physically abused, exploited and abducted into military groups, or they have perished have lived in the midst of “unregulated terror from hunger and disease.” (para. 66) and violence” their entire lives, experiencing Sexual exploitation and gender-based violence: “Rape poses a continual threat to “multiple and accumulative assaults”.22 women and girls during armed conflict, as do other forms of gender-based violence including The study, presented to the United Nations prostitution, sexual humiliation and mutilation, trafficking and domestic violence. While abuses General Assembly in 1996, estimates that in the such as murder and torture have long been denounced as war crimes, rape has been past decade two million children have been downplayed as an unfortunate but inevitable side effect of war.” (para. 91) killed in armed conflict. Three times as many Landmines and unexploded ordnance: “Anti-personnel mines are designed not to kill, but have been seriously injured or permanently dis- to maim, yet even the smallest mine explosion can be lethal for a child. . . . For the children who survive, the medical problems related to amputation are often severe, as the limb of a abled, many by landmines – children in at least growing child grows faster than the surrounding tissue and requires repeated amputation.” 68 countries live amid the contamination of

(para. 116) Innocenti Digest 2 - more than 110 million landmines. Countless Child soldiers: “The progressive involvement of youth in acts of extreme violence desensitizes others have been forced to witness horrifying them to suffering. In a number of cases, young people have been deliberately exposed to acts of violence – for example, a UNICEF survey horrific scenes. Such experience makes children more likely to commit violent acts themselves of more than 3,000 children in Rwanda in 1995 and may contribute to a break with society. In many countries, including Afghanistan, Children and Violence found that over 80 per cent had lost immediate Mozambique, Colombia and Nicaragua, children have even been forced to commit atrocities family members, and more than one third of against their own families or communities.” (para. 48) “Child soldiers may find it difficult to these had actually witnessed their murder. The disengage from the idea that violence is a legitimate means of achieving one’s aims. Even where study estimates that over recent decades the pro- the experience of participating in ‘the cause’ has been positive, the transition to a non-violent portion of war victims who are civilians has leapt lifestyle will be difficult.” (para. 57) 9 ------ed ed es ms ope, ts or otect nment equir ticle 19, ms of . . . t declar eatment or e thus out ocess under . But in June om “all for take to pr ecently those in ticle 34, which ning school dis en and their par ohibited in some uled in 1978 that ticle 19 r oughout Eur opean Convention, en fr equiring States to ting pr om “all for tain kinds of sexual t r mity with Ar t of Human Rights in ted education in 1987. epor evealed the continued en, r en fr ticle 34 emphasizes the ms of sexual exploitation e of cer oposed its abolition. It has ties to “under - opean Cour ticle 28.2 of the Convention on ticle 28.2 of the Convention ever the r e whipped each year ts in many countries also censur opriate om all for otect childr opean Cour ticle 3 of the Eur otection of childr ching of a juvenile (in the Isle of Man) g and the Human Rights Committee es States Par the inducement or coercion of a child to engage in any unlawful sexual activity; the exploitative use of children in prostitution or other unlawful sexual practices; ohibited physical punishment in the penal - eatment or exploitation, including sexual e ------national natur y - - e o eme cour eady been outlawed thr national, bilateral and multilateral measures to prevent: (a) The Eur (b) om der fenders wer eached Ar m to equir m of fend Sexual exploitation Under the Convention, Ar action to pr sized that Ar the Rights of the Child, concer the Convention has r existence of school corporal punishment, the Committee has pr alr in with the sole exception of private schools the United Kingdom. It is pr for other countries in all continents, including example China, Burkina Faso and Botswana, New Zealand, and half of the US states. exploitation of childr the child fr and sexual abuse”. Ar inter cipline, includes confor and the pr of physical or mental violence”. Physical pun ishment, and other humiliating punishments amounting to mental violence, ar lawed. Wher take all appr maltr abuse”. This is expanded in Ar r corporal punishment, including r Namibia, Zimbabwe, South Africa and Sri Lanka. In South Africa until 1993, up to 30,000 young of 1995, the new Constitutional Cour whipping unconstitutional, and the Gover has pr system and all schools. ents on school corporal punishment led to aboli tion in all state-suppor During the 1990s, constitutional cour supr Strasbour have also condemned the use of corporal punish ment. The Eur judicial bir br which bars “inhuman or degrading tr punishment”. Commission decisions on applica tions made by UK schoolchildr y police, in death efor eduction e, and so en and adolescents uits on the e a criminal ts for of emaining 63 ecr end of impunity e derived fr estraint, solitar en. . In others, the . Legal r 47 e, day car entis om exceptional. 48 om Guatemala, wher en must, of course, pr en and adolescents wer eet childr e closed befor , of 307 of these homicides om behind; in 29 cases victims in loco par y med in the law e (foster car en in all settings – in the home, in ogramme to assist the Guatemalan mal settings, in non-institutionalized of the homicides. A special commission of the of the homicides. A special commission of Brazilian Federal Parliament assigned to investi gate the killings of childr concluded that the involvement of state agents, especially the civil and militar squads was far fr ers’ legal rights to use physical and estriction or denial of contact with eatment of str ficial involvement in such homicides has eversed comes fr eet child, Nahamán Camona López, in e shot fr eatment of childr y inquir oved. Another positive sign is an NGO- mal’ systems of justice also involve cor ------e e of , - The Committee on the Rights of the Child ms of car e shot at point blank range. casm. In some legal systems, teachers’ and th), and in all schools and other institutions. A first sign that the general tr In 1991, 622 childr ried out in the course of a UNICEF/Public der iolence in institutions ohibit physical punishment and other humili tain eat iolence in institutions can take the for ocess could be initiated. In 42 cases the vic oper tr en: V V physical punishment, physical r independent authority of teachers and others outside the family to use such punishment is explicitly confir confinement and other types of isolation, obli gations to wear distinctive clothing, r of diet, r family members and/or friends, verbal abuse or sar other car other types of punishment ar their position pr ating tr tect all childr other infor for for has found that violent punishment – canings, beatings and floggings – is still in use in some countries as a sentence of the cour ers as young as 10, and is also used in penal institutions. In some communities ‘traditional’ or ‘infor poral punishment. The Committee has empha wer petrator was unknown, and the r per cent of cases wer pr tims wer found that in 37 per cent of the cases the per victims of homicide in São Paulo. An analysis, car Ministr can be r four policemen have been convicted for mur ing a str 1990. This is one of the few cases worldwide wher been pr initiated pr National Police in training new r pr en est and t under n about r ganiza en living vive, ar ge cities – esponsible y ar epor der of chil cement agen fice for Latin ed a total of eet childr eets. Many of y and UNICEF e common than , mur e also subject to en living and/or ficking and mur ding to UNICEF der to sur s initial r esponsible for most en and adolescents eets of lar ticular childr egister en in Colombia, par en and adolescents in ovided the following eet childr e r en and adolescents in esponsibility has been national attention. The ug dealers. oups, the National Police, essed grave concer ficial law enfor ee years (1988–1990), most eets, nor criminals or gang mation on those r ess, and many of them lived ed or victimized by both crimi e not childr en by strangers. But in cer e subject to arbitrar oups’ ar 66 en – in par der oups.” eatening situation faced by an e black. Accor ents is much mor ee independent Brazilian or en ar eceived inter , as discussed earlier y to popular belief many of the victims oups dedicated to ‘social cleansing’. en and adolescents in four Colombian e identified as dr e and other inhuman or degrading tr e for the whole of Colombia of not less mination gr mation on the homicide of str manent addr cion, disappearance, traf der of childr ming number of childr The Committee on the Rights of the Child, A UNICEF-financed study of homicides of tur The homicide of childr A study by the Public Ministr en by par ficial inquiries, has pr ganized criminal gr “the life-thr alar the Convention, expr those childr coer by criminal gr ticularly those who, in or working and/or living on the str tor ment by authorities. They ar and gr when examining Colombia’ cates cases in which r pinned on popular militias, juvenile gangs, or childr six cities found 1,678 victims during the first months of 1994. This suggests a total annual figur than 4,000. Infor for homicides is negligible, but the study indi and/or working on the str have been mur Homicide of str Generally dr mur cies. The UNICEF Regional Of America and the Caribbean, drawing on various of infor countries, childr nal gangs and by of working on the str members, but simply poor youth. A study issued by thr tions found that 38 per cent of the victims had a per contrar of homicide wer Brazil has r Brazilian Federal Police r over a period of thr of them boys between 15 and 17, of whom 82 per cent wer on homicides of childr 4,611 homicides of childr São Paulo indicated that individuals and/or ‘exter with their families; of 457 victims studied, only 13 wer

Innocenti Digest 2 - Children and Violence 10 The issues , ------no

. The Children and Violence

Innocenti Digest 2 - 11 fence. ticipant ticipants oblem of oduced legis nography ough books and ts). The issues elation to par oduction and dissemi continued on page 14 t – both by par gely but not exclusively nationally and nationally ts such as boxing in which oss-national police and cus y seriously the pr nography a criminal of ough computer disks and the ts Ethics’, which emphasizes the ohibit spor om the occasional accidental injuries as well as the pr ts bodies, inter t and violence ope Committee of Ministers has adopted a - - - - net) has led to cr - Sex tourism Spor n in many countries. In r eal owth of a worldwide market in child por en e now taking ver There has been a great deal of publicity and debate about the issue of child prostitution. It is acknowledged as a problem in both industrialized and developing countries. Particular outrage has been focused on revelations of ‘sex tourism’: the availability of child prostitutes has been advertised in the promotion of holidays for mostly Western tourists in various countries including the Philippines, India and Sri Lanka. Campaigns by international NGOs have led to a review of legislation in many countries to enable their nationals to be prosecuted in their own country for criminal sexual abuse of children committed in other countries. By 1995 more than 10 countries had enacted such laws, and there had been some prosecutions under them (for example a Swede was prosecuted in 1995 for sexual exploitation of a child in Thailand). The Committee has welcomed these reforms. In addition, the World Tourism Organization has adopted a “Statement on the Prevention of Organized Sex Tourism”, to mobilize the industry to be more sensitive to children’s interests, encouraging education, joint action and legal reform. teur oduc ar spectator violence – lar involving violence both to and by young people, almost invariably male. For example, the Council of Eur ‘Code of Spor gr graphy (disseminated not only thr magazines but thr Inter toms cooperation. The Committee on the Rights in of the Child has welcomed developments individual countries’ legislation to make the pos session, Spor Physical violence in spor and by spectators – has become an issue of con cer violence, some countries have intr lation to pr (as injuring an opponent is the deliberate aim distinct fr that occur in other ‘contact’ spor tion and dissemination of child por tion and dissemination nation, of child por espect end is eluctant omoted - - - - en. Since esponsible en, and par 70 ed vener e is national lev t under the ess against ounded in tra otocol to the om 12 to 16; n at traditional e often r Ther esentative stated gin cur oblem. epor 68 national tr vival and maximum epr ticular manifestations y small childr ess, with set goals and ostitutes in an ostitution law has raised en has been studying and orld Congr ogr esidents wer s initial r , including the development ticular concer 41 ed that belief, she would not national NGOs have pr ficult to eradicate.” ejuvenate oneself. During discus ests and sur eas, r ganized sexual abuse, is the pr s evolving capacities, and for his or ecently raised it fr e dif nography om 15 to 18). s new anti-pr cial Sexual Exploitation of Childr essed par ural ar oduct of sexual abuse of childr t cases of sexual abuse. In some parishes, ds a higher age of consent (for example, ting on aspects of the pr arious inter t the abuse. Such notions, gr oposal for an additional pr ------e being used as pr V y y epor In 1996, the W The commercial sexual exploitation of children is a fundamental violation of children’s rights. It comprises sexual abuse by the adult and remu neration in cash or kind to the child or a third person or persons. The child is treated as a sex ual object and as a commercial object. The com mercial sexual exploitation of children constitutes a form of coercion and violence against children, and amounts to forced labour and a contempor ary form of slavery. The Committee on the Rights of the Child e un ms ga ent ep fer epor ela epor Action at local, national and inter Child por A by-pr for the child’ her best inter development. The inter towar Sri Lanka r Thailand’ the age fr ticularly of or judged against the overall principles of r judged against the overall time-frames for implementation. Convention to cover par of sexual exploitation, including sex tourism. In addition, a United Nations Special Rappor on the Sale of Childr r els was called for by the year 2000 of national agendas for action and indicators of pr a pr each Commer held in Stockholm adopted a Declaration and Agenda for Action, using the Convention as its framework: dition, wer disease; that belief was sometimes r for the sexual abuse of ver the mother shar r has expr beliefs that lead to exploitation – for example, the belief that by having sex with a young girl, one is able to r sion of Jamaica’ Convention, a Jamaican r that “in r it was held that sex with a vir to r fer ust or tner is en but en ar elation - ticle on ticle 2 of mitted to 51 en – fr om countr s consent at 72 67 ential ages of ostitutes. also chilling evidence that younger and younger childr attempt to lessen the adults‘ risk of HIV/AIDS. e quite new – fence to have e per ently in br fer n technology to e the age dif , and other for ete examples. ooted in centuries- om exploitation, ences, like the ver e dif en ar e r tners is less than two osexuality and homo fer e appar e ar ences in the minimum e the younger par en fr . Such limits need to be s Criminal Code, which en in private or state-r escriptive about the age at nography fer e worker). One example is ticular sexual exploitation, riage, ar e the older youth is not in a om France and the Netherlands esidential institutions has been ust or authority over the younger ms of abuse ar om the bar on discrimination, the osexual activities, but at 18 to homo cial sexual exploitation including or y between 12 and 18 years. In some ecognizes a young person’ ed in many countries. In addition, . In the United Kingdom, for example, egulate the sexual life of childr oposed the inclusion of an ar ecent years, extensive sexual abuse of en in r the exploitative use of children in porno the exploitative use of graphic performances and materials. en on the basis of concr The age at which childr Some for Aside fr During the drafting of the Convention, r In some countries ther (c) In r ganized’ sexual abuse of childr ms of sexuality – heter otection of childr ovided by Canada’ esidential institutions – has been exposed, esentatives fr evealing networks of paedophiles. sex with someone under the age of 14 years, with an exception wher at least 12 years of age, wher specifies that “it is a criminal of who pr pr r r old traditional practices. Others ar for example, the use of moder nized sex tourism involving child pr ship is with a person in a position of tr including in par stated during discussion that the purpose was not to r legal age for mar the Convention. Convention is not pr which the child is to be given the right to con sent to sexual activity disseminate child por of commer consent to sexual activity varies fr to countr in countries a minimum age is specified, and addition a higher age when the sexual r authority over the child (for instance, a r of the non-discrimination principle in Ar tion, teacher or car pr ence between the two par years, and wher position of tr one, nor is the latter his or her dependant.” r for sexuality the law r 16 to heter sexual activities. These dif consent for girls and for boys, and for dif common gender dif quently using childr rather to combat the sexual exploitation of childr childr uncover ‘or Discussion site ▼ COMBATING VIOLENCE INVOLVING CHILDREN by Peter Newell Peter Newell launches here a discus- action internationally and nationally. In relation of any such forms of discipline or treatment sion on strategies for combating vio- to combating sexual exploitation of children, known to have been commonly used); lence involving children based on the the 1996 World Congress against Commercial ● requiring clear policies for the prevention of work of the UK Commission on Sexual Exploitation of Children agreed a any forms of violence by children against Children and Violence. Reactions to detailed agenda for action. children in institutions. this section as well as to other parts of Reviewing all forms of support and all ser- Reviewing the role of the media, seeking to the Digest will be reported in due vices for children and families from a specifi- ensure that the positive potential for aiding vio- course in an update to this publication. cally anti-violence perspective. Inequality, dis- lence prevention is fully realized, and that the As indicated throughout this Digest, the crimination and lack of appropriate support and portrayal of violent images does not contribute Convention on the Rights of the Child pro- services for children and families all increase to the problem of violence. All involved in the vides a framework of principles and standards the potential for violence. Thus, statewide pro- media accessible to children should commit for policy development to reduce all forms of grammes aimed at challenging inequality and themselves to working towards a non-violent violence involving children. Systematic pro- poverty, improving health and education ser- society, and should be aware of current know- grammes to reduce and prevent violence should vices and opportunities for children’s play and ledge of the effects of violent images on chil- be part of every State’s agenda for children. leisure, as well as family support including par- dren. Classification schemes and voluntary con- The overall aim must be to build a safe, non- enting education and information and pre- trols to limit gratuitous violent images and chil- violent society for all. But the focus is on chil- school care and education will all be relevant to dren’s access to them should be introduced or dren because there is solid evidence to show violence prevention. But their full potential will improved. Information on and packaging of pro- that early intervention is vital to prevent the only be realized when they are reviewed in grammes and material should enable children, development of violent attitudes and actions, in detail, focusing on what is being done, or could parents and other carers to exercise informed childhood and later life. be done, within each programme or service to It is crucial that strategies against violence prevent and combat violence by applying non- Preventive policies should be carefully planned and be positive. violent attitudes, aspirations and behaviour. in institutional settings Strategies and interventions can have unin- Legal reform to remove tolerance in the tended negative effects. For example, unrealistic law for any level of violence to children, Policies for the prevention of any forms fears of violence can lead to a fortress mentality, including physical punishment and deliberate of violence by children against children community distrust, and a reduction in children’s humiliation in the home and in institutions. in institutions should include: freedom and mobility that is certainly not in Reviewing law, policy and practice on pos- ● provision of immediate protection and their best interests. session of guns and other lethal weapons, to support to those who suffer violence; ● appropriate non-violent responses to reduce the risk and severity of injury. perpetrators of violence; Reform of juvenile justice systems in con- ● arrangements for ensuring that the Basic strategies formity with the Convention and United policy is known to all in the institution, Adoption of a commitment to building a non- Nations rules and guidelines, to ensure that including children, in a form they can violent society by government, communities, responses to violent behaviour contribute to understand; institutions, organizations. This demands: violence prevention, rather than to a further ● arrangements for monitoring and ● understanding and acknowledgement of the proliferation of violence. reviewing the operation of the policy, factors that interact to increase the potential Challenging violence to children in institu- which should include children; ● for violence involving children, and those tions. Article 3.3 of the Convention requires that ensuring there are clear and well-pub- licized procedures to enable children that prevent violence; “institutions, services and facilities responsible for to seek confidential advice, and to ● action to prevent violence in all services for the care and protection of children shall conform make representations and complaints and work with children and their families; with the standards established by competent about their treatment to an indepen- Innocenti Digest 2 - ● consistent disavowal, in particular by opinion authorities, particularly in the areas of safety, dent body, with appropriate powers leaders in every society, of all forms of inter- health, in the number and suitability of their staff of investigation and recommen- personal violence. as well as competent supervision”. In relation to dation/action. Such procedures should Development of coordinating intersectoral protection from violence, there should be clear ensure that, where necessary, children

Children and Violence and interdisciplinary structures at national, standards established in legislation for all institu- have access to independent advocates regional and local levels to implement the com- tional settings which include children: or representatives who can advise mitment in practice. In relation to armed con- ● prohibiting physical punishment and any them and/or act on their behalf; spe- flict, the recent major report prepared for the other inhuman or degrading treatment or cial arrangements may be required to safeguard disabled children and very United Nations on The Impact of Armed Conflict on punishment (in addition to this general pro- young children. 12 Children includes very detailed proposals for hibition, rules should specify the prohibition Discussion site control over viewing and listening. Appropriate (b) Child protection systems. Definitions of child (a) Criminal: Criminal statistics for violent media education should be encouraged, in abuse used in legislation and/or administration crimes against children, including homicide, schools and for the public. of child protection systems, including: various categories of physical and sexual Developing systems for information-gather- ● physical abuse; assault, cruelty and abduction. Such statis- ing and research on violence involving ● emotional abuse; tics should be centrally collected and children. Implementation of Article 19 and other ● sexual abuse; analysed by age and sex of victim, and linked articles on violence to children demands ● neglect. where appropriate by status of perpetrator. more consistent information-gathering, as a basis They should be presented also as a propor- for the development of law, policy and practice Details of child protection policy and proced- tion of the age group. to assert children’s rights to physical and ures, including: personal integrity and thus to help reduce and ● measures for prevention of all forms of vio- (b) Child protection: Statistics on causes of all prevent all forms of interpersonal violence. The lence in the family, in substitute care and in child deaths (this demands careful investi- following section summarizes the information, institutions; and for prevention of accidents, gation to identify causes and inform preven- statistics and research required. self-harm and suicide, and of sexual and other tion). Systematic injury surveillance of chil- forms of exploitation. dren within health services – doctors, other ● children’s access to confidential advice and health professionals, hospital outpatients Information-gathering counselling, for instance, through telephone and admissions. Police and social welfare on violence to children helplines; authorities’ statistics on reported cases of ● obligations, if any, to report violence to chil- violence and the results of investigations For adequate information to be provided on dren; following reports. Where local registers of levels of violence to children in all countries, ● obligations on state authorities to investigate; children ‘at risk’ of violence and/or abuse common definitions, research protocols and ● powers of investigation; are maintained, analysis of numbers and indicators of effective child protection need to ● emergency powers to remove a child at risk; proportion of relevant age group on regis- be developed and agreed by appropriate ● criteria for compulsory separation of a child; ters by cause (actual or suspected abuse; authorities in each country. The framework of ● judicial/court involvement, including any type of abuse), gender and age. the Convention should be used as the basis for special arrangements for courts hearing cases Returns from all institutions involving developing indicators. concerning violence to children (for exam- children (or a representative sample of differ- ple, arrangements for child witnesses); sen- ent categories of institutions – schools, child ❏ Information tencing policies and any arrangements for care, penal, health) of incidents of violence, For policy development, information is diversion from judicial process. including bullying and self-harm, based on required on: confidential interviewing of children. (a) Legal frameworks (criminal and family law): Arrangements to ensure respect for the ● law on assault: details of any exceptions or Convention’s principles in all the above and any ❏ Research defences related to violence to children, other child protection and court procedures: Retrospective studies of representative groups of including any rights of parents or others to ● the best interests principle (Article 3); adults’ childhood experiences of violence (using use violent or humiliating punishment, and ● right of child to express views and have them commonly agreed questions and definitions). differences in law between the protection taken seriously, and to be heard in any judicial available to adults and to children; any other or administrative proceedings (Article 12); Studies of levels of physical and sexual violence specific offences of violence to children – for ● respect for evolving capacities of children to children in representative samples of families, instance, cruelty; (Article 5); consideration of children’s right using in-depth confidential interviews with chil- ● legislation or other arrangements to prevent to make decisions for themselves, to consent dren and parents, also covering violence experi- violence to children in the penal system and or withhold consent to examinations, etc. enced in institutions and communities. in all institutions, both state-run and private, including violence by adults, and by other Arrangements for rehabilitation of victims and Analysis of calls relating to violence made to children; compensation (Article 39). any confidential helplines for children. ● legislation or other arrangements to prevent Arrangements for treatment and rehabilitation of or control traditional practices involving vio- perpetrators of violence to children (Article 19). In addition, there is a need for specific and lon- lence or prejudicial to health; gitudinal research studies, building on the sub- ● minimum age at which children are judged Prevention programmes aimed at encouraging stantial work already carried out in some coun- capable of consent to sexual activity; children to protect themselves from violence. tries, to: ● offences of sexual assault; ● seek information on factors involved in the Innocenti Digest 2 - ● legislation or other arrangements to prevent ❏ Statistics development of various forms of violence to or control child prostitution, abuse of chil- If common definitions and – as far as possible – children; dren in other jurisdictions by nationals (‘sex procedures can be established for the collection ● evaluate preventive strategies – including in

tourism’), and child pornography (produc- of statistics, building on those of WHO and particular children’s own views of profes- Children and Violence tion, dissemination and possession); other agencies, and on existing research and sta- sional and other interventions. There will ● any legislation or guidance relating to chil- tistics in individual countries, it will be possible to also need to be research to evaluate the col- dren’s rights to confidential advice, coun- make comparisons over time within and between lection of statistics – for instance, the process selling, treatment and compensation regard- countries. This will help with the evaluation and of recording deaths as homicide, and injuries ing violent victimization. development of prevention programmes. as abuse/assault. 13 The issues

continued from page 11 pressure children into following extremely rigor- been doped by trainers to enhance performance, responsibility of all concerned to work closely ous training regimes. Young sports protégés or forced to diet in order to qualify for matches. with and set a good example to children and become commodities, traded on national and For every child who becomes a champion, there young people. international markets. In the two years following are hundreds of children who have sacrificed Another kind of violence is endured by young the fall of the Berlin Wall, for instance, some 40 their childhoods and sometimes their health, athletes on the champion track. Driven by young soccer players aged 13–17 were ‘bought’ while receiving very little in return, frequently dreams of prestige and profit, trainers and parents by Western German clubs. Other children have not even a proper education. 9 ▼ PREVALENCE OF VIOLENCE BY CHILDREN

There is current concern in many soci- racial and sexual harassment) to serious physi- cent were victims and 7 per cent bullies. An eties worldwide at levels of violence by cal assault. More positively, non-violent con- anti-bullying policy introduced in Norway as a children and young people. In some soci- flict resolution has become a standard part of result is said to have reduced the incidence by eties it would appear that such waves of the curriculum of many school systems, up to 50 per cent. 30 concern are cyclical, rather than based on together with anti-bullying strategies devel- hard evidence of real increases. There is oped cooperatively by students, teachers and also the tendency of the media to focus parents. The Norwegian professor Dan Children’s self-inflicted on particularly horrific but isolated Olweus, for instance, carried out pioneering violence work in assessing the prevalence of school events, such as the Bulger case, rather Protecting children from self-inflicted violence, than on overall trends. bullying in Norway. Use of a questionnaire na- tionally revealed that about 15 per cent of including suicide and attempted suicide, comes pupils were involved in bully/victim problems within the ambit not only of Article 19 of the Violent crimes “now and then” or more frequently; about 9 per Convention on the Rights of the Child, but also Estimates of trends of serious violence by chil- dren and young people generally come from The James Bulger tragedy age-analysed statistics of convictions for violent One particular violent crime by young children in 1993 received worldwide media (including sexual) offences. But as with statistics attention: the tragic violent abduction and murder of two-year-old James Bulger in of violence to children, changes may reflect a Liverpool, United Kingdom, by two 10-year-old boys. At first the media spotlight focused greater sensitivity to violent offences, more on the details of the murder. But increasingly the spotlight, in the UK and elsewhere, has resources put into investigation, or varying pol- shifted to a more considered look at the antecedents of the event in the two boy- icies in relation to young offenders (for instance, murderers’ childhood, and at their treatment following arrest. The boys were held in the current move in some industrialized coun- separate locked units for six months before their trial, with no access to any form of tries away from informal, non-judicial responses treatment, in case it prejudiced their prosecution. They were tried in an adult court, as adults would have been tried, and at the end of the trial the judge, describing the boys’ towards more prosecution and more custodial action as “an act of unparalleled evil and barbarity”, sentenced them to be detained “at sentences). Her Majesty’s pleasure” (parlance for an indeterminate sentence of imprisonment under In a very few countries there have also been the English system) and revealed their identities. His recommendation that they should be large-scale crime surveys involving interviews locked up for a minimum of eight years was increased to 10 years by the Lord Chief with children and young people about their Justice, and to 15 years by the Home Secretary. criminal, including violent, behaviour, which are The murder was not in fact unparalleled; most countries report very rare but occasional likely to provide more accurate reflections of murders by children of children. Far more common in all societies, but receiving far less

Innocenti Digest 2 - reality, and if repeated over time, an indication attention, are horrific murders of children by their parents. of real trends in behaviour. The method of setting the sentence and the manner of the boys’ trial are currently Some countries report increased concern being challenged in the UK courts and before the European Commission of Human over violence by children in schools and other Rights. In June 1997, England’s highest court, the House of Lords, judged the method of sentencing by the Home Secretary to have been unlawful. Such treatment of children Children and Violence institutions, including suggestions that more children are carrying weapons – guns and clearly breaches the principles and standards of the Convention. Research evidence also knives. In various parts of the United States, suggests strongly that it conflicts with the interests of the society into which the boys will schools have installed metal detectors, and eventually be reintegrated. It is interesting to note that in France, also in 1993, judges security guards patrol buildings. One aspect of determining the sentences of young murderers gave priority to care within the family, the problem is bullying, which can range from allowing three young children found guilty of the brutal murder of a tramp to remain with their families instead of being institutionalized. 69 14 teasing and harassment (commonly including The issues of Article 6, the right to life. Increases in the sui- protection of children from drug abuse (Article occur mostly among young women during ado- cide rate, in particular among young men, have 33). Research has found particular links lescent development. They are disorders of been reported in recent years from most indus- between suicide and the use by young people affluence, plenty and economic development, trialized countries. Another cause of concern in of narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances, much more common in advanced industrialized certain countries has been a high rate of self- including alcohol. nations. The “thin body ideal of feminine harm and suicide in institutions, including, in Eating disorders and disturbances (anorexia beauty, established continuously since around particular, custodial penal institutions for juve- nervosa and bulimia nervosa) represent another 1960, seems an important predisposing condi- nile offenders. There have been suggestions that form of self-harm. Eating disorders only tion for eating disorders”; media dissemination suicide by young people is underrecorded in became a subject of major systematic study in of the ‘ideal’, and greater exposure to the media some countries, presumably to avoid causing the 1970s. A recent review of international could have caused an increase in eating disor- pain and embarrassment to parents and others. research concluded that there was no clear evi- ders, but no research has yet demonstrated a Protection from self-harm overlaps with dence of increased prevalence. These disorders causal relationship. 14 ▼ WHY DO CHILDREN BECOME VIOLENT?

The idea that some children are born ‘bad’ and destined to be violent sur- The antecedents of violence vives, and it underlies punitive – and A detailed US study found that being abused or neglected as a child increased the frequently violent – responses to likelihood of arrest as a juvenile by 53 per cent, as an adult by 38 per cent, and for a children’s behaviour in many soci- violent crime by 38 per cent. 37 eties. Available research on child A recent review of the backgrounds of a large sample of children who have killed or committed other grave (usually violent) crimes in the United Kingdom found that 72 per development, however, provides no cent had experienced abuse, and 57 per cent significant loss (death or loss of contact support for such negative theories. with someone important); 35 per cent had experienced both phenomena, and a total of Children’s violent behaviour often 91 per cent had experienced one or both (see the chart). The report emphasizes that has its origin in adult violence to “Not all children who experience these phenomena become violent offenders, and not all violent offenders have suffered these traumata. However the frequency is sufficiently high children, usually in the home. 5 to make the pattern worthy of some attention and to ask how it can be avoided.” Background of serious child offenders in the UK The cycle of violence The ‘cycle of violence’ is certainly not a simple concept, nor is it clearly understood. There is 35 no doubt that the direct experience of violence 57 (or neglect) in childhood substantially increases the risk of subsequent violent behav- 72 iour. But the majority of such victimized chil- 91 dren do not become violent. Given the multiplicity of factors involved, 0 20 40 60 80 100 studies of the antecedents of violence cannot Both abuse and loss Significant loss Abuse One or both identify causes beyond doubt. Even in the case of alcohol and other substance abuse, where for violence are the same as for delinquency. There is no clear evidence of genetic the connection with aggressive or violent But substantial research evidence has high- causation of violence, but one factor in a pre- behaviour may appear obvious, simple causal lighted violent and humiliating forms of disci- disposition to violence may be an individual’s Innocenti Digest 2 - links are difficult to establish. Research can, pline as significant in the development of vio- temperament. Genetic and social influences are however, identify risk factors and make judg- lent attitudes and actions from an early age. inextricably intertwined. From the earliest age, ments about the relative significance of particu- Violence is overwhelmingly a male problem; how a child behaves will determine his or her

lar factors. All commentators appear agreed the roots for this appear to be primarily social relationships with others and how he or she is Children and Violence that it is in the early years, and in particular rather than biological, highlighting the inade- treated, by parents and siblings, by other chil- within the family, that attitudes to violence are quacies of current socialization of male chil- dren, by other carers and teachers. While generally formed. The best predictor of vio- dren, and the promotion of insensitive and acknowledging that “biological and personality lence in adulthood is violent behaviour in overbearing male behavioural models and atti- factors may predispose individuals to violence”, childhood. Most of the risk factors identified tudes in many societies. the Australian National Committee on 15 The issues

Violence cited “strong evidence” that “in almost media – in particular on television, in videos media readily available to the population, every case a loving and secure environment can and most recently computer-generated including children. This emphasizes the protect- overcome such predispositions”.45 images – may have on children. The concerns ive role of parents and other carers. There is Inadequate monitoring and supervision of are both that frequent exposure to such common agreement that children and their par- children by parents and other adults can images may desensitize children to violence ents and other carers need to be educated in crit- be crucial in realizing a potential for violence. and that children may be encouraged to imi- ical understanding of modern media. Those The American Psychological Association tate particular violent behaviour. involved in the media need to ensure that they Commission on Violence and Youth found that A recent American review of available act responsibly, and that the content of their “youth at risk of becoming extremely aggressive research, covering 188 studies over the period products and programmes is clearly labelled to and violent tend to share common experiences 1957–1990, concluded: “Overall, the vast major- enable parents to exercise appropriate guidance that appear to place them on a ‘trajectory ity of studies, whatever their methodology, and direction to their children. towards violence’. These youth tend to have showed that exposure to television violence In countries where there is a high sensitivity experienced weak bonding to caretakers in to violence, these considerations have led to a infancy and ineffective parenting techniques, resulted in increased aggressive behaviour, both 34 combination of state regulation (codes for broad- including lack of supervision, inconsistent dis- contemporaneously and over time.” But it casters and others requiring precise labelling and cipline, highly punitive or abusive treatment should be emphasized that these findings are warnings of the violent content of products/pro- and failure to reinforce positive, pro-social challenged by other academics who point to grammes, age-related classification of videos, behaviour. These developmental deficits, in flaws in the research, inadequate analysis of the defined times for the transmission of ‘adult’ pro- turn, appear to lead to poor peer relations and context of violence in television and films, and grammes, complaints systems and enforcement high levels of aggressiveness. . .” 1 the lack of acknowledgement that very often pro- Economic and environmental deprivations social, anti-violence messages prevail; there are procedures), voluntary controls by the private are powerful stress factors, in particular making also studies that, through direct interviews with sector, and media education in schools and for it more difficult to be an effective parent. children, challenge the idea that children are the public, including in particular parents. Crude international comparisons suggest that particularly vulnerable to the effects of the media. ‘Aggressive toys’ (defined as toys whose pur- violence is greatest in societies with the In addition to Article 19, the Convention pose is to stimulate behaviour or fantasy involv- sharpest social and economic inequalities. A requires States in Article 17 to “encourage the ing the attempted injury of another person) recent WHO report commented: development of appropriate guidelines for the raise similar concerns to violent images in the We are only beginning to understand how marked protection of the child from information and media: they may reflect and contribute to an social and economic disparities contribute to the material injurious to his or her well-being, bear- overall desensitization of children to violence, and they may inhibit more pro-social and non- aetiology of violence. Poverty, joblessness and the ing in mind the provisions of Articles 13 and violent play. In Sweden the production of war lack of real employment opportunities may pro- 18”. Guidelines must be developed in forms toys has been banned; Spain and Germany do mote violence by generating a sense of frustration, that respect the child’s right to freedom of not allow them to be advertised. A 1982 resolu- low self-esteem, hopelessness about the future, and expression (Article 13), and the primary tion of the European Parliament called on family instability. Racism and sexism produce responsibility of the parents for the upbringing social and economic disparities and may con- Member States to ban visual and verbal adver- and development of the child (Article 18). The tribute to violence by depriving certain segments of tising of war toys, and also the manufacture and overall emphasis of Article 17 is on encourag- the society of the opportunities to be successful in where possible sale of replica guns and rifles; ing the mass media to develop their pro-social school and work. The poor in many societies do the production or sale of war toys should be potential for child development. not have equal access to criminal justice, health progressively reduced; and these toys replaced The United Nations Guidelines for the care and educational systems, making it more dif- with toys that are constructive and that Prevention of Juvenile Delinquency also ficult to escape from the impoverished conditions develop creativity. 54 43 emphasize the “extensive social role and that contribute to violence. The debate on the significance of media Broader social factors are influential too: the responsibility” of the mass media: violence and aggressive toys as factors in the extent to which a society appears to condone The mass media generally, and the television and development of violent attitudes and actions is violence influences the values and the actions of film media in particular, should be encouraged to an important one, but it should not be allowed individuals. In many societies, for example, minimize the level of pornography, drugs and to divert attention from the actual experience there is support for violent punishment of chil- violence portrayed and to display violence and

Innocenti Digest 2 - of violence by children at the hands of adults – dren, ambivalence about violence in sport, and a exploitation disfavourably, as well as to avoid and its potent effects on their development. considerable appetite for violent images in the demeaning and degrading presentations, espe- ■ media. cially of children, women and interpersonal rela- tions, and to promote egalitarian principles and Children and Violence roles. (para. 43) Violent images and toys Modern technological developments, includ- Concern at levels of interpersonal violence in ing satellite and cable television, computer-gen- Western societies has led to a current focus erated images and the Internet, make it increas- 16 on the effects that violent images in the ingly difficult for States to control the content of Links

arious intergovernmental organiza- to provide signposts in a highly complex tions are concerned with aspects of field. Some Internet information has also ON THE WEB: General organizations United Nations High Commissioner for Vviolence involving children. been included, which reflects websites Human Rights: Contains database of UNICEF, the World Health Organization available in June 1997; this information, of documents (State Party Reports, Concluding (WHO), the Office of the United Nations course, is subject to change. Observations, Summary Reports, etc.) relating High Commissioner for Refugees to the Committee on the Rights of the Child as (UNHCR), for example, all contributed to GENERAL well as to other treaty bodies. http://www.unhchr.ch the United Nations study on the Impact of Child Rights Information Network (CRIN) Armed Conflict on Children, led by Graça An important entry point to NGOs at the Child Rights Information Network: Includes Machel. UNICEF has an established policy national level is the Child Rights Information general information on its members and their Network (CRIN), which has an organizations projects and publications. Database of more for action on behalf of children in need of database and membership directory, covering than 500 CRIN members can be searched by special protection measures, which is all aspects of children’s rights. Entries can be topic and regional or country focus. grounded in the Convention on the Rights sorted by expertise and by geographical area. http://www.childhub.ch/webpub/crhome of the Child and which will be imple- mented in part through the establishment Becky Purbrick Coordinator of specific country, regional and global Tel.: +33 1 44 30 20 00 c/o Save the Children Fax: +33 1 45 25 73 67 technical support networks. The 17 Grove Lane E-mail: [email protected] Programme Division of UNICEF New York London SE5 8RD has a Child Protection Section, which United Kingdom CHILD ABUSE includes a focus on street children. WHO Tel.: +44 171 703 5400 AND NEGLECT has recently established a Task Force on Fax: +44 171 793 7630 African Network for the Prevention and E-mail: [email protected] Violence and Health and is considering Protection against Child Abuse and Neglect Web page: (ANPPCAN) proposals for making violence prevention http://www.childhub.ch/webpub/crhome a public health priority. The International Regional Office P.O. Box 71420 Labour Organisation (ILO) has conducted Forum on Children and Violence Nairobi studies on street children and sexual The Forum on Children and Violence provides Kenya exploitation in connection with its a new and innovative model of a national organization aiming to deal holistically with the Tel.: +254 2 72 24 96/72 67 94 International Programme on the subject of violence and children. Established in Fax: +254 2 72 19 99 Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC). The 1997 by the UK Commission on Children and E-mail: [email protected] United Nations Educational, Scientific and Violence, the Forum brings together a wide Web page: Cultural Organization (UNESCO) held a range of people committed to working towards http://www.africaonline.co.ke/anppcan a non-violent society through prevention of Person(s) to contact conference on ‘Young People and the Ouko Ooko Moses Media’ in April 1997, in which the problem violence involving children. The Forum has a newsletter and is compiling checklists on Documentalist of violence figured prominently. The violence prevention. It is included here as a Scope United Nations Interregional Crime and model for national-level organizations Benin, Cameroon, Ethiopia, Kenya, Lesotho, Justice Research Institute (UNICRI) in interested in providing a forum on the different Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa, Rome has directed attention to violence in aspects of children and violence. Sudan, Tanzania, Tunisia, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe the family (see Bibliography). Janet Convery Activities Similarly, there are international and c/o National Children’s Bureau Undertakes activities related to child abuse national professional organizations – par- 8 Wakley Street and neglect in general, and youth and ticularly in the fields of law, social work, London EC1V 7QE violence. health, education and psychology – as well United Kingdom Information services as academic and other institutes, whose Tel.: +44 171 843 6309 Provides information on how and where Fax: +44 171 278 9512 abused children can be assisted; on children’s work is relevant to the topic. In addition, rights and child protection; on children’s rights several countries have one or more International Centre for Childhood organizations in Africa; and on African States national bodies focused exclusively on the and the Family (ICCAF) Parties to both the CRC and the African Charter prevention of child abuse and neglect. A third organization with a general focus, on the Rights and Welfare of the Child. Considering the significant role that including activities relating to violence, is the NGOs have played in raising some of the International Centre for Childhood and the Child VIP Project (Violence Identification Family (ICCAF), recently formed through the and Prevention) issues highlighted in this Digest, the merger of the International Children’s Centre 1325 Fourth Avenue, Suite 1500 Centre decided that it would be appropri- and the Institute of the Child and the Family. Seattle, WA 98111-3846 Innocenti Digest 2 - ate to bring their activities into focus. It ICCAF is dedicated to children’s health, USA therefore contacted a number of organiza- protection and rights worldwide through Tel.: + 1 206 292 1144 tions, mainly at the regional and interna- information, training and consulting E-mail: [email protected] or programmes.

[email protected] Children and Violence tional levels, requesting them to provide Dr. Olivier Brasseur information about their work. The follow- Web page: http://www.speakeasy.org/childvip Director-General Person(s) to contact ing section contains their replies. It is not Carrefour de Longchamp Dianne Riter meant to be a comprehensive listing; nor Bois de Boulogne Coordinator does it represent a prioritization or ranking 75016 Paris Date founded of organizations, but merely a first attempt France 1995 17 Links

Scope E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] International Web page: Person(s) to contact Activities http://child.cornell.edu/ispcan/ispcan.html Eylah Kadjar-Hamouda Develops protocols for the identification, Person(s) to contact Representative to the United Nations assessment, diagnosis and prevention of Kimberly Svevo Date founded violence to children on topics including: Staff Director 1966 physical trauma, sexual trauma, psychological Howard B. Levy, M.D. Scope trauma, armed conflict and inappropriate President Affiliated offices in Germany, France, child labour; develops effective methods for E-mail: [email protected] Luxembourg and the Netherlands, working reporting identified traumas. Date founded with partners in 55 countries of Africa, Asia Information services 1977 and Latin America Maintains a web site with copies of protocols; Scope Activities publishes a Taxonomy of Trauma. Worldwide network Carries out projects with children affected by Activities armed conflict and undertakes advocacy at Fundación para la Protección de la Infancia Carries out work to prevent abuse, neglect, national and international levels. Participates Dañada por los Estados de Emergencia exploitation and all other forms of cruelty to in the international campaign to ban (PIDEE-CEDIAL) children, and to promote children’s healthy landmines. Av. Holanda 3587 Information services Casilla 599-11 physical and social development. Emphasis is on increasing international collaboration. Provides publications, contacts with different Santiago members of IFTDH network, and information Chile Information services Publishes research journals, an international on projects and best practice. Tel.: + 562 225 8752 newsletter (in English and Spanish), special Fax: idem Quaker United Nations Office – Geneva reports and books of abstracts; organizes E-mail: [email protected] Quaker House congresses, conferences, training seminars Web page: http://www2.chilenet.cl/pidee Avenue du Mervelet 13 and workshops. Person(s) to contact 1209 Geneva María Eugenía Rojas Switzerland Executive Secretary CHILDREN AND ARMED CONFLICTS Tel.: + 41 22 748 4800 Date founded Fax: + 41 22 748 4819 1980 ANPPCAN E-mail: [email protected] (Full contact details under Child abuse and Scope Web site: http://geneva- neglect) Latin America international.org/GvaIntl/gi/egi/egi099.htm Activities Activities Person(s) to contact Undertakes activities related to children in Provides psychosocial assistance to children at Rachel Brett situations of armed conflict, and refugees and risk; runs a Documentation Centre on Infancy Associate Representatitive in Latin America (CEDIAL). displaced children. Information services Issues a bulletin on childhood and children’s Child VIP Project ON THE WEB: Children and armed rights in Latin America; broadcasts a (Full contact details under Child abuse and conflicts programme entitled “Children’s Rights: neglect) Children of War: A newsletter on child soldiers Dreams and Realities”. Activities from Rädda Barnen. Develops protocols related to trauma as a http://www.rb.se/chilwar The International Society for the result of armed conflict. Impact of Armed Conflict on Children: Full text Prevention of Child Abuse and Neglect of the official report of Graça Machel, Expert of (ISPCAN) International Catholic Child Bureau the Secretary-General of the United Nations. 401 N. Michigan St., Suite 2200 (Full contact details under Sexual abuse and http://www.unicef.org/graca Chicago, IL 60611 exploitation) International Committee of the Red Cross USA Activities (ICRC): Reports on operations by countries, Tel.: +1 312 644 6610 ext. 4713 Carries out research on psychosocial needs of issues and topics, including children and war Fax: +1 312 321 6869 child soldiers; runs a pilot project with Liberian and protection of children in humanitarian refugees in the Ivory Coast to rebuild law. Also list of ICRC publications. ON THE WEB: Child abuse and neglect community strengths; and is planning a http://www.icrc.ch project to enhance local capacities in post- African Network for the Prevention Quaker United Nations Office: conflict situations (Sierra Leone, Liberia). and Protection against Child Abuse and http://geneva-international.org/ Neglect (ANPPCAN): Information services GvaIntl/gi/egi/egi099.htm http://www.africaonline.co.ke/anppcan Publications on child soldiers, recovery programmes for children and families, Relief Web: a project of the United Nations

Innocenti Digest 2 - Child VIP: Information on physical and other reintegration of young ex-combatants into Department of Humanitarian Affairs. Updated kinds of trauma. information on disaster situations. More than http://www.speakeasy.org/childvip civilian life, psychological needs of refugee children. 800 links to country and regional information. Fundación de Protección a la Infancia http://www.reliefweb.int Dañada (PIDEE-CEDIAL) por los Estados International Federation Terre des Hommes Office of the United Nations High Children and Violence de Emergencia: (IFTDH) Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR): Includes http://www2.chilenet.cl/pidee 31, chemin Frank-Tomas background papers on refugees and asylum International Society for Prevention of Child CH-1208 Geneva seekers from different countries; Human Rights Abuse and Neglect (ISPCAN): International Switzerland Watch analyses; and bibliographic information. Journal and Newletter. Tel.: +41 22 736 33 72 http://www.unhcr.ch 18 http://child.cornell.edu/ispcan/ispcan.html Fax: +41 22 736 15 10 Links

Date founded Liaison Office ILLICIT TRANSFER 1948 147 rue de Lausanne International Social Service (ISS) Scope CH-1202 Geneva 32 quai du Seujet International Switzerland 1201 Geneva Activities Tel.: +41 22 31 24 20/732 0821 Switzerland Carries out work at international/United Fax: +41 22 738 18 23 Tel.: +22 731 7454/55 Nations level on child soldiers – raising age for E-mail: [email protected] Fax: +22 738 0949 recruitment/participation in hostilities and Person(s) to contact E-mail: [email protected] raising international awareness about child Headquarters Person(s) to contact soldiers. Elizabeth Alabi Chantal Saclier Information services Senior Programme Officer International Programmes Director Provides information on United Nations Liaison Office Date founded activities on child soldiers, in particular on the 1924 Berhane Ras-Work (Ms.) draft optional protocol to the Convention on Scope President (Headquarters) the Rights of the Child on the involvement of Branches and affiliated offices: Argentina, Date founded children in armed conflict and on the United Australia, Canada, Finland, France, 1984 Nations study on Impact of Armed Conflict on Germany, Greece, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Scope Children. Netherlands, Philippines, Portugal, Spain, 25 African countries, as well as France, Switzerland, UK, USA, Venezuela. Sweden and the United Kingdom Rädda Barnen Correspondents in 80 countries. (Swedish Save the Children) Activities Activities Combats harmful traditional practices such as Torsgatan 4 Provides social services (to the general public) female genital mutilation, early marriage and SE-107 88 relating to illicit transfer; intrafamilial nutritional taboos, and promotes positive abduction; and intercounty adoption and illicit Stockholm practices such as breastfeeding and child transfer and abuses/trafficking/sale/abduction. Sweden spacing. Information services Tel.: +468 698 90 00 Information services For organizations and professionals involved Fax: +46 8 698 90 13 Provides information materials, leaflets, in the protection of children’s rights (but not Web page: http://www.rb.se videos, newsletters, educational materials, open to the general public): provides Person(s) to contact reports of conferences and research studies. information and networking on violence in Carl von Essen intercountry adoption. Expert in children in armed conflict WOMANKIND Worldwide E-mail: [email protected] 3 Albion Place, Galena Rd. PHYSICAL PUNISHMENT Date founded London W6 OLT EPOCH-Worldwide 1919 United Kingdom (End Physical Punishment of Children) 77 Holloway Road Scope Tel.: +44 181 563 8607/8 London N7 8JZ Bangladesh, El Salvador, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Fax: +44 181 563 8611 United Kingdom Guatemala, Guinea Bissau, Kenya, E-mail: [email protected] Nicaragua, Pakistan, Peru, South Africa, Web page: Tel.: +44 171 700 0627 Sudan, Vietnam and Yemen http://www.oneworld.org/womankind Fax: +44 171 700 1105 Activities Person(s) to contact E-mail: [email protected] In this area, carries out activities related to Simona Malambri Person(s) to contact Peter Newell protecting the rights of children affected by Information Officer armed conflict: refugees; children displaced Coordinator Trudi Harris within their own countries; child soldiers; and Date founded Fundraising and Communications children who have lost contact with their 1990 Coordinator families. Work focuses on protection, rights to Scope Date founded International network of over 70 organizations; rehabilitation, psychosocial health, education 1989 members in 40 countries in all continents and reintegration. Scope Activities Information services Brazil, Ghana, India, Nicaragua and Peru Lobbies governments and organizations nationally Provides searches in a number of Activities and internationally to encourage education and bibliographic databases. Particular focus on Carries out projects to combat female genital legal reform to end physical punishment of collecting information in the area of child mutilation. children; maintains database of relevant solders. Its home page at http://www.rb.se is Information services information; acts as an information network. an important source of information. Provides project profiles, statistics on countries Information services where IAC has projects, statistics and general Publishes handbooks and materials on HARMFUL TRADITIONAL positive non-violent discipline. information on women’s issues. Innocenti Digest 2 - PRACTICES Inter-African Committee (IAC) SEXUAL ABUSE ON THE WEB: Harmful traditional practices AND EXPLOITATION Headquarters Inter-African Committee on Traditional AND EXPLOITATION c/o Economic Commission for Africa/ACW Practices Affecting the Health of Women and ECPAT

P.O. Box 3001 Children (IAC): (End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography Children and Violence Addis Ababa http://www.who.ch/programmes/ina/ngo/ and the Trafficking of Children for Sexual Ethiopia ngo-14.htm Purposes) ECPAT Information Centre Tel.: +25 11 51 72 00/51 57 93 Womankind Worldwide: Information page. 328, Phyathai Road Fax: +25 11 51 46 82 http://www.oneworld.org/womankind/ Bangkok 10400 E-mail: [email protected] wk_info.html Thailand 19 Links

Tel.: +66 2 2153388/6110972/6110973 Activities STREET CHILDREN Fax: +66 2 2158272 A regional Latin American programme in ANPPCAN E-mail: [email protected] eight countries aims to strengthen local (Full contact details under Child abuse and Person(s) to contact resources to address the issue of sexual abuse neglect) Hervé Berger and exploitation; a preventive programme in Executive Director Northern Thailand seeks to strengthen Date founded community resilience to the sale of children for Casa Alianza/Covenant House Latin America 1991 prostitution. Also maintains a programme with Mailing address only (the regional office is Scope young girls in Togo and plans to develop a located in Costa Rica): Australia, Austria, Bangladesh, Belgium, follow-up project to the Stockholm Congress to SJO 1039 Brazil, Cambodia, Canada, Denmark, France, review preventive and rehabilitation PO Box 025216 Finland, Germany, India, Italy, Japan, strategies for child victims of sexual Miami FL 33102-5216 Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, exploitation. USA Philippines, Spain, Sri Lanka, Sweden, Information services Tel. (in Costa Rica): +506 253 5439 Switzerland, Taiwan, Thailand, United Provides publications upon request Fax (in Costa Rica): +506 224 5689 Kingdom, Viet Nam concerning approaches to prevention and Activities psychosocial recovery of child victims of E-mail: [email protected] Motivates local communities to find strategies commercial sexual exploitation. Web page: http://www.casa-alianza.org that will protect children; works closely with Person(s) to contact NGOs, UNICEF, ILO and other individuals and WAO–Afrique Bruce Harris groups; monitors the activities of sex abusers, (Action to Stop Child Exploitation) Executive Director, Latin American Programs child traffickers and sex tourists; involves 45, rue du Séminaire Date founded young people themselves in seeking solutions B.P. 80242 1981 to commercial sexual abuse; seeks ways to Lomé Scope control the flow of child pornography in shops Togo Costa Rica, Mexico, Guatemala, Honduras and on the Internet; provides expert advice to Tel.: + 228 21 41 13 Activities governments on changes in law needed to Fax: + 228 21 73 45 Runs legal aid offices in Mexico, Guatemala protect children; works closely with Interpol Person(s) to contact and local law enforcers to ensure laws are and Honduras whose functions include Cléophas K. Mally personal documentation for street children implemented; assists the tourism industry in its Director (birth certificates, credentials); legal defence of campaign to end sex tourism. Initiated the 1996 Date founded child victims of human rights abuses; World Congress Against the Commercial 1990 Sexual Exploitation of Children held in Scope prosecution of perpetrators of violence against Stockholm, Sweden. Bénin, Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Niger, Senegal, street children; and awareness-raising Information services Togo through the mass media. The agency has a Issues a quarterly newsletter, a monthly Activities ‘Rapid Response’ e-mail network, open to the bulletin of news clippings and articles, a Conducts studies on child domestics, children public, whose several thousand members monthly ‘Global Updates’ summary of key in bondage and trafficking of children; receive updates on incidents of violence activities undertaken by governments and provides literacy and vocational training for NGOs against the sexual abuse of children. towards street children, and respond via child victims; carries out advocacy and lobbies e-mail to government officials and the media, governments to make legislative changes and thus creating strong international pressure for Human Rights Watch – Children’s Rights to adopt protective policies towards vulnerable Project change. groups of children. (Full contact details under Street children) Information services Information services Activities Maintains home page, which is continually Maintains a children’s rights documentation Undertakes studies on trafficking and sexual centre, which is open to the public and offers updated and receives an average of 2,000 exploitation of girls and women visitors per month; responds to questions from (Burma/Thailand, Nepal/India). information on children’s rights in general and on specific cases of violence towards children the public; provides support to organizations (child domestics, trafficking of children, involved in the legal defence of street children. International Catholic Child Bureau contemporary forms of slavery). Also can Bureau International Catholique de l’Enfance make available photos, and interviews of ChildHope UK (BICE) children on cassette. 40 Rosebery Avenue 63 rue de Lausanne London EC1R 4RN 1202 Geneva United Kingdom Switzerland ON THE WEB: Sexual abuse and exploitation Tel.: +44 171 833 0868 Innocenti Digest 2 - Tel.: +41 22 731 3248 ECPAT International: news, country reports Fax: +44 171 833 2500 Fax: +41 22 731 7793 and publications on aspects of child E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected] prostitution, child pornography and the Person(s) to contact trafficking of children for sexual purposes. Contact Florence Crampe http://www.rb.se/ecpat Nicolas Fenton Children and Violence Date founded World Congress against Commercial Sexual Director 1948 Exploitation of Children: Factsheets, theme Scope Scope papers, Declaration, links, press materials and Affiliated offices in Brazil, Guatemala, Congress reports resulting from Congress held Affiliated offices in Austria, Belgium, France, Philippines and USA. Partner projects in in Stockholm, Sweden, in 1996. Albania, Brazil, Bulgaria, Philippines, Germany, Italy, Ivory Coast, Philippines, http://www.childhub.ch/webpub/csechome 20 Uruguay, USA Romania, South Africa, Turkey Links

Activities New York, NY 10017-6104 Date founded Undertakes projects on behalf of street USA 1987 children and Roma children (Central and Tel.: + 1 212 972 8405 ext. 252 Scope Eastern Europe). Fax: + 1 212 972 0905 Donor Country Organizations in Australia, Information services E-mail: [email protected] Belgium, Canada, France, Germany, Japan, Republic of Korea, Netherlands, Norway, Provides general background information, Person(s) to contact United Kingdom, USA; Regional country fact sheets, project profiles; facilitates Lois Whitman Program Offices in Eastern and Southern contacts at NGO and local community levels. Director Africa, the Caribbean and Central America, Date founded Consortium for Street Children UK South Asia, South America, Southeast Asia, 1994 4 Bath Place West Africa; 40 Country Program Offices in Rivington St. Scope these regions. London EC2A 3DR Brazil, Bulgaria, Burma, China, Colombia, Activities Guatemala, India, Jamaica, Kenya, Liberia, Tel.: +44 171 739 7917 Carries out work on the rights of street Mexico, Nepal, Pakistan, Romania, Sudan, Fax: idem children. Turkey, UK, USA E-mail: [email protected] Information services Activities Person(s) to contact Provides information on Plan’s work and Engages in monitoring and advocacy Anita Schrader copies of publications. activities relating to street children. Director Information services Date founded WOMANKIND Worldwide Publications related to the violation of 1992 (Full contact details under Harmful traditional children’s rights in general; specific studies on Scope practices) violence to street children, including their Developing world, Eastern Europe Activities arbitrary and illegal detention, torture, Activities Undertakes projects related to street girls extortion and murder. An association of NGOs; provides advocacy, research and support to campaigning for children living and working on the street. Plan International ON THE WEB: Street children Headquarters Information services Casa Alianza – Covenant House Latin America: Through its extensive network has access to a Chobham House http://www.casa-alianza.org Christchurch Way wide range of experience and information on European Network on Street Children street and working children. Provides briefing Woking Surrey GU21 1JG Worldwide (ENSCW): and support in identifying information and http://www.knooppunt.be/~enscw/intro.html contacts. From late 1997/early 1998, will make United Kingdom available a comprehensive legal handbook on Tel.: +44 1483 755155 International Labour Organisation (ILO): the defence of street and working children. Fax: +44 1483 756505 http://www.ilo.org E-mail: [email protected] Methods of Research with Street and Working Human Rights Watch – Children’s Rights Person(s) to contact Children: An Annotated Bibliography: Project Carys Hodges (Ms.) http://www.rb.se/childwork 485 Fifth Avenue Information Resources Specialist

STOP PRESS! The UNESCO International Clearinghouse Innocenti Digest 2 - CHILDREN AND VIOLENCE ON THE SCREEN on Children and Violence on the Screen Nordicom The Nordic Information Center for Media and Communication Research (Nordicom) has set up The Goteborg University

UNESCO International Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on the Screen. A fundamental Sprangkullsgatan 21 Children and Violence starting point for its work is the Convention on the Rights of the Child, providing the perspective S-411 23 Goteborg within which violence will be considered. The Clearinghouse receives financial support from Sweden UNESCO and the Government of Sweden. Its prime task is to make new knowledge and data known to prospective users – including researchers, policy makers, media professionals, teachers, Tel.: +46 31 773 1000 voluntary organizations and interested individuals. The Clearinghouse publishes a yearbook and a Fax: +46 31 773 4655 newsletter – News on Children and Violence on the Screen – three times a year. E-mail: [email protected] 21 Information sources

Selected Readings 20 Kadjar-Hamouda, E., An End to Silence: A Preliminary Study on Sexual Violence, Abuse and Exploitation of Children 1 American Psychological Association, Violence and Youth: Affected by Armed Conflict, International Federation Terre Psychology’s Response, Vol. 1, Summary Report of the des Holmes, Laesione, 1996. American Psychological Association Commission on 21 Labelle, A., Bradford, J. et al., ‘Adolescent Murders’, Violence and Youth, APA, Washington, D.C., 1993, p. 21. Canadian Journal of Psychiatry, No. 36, October 1991. 2 Aptekar, L., Street Children of Calí, Duke University Press, 22 Machel, Graça, Impact of Armed Conflict on Children, Durham NC, 1988. submitted to the United Nations General Assembly pursuant 3 Asquith, S., ‘Children Who Kill Children’, in Childhood 3(1), to General Assembly resolution 48/157, A/51/306, 26 August 1996, pp. 99–116. 1996, paras. 1, 3 and 30. 23 4 Belsey, M. A., ‘Child Abuse: Measuring a Global Problem’, ibid., para. 6. World Health Statistics Quarterly, World Health Organization, 24 Mack, J., ‘Adolescent suicide: An Architectural Model’, in Vol. 46, No. 1, Geneva, 1993. Klerman, G. (ed.) Suicide and Depression among 5 Boswell, G., Violent Victims: The Prevalence of Abuse and Adolescents and Young Adults, American Psychiatric Press, Loss in the Lives of Section 53 Offenders, The Prince’s Trust, Washington, D.C., 1986. 25 London, 1995. Macksoud, M., Helping Children Cope with the Stresses of 6 Borden, J. and Gibbs, S., Children Affected by Organized War, UNICEF, New York, 1993. 26 Violence: An annotated bibliography on research methods, National Committee on Violence, ‘Violence against Children’, part of the Local Research Project initiated and funded by third in the series Violence Today, Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra, 1989. Rädda Barnen and Save the Children (UK), 1996. 27 7 Brett, R. and McCallin, M., Children: The Invisible Soldiers, National Research Council (US), Panel on Research on Child Rädda Barnen, Stockholm, 1996. Abuse and Neglect, Understanding Child Abuse and Neglect, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1993. 8 Comell, D. G., ‘Causes of Juvenile Homicide: A Review of 28 Newell, P., Children Are People Too – The Case Against the Literature’, in Benedek, E. P. and Comell, D. G. (eds.), Physical Punishment , Bedford Square Press, London, 1989. Juvenile Homicide, American Psychiatric Press, 29 — One Scandal Too Many . . .The Case for Comprehensive Washington, D.C., 1989. Protection for Children in All Settings, Gulbenkian 9 David, P., La Protection des Droits de l’Enfant dans le Sport de Foundation, London, 1993. Haute Competition, Défense des Enfants-International (DEI), 30 Olweus, D., ‘Bully/Victim Problems among Schoolchildren: Section Suisse, Geneva, 1993. 10 Basic Facts and Effects of a School-based Intervention DeWilde, E. J., Kienhorst, I. C., Diekstra, R. F. and Wolters, W. Program’, in Peeler, D. and Rubin, K. (eds.), The Development H., ‘The Relationship between Adolescent Suicidal Behavior and Treatment of Childhood Aggression, Lawrence Erlbaum, and Life Events in Childhood and Adolescence’, in American Hillsdale NJ, 1991, pp. 411–448. Journal of Psychiatry 149(1), 1992, pp. 45–51. 31 11 Patrignani, A. and Villé, R., Violence in the Family, An Finkelhor, D. and Dziuba-Leatherman, J., ‘Children as Victims international bibliography (on diskette), United Nations of Violence: A National Survey’, Pediatrics, 94(4), October Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute (UNICRI), 1994, pp. 413–420. Rome, 1995, pp. 3–5. 12 ibid., p. 413. 32 Power, D. J., ‘Homicide of Children’, Justice of Peace and 13 Flowers, R., Children and Criminality: The Child as Victim Local Government Law, 1 April 1995, pp. 209–211. and Perpetrator, Greenwood Press, New York, 1986. 33 Rädda Barnen and EPOCH-Worldwide, Hitting People Is 14 Fombonne, E., ‘Eating Disorders’, in Rutter, M. And Smith D.J. Wrong and Children Are People too, APPROACH, London, (eds.), Psychosocial Disorders in Young People: Time Trends 1996. and Their Causes, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester UK, 1995, 34 Reiss, A. J. and Roth, J. A. (eds.), Understanding and pp. 616–685. Preventing Violence, National Academy Press, Washington, 15 Fozzard, S., Surviving Violence – A Recovery Programme for D.C., 1993. Children and Families, International Catholic Child Bureau 35 Renvoize, J., Innocence Destroyed: A Study of Child Sexual (BICE), Geneva, 1995. Abuse, Routledge, London, 1993. 16 Freeman, M. D. A., The Rights and Wrongs of Children, 36 SCB Statistics Sweden, Spanking and Other Forms of Pinter, London, 1983. Physical Punishment: A Study of Adults’ and Middle School 17 Innocenti Digest 2 - Goldstone Commission, Report of the Advisory Panel to the Students’ Opinions, Experience and Knowledge, Statistics Goldstone Commission Inquiry into the Effects of Public Sweden, Stockholm, 1996. Violence on Children, Goldstone Commission, Johannesburg, 37 Spatz Widom, C., ‘The Cycle of Violence’, US National 1994. Institute of Justice Study, Research in Brief, US Department of 18

Children and Violence Gulbenkian Foundation, Children and Violence, Report of the Justice, September 1992. Commission on Children and Violence convened by the 38 Villé, R., Child Abuse: Some Reflections Based on the Gulbenkian Foundation, Gulbenkian Foundation, London, Situation in Six European Countries, Issues and Reports 6, 1995. United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research 19 Heide, K., Why Kids Kill Their Parents: Child Abuse and Institute (UNICRI), Rome, 1995. 22 Homicide, Sage, London, 1995. 39 Warbuton, J. and Camacho de la Cruz, M. T., A Right to Selected reading

Happiness – Approaches to Prevention and Psychosocial 54 European Parliament, Resolution on war toys, adopted on 13 Recovery of Child Victims of Commercial Sexual Exploitation, September 1982. coordinated by the International Catholic Child Bureau (BICE), 55 Government of Italy, Declaration of the Supreme Court of Italy, on behalf of the NGO Group for the Convention on the Rights Rome, 16 May 1996. of the Child, Geneva, 1996. 56 Government of the United Kingdom, Home Office, personal 40 Williamson, J., Selected and Annotated Bibliography on the communication to Peter Newell, London, 1994. Psychological Needs of Refugee Children, International 57 Interpol, Missing Children Statistics, 1995–96, Interpol, Lyon, 1997. Catholic Child Bureau (BICE), Geneva, 1994. 58 National Committee on Violence, Violence – Directions for Australia, 41 World Congress Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Australian Institute of Criminology, Canberra, 1990, p. 5. Children, Stockholm, Sweden, 27–31 August 1996, Part I: 59 Sariola, H. and Uutela, A., ‘The Prevalence and Context of Family Conference Report and Part II: Statements by Heads of Violence against Children in Finland’, Child Abuse and Neglect, Delegation, The Host Committee for WCCSEC, Stockholm, 16(6), 1992, pp. 823–832. 1996, para. 5. 60 Sariola, H. and Uutela, A., ‘The Prevalence of Child Sexual Abuse 42 World Health Organization, Protocol for the Study of the Inter- in Finland’, Child Abuse and Neglect, 18(10), 1994, pp. 827–835. Personal Physical Abuse of Children, WHO/FHE/CHD/94.1, 61 United Nations. Committee on the Rights of the Child, ‘Summary Geneva, 1994. record of 176th meeting’, CRC/C/SR.176, 10 October 1994, para. 46. 43 World Health Organization, Report of the WHO Task Force on 62 — ‘Report on the Seventh Session, Geneva, 26 September-14 Violence and Health, WHO, June 1996, p. 8. October 1994’, CRC/C/34, 8 November 1994, p. 63. 63 — ‘Consideration of reports submitted by States Parties under General References Article 44 of the Convention: Spain’, CRC/C/15/Add.28, 24 October 1994, paras. 10 and 18. 44 Australian National Committee on Violence, Violence: Directions 64 — ‘Summary record of 173rd meeting: Spain’, CRC/C/SR.173, 13 for Australia, National Committee on Violence, Australian Institute October 1994, para. 6. of Criminology, Canberra, 1990, p. 5. 65 — ‘Summary record of the 205th meeting: United Kingdom of 45 ibid., p. xxiv. Great Britain and Northern Ireland’, CRC/C/SR.205, 30 January 46 Boyden, J. And Gibbs, S., Children Affected by Organized 1995 Violence: An annotated bibliography on research methods, part of 66 — ‘Consideration of reports submitted by States Parties under the “Local Research Project” initiated and funded Article 44 of the Convention: Colombia. Concluding observations’, by Rädda Barnen and Save the Children (UK), 1996. CRC/C/15/Add.15, 7 February 1994, paras. 7 and 10. 47 Casa Alianza/Covenant House Latin America, Information found 67 — ‘Consideration of reports submitted by States Parties under at http://www.casa-alianza.org/aboutgua.htm on 1 June 1997. Article 44 of the Convention: Canada. CRC/C/11/Add.3, 29 July 48 Comissao Parlamentar de Inquerito, Camara dos Deputados, 1994, para. 45. Brasilia, 1992. 68 — ‘Summary record of 197th meeting: Jamaica’, CRC/C/SR.197, 49 deMause, L. (ed.), The History of Childhood, Bellew Publishing para. 85. Co., London, 1991 (reprint of book published by Souvenir Press in 69 — ‘Summary record of 140th meeting’: France, CRC/C/SR. 140, 1976), p. 1. para. 33. 50 ibid., p. 29. 70 United Nations General Assembly, Report of Special Rapporteur 51 Detrick, S. (ed.), The United Nations Convention on the Rights of on sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography, the Child: A Guide to the ‘Travaux Préparatoires’, Martinus Nijhoff, A/51/456, 7 October 1996. Dordrecht, 1992, p. 434. 71 United Nations Economic and Social Council, ‘Considerations of 52 Ennew, J. and Milne, B., Methods of Research with Street Children: Working Group on Traditional Practices Affecting the Health of An Annotated Bibliography, part of the ‘Local Research Project’ Women and Children’, E/CN.4/1986/42. initiated and funded by Rädda Barnen and Save the Children 72 — ‘Considerations of 1987 Working Group of the Convention on (UK), 1996. the Rights of the Child’ E/CN.4/1987/25, pp. 15–24. 53 European Human Rights Commission, Admissibility decision, 73 US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Delinquency and Application 8811/79, 13 May 1982). Delinquency Prevention, Factsheet on Missing Children, May 1990. Innocenti Digest 2 - Children and Violence

23 Past and future issues

Number 1. Ombudswork for Children 1997. 20 p. This first Innocenti Digest provides information on the recent and expanding phenomenon of ombudsmen/commissioners for children. It discusses the history of ombudswork; patterns in the origin, development, mandate and status of the different types of ombudsman offices; the functions of ombudswork in theory and practice; and characteristics essential to this kind of work. The Digest also gives an assessment of the impact of one long-established office, the Norwegian Ombudsman, showing that, despite very limited funding, it has successfully raised the profile of children on the political agenda, enhanced acceptance of children as holders of human rights and contributed to improving the position of children in law. The Digest ends with The UNICEF International Child details of 16 existing ombudsmen/commissioners for children and a selected bibliography on the topic. Development Centre, often referred to as the Innocenti Centre, was established in Florence, Innocenti Digest 3 deals with the main issues connected with children and young people coming into conflict Italy, in 1988. The Centre undertakes and with the law and contact with the justice system. It looks at standards and problems from arrest through to the promotes policy analysis and applied research, provides a forum for international professional court hearing and sentencing, use of custodial measures and ways of avoiding the child’s unnecessary and exchanges of experiences, and disseminates counter-productive involvement with the formal justice system. It also covers prevention questions. ideas and research results emanating from its activities. On a highly selective basis, in areas Up to 25 copies are available free of charge. of programme relevance, the Centre also provides training and capacity-building Bulk orders over 25 copies are available at the cost of distribution and handling; opportunities for UNICEF staff and please contact us for a written quotation. professionals in other institutions with which Send requests to: UNICEF cooperates. The Centre is housed Distribution, within the Spedale degli Innocenti, a foundling hospital that has been serving abandoned or International Child Development Centre needy children since 1445. Designed by Piazza SS. Annunziata, 12 Filippo Brunelleschi, the Spedale is one of the 50122 Florence, Italy outstanding architectural works of the early Tel.: +39 55 234 5258 European Renaissance. Fax: +39 55 244 817 Extracts from this publication may be freely reproduced provided that due acknowledgment E-mail: krigoli@unicef-icdc.it is given to the source and to UNICEF. The opinions expressed are those of the We invite comments on the content and layout of the Digest and suggestions on how it could be improved as author and do not necessarily reflect the an information tool. policies or views of UNICEF. This issue of the Innocenti Digest has been compiled principally by Peter Newell, author of various studies on different aspects of children’s rights, and since 1989 Coordinator of the UK campaign EPOCH – End Physical Punishment of Children – and of its international network, EPOCH-Worldwide. He is Chair of the Council of the UK Children’s Rights Development Unit, and was a member of and Research Coordinator for the UK Commission on Children and Violence, convened in 1994–1995 by the Gulbenkian Foundation. In 1994, he was invited to be a member of the Advisory Panel to the Goldstone Commission of Inquiry into Children and Violence in South Africa. With Rachel Hodgkin, he has recently been commissioned by UNICEF in Geneva to prepare an Implementation Handbook on the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. He has made various presentations to the Committee on the Rights of the Child. The Centre would like to thank all of the organizations that provided information for the ‘Links’ section of the Digest, and in

Innocenti Digest 2 - particular Rädda Barnen and CRIN, who very generously shared their resource databases with us. Design: Bernard Chazine

Children and Violence Layout and photolythography: Bernard & Co. Siena/Italy Printed by: Arti Grafiche Ticci - Siena/Italy ISSN 1028–3528 September 1997 24