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A Case Study of Female University Students in Saudi Arabia. Sani Women’s Representation in STEM Related Education and Careers: A Case Study of Female University Students in Saudi Arabia. Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Staffordshire University, United Kingdom By Sani, Maryam School of Education and Life Sciences Staffordshire University, United Kingdom December 2018 i ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Education is a blessing and appreciating the enormity of the treasures it encompasses, is to understand that it is a gift to be shared. I am grateful to God Almighty for this wonderful gift, the opportunity to complete this PhD study and inspire others to pursue their ambitions. To my supervisors, Professor Tehmina Basit and Dr Lynn Machin heartfelt thanks for guiding me every step of the way, with an abundance of patience and expert advice. I couldn’t have achieved this without you. Many thanks to Dr. M.D Asaduzzaman for his valuable guidance on my quantitative data analysis. To the students and faculty members who participated in this study, thank you for sharing your insights and experiences. Your contribution made this research study possible. I hope that you achieve your dreams and keep on rising to new heights. Sincere thanks to the administrators who helped with the execution of my research. To Staffordshire University, our partnership began in 1984 and is crowned with this PhD, many thanks to all those who have been part of my educational success. Completing three degrees in one university is not merely a sign of loyalty but it is a testimony to the quality of education and remarkable efforts expended to empower students. It is an honour to have been a welcomed guest in Saudi Arabia for many years. This study is close to my heart as is every girl that I have ever taught. Thank you, for in your own ways you have steered me towards this PhD, a different direction for the one I envisaged. Yet, one which combines my passion for education and STEM. Often PhD students mention the loneliness of their journey, but on the contrary, I have so many people to thank for sharing my expedition, for encouraging my aspirations, believing in me and inspiring me. Some are no longer with me, yet their impact remains the same; my daughter Amirah Shadia Bashir, my greatest inspiration and my father Samuel Thomas, my first teacher. To my amazing mother, Evelyn Thomas who constantly encourages me to reach for the stars. There are no words that express my gratitude for your endless love and support. A huge thank you to my children Asbati, Amir and Fatima, who have developed immense patience during this period, and my siblings, my extended family and friends who have constantly believed that my best is good enough. Thank you, your continuous support is truly appreciated. Last, but not least my dear husband, friend and mentor Dr Bashir Muhammad Sani. Your critical analysis of my research and the subsequent intellectual debates were invaluable. Thank you for supporting my dream, for all the prayers and for the gentle reminders to persevere. Your contribution has been tremendous, and I am truly grateful. ii ABSTRACT Predicted skills shortages in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) have caused global concerns regarding skills shortage and economic competitiveness. Evidence suggesting flaws in this prediction have not deterred the implementation of numerous initiatives to attract untapped human capital to STEM careers. Women have been identified amongst the underrepresented groups in STEM education and careers; however, the drive to increase their representation has yielded minimal success. Consequently, the underrepresentation of women in STEM education and careers has developed into an issue of gender equality, particularly in secular societies. This study explores the representation of women in STEM education and careers in an Islamic country, Saudi Arabia, which has a distinctive gender-segregated society, one reinforced by cultural, religious, and social norms. This study also examines the influences on girls’ decisions to pursue STEM education and careers by employing a mixed methods approach that focuses on the lived experiences of the participants. Questionnaires were administered to 352 female participants in one public university. Out of these, 312 were foundation year STEM track students (FYS), 30 were third year STEM students (TYS), and 10 were university faculty members (FM). Analysis of the survey data revealed that students’ aspirations for STEM careers begins as early as grade 4; the favourite school subject is mathematics; and the most desired profession is medicine. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with a sample of 35 participants: FYS (20), TYS (10), and FM (5). Analysis of the qualitative data revealed that girls do not experience subject-related gender stereotypes in public schools. Nevertheless, whilst they are empowered to study all science subjects, only the most academic can follow the science track in high school and university. It was also evident that career education in Saudi Arabian schools is inadequate and students rarely receive careers guidance in school, although they receive unparalleled encouragement and support from their parents and extended family. The findings of this study gave empirical support to Giddens’ Structuration Theory. It reveals that social and cultural transformations are commonplace within female-only and family spheres, where the agentic actions of girls are enabled and, subsequently, lead to their empowerment within them. Yet, this study also demonstrates that, oftentimes, working women themselves contribute to the reproduction of social structures. It highlights the fact that the high uptake of Saudi women in STEM education in Saudi Arabia is not replicated in the labour market. The contribution of Saudi female STEM graduates has largely been constrained by the shortage of jobs for women, and cultural norms that prioritise family responsibilities. It is evident that structures in the public sphere are generally reproduced, and when transformations do occur, they are the result of government endorsements. This is a pivotal time in the lives of Saudi Arabian women, as the current structural changes outlined in the 2030 vision encourage the participation of women in the workforce. However, the swiftness of cultural changes may be dependent on individual and familial structures and aspirations. This study recommends strategies for increasing the autonomy of school teachers and principals, and for developing students’ early interest in STEM subjects. Furthermore, it recommends the introduction of effective career education programs into schools and the involvement of parents in initiatives to equip students with knowledge, about possible careers and the labour market, prior to entering high school. iii Abbreviations ARAMCO Arabian American Oil Company CAA Centre for Academic Assessment CDSI Central Department of Statistics and Information CEDAW Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women CSW Commission on the Status of Women ECOSOC Economic and Social Council EFA Education for All FLL First Lego League FM Faculty Members FYS Foundation Year Students GAT General Aptitude Test GCC Gulf Cooperation Council GCSE General Certificate of Secondary Education GGGI Global Gender Gap Index GPA Grade Point Average GPGE The General Presidency of Girls’ Education HDRF Human Resource Development Fund HRW Human Rights Watch HS High School ILO International Labour Organisation ITA International Trade Association KACST King Abdallah City for Science and Technology KAUST King Abdallah University of Science and Technology KASP King Abdullah Scholarship Program KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia MENA Middle East and North African iv MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology MBBS Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery MDG Millennium Development Goals MoE Ministry of Education MoHE Ministry of Higher Education MoLSD Ministry of Labour and Social Development MSPI Mawhiba School Partnership Initiative NCES National Centre for Educational Statistics NDP The National Development Plan NSF National Science Foundation OECD The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development PISA The Programme for International Student Assessment PBUH Peace be upon him PMU Princess Miya University SAAT Standard Achievement Admission Test SDG Sustainable Development Goals SET Science, Engineering and Technology SES Socio-Economic Status SPSS Statistical Package for Social Sciences ST Structuration Theory SST Strong Structuration Theory STEM Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics STEMM Science Technology Engineering Mathematics and Medicine TYS Third Year Students TIMSS Trends in Mathematics and Science UN United Nations UNESCO The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation UKRC United Kingdom Resource Centre v UK United Kingdom USA United States of America WISE Women in Science and Engineering TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgement …………………………………………………………………….…………....ii Abstract……………………………………………………………………………….……………..iii Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………….,,……….iv Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………………..vi List of Tables………………………………………………………………………………………. xiv List of Figures………………………………………………………………………………………. xv 1. Chapter One: Introduction……………………………………………………………………1 1.1 Background to the Study……………………………………………………………..1 1.1.1 Saudi Arabia’s Demographics and Culture …………………..……………….5 1.1.2 Political Development………………………………………….…..……….…….7 1.1.3 Economy…………………………………………………………………………...8 1.1.4 The Education
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