PROPAGANDA AND MASS PERSUASION A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present

PROPAGANDA AND MASS PERSUASION A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present

Nicholas J. Cull David Culbert David Welch

Santa Barbara, California • Denver, Colorado • Oxford, England Copyright 2003 by Nicholas J. Cull, David Culbert, and David Welch

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Cull, Nicholas John. Propaganda and mass persuasion : a historical encyclopedia, 1500 to the present / Nicholas J. Cull, David Culbert, David Welch. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-57607-820-5 (hardcover : alk. paper)—ISBN 1-57607-434-X (e-book) 1. Propaganda—Encyclopedias. 2. Propaganda—History. I. Culbert, David Holbrook. II. Welch, David, 1950– III. Title.

HM1231.C85 2003 303.3’75—dc21 2003009513

07 06 05 04 03 10 987654321

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CONTRIBUTORS

Stephen Badsey Utah State University Lecturer in History Logan, UT,United States Department of War Studies Royal Military Academy Brian Collins Sandhurst, UK Department of History Louisiana State University David Birmingham Baton Rouge, LA, United States Professor Emeritus of History University of Kent at Canterbury, UK Mark Connelly Lecturer in History Livia Bornigia University of Kent at Canterbury, UK Lecturer in Communications University of St. Thomas Daniel Cooper Houston, TX, United States Humanities Programme University of Leicester, UK Susan Carruthers Associate Professor of History Patrick Day Rutgers University Senior Lecturer Newark, NJ, United States Department of Policy, Cultural and Social Studies in Education Steven Casey University of Waikato, New Zealand Lecturer in International History London School of Economics, UK David Ellwood Professore Associato Dan Caspi Insegna di Storia delle Relazioni Professor of Communication Internazionalli Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel University of Bologna, Italy

Luisa Cigognetti Karsten Fledelius Chief of Audio-Visual Department Lektor Instituto Ferruccio Parri Institute for Film Media Studies Bologna, Italy University of Copenhagen, Denmark

Robert Cole Karen M. Ford Professor of History Lecturer in Political Theory

vii viii Contributors

Department of Government Tara S. Nair University of Manchester, UK Entrepreneurship Development Institute of India Dina Iordanova Ahmedabad, India Reader in the History of Film Department of History of Art Nicholas Pronay University of Leicester, UK Professor Emeritus Institute of Communications Studies Samantha Jones University of Leeds, UK Humanities Programme University of Leicester, UK Graham Roberts Senior Lecturer in Communication Arts Mark Kristmanson Institute of Communications Studies Centre for American Studies University of Leeds, UK University of Leicester, UK Richard Robinson Fred Krome Reader Emeritus Adjunct Professor of Judaic Studies School of History University of Cincinnati University of Birmingham, UK Cincinnati, OH, United States Rainer Rother Barak Kushner Head of Film Department Assistant Professor of Eastern Asian Studies Deutsches Historisches Museum Davidson College Berlin, Germany Davidson, NC, United States Pierre Sorlin Daniel Leab Professor Emeritus of Sociology of Professor of History Audiovisual Media Seton Hall University University of Paris, III South Orange, NJ, United States France

James A. Leith Todd Swift Professor Emeritus of History Poet and Visiting Lecturer Queens University Budapest University (ELTE), Hungary Kingston, Ontario, Canada Elizabeth Tacey Luke McKernan Humanities Programme Head of Information University of Leicester, UK British Universities Film and Video Council Philip M. Taylor London, UK Professor of International Communications Institute of Communications Studies Bryan Mann University of Leeds, UK Department of History University of Leicester, UK James Vaughan Lecturer in International History Rana Mitter Department of International Politics Lecturer in Chinese History University of Wales Oxford University, UK Aberystwyth, UK CONTENTS

Preface,Nicholas J. Cull, David Culbert, and David Welch,xiii Introduction:Propaganda in Historical Perspective,David Welch, xv

PROPAGANDA AND MASS PERSUASION A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present

A BIS (British Information Services), Civil Rights Movement Abolitionism/Antislavery 41 (1955–1968), 82 Movement, 1 Black Propaganda, 41 Civil War, English (1642–1649), Abortion, 3 Blair, Tony (1953– ), 43 84 ADL (Anti-Defamation League of Bosnian Crisis and War Civil War, Spanish (1936–1939), B’nai B’rith), 5 (1992–1995), 44 86 Advertising, 5 Bracken, Brendan (1910–1958), Civil War, United States Africa, 7 46 (1861–1865), 88 All Quiet on the Western Front (Im Brainwashing, 46 Clinton, William Jefferson Westen Nichts Neues) Britain, 48 (1947– ), 89 (1928/1930), 11 Britain (Eighteenth Century), 52 CNN (Cable News Network), 91 Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902), British Empire, 55 Coins, 91 12 Bryce Report (1915), 56 Cold War (1945–1989), 92 Anti-Semitism, 13 Cold War in the Middle East Arab World, 15 C (1946–1960), 94 Architecture, 20 Canada, 59 Comintern (1919–1943), 96 Art, 21 Capa, Robert (1913–1954), 62 The Communist Manifesto (1848), 96 Atrocity Propaganda, 23 Capra, Frank (1897–1991), 63 Counterinsurgency, 97 Australia, 26 Caribbean, 63 CPI (Committee on Public Austrian Empire, 28 Cartoons, 66 Information), 99 Casablanca (1942), 68 Creel, George (1876–1953), 99 B Castro, Fidel (1926– ), 68 Crimean War (1853–1856), 99 Balkans, 33 Censorship, 70 Crossman, Richard (1907–1974), Battleship Potemkin (1926), 37 China, 73 100 BBC (British Broadcasting Chomsky, Noam (1928– ), 77 Cultural Propaganda, 101 Corporation), 37 Churchill, Winston (1874–1965), Beaverbrook, Max (1879–1964), 78 D 38 CIA (Central Intelligence Agency), David, Jacques-Louis The Big Lie, 39 80 (1748–1825), 103 The Birth of a Nation (1915), 40 Civil Defense, 81 Defoe, Daniel (1660–1731), 103

ix x Contents

Disinformation, 104 H Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich (Ulyanov) Drugs, 106 Health, 163 (1870–1924), 228 Hearst, William Randolph Lincoln,Abraham (1809–1865), E (1863–1951), 164 230 Eisenstein, Sergei (1898–1948), Herzl, Theodor (1860–1904), Livingston, William (1723–1790), 109 165 231 Elections, 109 Hitler,Adolf (1889–1945), 166 London Can Take It (1940), 232 Elections (Britain), 110 Holocaust Denial, 167 Long, Huey (1893–1935), 232 Elections (Israel), 112 Horst Wessel Lied (1929), 169 Lord Haw-Haw,233 Elections (United States), 113 Hussein, Saddam (1937– ), 170 Luther, Martin (1483–1546), Elizabeth I (1533–1603), 115 234 Engels, Friedrich (1820–1895), I 115 Ignatius of Loyola, Saint M Environmentalism, 116 (1491–1556), 173 Malcolm X (1925–1965), 235 Exhibitions and World’s Fairs, Indian Subcontinent, 173 Mao Zedong (1893–1976), 236 118 Indonesia, 177 “La Marseillaise” (1792), 237 Intelligence, 179 Marshall Plan (1947–1951), 238 F International (Communist and Marx, Karl (1818–1883), 241 Fakes, 123 Socialist), 180 McCarthy, Joseph R. Falklands/Malvinas War (1982), “The Internationale” (1871–1888), (1909–1957), 242 124 181 Mein Kampf (1925), 243 Fascism, Italian (1922–1943), Internet, 182 Memorials and Monuments, 244 125 Iran, 183 Mexico, 246 Film (Documentary), 127 IRD (Information Research Milton, John (1608–1674), 250 Film (Feature), 129 Department), 186 Mission to Moscow (1943), 250 Film (Nazi Germany), 130 Ireland, 187 MoI (Ministry of Information), Film (Newsreels), 132 Israel, 191 251 Flagg, James Montgomery Italy, 195 Morale, 252 (1877–1960), 134 Murdoch, Rupert (1931– ), 253 France, 134 J Murrow, Edward R. (1908–1965), Freedom Train (1947–1949), 138 “J’Accuse” (“I Accuse”) (1898), 201 253 Friedan, Betty (1921– ), 138 Japan, 201 Music, 254 Funerals, 139 John Bull, 204 Mussolini, Benito (1883–1945), Jud Süss (1940), 205 256 G Gandhi, Mohandas K. K N (1869–1948), 143 Kennedy, John F. (1917–1963), NAACP (National Association for Garrison, William Lloyd 207 the Advancement of Colored (1805–1879), 143 KGB (Committee of State People), 259 Garvey, Marcus (1887–1940), 144 Security, Soviet Union), 209 Napoleon (1769–1821), 260 Germany, 145 King, Martin Luther, Jr. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Goebbels, Joseph (1897–1945), (1929–1968), 209 Douglass,an American Slave, 149 Korea, 211 written by himself (1845), 261 Goya (Francisco de Goya y Korean War (1950–1953), 213 Nast, Thomas (1840–1902), 262 Lucientes) (1746–1828), 151 Kosovo Crisis and War (1999), Neo-Militia Groups, 263 Gray Propaganda, 151 216 Netherlands, Belgium, and Greece, 153 Luxembourg, 264 The Green Berets (1968), 155 L New Zealand, 267 Grierson, John (1898–1972), 155 Labor/Antilabor, 219 Nixon, Richard (1913–1994), 271 Guernica (1937), 156 Laden, Osama bin (1957– ), 221 Northcliffe, Lord (1865–1922), Gulf War (1991), 157 Latin America, 223 272 Gulf War (2003), 159 Leaflet, 226 Novel, 272 Contents xi

O Reagan, Ronald (1911– ), 334 Thatcher, Margaret (1925– ), 398 Oates, Titus (1649–1705), 275 Reeducation, 336 Theater, 399 Okhrana, 275 Reefer Madness (1936), 337 Tokyo Rose, 400 Olympics (1896– ), 276 Reformation and Counter- Tr iumph of the Will (Tr iumph des Opinion Polls, 278 Reformation, 337 Willens) (1935), 401 Orwell, George (1903–1950), 279 Reith, Lord John (1889–1971), 341 Trotsky, Leon (1879–1940), 402 Ottoman Empire/Turkey, 280 Religion, 342 OWI (Office of War Information), Revolution,American, and War of U 283 Independence (1764–1783), 344 Uncle Sam, 403 Revolution, French (1789–1799), Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852), 405 P 347 United Nations, 405 Pacific/Oceania, 285 Revolution, Russian (1917–1921), United States, 407 Paine, Thomas (1737–1809), 287 349 United States (1930s), 411 Peace and Antiwar Movements RFE/RL (Radio Free United States (Progressive Era), 412 (1500–1945), 289 Europe/Radio Liberty), 351 USIA (United States Information Peace and Antiwar Movements Riefenstahl, Leni (1902– ), 352 Agency) (1953–1999), 413 (1945– ), 291 Riis, Jacob (1849–1914), 353 Perón, Juan Domingo RMVP (Reichministerium für V (1895–1974) and Eva Duarte Volksaufklärung und Vietnam, 417 (1919–1952), 294 Propaganda), 353 Vietnam War (1954–1975), 420 Philippines, 294 Rockwell, Norman (1894–1978), VOA (Voice of America), 423 Photography, 297 355 The Plow That Broke the Plains Roosevelt, Franklin D. W (1936), 299 (1882–1945), 355 The War Game (1965), 425 Poetry, 300 Rumor, 358 White Propaganda, 425 Poland, 302 Russia, 359 Why We Fight (1942–1945), 426 Portraiture, 305 Wick, Charles Z. (1917– ), 426 Portugal, 307 S Wilkes, John (1727–1797), 428 Postage Stamps, 311 Satellite Communications, 365 Women’s Movement: European Posters, 313 Scandinavia, 366 (1860– ), 429 Pravda (Truth), 315 Shakespeare, William Women’s Movement: Precursors Prisoners of War, 315 (1564–1616), 369 (1404–1848), 431 Propaganda, Definitions of, 317 Silent Spring (1962), 370 Women’s Movement: First Wave/ Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1903), Southeast Asia, 371 Suffrage (1848–1928), 432 323 Spain, 373 Women’s Movement: Second Psychological Warfare, 323 Spanish-American War (1898), 378 Wave/Feminism (1963– ), 435 Public Diplomacy, 327 Sport, 379 World War I (1914–1918), 437 PWE (Political Warfare Stalin, Joseph (1879–1953), 381 World War II (Britain), 440 Executive), 328 Suez Crisis (1956), 383 World War II (Germany), 441 Sukarno (1901–1970), 385 World War II (Japan), 444 Q Switzerland, 385 World War II (Russia), 445 Quotations from Chairman Mao World War II (United States), 447 (translated 1966), 329 T Television, 389 Z R Television (News), 391 Zimmermann Telegram (1917), Radio (Domestic), 331 Temperance, 393 453 Radio (International), 332 Terrorism, 393 Zinoviev Letter (1924), 453 Raemakers, Louis (1869–1956), 334 Terrorism, War on (2001– ), 396 Zionism, 454

Index,457 About the Editors,479

PREFACE

This book is designed to provide an accessible propaganda (such as the film Casablanca and survey of the history of propaganda from the novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin). Each entry con- 1500 to the present. After a historical intro- tains suggestions for further reading, which duction by David Welch outlining the devel- generally also served as the chief sources for opment of propaganda, the encyclopedia quotations and factual or other details within presents more than 250 entries. These in- the entry. Most propaganda agencies—for clude geographic entries examining a coun- example, the CIA or the BBC—are better try such as Britain or Portugal or—where known by their initials than their full names the propaganda history is either less clearly and are therefore listed that way. delineated along national lines or the scholar- ship to date in English is more limited—a re- This book could not have been written gion such as Scandinavia or Latin America. without the help of many people. The most We have tried to be as geographically com- important has been Bob Neville, our editor prehensive as possible. Case-study entries at ABC-CLIO in Oxford, without whom the present events or movements, from aboli- project would surely have lost momentum. tionism to Zionism. Technique entries deal We are also grateful to editors at ABC- with a particular method, such as posters, CLIO in Denver, Susan McRory, who did portraiture, or music; film and radio entries much to bring this volume to completion both have multiple subdivisions, reflecting speedily and efficiently, and to Scott Horst, the special role of these media in twentieth- who worked hard to ensure a high standard century propaganda. Concept entries define of illustrations for this volume. Books that and explain terms used by and about propa- were helpful in delimiting the scope of this gandists: black propaganda, brainwashing, work include Robert Cole’s Propaganda in and so forth. The long entry “Propaganda, Twentieth Century War and Politics:An Annotated Definitions of ” offers multiple definitions of Bibliography (London: Scarecrow, 1996). As the term. with all such projects,this work has required This encyclopedia includes entries de- the support of our families. Nick Cull is voted to individuals connected with propa- particularly grateful to his late grandfather, ganda, from Martin Luther to Osama bin Bernard O’Callaghan, whose influence on Laden, as well as entries for some of the key this volume is especially apparent in the en- institutions of propaganda—such as the Of- tries for “British Empire,” “Internationale,” fice of War Information (OWI) in the United and “Zinoviev Letter.” States during World War II—and some of This book has, of course, relied on the ex- the best-known documents and artifacts of pertise of a team of international contribu-

xiii xiv Preface tors. The editors are grateful not only to the help. The original idea for this volume came colleagues and friends who have submitted from Professors Nicholas Pronay and Philip entries for this volume but also to those who M. Taylor of the Institute of Communication used their specialized knowledge to check Studies at the University of Leeds. Phil Tay- entries written by others. Special mention lor’s work is frequently cited in the entries should be made of Dr. Mark Cornwall, Prof. that follow, and in recognition of his unique Donald Denoon, Dr. Selim Deringel, Leen contribution to the field of propaganda his- Engelen, Dr. Elizabeth Fox, Dr. Ewa Mazier- tory, the editors affectionately dedicate this ska, Dr. José Ortiz Garza, and Prof. James book to him. Schwoch, whose suggestions were much ap- preciated. Three colleagues at the University Nicholas J.Cull of Leicester, Stuart Ball, Phillip Lindley, and David Culbert Aubrey Newman, have also been of great David Welch INTRODUCTION: PROPAGANDA IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The following quotation serves as a good recent years unfavorable comparisons have starting point: “Propaganda is a much ma- been made with spin doctors and the manner ligned and often misunderstood word. The in which they (allegedly) control the image of layman uses it to mean something inferior or politicians and refract the political agenda to even despicable. The word propaganda always simplistic sound bites. Thus, a widely held has a bitter after taste.” It is singularly appro- belief suggests that propaganda is a cancer on priate that these words should have been spo- the body politic that manipulates our ken by Joseph Goebbels in March 1933, im- thoughts and actions and should be avoided at mediately after being appointed to head the all costs. Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Pro- Is this really the case? If so, should we paganda in Hitler’s first government. It is ar- avoid the word? It is my contention that such guable that it was in this role that Goebbels assumptions should be challenged and that was to do more than most to ensure and per- propaganda in and of itself is not necessarily petuate this bitter “after taste.” Goebbels con- evil. The ancient Greeks, for example, re- tinued: “But if you examine propaganda’s garded persuasion as a form of rhetoric and most secret causes, you will come to different recognized that logic and reason were neces- conclusions: then there will be no more sary to communicate ideas successfully. doubting that the propagandist must be the Throughout history those who govern have man with the greatest knowledge of souls. I always attempted to influence the way in cannot convince a single person of the neces- which the governed viewed the world. If sity of something unless I get to know the soul propaganda is to be a useful concept, it first of that person, unless I understand how to has to be divested of its pejorative connota- pluck the string in the harp of his soul that tions. Propaganda is not simply what the must be made to sound” (Welch 2002, 26). It other group does while one’s own group is supremely ironic that Goebbels should set concentrates on disseminating information or himself the mission of rescuing propaganda generating publicity. Modern dictatorships from such misconceptions. have never felt the need to shun the word as Propaganda was not “invented” by have democracies.Accordingly, the Nazis had Goebbels, although it is largely as a result of a Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and Nazi propaganda that the term has come to Propaganda and the Soviets a Propaganda have such pejorative associations. The word Committee of the Communist Party, “propaganda” continues to imply something whereas the British had a Ministry of Infor- sinister; synonyms for propaganda frequently mation and the Americans an Office of War include “lies,” “deceit,” and “brainwashing.” In Information.

xv xvi Introduction

Although the scale on which propaganda ment increased steadily throughout the eigh- is practiced has increased dramatically in the teenth and nineteenth centuries, particularly twentieth century, the origin of the word can during times of ideological struggle, as in the be traced back to the Reformation, when the American and French Revolutions (for exam- spiritual and ecclesiastical unity of Europe ple, the Girondists distributed broadsheets was shattered and the medieval Roman among the enemy troops offering them re- Catholic Church lost its hold on the north- wards for desertion). From the end of the ern countries. During the ensuing struggle Napoleonic Wars to the outbreak of World between the forces of Protestantism and War I in 1914, western Europe remained at those of the Counter-Reformation, the peace and there were few occasions where Roman Catholic Church found itself faced propaganda on a national scale was called for. with the problem of maintaining and Historically propaganda was associated with strengthening its hold in the non-Catholic periods of stress and turmoil during which vi- countries. Pope Gregory XIII established a olent controversy over doctrine accompanied commission of cardinals charged with the use of force. spreading Catholicism and regulating eccle- Between 1914 and 1918 the wholesale use siastical affairs in heathen lands.A generation of propaganda as an organized weapon of later, in 1622, when the Thirty Years’ War modern warfare transformed it into some- (1618–1648) had broken out, Pope Gregory thing more sinister. One of the most signifi- XV made this commission permanent as the cant lessons to be learned from the experi- Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide ence of World War I was that public opinion (Congregation for the Propagation of the could no longer be ignored as a determining Faith) charged with the management of for- factor in the formulation of government poli- eign missions and financed by a “ring tax” as- cies. Unlike previous wars, this was the first sessed upon each newly appointed cardinal. “total war” in which entire nations rather Within a few years, in 1627, this charge than just professional armies were locked in took the form of the College of Propaganda mortal combat. The war served to increase (Collegium Urbanum), which was estab- the level of popular interest and participation lished to educate young priests who were to in the affairs of the state. The gap between undertake such missions. The first propa- the soldier at the front and the civilian at ganda institute was therefore simply a body home was narrowed substantially in that the charged with improving the dissemination of full resources of the state—military, eco- a group of religious dogmas. The word nomic, and psychological—had to be mobi- “propaganda” soon came to be applied to any lized. In a state of total war, which required organization set up for the purpose of civilians to participate in the war effort, spreading a doctrine; then it was applied to morale came to be recognized as a significant the doctrine itself; and lastly to the methods military factor, and propaganda slowly employed in effectuating the dissemination. emerged as the principal instrument of con- From the seventeenth to the twentieth cen- trol over public opinion and an essential turies we hear comparatively little about prop- weapon in the national arsenal, culminating aganda. The term had only a limited use and, in the establishment in Britain of the Ministry though pejorative, was largely unfamiliar.Dur- of Information in 1917 under Lord Beaver- ing England’s Puritan Revolution, propaganda brook and a separate Enemy Propaganda De- by pamphlet and newsletter became a regular partment at Crewe House under Lord adjunct to military action, Oliver Cromwell’s Northcliffe. By means of strict censorship army being concerned nearly as much with and tightly controlled propaganda cam- the spread of religious and political doctrines paigns, the press, films, leaflets, and posters as it was with victory in the field. Its employ- were all utilized in a coordinated fashion (ar- Introduction xvii guably for the first time) in order to dissemi- from within, which had been accelerated by nate officially approved themes. skillful British propaganda, Hitler (like other Despite major tensions, Britain’s wartime right-wing politicians and military groups) consensus generally held up under the exi- was providing historical legitimacy for the gencies of war. One explanation for this was “stab-in-the-back” theory. Regardless of the the skillful use by the government of propa- actual role played by British (or Soviet) prop- ganda and censorship. After the war, how- aganda in helping to bring Germany to its ever, a deep mistrust developed on the part knees, it was generally accepted that Britain’s of ordinary citizens, who realized that condi- wartime experiment was the ideal blueprint tions at the front had been deliberately ob- according to which other governments scured by patriotic slogans and “atrocity would subsequently model their own propa- propaganda” consisting of obscene stereo- ganda apparatus. According to Hitler (again types of the enemy and their dastardly deeds. writing in Mein Kampf), “Germany had failed The populace also felt cheated that its sacri- to recognise propaganda as a weapon of the fices had not resulted in the promised homes first order, whereas the British has [sic]em- and a land “fit for heroes.” Propaganda was as- ployed it with great skill and ingenious delib- sociated with lies and falsehood. Even politi- eration.” Convinced of the essential role of cians were sensitive to these criticisms; as a propaganda for any movement determined to result, the Ministry of Information was im- assume power, Hitler saw propaganda as a ve- mediately disbanded. The British govern- hicle of political salesmanship in a mass mar- ment regarded propaganda as politically dan- ket; it was no surprise that the Ministry of gerous and even morally unacceptable in Propaganda was the first to be established peacetime. It was, as one official wrote in the when the Nazis assumed power in 1933. 1920s, “a good word gone wrong—de- The function of propaganda, Hitler ar- bauched by the late Lord Northcliffe.” The gued, was to focus the attention of the masses impact of propaganda on political behavior on certain facts, processes, and necessities was so profound that during World War II, “whose significance is thus for the first time when the government attempted to “educate” placed within their field of vision.” Accord- the populace regarding the existence of Nazi ingly, propaganda for the masses had to be concentration camps, it was not immediately simple and concentrate on as few points as believed since the information was suspected possible, which had to be repeated many of being more “propaganda.” times, with an emphasis on such emotional The experience of Britain’s propaganda ef- elements as love and hatred. Through the fort provided the defeated Germans with a continuity and sustained uniformity of its ap- fertile source of counterpropaganda directed plication, Hitler concluded that propaganda at the postwar peace treaties and the ig- would lead to results “almost beyond our un- nominy of the Weimar Republic. Writing in derstanding.” Unlike the Bolsheviks, however, Mein Kampf, Hitler noted: “In the year 1915, the Nazis did not distinguish between agita- the enemy started his propaganda among our tion and propaganda. In Soviet Russia agita- soldiers. From 1916 it steadily became more tion was concerned with influencing the intensive, and at the beginning of 1918, it had masses through ideas and slogans, while swollen into a storm cloud. One could now propaganda served to spread the communist see the effects of this gradual seduction. Our ideology of Marxism-Leninism. The distinc- soldiers learned to think the way the enemy tion dates back to Georgi Plekhanov’s cele- wanted them to think.” By maintaining that brated 1892 definition: “A propagandist pres- the German army had not been defeated in ents many ideas to one or a few persons; an the field of battle but rather had been forced agitator presents only one or a few ideas, but to submit due to the disintegration of morale presents them to a whole mass of people” xviii Introduction

(emphapsis added). The Nazis, on the other edges the influence of the mass media yet also hand, regarded propaganda not merely as an recognizes that individuals seek out opinion instrument for reaching the party elite but as leaders within their own social class and gen- a means of persuading and indoctrinating all der. Most writers today agree that propa- Germans. ganda confirms rather than converts—or at If the two world wars demonstrated the least is more effective when the message is in power of propaganda, the post-1945 period line with existing opinions and beliefs of witnessed the widespread utilization of the most consumers. Writing in 1936, Aldous lessons drawn from the wartime experience Huxley observed that “the propagandist is a within the overall context of the “communi- man [who] canalizes an already existing cations revolution.” Political scientists and so- stream; in a land where there is no water, he ciologists theorized about the nature of man digs in vain” (Harper’s 174 [1936]: 39). This and modern society—particularly in light of shift in emphasis underscores a number of the rise of totalitarian police states. Individu- common misconceptions connected with the als were viewed as undifferentiated and mal- study of propaganda. There is a widely held leable, while an apocalyptic vision of mass so- belief that propaganda implies nothing more ciety emphasized the alienation of work, the than the art of persuasion, which serves only collapse of religion and family ties, and a gen- to change attitudes and ideas. This is un- eral decline of moral values. Culture was re- doubtedly one of its aims, but it is usually a duced to the lowest common denominator limited and subordinate one. More often for mass consumption, with the masses gen- propaganda is concerned with sharpening erally seen as politically apathetic yet prone and focusing existing trends and beliefs. A to ideological fanaticism, vulnerable to ma- second basic misconception is the belief that nipulation through the media and the increas- propaganda consists only of lies and false- ing sophistication of propagandists. Accord- hood. In fact, it operates on several levels of ingly, propaganda was viewed as a “magic truth—from the outright lie to the half-truth bullet” or “hypodermic needle” by means of to the truth taken out of context. (Officials in which opinions and behavior could easily be the British Ministry of Information during controlled. World War II referred to this as the “whole This bleak view was challenged by a num- truth, nothing but the truth—and as near as ber of American social scientists, such as possible the truth!”) Many writers on the Harold Lasswell (1902–1978) and Walter subject see propaganda as essentially appeas- Lippmann (1899–1974), who argued that ing the irrational instincts of man—and this within the context of an atomized mass soci- is true to a certain extent—but because our ety propaganda was a mechanism for engi- attitudes and behavior are also the product of neering public opinion and consent and thus rational decisions, propaganda must appeal to acted as a means of social control (which the rational elements in human nature as Lasswell referred to as the “new hammer and well. The preoccupation with the former ig- anvil of social solidarity” [1927, 221]). In nores the basic fact that propaganda is ethi- 1965 the French sociologist Jacques Ellul cally neutral, that is, it may be good or bad. (1912–1996) took this a stage further and In all political systems policy must be ex- suggested that the technological society has plained, the public must be convinced of the conditioned people to a “need for propa- efficacy of governmental decisions (or at least ganda.” In his view propaganda is most effec- remain quiescent), and rational discussion is tive when it reinforces previously held opin- not always the most useful means of achiev- ions and beliefs. The “hypodermic needle” ing this, particularly in the age of mass soci- theory has largely been replaced by a more ety. More recently, for example, the British complex “multistep” model that acknowl- public has been reminded on more than one Introduction xix occasion of the “Dunkirk” and “Falkland” I take to be the liberal notion of education— spirit; it has been asked to consider “who teaches us how to think in order to enable us governs Britain”; it has been assured that the to make up our own minds, propaganda dic- rate of inflation can be “reduced at a stroke”; tates what one should think. Information and and it has been guaranteed that taxes will not education are concerned with broadening be raised “under this government” and that our perspectives and opening our minds, the “pound in your pocket” has not—and will whereas propaganda strives to narrow them not—decrease in value. Therefore, in any and (preferably) to close our minds. The dis- body politic propaganda is not, as is often tinction, in short, lies in the ultimate purpose supposed, a malignant growth but rather an or goal of each. essential part of the whole political process. The importance of propaganda in the poli- Since the onset of total war, governments tics of the twentieth century should not be have sought to come to terms with the mass underestimated. The most obvious reason for media, to control and harness them—partic- the increasing prominence given to propa- ularly in times of crisis—and to ensure that ganda and its assumed power over opinion is they acted in the national interest as often as the broadening base of politics, which has possible. Given rapidly evolving technology, dramatically transformed the nature of politi- definitions of propaganda have also under- cal participation. Of course, the means of gone changes. Propaganda has meant differ- communication have correspondingly in- ent things at different times, although the creased, and the growth of education and scale on which it has been practiced clearly technological advances in mass communica- increased in the twentieth century. What are tion have all proved contributory factors. We the characteristic features of propaganda and are now witnessing the explosion of informa- how can it be defined? Propaganda—I am tion superhighways and digital data net- here deliberately excluding purely religious works. Legitimate concerns have been ex- or commercial propaganda in the form of ad- pressed about the nature of media vertising—is a distinct political activity that proprietorship and access, and the extent to can be distinguished from cognate activities which information flows freely (Noam like information and education. The distinc- Chomsky’s “manufacture of consent”). Pro- tion between them lies in the purpose of the pagandists have been forced to respond to instigator. Put simply, propaganda is the dis- these changes by reassessing their audience semination of ideas intended to convince and using whatever methods they consider people to think and act in a particular way most effective. and for a particular persuasive purpose. Al- In the war to “liberate” Kosovo, both sides though propaganda can be unconscious, I am in the conflict understood the importance of concerned here with conscious, deliberate manipulating real-time news to their own ad- attempts to employ the techniques of persua- vantage. Moreover, for the first time in a war, sion to attain specific goals. Propaganda can the Internet was exploited to disseminate be defined as the deliberate attempt to influ- propaganda. Having declared war on Serbia ence public opinion through the transmission (or, more accurately, on Slobodan Milosevic, of ideas and values for a specific persuasive who has been described as “a new Hitler”), purpose that has been consciously devised to NATO sought to justify its war aims by serve the self-interest of the propagandist, ei- stressing the humanitarian aspect of its aerial ther directly or indirectly. Whereas informa- bombing campaign and the accuracy of its tion presents its audience with a straightfor- weapons. Jamie Shea, the NATO spokesman, ward statement of facts, propaganda packages insisted that “our cause is just.” Milosevic also those facts in order to elicit a certain re- revealed that he was capable of using the sponse. Whereas education—at least in what media for propaganda purposes. By allowing xx Introduction the BBC and CNN to continue to broadcast think of the media as conventionally con- from Belgrade, he hoped to fragment West- ceived—radio, television, film, the press, and ern opinion with nightly stories of “innocent” so forth—but propaganda as an agent of rein- civilians killed by NATO air strikes. Since the forcement is not confined to these. Few most effective propaganda is that which can would deny that the presence of Hitler’s face be verified, NATO was placed on the defen- on the stamps and coins of the Third Reich sive in the propaganda war by having to con- was an example of propaganda, though many firm the accuracy of Serbian claims.Although might be surprised at the suggestion that the NATO’s military strategy was ultimately vin- same judgment might be applied to the dicated, the Balkan wars of the 1990s rein- British monarch’s visage. Postage stamps and forced the centrality of propaganda to war. coins are but two examples of the wider ap- The use of propaganda by both sides in the plication of propaganda. Censorship has been Kosovo conflict—especially the Internet— described as the antithesis of propaganda and highlights the forces of change between the its necessary adjunct, but the role of com- pre–Cold War era and the current globalized memoration in reinforcement propaganda is information environment. The centrality of often overlooked. What better way of rein- propaganda was hammered home once more forcing the present and determining the fu- by the terrorist attacks against the United ture than by commemorating the glories of States on 11 September 2001, which were the past? History has indeed proved to be an planned for their media impact as acts of invaluable source of propaganda. It is no co- propaganda by deed. Propaganda subse- incidence that London has its Waterloo Sta- quently became a major feature of the “war tion and Paris its Gare d’Austerlitz. We need on terrorism” that followed. to think of propaganda in much broader Propaganda can also be limited in its ef- terms: wherever public opinion is deemed fects: recent research has forced us to reex- important, someone will attempt to influ- amine earlier simplistic assumptions by look- ence it. Propaganda can therefore manifest it- ing at “resistance” or “immunity” to self in the form of a building, a flag, a coin, or propaganda. In the short term propaganda even a government-mandated health warning may carry its audience on a wave of fervor, on a pack of cigarettes. Goebbels maintained like the one that followed the outbreak of that “in propaganda, as in love, anything is war in 1914, the dispatch of a task force to permissible which is successful” (Welch the South Atlantic in 1982, or the launching 2002). of Operation Desert Storm in 1991. In the Propaganda may be overt or covert, black long term, however, propaganda becomes or white, truthful or mendacious, serious or less effective because the audience has both humorous, rational or emotional. Propagan- the time and opportunity to question its un- dists assess the context and the audience and derlying assumptions. As Goebbels re- use whatever methods and means they con- marked,“Propaganda becomes ineffective the sider most appropriate and effective. If we moment we are aware of it” (Welch 2002). can widen our terms of reference and divest Here we come to the crux of the matter. propaganda of its pejorative associations, its Communication between human beings re- significance as an intrinsic part of the political lies on a mixture of reason and emotion for process in the twentieth century will be re- its effect: if propaganda is too rational, it vealed. One contemporary writer has even could become boring; if it is too emotional or suggested that we need more propaganda, strident, it might become transparent and lu- not less, to influence opinions and stimulate dicrous. Like other forms of human interac- active participation in the democratic tion, propaganda has to strike the right bal- process. As E. H. Carr reminded us in 1939, ance. When we speak of propaganda, we “Power over opinion is therefore not less es- Introduction xxi sential for political purposes than military References: Carr, E. H. The Twenty Years’Crisis, and economic power, and has always been 1919–1939:An Introduction to the Study of closely associated with them. The art of per- International Relations. New York: Harper & Row, 1946; Lasswell, Harold. Propaganda suasion has always been a necessary part of Technique in the World War.New York: Knopf, the equipment of a political leader” (Carr 1927; Welch, David. The Third Reich:Politics 1946, 132). and Propaganda. 2d ed. New York: Routledge, David Welch 2002.

PROPAGANDA AND MASS PERSUASION A Historical Encyclopedia, 1500 to the Present

A

Abolitionism/Antislavery ships to maximize cargo space. In 1807 the Movement British Parliament abolished the slave trade, The international campaign against slavery and in 1833 it moved to abolish slavery produced such eloquent leaders as William throughout the British Empire. The British Wilberforce in Britain and Frederick Doug- movement remained active, ensuring that the lass in the United States, as well as endur- law was applied and campaigning against slav- ingly powerful works of art with a political ery in other parts of the world. British anti- purpose, including Harriet Beecher Stowe’s slavers helped fund abolitionism in the (1811–1896) novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) United States. and J. M. W.Turner’s (1775–1851) painting The foundations of American antislavery The Slave Ship (1840). were laid by the evangelical religious revivals The origin of the antislavery movement of the early nineteenth century, which can be traced to Britain—where the impor- stressed the need to morally cleanse Ameri- tation of slaves stood at odds with both can life. Advocates of abolition as a Christian Christianity and the traditional liberty of imperative included the free-born African British subjects—and France—where the American David Walker (c. 1796–1830), idea of liberty took hold in the writings of who was best known for his 1829 Appeal to thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712– the Colored Citizens of the World, which called 1778). Eloquent abolitionists included the upon black people in the United States and former slave Olaudah Equiano (1745–1797), beyond to collectively resist their oppression. whose autobiography entitled The Interesting The Quaker campaigner Benjamin Lundy Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gus- (1789–1839) founded the abolitionist jour- tavas Vassa, the African . . . Written by Himself nals Philanthropist (1819) and Genius of Univer- was published in London in 1789. British an- sal Emancipation (1821). Coeditor of the lat- tislavery activists included the member of ter journal beginning in 1829, William Lloyd Parliament William Wilberforce (1759– Garrison (1805–1879) went on to become 1833) and writer Thomas Clarkson (1760– the preeminent abolitionist. Garrison founded 1846). Clarkson collected a wealth of data on his own newspaper, The Liberator, and the nature of the slave trade, including dia- launched the New England Anti-Slavery Soci- grams showing how slaves were packed into ety in 1831 and the American Anti-Slavery

1 2Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement

Society in 1833. Other important figures in- (1809–1865). In 1856 an attempt to hold a cluded Arthur Tappan (1786–1865) and his plebiscite in Kansas to determine whether brother Lewis Tappan (1788–1873). The the territory should be free or slave ended abolitionists’ views terrified the slaveholders in violence. Antagonists included John of the American South, who engineered “gag Brown (1800–1859), who mixed the reli- rules” to block discussion of the issue in Con- gious rhetoric of a stump revivalist with a gress. Defenders of the slave system included belief in the power of direct action to in- Senator John C. Calhoun (1782–1850) of spire or lay “restraining fear” on others. South Carolina. Calhoun’s arguments in- Brown’s actions included involvement in the cluded the notion that slavery was part of the murder of five proslavers alongside Pot- divine plan for the world. Proslavers also tawatomie Creek in Kansas. In 1859 Brown pointed to the danger of abolitionists inciting launched what he hoped would be the deci- slave rebellions such as the 1831 uprising led sive inspirational event, namely, a raid on by Nat Turner (1800–1831). The effective the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry (in Southern defenses of gagging and physical at- present-day West Virginia). He intended to tacks on antislavers proved powerful propa- sweep across the South, arming slaves as he ganda for the abolitionist cause in the North. went. Although his plan was foiled, his trial Emotive events included the murder of the and execution became propaganda in their abolitionist printer and preacher Elijah Love- own right. In his final statement Brown joy (1808–1837). prophesied endless bloodshed over the issue By the late 1830s abolitionism had become of slavery and claimed for himself the status a large and diverse movement and a conduit of a martyr, which he retained in the for religious and regional feeling. The move- iconography of the Union side during the ment recruited many women. Powerful abo- Civil War. litionist speakers included former African The abolitionists remained active during American slaves like Sojourner Truth the American Civil War.Although the issue of (1797–1883) and Frederick Douglass (c. slavery had precipitated the war, it seemed 1817–1895). Some abolitionist propaganda plausible that the Union might be rebuilt material included stories selected for their based on a compromise rather than complete sensational value, stressing the violence and abolition. The abolitionists campaigned hard sexual abuse within slavery. Stowe’s Uncle to link the Union cause to complete emanci- Tom’s Cabin was a relatively late addition to pation and were rewarded by Lincoln’s the abolitionist arsenal but proved an influen- Emancipation Proclamation of 1863, which tial best-seller both in the United States and freed the slaves in Confederate territory. In overseas. The most significant opponent of 1865, following the war’s end, the Thir- slavery among the nonslaveholding whites of teenth Amendment made abolition part of the South was Hinton Rowan Helper the U.S. Constitution. (1829–1909). His book The Impending Crisis The antislavery struggles continued in of the South (1859) was widely distributed by Brazil (where slavery was only abolished in the Republican Party during the election 1888), the Ottoman Empire, and elsewhere campaign of 1860. in Africa and Asia. Major international decla- Antislavery sentiments produced a vari- rations against slavery include the Brussels ety of potential policy solutions. Some abo- Act of 1890, the International Slavery Con- litionists became involved in political action vention of 1926, and clauses of the United through the Republican Party, arguing that Nations Declaration of Human Rights of the West should be developed as “Free Soil.” 1948. At the start of the twenty-first century In Illinois the debate over this issue solidi- slavery remains a major concern for the fied the reputation of Abraham Lincoln United Nations and human rights activists, Abortion 3 with antislavery issues overlapping with the persuaded Congress to include information problem of human trafficking associated with about abortion as one of the items forbidden illegal migration. by legislation. Nicholas J.Cull Margaret Sanger (1879–1966) dealt with See also Britain (Eighteenth Century); Civil War the problem from another angle, namely, (United States); Garrison, William Lloyd; birth control.A progressive reformer, Sanger Lincoln,Abraham; Narrative of the Life of saw firsthand the death of a poor working Frederick Douglass . . .; Uncle Tom’s Cabin;United States woman who could not afford to have another References: Azevedo, Celia M. Abolitionism in the child and whose husband refused to use a United States and Brazil:A Comparative Perspective. condom. The U.S. Supreme Court dealt with New York: Garland, 1995; Davis, David Brion. contraception in Griswold v. Connecticut The Problem of Slavery in Western Culture.New (1973). Justice William O. Douglas (1898– York: Oxford University Press, 1988; Jeffrey, 1980), writing for the majority, upheld a Julie Roy. The Great Silent Army of Abolitionism: Ordinary Women in the Antislavery Movement. couple’s right to contraception (including in- Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina formation about contraception) in a piece of Press, 1998; Oldfield, J. R. Popular Politics and convoluted reasoning: “Specific guarantees British Anti-Slavery:The Mobilisation of Public have penumbras, formed by emanations from Opinion against the Slave Trade,1787–1807. those guarantees that help give them life and Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995; Quarles, Benjamin. Black Abolitionists. substance.” In other words, the right to pri- New York: Oxford University Press, 1969; vacy was now guaranteed by the Court, and Thomas, Hugh. The Slave Trade:The Story of the contraception was one of those rights. Atlantic Slave Trade,1440–1870. London: The Court turned to abortion in Roe v. Picador, 1997. Wade (1973), one of the most contested rul- ings it ever made. Jane Roe—actually Norma McCorvey (1947– )—got pregnant Abortion and had an abortion. This was illegal in Abortion remains a major issue in political Texas, where she was a resident. The divided propaganda in the United States today. Court made abortion legal, in effect guaran- “Abortions will not let you forget,” wrote teeing abortion on demand for any woman Gwendolyn Brooks (1917– ) in her poem “A in the United States, claiming that the right Street in Bronzeville” (1945). “You remem- to privacy was guaranteed by the due ber the children you got that you did not process clause of the Fourteenth Amend- get.” The New Penguin English Dictionary ment. Legal scholars debated whether the (2000) defines abortion as “the induced ex- Court had reached a verdict based on flawed pulsion of a foetus for the purpose of termi- reasoning. The Court’s line of reasoning sug- nating a pregnancy.”As such, there is nothing gested that abortion was strictly gender-spe- new about terminating an unwanted preg- cific: it was women who got pregnant. The nancy, and Gwendolyn Brooks intended to right to abortion should therefore be pro- shock her white readers by reminding them tected by the equal protection clause under that among poor blacks abortion was some- the Fourteenth Amendment, which makes it thing all too familiar. Only in the nineteenth unconstitutional to treat some citizens dif- century was abortion criminalized thanks to ferently than others. There is much to rec- the efforts of Anthony Comstock (1844– ommend this line of reasoning. 1915). In 1873 the U.S. Congress passed an The Court’s decision was bitterly con- Act for the Suppression of Trade in, and Cir- tested by many on religious grounds. The re- culation of Obscene Literature and Articles sult was a substantial “right to life” move- for Immoral Use, which was intended to im- ment, promoted by many religious faiths prove the morals of all Americans. Comstock besides the Roman Catholic Church. “Right 4 Abortion

Freedom of/from Choice Planned Parenthood poster,depicting Supreme Court justices,by Robbie Conal.(Henry Diltz/Corbis)

to life” zealots have defended the idea of mur- of ending. Feminists continue to insist that dering doctors who do abortions. Abortion abortion is part of the move to make America clinics, once found in most large American equal for male and female. Opponents insist cities, were picketed to prevent pregnant that that life begins at the point of conception women from entering.An anti–Ku Klux Klan and that after that moment the termination law from the 1870s was invoked to force of any pregnancy is murder. The Roman such protestors to stay away from abortion Catholic Church in particular insists that the clinics. trimester plan permitting abortions in the Critics of Roe v.Wade, and there are many, first three months of pregnancy but not feel the Court moved too rapidly on a divi- later—the plan enunciated in Roe—is simply sive topic; local government should first have legalized murder. The result is a decision that discussed the issues, giving those with reli- mirrors the notorious statement of Andrew gious differences ample time to voice their Jackson regarding Justice John Marshall’s rul- views. Instead, the Court rushed into an area ing on behalf of the Cherokee Nation: “Mr. of public policy where there was much con- Marshall has made his decision; now let him fusion, forcing a feminist decision that enforce it.” Abortion attracts propagandists pleased some but infuriated others. The re- on both sides of the issue—gruesome photo- sult is continuing conflict. In recent presiden- graphs of fetuses versus lurid accounts of tial campaigns, candidates have been careful botched illegal abortions. Abortion is heavily to say as little about abortion rights as possi- politicized; its connection with the emanci- ble; promises to overturn Roe have had little pation of women is obscured; its religious result so far. Americans are deeply divided opponents are ascendant. She who is without over abortion, and this division shows no sign proper voice is the poor teenage girl who has Advertising 5 just become pregnant and does not know ganda campaigns on the “home front” in what to do. Ronald Reagan’s so called Second Cold War. David Culbert The ADL’s current campaigns include ensur- See also Elections (United States); Friedan, ing the continued separation of church and Betty; Religion state and contesting Holocaust denial and References: Faux, Marian. Roe v.Wade.New anti-Semitism at the extremes of both black York: Mentor, 1992; Hull, N. E. H., and Peter Charles Hoffer, Roe v.Wade:The Abortion Rights and white American politics. The ADL has Controversy in American History. Lawrence: been particularly effective at exposing anti- University Press of Kansas, 2001; Garrow, Semitic propaganda on the Internet. David. Liberty and Sexuality:The Right to Privacy Nicholas J.Cull and the Making of Roe v.Wade. New York: See also Anti-Semitism; Civil Rights Movement; Penguin, 1994. Holocaust Denial; Protocols of the Elders of Zion; United States (Progressive Era) References: Cohen, Oscar, and Stanley Wexler, eds. “Not the Work of a Day”:Anti-Defamation ADL (Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith Oral Memoirs. New York: League of B’nai B’rith) [Anti-Defamation] League, 1987; Moore, American-based civil rights organization ded- Deborah Dash. B’nai B’rith and the Challenge of icated to fighting anti-Semitic propaganda. Ethnic Leadership. Albany: SUNY Press, 1981; The Anti-Defamation League was founded in Snyder, Jill Donnie, and Eric K. Goodman. Friend of the Court,1947–1982:The Anti- 1913 by Chicago lawyer Sigmund Livingston Defamation League of B’nai B’rith. New York: (1872–1946) under the auspices the Inde- [Anti-Defamation] League, 1983. pendent Order of B’nai B’rith. Livingston defined its mission as follows:“To stop, by ap- peals to reason and conscience, and if neces- Advertising sary, by appeals to law, the defamation of the Modern advertising is a product of the late Jewish people...to secure justice and fair nineteenth century and reflects the changes treatment to all citizens alike . . . put an end that took place in the economy and the revo- forever to unjust and unfair discrimination lutionary transformations that occurred in against and ridicule of any sect or body of cit- the communications field. In response to the izens.” Early campaigns included a mass mail- Industrial Revolution, advertising’s early de- ing to all American newspaper editors urging velopment was linked to that of the mass-cir- them not to use anti-Semitic language. Liv- culation newspapers. American and Euro- ingston himself wrote pamphlets denouncing pean newspapers prior to the nineteenth the notorious anti-Semitic forgery Protocols of century had published short, factual, paid ad- the Elders of Zion. The ADL was involved in vertisements that occasionally contained a general antiracist and civil rights work and persuasive element. In the main, however, played an important role in the 1950s and they tended to be what we would now term 1960s. On occasion the ADL has been in- “classified” advertising intended to inform volved in propaganda within the United potential customers of the availability of States relating to international issues affect- goods and services. ing Jews. In the late 1960s the ADL sought to In the final two decades of the nineteenth combat anti-Israeli/pro-Arab propaganda century the situation changed as a result of with a radio program called “Dateline Israel” the emergence of mass-circulation newspa- to present ordinary life in the country. In the pers and magazines, both of which depended 1980s the ADL championed the cause of the upon advertising revenue. The small factual so-called Refuseniks—Jewish Russians un- notices were replaced by larger advertise- able to leave the Soviet Union; this became ments intended to stand out from the printed one of the most visible anti-Soviet propa- page. This fundamental change in the physical 6 Advertising appearance of advertisements—large print, ingly, propaganda for the masses had to be pictures, and even some color—reflected a simple, focusing on as few points as possible, substantial shift in intention: the main pur- which then had to be repeated many times, pose of advertising was now to persuade the concentrating on such emotional elements as purchaser to buy goods and services rather love and hatred. One of the ramifications of than simply to provide information. mass society and psychological advertising— In the 1880s brand names were first used especially in the United States—was that ad- as a means of distinguishing products that vertisements moved away from the product were more or less identical. Brand-name ad- and increasingly focused more on the con- vertising tried to persuade the public to asso- sumer in an attempt to convince the masses ciate a particular brand with quality and that conspicuous consumption was essential other desirable attributes. Slogans and catch- for their well-being. phrases became ubiquitous. Perhaps the most Although American advertisers continued famous early example of an advertising slo- to exploit the printed word, beginning in the gan that created a popular awareness of a late 1920s they were able to exploit the new product was “Good Morning! Have you used medium of radio, which had gained nation- Pears’ Soap?” The slogan became part of wide coverage with the creation of broadcast- everyday language in Britain and served to ing networks. In 1928 the American Tobacco distinguish Pears soap from its competitors. Company illustrated the power of this new The period 1890–1914 witnessed the de- medium when it increased sales of Lucky velopment of fully fledged advertising agen- Strike cigarettes by 47 percent in two months cies. Large-scale advertising campaigns were after embarking on a concerted radio adver- launched that coordinated newspaper and tising campaign. By the 1930s, as its audience magazine advertisements with outdoor expanded, radio advertising became more so- poster advertisements and shopfront dis- phisticated, with radio “personalities” emerg- plays. With mass production came mass con- ing as both entertainers and salespeople. sumption and the need for mass persuasion. Women in particular were targeted since For example, the total annual volume of ad- they tended to be at home most of the day; vertising in the United States expanded rap- radio advertisements combined an emphasis idly from $682 million in 1914 to $1.409 bil- on progress with appeals to traditional values lion in 1919 and $2.987 billion in 1929. of domesticity. As advertising revenue in- World War I marked another watershed in creased, radio networks now interwove ad- the development of modern advertising. Fol- vertisements into the entertainment sched- lowing the experiences of wartime propa- ules. By 1930 advertising provided almost ganda and the imperative need to manipulate 100 percent of the revenue for radio pro- public opinion in the first total war, “psycho- grams in the United States. (This would later logical advertising” was introduced in the in- be the case for television.) Whereas Ameri- terwar period, heavily influenced by the new can advertising in the 1920s and 1930s (in field of behavioral psychology, which claimed contrast to European advertising) appealed that consumers were best reached through to middle-class values, even outside the emotional appeals rather than reason. It is no United States advertisers gradually began to coincidence that during the interwar period identify the masses as “consumers” rather fascist states also based their propaganda than “citizens.” along these lines. Both Hitler and Mussolini American advertisers lent their talents to saw propaganda as a vehicle of political sales- national propaganda by cooperating with the manship in a mass market. The masses were Office of War Information during World viewed as malleable and corrupt, swayed not War II.After the war, advertisers formed the by their brains but by their emotions.Accord- Advertising Council, which sponsored a Africa 7 number of patriotic propaganda campaigns, model emphasizes the complexity of this re- the most famous being the “Freedom Train” lationship and the need to understand adver- exhibition, which traveled throughout the tising—and media influence in general—as a United States between 1947 and 1950, and product of the interaction with broader cul- the “People’s Capitalism” exhibition, which tural factors. toured the world under the auspices of the David Welch United States Information Agency (USIA) See also Freedom Train; Thatcher, Margaret; during the mid-1950s. Senior advertising ex- United States; USIA; World War I; World War ecutives who subsequently moved into state II (United States) References: Boorstin, Daniel J. The Image.New propaganda included William Benton York:Vintage, 1961; Marchand, Roland. (1900–1973), founder of Benton and Advertising the American Dream:Making Way for Bowles, who pioneered U.S. postwar propa- Modernity.Berkeley: University of California ganda overseas in his capacity as assistant Press, 1986; Pope, Daniel. The Making of Modern secretary of state for public affairs from Advertising. New York: Basic Books, 1983; 1945 to 1947. Schudson, Michael. Advertising:The Uneasy Persuasion.New York: Basic Books, 1984. After World War II assumptions about the power of advertising were informed by a new liberal critique of society. Particularly influential in the 1950s and 1960s were the Africa economist John Kenneth Galbraith (1908– ) The African continent has witnessed the fol- and the historian David M. Potter (1910– lowing uses of propaganda: spread religion; 1971), both of whom questioned the im- support imperialism; rally support for world mense influence that advertising wielded in wars and the Cold War; support white mi- American society. Liberal critics argued that nority regimes; and support decolonization not only did advertising raise the price of and nation building. Today propaganda is rou- products (since manufacturers passed on the tinely used to bolster the one-party rule that cost of advertising to the consumer) but it characterizes many states in the region, the also operated against rational consumer most notorious contemporary exponent choice and the efficient use of resources. The being President Robert Mugabe of Zim- manipulative influence of advertisements babwe (1912– ). created false needs by persuading consumers The African continent can be divided into to buy products that they did not need. In two distinct regions: North Africa, with its the 1960s Marxist writers like Herbert Mar- Arabic-speaking Islamic heritage, and sub-Sa- cuse (1898–1979) also made a distinction haran Africa. Islam has also played an impor- between real and false needs and condemned tant role in much of West Africa. The entire the burgeoning advertising industry for in- continent was profoundly affected by imperi- stilling illusory attractions of consumerism alism. Only Liberia and Ethiopia survived the as a capitalist mechanism for controlling the nineteenth century unconquered. Colonial- working class. In the late 1960s and 1970s ism remains a major issue in African propa- these liberal and Marxist critiques were ganda as an explanation of African poverty. themselves questioned by scholars, who ar- Southern Africa retains a substantial white gued that advertising was not as powerful as presence, especially in South Africa. was previously assumed. Such conclusions, Propaganda about Africa began in ancient replacing earlier assumptions about the all- times with legends about the savage lands be- powerful impact of the media on mass atti- yond civilization. Europeans of the twelfth tudes and values, are confirmed by recent century imagined a lost Christian kingdom be- scholarship devoted to the history of the yond the realm of Islam ruled by Prester John. mass media. A newer, more sophisticated Such ideas conditioned European reactions to 8Africa sub-Saharan Africa during the Renaissance. European imperialism rested on propa- After accepting Africans as profoundly “other,” ganda both at home and in the African it was only a short step to accepting their en- colony. European education emphasized the slavement to provide the labor force for the inferiority of Africans and the superiority of conquest of the New World. One of the earli- the white race, whose destiny was to rule est examples of African propaganda is the anti- Africa. In this view Africa became the “Dark slavery autobiography written by former slave Continent” needing white enlightenment. Olaudah Equiano (1745–1797) entitled The Western tools of communication such as Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano photography, mapmaking and, in due course, or Gustavas Vassa, the African . . . Written by Him- cinematography were all used wittingly or self,which was published in London in 1789. unwittingly to elevate the white and deni- Traditional African societies developed grate the black. Novelists whose fictions per- complex systems of political communication. petuated stereotypes of Africa include H. Successful exponents could accomplish con- Rider Haggard (1856–1925), author of King siderable feats of mobilization, as was demon- Solomon’s Mines (1885). African subjects were strated by Shaka (c. 1787–1828), who founded a favorite of the early French documentari- the Zulu nation in the early 1800s, and his ans. Later filmmakers—such as the postwar nephew Cetewayo, or Cetshwayo (c. 1836– French ethnographic filmmaker Jean Rouch 1884), who scored early successes against the (1917– )—have sought to combat the British in the Anglo-Zulu War (1879). Tradi- stereotypes of the past, although their subjec- tionally the power of the leader was combined tive medium created distortions of its own. with religious ritual—typically involving Since the 1970s African filmmakers have in- dance—to form a cohesive whole. The potent creasingly represented themselves in dy- mix of religion (especially Islam) and politics namic films of their own, such as the success- seen in places like Somalia is not a modern ful Senegalese director Ousmane Sembene phenomenon. Usuman dan Fodio (1754– (1923– ). 1817) conquered an Islamic kingdom known For the European powers of the later nine- as the Sokoto caliphate in Nigeria in the early teenth century, the conquest of colonies in nineteenth century. Around the same time a Africa was a form of propaganda by deed, Sudanese leader called Seku Amadu built a displaying the virility and prowess of the na- kingdom across the Sahara. His propaganda in- tion concerned. These colonial prophets in- cluded reference to a forged prophecy that a cluded Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902). Latecom- man named Amadu would become the final ers to the imperialist game, like Italy and caliph. Later in the century Muhammad Germany, scrambled to catch up as colonial- Ahmad established a theocratic state in the ism became a vital component of domestic Sudan as the Mahdi (1844–1885). Dubbed political propaganda and international ri- “the Mad Mahdi” by the British press, he was valry. Successive waves of European coloniza- defeated by a military campaign led by Gen- tion brought competing notions of imperial- eral Horatio Herbert Kitchener (1850–1916). ism. In South Africa tension between the For their part, Europeans justified their impe- British and the previous wave of white set- rialistic designs on the African continent in re- tlers on the continent, known as Afrikaners, ligious terms. Christian missionaries like ex- sparked the Anglo-Boer War of 1899– plorer David Livingstone (1813–1873) led the 1902—complete with modern atrocities and way. Christianity did not necessarily breed corresponding propaganda. passive acceptance of Western rule. In Nyasa- Opposition to colonialism created a com- land (now Malawi) a Baptist minister named mon ground for the otherwise disparate peo- John Chilembwe (c. 1860–1915) led an anti- ples of the African continent. The early years colonial revolt in 1915. of the twentieth century saw the develop- Africa 9 ment of a Pan-African movement. Key The aftermath of World War II brought spokespersons included the Jamaican-born profound changes to sub-Saharan Africa. activist Marcus Garvey (1887–1940), who The postwar decline of the old European attempted to link people of African descent powers opened the way to decolonization, in the New World and the Old through his while the Cold War between the Soviet Universal Negro Improvement Association. Union and the United States presented rival Later in the century such leaders included agendas for modernization. With the United the great African American intellectual States and the USSR locked in a nuclear W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963), who em- stalemate, Africa and the developing world braced Pan-Africanism late in life, following became the battlefield for the Cold War by his disillusionment with the prospects for re- proxy. Both power blocs pumped propa- form in the United States. Other influential ganda into the region and competed with anticolonial writers included Frantz Fanon aid packages, student exchanges, or presti- (1925–1961). gious projects like the Peace Corps. Cuba Africa played a role in events leading up became heavily involved in Angola. Follow- to World War II. When Benito Mussolini ing the Sino-Soviet split in the early 1960s, (1883–1945) attempted to conquer Ab- Africa became a three-way ideological bat- yssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, that country and tleground as the Chinese sought to export its emperor, Haile Selassie (1891–1975), be- Maoism.African leaders, for their part, have came a cause célèbre. International support become adept at manipulating world powers came only in the form of words. During to suit their own ends and have made much World War II North Africa became a major use of the United Nations as a forum for theater, witnessing the battlefield use of psy- their aspirations. chological warfare by the Allies with mixed Postwar sub-Saharan politics were domi- results. The Anglo-American compromise nated by the emergence of a number of with the Vichy French in North Africa weak- charismatic male leaders with Pan-African ened Allied moral claims. Britain’s successful beliefs, who led their nations to independ- military campaign against the German gen- ence, including Jomo Kenyatta (c. 1889– eral Erwin Rommel (1891–1944) was cap- 1978) in Kenya, Kwame Nkrumah (1909– tured in one the most successful documen- 1972) in the Gold Coast, and Julius Nyerere taries on the war, Roy Boulting and David (c. 1922–1999) in Tanganyika. Propaganda MacDonald’s Desert Victory (1943); the played an important part in the nation build- American side of the story was told in Frank ing of the 1960s, when emerging countries Capra’s Tunisian Victory (1944). In sub-Saha- sought to create new identities to supersede ran Africa the British used various propa- tribal and religious differences, thereby de- ganda methods, including film, to convince veloping a modern nation within the bound- Africans to serve in the war effort. In con- aries imposed by colonialism. New names temporary terms, they sought to “re-brand” were necessary, so the Gold Coast became colonialism by presenting a “New Empire” of Ghana, Tanganyika and Zanzibar became Tan- interracial cooperation. Such an approach zania, Nyasaland became Malawi, Congo be- helped the presentation of the British case in came Zaire, and so forth. The new nations the generally anti-imperialist United States. faced many problems as debts accumulated The content of wartime Allied propaganda in and secessionist violence flared, with Congo general, with its emphasis on self-determi- and Nigeria suffering acutely. nation and opposition to Hitlerian racism, By the late 1960s many of the newly inde- meant that imperialism—new or old— pendent countries had slipped into military would be difficult to sustain in the postwar one-party dictatorships, which leaned even world. more heavily on the cult of personality and 10 Africa

control of the media. The most notorious ex- system that utilized “passbooks” to control amples of African dictatorship included Idi the movement of blacks. In 1961 South Amin (1925– ) in Uganda and “Emperor” Africa left the British Commonwealth and Bokassa (1921–1996) in the Central African became a republic. Republic. The dictators presented themselves Opposition to apartheid sprang from such as clients of the world powers. In Zaire (now groups as the African National Congress the Democratic Republic of the Congo) (ANC), founded in 1912, among whose lead- Joseph Mobutu (1930–1997) worked closely ers was Nelson Mandela (1918– ). Other with the Americans, while in Ethiopia Men- opposition voices included the novelist Alan gistu Haile Mariam (1937– ) used rhetoric Paton (1903–1988), author of Cry, the Beloved suggesting an alliance with the Soviet Union. Country (1948), which was made into a film The tide of independence and majority in 1951 and also served as the basis for the rule encountered resistance in French Alge- 1959 Broadway hit Lost in the Stars by com- ria, Portuguese Angola, and British Rhodesia, poser Kurt Weill (1900–1950) and play- where politicians like Ian Smith (1919– ) wright Maxwell Anderson (1888–1959). The played to the prejudices of their white minor- ANC smuggled poster and newspaper propa- ity supporters. The most notorious rearguard ganda into South Africa from neighboring action against decolonization was that fought countries and broadcast over what was called in South Africa. In 1910, as part of the settle- Freedom Radio. Like the civil rights leaders ment of the Anglo-Boer War, the British es- in the United States, the anti-apartheid tablished the Union of South Africa as a single movement was able to publicize white atroci- country that included the former Boer lands ties, including the Sharpeville massacre of of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. March 1960, in which seventy protestors Afrikaners played an important part in defin- died, and the numerous deaths connected ing the national culture in this new country. with the Soweto protests of 1976. Interna- Jan Christian Smuts (1870–1950), who tional tactics included an economic boycott served as prime minister from 1919 to 1924 of South African products and a sports-re- and again from 1939 to 1948, managed to lated boycott of South African teams. Among reconcile Afrikaner heritage with loyalty to the voices preaching nonviolence was Angli- Britain and a moderate treatment of the black can bishop Desmond Tutu (1931– ), who African majority. J. B. M. Hertzog (1866– won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984. 1942), prime minister from 1924 to 1939 The white South African government re- and leader of the National Party (founded in sponded to the challenge of the anti- 1912) adopted a more extreme position and apartheid movement with their own counter- championed a revival of Afrikaner culture. propaganda, including radio and television The centenary of the Boer “Great Trek” away broadcasts calculated to strengthen tribal from British influence, which occurred in feeling and divide the black community. The 1938, became a rallying point for racist poli- campaign included an international dimen- tics. Emotive events included a reenactment sion emphasizing South Africa’s role as a re- of the trek. Key propagandists for a policy of gional bastion of anticommunism and empha- racial segregation from black Africans sizing the elements of violence in ANC (known as apartheid) included Daniel Malan activities. Strict censorship prevented cover- (1874–1959), editor of the newspaper Die age of the ANC’s campaign in the white Burger and Hertzog’s successor as leader of media within South Africa. Liberal journalists the National Party. The party assumed power who resisted this tactic included Donald in 1948 as a result of antiblack scare tactics, Woods (1933–2001). Black leaders were with Malan as prime minister. The National “banned,” jailed, and—in the case of Steve Party introduced a shamelessly racist political Biko (1946–1977)—murdered. All Quiet on the Western Front 11

Beginning in 1989 the government of References: Davidson, Basil. Modern Africa:A F. W. De Klerk (1936– ) accepted the in- Social and Political History.London: Longman, evitable and embraced reform. Nelson Man- 1994; Diawara, Manthia. African Cinema:Politics and Culture.Bloomington: Indiana University dela, released from jail in 1990, became pres- Press, 1992; Hachten, William A., and ident following multiracial elections in 1994; Anthony C. Giffard. The Press and Apartheid: he did much to foster what he called “the Repression and Propaganda in South Africa. rainbow nation.” Thabo Mbeki, who suc- Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984; ceeded him in 1999, proved less adept. Man- Morris, Kate. British Techniques of Public dela’s South Africa demonstrated consider- Relations and Propaganda for Mobilizing East and Central Africa during World War II.Lewiston, NY: able skill in addressing the heritage of Edwin Mellen, 2000; Thomson, Oliver. Easily apartheid through the operation of the Truth Led:A History of Propaganda.Stroud, UK: Sutton, and Reconciliation Commission (1996– 1999; Ungar, Sanford. Africa:The People and the 1998), chaired by Tutu, which defused oppo- Politics of an Emerging Continent.New York: sition propaganda by revealing the atrocities Simon and Schuster, 1989. committed under apartheid without resort- ing to reprisals or divisive trials. In the 1980s and 1990s international bod- Albania ies such as the World Health Organization See Balkans (WHO) sought to use modern mass commu- nications in Africa to prevent the spread of AIDS, among other causes; foreign-based All Quiet on the Western Front broadcasters such as the Voice of America and (Im Westen Nichts Neues) the BBC have also played a part in AIDS edu- (1928/1930) cation. Western media coverage of African Both the novel by Erich Maria Remarque events has tended to focus on disasters rather (1898–1970), first published in German in than daily occurrences and more recent suc- 1929, and its Universal Studios film adapta- cess stories such as that of Eritrea, thereby tion of 1930 directed by Lewis Milestone perpetuating stereotypes. (1895–1980) are potent examples of propa- In the 1990s Africa provided an object les- ganda for peace. Both presented a devastating son in the power of the media. American TV picture of World War I from the point of news coverage of events in Somalia first ne- view of a small group of German soldiers. cessitated U.S. intervention and then—when They join the army fresh out of school, fired the TV images turned horrific—forced a by the patriotic speeches of their teacher, but withdrawal. In Rwanda, where the conflict soon learn the harsh realities of trench war- between Hutu and Tutsi tribes was not fa- fare. The narrative exposes the futility of a vored with Western media coverage, Hutu war that, the characters eventually realize, is extremists used radio broadcasts to spread being fought to serve the interests of a few tales of atrocities in order to inspire geno- kings and arms manufacturers. The novel and cide. The end of the millennium saw an at- film both exposed the powerful effect of war tempt to turn the media to Africa’s advantage propaganda on European societies in 1914 with the Jubilee 2000 campaign, which de- and themselves became propaganda for the manded the remission of African debts by peace movement of the 1930s on both sides Western nations. of the Atlantic. In Germany the film and Nicholas J.Cull novel were equally condemned and banned by Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945). In the See also Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement; Anglo-Boer War;Arab World; British Empire; United States the film suffered at the hands of Caribbean; China; Garvey, Marcus; Portugal; the censors, who were concerned by the Radio (International); United Nations level of violence and a scene showing sexual 12 Anglo-Boer War contact between the soldiers and a French 1925), high commissioner for South Africa, women. In 1939 Universal released a bas- largely engineered the outbreak of war, this tardized version of the film containing an despite the reluctance of both sides to fight. anti-Nazi commentary designed to fit the Among Milner’s methods was the manipula- new propaganda needs of World War II. tion of the press both in South Africa and in Nicholas J.Cull Great Britain. Cecil Rhodes (1853–1902), See also Film (Feature); Germany; Goebbels, chairman of the De Beers diamond enter- Joseph; Novel; Peace and Antiwar Movements prise, was also heavily associated with ma- (1500–1945); World War I nipulating the press in South Africa. British References: Kelly,Andrew. Cinema and the Great War. London: Routledge, 1997; Kelly,Andrew. critics of the war (“pro-Boers”) argued that Filming “All Quiet on the Western Front”:Brutal popular and political assent to the war had Cutting,Stupid Censors,Bigoted Politicos. London: been artificially contrived, foreshadowing an I. B. Tauris, 1998. important twentieth-century propaganda debate. In 1895 a close associate of Rhodes named Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902) Leander Starr “Dr. Jim” Jameson (1853– Alternatively known as the Second Boer War 1917) launched the so-called Jameson Raid and the South African War, the Anglo-Boer to provoke an uprising in the South African War employed new mass styles of wartime Republic. In 1897 the latter appointed Dr. propaganda in response to recent develop- Willem Leyds of Brussels to serve as its am- ments in media technology and the politics of bassador-at-large to Europe. Leyds organized mass society of the late nineteenth century. propaganda events throughout the war, no- The war was fought by the British Empire tably through the use of cartoons and other against the two Dutch-speaking republics of visual media. Since these were not linked to the Orange Free State and the South African any coherent political initiative, they were Republic (formerly the Transvaal Republic). merely an irritation to the British govern- Given the disparity of strength, the defeat ment, which was nevertheless shocked at the and annexation of the two “Boer” (Dutch for extent and virulence of European scorn. “farmer”) republics was inevitable. But early The war began in October 1899. The British defeats, followed by difficulties and three early British defeats during “Black brutalities in ending the war, earned the Week” (which occurred in December) were Boers considerable sympathy in Europe and more important for their political and propa- the United States, bolstered by a pro-Boer gandistic impact than as military losses. After propaganda campaign. This included the the occupation and annexation of the re- issue of British farm burnings and of “concen- publics had been completed by July 1900, the tration camps.” The first war fought by the remaining Boers changed to guerrilla tactics, British since the Crimean War (1854–56) requiring the British to hunt them down. In against an enemy with access to British and order to deprive the Boers of supplies, the foreign news sources, it was covered by war British resorted to burning farmsteads and correspondents on an unprecedented scale, villages, placing women and children into raising important issues regarding censorship concentration camps (separate for white and and control. The war also saw the wide- black families). The term “concentration spread use of photography and marked the camp” was an old one, although it had re- important early use of the cine-camera. cently gained notoriety in the Spanish-Amer- The chief motives for the war were ideo- ican War of 1898 when it was applied to the logical imperialism and a desire to control prison camps on Cuba. At first the British the newly discovered goldfields of the South camps resulted in widespread deaths due African Republic. Sir Alfred Milner (1854– chiefly to poor organization in handling out- Anti-Semitism 13 breaks of disease. But by the war’s end (May the war were also made in Great Britain and 1902) the British were actually turning peo- the United States. Coinciding with such devel- ple away from the camps. Boer propaganda opments as the 1896 creation of Britain’s first exploited both the British burning of farm- mass-circulation newspaper (Daily Mail), the steads and the countless deaths from disease 1898 Imperial penny post, and the establish- in the concentration camps, as revealed ment by 1899 of a worldwide British tele- through a British newspaper campaign chiefly graph cable system meant that the Boer War conducted by Emily Hobhouse (1860–1926). was reported and propagandized in a new way. By extension, the German government’s de- How the majority of the British working cision in the 1930s to name its Nazi deten- class responded to the Anglo-Boer War, the tion camps for political prisoners “concentra- last in a series of imperial wars of expansion, tion camps” (which were unlike the British remains unclear. Certainly, working-class camps in nature) was meant both to reflect culture was saturated with the propaganda of their unpleasant nature and to serve as a empire at almost every level, from trinkets to propaganda ploy against the British. The per- pageants. But it is difficult to prove whether sistent belief that the British invented the the war met with popular approval in Britain, concentration camp has been the war’s most or even with much popular awareness. enduring propaganda issue. Stephen Badsey Whereas previous British colonial wars See also Africa; Britain; British Empire; Crimean had been covered by a handful of reporters, War; Spanish-American War the Boer War involved about two hundred References: Dickson, W.K-L. The Biograph in Battle. London: Flicks Books, 1995; Gooch, journalists at its height. The improvising of John, ed. The Boer War:Direction,Experience and new forms of accreditation and censorship Image. London: Frank Cass, 2000. Greenwall, laid the foundations for much greater control Ryno. Artists and Illustrators of the Anglo-Boer War. of the press in subsequent wars occurring Cape Town: Fernwood, 1992; Mackenzie, John during the twentieth century. With few ex- M. Propaganda and Empire. Manchester: ceptions, the British also blocked reportage Manchester University Press, 1986; Pakenham, Thomas. The Boer War. London: Macdonald, from the Boer side by controlling telegraph 1979. communications from South Africa. In gen- eral, the British press was willing to cooper- ate, the recent mass-circulation daily and il- lustrated weekly newspapers in particular Anti-Semitism benefiting from the war. British senior mili- Hatred of Jews has been a perennial theme of tary commanders—notably Field Marshal propaganda in the West since 1500. Anti- Lord (Frederick Sleigh) Roberts (1832– Semitism has its roots in the Christian world 1914), who served as commander-in-chief in of the Middle Ages, when Jews were a con- South Africa in 1900—established a system venient “other” against whom a Christian of rewards and punishments that allowed “self ” could be defined. The race politics of them to exercise virtual control over the the Christian Gospels, crafted to blame Jews war’s reportage. rather than Romans for the death of Jesus, re- The use of lightweight cameras, in particu- mained a stumbling block in Jewish-Christian lar the introduction of the Pocket Kodak in relations. Church doctrine vilified Jews for 1897, meant that this war, like the Spanish- their failure to recognize the divinity of American War, was well photographed from Christ and iconography associated the image all sides. An early form of the cine-camera of the Jew with that of Satan. Negative called the “Biograph” was used by W. K-L. stereotypes of Jews were perpetuated outside Dickson (1860–1935) in 1899–1900 to film the church at all levels of society by Chris- events from the British side. Fictional films of tians suspicious of a different culture in their 14 Anti-Semitism

to escape Anti-Semitic prejudice and violence became a major impetus to Jewish migration to the New World and to the development of Zionism. In France a Jewish army officer named Alfred Dreyfus (1859–1935) was wrongly accused of spying simply because he was Jewish. In Russia the tsar’s secret police circulated a fake document, The Protocols of the Elders of Zion (1903), which revived sto- ries of a rabbinical conspiracy to take over the world. Anti-Semitism provided a succinct, all-en- compassing explanation for the social up- heaval that resulted from the Russian Revo- lution and World War I. It married the socialist rhetoric of class warfare with the ethnic chauvinism of nationalism. Anti-Se- mitic nationalist parties flourished across eastern and central Europe. Anti-Semitism was a favorite theme of the rising German mob politician Adolf Hitler and was at the heart of his book Mein Kampf (1925). Hitler blamed the Jews for both bolshevism and Dust jacket of a book published in Munich in 1937, Kraefte hinter Roosevelt (The Power behind Roosevelt). global capitalism. After 1933 Hitler’s Nazi The jacket includes a photomontage of American Jews, state institutionalized anti-Semitism. The including New York City Mayor Fiorello La Guardia (whose ideas of anti-Semitic academics like Alfred mother was Jewish),seen licking his fingers,behind Rosenberg (1893–1946) were taught in Roosevelt;in the background the stars of the American flag schools and figured in state-sponsored films have become Jewish stars.(Courtesy of David Culbert) like Jud Süss (1940). Such propaganda laid the foundations for the murder of approxi- mately six million European Jews during midst. Medieval legends told of Jews sacrific- World War II. Europe, however, had no mo- ing Christian infants as part of their religion nopoly on anti-Semitism. In the United and blamed them for spreading the plague by States industrialist Henry Ford (1836–1947) poisoning wells. Christian Europe relied on distributed anti-Semitic propaganda, and Jews to fill the necessary (but taboo) role of claims of Jewish conspiracy surfaced in the lending money for profit, but this merely sermons of the charismatic radio broadcaster opened a further avenue for racial hatred. Father Charles Coughlin (1891–1971). The The stereotype of the greedy Jewish money- psychological appeal of anti-Semitism was lender was used to justify the periodic expul- strong enough for the doctrines to survive sion of Jewish communities across Europe— the revelation of the Nazi Holocaust. Allu- especially when the king was indebted to the sions to Jewish world conspiracies continue Jew. As non-Christians, Jews became a major to figure in the rhetoric of extreme Arab na- target of the Spanish Inquisition. Despite tionalists and American neofascists, and anti- progress during the eighteenth century, the Semitic rhetoric can also be found in ex- nineteenth saw a resurgence of anti-Semitic tremist politics across eastern Europe and propaganda, which was all the more virulent Russia. The leading U.S. organization dedi- as a result of mass communication. The drive cated to exposing and refuting anti-Semitism Arab World 15

(counterpropaganda) is the Anti-Defamation Cromer’s (1841–1917) belief that since League of B’nai B’rith (ADL). Britain was contributing heavily to the Egyp- Nicholas J.Cull tian economy, it should be allowed to have a See also ADL; Herzl, Theodor; Holocaust Denial; pervasive influence in the running of its gov- “J’Accuse”;Jud Süss;Labor/Antilabor; Mein ernment. The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 Kampf;Protocols of the Elders of Zion;World War represented a major step toward Egyptian in- II (Germany); Zionism References: Cohn, Norman. Warrant for Genocide: dependence. Nevertheless, the treaty was The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the met with fierce opposition by the student “Protocols of the Elders of Zion.” London: Eyre and body, which insisted upon complete Egyptian Spottiswoode, 1967; Morais,Vamberto. A Short self-governance. Among these students was History of Anti-Semitism. New York: Norton, Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970), the future 1976. ruler of Egypt. During World War II Britain invoked Ar- ticle 8 of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty, which Arab World stated that in case of war Britain could reoc- Opposition to imperialism and Israel have cupy the country. At the conclusion of the been the two central themes of modern war, Egyptian public opinion held that propaganda in the Arab world. The region Britain should leave Egypt and accept its has seen the birth of Arab nationalism along union with Sudan as compensation for with the development of the cult of the Egypt’s help during the conflict. When the leader, the manipulation of Islamic princi- British refused to comply, the Free Officers’ ples, and ultimately terrorism.As totalitarian Organization seized power, exiled King or semitotalitarian regimes, most govern- Farouk (1920–1965), and put General mental actions in the Arab world have a prop- Muhammad Neguib (1901–1984) and, later, aganda dimension. Nasser in charge. With Nasser politics Between 1872 and World War I three cur- shifted from Egyptian nationalism to the cre- rents of thought emerged in Egypt in re- ation of Arab nationalism. sponse to the increasing challenges of the Anti-imperialist sentiments were perva- West: Pan-Islamism, Egyptian nationalism, sive in other Arab countries. Iraq declared its and Arab nationalism. The first two were di- independence from Britain after the 1920 rect responses to the political and military League of Nations Mandate expired in 1932. threats of the West, while the last was fos- During the 1930s Iraqi Pan-Arabism turned tered by Lebanese and Syrian intellectuals re- increasingly anti-Western, reflecting the peo- siding in Cairo who believed that the only ple’s desire to be independent and self-gov- possible defense against the West was a union erned. Libya did not become independent of all Muslim countries. Prominent theolo- from Italy until 1951.At the time of the Suez gians like Mohammed Abduh (1848–1905) crisis in 1956, Algeria was still under French insisted that “the community of believers was control. Syria became the strongest advocate the basic political unit, an indivisible whole of Arab nationalism, with Egypt’s Nasser as whose separation into national or regional the undisputed leader of the movement. units was unnatural” (Lorenz 1990, 4). Al- Saudi Arabia had been ruled by the Sa’ud though later contested by both Egyptian and family since 1932. Although it was later Arab nationalists, this view represents the obliged to show moderation in its media core belief of fundamentalist groups such as treatment of the West due to its relationship the Muslim Brotherhood and Al Qaeda. with the United States, the Saudi ruling fam- When the British invaded Egypt in 1882, a ily always advocated conservative Islamic val- surge of Egyptian nationalism spread ues—in particular the teachings of Muham- throughout the population, aided by Lord mad ibn Abd al-Wahab (1703–1791), who 16 Arab World had urged his followers to wage holy war The Voice of the Arabs radio station was against non-Arab Ottoman rule. Wahhabism introduced on 4 July 1953 to “expound the remains the core of Saudi ideology. viewpoints of the Arab nation, reflect the Egypt’s initial involvement with Arab pol- hopes and fears of the Arab countries... itics was motivated by the need to guarantee unite the Arabs and mobilize their forces to support for other Arab states, particularly achieve Arab unity.” Initially it broadcast for Syria and Palestine, but by 1937 Egyptian half an hour each day, but by 1962 it had ex- delegates at a Pan-Arab conference in Syria panded to fifteen hours a day, and by the had expressed serious concern over the cre- 1970s it continued almost twenty-four hours ation of an Israeli state, affirming that it a day. Directed at the entire Arab world, the would have constituted a great threat both to station was significant in creating mass public Egypt and its neighboring countries. The opinion. During the 1954 Algerian revolt next year Egypt’s primary position in the against French colonialism, for example, the Middle East was confirmed when 2,500 peo- station allowed spokesmen for Algerian inde- ple came to Cairo for the World Inter-Par- pendence to express their views on the air. liamentary Congress of Arab and Muslim Some programs were created especially for Countries for the Defense of Palestine.Addi- certain countries, such as Israel, Iraq, and tionally, in 1944 Egypt established the Sudan. Ahmed Said, a trusted friend of League of Sovereign States, which remained Nasser, headed the radio station. Said was de- in Cairo until the Camp David peace accord scribed as a “Goebbels-like figure who re- with Israel in 1979 and Egypt’s expulsion fused to allow contradiction, who conceived from the league. every single program, even music, in political By 1954 Nasser had undisputed control of terms, and censored everything himself ” Egypt and had gained considerable interna- (Hale 1975, 72). Radio was used to instill pa- tional prestige as the father of Arab national- triotism, nationalistic feelings of Arab unity, ism. In his Philosophy of the Revolution Nasser and anti-Israeli sentiments. Between 1 Janu- admitted that the notion of a unified Arab ary 1952 and 31 December 1959 such consciousness developed as a result of the phrases as “the Arab nation from the Atlantic Palestinian dilemma and imperialism. Oppo- Ocean to the Arab Gulf,” “Arab Egypt,” “the sition to the Baghdad Pact of 1955, the Suez Arab people of Egypt,” and “Arab solidarity” Crisis of 1956, and the nationalization of the replaced earlier phrases such as “sons of the Suez Canal also motivated the Egyptian Nile Valley,” “the Egyptian people,” and leader. Nasser’s inflamed rhetoric on this oc- “Egyptian territory.”A program entitled “The casion made him a hero in the minds of the Enemies of God” discredited Nasser’s oppo- Arab masses. He told them that the Suez nents. His personality cult was bolstered by Canal was “our canal... How could it be religious elements and was used to discredit otherwise when it was dug at the cost of imperialist forces supporting Israel. 120,000 Egyptian lives?” Part of the anti-Israeli propaganda made Nasser consolidated his power as a cult use of The Protocols of the Elders of Zion.Nasser leader through the use of the mass media. He often publicly referred to this work and fre- understood that radio was the only medium quently recommended it as a reputable that could reach people in remote areas. source of information about the Jewish race. Television was not yet accessible to the In 1968 a special edition was published and masses and rampant illiteracy hindered the translated into Arabic by Nasser’s brother. In- effectiveness of the press. Nasser expanded numerable copies were disseminated for radio diffusion, put Radio Cairo under his di- propaganda purposes; Arabs who did not rect control, and operated it through a board read foreign languages remained ignorant of of seven members and one chairman. the questionable authenticity of the material. Arab World 17

Nasser aided other friendly Arab countries and alerted the public that imperialist coun- in developing their own broadcasting poten- tries sponsored them. tial through professional courses and the es- Palestinian refugees had been displaced tablishment of the Institute for Radio Train- from their homeland since the creation of Is- ing (1957), which was later done for rael in 1948. Although the Arab states re- television. Starting in 1953, the Egyptian sponded indignantly, talks of unity did not Radio Corporation also sent trained techni- extend to an offer to absorb the large num- cians to Saudi Arabia, Libya, Kuwait, and ber of refugees who had been uprooted from Syria to provide assistance in the setting up of their homes. The end result was the creation radio and television facilities. The rest of the of 53 refugee camps by the United Nations Arab world could now more easily receive Relief Works Agency, where 750,000 Nasser’s message. refugees lived in abysmal conditions. Jordan Anti-imperialism was also used by incorporated about 450,000 refugees after Nasser to divert attention from the failures annexing the West Bank, and 160,000 of the regime. After the creation of the refugees remained in Israel. State of Israel in 1948, Nasser repeatedly Resentment and discontent in the refugee affirmed that Egypt’s military failures camps led to the creation of the first under- stemmed from Israel’s alliance with the ground Palestinian liberation groups. Not Western world. Nasser also attacked Arab having access to the mass media, these groups leaders who did not share his views, calling relied on word of mouth, pamphlets, and them traitors to the cause. Until his sudden speeches for their propaganda. Egypt’s re- death in 1970, Nasser successfully main- peated military failures against Israel acceler- tained the image of a United Arab Republic. ated the creation of the first official Palestin- He established himself as the sole leader of ian political group, the Harakat al-Tahrir the Arab nationalist movement and irritated al-Filasteni, or al-Fatah (Palestinian National the West with Egypt’s steady stream of Liberation Movement). Al-Fatah propagan- radio propaganda. dized by spreading the notion that the dream The countries that opposed Nasser tried of Arab unity had failed and that harsher to counter his propaganda by using strong measures should therefore be taken against verbal accusations. Radio Jordan described Israel and its supporters. Guerrilla warfare him as dictatorial, oppressive, and in charge and terrorism were introduced as the most of a police state. In June 1958 Radio Baghdad effective means to harm Israel. Nasser coun- claimed that “hundreds of good politicians tered the growing influence of al-Fatah by of- and honest men are in the prisons of Egypt” ficially sponsoring the creation of the Pales- (Dawisha 1976, 172). Clandestine stations tinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in were also broadcasting anti-Nasser messages 1964. Located in Jordan, its army was dis- from various parts of the world. Some of persed among Egypt, Syria, and Iraq. these stations used Egyptian expatriates. The PLO proved to be too moderate for Abdul-Fath, the former owner of the Wafdist the most extreme elements of al-Fatah. newspaper Al-Misri, was hired by the French Supported by Syria, which wanted to show government to broadcast counterpropaganda its independence from Egypt, al-Fatah set- from a clandestine station called the Voice of tled on Syrian and Jordanian grounds, Egypt. This counterpropaganda did not suc- launching guerrilla attacks against Israel ceed, perhaps because Nasser’s status had al- and recruiting fighters from the ever-in- ready reached epic proportions and the creasing number of refugees living on the power of Egyptian radio far exceeded that of West Bank. In 1968 Yassir Arafat (1929– ) any of its opponents. Moreover, the Egyptian emerged as the PLO leader. Thereafter the media effectively denounced these stations PLO increased terrorist attacks inside Israel 18 Arab World and continued guerrilla warfare, thereby stroying capitalism, feudalism, and exploita- hoping to gain Western attention. Extremist tion... but the application was a com- groups within the Palestinian movement con- pletely different thing...It did not contain centrated on international terrorism as a any of the qualities of the façade.” During form of propaganda that would finally propel Nasser’s regime, journalists critical of the the Palestinian cause into the spotlight; these government were imprisoned; under Sadat groups included the Popular Front for the they simply lost their jobs. Notable is the Liberation of Palestine, founded by George case of Muhammad Hassanai Haykal. A close Habash (1925– ) and the Popular Democra- personal friend of Nasser, he had founded tic Front for the Liberation of Palestine, the Al-Ahram publishing house. Initially he founded by Nayef Hawatmeh (1937– ). was allowed to maintain his position, but Some of the best-known terrorist attacks in- when he began to openly criticize Sadat’s ac- cluded the kidnapping and death of eleven Is- tions during the 1973 war, the president had raeli athletes during the 1972 Munich him removed from his position. In the end, Olympic Games and several plane hijackings he could only publish books outside of of the early 1970s. Egypt. In Sadat’s own words, “If freedom of Nasser’s sudden death led to Anwar Sadat the press is sacred, Egypt is more sacred and (1918–1981) being declared Egypt’s new I am not prepared to relinquish any of her leader at a time when the political situation rights” (Rugh 1979, 48). in the Middle East was extremely tense. The U.S. government saw the Camp Egypt had been the only country to pose a se- David peace accord as an opportunity to rious military threat to Israel. After the 1973 reestablish influence in the Middle East. The war, however, Sadat’s postwar policy favored U.S. role was of paramount importance for a well-defined peace with Israel. This policy Egypt’s and Israel’s propaganda, not only be- was based on compelling economic reasons: cause of its economic and political clout but the economic strains of Egypt’s growing pop- also because it represented a kind of alibi for ulation; the cost of maintaining a big army; Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem and the necessity of repaying the armaments Begin (1913–1992), who were both facing mainly provided by Russia. Sadat was forced strong internal opposition. In other words, to use propaganda domestically and abroad to the role of the United States as a mediator establish closer ties with the West, eventually made both leaders appear unwilling partici- achieving a peace agreement with Israel. In pants in the peace talks, which was essential so doing he alienated his country from the if they were both to maintain favorable do- rest of the Arab world, which considered mestic public opinion. Furthermore, a peace Sadat’s actions an act of betrayal pure and treaty between Egypt and Israel would have simple. represented an important achievement of the One of the first political moves in the “de- Carter administration and valuable propa- Nasserization” of Egypt was the liberation of ganda for President Jimmy Carter’s (1924– ) all of Nasser’s political prisoners. This gave reelection campaign. After the assassination Sadat a favorable image both at home and of President Sadat in 1981, President Hosni abroad. The mass media was used to achieve Mubarak (1928– ) continued to honor the the same objectives. President Sadat viewed Camp David peace accord, simultaneously the media as a tool to shape public opinion in reaching out to the rest of the Arab world. the interest of the government. For instance, Section IIIb of the Camp David peace ac- editors of the weekly paper Al-Musawwar, cord called for the creation of a Palestinian which supported the views of many former homeland in the Gaza Strip and the West political prisoners, discredited Nasser’s Bank, rendering these territories inviolable. image: “[T]he façade was magnificent, de- Palestinian propaganda had focused on this Arab World 19 objective since the first terrorist acts of the agendas. After the death of Nasser and early 1970s. However, this part of the accord Egypt’s perceived betrayal as a result of the was never implemented. Israel was unwilling Camp David accord, Libyan leader Muam- to renounce the conquered lands of the West mar al-Qaddafi (1942– ) attempted to as- Bank and the Gaza Strip. The failure to create sume the role of primary crusader for Arab a Palestinian homeland had far-reaching con- unity, Palestinian freedom, and independence sequences. Because of its intrinsic weakness from Western hegemony. Libyan propaganda based on its history, geographic location, and focused on the cult of the leader. Qaddafi’s population demographics, Lebanon became Third Way Ideology,published in the Green Book, the natural target for the Palestinian settle- described Islam as the answer to the world’s ments and the PLO’s military and terror of- problems and identified himself as the new fensives against Israel. This was countered by spiritual leader of the revolution.At the same Israeli reprisals, culminating in the partial time, Qaddafi sanctioned the creation of ter- military invasion of southern Lebanon by the rorist training camps on Libyan soil and pro- Israeli army in 1982. Syria responded by in- duced strong anti-Western messages by vading the Bekaa Valley to counterbalance the means of the mass media. Libyan propaganda Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights. The was not successful in the West because Palestinian National Liberation Front was Qaddafi had seriously discredited himself by dispersed among a few friendly countries, supporting terrorist activities against the such as Yemen, Syria, and Tunisia. The Pales- United States and Israel. Moreover, Arab tinian people were once again refugees. countries such as Egypt, Saudi Arabia, and King Hussein of Jordan (1935–1999) op- Iraq countered Qaddafi’s propaganda with posed extreme terrorist attacks like those their own, condemning the Libyan leader’s perpetrated by al-Fatah in the 1970s, but he extreme religious statements as radical and wanted to recover the lost West Bank territo- heretical. ries even if it meant allowing the turbulent Iraq’s Saddam Hussein (1937– ) manipu- Palestinians to settle in his country. Eventu- lated the West into silently supporting his in- ally the PLO was recognized by the United vasion of Iran by playing on America’s fear of Nations as the only legitimate representative the surge of Islamic fundamentalism in Iran of the Palestinian people, and an Arab sum- under the Ayatollah Khomeini (1900–1989). mit meeting in Morocco approved the PLO He also used the mass media in a totalitarian as the government-in-exile for Palestinians. way to foster a personality cult, stressing Before the West Bank was finally handed over modernization and deemphasizing religion. to the Palestinians, Israelis believed that the Both radio and television stations were sub- refugees should live in the neighboring Arab sumed under the Iraqi Broadcasting and Tele- states. Israeli propaganda stressed that the vision Establishment, which was directly Arab countries were responsible for keeping linked to the Ministry of Culture and Infor- Palestinians in refugee camps, which were mation. Radio programs were broadcast in used as the main training camps for Palestin- Arabic, Kurdish, Syriac, and Turkoman, as ian guerrilla fighters. Israel emphasized that well as English, French, German, Russian, the refugee camps were not even supported and other languages. Newspapers remain by the Arab states but rather by the United under government control and are subject to Nations. More recently some Palestinians censorship. Article 26 of the Iraqi constitu- have been allowed to return to the West tion calls for “freedom of publication within Bank, but most refugees still live in refugee the limits of the law.” Therefore, the print camps. press is monitored by the Ministry of Guid- The Palestinian dilemma has been used by ance, while the Ministry of Culture and In- the Arab states to justify their own political formation retains sole authority to import 20 Architecture and distribute news from the foreign press. Political Dynamics. Albany: State University of Despite Hussein’s totalitarian regime, Iraq’s the New York Press, 1971; Gilman, Sander L. relationship with the United States did not Anti-Semitism in Times of Crisis. New York: New York University Press, 1991; Hale, Julian. deteriorate until 1990, when Iraq invaded Radio Power:Propaganda and International Kuwait. Broadcasting. Philadelphia: Temple University In the last decade, peace negotiations in the Press, 1975; Hateem, M.Abdel-Kader. Middle East have repeatedly failed. The Gulf Information and the Arab Cause. London: War reversed Iraq’ s relations with the United Longman, 1974; Kiernan, Thomas. The Arabs. States and turned the Arab state into an open London:Abacus, 1982; Lorenz, Joseph P. Egypt and the Arabs:Foreign Policy and the Search for supporter of extremist groups. Resentment National Identity. San Francisco: Westview, against the living conditions of Palestinian 1990; Mansfield, Peter. The Arabs. New York: refugees remains a common source of anger Penguin, 1985; Rugh, William A. The Arab Press: against the West and Israel. While Saudi Ara- News Media and Political Process in the Arab World. bia and Egypt have maintained closer ties with New York: Syracuse University Press, 1979; Said, Edward S. Covering Islam. New York: the United States, countries like Syria, Libya, Pantheon, 1981; Stephens, Robert. Nasser:A and Iraq have openly condemned Western Political Biography. New York: Simon and foreign policy and continue to support ter- Schuster, 1971. rorist activity. The attacks against the United States on 11 September 2001 demonstrated a new level of terrorist warfare that em- Architecture ployed the international media to the fullest Although architecture may not come to mind extent. Extremist leader Osama bin Laden immediately when speaking of propaganda, it (1957– ) successfully captured the attention is an indisputable fact that it has served ancient of the Western world. Al Qaeda propaganda rulers, religious movements, Renaissance focuses on justice for the Palestinian cause, princes and republics, early European rulers, the imposition of distorted Islamic values for the great monarchs of the seventeenth and all Arab nations, and the removal of Ameri- eighteenth centuries, and modern republican, can army bases from the Holy Land. While revolutionary, and totalitarian regimes. Re- many Middle Eastern countries have con- cently modern corporations have built impres- demned the extremist actions of Al Qaeda sive headquarters to strengthen their images. and have shown support to the United Architecture can serve an ideological pur- States, bin Laden’s reputation has reached pose in three basic ways: it can impress, ac- cult status among some Arabs, who see him commodate, and serve the masses. First, ar- as the hero of the resistance against Western chitecture can impress messages on the domination. public mind. It can do this through the style, Livia Bornigia size, placement, and decoration of public See also Anti-Semitism; Cold War in the Middle buildings. In the eighteenth century many ar- East; Gulf War; Hussein, Saddam; Iran; Israel; chitects viewed architecture as a type of vi- Laden, Osama bin; Ottoman Empire/Turkey; sual language that could speak to the on- Protocols of the Elders of Zion; Religion; Suez Crisis; Terrorism; Terrorism, War on; United looker. They spoke of giving various Nations structures “un caractère,” that is, an appear- References: Baker, William. Egypt’s Uncertain ance that would proclaim the purpose of the Revolution under Nasser and Sadat. Cambridge, building. For instance, the designer would MA: Harvard University Press, 1978; Chapin use Corinthian columns on a palace or a Metz, Helen. Iraq:A Country Study. Washington, pleasure house but not on a courthouse or a DC: Library of Congress Federal Research Division,1988. Dawisha,Adeed I. Egypt in the jail. Etruscan columns were better suited for Arab World. London: Macmillan, 1976; edifices with serious purpose. Such public Dekmejian, R. H. Egypt under Nasir:A Study in buildings could convey their importance Art 21 through sheer size. To catch the public eye cultural centers, airports, and dams. Today’s they could be placed in conspicuous sites corporations sponsor sports arenas, covering along the banks of rivers, at the ends of broad every available space with logos and adver- avenues, the intersection of principal streets, tisements proclaiming their sponsorship. or on one side of a public square. Moreover, High-profile buildings can also be prime tar- one could convey messages about such build- gets, as was demonstrated by the terrorist at- ings by decorating them with statues of tacks in the United States on 11 September rulers or leaders, allegorical figures, and 2001. symbols, or by appending pithy inscriptions. James A.Leith Second, architecture can accommodate See also Germany; Memorials and Monuments; large numbers of people for religious or po- Ottoman Empire/Turkey; Revolution, French; litical ceremonies. The Greeks built impres- Russia; Southeast Asia References: Kopp,Anatole. Town and Revolution: sive theaters and amphitheaters where citi- Soviet Architecture and Urban Planning, zens could come together. Some scholars 1917–1935.New York: Braziller, 1970; Leith, have argued that Roman theaters, arenas, cir- James A. Space and Revolution:Projects for cuses, and hippodromes were at the center of Monuments,Squares,and Public Buildings in France, public life and strengthened allegiance to the 1789–1799. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s regime in power. In the Middle Ages large University Press, 1991; Mâle, Emile. The Gothic lmage:Religious Art in France of the Thirteenth churches provided meeting places for the Century.New York: Harper, 1958; Taylor, populace, where the faithful could participate Robert R. The Word in Stone:The Role of in rituals, listen to religious music, and re- Architecture in National Socialist Ideology. ceive their priests’ homilies. Some large reli- Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974. gious edifices built in the twelfth or thir- teenth centuries, such as Chartres Cathedral in France, could also accommodate pilgrims Argentina who had come to see the sacred spring or the See Latin America Black Virgin in the crypt. On occasion these large spaces also served nonreligious func- tions, such as communal meetings. Art Third, political regimes have attempted to The use of images and symbols as a tool for prove that they have the interests of the pub- the dissemination of social, political, or reli- lic at heart by building useful facilities for the gious ideas is a traditional facet of the visual populace. Roman rulers built highways, arts.All artistic production is necessarily rep- aqueducts, fountains, and baths for their citi- resentative of its creator and its time and zens. Popes continued to support such proj- consequently holds some propaganda value. ects during the early modern period, in addi- The most common use of art as a propaganda tion to palaces and châteaux to house their tool is through the manipulation of narrative retinue and proclaim their power. Monarchs art and graphic symbols to alter the viewer’s in the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth opinion. This function of art has been exten- centuries likewise built roads, public squares, sively used in modern times to engender sup- fountains, canals, and hospitals. French revo- port for ideologies and political regimes, but lutionary leaders called for the construction it dates back to Egyptian and other ancient of public baths, lavatories, fountains, schools, civilizations. theaters, arenas, and courthouses. In the The intimate relationship between artistic twentieth century the Nazis built the auto- production and the state underlies the per- bahn (expressway), youth retreats, and art suasive element of fine art. Egyptian, galleries, while the Soviet Union promoted Roman, and medieval rulers all used art to communal apartment buildings, workers’ support their regimes; similarly, the despots 22 Art of Renaissance Italian states and the early demic hierarchy. Such work, created outside modern monarchies of Western Europe saw formal social structures, loosened the hold art and architecture as a means to bolster of history painting, although its principles, their rule. Art communicated the self-confi- particularly as a strong tool for propaganda, dence of the rising nations of the seven- are still evident in Picasso’s Guernica (1937) teenth century, such as the Netherlands. The and the output of the socialist-inspired Mex- state deployment of art in eighteenth-cen- ican Muralists. The avant-garde rested on the tury Europe is best seen in the work of idea of the autonomy of the artist; hence this Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825), whose mode of art would be challenged by the re- Oath of the Horatii (1785) can be seen as an strictions on art production imposed by intensely dramatic affirmation of patriotism. mid-twentieth-century dictatorships. The Similarly, David’s depiction of the death of strict regulation of the art world under vari- Marat endowed that revolutionary leader ous totalitarian regimes was unprecedented with the status of an icon. David’s later de- in the annals of art history and represented pictions of Napoleon are a prime example of the high point of the appropriation of art as art as propaganda intended to mythologize propaganda. and glorify a regime. Many of the forms es- In Nazi Germany the state sponsored both tablished in doing this were resurrected high and low art. The Nazis imposed strict throughout the nineteenth century, such as controls on all aspects of culture. Artistic in Eugene Delacroix’s (1798–1863) Liberty style and subject matter alike had to reflect Leading the People (1830). the idealized values of the volk (people). This The Napoleonic Wars were a popular sub- contrasts with Fascist Italy, which saw some ject for history painting and narrative art. By crossover between official art and mod- this time the very nature of the subject mat- ernism. The tenets of a “German Art” were ter was calculated to elicit a nationalist re- displayed in the famous exhibition “Blut und sponse. In Spain, Goya’s Third of May 1808 Boden” (Blood and Soil) of 1935, which pro- (1814) became the supreme expression of moted the depiction of idyllic scenes and Spanish Nationalism.Art became a central el- heroic individuals in monumental poses. Por- ement in nationalism across nineteenth-cen- trayals of the workers themselves were gen- tury Europe. erally subordinated to displays of heavy in- The British taste for narrative art was per- dustry, and unemployment was never shown. vasive throughout the nineteenth century. Posters, an immediate form of communica- Celebratory art glorified imperialism, en- tion ideally suited to the government’s aim, dorsing Britain’s claim to a God-given right to played an important role in wartime propa- rule over colonial nations. This narrative im- ganda. Artists creating opposition propa- pulse also lent itself to social and moral com- ganda included John Heartfield (1891– mentary; a tradition of satire flourished along- 1968), whose photomontages satirized Nazi side more academic subjects, as in the work of policy. William Hogarth (1697–1764) and James In the USSR art figured in Soviet “Agit- Gillray (1757–1815). In France this social prop” (Agitational Propaganda). The most fa- content of art established itself through works mous example of Agitprop art was Vladimir such as Raft of the Medusa (1819) by Théodore Tatlin’s (1895–1953) Monument to the Géricault (1791–1824), a polemic against the Third Communist International, a response Bourbon restoration and readable as political to Lenin’s call for monumental propaganda. allegory. Géricault’s artistic legacy can be Agitprop was all-embracing in society: even seen in realism and social realist art. candy wrappers were used in this way. The In the twentieth century the rise of the dynamic tradition of Russian modernist art avant-garde led to the breakdown of aca- gave way to a dreary academic style glorify- Atrocity Propaganda 23 ing the party, the state, or workers. Only po- overseas as symbols of the creative freedom litical posters remained a vibrant and modern enjoyed within the U.S. system. Ironically aesthetic medium. many of these artists had been associated with In Mexico, Diego Rivera (1866–1957) the political left, and their abstract style was a considered mural painting a powerful form conscious rejection of politics in art. Their of propaganda and switched from his earlier role in the cultural Cold War was a case of art Cubist style, winning international acclaim. being appropriated as propaganda as opposed His compatriots David Alfaro Siqueiros to the conscious construction of art as propa- (1894–1974) and José Clemente Orozco ganda. Propaganda art found more fertile (1883–1949) also received such praise. ground in criticizing the U.S. government These artists eventually moved to the United during the Vietnam conflict through works States, where they won commissions and in- such as the famous Art Workers Coalition troduced a new political dimension into piece Q.And Babies? A.And Babies (1970), which American art. Orozco completed a mural commented on the horror of the My Lai inci- cycle in Dartmouth College (1932) depicting dent. The postmodern period has seen the Western imperialism and twentieth-century marginalization of politicized art, although industrialization. Siqueiros completed both totalitarian art lives on in places like Iraq, Tropical America and Portrait of Present Day Mex- China, and North Korea. ico in Los Angeles. Rivera created the most Daniel Cooper famous mural of the group for Henry Ford, See also CIA; David, Jacques-Louis; France; Detroit Industry (1933), which presented a Germany; Goya; Guernica; Mexico; Portraiture; radical representation of labor and technol- Postage Stamps; Posters; Revolution, French; Russia; Spain ogy.A Rivera mural in Rockefeller Center in References: Ades, Dawn. Art and Power:Europe New York drew criticism because it included under the Dictators 1930–45. London: South a portrait of Lenin; as a result the mural was Bank Centre, 1995; Doss, Erika Lee. Benton, destroyed. Pollock,and the Politics of Modernism:From The effect of the muralists on the American Regionalism to Abstract Expressionism.Chicago: art scene was immense, especially in New University of Chicago Press, 1991; Lee, Anthony W. Painting On the Left:Diego Rivera, York: the center of social realist art. Social re- Radical Politics,and San Francisco’s Public Murals. alism in the United States was wholly differ- Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999; ent from the form seen in Soviet Russia. Pearson, Nicholas M. The State and the Visual Artists such as Ben Shahn (1898–1969) and Arts:A Discussion of State Intervention in the Visual Phillip Evergood (1901–1973) took inspira- Arts in Britain,1760–1981.Milton Keynes, UK: Open University Press, 1982; Petropoulos, tion from labor unrest and racial discrimina- Jonathan. Art as Politics in the Third Reich.Chapel tion. U.S. government responses to the Great Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1996; Depression included the commissioning of art Rosenblum, Robert. Art of the Nineteenth by the Works Progress Administration Federal Century:Painting and Sculpture.London: Thames Arts Projects (WPA-FAP). Famous (and con- and Hudson, 1984. troversial) works included the murals in the Coit Tower in San Francisco, with their appar- ent Communist subtext. Atrocity Propaganda The Cold War had major implications for Atrocity stories are a time-honored tech- art, emphasizing the polarity between the free nique of propagandists, particularly in war Western model of high-cultured, formalist, propaganda. It is with the Crusades that the and abstract art against the Soviet model, study of atrocity propaganda in wartime which was figurative and restrictive. The CIA began. Pope Urban II (c. 1035–1099), in a and other U.S. organizations subsidized and sermon given at Clermont in 1095, justified promoted U.S. abstract expressionist artists the war against Islam by claiming that the 24 Atrocity Propaganda

This atrocious image—the execution of a Chinese farmer by a Communist soldier—was circulated by the U.S.government overseas in the 1950s.(National Archives) enemy had ravaged the churches of God in the runner to the type of atrocity propaganda Eastern provinces, circumcised Christian that one finds in the twentieth century.As re- men, violated women, and carried out the ligious propaganda the message disseminated most unspeakable torture before killing them. by the engravings influenced anti-Catholic Urban’s sermon succeeded in mobilizing pop- sentiments for generations and provoked bit- ular enthusiasm for the People’s Crusade. ter reprisals. Powerful representations of martyrdom During World War I atrocity propaganda can be found in the sixteenth-century en- was employed on a global scale. Unlike previ- gravings in the Book of Martyrs (1556) by John ous wars, the Great War was the first total Foxe (1516–1587), which depicted Catholic war in which whole nations and not just pro- atrocities in graphic detail. In 1571 the Con- fessional armies were locked in mortal com- vocation of Canterbury decreed that the bat. This and subsequent modern wars re- book was to be placed, together with the quired propaganda to (1) mobilize hatred Bishop’s Bible of 1568, in the house of every against the enemy; (2) convince the popula- bishop, dean, and archdeacon. In the preface tion of the justness of one’s own cause; (3) to the first edition Foxe claimed that he enlist the active support and cooperation of wished to reach “every man” and the “simple neutral countries; and (4) strengthen the sup- people.” In many ways the horrifically graphic port of one’s allies. Having sought to pin war portrayal of torture can be seen as the fore- guilt on the enemy, the next step is to make Atrocity Propaganda 25 the enemy appear savage, barbaric, and inhu- massacre in 1943. Its repercussions led to the mane. All the belligerents in World War I breaking off of diplomatic relations between employed atrocity propaganda, and as a result the Soviet Union and the Polish government- stereotypes emerged that had been largely in-exile. On 13 April German radio an- developed in the period leading up to the nounced the discovery of a mass grave in the outbreak of war. The Germans referred to Katyn Forest near Smolensk, where Polish the British as the “perfidious Albion” and pro- officers had been methodically killed. Both vided accounts of the Allied use of dum-dum the press and the newsreels carried lurid ac- bullets, mutilation, and brutality, as well as counts of the manner in which the Poles were the use of “savages” from Africa and Asia to slain, charging that Jewish officers of the Red fight civilized peoples. The Germans also re- Army were responsible for the murders. A ferred to the British naval blockade as an documentary film entitled Im Wald von Katyn “atrocity.” Britain, however, is justifiably re- (In the Forest of Katyn) was also compiled garded as deploying atrocity propaganda with and shown in all the major movie theaters in more intensity and more skill than most. Germany and occupied Europe. There was a Tales of the spike-helmeted German “Hun” further tragic consequence of the atrocity cutting off the hands of children, boiling stories of World War I. The discrediting of corpses to make soap, crucifying prisoners of wartime propaganda and the revelations that war, and using priests as clappers in cathedral few, if any, of the atrocity stories had been bells were widely believed by the British pub- true led to a widespread disinclination on the lic, particularly after the Bryce Commission, part of the British and American public dur- which had been established to look into these ing World War II to believe real atrocity sto- claims, concluded that many were true. Both ries of extermination camps when they began the British stereotype of the Hun and the to emerge from Nazi Germany. French image of the Boche provided a plat- In the post-1945 world, atrocity propa- form for Allied propaganda to launch a moral ganda continued to figure prominently in all offensive against a society founded upon mili- major modern wars, from Korea to Kosovo. taristic values, thereby bringing home to its In the Gulf War, for example, Western jour- own populations the unimaginable conse- nalists focused on the Anfal—the Iraqi exter- quences of defeat. Atrocity propaganda mination of ethnic Kurds. Ethnic cleansing, as therefore played a major role in the wave of well as the atrocities that occur as a result of patriotism that enveloped Europe in the early such polices, were strongly featured in the stages of World War I. reporting of the Kosovo conflict. Both Alba- In the years immediately following the nians and Serbs employed atrocity stories to conflict, various investigations, particularly in whip up xenophobic emotions—the surest France and Britain, suggested that much of method of eliciting from the masses savage atrocity propaganda was false. As a result, patriotism that places the blame for every po- atrocity propaganda was never used on the litical folly or military action upon the head same scale in World War II. The British took of the enemy. the view that Nazism itself was an atrocity. In David Welch fact, much of British propaganda in World See also Austrian Empire; The Big Lie; Bryce War II was characterized by the use of humor Report; Fakes; Goya; Gulf War; Ireland; Latin to deflate the enemy.The Nazis, however, had America; Netherlands, Belgium, and no such reservations and used atrocity propa- Luxembourg; Ottoman Empire/Turkey; ganda whenever it was deemed appropriate. Poland; Raemakers, Louis; Reformation and Counter-Reformation; Scandinavia; World War It was used extensively in Nazi anti-Bolshevik I; World War II (United States) campaigns. Perhaps the most famous propa- References: Ponsonby,Arthur. Falsehood in War- ganda coup was the revelation of the Katyn Time:Containing an Assortment of Lies Circulated 26 Australia

throughout the Nations during the Great War. Australia. The Immigration Restriction Act London: G.Allen and Unwin, 1928; Read, of 1902 required that immigrants possess flu- James Morgan. Atrocity Propaganda,1914–18. ency in a European language, a rule designed New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1941; Roetter, Charles. Psychological Warfare.London: to keep the Chinese from entering the coun- Batsford, 1974; Welch, David. The Third Reich: try.This whites-only exclusionist (racist) pol- Politics and Propaganda. London: Routledge, icy remained in force until the 1960s, helping 2002. to keep Australian identity tied to London, as well as preventing the population from grow- ing too rapidly. Australia Film came early to Australia. In 1896 a Lu- Australia, a continent and the world’s largest mière representative filmed the Melbourne island, supports a population of 19 million Cup race. A year later one newsreel con- living in an area just under 3 million square tained footage of Aboriginals. In 1901 Sir miles. Two thirds of the entire country’s pop- William Baldwin Spencer began to film Abo- ulation live in a few urban areas of the south- riginals in central Australia. On Boxing Day east, making Australia one of the most urban- (26 December) 1906 The Story of the Kelly ized countries on the planet. Why Australia Gang, a sixty-six-minute tale of Australia’s fa- has so few people and how those people got mous bandit Ned Kelly (1855–1880)—con- there are questions that have fueled long- sidered the world’s first feature film—pre- standing debates about the Australian national miered in Melbourne Town Hall. The character, which in turn have given rise to original advertising cannot be accused of un- pervasive national myths, all of which are of derstatement: “The greatest, most thrilling interest to the student of propaganda. More and sensational moving picture ever taken!” recently there is an increasing recognition Australian film flourished until the coming of that there is more to Australian national iden- sound in the late 1920s. That, plus the Great tity than gauging the degree of English or Depression, meant that for the next forty American cultural domination. Australia had years going to the movies meant going to an Aboriginal population long before the first watch American and British movies. English settlers arrived. In sum, questions of In World War I more than three hundred national identity have affected official and un- thousand Australians fought in the Middle official propaganda in the twentieth century. East and on the Western Front, of which Australia’s eastern coast was first charted nearly sixty thousand died. This extraordi- by Captain James Cook (1728–1779) in nary sacrifice is captured in the name “Gal- 1770. Britain made Australia a penal colony, lipoli,” the scene of enormous Australian permanently exiling convicted criminals in losses (as well as New Zealand and British) in this “empty” land.Although the policy of per- an ill-fated effort to conquer Constantinople manent exile ended in 1809, the remainder from the sea in an attempt to take the Ot- of the nineteenth century saw a steady influx toman Empire out of the war. The effective of colonists, mostly but not entirely from Turkish resistance was organized by Mustafa Britain. In January 1901 the six Australian Kemal (1881–1938), though both sides suf- colonies were renamed states as part of the fered three hundred thousand casualties establishment of the Commonwealth of Aus- apiece. The experience became foundational tralia, an entity still connected by more than for Australian national identity, and its cul- sentiment to the British crown. Australia’s tural meaning is well captured by the Aus- Commonwealth identity was shaped by three tralian feature film Gallipoli (1981), directed concerns: immigration; the growth of a labor by Peter Weir (1944– ). Some consider Gal- movement; and the need to develop a sense lipoli one of the greatest antiwar films of all of loyalty to a federal (as opposed to a local) time, but one can also view Weir as using the Australia 27 past to justify an Australian foreign policy of confront its Aboriginal past is a troubling isolationism and pandering to Republican, issue for a country that for so long ignored antimonarchist sentiments. this part of its national cultural identity. For World War II presents its own set of prob- example, thousands of Aboriginal children lems for the student of propaganda in Aus- were forcibly taken from their own families tralia in the form of collaboration with the as part of a government policy, a process le- enemy. In 1943 the Imperial Japanese Army gitimized by federal and church-run institu- Secret Service and Australian servicemen tions set up to house these so-called orphans. made a film revealing the pleasant conditions A 1997 Human Rights and Equal Opportu- in which prisoners of war were living while nity Commission report provided detailed under Japanese supervision. The film, Calling evidence of a policy seemingly intended to Australia! (1943), was meant to soften up Aus- force white values on Aboriginal children. tralian public opinion and to make a forth- Phillip Noyce (1950– ) has directed Rabbit- coming invasion of Australia as painless as pos- Proof Fence (2002), a film that asks Australians sible. No invasion took place and the film was to confront a subject traditionally considered forgotten, only to be rediscovered in 1969. taboo by the Australian film industry. Noyce The film reveals Australian POWs and Dutch addressed the propaganda content of his sub- internees on Java frolicking at a country club, ject in an interview: “I could feel in the wind a scene remote from reality, though the Aus- that white Australia wanted a vehicle— tralians are easily identifiable. Geoffrey whether it was a movie, whether it was a Barnes made a fine documentary about the book, or whatever—that got beyond the slo- ethics of collaboration entitled Calling Aus- gans and allowed them to come to terms tralia! Prisoners of Propaganda (1987). Another with the history of race relations in this coun- instance of collaboration, this time involving try” (Christian Science Monitor, 20 February radio, is the story of Maj. Charles Hughes 2002, 7). As Australia becomes a multiracial Cousens (1903–1966), a popular broadcaster society, it is important for all of its citizens to for Radio 20B (Sydney). Cousens was cap- recognize the social costs of imposing white tured during the fall of Singapore. When his societal values on the original Aboriginal in- Japanese captors learned of his credentials, habitants. This will inevitably downgrade tra- they forced him to broadcast from Tokyo. ditional national stereotypes of the shearer, Radio Tokyo (short-wave) carried Cousens’s the digger, and the farmer—all pioneers who first broadcast in August 1942; he worked occupy uncharted wilderness in the tradi- closely with the infamous “Tokyo Rose” and tional national narrative. went to San Francisco in 1949 to testify on Australia’s media history is synonymous her behalf. In 1945 Cousens was charged with with two Murdochs, father and son: Sir Keith treason, but his case never came to trial be- Murdoch (1885–1952) and his son, Keith cause the attorney general of New South Rupert Murdoch (1931– ), the latter being Wales did not feel the evidence warranted an one of the world’s most powerful media op- indictment, though the army felt otherwise. eratives. The father was an overseas corre- Cousens was not court-martialed, but he was spondent during the Gallipoli campaign of stripped of his commission, effectively brand- 1915 and compiled detailed information ing him a traitor. That Australians of a certain about the incompetence of British com- age continue to debate Cousens’s guilt indi- mander Sir Ian Hamilton (1853–1947), cates how sensitive some veterans are to the which he brought with him to Marseilles, behavior of one who, instead of making some where he transmitted his accusations in the futile heroic gesture, did what he was told. form of a report to his own prime minister in Sometimes doing what one is told has Australia, concluding with the observation other consequences.Australia’s willingness to that Hamilton was committing “murder 28 Austrian Empire

through incapacity.” When Sir Keith’s report very different accents, narratives, acting was reprinted as a Cabinet paper in London, styles and mise-en-scene of the American-pro- the result was the recall in disgrace of Hamil- duced ‘shows’ which are regularly broadcast ton. For the rest of his life Sir Keith was an following local productions. Melrose Place, authentic Australian hero, the war correspon- L.A. Law or The X-Files do not merely offer dent who got the Aussies out of Gallipoli. Sir glamourized and hyper-dramatized ‘worlds Keith became the chief executive of the Mel- apart’; they seem not to address audiences as bourne Herald newspaper group and the national or local subjects at all. Theirs is, by founder of the first powerful newspaper em- contrast, the televisual itself, making no spe- pire in Australia, one given to promoting cific demands on the viewer to identity as conservative political values. Sir Keith’s son, ‘Australian,’ but not as ‘American’ either.” Rupert, inherited a reduced media empire in One might deem this an insidious sort of cul- 1952; indeed, Rupert can truthfully claim to tural propaganda; one wonders if such nu- be a self-made man, starting with the Adelaide ances might escape the attention of the inat- News, a small paper left to him by his father. tentive viewer. It seems likely, however, that In 1960 Murdoch purchased the dying Sydney future discussions about the Americanization Paper, turning it into the largest-selling news- of Australian culture—a result of propa- paper in Australia thanks to a racy tabloid ganda—is to be found in such careful discus- style and aggressive promotion. In 1964 he sions of the televisual self. started The Australian, a national newspaper David Culbert for a more serious audience. After that Mur- See also Murdoch, Rupert; New Zealand; doch moved the center of his media opera- Pacific/Oceania; World War I tions to London. In time Murdoch owned References: Bell, Philip, and Roger Bell, eds. Americanization and Australia. Sydney: two television stations in Australia and be- University of New South Wales Press, 1998; came deeply involved in global media with Bertrand, Ina, ed. Cinema in Australia:A satellite television. Since 1960 it would be Documentary History. Kensington: New South wrong to say that Murdoch’s primary focus Wales Press, 1989; Chapman, Ivan. Tokyo has been Australian media, but nobody think- Calling: The Charles Cousens Case. Sydney: Hale ing of Australian media today could possibly & Iremonger, 1990; Goldman, Wendy. The Murdoch Mission:The Digital Transformation of a ignore Murdoch’s powerful presence. Broad- Media Empire. New York: John Wiley, 2002; casting is regulated by the Australian Broad- More, Elizabeth, and Glen Lowis, eds. casting Authority. National broadcasting is in Australian Communications Technology and Policy:A the hands of the Australian Broadcasting Cor- Reader.Sydney:Australian Communication poration (ABC). A special broadcasting ser- Association, 1988. vice offers radio and television programming in sixty languages, mostly to small numbers of viewers. In 1997, 99 percent of all homes Austrian Empire in Australia had television. There are fifty The vast Austrian Empire (today’s Austria, daily newspapers. Regarding the content of Hungary, Czech Republic, and Slovakia) the Australian media, Americanization and Aus- sought to maintain itself through propa- tralia (1998), a book edited by two Australian ganda, which played a part in its fragmenta- academics, states the matter bluntly. Philip tion and figured centrally in the histories of Bell’s essay on television makes an important the nations that came into being in the old point:“What is strange about Crocodile Dundee Habsburg provinces. At the start of the early and The Castle and recent television schedules modern period Emperor Maximilian (1495– generally, is the seamless, invisible (or sel- 1519) used his power as a patron of the arts dom noticed) transitions between the ver- to enhance his position. Court artists in- nacular populism of local programs and the cluded Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528). Fa- Austrian Empire 29 vorite depictions of the emperor stressed his model elevates the role of the propagandist virtue as a Christian knight. Habsburg propa- to the fore as cultural activists across the re- ganda reached its apogee during the rule of gion promoted what they saw as the distinc- Maximilian’s grandson Charles V (1500– tiveness of their particular group. Each na- 1558). Painters such as Titian (c. 1488– tional group had its prophets of nationalism. 1576) portrayed Charles V as a Roman em- In the Czech lands (Bohemia, Moravia, and peror, while the house of Habsburg adopted Silesia) Frantisek Palacky (1798–1876) led Hercules as a mascot, reproducing that image the way by writing a multivolume history of on their currency. Emperor Rudolf II Bohemia and organizing the first Pan-Slav (1552–1612) combined his patronage of the Congress in Prague in 1848. This united and arts and sciences (from his court in Prague) influenced Slavic peoples across the entire re- with an attempt to extend Catholicism. In gion, inspiring Czechs, Poles, Slovaks, Hungary his policies led to a revolt. The Slovenes, and Croats and Serbs living under court trumpeted its victories and slandered Ottoman rule. The Pan-Slav movement used its enemies—most famously the Turks, music, costume, flags, and epic history to fos- whose atrocities both real and imagined were ter a sense of self (as distinct from the “war- widely depicted in woodcuts. The Habsburgs like” Germans or Turks). The movement ral- became the key force in maintaining a lied support in western Europe. The key Catholic mission against the Turks. Hungarian voices of the same period in- The developing print culture of the seven- cluded the poet Sandor Petofi (1823–1849); teenth century was controlled by state cen- Baron Jozsef Eotvos (1813–1871), who at- sors and produced a steady stream of propa- tacked Austrian corruption in his novel The ganda, including atrocity stories during the Village Notary (1844–1846); and the lawyer Thirty Years’ War. In the eighteenth century Lajos Kossuth (1802–1894), an able orator the favored method of Austrian court propa- who fermented opposition to Austrian rule in ganda was extravagant architecture. The ar- the journal Pesti Hirlap (Pesti News). chitect Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach In 1848, inspired by the February revolu- (1656–1723) rebuilt Vienna as a baroque cel- tion in France, the “irresistible force” of na- ebration of Habsburg power. Emperor Joseph tionalism clashed with the “immovable ob- II (1741–1790) relaxed the censorship laws ject,” namely, Metternich. As Hungarians, but emerged unscathed from the so-called Italians, Galician Poles, and Czechs all rose Broschurenflut (flood of leaflets) that followed. up against Austrian rule, Metternich fled into The great challenge to Habsburg power oc- exile. The Hungarians forced Austria to put curred during the Napoleonic Wars, with an end to censorship and to create a new con- their awakening of national sensibilities stitution. The new policy unleashes a flood of across the Austrian Empire. The Austrian propaganda in the form of pamphlets strewn state made some attempt to appeal to Czech across the empire. In 1849 Hungary declared nationalism in their own propaganda—to lit- its complete independence. As the revolu- tle effect. Austria, under the leadership of tionary movements foundered, the Austrians Prince Metternich (1773–1859), resisted na- reasserted their power in the person of tionalist impulses through rigid conservative politicians such as Prince Felix zu politics and censorship. Schwarzenberg (1800–1852) and his succes- The historian Miroslav Hroch has identi- sor, Alexander Bach (1813–1893), who pur- fied a common pattern in the nationalist re- sued renewed policies of centralization, cen- vivals that swept across Europe in the nine- sorship, and Germanization. Kossuth fled teenth century, seeing a progression from an Hungary yet continued to campaign from his academic phase, through a cultural awaken- place of exile, with the lost cause of 1848 ing, to full-fledged political activity. This swiftly becoming a romantic propaganda 30 Austrian Empire

story in its own right. Austrian rule in Hun- acted as a catalyst in existing internal politi- gary continued to inspire resistance; well- cal developments. The state’s “Enemy Propa- known examples include the satirical writing ganda Defense” work launched among the of Count Istvan Szechenyi (1791–1860). In armed forces in 1918 could do little to re- 1867 Vienna agreed to an Ausgleich (compro- verse matters. mise), with Hungary accepting its half of the One of the most effective propaganda dual Austro-Hungarian crown. campaigns of World War I was that waged by In the later nineteenth century Pan-Slav- Thomas Masaryk (1850–1937) on behalf of ism became a major force in Russian politics. his dream of a Czechoslovak state. A philoso- Slavophile authors such as historian and edi- phy professor, Masaryk had campaigned for tor Mikhail Pogodin (1800–1875) used the reform while under Austrian rule as a mem- cause to justify Russian imperialist ambitions. ber of parliament in Vienna. He spent the war Russia sponsored a second Pan-Slav confer- promoting the Czech cause among the Allies. ence in 1867. Pan-Slav propaganda inflamed He raised a Czechoslovak legion and per- Russian opinion to such an extent that it suaded the Allies that his country should be made any compromise with Austria over is- given independence in the postwar world. sues such as the fate of Serbia all but impossi- Even before the end of the war, the Allies had ble. In August 1914, when Austria moved recognized Czechoslovakia as a fellow Allied against Serbia, the Russians felt compelled to power. U.S. President Woodrow Wilson rally to Serbia’s defense, precipitating World (1876–1924) appealed to both the Allied and War I. Central Powers for a peace based on self-de- Austrian-Hungarian propaganda during termination. The 1918 armistice, largely the Great War included the “Red Book” of based on Wilson’s terms, had massive impli- 1915, which detailed Serbian and Montene- cations for the national aspirations of the sub- grin atrocities. Stories included the castra- ject peoples of Austria-Hungary. tion of prisoners of war and an account of The postwar settlement (the treaties of the roasting of a pro-Austrian civilian. In the Saint-Germain in 1919 and Trianon in 1920) neutral United States the Austrian embassy established “successor states” across the Aus- attempted to encourage strikes among muni- trian and Ottoman imperial lands. These new tions workers, the discovery of the plan be- states sought to establish cohesive identities coming propaganda for the Allied cause. In through policies emphasizing cultural coher- contrast, the government believed that its ence over centrifugal tendencies. Perhaps the tactical deployment of “Front Propaganda” clearest example of this was the “Kingdom of against the Russians in 1917 (in conjunction the Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes,” created be- with Germany) paid dividends and aided the tween 1917 and 1918 from the Habsburg Russian Revolution. Austria attempted a provinces of Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia, and similar campaign against the Italian army Herzegovina and the prewar kingdoms of Ser- (1917–1918), but Italy rallied successfully. bia and Montenegro. As part of this attempt The British role in directing Allied propa- to forge a common identity, in 1929 the state ganda against Austria-Hungary (such as acquired its new name of Yugoslavia. dropping leaflets revealing troop positions) In Hungary a short-lived Marxist govern- was exaggerated somewhat after the war. ment of Bela Kun (1886–1937) gave way to Recent research has revealed that the cam- the nationalist rule of Miklos Horthy (1868– paign remained largely in Italian hands and 1957). Themes in state propaganda included has questioned the degree to which “Allied the formerly Hungarian lands (and the mil- propaganda” hastened Austria’s collapse, as lion-plus Hungarians) that lay outside the the British claimed after the war. The best borders drawn up in 1920. In Czechoslovakia evidence suggests that Allied arguments Thomas Masaryk worked hard to establish a Austrian Empire 31 liberal and democratic state and tried to pro- After World War II Austria (which had mote this new identity through the educa- both U.S. and Soviet zones) underwent a tional system, a national flag and anthem, and process of de-Nazification through attendant so forth. Although Czechoslovakia had the propaganda programs. Although lacking full most liberal press in the region, the state was sovereignty until 1955, the country effec- challenged by ethnic propaganda from the tively “relaunched the national image” with a periphery, most ominously by the Germans highly effective campaign of public diplo- of the Sudetenland, who, under the leader- macy. With embassy-sponsored cultural pro- ship of Konrad Henlein (1898–1945), called grams and tourist-related publicity Austria for Adolf Hitler to liberate them from Czech converted itself from the homeland of Hitler oppression. into a realm of chocolate cake, Mozart, and During the interwar period Austria wit- prancing white horses. nessed extremes of both the right and the The Soviet influence prevailed as first Yu- left. In 1927 paramilitary forces—the goslavia and then Hungary and Czechoslova- monarchist Heimwehr (home guard) and kia became Communist states. Soviet propa- Marxist Schutzbund (protection group)— ganda attempted to revive the Pan-Slav exchanged slogans and battled on the streets rhetoric of the nineteenth century to justify of Vienna. An increasing number of Austrians its domination of Eastern Europe. Each na- fell under the spell of the Pan-German prop- tional state maintained a tight control on its aganda emanating from the Austrian-born mass media. Symbolically the chief newspa- dictator in Berlin. Key themes in this propa- per in Czechoslovakia was named Rudé Právo ganda included the injustice of the postwar (Red Truth). After the death of Stalin in settlement forbidding a German-Austrian 1953, Hungary introduced a more liberal Anschluss and the alleged responsibility of media regime. Political liberalization fol- Jews for the economic misfortunes of the lowed swiftly, prompting the Soviet invasion country. Though the Austrian state survived of Hungary in 1956. Many Hungarians fought an attempted Nazi coup in 1934, in March back in an anti-Soviet uprising. One contro- 1938 Hitler moved troops into Austria and versy relating to the latter concerned the forced the Anschluss. Hitler then acquired precise role of U.S.-sponsored Radio Free the Sudetenland as a result of the Munich Europe in encouraging an armed uprising Conference of September 1938, and in against Soviet forces. Some Hungarians later March 1939 he seized the rest of Czechoslo- claimed that the American radio station had vakia, setting Europe on the path to war. encouraged the move by promising military During World War II Nazi propaganda support. Media liberalization was also an worked hard to divide and rule the nations early sign of the so-called Prague Spring in of eastern Europe, exploiting preexisting Czechoslovakia in 1968, associated with the anti-Semitism. They proved particularly suc- moderate administration of Alexander cessful in Yugoslavia, where they bolstered Dubcek (1921–1992). Again the USSR Croat nationalism.Ancient hatreds soon sub- crushed free expression with tanks. sumed Yugoslav national feeling. Hungary In Czechoslovakia during the 1970s, as took advantage of the war to recover its “lost elsewhere in the region, opposition material territory” and joined the Axis. Propaganda circulated clandestinely. This genre was campaigns directed at the region during the known as samizdat. Leading opposition war included broadcasts by the BBC, includ- voices included the dramatist Vaclav Havel ing an unsuccessful campaign to prevent the (1936– ), leader of the Charter 77 dissi- deportation of Hungarian Jews. The war dent group. Havel endured both imprison- ended with much of the region under Soviet ment and the banning of his plays but re- occupation. mained a staunch advocate of reform. By 32 Austrian Empire

1989 opposition rallies had reached such a ible in its most extreme form in Austria, scale that the regime had no alternative but where in 1999 Jörg Haider (1950– ) used to negotiate and share power. In the so- anti-immigrant rhetoric to achieve electoral called Velvet Revolution Havel became pres- gains for the extreme right-wing Austrian ident of Czechoslovakia (1990–1992) and Freedom Party. In early 2000 Haider resigned returned after the separation from Slovakia as party leader to facilitate a less controversial to become president of the Czech Republic. participation in coalition government. In Hungary a reform-minded moderate Nicholas J.Cull named Karoly Grosz (1930–1996) came to See also Balkans; Cultural Propaganda; Funerals; power in 1988 and presided over a relatively Herzl, Theodor; Hitler,Adolf; Italy; smooth dismantling of the Communist state. Northcliffe, Lord; Ottoman Empire/Turkey; Poland; Reformation and Counter- Grosz had a sound understanding of the mass Reformation; Religion; Russia; Spain; World media, having risen from printer to newspa- War I; Zionism per editor, and subsequently held a number References: Cornwall, Mark. The Undermining of of senior positions in the Hungarian Socialist Austria-Hungary. London: Macmillan, 2000; Worker’s Party propaganda apparatus, be- Hroch, Miroslav. Social Preconditions of National Revival in Europe.Cambridge: Cambridge coming its head in 1974. The liberalization of University Press, 1985; Milland, Gabriel. “The Hungarian television reached across the bor- BBC Hungarian Service and the Final Solution der to Romania and hastened the fall of the in Hungary.” Historical Journal of Film,Radio and regime of Nicolae Ceausescu (1918–1989). Television 18 (August 1998): 353–374. Roper, Post-Communist Eastern Europe supports Hugh Trevor, Princes and Artists:Patronage and a lively media culture even though issues of Ideology in Four Habsburg Courts,1517–1633. London: Thames and Hudson, 1976; Tanner, delineation between the media and the state Marie. The Last Descendant of Aeneas:The are still moot. Regional propaganda issues in- Hapsburgs and the Mythic Image of the Emperor. clude the rise of the radical right, which is vis- New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992. B

Balkans while Macedonia remained part of the Ot- Most of the Balkan countries—Albania, Bul- toman Empire until 1913. Orthodox Chris- garia, Greece, Romania, and the nations that tianity also played a key role in national self- made up the former Yugoslavia—were part definition. Over the course of the nineteenth of the Ottoman Empire. The region has ex- and twentieth centuries national churches perienced great religious diversity, including: across the region secured independence Orthodox, Catholic, and Protestant Chris- within Orthodox Christianity. The process tianity; Islam; and the pagan Manichean had begun in 1833 with the Greek Orthodox heresy of the Bogomils in Bosnia. National Church. The Bulgarian Orthodox Church identity developed through resistance to the was independent as of 1870. The process Ottomans in the eighteenth century and continued in the interwar years with the grew stronger in the nineteenth century as Turkish (1921) and Albanian (1929) Ortho- the countries of the region gradually won dox Churches. their independence. This centuries-long Literary texts defined national identities process involved debates, struggles for reli- throughout the Balkans. Vuk Karadzic gious emancipation, international diplomacy, (1787–1864), the patriarch of the Serbian lit- and wars and uprisings. The first and second erary language, was responsible not only for Serbian uprisings (1804 and 1815) began the the first Serbian grammar, dictionary, and process. translation of the Bible but also for a host of In 1832 Greece became the first to gain works that laid the groundwork for Serbian independence. Many of the Serbian, Bulgar- nationalism. The Albanian national move- ian, and Romanian intellectuals were edu- ment (rilindja) is often linked to the name of cated in newly independent Greece. Roman- national poet Naim Frasheri (1846–1900). tic nationalism spread from Greece Most Balkan anti-Ottoman propaganda re- throughout the region. Gradually, however, volved around epics of resistance to Ottoman the diverse cultural communities began to conquest such as the battle of Kosovo in distinguish themselves from the Greeks and 1389. Nationalists stressed the cruelty of Ot- nationalist anti-Greek propaganda devel- toman rule and praised the heroism of those oped. Bulgaria became independent in 1878, who preserved language and religion under as did Serbia (formally recognized in 1882), the Ottoman yoke. Historians asserted the

33 34 Balkans past pre-Ottoman glory of their respective nounced the monarchists as creatures of for- nations and typically claimed a territory for eign influence who cared little for the inter- their nation that covered most of the penin- ests of the respective nations, such as Greece sula. Such claims became a basic premise of or Bulgaria. Pro-monarchists argued that a almost all national mythologies in the region constitutional monarchy was the best guaran- and fueled ongoing territorial disputes.Vari- tee of a democratic system.Absurd extremes ous Balkan movements favored some form of of monarchism include the career of Zog I federation of Balkan nationalities. Advocates (Ahmed Bey Zogu) (1895–1961) of Albania, included members of the Croat-led Illyrian a commoner who appointed himself king movement, which began in the early nine- after having been elected prime minister a teenth century, and Stefan Stambolov (1854– few years earlier. 1895), prime minister of Bulgaria from 1887 The challenges to the interwar order began to 1894. as early as 1923 with a coup in Bulgaria. In the Around the turn of the century nationalist 1930s profascist governments came to power propagandists turned their attention from the in most countries and engaged in fascist prop- waning Ottomans to Europe’s Great Powers, aganda. World War II saw the joint conquest who were ruthlessly and incompetently re- of Yugoslavia by German, Italian, Hungarian, drawing the map of the region. Various and Bulgarian forces. Serbia was occupied and treaties redefined territories, sometimes di- partitioned. Macedonia was placed under viding a country in half and triggering a Bulgarian occupation, while Italy created an strong nationalist drive toward unification (as Albanian puppet monarchy comprising Alba- in Bulgaria), sometimes denying territory to nia, Kosovo, and part of Montenegro. In 1941 a group struggling for independence (as in the Nazis installed the Ustasha regime of Ante Macedonia, which was divided between Pavelic (1889–1959) in Croatia, which soon Greece, Serbia, and Bulgaria). Propaganda launched a massive genocide of Jews, Gypsies against Western intervention has figured in (Roma), and Serbs. The pro-Nazi regime of the region ever since. The newly liberated General Ion Antonescu (1882–1946) in Ro- countries were not satisfied with the borders mania also “cleansed” the Jewish population. assigned to them; claims against neighbors The action was not unprecedented. At one led to the two Balkan wars (1912–1913), time or another countries in the Balkan re- both of which were marked by realignments gion have carried out programs aimed at as- and fierce propaganda against whoever might similating, expelling, or (in extreme cases) be the Balkan enemy of the day. Serbian re- destroying their respective minorities, most sentment over Austria-Hungary’s annexation often targeting groups found scattered across of Bosnia provided the spark that triggered the region (mostly Roma and Jews). World War I in 1914. Whichever national group happens to be in The settlement reached at the end of the the minority—Turks and Pomaks in Bulgaria, war established Romania and the Kingdom of Slav Macedonians in Greece, Hungarians in Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes (which also in- Romania, Albanians in Yugoslavia—has been cluded Montenegro, Bosnia-Herzegovina, seen as an extension of its respective kin na- and parts of Macedonia). Later the latter de- tion and has become a target for allegations of veloped into a federation of republics, assum- conspiracies. ing the name of Yugoslavia in 1929. Despite In Yugoslavia the anti-Nazi resistance was efforts to achieve internal cohesion, national- carried out by Communist partisans, led by ist tensions (often fueled by fears of Serbian Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980), and national- domination) undermined this supranational- ist-minded Chetniks, led by Draza Mihajlovic ism. Balkan propaganda frequently focused (1893–1946). Here and elsewhere in the re- on the monarchy. Liberals in the region de- gion underground Communist propaganda Balkans 35 accompanied resistance. Yugoslav publica- sioned and, after publishing a critical study of tions included Borba, Hammer and Sickle, Ko- state socialism entitled The New Class (1957), munist, and Proleter. At the end of the war the became a dissident and a victim of censor- Balkans lay within the Soviet sphere of influ- ship. In the 1960s dissident Marxist intellec- ence and the partisan movements moved to tuals gathered around the journal Praxis. In- establish Communist governments. Pro-Stal- ternal tensions between the Yugoslav inist regimes were installed throughout most republics included a secessionist drive in Balkan countries by 1948 and lasted until the Croatia (1968). Tito played a key role in in- mid-1950s. Some relaxation followed Stalin’s ternational politics through his involvement death, but censorship and Communist propa- with the nonaligned movement, seeking to ganda remained, including personality cults balance the Cold War superpowers. around Vulko Chervenkov (1900–1980) in In Albania, Enver Hoxha, like Tito, also Bulgaria, Enver Hoxha (1908–1985) in Alba- dissented from Soviet communism. During nia, and Nicolae Ceausescu (1918–1989) in the 1960s both Hoxha and—quite independ- Romania. ently—the Romanian leader Nicolae Ceaus- Religious clashes have long fueled propa- escu looked to China as an alternative model. ganda in the Balkans. The clergy of the region The Chinese alliances did not last long, but have acted as censors and sought to control they provided a fresh theme in the preexist- the minds of their congregations, but during ing anti-Chinese propaganda in other coun- the Communist period atheistic propaganda tries of the Soviet sphere. was equally strong. In 1967 Enver Hoxha of- Since the 1950s national film industries ficially declared Albania an atheist country across the region have produced propagandist after eliminating all religious institutions. epics glorifying their respective nation’s past, Hoxha’s decision was justified by rhetorical such as the numerous Albanian films about reference to the national enlightenment poet the national hero Gjergj Kastroiti Skenderbeg Vaso Pasha (1825–1892) who had written in (1405–1468). Balkan directors in this mold Oh, My Albania (1880): “Don’t look at include the Romanian Sergio Nicholaescu churches and mosques; the religion of Alba- (1930– ), director of Dacii (1967), and the nians is Albanianism.”Along with its suppres- Bulgarian Lyudmil Staikov (1937– ), direc- sion of other religious practices, Bulgaria tor of Time of Violence (1988). In Yugoslavia banned the legacy of the original religious directors like Branko Marjanovic thinker Petar Dunov (1864–1945), leader of (1909–1955) and Veljko Buljaic (1928– ) the so-called White Fraternity, a sun-wor- made partisan sagas, but the so-called Black shiping religion combining elements of pa- Wave film directors, including Zelimir Zilnik ganism, Christianity, and Eastern religions. (1942– ) and Dusan Makavejev (1932– ), In 1949 Yugoslav leader Tito split from critically subverted communist ideology. Stalin and launched his own brand of inde- The supranationalist approach to the Yu- pendent communism, which appeared to be goslav federation gradually eroded, and by the more liberal and less dependent on propa- time of Tito’s death in 1980 it was no longer a ganda. Tito still exercised tight control over viable proposition. The disintegration of the the media and the artistic output of writers country had slowly started from within. and filmmakers by means of a personality When the political and cultural elites aban- cult. Other key figures in postwar Yugoslav doned the federal project, they created the politics and propaganda included the philoso- conditions for the collapse of the Yugoslav pher Milovan Djilas (1911–1995), the econo- state. Novelist Dobrica Cosic (1921– ) ad- mist Edvard Kardelj (1910–1979), and Alek- vanced a notion of Serbian victimhood in the sandar Rankovic (1909–1983), head of the early 1960s and was punished for his national- secret police. Djilas gradually grew disillu- ism. In the 1980s, however, Cosic returned to 36 Balkans the spotlight as one of the intellectuals Politika, which had supported Milosevic in (which also included members of the Praxis the 1980s, and the RTS-Belgrade radio sta- group) behind the notorious 1986 Memoran- tion both became government mouthpieces. dum of the Serbian Academy of Sciences, Through selective hiring and other forms of which provided a blueprint for Serbian na- control Tudjman’s government in Croatia tionalism. Serbian and other nationalisms forced media outlets to stay in line, but news- filled the gap left by the failing creed of com- papers like Slobodna Dalmacija or the Split- munism. This provided a welcome opportu- based Feral Tribune still raised independent nity for ambitious and ruthless officials, such critical voices. The Bosnian media took sides as the Serb Slobodan Milosevic (1941– ) and along ethnic lines and became mouthpieces the Croat Franjo Tudjman (1922–1999). for nationalist propaganda. Antinationalist After 1987, with nationalism rising, the Yu- forces attempted to counterbalance the na- goslav split became inevitable. tionalist hysteria, the best known of which With the advent of glasnost in the Soviet include the independent Belgrade radio sta- Union, dissident intellectuals in Bulgaria and tion Studio B and the Serbian magazine Vreme. Romania began openly questioning the moral Conditions for free speech gradually deterio- premises of communism and calling for a re- rated in Serbia, with the most serious crack- consideration of the official interpretation of down against the media occurring during the the past. Bulgaria lived through an internal NATO bombing of Belgrade in 1999. party coup in 1989, and thereafter full- All sides involved in the conflicts in the for- fledged anti-Communist propaganda became mer Yugoslavia deployed propaganda. Along- commonplace. In Romania a coup led to the side real violence wildly exaggerated reports downfall of Ceausescu, which ended with the of various abuses and atrocities also circu- speedy “trial” and execution of the dictator. lated. Both the Serbian and the Muslim side The Romanian “revolution” of 1989 is now claimed that during the Bosnian war their ba- believed to have been a well-orchestrated bies had been thrown as food to zoo animals. media spectacle, in which television was used Propagandists misrepresented enemy dead as to exaggerate the dangers confronting the members of their own ethnic group or, with revolutionaries. respect to civilian massacres, claimed that the In Yugoslavia growing nationalism defined other side had killed its own people for prop- the politics of all constituent republics, most aganda purposes (as with the Sarajevo bread- of which declared their independence in line massacre of 1992 or the Racak massacre 1991–1992. This act was followed by several of 1999). All parties used documentary and wars of Yugoslav succession: Slovenia’s feature film propaganda, the best known con- speedy secession was followed by the bloody troversy surrounding the award-winning film but short war for Croat independence and Underground (1995), directed by Emir Kus- the lengthy Bosnian war (1992–1995). The turica (1954– ), which was viewed by some crisis continued, with mounting pressure, in as serving a Serb agenda. Kosovo (1998–1999) and Macedonia (2000– As usual in the Balkans, the United States 2001). Attempts to maintain Pan-Yugoslav and Western European countries were in- media outlets (like the television station volved early on. Their public rhetoric was Yutel) were abandoned in the early 1990s. aimed at proclaiming their own innocence, The Slovenian weekly Mladina was an impor- claiming Western superiority over the tant source of early criticism against the cen- Balkan barbarity as reason for the “just war” tral government. Vocal nationalist groups involving the bombing of Serbia over took control of key media outlets and pro- Kosovo. On occasion Western forces shut duced nationalist propaganda and hate down Balkan media outlets, seizing the speeches. The leading Serbian newspaper, transmitter of the Banja Luka radio station in BBC 37

1997 and bombing the RTS-Belgrade station their victims. Humanity is only present on in 1999. The post-Communist power vac- one side in this version of the event. He se- uum of the 1990s saw a revival of promonar- lects emotive details, including the death of a chist tendencies in Albania, Romania, and mother, whose fall sends her baby carriage Serbia. In Bulgaria in July 2001 former rolling down the steps. The film was not espe- child-monarch Simeon II (1937– ), who had cially popular in Russia, where audiences been exiled in 1949, returned as Simeon seemed more interested in escapist Holly- Borisov Sakskoburggotski and won a land- wood films like Robin Hood (1922), but it was slide victory as prime minister. an important piece of propaganda overseas, Dina Iordanova where, despite Western censorship, it won See also Bosnian Crisis and War; Greece; Kosovo sympathy for the Soviet Union. Crisis and War; Ottoman Empire/Turkey; Nicholas J.Cull Russia See also The Birth of a Nation; Eisenstein, Sergei; References: Glenny, Misha. The Balkans, Film (Documentary); Film (Feature); Russia 1804–1999:Nationalism,War and the Great References: Barna, Ion. Eisenstein. London: Powers. London: Granta, 1999; Mazower, Mark. Secker and Warburg, 1973; Marshall, Herbert, The Balkans. London: Weidenfeld and ed. The “Battleship Potemkin”:The Greatest Film Nicholson, 2000; Robinson, Gertrude. Tito’s Ever Made.New York:Avon, 1978; Taylor, Maverick Media:The Politics of Mass Communication Richard. The Battleship Potemkin.London: I. B. in Yugoslavia. Urbana: University of Illinois Tauris, 2000; Taylor, Richard, ed. S. M. Press, 1977; Thompson, Mark. Forging War:The Eisenstein:Writings,1922–1934. Bloomington: Media in Serbia,Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina. Indiana University Press, 1988. Luton, UK: Luton University Press, 1999; Wachtel,Andrew. Making a Nation,Breaking a Nation:Literature and Cultural Politics in Yugoslavia. Stanford, CA: Stanford University BBC (British Broadcasting Press, 1998. Corporation) Britain’s national broadcasting organization has served as the propaganda arm of the Battleship Potemkin (1926) British government overseas—and occasion- This film, directed by Sergei Eisenstein ally at home as well. The BBC was chartered (1898–1948) for the state film studio in 1926 as a public body to succeed the radio Goskino, represents the pinnacle of Soviet manufacturers’ own creation, the British film propaganda. The film presents a fictional- Broadcasting Company, which was founded ized account of a key event in the revolution in 1922. John Reith (1889–1971), its first di- of 1905, namely, the mutiny aboard the bat- rector general, believed that the BBC had a tleship Potemkin while at anchor off the duty to educate. The corporation’s bias was Crimean port of Odessa. It set a new standard socially conservative, which was hardly sur- in filmmaking technique. Potemkin is best prising when one realizes its controlling known for a sequence in which tsarist soldiers board was top-heavy with establishment fig- massacre sympathetic civilians on the Odessa ures. During the General Strike of 1926 its steps. To bring this sequence to life Eisenstein airwaves were commandeered to powerful makes excellent use of montage, or “Ameri- effect by the government. can editing”—involving a rapid sequence of In 1932 the corporation branched out and multiple images to stir the audience—pio- became an external arm of the British gov- neered in American films like The Birth of a ernment’s cultural propaganda, inaugurating Nation (1915). Eisenstein shows ranks of an English-language Empire Service to pro- boots advancing relentlessly down the steps, mote imperial cohesion. An Arabic service transforming the tsarist soldiers into an im- followed in 1938 to counter the dictatorial personal machine, while showing the faces of powers ruling the Middle East. Broadcasts 38 Beaverbrook, Max

were funded and guided by the Foreign Of- During the 1990s the BBC became a major fice. During the buildup leading up to and player in international satellite news. The ex- throughout World War II BBC external ser- port of BBC news and feature programs re- vices multiplied to include a plethora of lan- mains a major element in British cultural guages, broadcasting to Allied, enemy, and projection overseas. neutral territories alike. The BBC sought to Nicholas J.Cull gain a reputation for credibility as a news ser- See also Britain; British Empire; Cold War; vice. This contrasted with the totalitarian ap- Falklands/Malvinas War; Ireland; Psychological proach to propaganda and ensured that when Warfare; Radio (Domestic); Radio (International); Reith, Lord John; Suez Crisis; the British really needed to lie, it was likely Television; Thatcher, Margaret; The War Game to be believed. At home the BBC was an es- References: Briggs,Asa. The BBC:The First Fifty sential instrument of domestic wartime Years. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985; propaganda and helped maintain both morale Negrine, Ralph. Television and the Press since and political cohesion. Successful broadcast- 1945. Manchester: Manchester University ers included Prime Minister Winston Press, 1998; Nelson, Michael. War of the Black Heavens:The Battles of Western Broadcasting in the Churchill (1874–1965) and writer J. B. Cold War. London: Brassey’s, 1997; Walker, Priestley (1894–1984), who used the BBC to Andrew. A Skyful of Freedom. London: BBC, advance ideas of the war as an opportunity 1992. for social reform. After the war, the BBC’s foreign-language services were regrouped into the World Ser- Beaverbrook, Max (1879–1964) vice and played a major role in Cold War William Maxwell Aitken, the first Baron propaganda aimed at the Communist net- Beaverbrook, became synonymous with work. It is a testament to its potency that British propaganda when, in 1918, he be- broadcasts were frequently jammed in the came Britain’s wartime minister of informa- Eastern bloc. At home the BBC was slow to tion. Born in Canada, Beaverbrook made his become a prime forum for political debate. fortune in business, moved to Britain, and Since 1944 the BBC had been forced to wait entered politics. His tenure as minister two weeks before carrying political comment brought a cohesion and direction to British on an issue being debated in Parliament. This propaganda policy that had been lacking ear- rule withered following the Suez Crisis of lier in the war. In 1919 he focused his ener- 1956. Subsequently BBC programming be- gies on the newspaper business, buying the came an essential forum for the propaganda Daily Express and building it into the most duels of British politics. read daily newspaper in the world. Beaver- British governments have occasionally brook’s flair for propaganda was soon in evi- sought to control the output of the BBC for dence at the paper, which he used to cam- propaganda reasons. Coverage of the “trou- paign for a variety of causes, including the bles” in Northern Ireland proved particularly famous Empire Free Trade crusade, which he controversial. In 1985 Margaret Thatcher began in 1929. During World War II he (1925– ) attempted to quash the documen- played a valued role as Churchill’s minister of tary At the Edge of Union; broadcast journalists aircraft production (1940–1941) and minis- protested with a one-day strike. Self-censor- ter of supply (1941–1942); in both jobs he ship has proved more effective, as in the sup- made full use of propaganda to engage the pression of the 1965 film The War Game. BBC public in that aspect of the war effort. programs have played a part in raising public Nicholas J.Cull consciousness on particular issues, the best See also Britain; British Empire; Canada; known example being the 1966 docudrama Churchill, Winston; Intelligence; World War I; Cathy Come Home dealing with homelessness. World War II (Britain) The Big Lie 39

References: Chisholm,Anne, and Michael Davie the author wrote that “when war is declared Taylor. Beaverbrook:A Life.London: Hutchinson, truth is the first victim...Falsehood is the 1992; Taylor,A. J. P. Beaverbrook:A Biography. most useful weapon in case of war.” As a re- New York: Simon and Schuster, 1972. sult of the innumerable lies, deliberate or otherwise, that were disseminated and be- lieved during World War I, propaganda was Belgium inexorably associated with falsehood and was See Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg viewed by many as something to be ashamed of. In the immediate years following the end of the Great War, the Allies in particular The Big Lie quickly disbanded agencies that had been es- From atrocity stories against the Saracens tablished for propaganda purposes. Other, during the Crusades to stories of babies being less democratically inclined nations such as used in the manufacture of soap during Bolshevik Russia, Fascist Italy, and Nazi Ger- World War I, the “big lie” or falsehood has al- many viewed propaganda in a radically differ- ways been part of the propagandist’s stock- ent light and used the new communications in-trade. The big lie can be defined as the in- technologies as a means of manipulating mass tentional distortion of the truth, especially opinion. Partly as an antidote to the wide- for political purposes. spread use made of propaganda by authori- The pejorative associations with the term tarian regimes, in the interwar period British “propaganda” brings into focus the relation- government officials even considered banish- ship between propaganda and truth—or the ing the word from the diplomatic vocabulary, accuracy of facts. A generally held view is the implication being that whereas fascist that propaganda is synonymous with lies and regimes resorted to lies, democracies told that lies or falsehood are necessary for propa- the truth. ganda to be effective. Adolf Hitler (1889– This is not to suggest that propaganda does 1945) believed implicitly in the big lie, claim- not use the big lie. Propagandists will con- ing that propaganda for the masses had to be tinue to invent stories about adversaries, fal- simple and target the lowest level of intelli- sify statistics, and “create” news. From the gence. Hitler believed that the bigger the lie, propagandist’s point of view, lies must only the greater its chance of being believed. be told about unverifiable facts. For example, Writing in Mein Kampf, he claimed that “the in World War I the German admiralty con- great mass of people will more easily fall vic- tinued to exaggerate the successes achieved tim to a big lie than to a small one.” Joseph by German U-boats even after they had Goebbels (1897–1945), the Nazi propaganda reached their peak of effectiveness. They minister (who was often referred to in Allied could do this only because it was relatively propaganda as the “Big Liar”) took a different safe to disseminate such news without fear of view, claiming that propaganda should be as contradiction. If, however, the public always accurate as possible. Similarly, in the early associates propaganda with lies, then the part of the twentieth century Lenin propaganda will never be believed and, as (1870–1924) proclaimed that “in propa- such, becomes counterproductive. ganda, truth pays off,” and this dictum has To explain this contradiction French soci- largely been accepted by propagandists. ologist Jacques Ellul (1912–1994) has made a It is true that after World War I propa- distinction between a fact and intentions or ganda was widely associated with lies and interpretations, that is, between material and falsehood. In Arthur Ponsonby’s (1900– moral elements.According to Ellul, the truth 1982) influential book Falsehood in Wartime, that pays off is in the realm of facts. The nec- which reflected public opinion at the time, essary falsehoods, which also pay off, are in 40 The Birth of a Nation

the realm of intentions and interpretations. See also Fakes; Goebbels, Joseph; Hitler,Adolf; In the light of Lenin’s dictum, the dissemina- Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich; MoI; Rumor; World tion of false news can create its own prob- War I; World War II (Germany) References: Ellul, Jacques. Propaganda:The lems. Propagandists have discovered that it is Formation of Men’s Minds.New York:Vintage, better to reveal bad news oneself than to wait 1965; Ponsonby,Arthur. Falsehood in Wartime: until it is revealed by the enemy. Propaganda Lies of the First World War.Sudbury, It is now generally considered a major stipu- UK: Bloomfield, 1991; Welch, David. The lation of propaganda manuals that, with the ex- Third Reich:Politics and Propaganda. London, ception of harmful and unbelievable truths, Routledge, 2002. wherever possible the truth should be told. When Sir John Reith (1889–1971) was ap- pointed minister of information in 1940, he The Birth of a Nation (1915) laid down two of the MoI’s fundamental ax- Produced and directed by D. W. Griffith ioms for the balance of the war, namely, that (1875–1948), this was the first Hollywood “news is the shocktroops of propaganda” and motion picture to demonstrate the persua- that propaganda should tell “the truth, nothing sive power of the epic feature film. Unfortu- but the truth and, as near as possible, the whole nately, being an adaptation of the racist his- truth.” In its manual, Supreme Headquarters torical novel The Clansman (1905) by Thomas Allied Expedition Force (SHAEF) recom- Dixon Jr. (1864–1946), it served the cause of mends that “when there is no compelling rea- white supremacy. The Birth of a Nation told son to suppress a fact, tell it. Aside from con- the story of two American families and their sideration of military security, the only reason experience of the Civil War and its after- to suppress a piece of news is if it is unbeliev- math. In Griffith’s hands black Americans able . . .When the listener catches you in a lie, were reduced to happy, loyal slaves or de- your power diminishes... For this reason, ranged rapists desperate for white women. never tell a lie which can be discovered.” He did much to advance a new stereotype of This has to be qualified by the recognition the “mulatto,” mixed-race Americans who that the public cannot accept an undiluted diet were particularly dangerous since they pos- of bad news. One of the skills of the propagan- sessed both the supposed superior intelli- dist is the manner in which “facts” are pre- gence of the white race and a desire to better sented. The publication of a “true” fact is not in their position. The film advanced the erro- itself dangerous. However, if it would be dan- neous idea that the Civil War had ended with gerous to make it public, the propagandist the South being ruled by a dictatorship of prefers to hide it, to say nothing rather than to black people. Its climax showed a “heroic” lie. Silence is therefore one method of pre- charge by the Ku Klux Klan to restore white venting known facts from appearing in the Southerners to power. Although inscribing public domain. It has been estimated that ap- the stereotypes of racism for a new genera- proximately one-fifth of all press directives tion of Americans, it also provided a rallying given by Goebbels during the war were orders point for African Americans. The forerunners to remain silent concerning various events. Si- of the civil rights movement organized oppo- lence on a particular issue or event—even sition to screenings of the film, eventually re- when the facts are known—becomes a means stricting its circulation in some parts of the of preventing the knowledge of facts by modi- United States. Griffith’s film became a model fying the context. This propaganda technique, for combining entertainment and propaganda known as selection, leads to an effective dis- filmmaking. Students of his technique in- tortion of reality and in the process becomes cluded the Soviet filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein yet another example of the “big lie.” (1898–1948). David Welch Nicholas J.Cull Black Propaganda 41

See also Civil War, United States; Film (Feature); Two. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995; NAACP; United States Dumbrell, John. A Special Relationship:Anglo- References: Cripps, Thomas. Slow Fade to Black: American Relations in the Cold War and After. The Negro in American Film,1900–1942.New Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 2001; Taylor, York: Oxford University Press, 1977; Schickel, Philip M. British Propaganda in the Twentieth Richard. D.W. Griffith:An American Life. New Century:Selling Democracy.Edinburgh: York: Simon and Schuster, 1984. Edinburgh University Press, 1999.

Black Propaganda BIS (British Information Services) The source of propaganda is likely to be an This British overseas information agency, institution, organization, group, or individ- eventually housed within the Foreign Office, ual. Sometimes there is complete openness is best known for its campaigns in the United about the source of the propaganda, while on States. BIS was founded in 1941 as part of a other occasions it is necessary to conceal the consolidation of the various British informa- source’s identity in order to achieve certain tion offices working in the United States to objectives. “Black” propaganda (sometimes combat American neutrality. The word “ser- referred to as “covert” propaganda) tries to vice” was borrowed from the existing British conceal its own identity by purporting to Press Service (BPS), which was founded in emanate from someone or somewhere other New York the previous year. The word “ser- than the true source. In black propaganda not vice” had been selected by British ambassador only is there deliberate distortion but the Lord Lothian (1882–1940) as an alternative identity of the source is usually concealed or to the terms “propaganda” (taboo since inaccurate. When the identity is concealed, World War I) and “relations,” which Lothian the task of the analyst is a demanding one. It felt had been debased by both commerce and is quite difficult to detect black propaganda U.S. government overuse. until after all the facts are known. BIS played an important role in smoothing During the early phase of World War II the Anglo-American relations during the war Nazis operated at least three radio stations years and thereafter. Branches in other loca- that sought to give the impression that they tions followed, and BIS offices became an im- were broadcasting somewhere in Britain. One portant mechanism of overt British propa- of the stations was called Radio Free Caledo- ganda during the Cold War. Between 1952 nia and claimed to be the voice of Scottish na- and 1954 the whole system of British public- tionalism; another referred to itself as the ity overseas—including BIS, the British Workers’ Challenge Station and disseminated Council, and the BBC World Service—was unorthodox left-wing views; a third, the New scrutinized by the Drogheda inquiry but British Broadcasting Station, provided news managed to survive. As John Dumbrell has bulletins and comments in the style of the noted, BIS offices in the United States played BBC but with a concealed pro-German bias. a significant role in the 1970s and 1980s, pro- None of these stations reached large audi- moting Britain’s view of the conflict in ences and they only broadcast for a few hours Northern Ireland.Activities included the dis- a day. The aim of this black propaganda was to tribution of specially produced television undermine the morale of the British peo- segments on the crisis. ple—particularly during the Battle of Britain. Nicholas J.Cull The Nazis used similar techniques on French See also Britain; Ireland; MoI; Public Diplomacy; soldiers serving on the Maginot Line between World War II (Britain); World War II (United States) 1939 and 1940. Radio broadcasts from References: Cull, Nicholas J. Selling War:British Stuttgart were fronted by a Frenchman Propaganda and American Neutrality in World War named Paul Ferdonnet, who pretended to 42 Black Propaganda broadcast from within France. Ferdonnet’s radio station called for intervention from the broadcasts were designed to weaken the United States and graphically detailed Soviet French soldiers’ morale by comparing the atrocities. In fact, Radio Free Hungary was a poor conditions of the ordinary foot soldiers KGB operation designed to embarrass the in the Maginot Line with the luxurious United States by showing that the latter lifestyle of French officers enjoying the de- could not be relied upon to help smaller lights of Paris. Ferdonnet also described in countries opposing Soviet communism. lurid detail the behavior of British soldiers bil- Radio Free Hungary was even able to de- leted in French towns who, because they ceive the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, earned higher pay than their French counter- which did not recognize the source until parts, were seducing French women. French after it had stopped operating. In 1982, dur- soldiers listened to Ferdonnet’s broadcasts ing the Falklands/Malvinas War, a BBC- not necessarily because they were deceived by fronted program began broadcasting under the “black” nature of the broadcasts but more the guise of an Argentinian radio station. The often because they were simply more enter- British government invoked an obscure taining than official French broadcasts. clause in the BBC charter that allowed the Later in the war the British (who some- government to requisition the BBC trans- times conflated black propaganda with politi- mitters in time of crisis. One of the pro- cal warfare) set up their own black radio sta- grams broadcast was called “Ascension tion, which claimed to be an official German Alice,” in which a sexy female announcer at- radio station run by German soldiers for tempted to undermine the morale of the those on the western front. At the same time troops stationed in the Falklands. For exam- leaflets in the form of newspapers were ple, the announcer (Alice) would claim that dropped over the German lines purporting the Argentine president had stated on a tele- to originate from nonexistent German resist- vision program that he was prepared to sac- ance organizations. In addition, fake ration rifice forty thousand men to defend the Falk- cards and other ingenious devices were also lands. The radio station also played employed. sentimental Argentinian ballads in an at- Black propaganda, by definition, seeks to tempt to divert the soldier’s attention to deceive and encompasses all types of decep- loved ones back home. It even played classics tion—from leaflets, posters, and postage like “Under Pressure” by the rock group stamps to radio and television stations and Queen. Ascension Alice also broadcast a fic- now even the Internet. This type of propa- titious request program from Argentinian ganda consequently receives the most atten- mothers who made emotional appeals to tion when it is revealed. The success or fail- their sons to look after themselves and re- ure of such propaganda largely depends on turn home safely. Following the end of the the receiver’s willingness to accept the au- conflict, the British government was criti- thenticity of the source and the content of cized for compromising the BBC’s reputa- the message. For black propaganda to tion for objective and accurate reporting. achieve its aims, great care has to be taken to The British government, for its part, felt that place the message—and the manner in the propaganda war justified such draconian which it is disseminated—within the social, measures provided the source of the radio political, and cultural experiences of the tar- station remained concealed. get audience. Black propaganda was reported to be One of the most successful examples of part of the responsibility of the Office of black propaganda was Radio Free Hungary, Strategic Influence (OSI), a body estab- which began broadcasting after the unsuc- lished at the Pentagon during the War on cessful Hungarian uprising of 1956. The Terrorism in 2001. In early 2002 the White Blair,Tony 43

House proposed retaining this office as a component of the broader U.S. psychologi- cal war on terrorism. David Welch See also BBC; CIA; Crossman, Richard; Falklands/Malvinas War; Gray Propaganda; Psychological Warfare; Radio (International); Rumor; Terrorism, War on; White Propaganda; World War II (Britain); World War II (United States) References: Delmer, Sefton. Black Boomerang. London: Secker and Warburg, 1962; Howe, Ellic. The Black Game.London: Michael Joseph, British Prime Minister Tony Blair addresses the United 1980; Jowett, Garth, and Victoria O’Donnell. Nations.(United Nations) Propaganda and Persuasion. London: Sage, 1992.

of an old Labour political family and former Blair,Tony (1953– ) producer for London Weekend Television, Media-savvy British Labour politician and who served as the party’s director of cam- prime minister since 1997, Anthony paigns and communications from 1985 to Charles Lynton Blair was born in Edin- 1990. burgh, Scotland, and grew up in the north- In 1992 the Labour Party suffered a sur- east of England. After graduating from Ox- prise defeat in the general election. Blair, a ford University, he worked as a lawyer in close associate of Mandelson, moved to the London. He won the parliamentary seat of fore as a key acolyte of the new leader, John Sedgefield (also in the northeast) in 1983. Smith (1938–1994), holding the post of He rose through the Labour Party ranks shadow home secretary. Blair soon became during the long period of opposition to the known for his pledge to be “tough on crime, Thatcher government. His briefs included tough on the causes of crime.” Following that of spokesman on Treasury matters, es- Smith’s death, Blair (with Mandelson’s help) pecially trade and consumer affairs. In 1988 won election to the party leadership. He and he joined the shadow cabinet as shadow Mandelson worked to “re-brand” the party as minister for energy; in 1989 he moved to “New Labour.” Participants at a 1995 party the employment brief, where he shifted the conference voted to drop its commitment to Labour Party away from its traditional pol- nationalization as expressed in “Clause IV” of icy of backing union “closed shops” in the the party constitution. No less significantly, workplace. Blair also visited the media mogul Rupert Beginning in 1983, under the leadership of Murdoch (1931– ), whose tabloid newspa- Neil Kinnock (1941– ), the Labour Party per The Sun, which had hitherto opposed supplemented internal reform by adopting Labour in elections, now changed sides. New the sophisticated media approach of the Labour fought an energetic campaign, plac- British Conservatives and various American ing particular emphasis on appealing to the political parties. Rising politicians like Blair younger voter. Labour also pointed to a suc- received coaching from media consultants, cession of corruption (“sleaze”) scandals in- while media insiders like film producer David volving the Conservative Party, though ana- Puttnam (1941– ) made party election lysts found that hard policy issues of health broadcasts. The Labour Party took the red and education were more important factors rose as its logo. The key figure in this transfor- in voters’ decision making. Blair’s campaign mation was Peter Mandelson (1953– ), scion song was the upbeat “Things Can Only Get 44 Bosnian Crisis and War

Better.” His party won with a stunning major- secretary Stephen Byers, had reacted to the ity. Early policy successes included the con- 11 September terrorist attacks in the United clusion of the Good Friday agreement in States by sending an e-mail pointing out that Northern Ireland in 1998. it was a “very good day” to “bury” bad news. Blair proved both a formidable speaker Both Moore and Byers resigned in 2002. and an excellent judge of the national mood. Tony Blair had always been active on the He, rather than the royal family, led the na- world’s stage, but during the War on Terror- tional response to the death of Diana, ism he became a key figure in the propaganda princess of Wales, in August 1997. In office, strategy of the international alliance, travel- however, Blair’s news-management tactics ing widely and stressing that the Western became a major topic of debate. Together powers respected the Islamic religion. with the charge of cronyism, this became a Nicholas J.Cull staple of anti-Blair propaganda. Critics sug- See also Britain; Elections (Britain); Exhibitions gested that after being in the opposition for and World’s Fairs; Funerals; Gulf War (2003); so long, the Labour Party now lived in a per- Kosovo Crisis and War; Murdoch, Rupert; Terrorism, War on; Thatcher, Margaret petual state of campaigning, employing a References: Jones, Nicholas. Sultans of Spin:The “rapid-response unit” to ensure that each op- Media and the New Labour Government.London: position story could be matched and refuted Orion, 2000; Macintyre, Donald. Mandelson before it could cause damage. Blair’s govern- and the Making of New Labour.London: ment greatly expanded the practice of em- HarperCollins, 2000; Rentoul, John. Tony Blair: ploying “special advisers” (popularly known Prime Minister.Boston: Little, Brown, 2001. as spin doctors) to manage the news. The key figure in Labour’s news management was a former Daily Mirror journalist named Alistair Bosnian Crisis and War Campbell (1957– ), who had been Blair’s (1992–1995) press adviser and spokesman since 1994. Events surrounding this central episode in Critics charged that Campbell acted as de the disintegration of the Federal Republic of facto deputy prime minister. He and such Yugoslavia were largely determined by the other special advisers as Charlie Whelan at relative success of competing propaganda the Treasury became notorious for “briefing strategies. Militarily weak compared to its against” colleagues, that is, leaking stories to enemies, the survival of the Bosnian state de- the press suggesting that the prime minister pended on the extent to which it could at- was displeased; casualties included Northern tract outside support through diplomatic and Ireland minister Mo Mowlam (1949– ). propaganda means. The Bosnian government Other issues involving image included the successfully won over members of the inter- need for the Labour Party to appear pris- national press—particularly those from the tine—having attacked the Conservatives for United States—who were based in its capital “sleaze.” Here, ironically, casualties included city Sarajevo. The resulting disagreement in Peter Mandelson, who (apparently at Camp- strategy between the United States and the bell’s insistence) was obliged to resign on two European powers frustrated attempts at separate occasions (1998 and 2001), once for peace. United Nations forces deployed to receiving a favor and once for allegedly giv- Bosnia (United Nations Protection Force, or ing one. UNPROFOR) mounted a poorly funded and In 2001 the Labour Party fought and won largely ineffectual propaganda campaign. The a second substantial general election major- war was notable for the speed with which ity. However, that autumn the charge of “spin television reporting transformed local inci- doctoring” reemerged following the revela- dents in Bosnia into major international is- tion that Jo Moore, an adviser to transport sues. A cease-fire in November 1995 led to Bosnian Crisis and War 45 the deployment of IFOR (Implementation ernment strategy was most successful in pro- Force), a NATO-based military force with a jecting itself as the victim of aggression, ob- much stronger military posture and better- taining outside support—including smuggled organized propaganda, which resulted in a armaments—on a large scale.A controversial peace settlement. mortar attack on a Sarajevo market in Febru- From 1987 onward, Serbia, under Slobo- ary 1994, ostensibly by Bosnian Serbs, led to dan Milosevic (1941– ), sought to eliminate the UN demand that certain Bosnian towns the privileges of the other states of post-Com- be designated as “safe areas.” Members of the munist Yugoslavia under the 1974 constitu- international (chiefly U.S.) press in Sarajevo tion, precipitating the disintegration of the also sided with the Bosnian position against federation. In 1991 Slovenia seceded from Yu- that of UNPROFOR, demanding direct goslavia relatively peacefully, followed by American intervention in the war. Croatia. The sticking point was multiethnic UNPROFOR, which included ground Bosnia-Hercegovina, with significant Croat troops from EC countries but not from the and Serb populations as well as the dominant United States, was organized and deployed to Bosnian Muslims.Although Bosnia’s secession Yugoslavia shortly before the Bosnian War in April 1992 was recognized by the United began. UNPROFOR’s structure and objec- States and the European Community (EC; tives were based on traditional UN peace- later the European Union, or EU), it was still keeping operations, in which lightly armed subject to a United Nations arms embargo UN forces oversaw tense but peaceful situa- against all of Yugoslavia, introduced in Sep- tions. Its official mandate was to protect food tember 1991. The result was a complex and convoys to beleaguered areas in order to pre- highly factional civil war, at first involving vent starvation, while maintaining strict im- Croats, Muslims, and Serbs. All sides habitu- partiality. In addition to being inadequately ally used brutal methods that constituted war funded and subject to obstruction by bel- crimes, particularly “ethnic cleansing” by ligerent forces, UNPROFOR propaganda means of force and intimidation. With access was based on the traditional UN idea of the to established national and international primacy of truth, which was wholly inappro- media, and using essentially Communist priate under the circumstances. As the war methods, all sides also utilized extensive progressed and the United States became propaganda and disinformation strategies. more interventionist on the Bosnian side, the This made it very difficult for the outside Serbs came to see UNPROFOR as hostile. world to follow events, and some basic facts In propaganda terms the Bosnian War was about the war continue to be disputed. the largest and most typical of the postmod- The propaganda war began before the ern wars of the 1990s. Global television cov- fighting, during the winter of 1991–1992, erage, in particular, effectively eliminated the with inflammatory hate propaganda broad- distinction between local and international cast by television and other media by all sides events, as well as between military operations as a preliminary salvo. Western observers and propaganda. The war was characterized were first surprised and then deeply pes- by mutual recriminations by UNPROFOR simistic about the success of such propa- and members of the international press re- ganda, seeing it as an example of media garding their respective stances. It revealed meant to evoke deeply rooted psychological serious shortcomings in the ability of the and cultural responses.According to UN offi- United Nations to conduct such operations, cials, all sides habitually generated artificial including major weaknesses in UN media and crises (such as shelling their own people) in information policy. The United States and EC order to promote their own cause interna- countries seriously underestimated the so- tionally through the media. The Bosnian gov- phistication of the propaganda campaigns 46 Bracken, Brendan mounted by the various belligerent camps. Television. London: BFI Press, 1996; Ripley, The ability of a small country like Bosnia to in- Tim. Operation Deliberate Force. London: Centre fluence Western opinion and the consequent for Defence and International Security Studies (CDISS), 1999; Simms, Brendan. Unfinest Hour: demonizing of the Serbs were also matters of Britain and the Destruction of Bosnia.London: concern to some observers. International re- Allen Lane, 2001; Thompson, Mark. Forging porting of the crisis and war nevertheless con- War. Luton: University of Luton Press, 1999. firmed that national contexts and agendas fre- quently predominated over facts. The resolution of the conflict came in the Bracken, Brendan (1910–1958) summer of 1995 when U.S. aircraft (acting Bracken, Britain’s minister of information under the North Atlantic Treaty Organiza- during most of World War II, was born in Ire- tion, or NATO) carried out attacks against land. He worked in British journalism in the Bosnian Serb forces. The Bosnian Serb re- 1920s, and in 1928 became managing director sponse was to take UN ground troops of the Economist. Entering Parliament in 1929 hostage—a vivid propaganda image broadcast as a Conservative, he became a trusted ally of around the world—and to overrun some of Winston Churchill (1874–1965)—so close the Bosnian safe areas, including Srebenica. In that he was widely rumored to be his illegiti- the autumn of 1995 American-trained Croat mate son—and in 1941 succeeded Alfred Duff forces, supported by U.S. bombing raids as Cooper (1890–1954) at the Ministry of Infor- part of Operation Deliberate Force, inflicted mation (MoI). Bracken’s close relationship a decisive defeat against the Bosnian Serbs. with the prime minister gave him the neces- This resulted in a compromise peace in No- sary political leverage to make the MoI a force vember, known as the Dayton Accords, and to be reckoned with in Whitehall, and the the deployment of IFOR (consisting of Amer- ministry prospered under his tenure. By the ican, British, and French troops) to police a end of the war he had lost his political touch. cease-fire agreement according to which During the 1945 election campaign he made Bosnia remained essentially intact. NATO the notorious blunder of smearing the Labour commentators pointed out that IFOR com- Party as totalitarian. Churchill attempted this bined a good information organization with in his “Gestapo Broadcast” of June 1945, considerable armed force and the mandate to which caused widespread offense at the ex- use it—all of which UNPROFOR lacked. pense of Conservative electoral fortunes. His This appeared to support the common West- ministry (and initials) provided the inspiration ern military position that propaganda di- for “Big Brother” and the Ministry of Truth in rected at a potential enemy was only effective George Orwell’s (1903–1950) celebrated when backed by force or the threat of force. novel Nineteen Eighty-four (1949). The lasting effect of the war in propaganda Nicholas J.Cull terms was to establish a frame of reference See also Britain; Elections (Britain); Churchill, for most Westerners in which the Serbs were Winston; MoI; Orwell, George; Wick, Charles demonized. Z.; World War II (Britain) Stephen Badsey References: Boyle,Andrew. “Poor,Dear Brendan”:The Quest for Brendan Bracken.London: Hutchinson, See also Kosovo Crisis and War 1974; Cockett, Richard, ed. My Dear Max:The References: Badsey, Stephen, ed. The Media and Letters of Brendan Bracken to Lord Beaverbrook, International Security. London: Frank Cass, 1925–1958. London: Historians’ Press, 1990. 2000; Combelles Siegel, Pascale. Target Bosnia. Washington, DC: C4ISR Cooperative Research Program (CCRP), Department of Defense, 1998; Gow, James. Tr iumph of the Lack of Will. Brainwashing London: Hurst, 1996; Gow, James, Richard Brainwashing, a term favored in popular cul- Paterson, and Alison Preston, eds. Bosnia by ture but treated with skepticism in academic Brainwashing 47 literature, denotes the complete erasure of forces had engaged in germ and bacteriologi- an individual’s thought patterns after a cal warfare in Korea, many Americans be- process of mental reprogramming. In many lieved that brainwashing explained their instances the precise mechanics of this repat- “confessions” and other “anti-imperialist” terning remain unclear but often include propaganda broadcasts that followed. Such hypnosis, psychotropic drug treatments, alarmism was heightened at the end of the physical torture, subliminal suggestion, and war when twenty-one U.S. POWs refused rote indoctrination. The outcome of such repatriation to the United States in favor of a processes is the production of a brainwashed new life in Communist China—a decision so subject, stripped of autonomy and demon- perverse, in the opinion of many Americans, strating robotic obedience to the brain- that it could only have been the result of washer’s instructions and unquestioning ad- brainwashing. As one contemporary com- herence to the latter’s ideological precepts. mentator skeptically noted, in popular ac- For fifty years notions of brainwashing counts “nothing less than a combination of have shaped the popular understanding of the theories of Dr I. P.Pavlov and the wiles of how individual or group behavior can be ma- Dr Fu Manchu would produce such results.” nipulated to produce total conformity. The Popular representations of brainwashing, term continues to be widely used, particu- notably John Frankenheimer’s feature film larly in relation to how cult movements and/ The Manchurian Candidate (1962), have per- or fundamentalist religious sects indoctrinate petuated a belief that Communists possessed their adherents. In 2001, for example, the techniques to erase and repattern human participation of John Lindh, a young Ameri- thought processes, and that these owed a can, in Al Qaeda, was widely explained in the good deal to Pavlov’s work on the condi- U.S. news media—and by his mother—as tioned reflex. However, more measured so- the result of brainwashing. The term was first cial scientific studies—based on debriefings coined in 1950 by Edward Hunter, an Ameri- of U.S. POWs returning by ship from Korea can journalist whose exposé of techniques in 1953—cast an altogether different light on employed in the People’s Republic of China the behavior to which these men had been to produce the “new Communist man” was subjected. Psychologists such as Edgar Schein printed in the Miami News. Hunter, who (1928–) and Albert D. Biderman (1923–) claimed that the term “brainwashing” was a sought to debunk brainwashing by suggesting transliteration of the Chinese term hsi nao that instead of having successfully implanted (“wash brain”), wrote a book on the subject new beliefs, the Chinese Communists were entitled Brainwashing in Red China (1951). expert in manipulating “social milieu.” In Hunter’s account of the ways in which other words, in the closed conditions of Chinese Communists harnessed peer pres- POW camps they were able to extract high sure to compel individuals to engage in pub- levels of compliant behavior from prisoners lic “self-criticism” might have remained a without having to reorient their fundamental matter of purely esoteric interest to Western belief structures. audiences had it not been for the capture of These social scientific studies described several thousand UN prisoners of war the ways in which Chinese camp comman- (POWs) by North Korean and Chinese forces dants encouraged “collaboration” by destroy- during the Korean War. Soon media reports ing old hierarchies and encouraging new alle- began to appear in the U.S. press suggesting giances. To this end, they offered rewards to that U.S. POWs were being brainwashed by “progressives” who appeared amenable to in- their Communist captors. When, in May doctrination and punished “reactionaries” 1952, two American airforce men corrobo- who stubbornly resisted. Violence and the rated Chinese propaganda claims that U.S. threat of brutality were thus never far from 48 Brazil

the surface of camp life. Given the scarcity of while brainwashing has given rise to many food, its rationing and deployment as a re- scenarios that properly belong in the realm of ward loomed large in the incentive structure; science fiction, fantasies of total control over prisoners’ access to mail was similarly con- the mind have, in some cases, been trolled as a further inducement to comply. matched—if not exceeded—by experiments Manipulation of the social environment and enacted on human subjects in the name of a group dynamics was accompanied by rote Cold War victory. ideological instruction, which included lec- Susan Carruthers tures on Marxist and Maoist precepts and the See also China; CIA; Cold War; Korean War; insistence that prisoners engage in “self-criti- Prisoners of War; Terrorism, War on cism,” first by repeatedly rewriting their life References: Biderman,Albert. March to Calumny: The Story of American POWs in the Korean War. stories with a new class consciousness and New York: Macmillan, 1963; Hunter, Edward. then by publicly recanting their old alle- Brainwashing. New York: Farrar, Straus & giances. Under such coercive conditions, Cudahy, 1956;———. Brainwashing in Red high levels of collaboration were only to be China.New York:Vanguard, 1951; Lifton, expected. Whereas those who clung to brain- Robert. Thought Reform and the Psychology of washing as an explanation imagined that the Totalism:A Study of “Brainwashing”in China. London:Victor Gollancz, 1961; Marks, John. Chinese had successfully instilled Communist The Search for the “Manchurian Candidate.” New beliefs in the prisoners, behaviorists stressed York: Norton, 1979; Schein, Edgar. Coercive that the vast majority of POWs merely “went Persuasion:A Socio-Psychological Analysis of the along” with their captors to the extent neces- “Brainwashing”of American Civilian Prisoners by the sary to survive camp life, without shifting Chinese Communists. New York: Norton, 1961; Winn, Denise. The Manipulated Mind: their convictions toward Communism. In Brainwashing,Conditioning and Indoctrination. fact, most American prisoners resisted ideo- London: Octagon, 1982. logical instruction; this was so apparent to their captors that the Chinese abandoned for- mal “training” months before the end of the war. As for the twenty-one prisoners who re- Brazil fused repatriation—seemingly the epitome See Latin America of the brainwashed POW—most were less confirmed Communists than men who, hav- ing engaged in more serious acts of collabo- Britain ration, feared being court-martialed upon Propaganda and persuasion occupy a central their return to the United States. place in the workings of the British system of These measured findings, however, made government. The priority given to consensus much less of an impression on the popular arrived at through debate and persuasion dif- imagination than lurid accounts of brain- ferentiated the political development of En- washing, and the concept’s utility to Cold gland from the early modem period onward. War anti-Communist propaganda is abun- During the fifteenth century England took dantly clear. Seemingly unpersuaded by the a path toward the development of the nation- findings of social scientific studies, the U.S. state that differed from the majority of Con- Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) continued tinental states. While Continental kings sub- its own search to produce robotic, mind- jugated their respective parliaments, estates warped individuals, clandestinely financing general, and diets by advancing notions of ab- psychiatric experimentation on unwitting pa- solute monarchy, in England between 1309 tients, who were subjected to extreme forms and 1485 the barons, allying themselves with of drug and electromagnetic shock treatment the gentry, resisted and at times bloodily dis- under a program known as MK Ultra. Thus, posed of kings who attempted to do the Britain 49 same. Instead of fading, the Parliament devel- forms of symbolic propaganda that projected oped procedurally into an ever more effec- an image of the monarch as the embodiment tive institution for limiting royal power and of the state did not take place in England. By for developing consensus among what could the second half of the seventeenth century a increasingly be called the political class. En- striking contrast was apparent between the gland emerged from the Middle Ages as a godlike image of France’s Louis XIV parliamentary monarchy. This divergence (1638–1715) as the “Sun King” and England’s from the systems of government of most of Charles II (1661–1700) as the “Merry the Continent was made final and irreversible Monarch,” a human being who shared his in the seventeenth century by Parliament’s subjects’ appetites and situations and dressed call for the execution of Charles I in casual attire. (1600–1649) and the deposition of James II English propaganda developed in verbal (1633–1701), the last two English kings who rather than symbolic forms. Written media, sought to go the Continental way. political poems, manifestos, tracts, and trea- Parliamentary monarchy led to a charac- tises were already emerging in the fifteenth teristic “debating society” view of the process century; over the centuries they developed of government. Currents in the English Civil into what was probably the world’s largest War suggested that if the landed classes fell to body of political pamphleteering. The three fighting among themselves, they might be re- characteristic core techniques of the British placed by those below them. Hence Parlia- approach to political persuasion initially ment awarded the highest priority to consen- took the form of written persuasion: (a) fac- sus, above such other objectives as speed of tuality—persuasion by means of the manip- decision making, expertise, or even social ulation of facts rather than an emotive appeal justice. Earlier and to a greater extent than in use of literary or rhetorical devices; (b) most countries in postfeudal Europe, the arts pragmatic argumentation—the case being of political persuasion thus became an inte- built up as a compelling accumulation of spe- gral part of the English system of govern- cific “facts” rather than as a deduction from ment. From the sixteenth century onward an a priori principle or an authority, with techniques of political persuasion developed current facts illustrations; and (c) presenta- parallel with the development of the English tion in the form of a judicial style often em- system of government itself. With the incor- ploying a legalistic manner, incorporating poration of Wales and Ireland in the sixteenth some of the facts and contentions of the century and the linking up with Scotland in other side and using the “on the one hand/on the seventeenth century, it became possible the other hand” style of persuasion. These to talk about a “British” approach to persua- characteristics of style and approach to polit- sion in the modern state. ical propaganda in the written medium natu- Around 1500 England, like the rest of Eu- rally presupposed the existence of a regular rope, embraced printing and the theater as forum of debate into which information and new media for communication, art, and views are fed and also that the debate would propaganda. In time the English variant be- be conducted among practical laymen inter- came distinctive. Henry VIII (1491–1547) ested in politics rather than learned acade- used personal display, costume, pageantry, micians. In other words, it presupposed and precisely choreographed court etiquette something like Parliament at the heart of the to project the majesty of the monarch in political framework. much the same way as Francis I (1494–1597) In the spoken medium, too, the character- of France. Although Elizabeth I (1533–1603) istically British rhetorical devices reflected— continued to employ these techniques with and still reflect—the central assumption of panache, the further development of such an ongoing debate on practical issues among 50 Britain practical people interested in politics, with suaders to assist office seekers also developed the objective of coming up with a workable early. Governments and politicians—in or consensus for the time being. The characteris- out of office either as individuals or collective tic elements of British political oratory—the groups, such as political parties—have em- “throwaway line,” self-deprecation, under- ployed propagandists since the reign of Eliza- statement, the use of a chairperson to whom beth I. Since leading political figures were ex- the speaker defers, concentration on practical pected to function as public persuaders, this details or consequences, and humorous rather was typically a covert rather than overt role. than adversarial references to opponents— Consensus was perceived as the balance in the are designed to defuse rather than inflame, to public’s mind between the ideas, information, particularize rather than generalize, and to and arguments it received over time from var- decrease rather than magnify the positional ious sources—the more outwardly independ- distance between the speaker and the listener. ent the better. Professional propagandists Grand oratory from first principles, charis- have typically been used in Britain to quietly matic addresses by the leader, the use of inspi- “feed” those ideas, views, and bits of informa- rational imagery, or theatrical staging are not tion that their employers wish to promote as typically part of the spoken forms of the main ingredients from which public opin- British—especially English—political persua- ion crystallizes. Fine distinctions between sion except in rare formal contexts or special “publicity” and “propaganda,” overt and circumstances such as wartime. “Heckling” covert, and constant debates about consensual (allowing members of the audience to inter- rules concerning their use or avoidance have rupt) and the skillful manipulation—indeed, also been a characteristic feature. Professional incorporation—of such interruptions into a orators first appeared in the nineteenth cen- speech is a characteristic device of British po- tury, but this gave way to the use of profes- litical oratory. sionals behind the scenes, with politicians Britain also has a great tradition of reli- themselves doing the actual presentation. gious oratory largely independent of its polit- Ever since the reign of Elizabeth I, the ical oratory (which is not the case in the general perception that it is a proper function United States) despite some intermingling of government—albeit often necessarily a se- between the two approaches during the En- cret one—to shape public opinion naturally glish Civil War. Even then, the participatory led to concern with what was being commu- debating framework—in Parliament or nicated through the great verbal medium of among soldiers, such as the Putney Debates the theater. The Lord Chamberlain’s Office (1647)—rather than the inspirational “mass for the censorship of the stage, established in meeting” soon became the norm. Secular po- 1545 and given a statutory basis in 1737, be- litical movements that tried to introduce reli- came the longest continuously operating or- gious techniques, such as the early socialists ganization for the censorship of the stage in before and the fascists after World War I, al- Europe. Combining censorship with spon- ways found themselves swimming against the sorship of the stage in various forms resulted tide. in perhaps the most effective political control In accordance with the perception that of this medium. It was only relinquished in consensus matters most, as early as the eigh- 1968 when the theater ceased to be a teenth century the ability to persuade in pub- medium of consequence for the public at lic became the prime criterion and the most large, its place being taken by television. essential professional skill—rather than those Equally effective was the harnessing of the of the courtier, the administrator, or the tech- technology of wireless broadcasting to pro- nocrat—for obtaining political office in mote consensus through the creation of the Britain. The employment of professional per- “public service broadcasting” concept, and a Britain 51 unique institutional framework for it, to act ing into the flow of ideas desired information as “the integrator for democracy,” in the rather than excluding undesirable news words of John Reith (1889–1971), the first through censorship (except as a last resort) director general of the BBC. The application has also been a consistent characteristic, as is to film of the concepts and rules for control- the preference for doing both from behind ling the theater through the creation of the the scenes rather than through formal and British Board of Film Censorship proved less overt state organs. Ministries of Information, effective in the end. Political messages re- state censorship bodies, and the like are only layed through British films were indeed effec- formally set up in Britain during wartime. tively controlled; foreign films with strongly Governments have preferred close and so- contrarian messages were kept off the public phisticated relations with the press, which is screens or allowed to appear only with the perceived as a partner in evolving consensus. strongest of those messages removed or From the beginning of the modern period, toned down. British film production was also the British system of government gave pri- kept alive through various forms of financial macy to the generation of a practical consen- support in the face of the overwhelming sus among the “political nation”—the group strength of Hollywood. In terms of negative or groups effectively involved in government propaganda, the exclusion of messages liable at the time—over not only coercion but also to undermine fundamental elements of the almost anything else in politics. It thus places dominant ideology has made British cinema persuasion and propaganda at the heart of the screens among the most tightly controlled in working of the state. This led to the develop- Europe. However, the proportion of British ment of both a set of characteristic core tech- feature films to American could not be main- niques and frameworks for maintaining a free tained at a sufficiently high ratio to achieve but not unregulated flow of ideas. Britain was the positive propaganda potential that British thus exceptionally well placed when liberal- politicians also saw in film. The application to democratic ideals replaced absolutism in Eu- the medium of film of the three core tech- rope. Its “debating society” approach permit- niques of the British approach to political ted a gradual widening of the membership of persuasion (ultimately reinforced by state the “political nation” within the constitutional funding) did produce the documentary framework rather than requiring its replace- genre, which represents the principal British ment. The centrality of persuasion in its po- contribution to the art of the moving image litical system secured for Britain a greater de- and propaganda. gree of stability, continuity, and ideological It was no accident that Britain emerged cohesion than have alternative approaches to from the world wars as a pioneer of external the development of the postfeudal European propaganda, psychological warfare, and “cul- nation state and its subsequent transforma- tural diplomacy.” Britain regarded persuasion tion into democracies. as the central factor in the working of the Nicholas Pronay state for three hundred years and thus had a See also Anglo-Boer War;Art; BBC; BIS; Blair, pool of expertise to draw on when needed. Tony;Britain (Eighteenth Century); British “Propaganda with facts” remains the charac- Empire; Churchill, Winston; Civil War, teristic British approach to external propa- English; Crimean War; Elections (Britain); ganda both in wartime and in peacetime, for Falklands/Malvinas War; Film (Newsreels); this was merely the application to external Grierson, John; IRD; Ireland; John Bull; political persuasion of the recipe that proved Milton, John; MoI; Psychological Warfare; PWE; Shakespeare, William; Sport; Thatcher, so effective in domestic politics. Margaret; Women’s Movement: Precursors; A preference for affecting the balance of Women’s Movement: First Wave/Suffrage; information and public views by quietly feed- Women’s Movement: Second 52 Britain (Eighteenth Century)

Wave/Feminism; World War I; World War II publication censorship but also permitted the (Britain) development of printing in provincial cen- References: Anglo, Sydney. Spectacle,Pageantry ters, while the improvement of road and and Early Tudor Policy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969; Downie, J.A. Robert water transportation enabled London-based Harley and the Press:Propaganda and Public (and Edinburgh-based) newspapers to reach a Opinion in the Age of Swift and Defoe. Cambridge: provincial audience with national news. Cambridge University Press, 1979; Harris, Three triweekly newspapers appeared in Tim. London Crowds in the Reign of Charles II: London in 1695. By the end of the century Propaganda and Politics from the Restoration to the London had thirteen daily and ten triweekly Exclusion Crisis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987; Koss, Stephen R. “The newspapers competing with over fifty Rise and Fall of the Political Press in Britain.” In provincial weeklies. Annual sales of newspa- Propaganda,Politics and Film,1918–1945.Ed. pers reached seventeen million by 1793. Nicholas Pronay and D. W.Spring. London: Through coffeehouses and taverns a single Macmillan, 1982. issue could reach a readership of thousands. The reign of Queen Anne (1702–1714) saw an unprecedented rise in the political use of Britain (Eighteenth Century) print media, notoriously associated with Lon- The eighteenth century represented the don’s Grub Street. The first daily newspaper formative period in the development of the appeared in 1702. By 1714 there were seven press and political propaganda in Britain and dailies and numerous triweekly and biweekly its American colonies, which also saw the use papers. Richard Steele’s (1672–1729) Tatler, of propaganda to define and perpetuate ideas Joseph Addison’s (1672–1719) Spectator, and of British national identity. The overwhelm- Daniel Defoe’s (1660–1731) Review collec- ing power of the Whig aristocracy (attrib- tively provided a forum for discussion of polit- uted to a complex machinery of patronage ical issues and gossip. The frequent elections and exclusion) would appear to have left lit- mandated by the 1694 Triennial Act engen- tle need for manipulation of mass public dered fierce competition for public support, opinion. However, while only a small per- driving both the Whig and Tory parties to cre- centage of the population was entitled to ate complex organizations involved in the pro- vote (historians estimate 25 percent of adult duction and dissemination of propaganda. males in 1714 and decreasing thereafter), Political activity centered on taverns and regular appeals to the public for support coffeehouses, such as the Cocoa Tree in Lon- from both government and opposition are a don, the headquarters for Tories. Newspa- testament to the perceived influence of pub- pers and broadsides advertised meetings and lic opinion. These appeals were targeted not circulated addresses and petitions. Local con- only at independent members of Parliament stituency organizations such as the Steadfast and the electorate “out-of-doors” but also ex- Society in Bristol and the Royston Club in tended to members of the wider literate Hertfordshire disseminated material and sup- community, who were arbitrarily excluded plied events to be reported, such as printing from voting but wielded sufficient influence “instructions to MPs.” The production and through petitions and street demonstrations quality of political pamphlets burgeoned with (which often turned into riots) to occasion every political and religious crisis, as both reversals of policy and changes of ministry. Tor ies and Whigs employed the satirical skills Political propaganda used print as its pri- of such literary talents as Alexander Pope mary medium, which included newspapers, (1688–1744), Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), almanacs, periodicals, cartoons, engravings, and Defoe. pamphlets, and broadsides. The lapse of the As a leader of the Tory opposition, Robert Licensing Act in 1695 not only ended pre- Harley (1661–1724) recognized the poten- Britain (Eighteenth Century) 53 tial of press propaganda. While in office toons flourished. They grew increasingly bold (1710–1714) he developed a complex organ- in their satirical portrayal of political person- ization that produced and distributed favor- alities, thanks to the brilliance of artists like able material and hampered the opposition James Gillray (1757–1815) and Isaac Cruik- press. When Robert Walpole (1676–1745) shank (1764–1811). The production of politi- took office, he adopted some of Harley’s cal memorabilia, snuffboxes, mugs, and techniques in reaction to the success of the medals also focused on the graphic represen- opposition press of the 1720s. Between 1731 tation of the associated cause. Frequently rit- and 1741 Walpole spent over fifty thousand ual and celebration united classes in street pounds on the production and distribution of demonstrations and popular protests. newspapers and pamphlets, using treasury Without the Licensing Act, authorities funds to bankroll the London Journal, Daily were able to prosecute printers and authors Courant and Daily Gazetteer. He also promoted under seditious libel. Parliamentary privilege the ministerial interest and circulated thou- prohibited the reporting of parliamentary sands of free copies of pamphlets and news- process. Newspapers published unauthorized papers through the post office. For example, and often inaccurate division lists of key com- in 1741, 10,800 copies of the Daily Gazetteer mons votes, and monthly periodicals—such were sent to the post office for dispersal, as the Political State after 1711 and Gentleman’s with clerks given explicit instructions not to Magazine beginning in 1731—published ac- circulate antiministerial papers such as the counts of debates during parliamentary re- Craftsman, the London Evening Post, and the cess. This was explicitly prohibited in 1738. Champion. By the 1760s a number of newspapers had re- Walpole’s measures were insufficient to sumed publishing regular reports of debates, combat the great popularity of opposition particularly John Almon’s (1737–1805) Lon- propaganda, disseminated through con- don Evening Post and William Woodfall’s stituency clubs and personal networks. The (1746–1803) Morning Chronicle. The govern- Tor ies, who were excluded from office by ment did not prosecute the printers and con- their association with Jacobitism, combined ceded the ban in 1771. with Country Whigs to oppose Walpole’s Political opposition focused on popular is- monopoly of power. Both John Trenchard sues or causes, such as support for John (1662–1723) and Thomas Gordon’s (d. Wilkes (1727–1797), the rebellion of the 1750) Independent Whig and Bolingbroke’s American colonists, Protestant toleration, (1678–1751) Craftsman (1727–1736) ap- and antislavery, resulting in a huge array of pealed to a country or commonwealth ideol- political pamphlets and newspaper letters. ogy in denouncing the overweening power of For example, the Letters of Junius (1767– the executive and the corruption of the con- 1772) focused on liberty of the press,Ameri- stitution. The so-called Robinocracy, as well can grievances, and corruption in govern- as Walpole’s neglect of many famous writers, ment. A number of opposition groups devel- led to some of the best examples of pamphle- oped a radical organization—using the teering wit and political satire, such as Pope’s traditional political forms of petition and ad- Dunciad (1728), John Gay’s (1685–1732) dress, reproduced in newspapers and hand- Beggar’s Opera, and the engravings of William bills—calling for extraparliamentary mobi- Hogarth (1697–1764). lization of public opinion in support of a Popular politics also employed a variety of variety of issues. A loose coalition of radical nonprint media. Patriotic songs such as “Rule reformers developed campaigns for Protes- Britannia” and “God Save the Queen” com- tant tolerance and parliamentary reform, peted with satirical (and often bawdy) songs such as the Feather’s Tavern Petition (1772), of opposition. The production of printed car- John Wilkes’s Middlesex agitation (1768– 54 Britain (Eighteenth Century)

1774), Christopher Wyvill’s (1740–1822) as Hannah More (1745–1833). The literary Yorkshire Association (1779–1785), and the furor was matched by street demonstrations, antislavery campaign (1783–1791). Harry the planting of liberty trees, and the mocking (H. T.) Dickinson has argued that while “the of the king’s birthday celebrations. exploitation of the power of the press and the The outbreak of war with France in 1793 skilful dissemination of propaganda were provided the justification for the suppression copied from earlier campaigns against the of the radical movement. Extremist pam- Court,” the country opposition sought only phlets were proscribed and a number of electoral endorsement of its policies, printers prosecuted for seditious libel. whereas “the radicals wanted the people, Thomas Muir (1765–1799) and six other even those without the vote, to exert a pow- members of the Friends of the People were erful influence over Parliament.” The same sentenced to transportation for the dissemi- methods of organization and dissemination nation of radical works. The Treason and were adopted by populist movements such as Sedition Bill (1796) and the outlawing of rad- the Protestant Association, organized by Lord ical societies in 1799 effectively killed the Gordon (1751–1793), whose protest in 1780 parliamentary reform movement. Patriotic against Catholic emancipation resulted in the propaganda was also used to denounce radi- most violent rioting of the period. cal ideas, disseminated through Church and Buoyed by the success of the American King associations, such as John Reeves’s Asso- Revolution, radicals argued for the formation ciation for Preserving Liberty and Property of “a great national association,” proposed by against Republicans and Levellers and the James Burgh (1714–1775) in his Political Dis- Goldsmiths Hall Association in Edinburgh. quisitions (1774–1775). The Society of the Following the Act of Union in 1707, the Supporters of the Bill of Rights (1769), the dissemination of news from Westminster and Society for Constitutional Information military campaigns abroad was an important (1780), the London Corresponding Society, component in the forging of a British identity and the Friends of the People published peti- united by Protestantism, commerce, and em- tions and addresses, circulated political pam- pire. Linda Colley has shown that this new phlets, and organized public readings, open- identity, subjoining to rather than supplanting ing a forum for political debate to the literate former national and local identities, was cre- artisan and rural working class. The reform- ated by a propaganda of Protestantism, com- ers greeted both the centenary of the Glori- merce, and war. The production of affordable ous Revolution and the outbreak of revolu- editions of Protestant texts, such as Pilgrim’s tion in France as expressions of the Progress (1678–1684) by John Bunyan (1628– constitutional principles they wished to re- 1688) and John Foxe’s (1516–1587) Book of store. In Reflections on the Revolution in France Martyrs (1563), and the celebration of (1791) Edmund Burke (1729–1797) rejected Britain’s Protestant history in almanacs and this argument, portraying the reformers as public ceremonies reinforced the perceived dangerous revolutionaries, thus initiating an connection between true religion and the unprecedented pamphlet war. Hundred of prosperity and liberty unique to Britain. replies to Burke were published and sold Karen M.Ford cheaply or circulated free of charge by radical See also Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement; societies—including Mary Wollstonecraft’s Britain; Censorship; Defoe, Daniel; Ireland; (1759–1797) Vindication of the Rights of Woman John Bull; Livingston, William; Paine, Thomas; (1792), James Mackintosh’s (1765–1832) Portraiture; Revolution,American, and War of Independence; Revolution, French; Wilkes, Vindicae Gallicae (1791) and, most famously, John Thomas Paine’s (1737–1809) Rights of Man— References: Black, Jeremy, ed. Britain in the Age and met with responses from supporters such of Walpole. London: Macmillan, 1984; Colley, British Empire 55

Linda. Britons:Forging the Nation,1707–1837. bitions, beginning with the Great Exhibition London: Yale University Press, 1992; of 1851. Private groups dedicated to promot- Dickinson, H. T. Liberty and Property :Political ing the empire included the Royal Colonial Ideology in Eighteenth-Century Britain. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1977;———. The Institute and the British Empire League. The Politics of the People in Eighteenth-Century Britain. image of Queen Victoria became ubiquitous London: Macmillan, 1994; Holmes, Geoffrey, in various printed forms and in numerous and Daniel Szechi. The Age of Oligarchy:Pre- statues erected to celebrate her golden and Industrial Britain,1722–1783. London: diamond jubilees. The church promoted the Longman, 1993; Plumb, J. H. England in the empire through its missionary societies and Eighteenth Century,1714–1815. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, 1950. by encouraging popular admiration for Christian heroes of the empire like Charles George Gordon of Khartoum (1833–1885). Starting in 1904 the British celebrated Em- British Broadcasting Corporation pire Day—an obvious focal point for impe- See BBC rial propaganda—established as the result of a campaign by Sir Joseph Chamberlain (1836–1914). Artistic figures caught up in British Empire imperial themes included the composer Ed- The British Empire of the nineteenth and ward Elgar (1857–1934) and the poet and twentieth centuries was inspired by and, in novelist Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936). turn, sustained through a variety of propa- Ideas of empire flourished in British popu- ganda. The bulk of this was produced pri- lar culture, where ordinary Britons seized on vately and included much commercial mate- the opportunity to participate in an empire rial, from songs and celebration knickknacks “on which the sun never sets” and which priv- to vast quantities of juvenile literature. As ileged the whiteness of their skin regardless John MacKenzie notes in Propaganda and Em- of the emptiness of their pockets. Products as pire (1984), “A wide variety of nongovern- diverse as soap and coffee were festooned mental agencies discovered that imperial with images relating to empire. Stars of the propaganda was also profitable.” imperial music hall stage included Gilbert The British Empire was built by trade and Hastings Farrell (The Great) Macdermott the need for naval bases to protect that trade. (1845–1901), who performed the famous Missionary societies strengthened the cul- “Jingo Song” (1878), written by G. W.Hunt tural dimension, propagating Christianity in (c. 1829–1904), which ran: “We don’t want Africa and the Pacific. These diverse efforts to fight, but, by jingo if we do, / We’ve got were not supported by a major ideological the ships, we’ve got the men, we’ve got the drive until the years following the Indian money too.” It gave the world the term “jin- Mutiny of 1858, when, with India under di- goism,” for unquestioning patriotism. Songs rect rule, Britain consolidated its imperial celebrating the imperial armed forces in- possessions worldwide. Architects of this cluded “Soldiers of the Queen” (1881) by process included Prime Minister Benjamin Leslie Stuart (1864–1924). Disraeli (1804–1881), who in 1876 took the The empire proved a particularly potent crucial step of making the queen empress of subject in propaganda aimed at children, India, thus overlaying the empire and the from the rhetoric of the Boy Scouts move- monarchy as institutions. From the 1870s to ment, founded in 1908 by Robert Baden- World War I imperial propaganda flourished. Powell (1857–1941), to the colorful trading Official manifestations included the Imperial cards placed in cigarette and tea packets that Institute in London, which encouraged the charted heroes, flags, and uniforms of the study of subject peoples, and numerous exhi- empire. Boys’ literature such as the novels of 56 Bryce Report

G. A. Henty (1832–1902) or journals such With the wave of decolonization that fol- as the Boy’s Own Paper (1879–1967) or The lowed World War II, the notion of a com- Boy’s Friend (1895–1927) presented stories monwealth rapidly superseded that of em- of imperial adventure and propagated the pire. The commonwealth received a stoical ethic of duty and self-sacrifice. In substantial boost with the coronation in 1953 school, history textbooks taught that the of Elizabeth II (1926– ), but Churchill’s empire was national destiny, while poetry promised New Elizabethan age did not mate- lessons meant memorization of works like rialize. Interest in the commonwealth rapidly “Vitai Lampada” by Sir Henry Newbolt diminished. Despite the end of empire, im- (1862–1938), with its implicit comparison perial attitudes toward race and national des- of cricket and war and the famous refrain: tiny lived on in British culture and emerged “Play up! Play up! and play the game!” Such periodically in the latter part of the twentieth lessons conditioned British youth for the sac- century in matters involving immigration rifices of World War I. policy and, most spectacularly, during the In the aftermath of the war the British gov- Falklands/Malvinas War of 1982. ernment sought to encourage imperial solidar- Nicholas J.Cull ity as part of its strategy for recovery. Events See also Africa;Australia; BBC; Beaverbrook, included the Empire Exhibition at Wembley Max; Canada; Caribbean; Churchill, Winston; (1924–1925). The Beaverbrook press Exhibitions and World’s Fairs; Falklands/Malvinas War; Grierson, John; launched an Empire Crusade. In 1926 the gov- Indian Subcontinent; New Zealand; ernment established the Empire Marketing Pacific/Oceania; Sport; World War I; World Board (EMB) under Sir Stephen Tallents War II (Britain) (1884–1958) to promote imperial products. References: Brewer, Susan. To Win the Peace: Propaganda included leaflets, newspaper ad- British Propaganda in the United States during vertisements and, most significantly, the EMB World War II.Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1997; MacKenzie, John. Propaganda and film unit under John Grierson (1898–1972), Empire:The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, which pioneered documentary filmmaking in 1880–1960.Manchester: Manchester Britain but closed in 1933. Tallents went on to University Press, 1984; MacKenzie, John, ed. direct public relations for the General Post Of- Imperialism and Popular Culture.Manchester: fice and the British Broadcasting Corporation Manchester University Press, 1984; Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism.New York: (BBC). His book The Projection of England Knopf, 1994; Taylor, Philip M. The Projection of (1932) laid the foundation for much of Britain:British Overseas Publicity and Propaganda, Britain’s later cultural propaganda efforts. The 1919–1939.Cambridge: Cambridge University BBC also sought to reach out to the empire Press, 1981. with its Empire Service, launched in 1932. The conception of empire developed significantly at this time as a result of the Statute of Westmin- Bryce Report (1915) ster (1931), which recognized the dominions This report represents a prime example of (Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, and the atrocity propaganda deployed by Britain Canada) as independent and equal within the during World War I. More properly known Commonwealth of Nations. During World as the Report of the Committee on Alleged German War II the empire became a central theme in Outrages,the Bryce Report consisted of a 360- British propaganda in the United States, largely page compendium of evidence that the Ger- because of American hostility to the institu- man army had brutalized Belgian and French tion. Prime Minister Winston Churchill civilians, mostly in the form of depositions (1874–1965) was emphatic in his support for collected from refugees. The depositions told the empire and intended to retain it at war’s of numerous cases of rape, child murder, and end, broadcasting his opinions to this effect. mutilation. Lord Bryce (1838–1922), who Bulgaria 57 had chaired the official committee that col- See also Atrocity Propaganda; Britain; Fakes; lected the evidence, wrote an introduction to World War I the report urging readers to believe its con- References: Ponsonby,Arthur. Falsehood in War- Time:Containing an Assortment of Lies Circulated tents. His involvement heightened the re- throughout the Nations during the Great War. port’s impact, especially in the United States, Sudbury UK: Bloomfield, 1991; Sanders, where Bryce had served as a much-respected Michael, and Philip M. Taylor. British British ambassador until 1913. After the war Propaganda during the First World War.London: none of the stories contained in the report Macmillan, 1982. could be substantiated. The report was seen as just another British attempt to trick the United States into joining the war. Bulgaria Nicholas J.Cull See Balkans

C

Canada ica proved to be a fertile ground for propa- The high period of Canadian propaganda, be- ganda, rumor, and deception. Reversing ginning with World War II and ending with one’s snowshoes was a handy ruse to con- the October Crisis in 1970, is a narrative of found pursuers, but early propaganda efforts “whiteness.” As with Robert Rauschenberg’s extended to concerted print and rumor cam- all-white paintings of the early 1950s, one paigns too. Thus, American revolutionaries might say that the “only image was the fomented anti-British feeling among French shadow cast by the spectator.” Despite its Montrealers during the Revolutionary War. light shadings, Canadian propaganda was no Between the Act of Confederation that es- less notable. Indeed, if propaganda’s efficacy tablished the Canadian nation in 1867 and the is often inversely proportional to its stri- outbreak of World War II in 1939, the federal dency, then the precise difference between government used propaganda on an ad hoc Canada’s air of neutrality and its actual close basis in accordance with imperial purposes ties to Western censorship, intelligence, and and increasingly also to achieve sovereign na- propaganda circuits is worthy of attention. tional ends. Propagandists were heartily em- Propaganda played a role in the nation’s ployed both to sway Canadians one way to- earlier periods. During the colonial era, from ward “reciprocity” in trade with America or the early 1600s to the end of the nineteenth the other toward “imperial preference” and century, Canada’s aboriginal peoples were exclusive trade with British Empire countries. targeted by religious “propaganda” in its orig- The Canadian government’s responses to the inal sense of propagating conversion to Métis minority’s uprisings in Manitoba’s Red Christianity. Simultaneously with their dis- River region in effect sanctioned propaganda possession and depletion by Europeans, demonizing their charismatic leader Louis Riel stereotypical representations of aboriginals as (1844–1885) in English-Canadian public opin- virtuous “noble savages” gave way to fearful ion. Riel’s trial and execution in Regina in 1885 pictorial and print “propaganda” (in its secu- and the displacement of the Métis from their lar, modern sense) portraying bloodthirsty land accentuated French-English divisions in warriors capable of satanic cruelty. eastern Canada and helped secure a place in the Throughout the international conflicts of next century for the hastily assembled North- the eighteenth century, British North Amer- West Mounted Police.

59 60 Canada

World War I had a profound impact on the The Special Branch of the Royal Canadian development of Canadian propaganda and Mounted Police (RCMP) cultivated its own public attitudes toward government informa- propaganda capability through its relations tion generally. Domestic propaganda sought with journalists and its infiltration of Canada’s to neutralize the true horrors of the western left-wing and foreign-language presses. The front in order to maintain public support for minuscule Communist Party of Canada pro- the war. Not surprisingly, recruitment duced thundering propaganda whose main ef- posters and press accounts emphasized cama- fect was to expose more moderate and raderie and glory rather than casualties and broader-based “Popular Front” elements to battlefield conditions. Mounting recruitment decisive counterattack from the right. During difficulties eventually culminated in a full- the 1920s and 1930s the police frequently ha- scale conscription crisis that opened a wide rassed the Communist Party and a successful rift between English and French Canadians, agitprop play, Eight Men Speak, lashed out not to mention many Canadians of “recent against the imprisonment and assault of party European origin.” Large numbers of the lat- leader Tim Buck (1891–1973). In 1937 Que- ter were consigned to internment camps. bec premier Maurice Duplessis (1890–1959) Max Aitken (1879–1964) emerged from passed notorious “Padlock Laws” authorizing small-town New Brunswick to become the police closure and padlocking of any estab- Fleet Street press baron Lord Beaverbrook. lishment suspected of promoting Communist As Canada’s official “War Eye Witness” in propaganda. France, Aitken tirelessly fostered the impres- Canada’s high point of propaganda began sion that Canadian valor alone carried for- in 1940 when John Grierson’s (1898–1972) ward the war aims. To the government’s National Film Board (NFB) produced Peoples chagrin, Aitken’s new standards of profes- of Canada to celebrate Canadian tolerance of sionalism in Western propaganda were being ethnic difference. This new theme played achieved at some cost to Britain’s prestige. well in a Europe torn asunder by interethnic Aitken’s recruitment to lead the main British strife. The NFB’s Canada Carries On and The propaganda effort marked a new threshold in World in Action series of newsreels became a centralized government control of wartime staple of mass-media wartime information, information. Ever sensitive to archival reten- but it was the new multiculturalist theme tion and historical memory, Aitken’s initia- that best coincided with the 1941 Atlantic tives left a vivid legacy of the Great War, not Charter and with Britain’s new “internation- least through the paintings of his official war alist” theme deemphasizing its imperialist artists. past. In Ottawa a “Nationalities Branch” was Immediately following the war, the 1919 instituted in 1943 to prepare and distribute Winnipeg General Strike provoked an out- propaganda articles for the foreign-language pouring of nativist and antilabor propaganda press in Canada. at the behest of commercial interests, with Clandestine British “black propaganda” ac- tacit government support. Thirty thousand tivities in Canada during World War II in- strikers brought the city to a standstill, but cluded Camp X, a clandestine training facility they were effectively isolated as “Bolshevists” for the British Special Operations Executive and “alien scum” by the mainstream media (SOE), created without the knowledge of and a “Citizens’ Committee of 1,000.” Prime Minister Mackenzie King (1874– Mounted police crushed the strikers on 1950). Camp X also served as the “Hydra” “Bloody Saturday,” helping to radicalize many transmitter site for British Security Coordi- foreign-language presses and, in turn, occa- nation (BSC). Hundreds of Canadians, in- sioning the growth of police and military cluding many women, were recruited by the translation and censorship bureaus. BSC for operations in New York and else- Canada 61 where. In 1945 a well-disguised secret ser- NFB and the CBC services. Afterward DLII vice operation produced the defection in Ot- found it necessary to soften the hectoring tawa of cipher clerk Igor Gouzenko, whose anti-Soviet tone of the NFB’s Freedom Speaks information exposed Soviet spy rings operat- series. ing in Canada and the United States. Ameri- Gouzenko’s successful books kept Toronto can columnist Drew Pearson (1897–1969) ghostwriters busy, and a 1948 Hollywood made Canada the eye of an international film based on his story (The Iron Curtain) propaganda storm when he published brought North American audiences face to Gouzenko’s revelations in 1946. The face with the insidious Communist enemy. Gouzenko Affair became a defining event that Former BSC chief Sir William Stephenson enmeshed Canada in the Anglo-American al- (1896–1989) amplified aspects of the liance at the onset of the Cold War. Gouzenko case and other intelligence exploits By the end of World War II Canada had during World War II. The best-selling “Intre- developed a remarkable propaganda capacity pid” books about the Winnipeg-born million- in the mass media. The NFB had grown in aire were themselves a masterful genre of size and professionalism, and its films were propaganda aimed at self-aggrandizement, the staples in Canadian movie theaters and in blurring of fact and fiction, and the hardening prisoner-of-war camps at home and abroad. of public opinion against the Soviet Union. The domestic radio service of the Canadian From the left came a series of propaganda ri- Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) had honed postes such as the anti-McCarthyist radio its ability to shape public opinion, and by satire The Investigator (1954) by Reuben Ship 1945 it had launched a full-scale program of (1915–1975) and Paul Robeson’s (1898– short-wave radio propaganda through its In- 1976) five heroic Peace Arch Concerts on the ternational Service. From studios in Mon- U.S.-Canadian border (1952–1956). treal linked to powerful transmitters in As Quebec nationalism gathered force dur- Sackville, the International Service broadcast ing the postwar “Quiet Revolution,” Canadian across the Atlantic in a growing repertoire of propaganda took a new turn. Despite its inter- European languages. In conjunction with the national image as a model police force, the larger Voice of America and the BBC World RCMP employed highly aggressive “black Service, Canadian radio propagandists were propaganda” and disinformation tactics in fully prepared to enjoin the Cold War’s “Bat- order to disrupt Quebec’s sovereignty move- tle of the Antennas.” Canadian radio propa- ment during the 1960s and 1970s. When the gandists already regarded themselves as the 1970 October Crisis came to a head with kid- “whitest” of these three services and they nappings of a Quebec cabinet minister and a nurtured this credibility as a distinctively British diplomat, Prime Minister Pierre Canadian subtlety of persuasion. Trudeau (1919–2001) declared martial law, With the formalization of various security called in the military, and placed hundreds of arrangements at the end of World War II suspects in detention. A decade later the Mac- came a new bureaucracy for propaganda. An Donald Royal Commission investigated the interdepartmental Psychological Warfare RCMP and censured the Mounties for clandes- Committee supervised Canada’s propaganda tine infiltration and sabotage of legitimate po- agencies and established their Cold War pol- litical organizations. Subsequent research has icy orientation. In the Department of Exter- revealed that the RCMP had, in fact, developed nal Affairs, Defense Liaison II (DLII) was the sophisticated capabilities in “black propaganda” group most concerned with these matters, and strategic deception. In 1983 a new stand- and purges of supposed leftists through alone civilian agency, the Canadian Security RCMP security screenings in the late 1940s and Intelligence Service, was established to and early 1950s eliminated dissent in the take over various RCMP activities. 62 Capa, Robert

National unity remained a central tenet of a perhaps truer image of Canada as a faithful Canadian domestic propaganda throughout Anglo-American ally. the surges of Quebec nationalism that culmi- Mark Kristmanson nated in a hairline victory for federalists in a See also Beaverbrook, Max; British Empire; Cold 1995 referendum. The Péquiste campaign War; Cultural Propaganda; Exhibitions and adopted a catchy “flower power” motif that World’s Fairs; Grierson, John; Intelligence; Radio (International); World War I; World nearly carried their elderly and crotchety War II (Britain) male leaders to victory. On the federalist References: Evans, Gary. In the National Interest:A side, a mass campaign that rushed Canadian Chronicle of the National Film Board of Canada flags and buses packed with anglophone On- from 1949 to 1989. Toronto: University of tarians to Montreal had little impact. In fact, Toronto Press, 1991; Gouzenko, Igor. This Was the decisive propaganda battle had been My Choice.Toronto: J. M. Dent, 1948; Keshen, Jeffrey A. Propaganda and Censorship During fought over the years in every facet of Que- Canada’s Great War. Edmonton: University of bec society—English signs, school curricula, Alberta Press, 1996; Kristmanson, Mark. university courses, map layouts—through Plateaus of Freedom:Nationality,Culture and State advertising campaigns. Security in Canada,1940–1960. Oxford: The crisis at Oka, Quebec, in 1990 Oxford University Press, 2002; MacDonald, Bill. The True Intrepid:Sir William Stephenson and brought yet another turn in Canada’s propa- the Unknown Agents. Surrey, BC: Timberholme, ganda story. Mohawks objecting to the ex- 1998; McLoughlin, Michael. Last Stop Paris:The pansion of a golf course on disputed land ad- Assassination of Mario Bachand and the Death of the jacent to their Kanesatake reserve gained FLQ. Toronto:Viking, 1998; Scher, Len, ed. The world attention through a well-orchestrated Un-Canadians:True Stories of the Blacklist Era. propaganda campaign that portrayed their Toronto: Lester, 1992; Siegel,Arthur. Radio Canada International:History and Development. occupation of the disputed land in the stark- Oakville, Ont.: Mosaic, 1996; Stafford, David. est terms. Mohawk “Warriors” first faced an Camp X. Toronto: Lester & Orpen Dennys, ill-prepared and impatient provincial police 1986; Trigger, Bruce G. Natives and Newcomers: contingent until a police officer was shot. An Canada’s “Heroic”Age Reconsidered. Kingston: implacable and media-conscious military McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1985; Whitaker, Reg, and Gary Marcuse. Cold War force then moved in and thereafter both sides Canada:The Making of a National Insecurity State, manipulated media images and practiced de- 1945–1957. Toronto: University of Toronto ception techniques to pressure the other side Press, 1994; York, Geoffrey, and Loreen to end the standoff. Eventually the military Pindera. People of the Pines:The Warriors and the prevailed, but not before the Mohawks had Legacy of Oka.Toronto: Little, Brown, 1992. created a cause célèbre that tarnished Canada’s international reputation. Perhaps the uneasiness that underscores Capa, Robert (1913–1954) Canadian attitudes toward propaganda is Capa was a Hungarian-born photojournalist symptomatic of Canada’s fitful progress as a (his real name was Endre Friedmann) whose nation whose sovereign interests gradually images of the Spanish Civil War became clas- and only partially were distinguished from sics of photographic propaganda first for the those of Britain and the United States. Dur- cause of the Spanish Republic and then ing the Gulf War and in the more recent War against war in general. Expelled from Hun- on Terrorism, the carefully cultivated Cana- gary because of his left-wing student politics, dian “air of neutrality”—as symbolized by Friedman studied journalism in Berlin and Lester Pearson’s (1897–1972) Nobel Peace got his break photographing Leon Trotsky Prize following the Suez Crisis and the (1879–1940) while on a visit to Denmark in peacekeeping duties undertaken by Canadi- 1932. During the early months of the Spanish ans around the world—has been replaced by Civil War he invented the name Robert Capa Caribbean 63 for an imaginary American journalist whom Why We Fight. These were supplemented by he planned to make the source of his photo- films in the Know Your Ally and Know Your graphs from the front. Although his sub- Enemy series and a one-shot film called The terfuge was later exposed, the name stuck Negro Soldier designed to combat racism in and he changed his own name accordingly. the army. Capra oversaw the writing and Capa photographed combat and civilian suf- production of these films, which reflected fering in Spain beginning in 1935. Using a the same commitment to “American values” small Leica 35mm camera to get into the of community and the common man as his midst of the action, he covered the war in prewar films. The impact of these films on China in 1938, World War II (including the audiences at the time is questionable since D-day landings), the early struggles of Israel, most were not available for distribution until and French Indochina, where he was killed relatively late in the conflict. After the war by a land mine. Capa was unafraid to use his Capra returned to commercial filmmaking, photographs to show the suffering and nobil- though his career never quite reached its ity of people with whom he identified. His prewar heights. most famous image—depicting the death of a Nicholas J.Cull Loyalist militiaman near Cerro Muriano See also Film (Documentary); Why We Fight; (Córdoba front), ca. 5 September 1939— World War II (United States) shows a soldier, apparently just struck by a References: Carney, Raymond. American Vision: The Films of Frank Capra.Cambridge: Cambridge bullet, falling back with his arms out- University Press, 1986; McBride, Joseph. Frank stretched. It was the subject of controversy, Capra:The Catastrophe of Success. London: Faber as some scholars have suggested that the sub- and Faber, 1992. ject is only training and not engaged in active combat. Subsequent investigators have vali- dated its authenticity. The image became well Caribbean known in the 1960s as a peace poster bearing This region has suffered from stereotypes and the word “Why?” experienced the propaganda of imperialism Nicholas J.Cull and the Cold War, but it has also produced See also Civil War, Spanish; Peace and Antiwar campaigns and campaigners of its own. Its Movements (1945– ); Photography propaganda history parallels that of both Latin References: Capa, Robert. Photographs.New America (with which it overlaps through such York:Aperture, 1996; Whelan, Richard. Robert Capa. New York: Knopf, 1985. Spanish Caribbean islands as Cuba) and the Pacific/Oceania. The Caribbean (named after the Carib Indians) was the first point of con- tact between Europeans and the “New Capra, Frank (1897–1991) World.” Following the voyages of Christopher Capra was an American feature filmmaker Columbus (1451–1506), the region saw a who successfully turned his hand to propa- wave of both religiously driven missionary ac- ganda films during World War II. Born in tivity and propaganda about the inhabitants Italy, he moved to the United States as a that stressed their savagery and cannibalism (a child. During the 1930s he established a rep- word also derived from Carib). The planta- utation as one of Hollywood’s foremost di- tion slavery system followed. The Caribbean rectors, winning Academy Awards for films reflected a shifting map of colonial control like It Happened One Night (1934). During with Spain, France, and Britain as the chief World War II he accepted a commission as a players. Holland also had possessions, and major in the Army Signal Corps and agreed Denmark maintained the Virgin Islands as a to make a series of seven orientation docu- royal colony until the United States purchased mentaries for the U.S. Army under the title them at the end of the nineteenth century. 64 Caribbean

As in Latin America, the ideas of the members among people of African descent in French Revolution had a major impact. In the United States, Central America, West 1791 Toussaint L’Ouverture (1744–1803), a Africa, and the Caribbean. It included a former slave, led a rebellion on the island of major theological component that insisted Haiti. His name (“the Opening”) derived that God is black and invoked Africa as the from a battlefield exploit involving the open- true homeland. The nationalist agenda of the ing of a breach in enemy lines. By 1801 he Garvey movement in Jamaica was taken up in had conquered the neighboring colony of the 1930s by the Rastafarian faith, which Santo Domingo, but in 1802 Napoleon’s looked to the Ethiopian king Haile Selassie forces suppressed his rebellion and impris- (formerly Ras Tafari) (1891–1975) as the oned him in France, where he died. Haiti, messiah. Campaigners for labor rights in Ja- however, remained independent. Toussaint maica included Alexander Bustamante L’Ouverture became an enduring symbol of (1884–1977), a powerful speaker and able liberty and black leadership. Celebrations of union organizer, who began work in the his life include poems by William Words- 1930s. After spending 1941–1942 in jail, he worth (1770–1850) in England and Alphonse founded the Jamaica Labour Party. Busta- de Lamartine (1790–1869) in France, as well mante was knighted by the queen of England as a biography and play by the Trinidadian so- in 1955. Following independence in 1962, he cialist writer C. L. R. James (1901–1989). served as Jamaica’s first prime minister until After figuring in the movement against 1967. The French island of Martinique was slavery (which was abolished in the British the birthplace of philosopher Frantz Fanon Empire in 1833), the region was the scene of (1925–1961), who became a leading Pan- anticolonial activities, especially in the Span- Africanist and anticolonial voice in the late ish Caribbean. Among the leaders was José 1950s. Martí (1853–1895), poet, essayist, and cam- The Spanish Caribbean saw the equivalents paigner for Cuban independence, whose of the European totalitarians, including works include Nuestra América (1891). Martí Rafael Trujillo (1891–1961), dictator of the spent most of his adult life in exile working Dominican Republic, and Fulgencio Batista y on newspapers in Latin America and the Zaldívar (1901–1973) in Cuba. Their United States. He died in one of the first en- regimes were built upon personality cults gagements of the Cuban rebellion he had and were characterized by censorship (and worked to ferment. Like Toussaint L’Ouver- murder) of opponents. The most extravagant ture, Martí became a major reference point dictator in the region was François “Papa for later generations, most notably Fidel Cas- Doc” Duvalier (1907–1971), a former doc- tro (1927– ). tor and health minister, who seized power in In the twentieth century the British and 1957 with the support of the army. He ruled French Caribbean experienced the propa- by means of terror campaigns, carried out by ganda implicit in their respective educational his notorious secret police (Tonton Ma- systems. The U.S. cultural and military pres- coutes). Their name (“bogeymen” in Haitian ence in the region increased, and the rulers Creole) was designed to intimidate, as were of independent countries of the region their ubiquitous dark glasses, but the image looked to propaganda to undergird their was backed up with torture and summary ex- regimes. The most successful Caribbean pro- ecution. Duvalier’s propaganda leaned heav- pagandist of the 1920s was the Jamaican- ily on voodoo, which he practiced. Duvalier born Marcus Garvey, who launched a identified himself with the terrifying voodoo transnational Universal Negro Improvement spirit Baron Samedi, the bringer of death. Association from the United States. The Denunciations of his regime included the movement attracted over eleven million novel The Comedians (1966) by the English Caribbean 65 writer Graham Greene (1904–1991). When Bertrand Aristide (1953– ). Aristide fol- Papa Doc died in 1971, rule passed to “Baby lowed the regional tradition of liberation the- Doc,” his nineteen-year-old son Jean-Claude ology, which called upon the church to com- (1951– ), who attempted to improve Haiti’s bat earthly injustice. In 1990 he ran for international image. He did enough to earn president on behalf of the Fanmi Lavalas left- developmental and military aid from the wing coalition. He won, only to be driven United States but fell from power in 1986. from the country by a military coup a few The chief figure in the Cold War months later. The U.S. government had Caribbean is, of course, Fidel Castro. Follow- mixed feelings about his rule and his poten- ing the Cuban revolution of 1959, Castro’s tial return. He was the victim of a rumor Cuba became an epicenter of Communist campaign in Washington, D.C., attacking his propaganda in the region. The United States sanity. Despite this, he served a second term responded to the threat of revolution by as president-in-exile. In 1994 the Clinton ad- backing anti-Communist regimes. Beyond ministration intervened in Haiti to restore this, the United States intervened in 1965 to him to power, deploying both military and end a civil war in the Dominican Republic. psychological warfare to do so. Aristide was The episode saw the strategic use of psycho- advised not to run for president in 1995 and logical warfare, and the United States felt stepped down (he also left the priesthood and sufficiently encouraged by the results to married). In February 2001 he won a fourth amend its campaign in Vietnam accordingly. term in office. The other major U.S. intervention in the In the second half of the twentieth century, Caribbean occurred in 1983 on the island of Caribbean musical forms, such as calypso and Grenada. In 1974 Grenada had achieved full Jamaican reggae, which had been used for po- independence from Britain with Eric Gairy litical expression and satire, became well (1922–1997) as prime minister (an eccentric known outside the region. Bob Marley interested in UFOs). In 1979 the left-wing (1945–1981), the best-known exponent of New Jewel movement led by Maurice Bishop reggae, infused his music with a strong an- (1944–1983) seized power in a bloodless tiracist and Rastafarian-related liberation coup and began a defiantly anti-U.S. radio message. By the end of the century, the chief propaganda campaign. U.S. president Ronald propaganda effort of most Caribbean govern- Reagan portrayed Grenada as being a ments occurred in the field of tourism, some foothold for the Soviet Union in America’s of which was coordinated by the Caribbean backyard and emphasized (and—it later Community and Common Market (CARI- emerged—exaggerated) Cuban involvement COM), an organization founded in 1973. on the island. When, in October 1983, Public health and development issues re- Bishop died in an internal power struggle, the mained significant. Other common activities United States mounted Operation Urgent included a joint declaration with the small na- Fury to overthrow the New Jewel regime. tions of the Pacific and elsewhere of its nu- The intervention was, in many ways, propa- clear-free status and the 1994 UN conference ganda through performance. Still suffering on small islands, held on Barbados. from the aftermath of Vietnam, the United Nicholas J.Cull States needed to project a sense of military See also British Empire; Castro, Fidel; Latin force. The operation featured tight control of America; Reagan, Ronald; Spanish-American the media along the lines of the British man- War agement of the Falklands/Malvinas War of References: Bark, Dennis L., ed. The Red Orchestra:Instruments of Soviet Policy in Latin the previous year. America and the Caribbean. Palo Alto: Hoover The later 1980s saw the emergence of the Institution Press, 1986; Beck, Robert J. The charismatic Haitian Catholic priest Jean- Grenada Invasion:Politics,Law and Foreign Policy 66 Cartoons

Decision Making. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1993; Daumier’s image of the grand and rich Bethell, Leslie, ed. The Cambridge History of lawyer telling the poor widow whose case he Latin America.Vol. 7, Latin America Since 1930: has just lost: “But at least you had the honor Mexico,Central America and the Caribbean. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, of my having represented you.” Thomas Nast 1990; Ferguson, James. Papa Doc–Baby Doc: (1840–1902),the greatest American cartoon- Haiti and the Duvaliers. Oxford: Blackwell, ist, was born in Germany but came to Amer- 1987; James, C. L. R. The Black Jacobins: ica at age six. Nast created full-page engrav- Toussaint L’Ouverture and the San Domingo ings for Harper’s Weekly, whose circulation of Revolution. London: Penguin, 2001; Martí, three hundred thousand made it the closest José. Inside the Monster:Writings on the United States and American Imperialism. Ed. Philip S. thing in nineteenth-century America to a na- Foner. London: Monthly Review Press, 1975; tional newspaper. Nast created the symbols Parry, J. H., and P.M. Sherlock. A Short History of the Republican (elephant) and Democratic of the West Indies. London: Macmillan, 1971; (donkey) parties. Tur ton, Peter. José Martí:Architect of Cuba’s The greatest English cartoonist of the Freedom. London: Zed, 1986. twentieth century is David Low (1891– 1963), who was born in New Zealand. Low created the figure of Colonel Blimp in 1934 Cartoons to describe a certain type of superannuated As Aldous Huxley remarked in Point Counter political thinking. Blimp was the subject of a Point (1928), “Parodies and caricatures are the fine British feature film entitled The Life and most penetrating of criticisms.” Cartoons are Death of Colonel Blimp (1943). Surely Low’s among the most powerful weapons in the pro- greatest cartoon is “Rendezvous,” published pagandist’s arsenal, though some would argue in the London Evening Standard on 20 Septem- that the political cartoon more often gives ber 1939. It shows Hitler tipping his hat to pleasure to the already persuaded than dis- Stalin, who returns the gesture, with both comfort to the subject in question. The term figures in midair above a generic dead body. “cartoon” comes from the Italian cartone, or Hitler says:“The scum of the earth, I believe.” pasteboard, and originally referred to an Stalin’s response is: “The bloody assassin of artist’s preparatory sketches, such as Raphael’s the workers, I presume.” This cartoon, which cartoons for the figures of the Sistine Chapel. Low claims is the bitterest he ever drew,is an The modern political cartoon, a satirical iconic commentary on the cynicism of the drawing commenting on public—and usually surprise Nazi-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact of political—matters, is an English contribution. 23 August 1939, making the invasion of William Hogarth (1697–1764), for example, Poland virtually inevitable. preached against the dangers of gin. His “Gin In twentieth-century America, Herbert Street” indicates the curse of gin in a way no Block (1909–2001), or Herblock, the long- viewer can ignore. As David Low notes in his time cartoonist for the Washington Post, had book about British cartoonists, Hogarth’s “was enormous impact during the heyday of not the art of the rapier, but of the tank.” Ex- Joseph McCarthy (1909–1957), the junior posing the foibles of the English monarchy was senator from Wisconsin for whom Herblock a particular concern of the Scotsman James claims he coined the term “McCarthyism.” Gillray (1756–1815), who managed to enrage Herblock depicts McCarthy as swarthy and the king but did not put an end to the excesses ill-kempt; the senator was often shown car- he so enthusiastically exposed. rying a bloody hatchet. (Herblock was not a In France the work of Honoré Daumier man to use gentle imagery; he, too, preferred (1808–1879) continues to be admired. He the tank to the rapier.) Herblock denounced frequently belittled the pretensions of the the anti-Communist actions of Richard pretentious. Many a lawyer has winced at Nixon in numerous cartoons. A memorable Cartoons 67

A political cartoon entitled "Peace Creeps," put out by the American Nazi Party,Arlington,Virginia,1962.Those protesting the atomic bomb are shown as stereotypical peacenik hippies,Jews,and black protesters:"Sit-ins Yes!! Fall-out No!!" (Courtesy of David Culbert) example shows a welcoming committee tography is fundamentally different from that awaiting the arrival of Nixon, who is to give a of the cartoonist, who uses pen and ink. The speech. The caption reads: “Oh here he German John Heartfield (1891–1968) was comes now.” Nixon is seen climbing out of born Helmut Herzfeld, anglicizing his name the sewer—a clear reference to Nixon’s pref- during World War I to indicate his opposition erence for the smear or below-the-belt tac- to the German war effort. Heartfield made a tics in his quest to expose Democrats as series of covers for the socialist publication crypto-Communists in the early 1950s. Arbeiter-lllustrierte Zeitung (AIZ), many of Nixon was so offended by his cartoon image which have become icons of anti-Hitler senti- that he forbade delivery of the paper to his ment. For example, in the German elections home, publicly insisting that it would upset of April 1932, when Hitler proclaimed that his children. Herblock was back in top form “Millions Stand Behind Me,” Heartfield made only in the second term of Nixon’s presi- it seem that the millions represented the con- dency, when the Watergate scandal led to a tribution of German big business by adroitly series of cartoons that powerfully attacked manipulating a standard Hitler photograph Nixon’s credibility, including the memorable and adding a stream of coins. comment: “I am not a crook.” The political cartoon is alive and well in The political cartoon can also include the the twenty-first century. However, the earlier technique of photomontage, though the era’s assumption that the cartoonist should purist might insist that the medium of pho- possess the skills of the illustrator is no 68 Casablanca longer the case. Many cartoonists today make Laszlo’s wife (Ingrid Bergman [1915–1982]). it clear that traditional drawing skills are no He embraces the path of action and self-sacri- hard-and-fast requirement for the cartoonist. fice. In one particularly emotive moment, the The politicians of every country continue to issue of the war is encapsulated in the musical provide ample targets for the cartoonist and duel between German soldiers, bellowing the student of propaganda. “Watch on the Rhine,” and the French and Al- David Culbert lied café patrons who drown them out with See also McCarthy, Joseph R.; Mexico; Nast, the “Marseillaise.” The scene was reputedly Thomas; Nixon, Richard; Raemakers, Louis so moving at the time of shooting that mem- References: Block, Herbert. The Herbert Block bers of the film crew,with tears in their eyes, Book. Boston: Beacon, 1952; Keller, Morton. The Art and Politics of Thomas Nast. New York: joined in the singing. Oxford, 1975; Low, David. British Cartoonists, Nicholas J.Cull Caricaturists and Comic Artists. London: William See also Film (Feature); “La Marseillaise”; United Collins, 1942; Pachnicke, Peter, and Klaus States; World War II (United States) Honnef. John Heartfield. Cologne: DuMont, References: Doherty, Thomas. Projections of War: 1991; Seymour-Ure, Colin, and Jim Schoff. Hollywood,American Culture,and World War II. David Low. London: Secker and Warburg, New York: Columbia University Press, 1993; 1985. Koppes, Clayton R., and Gregory D. Black. Hollywood Goes to War:How Politics,Profits,and Propaganda Shaped World War II Movies.New York: Free Press, 1987. Casablanca (1942) Directed by Michael Curtiz (1886–1962) for Warner Brothers, Casablanca is one of the Castro, Fidel (1926– ) best examples of feature film propaganda Cuban revolutionary and Communist leader from World War II. Warner had a long tradi- and one of the best-known propagandists of tion of using its films to comment on issues in the later twentieth century, Castro was born the news, and Casablanca was planned in 1941 and raised in Oriente province. He grew up as exactly such a film. It was filmed at a time with a keen appreciation for the history of when the U.S. government urged all Holly- revolution in Cuba. His early heroes included wood producers to ask, when selecting their the poet, patriot, and martyr José Martí projects, “Will this picture help to win the (1853–1895). He studied law and by the war?” Its propaganda value was manifold. On early 1950s had joined the struggle against one level it provided an escape into a world the island’s dictator Fulgencio Batista y Zaldí- of glamour, international intrigue, and melo- var (1901–1973). On 26 July 1953 Castro drama. The film contained many politically took part in a failed raid on Moncada bar- useful stereotypes: heroic Allies, comic Ital- racks. He was arrested and put on trial. ian Fascists, and dangerous, fanatical Ger- However, he turned the situation to his ad- mans. Moreover, the story met the require- vantage by making a dramatic speech in ments of homefront propaganda, highlighting which he declared: “History will absolve me,” the need for Americans to sacrifice personal denouncing Batista, and rallying his country interests to the greater national goal of vic- to liberalism. The speech laid the foundation tory. The story concerns Rick (Humphrey for Castro’s reputation. In 1955 Batista re- Bogart [1899–1957]), a cynical American bar leased Castro from jail as part of an amnesty owner living in wartime Morocco, who en- agreement. Castro traveled to Mexico, counters Laszlo, a European resistance leader where, in collaboration with the Argentinian- on the run from the Nazis. Rick is forced to born Ernesto “Che” Guevara (1928–1967), choose between his public duty to help the he organized the 26 July movement. In 1956 anti-Fascist cause, and his private love for Castro and eleven others (including Guevara) Castro, Fidel 69

Cuban Premier Fidel Castro addresses the UN General Assembly during his first visit to the United States in nineteen years,12 October 1979.(Bettmann/Corbis) landed in Cuba and commenced a guerrilla cluded a rigidly ideological state education rebellion against Batista, an action that cap- system, state-run film and broadcasting, con- tured the popular imagination. In 1959 trol of the state newspaper, Granma, and Batista’s government fell and Castro estab- Prensa Latina, the largest news agency in the lished himself as premier. developing world. Castro censored oppo- Soon after seizing power, Castro began a nents and jailed writers who clashed with the program of agricultural reform that brought regime. He nurtured a personality cult, es- him into direct conflict with U.S. corporate tablishing himself as the personification of his plantation owners. Castro also used anti- country and his ideology. Castro became fa- American rhetoric to rally his population. By mous for long speeches—some lasting more 1961 he had formally aligned himself with the than nine hours. He conveyed a sense of as- Soviet Union and declared himself a Marxist. suredness in his use of Marxist rhetoric and In so doing Castro embarked on a propaganda appropriated the mantle of José Martí, a mix- duel with the United States that would outlast ture that proved enduringly persuasive on the century. The initial U.S. response—the both television and radio. abortive attempt to invade Cuba with an army Overseas Castro sponsored revolutionary of exiles at the Bay of Pigs—helped to bolster movements around Latin America, the Castro’s reputation, both in his own country Caribbean, and in West Africa, deploying and around the world, as a man prepared to arms, advisers, and propaganda. Diplomatic defy the United States. manifestations of this policy included Cas- Castro established himself at the center of tro’s sponsorship of the Organization of Soli- a totalitarian media apparatus, which in- darity with the Peoples of Africa, Asia, and 70 Censorship

Latin America, and his chairmanship (since imagine. Censorship and propaganda remain 1979) of the Non-Aligned Movement. Cas- two sides of the same coin, both involving the tro’s activities remained of major concern to manipulation of opinion. Censorship is of lit- the United States and served as a justification tle value unless it selectively blends fact and for U.S. counterpropaganda and military in- opinion in order to deceive its intended audi- tervention in the region (as it had in the Do- ence. In this respect, the propagandist must minican Republic in 1965). In 1983 the work closely with the censor. In wartime United States launched a major propaganda censorship chiefly affects the supply of news; initiative against Castro in the form of a radio in peacetime it impacts the expression of station staffed by Cuban exiles (administered opinion. by USIA). It challenged Castro’s claim to the Censorship can take two forms: (1) the se- heritage of the Cuban struggle for independ- lection of information to support a particular ence by adopting the name Radio Martí. A viewpoint or (2) the deliberate manipulation television equivalent followed in 1990, al- or doctoring of information to create an im- though the effect of both was limited by jam- pression different from the one originally in- ming. In the 1990s issues in the propaganda tended. The first type of censorship can be war between Castro and the United States traced back to the Middle Ages, with the have included the U.S. trade boycott of Cuba most obvious example being ecclesiastical and the fate of a child named Elian Gonzalez. censorship, whereby the only channel for the In 1999 Elian attempted to flee Cuba with his dissemination of news and opinion was by mother, who died at sea. His family in Florida word of mouth, particularly from the pulpit. attempted to retain him, but the U.S. gov- Censorship took the form of the suppression ernment was obliged to return the child to of heresy. The best know example of this is his father in Cuba in the summer of 2000. the Index Librorum Prohibitorium, dating from Castro exploited Elian’s reunion with his fa- the sixteenth century, which represents one ther as propaganda for his regime. of the oldest forms of book censorship Nicholas J.Cull whereby all works considered pernicious to See also Caribbean; Cold War; Kennedy, John F.; Roman Catholics were censored.An example Latin America; Radio (International); Reagan, of the second type of censorship through Ronald; Russia; United Nations; Wick, doctored information is Bismarck’s (1815– Charles Z. References: Perez, Louis A., Jr. Cuba:Between 1898) famous Ems telegram of 1870, which Reform and Revolution. New York: Oxford led directly to the Franco-Prussian War. University Press, 1988; Rice, Donald E. The In wartime governments establish censor- Rhetorical Uses of the Authorizing Figure:Fidel ship to prevent the enemy from acquiring sen- Castro and José Martí.New York: Praeger, 1992; sitive information and also to bolster the Ruiz, Ramon. Cuba:The Making of a Revolution. morale of its soldiers and citizens. The Great New York: Norton, 1970; Szulc, Tad. Fidel:A Critical Portrait.New York: Morrow, 1986. War of 1914–1918 was the first modern war in which all the belligerents deployed the twin weapons of censorship and propaganda to rigidly control public opinion. Most nations Censorship considered it vital, from the point of view of Censorship is the process of suppressing the national security,to control the means of com- circulation of information or opinions offen- munication. Of all the means available, none sive to the values of those representing the was more highly regarded than the press. Such censor. It has been referred to as a negative was the pervasiveness of official censorship form of propaganda. Without some form of and propaganda that a huge gap was manufac- censorship propaganda—in the strictest tured between those fighting the war and the sense of the word—would be difficult to civilian home front that supported them. In U.S. war poster,1943,“Let's Censor Our Conversation about the War.” Every combatant used similar appeals.(Corbis) 72 Censorship

Germany the justification for tight censorship In the opening phase of World War II was the upholding of the Burgfrieden (political Britain attempted to repeat the experience— truce) and the fear that newspapers might and mistakes—of World War I, where cen- publish sensitive military information. There sorship and propaganda had been conducted was little to support this fear, for the only wire separately. Once again censorship was to be service in Germany was the “official” Wolff on a “voluntary” basis. Beginning in January Telegraph Bureau (WTB), which, at the out- 1940, when Sir John Reith (1889–1971) be- break of war, became the German newspa- came its head, the Ministry of Information per’s sole source of official war news, with all (MoI) began to assert itself, insisting that sensitive material first being cleared by the “news is the shocktroops of propaganda” and German Foreign Office. that propaganda should tell “the truth, noth- In Britain, under the Defence of the Realm ing but the truth and, as near as possible, the Act (DORA), such a severe system of censor- whole truth.” By 1941 the system was oper- ship was created that it continues to have im- ating so effectively that most observers were plications for British society to this day. Tech- unaware that a sophisticated form of precen- nically all press censorship was voluntary; sorship was in force—even within the BBC. editors were entitled to submit for advance This explains why Britain’s wartime propa- consideration any material that was likely to ganda gained its reputation for telling the violate DORA. The press bureau was to pro- truth when, in fact, the whole truth could vide official war news and the war correspon- not be told. dents were expected to publish its commu- The Falklands/Malvinas War (1982) re- niqués without comment. The willingness of vealed how much the British had learned the newspaper proprietors to accept self-cen- from the their experience in the propaganda sorship and their cooperation in disseminating war against the Irish Republican Army (IRA) propaganda ultimately undermined public in Northern Ireland and also from the Ameri- trust in the press. British war correspondents can experience in Vietnam. During the war identified with the armies in the field and the British government established near total largely shielded the government and the mili- control of information flowing out of the war tary leadership from public criticism by with- zone. British media management during the holding accounts of military setbacks and fo- war provided a model for American military- cusing on the camaraderie of life in the media relations in subsequent conflicts—no- trenches. Once the Americans had entered the tably Grenada (1983) and Panama (1989). war, they set up their own propaganda organi- Since 1982 wars in the Gulf, Bosnia, Kosovo, zation, the Committee on Public Information and Afghanistan have been reported on a (CPI), with responsibility for censorship. global scale, with extensive and virtually in- During the interwar period the growing stantaneous coverage guaranteeing huge au- popularity of the commercial film industry diences. Nevertheless, a key feature in all attracted increasing censorship. There was a these wars is the continued use of censorship widespread fear, both in the United States by means of restrictive media management. and elsewhere, that film’s persuasive power David Welch might be used for harmful ends. The domi- See also BBC; Britain; Caribbean; China; Film nance of Hollywood ensured that controver- (Newsreels); Film (Nazi Germany); Germany; sies surrounding the content of movies Gulf War; Falklands/Malvinas War; Ireland; shaped the kinds of films the rest of the world MoI; Orwell, George; Radio (International); saw. From 1934 until the 1950s the Produc- Russia; Scandinavia; United States;Vietnam War; Wilkes, John; World War I; World War II tion Code, backed by the Production Code (Britain); World War II (United States) Administration (PCA), heavily influenced the References: Carruthers, Susan L. The Media at content of American films. War:Communication and Conflict in the Twentieth China 73

Century.Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 2000; Confucian thought hardened into a doctrine Levy, Leonard. Emergence of a Free Press.New of state governance that stressed the impor- York: Oxford University Press, 1985; tance of hierarchy; it was made the basis of Pratkanis,Anthony, and Elliot Aronson. Age of Propaganda:The Everyday Use and Abuse of the examinations qualifying candidates for Persuasion. New York: W.H. Freeman, 1991; the state bureaucracy. Confucianism has re- Welch, David. Germany,Propaganda and Total mained a powerful resource for Chinese War, 1914–18.New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers rulers even into the present era. University Press, 2000. Before the age of mass media, the sharing of religious rituals was one of the most im- portant ways in which state propaganda Central Intelligence Agency could be transmitted among the population See CIA at large. The state could promote cults of gods based on dead heroes who had served the state, which would then be filtered down Chile to temples at the nonelite level. Even at the See Latin America elite level, the late imperial period, under the ethnically Manchu Qing dynasty (1644– 1911), saw an increasing use of state propa- China ganda to legitimate the rule of the Manchus Propaganda is central to the operation of the in the face of loyalism to the overthrown Chinese system of government. Aspects of Ming dynasty. The Kangxi emperor, who propaganda—in particular the formalization ruled from 1661 to 1722, issued a sixteen- of imagery and language—can be traced back point “Sacred Edict” in 1670 that justified his to the earliest period of Chinese history, but reign in terms of Confucian orthodoxy, propaganda has been most effective in the thereby successfully challenging Chinese offi- twentieth century thanks to the mass media cials to follow that same orthodoxy and serve and a powerful authoritarian government. him. His successor, the Yongzheng emperor, The earliest surviving texts on governance who ruled from 1723 to 1735, expanded on in China pay great attention to the need for the edict, training scholars in its precepts so rulers to control and formalize language to that they could go to towns and villages to secure their authority. Confucius (c. 551– educate ordinary Chinese citizens about its 479 B.C.E.), the most influential philosopher requirements, thereby ensuring that success of early China, noted that the “rectification of in the civil service examinations was based names” was crucial to the establishment of not only on a knowledge of the edicts but stable government. The most important also the emperor’s comments on them. source for Confucius’s thoughts are The The late nineteenth century saw the Qing Analects, a series of dialogues that he is dynasty become unstable due to a combina- claimed to have held with various disciples, tion of economic crisis, internal rebellion, in which he argued for the importance of and the impact of Western imperialism. Dur- virtue and moral authority as a means of cre- ing this period Western social and cultural ating a stable state. Other works believed to ideas—often transmitted through Japan— have been edited by Confucius, along with were influential among Chinese elites. the writings of his student, Mencius (c. Among those ideas was that of the public 371–289 B.C.E.), form part of a canon for- sphere separate from the state, and of associ- malized in the twelfth century. Confucian ated institutions, such as newspapers. The thought was supplemented by vast numbers most politically influential newspaper of the of commentaries, which gave rise to various period was Shibao (Times), written by a schools of Confucianism. Over the centuries group of Chinese intellectuals, of whom the 74 China

Chinese poster from the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s promoting the resettlement of educated urban youth in rural areas. (Stefan Landsberger/Hangzhou Fine Arts Group) most notable was the reformer Liang Qichao 1975), which was swiftly undermined by the (1873–1929). Shibao, published from 1904 to war with Japan (1937–1945). Some of the 1939, served as a forum for debates on con- militaristic leaders—such as the northeast- stitutional reform in China, which influenced erner Zhang Zuolin (1875–1928), who con- the newly emerging urban middle class, par- trolled much of northern China in the early ticularly in major cities such as Shanghai. 1920s—had little interest in legitimating Much of the vocabulary of modernity was their rule by any means other than force. also popularized through Shibao and other However, when Chiang Kai-shek established publications by Liang, paving the way for the a Nationalist government at Nanjing in 1928, introduction of ideological thought (national- he used propaganda to characterize his au- ism, communism, anarchism, etc.) in the fol- thority (which in reality was fairly fragile) as lowing century. firm and part of a wider project of nation- The 1911 revolution ended China’s impe- building, which had been started by his pred- rial system, and a republic was established. ecessor Sun Yat-sen (1866–1925). The most The Republican period (1911–1949) was notable of his propaganda exercises was the marked by great instability, with no central New Life Movement of the 1930s, which government and a China divided up among took ideas from Confucianism and European warring militaristic leaders. This was fol- fascism. Its goal was to control the daily be- lowed by a decade of uneasy unity, under Na- havior of ordinary Chinese citizens (for in- tionalist leader Chiang Kai-shek (1887– stance, encouraging them not to spit in pub- China 75 lic) as a means of instilling wider respect for from the front lines for the first time in his- the Nationalist nation-building project. The tory. Their reports, an important element in other major propaganda exercise under Chi- the stimulation of nationalist sentiment in ang was the anti-Communist campaign.After China, used a combination of realistic report- Chiang turned against the Chinese Commu- ing and standardized imagery to portray nists, who had been part of a united front valiant Chinese fighters combating vicious with the Nationalists until 1927, the official Japanese invaders. Cartoonists also con- press and media were encouraged to portray tributed to this imagery; the stark images of the small areas under Communist control in Feng Zikai (1898–1975) remain among the the 1930s as hotbeds of lawlessness and even best-known cartoons from the war period. sexual degeneracy (“property in common, Street theater was also used to present anti- wives in common” was a common gloss on Japanese propaganda to the illiterate masses. the Communists at the time) in order to in- The Nationalist government in exile in still fear in the population at large. Commu- Chongqing established film studios to pro- nists were almost always referred to in offi- duce patriotic epics. The use of mass propa- cial sources as “bandits.” This language was ganda techniques during the war gave the swiftly toned down after 1937, when a sec- Chinese Communists an invaluable platform ond united front was established against the to develop propaganda for such other policies Japanese. as land reform. The collaborationist govern- The Japanese invasion of Chinese terri- ment set up in Japanese-occupied China, tory, starting with the occupation of the under the former Nationalist politician Wang northeast (Manchuria) in 1931, created a Jingwei (1883–1944), also used propaganda new language and imagery of resistance, posters and reports—in this case to portray which became increasingly powerful Japanese-dominated rule as being the best throughout the 1930s and the war years. bulwark against Communism. Manchurian exiles from the Japanese occupa- The Nationalist government was exiled tion used their positions on well-known peri- from the mainland in 1949 after losing the odicals such as Shenghuo zhoukan (Life civil war against the Communists. The Peo- Weekly)—which may have reached 1.5 mil- ple’s Republic of China was established, and lion readers—to write about atrocities in oc- was dominated by Mao Zedong (1893–1976), cupied Manchuria, helping to stimulate an the chairman of the Communist Party, until urban protest movement against Chiang Kai- his death.After 1949, the public sphere, which shek’s policy of appeasement of the Japanese. had existed tenuously under the Nationalists, The imagery of resistance permeated popular no longer functioned. The press and broad- fiction of the period as well; in one 1933 casting were taken over by the state. Mao’s best-seller all the characters joined the anti- China was notable for the constant use of mass Japanese resistance. In Manchuria itself, campaigns to legitimate the state and its meanwhile, Japanese-sponsored propaganda rulers’ policies. It was the first Chinese gov- exercises—such as new schoolbooks and the ernment successfully to make use of modern Concordia Association, a pressure group cre- mass propaganda techniques, adapting them to ated to stimulate Sino-Japanese cooperation the needs of a country, which had a largely in the occupied zone—countered the argu- rural and illiterate population. The most no- ments of anti-Japanese nationalism. table campaigns included: Resist America, Aid During the Sino-Japanese War, writers Korea (1950), Anti–Hu Feng (1955), Hun- and artists used their powers graphically to dred Flowers (1957), Anti-Rightist (1957), portray the nature of the Japanese invasion. Great Leap Forward (1958–1961), Socialist Newspaper reporters such as Fan Changjiang Education (1963–1964), and the Cultural (1909–1970) and Lu Yi (1911– ) reported Revolution (1966–1976). 76 China

Mao Zedong was the guiding spirit behind felt, would keep both the party and the peo- these campaigns; although the methods used ple alert against a lessening of revolutionary in them were similar, his motivations differed zeal. Specific examples were used to galvanize in each case. Mao’s propaganda techniques all the campaigns. For example, in 1963, as had been developed during the years when part of the Socialist Education campaign, Lei the Communists were fighting for power. The Feng, a soldier whose diary was alleged to Rectification Movement of 1942, launched at have been found posthumously, was touted by the party’s wartime base in Yan’an, in north- the party as a model citizen; his diary—al- west China, marked a turning point for him. most certainly concocted by party propagan- “Rectification” impressed on all Communist dists—is filled with praise of Mao and ac- cadres—and, by extension, on nonparty counts of Lei Feng’s efforts to inspire members over whom they had control—that revolutionary zeal among his comrades. Also “Mao Zedong Thought” was the cornerstone prominent by 1963 was Quotations from Chair- of Chinese Communist ideology. Candidates man Mao (the “Little Red Book”), a compila- for party membership were forced to imbibe tion by the defense minister Lin Biao of state- Mao’s writings and were subjected to strin- ments and observations from Mao’s writings. gent tests. The groundwork was thus laid for The contents were studied intensively by mil- the cult of personality around Mao, which be- lions of soldiers, giving Mao iconic status. The came most notable during the Cultural Revo- book received an even wider readership dur- lution of the 1960s. The Communists set up a ing 1966–1969—the most intense phase of state propaganda apparatus that used both the the Cultural Revolution—when Mao ordered mass media (press, radio, and film) and group the country’s youth to “bombard the head- meetings to transmit the leadership’s line. quarters” and overthrow the existing struc- Language grew in importance during this pe- tures of party power. Styling themselves “Red riod, with the use of correct phrasing becom- Guards,” Chinese youths used quotations ing as significant—often more so—than ac- from Mao to justify their actions, including tions in keeping step with the party’s the elimination of “demons and ghosts,” which demands. included intellectuals, high party officials, and Propaganda campaigns in Mao’s China usu- anyone who had had contact with foreigners. ally took some easily identifiable target as The death of Mao Zedong in 1976 ushered their starting point, but they frequently had a in an interregnum period, followed by the as- hidden agenda involving factional struggles cendancy of Deng Xiaoping (1904–1997) as within the Communist leadership.A 1955 na- paramount leader starting in 1978. Deng’s tional campaign attacked the writer Hu Feng, primary concern was to make good the social who had expressed doubts as to the usefulness and economic losses of the Cultural Revolu- of Marxism as an arbiter of aesthetic quality. tion while continuing to maintain the Com- Conveniently, the campaign coincided with munist Party’s legitimacy—and he regarded problems involving the collectivization of Mao’s cult of personality as one of the major Chinese agriculture; the anti-Hu activities di- obstacles to achieving those goals. The verted attention from the failings of Commu- regimes of Deng and his successor, Jiang nist economic policy. Similarly, Mao sparked Zemin (1926– ), have consciously steered off the Cultural Revolution in 1966 in part away from building up personality cults of because he felt that he had been sidelined by the leader. Furthermore, popular disillusion- other members of the Politburo. However, ment with the great mass campaigns of the Mao’s campaigns also encapsulated his Mao era have meant that propaganda cam- broader concerns and fears, in particular his paigns against such perceived problems as fear that the party would become ossified and “spiritual pollution” and “bourgeois liberal- bureaucratic. The use of mass campaigns, he ization” have been less fervent than in the Chomsky, Noam 77 past.A partial exception was the campaign to tique of the nature of modern media propri- inspire patriotism following the 1989 stu- etorship and access and the extent to which dent-worker protests in Chinese cities, which information flows freely. The phrase “manu- resulted in the killings of protestors in facture of consent,” introduced during the in- Tian’anmen Square in Beijing. In the 1990s terwar period by Walter Lippmann, is now propaganda took on new tasks, in particular largely associated with Chomsky’s critique of the creation of a brand of nationalism based the relationship between propaganda and on traditional Chinese culture and on recent public opinion in the United States. history not directly related to the Commu- In 1988, Chomsky (together with coau- nist Party, such as the war against Japan. One thor Edward Herman) provided a propa- of the goals behind the nationalist campaign ganda model intended to analyze what he was to encourage reunification with Taiwan, claimed was the systematic bias of the Amer- which remains one of the last unfulfilled ican media that “manufactured” consent. The goals of the Communist Party. While propa- model referred to five significant factors: (1) ganda remains a constant in Chinese everyday the concentration of ownership in the hands life thanks to the powerful control the state of a few large corporations with the aim of continues to exercise over the media, pub- maximizing profits rather than informing; lishing, and education, censorship has less- (2) the increasing dependence on advertising ened. The appearance of new media, such as for revenue; (3) the dependence of the the Internet, has provided alternative forums media on government, corporate, and spe- for nonstate views, though these are also sub- cialist sources for information; (4) a preoc- ject to strict controls when they go beyond cupation with negative events; and (5) media the bounds of what the government consid- anti-Communism. According to Chomsky, ers permissible. dominant government and corporate groups Rana Mitter have been allowed unrivaled access to the See also Brainwashing; Counterinsurgency; media and have successfully marginalized Japan; Korea; Korean War; Mao Zedong; dissenting voices in the process. As a result Murdoch, Rupert; Olympics; Postage Stamps; there is no difference between the official Posters; Prisoners of War; Quotations from Chairman Mao; RFE/RL agenda and the media agenda. These power- References: Hung, Chang-tai. War and Popular ful controlling groups manufacture consent Culture:Resistance in Modern China,1937–1945. by disseminating bland and mendacious Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994; propaganda intended to fool the people Judge, Joan. Print and Politics:“Shibao”and the about the forces that govern them. Culture of Reform in Late Qing China.Stanford, Chomsky has been criticized in recent CA: Stanford University Press, 1996; Lewis, Mark Edward. Writing and Authority in Early years for adopting the theory of a top-down China. Albany: SUNY Press, 1999; Schoenhals, conspiracy driven by cynical elites that un- Michael. Doing Things with Words in Chinese derestimates the integrity of journalists and Politics:Five Studies.Berkeley: Institute of East the possibility that those who aspire to shape Asian Studies, University of California, 1992; mass opinion can be responsive as well as Schram, Stuart. The Thought of Mao Tse-tung. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, manipulative. 1989. David Welch See also Introduction; Television (News); United States References: Chomsky, Noam, and Edward S. Chomsky, Noam (1928– ) Herman. Manufacturing Consent:The Political Economy and the Mass Media.New York: Political dissident and professor of linguistics Pantheon, 1988; Herman, Edward S. Beyond at Massachusetts Institute of Technology Hypocrisy:Decoding the News in an Age of (MIT), Noam Chomsky is famous for his cri- Propaganda.Boston: South End Press, 1992; 78 Churchill, Winston

Taylor, Philip M. Munitions of the Mind.A History paredness for war ensured that when Cham- of Propaganda from the Ancient World to the Present berlain resigned in the spring of 1940, it was Day. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Churchill who became prime minister and Press, 1995. formed a coalition government. Churchill’s greatest achievements as a wartime propagandist were his radio broad- Churchill, Winston (1874–1965) casts to Britain during the summer of 1940. British Conservative politician and prime His words expressed the defiant spirit of the minister from 1940 to 1945 and again from country and did much to rally public confi- 1951 to 1955, Winston Churchill holds an dence following the fall of France: “We will anomalous position in the history of propa- fight them on the beaches; we will fight them ganda. Although in some ways he was the in the fields and on the landing grounds, and consummate propagandist, Churchill dis- we will never surrender” (4 June 1940, missed the importance of propaganda in House of Commons), and “if the British Em- modern war and politics, preferring deeds. pire and its Commonwealth lasts for a thou- As the son of the politician Randolph sand years men will still say, ‘This was their Churchill (1849–1895), Winston seemed finest hour’” (broadcast 18 June 1940). His fated for politics from an early age.After a se- rhetoric favored old-fashioned, short words ries of adventures during war service as a cor- and echoed the classics of English literature. respondent in South Africa, he entered Parlia- His tribute to the airmen of the Battle of ment in 1900. He left the Conservative Party Britain on 20 August 1940—“Never in the to join the Liberals and quickly rose to promi- field of human conflict, has so much been nence. During World War I he was First Lord owed by so many to so few”—echoed the of the Admiralty. During this period he words Shakespeare gave to Henry the Fifth: learned the trick of holding back bad news “We few,we happy few,we band of brothers.” until he had a piece of good news to counter- Churchill’s broadcasts were relayed to the act it. This approach to news management then neutral United States, doing much to served him well during World War II. stimulate American sympathy for the British During the General Strike of 1926 it was cause. Churchill’s bulldog appearance was a Churchill (then chancellor of the Exchequer) gift to photographers and cartoonists, and he who directed government propaganda. He played to this by adopting a characteristic “V” took over the BBC to give the government a for victory hand gesture. The “V” for victory monopoly on broadcast news and edited a was first used not by Churchill but as graffiti special newspaper called The National Gazette. by the Belgian resistance, encouraged after- Churchill was a talented writer, and when his ward by a BBC radio campaign. belief in empire pushed him into the political Despite his talent as a speaker, Churchill wilderness, he boosted his income with trusted the broader administration of British much journalism and historical writing. In propaganda to his friend Brendan Bracken the 1930s he warned against the rising dan- (1901–1958), taking little interest in the day- ger of Hitler and Mussolini. He also gained to-day running of campaigns. He insisted that experience as a broadcaster and was one of the best propaganda was one of action and the few British speakers who could command sought to impress the world with deeds a radio audience in the United States during rather than words. He was reluctant to attend the interwar period. When war came, Prime press conferences or meet journalists. To the Minister Neville Chamberlain (1869–1940) chagrin of such American allies as President brought Churchill back into the cabinet as Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945), he was First Lord of the Admiralty. Churchill’s repu- also slow to define British war aims, speaking tation as a longstanding advocate of pre- only in terms of fighting for “victory...for British poster from 1940 featuring wartime prime minister and skilled propagandist Winston Churchill (Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS) 80 CIA without victory there can be no survival.” American Neutrality in World War Two.New York: Roosevelt eventually obtained Churchill’s Oxford University Press, 1995; Gilbert, commitment to a set of liberal aims con- Martin. Winston S.Churchill.Vols. 5–8. London: tained in the Atlantic Charter of August Heinemann, 1977–1988. 1941, which provided a framework for closer American involvement in the war and pre- pared the way for the postwar United Na- CIA (Central Intelligence Agency) tions. Churchill’s vociferous attachment to The CIA is the spy agency of the United the British Empire meant that he was consid- States and, like the Office of Strategic Ser- ered a propaganda liability in some quarters. vices (OSS), its wartime predecessor agency, Japanese propaganda made much use of is a sometime practitioner of covert propa- Churchill’s remark that he “did not become ganda. President Harry Truman (1884– the King’s First Minister to preside over the 1972) founded the CIA in 1947 as part of a break-up of the British Empire.” Churchill’s rearming effort by the United States in antic- broadcasts continued throughout the war; by ipation of the Cold War. The CIA’s first di- 1943 public-opinion experts had concluded rector, Allan Dulles (1893–1969), had no that the British public considered him some- doubt of the value of propaganda and in- thing of a windbag. Wanting more than volved the agency in all manner of propa- Churchill’s old world of empire, returning ganda activity.At its most basic, the CIA sub- soldiers elected Clement Attlee (1883– sidized the propaganda of anti-Communists. 1967) and a Labour government to office in This was used effectively in the Italian elec- 1945. tion of 1948. The agency secretly sustained Out of office, Churchill remained a major the short-wave radio stations Radio Free Eu- voice on the world stage. In March 1946, in a rope (RFE) and Radio Liberty (RL) and, speech in Fulton, Missouri, Churchill took a most famously, founded and sustained the stand against the Soviet Union, proclaiming Congress for Cultural Freedom, a group of that an “Iron Curtain” had fallen across Eu- European intellectuals promoting anti-Com- rope. The speech became a landmark in the munist ideas, based first in Berlin and then in developing Cold War between East and Paris. The CIA also secretly funded the West. Looking back on the war at the end of British magazine Encounter and actively his life, he commented that “the British peo- funded and promoted the abstract expres- ple were the lion... I just provided the sionist art movement as an example of cre- roar.” His influence persists in rhetorical ative freedom in the West. In the mid-1960s styles throughout the English-speaking world a series of newspaper investigations exposed and in the continued use of the victory sign, the scale of CIA involvement in secret propa- which was ubiquitous in the streets of East- ganda and forced the agency to abandon ern Europe when the Berlin Wall fell in much of this activity. In the 1970s the CIA 1989. covertly funded the Chilean newspaper El Nicholas J.Cull Mercurio to the tune of $1.65 billion to attack that country’s president, Salvador Allende See also BBC; Beaverbrook, Max; Bracken, (1908–1973). The CIA was also heavily in- Brendan; Britain; British Empire; Cold War; volved in much propaganda connected to the Elections (Britain); Funerals; Garvey, Marcus; MoI; Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg; U.S. role in Central America in the 1980s. Portugal; Reith, Lord John; Scandinavia; Nicholas J.Cull Shakespeare, William; Thatcher, Margaret; See also Art; Brainwashing; Cold War; Cultural United Nations; World War II (Britain) Propaganda; Disinformation; Intelligence; References: Addison, Paul. Churchill of the Home Latin America; Orwell, George; Radio Front.London: Jonathan Cape, 1992; Cull, (International); RFE/RL; Sukarno; United Nicholas J. Selling War:British Propaganda and States Civil Defense 81

References: Saunders, Frances Stonor. Who Paid homes against air raids was delivered to every the Piper? The CIA and the Cultural Cold War. household. This was backed up by a further London: Granta, 1999; Soley, Lawrence C. propaganda campaign on the use of gas masks Radio Warfare:OSS and CIA Subversive Propaganda. New York: Praeger, 1989. and the need to black out windows. Perhaps the most successful publicity campaign in 1940 was that leading to the formation of the Local Defence Volunteers (LDV), later re- Civil Defense named the Home Guard and nicknamed Fear of technological and military develop- “Dad’s Army” because most recruits were ments have prompted civil and emergency men too old to fight in the regular armed planning boards to use propaganda to edu- forces. cate the public. Civil defense propaganda was Prenuclear plans differ most significantly a particularly significant part of the British from their descendants in terms of the level government’s output during World War II, of provision by the government to individ- also figuring in Cold War propaganda on ual households. Civil defense activities cre- both sides of the Atlantic. Civil defense prop- ated a politically useful sense of participa- aganda has been used to draw populations tion in the war effort. Ministry of closer to their government by emphasizing Information (MoI) films and leaflets fre- shared risks and responsibilities. quently used depictions of civil defense ac- In World War I German air raids over tivities to boost morale at home and impress London resulted in mass panic, stampedes opinion overseas, as in Harry Watt and for shelter, and even assaults on uniformed Humphrey Jennings’s documentary London Royal Air Corps officers for failing to prevent Can Take It (1940) or Jennings’s memorial to the bombing. The impact was sufficient in the courage of London’s firefighters entitled 1924 for the British government to create a Fires Were Started (1942). subcommittee of the Committee of Imperial The Cold War resulted in an escalating nu- Defense to look into the question of Air Raid clear arms race. In Britain it provided the Precautions (ARP). The newsreel footage of basis for the reemergence of an official civil the blitzkrieg of Spanish towns in the 1930s defense organization, the Civil Defence during the Spanish Civil War revealed the Corps (CDC) through the provision of the vulnerability of European cities to such at- 1948 Civil Defence Act. The Atlee govern- tacks. Based on the pessimistic predictions of ment decided to launch a major recruitment the Ministry of Health and the Air Staff, a campaign to be coordinated by the Central plan was developed in the 1930s to ensure Office of Information (COI) by means of a that lines of communication and supply chan- nationwide publicity campaign bearing the nels remained open, as well as to give the slogan “You can’t be certain. You can be pre- government the authority to control the pared.” Posters and film were used in the civilian population by force if, as was pre- campaign, including a Crown Film Unit pro- dicted, mass panic should ensue. duction entitled The Waking Point (1951), Shortly after Hitler’s invasion of Austria in which targeted the social conscience and at- March 1938, the home secretary, Sir Samuel tempted to expose the global communist Hoare (1880–1959), broadcast an appeal to threat to democratic life. the nation requesting millions of volunteers In the United States, fear of communism, for civil defense. After the Munich Pact, a spy mania, and the knowledge that the So- massive publicity drive took place to recruit viet Union now possessed a nuclear capabil- ARP wardens and personnel for other ser- ity led to increased spending on nuclear ar- vices. Posters appeared throughout the coun- maments and a number of propaganda try and a booklet describing how to protect campaigns to inform the American public of 82 Civil Rights Movement what precautions could be taken in the space. Satirizing civil defense propaganda be- event of a Soviet nuclear attack. The Federal came a regular tactic of the antinuclear Civil Defense Administration (FCDA) pro- movement in the 1980s. duced posters, pamphlets, and a number of David Welch short films for television and movie the- See also Cold War; London Can Take It; Peace and aters. The new medium of television proved Antiwar Movements (1945– ) th particularly receptive. The most famous ex- References: 20 -Century Defence in Great Britain: An Introductory Guide. London: CBA, 1996; ample in this genre was the cartoon series Bosset, Leo. Cool Words:Cold War.Washington, Duck and Cover, which featured “Bert the DC:American University Press, 1995; Tur tle,” who informed movie theater audi- MacLaine, Ian. Ministry of Morale:Home Front ences how they should react during an Morale and the Ministry of Information in World War atomic explosion. In the early 1960s the II.London: Unwin, 1979; McEnaney, Laura. FCDA produced another film series entitled Civil Defense Begins at Home:Militarization Meets Everyday Life in the Fifties.Princeton, NJ: Home in the Middle, which was intended to Princeton University Press, 2000; Schwartz, reassure the public that the Defense Depart- William, and Charles Derber. The Nuclear ment was continuing research in the area of Seduction.Berkeley: University of California civil defense and to encourage citizens to Press, 1989. educate themselves. By continuing to em- phasize the danger of a Soviet nuclear at- tack, civil defense propaganda was also used Civil Rights Movement to justify increased defense spending. (1955–1968) By 1960, with the popularity of the CDC The civil rights movement encompassed a so- in decline, the British government launched a cial, political, and legal struggle to gain equal new campaign combining a massive recruit- rights for African Americans in the 1950s and ment drive with a nuclear-information pro- 1960s. The battle was primarily a challenge gram. The campaign took advantage of all to the system of laws and customs—collec- available media, beginning with a four-week tively known as segregation—enforced by intensive press campaign in the national whites to control and separate blacks. The press. A forty-page booklet for public speak- movement grew in strength first through the ers was published, providing detailed guid- power of the spoken word and later through ance on the presentation of the civil defense worldwide publicity created by often violent case to various pressure groups. The confrontations. Propaganda not only played a Thatcher election victory in 1979 added a crucial role in organizing black resistance and further layer to the debate over civil defense nationalizing racial issues but also created a and nuclear policy by associating neoliberal political context. First, wartime propaganda government plans with a strong nuclear had affirmed the U.S. government’s commit- stance. The 1980s marked the first time that ment to liberty and opposition to the racism civil defense came under concerted attack of Hitler. The federal government now had from critics, forcing governments on both important strategic reasons to respond to the sides of the Atlantic to offer organized coun- protestors: not to do so would have left the terarguments to specific accusations. Though United States vulnerable to propaganda at- civil defense had been involved with propa- tack from the Soviet Union, which empha- ganda from the beginning, this was the first sized racial inequity in the United States in its time it became the subject of a propaganda propaganda to Third World nations. battle. President Ronald Reagan’s (1911– ) Black civil rights organizations, such as the “Star Wars” initiative shifted the debate on National Association for the Advancement of civil defense away from the participatory role Colored People (NAACP) and the Southern of ordinary citizens to state provision in Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Civil Rights Movement 83 aimed their propaganda at both black and lib- eral white communities. This dual strategy had two aims: encouraging blacks to undertake di- rect action and gaining white sympathy, which, in turn, would exert pressure for polit- ical reform. The power of speech was the most effective and powerful method of propa- ganda used by such organizations. Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–1968), a young Baptist minister and president of SCLC, came to per- sonify the movement and became its spokesman, delivering inspirational and elo- quent sermons. The power of his preaching lay in his simplicity and his religious zeal. King’s speeches and protests attracted an audience of thousands and ensured that the movement re- ceived full media attention, including live tele- vised debates and documentaries. The exact dates of the civil rights move- A poster showing Black Panther leaders Bobby Seale and ment are still a subject of disagreement. The Huey P.Newton,the latter heavily armed in a theatrical movement clearly grew out of the age-old touch. (Library of Congress) traditions of the black church as a focus for community activity, and the institutional foundations laid in the Progressive Era, most before God), the Constitution, the Declara- importantly the founding of the NAACP in tion of Independence, and the American 1910. The modern era is often regarded as dream, ministers convinced their congrega- having begun with the Montgomery, Al- tions to resist oppression through nonviolent abama, bus boycott on 1 December 1955. activities such as sit-ins, boycotts, and protest The boycott followed the arrest of Rosa marches. Parks (1913– ), a local NAACP member Much of the success of the civil rights who refused to give up her seat to a white movement can be attributed to the rise of person. By November 1956 a federal court Martin Luther King. He was able to inspire outlawed segregated buses in Montgomery the participation of thousands of blacks while and the boycott ended in triumph and be- also securing the support of many liberal came an inspiration for all African Americans. whites, particularly in the north.A highly ed- The boycott attracted wide participation ucated minister, he was the perfect symbol through the encouragement of the church. for the black community and preached a Ministers provided the institutional strength moderate, nonviolent approach. King used needed for a community-wide protest and his growing notoriety to his advantage, pro- infused the entire movement with religious viding the movement with much-needed idealism and fervor. They were the ideal publicity. In 1963 in Birmingham, Alabama, means through which the movement could King purposefully used children to front his reach every black family and coordinate protest march in the knowledge that the protests since they were also experienced in cameras would report the violent outbursts the art of delivering speeches and held re- of the local police. Images of small children spected positions within local communities. being sprayed by high-pressure hoses and at- By highlighting white prejudice and appealing tacked by dogs were condemned on tele- to the Bible (which stressed the equality of all vision and reached a worldwide audience. 84 Civil War, English

Two years later images of peaceful protesters placed by chants of “Burn, Baby, Burn” and being brutally clubbed by white police ap- “I’m Black and I’m Proud.” For many young peared as headline news on “Bloody Sunday.” blacks the posters, songs, and sermons of The contrast between King’s call for human- black nationalism offered them new hope and ity and equality through peaceful activities a distinctive identity of which they could be and the violent behavior of Southern law offi- proud. Both Malcolm X and Martin Luther cials was accentuated by television coverage. King became martyrs in 1965 and 1968, re- King became the camera-friendly face of the spectively. While some cite King’s death as controversial struggle and regularly appeared marking the end of the civil rights era, others on live television debates and talk shows. Just point to the passage of the Voting Rights Act months after Birmingham, in August 1963, of 1965—with some arguing that it is still well over 10 million TV viewers watched continuing. Overseas movements inspired by King address 250,000 black and white pro- the civil rights movement include the testers during the March on Washington. Catholic Civil Rights Movement in Northern While factual television—such as the Ireland. NBC White Paper documentary Sit In—de- Samantha Jones picted rural poverty, segregation, and civil See also Garvey, Marcus; King, Martin Luther, rights protests, television’s entertainment Jr.; Malcolm X; Memorials and Monuments; programs grew overwhelmingly white to NAACP; United States References: Cook, Robin. Sweet Land of Liberty? avoid controversy. News magazines aimed at The African-American Struggle for Civil Rights in middle-class whites fully embraced the strug- the Twentieth Century.London: Longman, 1998; gle. Newsweek was the most supportive of the Dudziak, Mary L. Cold War Civil Rights:Race and civil rights movement, effectively using pub- the Image of American Democracy. Princeton, NJ: lic-opinion polls to highlight sympathetic at- Princeton University Press, 2000; Fairclough, titudes and revealing appalling conditions Adam. The Civil Rights Movement in America, 1941–1988.London: Macmillan, 1995; within America. U.S. News and World Report es- Salmond, John A. My Mind Set on Freedom:A poused a conservative ideology and sympa- History of the Civil Rights Movement,1954–1968. thized with whites. Chicago: lvan R. Dee, 1997. In the mid-1960s media attention grew in- creasingly hostile as the movement became more radical and King’s popularity waned. Civil War, English (1642–1649) King’s northern campaigns against crime and As with any conflict, propaganda played a poverty were largely unsuccessful, and his part in the English Civil War, fought between opposition to the Vietnam War eroded much the forces loyal to King Charles I (1600– of the support he had gained from white lib- 1649) and parliamentary forces commanded erals and the government.A long-term white by Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658). Propa- propaganda strategy associated King with ganda during the war took the new and revo- communism. Increasingly disillusioned by the lutionary format of “newsbooks,” weekly slowness of gains through nonviolent tactics, fragments of news consisting of from eight to young campaigners turned to the more radi- sixteen pages. They were cheap to produce cal civil rights protesters, such as the Student and looked it, with uneven type printed on Non-Violent Coordinating Committee cheap paper. On 29 November 1641 the first (SNCC) and the Black Panthers, inspired by newsbook reached the streets of London and Malcolm X (1925–1965). The media was announced the innovative nature of its con- quick to report how black separatism and tents with a rather plain title: The Heads of “black power” had supplanted moderate de- Severall Proceedings in this Present Parliament, mands: the song “We Shall Overcome,” which from the 22 of November, to the 29, 1641. This once dominated protest marches, was re- title signaled two important changes. First, Civil War, English 85 by providing a time span, it signified that fu- on events, they served to drive a wedge be- ture issues would follow. Second, it was re- tween the king and Parliament. By distribut- porting current domestic news. Previously ing information about the conflicts in both the printing of domestic news in England had houses, newsbooks spawned debates and en- been strictly prohibited. There was a wide- couraged readers to take sides. Although not spread belief among government officials that the only printers, Marchamont Nedham too much information—a “liberty of dis- (1620–1678) and Sir John Berkenhead course”—would demystify and undermine (1616–1679) emerged as the main publishers its authority. on opposing sides of the conflict. Nedham’s Newsbooks had existed much earlier in newsbooks—Mercurius Britanicus, Politicus, England, but they only printed news pertain- and Publick Intelligencer—put forth the Parlia- ing to continental Europe. However, with the mentarian position. Nedham favored Parlia- Scottish and Irish rebellions (1639 and 1641, ment, attacked the Lords (who joined the respectively) and the subsequent political king in Oxford), insulted Queen Henrietta turmoil, the mechanisms of governmental Maria (1609–1669), and accused Charles I of censorship broke down. Printing was closely becoming a Catholic. controlled by the Court of High Commis- The king was initially reluctant to use sion, the Star Chamber, and the Stationer’s propaganda and newsbooks, perhaps because Company in conjunction with the king and he distrusted appeals to the public when he the archbishop of Canterbury. But in 1640 felt he ruled through divine right. He soon the Long Parliament impeached Archbishop set up his own propaganda machine, which William Laud (1573–1645) and imprisoned was based at Oriel College, Oxford, and him in the Tower of London in 1641. Later headed by Sir John Berkenhead. Berkenhead’s that same year the Long Parliament abolished journal Mercurius Aulicus numbered 118 edi- the Star Chamber and the Court of High tions despite constant harassment and Royal- Commission and rescinded the privileges of ist defeats. Printed with a Sunday dateline to the Stationer’s Company. The printers of annoy the Puritans, it was regularly smuggled London took advantage of the uncertain po- into London and served to raise Royalist litical situation to print and sell as much as morale by attacking Parliament and Oliver they dared. The result was an explosion of Cromwell. Even as the king’s cause became quickly composed and cheaply printed news- more hopeless, the journal continued to turn books that began to flood the streets of Lon- skirmishes into great battles and stalemates don. Between 1640 and the Restoration of into Royalist victories. Printing was not sim- 1660, over thirty thousand different publica- ply limited to these two men. Numerous tions were printed in London. Their impact other Royalist and Parliamentarian news- was widespread; at a penny each for the books were produced, as well as newsbooks cheapest, they appealed to the less literate representing the Quakers and the radical so- and less educated, sowing sedition and cial politics of the Levellers and Diggers. spreading untruths among the masses. Both Lords and Commons attempted to Each side in the war had its own propa- regain control over the presses—with little ganda outlets, but at the beginning of the tur- success. In 1643 Parliament reinvested the moil newsbooks were involved in printing Stationer’s Company with its previously the proceedings of Parliament and tended to held “search and seizure” powers to root out be on the side of the Parliamentarians, re- the source of these disorderly printers. In porting events in detail when it favored its protest, John Milton (1608–1674) pub- faction’s reputation and ignoring events when lished his famous plea for a free press enti- they detracted from it. Even if some of the tled Areopagitica, A Speech for the Liberty of early newsbooks tried impartially to report Unlicensed Printing (1644), yet the problem 86 Civil War, Spanish

still continued. Additional decrees to con- Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; trol printing were to follow in 1647 and Feather, John. A History of British Publishing. 1649, which imposed a forty-shilling fine on London: Croom Helm, 1988; Raymond, Joad. Making the News:An Anthology of Newsbooks of anyone carrying or mailing seditious books Revolutionary England,1641–1660.Moreton-in- or pamphlets. This was again renewed in Marsh, UK: Windrush Press, 1993; Raymond, 1652, but warfare and propaganda through Joad, ed. News,Newspapers and Society in Early newsbooks continued. Real control of the Modern Britain.London: Frank Cass, 1999; presses and wartime propaganda didn’t re- Zaret, David. Origins of Democratic Culture: turn till the Restoration, when printing was Printing,Petitions and the Public Sphere in Early Modern England.Princeton, NJ: Princeton again controlled by royal prerogative and a University Press, 2000. new professionalism emerged in journalism, leaving the propaganda of the Civil War years behind. During these years, almost every printer Civil War, Spanish (1936–1939) in the land spent some time in jail trying to The Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939 was an keep on the “right” side of the constantly ideological conflict and, as such, saw exten- changing boundaries. However, the authori- sive use of propaganda. Domestically the war ties couldn’t control the press and its propa- involved a clash between a traditional order gandistic writings, which, whether actively of the Catholic Church (represented by the or passively, shaped the public sphere of de- army under General Francisco Franco bate by providing information to the masses [1892–1975]) and a more popular concep- and provinces about the workings of govern- tion of public life (represented by the forces ment. They forced people to take sides on is- of the Republican government in Madrid). sues and drove a wedge between the king and Abroad it was seen as a confrontation be- Parliament, determining the course of the tween fascism and democracy. The attitude Civil War. of an international community that had the Perhaps the defining act of propaganda oc- power to send aid and volunteers or ignore curred at the end of the war. On 30 January the war was so important that each camp re- 1649 Parliament executed Charles I, but the sorted to written and audiovisual propaganda king’s performance on the scaffold left a last- on a massive scale. The press and film compa- ing impression on witnesses. The book Eikon nies were also intent on providing as much Basilike (1649) developed this image of the information as possible. Seldom have so many king as a martyr to political principle, and ar- images of a domestic conflict been published guably became the most influential propa- internationally. Foreign journalists whose im- ganda work of the English revolution. Milton ages played a part in forming opinion during wrote Eikonoklastes in order to counteract the and after the war include the photographer influence of this work. Despite such attempts Robert Capa (1913–1954) and the writers to justify their regicide, Parliament could not George Orwell (1903–1950) and Ernest compete with the image of the king facing Hemingway (1899–1961). The war also death with dignity and his skillful manipula- spurred artist Pablo Picasso (1881–1973) to tion of the power of monarchy.A mere eleven paint Guernica (1937), his famous protest years later his son, Charles II (1630–1685), against the bombing of civilians. Images of had regained the throne by public acclaim. the war lived on long after the end of the Bryan Mann conflict and became enduring icons of anti- war propaganda. See also Britain; Funerals; Ireland; Milton, John; Religion When Franco’s military rebellion against References: Corns, Thomas N. Uncloistered the Republican government broke out in July Virtue:English Political Literature,1640–1660. 1936, freelance photographers rushed to take Civil War, Spanish 87 pictures, and most film companies sent crews and anti-Catholic. Conversely, pictures taken to the Iberian peninsula. During the first in Franco’s camp stressed order and respect weeks of the conflict the government was too for the church. Drawing on these images, busy preparing counterattacks to care about many contemporary accounts of the war re- propaganda. The only organization able to duced the conflict to the symbolic words film and distribute movies was the Anarchist “order” and “anarchy.” Federation, which emphasized popular partic- After Franco failed to take Madrid, it be- ipation and voluntary enlistment of the came plain that the conflict would last much masses. Very soon the Soviet Union, which longer. Unable to maintain a permanent crew backed the Madrid government, sent two of in Spain, most newsreel companies often its best filmmakers to Spain. Traveling across purchased their material from the Soviets, the country and working close to the front whose prices were attractive. Cut and reed- lines between August 1936 and July 1937, ited, this raw material frequently lost its orig- they shot more than 18,000 meters (about inal meaning. The Francoists were especially 60,000 feet) of film. The Soviet cameramen good at recycling pictures taken by the Re- introduced a cinematic style that was more publicans—for example, using shots of factual than the Anarchist approach. They Madrid bombed by the Italians as if they had helped the Madrid government produce its been taken in a city bombed by the Republi- own documentaries and newsreels. Franco’s cans. Today no film of the war can be taken at rebels, on the other hand, were on their guard face value. In their broader propaganda both against reporters who, in their view, would sides insisted on their military might and the only circulate biased information. Camera- certainty of their victory. The dominant men and journalists were forbidden to com- theme in Republican propaganda was the municate news other than that supplied by martyrdom of a population deprived of free- headquarters. There was thus little that could dom, humiliated, and forced into exile. In na- be filmed: parades, troops in the streets, and, tionalist propaganda the aim was general rec- in the Navarra region, the enthusiastic enlist- onciliation in an attempt to reconstruct ment of volunteers amid much religious dis- eternal Spain. Paradoxically, both sides rarely play. The Italians sent by Mussolini to fight on set out their political program. The Republi- Franco’s side opened an information office, cans made little reference to social reforms which took and diffused powerful pictures. and were extremely careful not to criticize Under the Italian influence, Franco’s rebels those Spaniards who had aligned with the na- set up a propaganda section whose documen- tionalists or to defame the Catholic Church. taries could compete with the Republican The nationalists attacked the “Communists ones. and atheists” who led the republic but took In the summer of 1936 the world was anx- care to distinguish between the population ious to hear news from Spain. The first illus- and their leaders. trated papers or newsreels left a deep impact However different the two camps may on public opinion,“freezing” an image of each have been, their messages were characterized camp that remained largely unchanged up to by extreme simplicity. Neither side left room the victory by Franco in March 1939. In for political debate. Their infinitely repeated order to illustrate the liberation of the Span- images in print and news documentary left a ish proletariat, the Anarchists took pictures profound impression on those who received of mobs destroying religious symbols, of them, but the impact was not necessarily armed women urging men to fight, and of what their authors intended. In Britain im- volunteers rushing to the front. These pic- ages of the air bombing of towns like Guer- tures established an image of the Republican nica were read as a testament to the power of side as full of enthusiasm but uncoordinated the bomber and an argument against war 88 Civil War, United States rather than a justification for aid to the Span- rousing poem by the abolitionist (and, later, ish republic. In the longer term the Spanish women’s suffrage) campaigner Julia Ward conflict resulted in previously unknown Howe (1819–1910), which fitted this tune forms of ideological communication, the rad- and became an enduring piece of American icalized confrontation between two visions of patriotic propaganda. the world giving rise to a new language of The North fought its war on the pages of propaganda. The level of propaganda fore- the region’s many newspapers and weekly shadowed that of World War II, but the visual magazines. Union supporters included Ho- and verbal language of the Spanish Civil War race Greeley (1811–1872), editor of the New anticipated the beginning of the Cold War, York Tribune. In the early months of the war where the ideological conflict again pitted Greeley presented the headline: “Forward to the Reds against the imperialist powers. Richmond” (the Confederate capital), which Luisa Cigognetti and Pierre Sorlin became “On to Richmond” in other Union See also Capa, Robert; Film (Newsreels); papers. Photographic pioneers like Mathew Guernica; Orwell, George; Spain Brady (c. 1823–1896) recorded the conflict; References: Aldgate,Anthony. Cinema and although their work could only be seen in ex- History:British Newsreels and the Spanish Civil War. London: Scholar Press, 1979; Brothers, hibitions—the American press lacked the Caroline. War and Photography:A Cultural History. technology to reproduce photographs—it London: Routledge, 1997; Higginbotham, played a considerable role in dramatizing the Vincent. Spanish Film under Franco. Austin: conflict on the home front. Much more sig- University of Texas Press, 1988;Valleau, nificant in propaganda terms were the artists Marjorie A. The Spanish Civil War in American and who worked for illustrated papers like European Films. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1982;Vernon, Kathleen M., Harper’s Weekly. Winslow Homer (1836– ed. The Spanish Civil War and the Visual Arts. 1910) depicted life in the Union camp and Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Center for Thomas Nast (1840–1902) produced images International Studies, 1990. ranging from allegorical cartoons to power- ful renderings of alleged Confederate guer- rilla atrocities. Journalists traveled with the Civil War, United States armies and sent dispatches home from the (1861–1865) field by telegraph. The U.S. military con- The war between the eleven Confederate trolled the lines and one H. E. Thayer acted states that seceded from the Union in the as censor. For the first time Americans were spring of 1861 and the remaining states grew able to read telegraphed news in bulk, but out of a bitterly contested ideological battle these dispatches were notoriously inaccurate. over Southern slavery. Both sides used propa- Edwin M. Stanton (1814–1869), the Union ganda to raise armies, though eventually first secretary of war, attempted to control the the Confederacy and then the Union turned press, with varying degrees of success. Tac- to conscription to compel service. On both tics ranged from banning correspondents sides propaganda came from enthusiastic citi- from the battlefield to suspending entire zens rather than governments. Northern ac- newspapers. Stanton even threatened to exe- tivists organized such ventures as the Union cute a New York Tribune correspondent who League clubs (first seen in Philadelphia in refused to be censored. Bribery and patron- 1862) or the Loyal Publication Society of age worked well. The once critical James New York. Songs figured on both sides, often Gordon Bennett (1795–1872) of the New York with the same tune sung to a different text, as Herald altered his paper’s position in 1862— was the case with the early favorite “John shortly after his son had been awarded a lu- Brown’s Body.” In 1862 the Atlantic Monthly crative government job as a revenue agent. published “Battle Hymn of the Republic,” a Eventually Stanton wrote news himself in the Clinton, William Jefferson 89 form of daily war bulletins for the Associated Belgium, bribed journalists and even subsi- Press wire. He routinely underplayed Union dized European newspapers that supported casualties and was not above planting entirely his cause. Britain became a key theater of this bogus stories in the Northern press to mis- propaganda war, with the South arguing that lead the enemy. Britain needed to defend its cotton supply. The Confederate press, like many other The Union view, aided by Lincoln’s written aspects of Southern life, suffered from its appeal to the cotton workers of Manchester, prewar reliance on Northern supplies, in this prevailed and Britain remained neutral. The case paper and printing machinery. Southern Union also conducted recruitment campaigns journals, which tended to be published in Europe. Recruits in Hamburg in 1864 in- weekly, organized their own Press Associa- cluded the Hungarian-born Joseph Pulitzer tion of the Confederate States, with the gov- (1847–1911), who was to play a major role in ernment allowing reports to travel freely the future of American journalism. along the military telegraph on the ground The propaganda war between the states that news was “good for morale.” In addition long outlived the military war. In the late to professional war correspondents like Felix 1860s and early 1870s this took the form of Gregory de Fontaine (1834–1896), the rival denunciations of conditions in prisoner- Southern press also printed private letters of-war camps.Alluding to war service (“wav- from the front; though rousing, they were no ing the bloody shirt”) became a notorious accurate guide to the progress of the war, cliché of Republican oratory on Capitol Hill. widening the gap between newspaper propa- Rival views of postwar Reconstruction com- ganda and battlefield reality. Although both pounded the issue, and by the early twentieth sides had difficulty keeping soldiers in the century it seemed that, in popular culture at field, discipline proved a more serious prob- least, the Southern perspective on the war lem for the Confederacy owing to the con- had prevailed. Films such as D. W. Griffith’s flict between Confederate propaganda and epic The Birth of a Nation (1915) perpetuated the needs of war. The Confederacy empha- for a new generation postwar propaganda sized both states’ rights and the right of a stories of the South suffering under “Negro gentleman to think for himself, creating dictatorship.” problems for the entire chain of command. Nicholas J.Cull Unlike Jefferson Davis (c. 1808–1889), See also Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement; the uninspiring Confederate president, Abra- The Birth of a Nation;Crimean War; Lincoln, ham Lincoln (1809–1865), the eloquent Abraham; Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass . . .;Nast, Thomas; Uncle Tom’s Cabin; Union president, proved an asset to his cause United States in both word and deed. By committing the References: Andrews, J. Cutler. The North Reports Union to freeing slaves held in Confederate the Civil War.Pittsburgh: University of territory through the Emancipation Procla- Pittsburgh Press, 1955;———. The South mation of September 1862, Lincoln trans- Reports the Civil War.Princeton, NJ: Princeton formed the Northern war effort into a cru- University Press, 1970; McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom:The Civil War Era.New sade for more than just the reunification of York: Oxford University Press, 1988; Randall, the country, a cause he articulated superbly James Garfield, and David Donald. The Civil in the Gettysburg Address of November 1863 War and Reconstruction.Boston: Heath, 1968. as “a new birth of Freedom.” The Union and the Confederacy both con- ducted propaganda campaigns in Europe, Clinton, William Jefferson sending touring lecturers and placing articles (1947– ) in the press to rally support. Henry Shelton Bill Clinton was president of the United Sanford (1823–1891), the U.S. minister to States from 1993 to 2001. He was born in 90 Clinton, William Jefferson

for his presidential leadership. The former usually entailed sex—and the lies needed to cover up the sex. He barely survived a formal impeachment trial in the U.S. Senate as a re- sult of an “inappropriate” relationship with a similarly inclined young White House intern named Monica Lewinsky (1973– ). Clinton’s adulterous ways were established during his years as Arkansas governor. In 1991 Paula Corbin Jones (1966– ) filed a sexual harassment suit, claiming that Clinton had exposed himself to her in a hotel room. In 1997 the U.S. Supreme Court unani- mously agreed that the suit could go forward while Clinton was president. Meanwhile, Kenneth Starr (1946– ), an independent counsel, was looking into alleged financial improprieties involving Bill and Hillary Clin- ton dating back to their Arkansas days. Starr soon turned to something more titillating: Official presidential portrait of Bill Clinton (Library of evidence of a sexual relationship between Bill Congress) and Monica. The affair continued apace, next to the Oval Office. Clinton lied under oath, insisting that he had not had a “sexual rela- Hope, Arkansas, and developed his interper- tionship with that woman.” It soon became sonal skills at an early age. After graduating obvious that he had had just that when a dress from Georgetown University in Washing- Lewinsky had kept (rather than have dry- ton, D.C., he went to Oxford, England, as a cleaned) was revealed to have dried semen on Rhodes Scholar. Next he earned a law de- it, which DNA analysis confirmed was Clin- gree from Yale. While studying there he met ton’s. On 17 August 1998 Clinton admitted and married his classmate Hillary Rodham to Starr under oath that his relationship with (1947– ). In 1979, aged thirty-two, he was Monica Lewinsky entailed “inappropriate elected governor of Arkansas—the youngest conduct,” and that earlier he had lied about U.S. governor. Clinton’s persuasive skills as a this under oath. In December 1998 the public speaker, his wit, and his personal House Judiciary Committee recommended charm made him attractive to Democrats, impeachment. Clinton was charged with per- who were looking for a charismatic presi- jury and obstruction of justice. He was ac- dential candidate. He defeated incumbent quitted in a trial that ended on 12 February Republican president George Bush (1924– ) 1999. Clinton, of course, was guilty of lying in the 1992 election, aided by third-party under oath and doing everything possible to candidate Ross Perot (1924– ), who gar- keep Starr from learning of his relationship nered nearly 20 percent of the popular vote. with Lewinsky—both examples of criminal Clinton worked in vain to overhaul the misconduct. The lies were solely intended to U.S. health care industry. He benefited from cover up a steamy sexual relationship, but not an amazing economy, in which stock market everyone felt the president should be re- prices reached previously undreamed of moved from office for covering up an affair. heights. Clinton, however, is more likely to Besides, the Starr Report, published in Sep- be remembered for taking risks rather than tember 1998 and weighing in at 322 pages, Coins 91 disclosed every titillating detail of the affair; ment. CNN poses a major challenge to it was published online as well, marking the state-funded international broadcasters, es- first time a major government investigation pecially now that the network has begun to was made available in such a fashion. Many broadcast in foreign languages. By the end felt the institution of the presidency had been of the last century CNN faced stiff competi- permanently damaged by Clinton’s actions. tion from broadcasters, including BBC Propaganda concerns for the Clinton presi- World, Rupert Murdoch’s (1931– ) Sky dency will certainly continue to center on his News, and regionally specific stations such relationship with Monica Lewinsky. Clinton as Al Jazeera of Qatar. spent the final hours of his presidency issuing Nicholas J.Cull pardons to notorious felons, including finan- See also Gulf War; Murdoch, Rupert; Satellite cier Marc Rich (1934– ). It remains to be Communications; Television; Terrorism, War on seen if the president will be remembered as References: Porter, Bibb. Ted Turner:It Ain’t as Easy as It Looks:The Amazing Story of CNN. one senator claims: “The name Clinton has London:Virgin, 1994; Taylor, Philip M. Global already gone into the lexicon as a synonym Communications,International Affairs and the Media for an elegant and well-crafted lie.” since 1945.London: Routledge, 1997. David Culbert See also Elections (United States) References: Kurtz, Howard. Spin Cycle:Inside the Coins Clinton Propaganda Machine. New York: Free The earliest coins, from the eastern Mediter- Press, 1998; Morris, Dick. Behind the Oval Office:Getting Reelected against the Odds. Los ranean region, were minted in the seventh Angeles: Renaissance Books, 1999. century B.C.E.However, it was the Roman Empire that first exploited the propaganda possibilities of coinage. At its height the em- CNN (Cable News Network) pire covered nearly a million square miles, Founded in 1980 by Atlanta-based entrepre- with a population of some 100 million. Given neur Ted Turner (1938– ), CNN was the the numerous subject peoples, each with a runaway media success story of that decade. different language, coinage was one of the Adopting a “rolling news” format, CNN of- few forms of mass communication available fered news whenever the viewer needed it. to indicate each person’s relationship to the Rivals compared this to convenience food Roman emperor. Always uncertain about and dubbed the network “chicken noodle matters of legitimacy, emperors often used a news.” By the mid-1980s the network had coin to promote their accomplishments and developed a substantial overseas presence virtues. Roman coinage established conven- via satellite and led the way with electronic tions of how to legitimize the state and ruler news-gathering techniques. This ushered in that have remained unchanged to this day. an era of real-time news in which popula- The obverse (front) of the coin, the side with tions and leaders alike could follow events the principal stamp or design, pictured the as they happened. The downside of this ap- ruler. The reverse (back) contained some proach was the perceived problem that areas heraldic reference to the state. This was a not covered by CNN (such as central Africa) form of visual propaganda that one could slipped from the political agenda. The al- hold in one’s hand: the leader is the embodi- leged role of CNN in setting foreign-policy ment of the state, and symbols of the state are agendas has been dubbed the CNN effect. embodied in the current ruler. CNN played a major role in the Gulf War of Coinage declined during the early Middle 1991. Iraq sought to sway world opinion by Ages; almost no gold coins were minted in allowing Peter Arnett (1934– ) to broad- Europe between 500 and 1250. Coins de- cast from Baghdad during the bombard- veloped a commemorative function in the 92 Cold War

sixteenth century—particularly the large ment. This form of currency is a fascinating silver coin, the thaler—with enough space device for exploring German society in time to permit the depiction of successful events. of crisis. For example, one city where invalids In Puritan England coins commemorated in wheelchairs came to recover contains a vi- the beheading of Charles I (1600–1649), the sual pun on the obverse of its currency: “Das legend appearing in English. When Charles Paradies der Schieber” depicts a shady character II (1630–1685) returned to the throne in pushing someone in a wheelchair. In German 1660, symbolic of his restoration was the Schieber can mean wheelchair or pusher, as in use of Latin inscriptions rather than English. drugs. Coinage made of light metal under- In the American colonies paper money suf- mines the message of power intended by the ficed, often with extreme anti-British con- regime. When one sees a thin, fifty-pfennig tent. Since the paper money was not backed coin minted in Germany in 1941, the eagle of up by national gold reserves, it was often the thousand-year Reich, holding the swastika worthless, giving rise to the common ex- in its talons, sends a different message than pression (before 1789) “not worth a conti- that intended by the Nazi government. Cer- nental,” a reference to paper currency is- tainly the feather-light coinage of the German sued by the Continental Congress on an Democratic Republic (East Germany) dating emergency basis. from the 1970s conveys something less, in The first paper money issued by the U.S. economic terms, than the permanence of the government occurred during the Civil War. so-called workers’ paradise. The reverse was printed in green ink—hence The Euro currency introduced in Europe in the term “greenback,” an expression still 2002 reflects the mixed signals of coinage as a heard to this day. The South printed a wide tool for propaganda. The obverse of each coin variety of currencies, often issued by individ- is identical, but the reverse differs from coun- ual banks or cities; the drop in quality of the try to country. This German eagle is stylized in printing parallels the declining fortunes of such a way as to indicate that it has no fierce in- the Confederacy between 1861 and 1865. tent, having gained so much weight that it must Twentieth-century German coinage and experience difficulty becoming airborne. Euro paper money also reflects the numerous currency is the same across Europe; not sur- changes in government, as well as the various prisingly, architectural motifs predominate, ways of using money for propaganda pur- particularly images of aqueducts—visual poses. A thousand-mark note from 1910 in- bridges linking one country to another—a cludes both the symbols of Kaiser Wilhelm rather different image, one presumes, from II’s (1859–1941) Reich and the trappings of what Roman engineers had in mind. bourgeois respectability and fiscal prudence: David Culbert the Prussian eagle dominates the reverse, set See also Fakes; Netherlands, Belgium, and between two figures draped in flowing classi- Luxembourg; Scandinavia; Spain cal gowns, symbolizing general prosperity. A References: Carson, R.A. G., Coins:Ancient, Mediaeval & Modern. 2d ed. London: Routledge large floral garland topped by a stylized and Kegan Paul, 1970; Grant, Michael. Roman bishop’s miter establishes the Christian, agri- History from Coins. Cambridge: Cambridge cultural, and industrial basis of Kaiser Wil- University Press, 1968; Harrigan, Peter.“Tales helm’s Reich. The collapse of Germany in of a Thaler,” Saudi Aramco World 1918 gave rise to literally thousands of pieces (January–February 2003), pp. 14–23. of Notgeld, emergency currency issued by local authorities in Germany as well as what had been the German part of the Austro-Hun- Cold War (1945–1989) garian Empire. Some were well printed, This appellation describes the period of hos- while others seemed intended but for the mo- tility between the Communist and capitalist Cold War 93 countries in the years following World War selling these beliefs domestically was success- II. The American journalist Walter Lippmann fully in place despite the debunking efforts of (1899–1974) popularized the term “Cold its enemies at home and abroad.According to War” when he used it as the title of a 1947 Sovietologist Frederick C. Barghoorn, the book. Just when the Cold War began and Soviet Union attempted but failed to “sap the ended remains open to question, but what is faith of Americans in their leaders and their clear is that the heyday of that conflict was institutions.” Soviet propaganda—and Com- the decade following the cessation of combat munist propaganda generally—also tried to in 1945. If, after 1955, there was an occa- isolate the countries of the Third World from sional hiccup—as in the early years of the the influence of the United States and its al- Kennedy administration—during the early lies, to present an unfavorable picture of the 1960s there was never a direct confrontation United States to the world in what amounted between the United States and the USSR. to a cultural war. Their allies did become involved in direct American propaganda overseas was de- hostilities, as in the Korean and Vietnam signed to provide background to U.S. actions wars,but with rare exceptions (a plane shot and attitudes. The United States established a down, an infiltrator executed, spies caught series of official agencies, such as the United and punished), the only war between the two States Information Agency (USIA), which op- superpowers was one of propaganda, both in erated from 1953 to 1999. The various tools terms of indoctrinating their citizens and in of American propaganda were coordinated attempting to win over nonnationals. The pe- first by the Psychological Strategy Board, riod of Soviet-American tension following created during the Truman administration, the Russian invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 is and later by the Operations Coordinating sometimes called the “second” Cold War. Board, created during the Eisenhower years. Fought on various fronts, this war assumed During the 1990s, as the archives were un- different guises, but essentially it remained sealed, it became clear that the Americans an exercise in mass persuasion. and, to a limited extent, the less affluent The Communists had to propagandize not British government had followed a policy of only to the world at large but also to their hidden persuasion, which involved distribut- own populations. Domestically they did this ing “negative” covert anti-Communist propa- by isolating the citizens of Communist coun- ganda by supporting ostensibly nongovern- tries. In the Communist states—whether mental, independent operations. China, Cuba, or the Soviet Union—however Interestingly, despite the ultimate out- their citizens may have viewed the world or come of the Cold War, which saw the de- whatever their leaders’ ultimate outlook, struction of the Soviet Union, at the height of these governments practiced what William this propaganda war many Americans re- E. Griffith has called “the Propaganda of Dic- mained convinced that the United States was tatorship,” which was utilized to present not competing successfully. Typical was the views on everything that had or might occur, complaint, in the early 1960s, that there was as well as to effect the “transformation” of not only a “missile gap” but also a “propa- human personalities. ganda gap.” For a variety of reasons, many The United States and its allies also tried Americans both in government and in civilian to convince their citizens that they lived in life were concerned that the “Campaign of the best possible society.It may not have been Truth” (Truman’s characterization of 1950) as free, democratic, or egalitarian as the was not achieving its aims—but they were propaganda asserted, but it did boast free wrong. markets, limited government, the rule of law, During the Cold War the creators of prop- individualism, and human rights. A system aganda all utilized their own interpretation of 94 Cold War in the Middle East the “truth” to sell an ideological point of view Curtain:Propaganda,Culture,and the Cold War, to their citizens and to the world at large. The 1945–1961.New York: St. Martins, 1998; appeal was meant—as is the wont of propa- Joyce, Walter. The Propaganda Gap. New York: Harper, 1963; Lashmar, Paul, and James ganda—to stir, to legitimize, to mobilize. De- Oliver. Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, spite new frames of reference, in the final 1948–1971. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1998; analysis Cold War propaganda harked back to Saunders, Frances Stoner. Who Paid the Piper?: traditional concepts on all sides, resulting in The CIA and the Cultural Cold War. London: very different interpretations of “freedom” or Granta, 1999; Sorenson, Thomas. The Word “security,” once again proving that the propa- War:The Story of American Propaganda. New York: Harper & Row,1968. ganda that functions best is that which seems to require the least effort to convince. The defining moments of Cold War prop- aganda include Joseph Stalin’s (1879–1953) Cold War in the Middle East “Election” speech in February 1946 and Win- (1946–1960) ston Churchill’s (1874–1965) “Iron Curtain” During the mid-1950s the Middle East be- speech in March 1946; President Harry Tru- came a pivotal point within the system of cul- man’s (1884–1972) “Containment “ speech tural, political, and ideological conflict known in March 1947; Nikita Khrushchev’s pledge as the Cold War. The sensitivities of newly in- to back Third World liberation movements in dependent governments to questions of sov- January 1961 and John F. Kennedy’s rousing ereignty and nationalism made the struggle to inaugural address that same month, in which define “imperialism” in ways that advanced the he pledged to rise to this challenge; and, in interests of one protagonist at the expense of the “second” Cold War, Ronald Reagan’s the other perhaps the central contest of the (1911– ) Westminster speech of 1982, in propaganda war in the Middle East. Certainly which he pledged to leave “Marxism-Lenin- it is no longer possible to accept the argu- ism on the ash-heap of history.” ment, promoted by Western security special- Daniel Leab ists during the 1980s, that the Soviets stole a march on the United States (handicapped by See also BBC; Black Propaganda; Canada; Castro, Fidel; China; Churchill, Winston; CIA; Civil its alliances with Britain and France) in setting Defense; Cold War in the Middle East; the ideological agenda in the developing Cultural Propaganda; Film (Feature); Freedom world. It is now clear that both sides in the Train; Gray Propaganda; IRD; Kennedy, John Cold War propaganda battle sought to depict F.; KGB; Korean War; Latin America; Mao their adversaries as imperialist, expansionist, Zedong; Marshall Plan; McCarthy, Joseph R.; and aggressive while proclaiming their own Murrow, Edward R.; Nixon, Richard; Peace and Antiwar Movements (1945– ); commitment to the principles of peaceful co- Philippines; Psychological Warfare; Radio existence, nonaggression, and respect for the (International); Reagan, Ronald; RFE/RL; sovereignty of the states whose support they Russia; Scandinavia; Southeast Asia; Stalin, wished to enlist. Joseph; United Nations; USIA;Vietnam War; Soviet propagandists fostered the idea of a VOA; Wick, Charles Z. References: Barghoorn, Frederic. Soviet Foreign malevolent “Western imperialism” in terms Propaganda.Princeton, NJ: Princeton familiar to any student of V.I. Lenin’s (1870– University Press, 1964; Dunham, Donald. 1924) analysis of capitalism and imperialism Kremlin Target:USA—Conquest by Propaganda. (a task facilitated in the Middle East by the New York: Ives Washburn, 1961; Griffith, presence of British military bases and West- William E. “Communist Propaganda.” In ern oil companies). The immediate objective Propaganda Communication in World History.Vol. 2, Emergence of Public Opinion in the West. Ed. of Soviet propaganda was, if not to replace Harold Lasswell et al. Honolulu: University of Western with Soviet regional hegemony, at Hawaii Press, 1980; Hixson, Walter. Parting the least to make life as awkward as possible for Cold War in the Middle East 95

Western strategists keen to preserve a status intellectuals (a Bertrand Russell essay was quo that left British and American influence translated and used as Arabic antineutrality predominant across the region. To that end, propaganda by the British in 1953). Intelli- Moscow Radio, Soviet information workers gence reports filed by the United States In- entrusted with inserting material into Middle formation Agency (USIA) suggest deep con- Eastern newspapers, and local Communist cern over the neutralist and anticolonial ideas groups influenced by Moscow all sought to promoted by Indian propagandists (who were stimulate distrust of the Western powers. reported to be more active and effective than The expansion of the TASS news agency’s ever by the mid-1950s). In addition, the ori- services in the Middle East in the 1950s re- entation of Egypt toward the nonaligned flects the importance attached to the region movement, together with the popular ac- by Soviet policymakers. claim that greeted President Nasser’s The Soviets also seized upon the Arab-Is- (1918–1970) arms deal with the Soviet bloc raeli dispute as a means of stirring up regional in September 1955 suggest that the achieve- instability. In 1953 an anti-Zionist campaign ments of Western propaganda campaigns was initiated that, though it had the effect of against neutrality were decidedly meager. undermining Communist groups in Israel, Concerned that the Middle East was in- was clearly intended to open the West to Arab creasingly vulnerable to neutralist ideas and charges of pro-Zionism. This strategy enjoyed Soviet subversion, Western propagandists limited immediate success. While it undoubt- launched a series of anti-Soviet campaigns edly put Western policymakers on the defen- that differed little from those employed in sive, U.S. and British diplomats stuck rigidly other regions (indeed, the first three of to policies of studied neutrality with regard to USIA’s “global themes” all dealt with anti-So- the Arab-Israeli conflict, with Britain in par- viet and anti-Communist arguments). Anti- ticular only too happy to score propaganda Communist propaganda agencies such as points in the Arab world through strongly Britain’s Information Research Department worded condemnations of Israeli raids across (IRD) produced enormous quantities of ma- the Jordanian and Egyptian borders. terial denouncing Communist totalitarianism Another serious concern for Western pro- and exposing the social and economic hard- pagandists was the development of a strong ships of life behind the Iron Curtain. USIA neutralist trend in the Middle East, which organized cultural events across the Middle posed more of a danger to Western than So- East designed to counter Soviet charges of viet interests since, given the pro-Western U.S. philistinism. Sports teams, opera divas, status quo, any neutralist drift by an Arab and—of particular importance, given the government would mean a shift toward the sensitivity of American propagandists to criti- Soviet Union. Since the exclusion of the So- cisms of racial segregation in the United viet Union from any position of influence in States—black jazz musicians all embarked on the Middle East was a fundamental tenet of high-profile Middle East tours. Unique to U.S. strategic policy, Western propagandists anti-Communist material targeting the Mid- launched a major antineutrality campaign in dle East was the bid to mobilize Islam as a the 1950s. Pamphlets illustrating the folly of barrier against Soviet influence. Both the IRD neutrality were disseminated across the re- and the USIA sought to manipulate the con- gion in a bid to deter Arab governments from tent of the Friday sermons of Muslim clerics; diplomatic flirtation with the Soviet Union. both worked to encourage activity at Al Many cited historical examples (Belgium’s Azhar, the leading Islamic university in Cairo. experience at the hands of German aggres- Throughout the 1950s the USIA orchestrated sion in 1914 and 1940 was a particular fa- a prominent campaign to publicize state- vorite), and some were authored by leading ments by Muslim intellectuals stressing the 96 Comintern essential compatibility of Western and Is- public opinion may have been negligible. lamic ideals and values. Communism was Nevertheless, its activities could prove im- consistently denounced as a “godless creed” portant in terms of setting agendas for the and the persecution of Muslim minorities labor movements of the West. within the Soviet Union provided a potent Graham Roberts theme for Western propaganda agencies. See also International; KGB; Revolution, Nevertheless, Western propaganda strug- Russian; Russia; Stalin, Joseph; Zinoviev Letter gled to make a serious impact on Muslim References: Schapiro, Leonard. The Communist Party of the Soviet Union. London: Eyre and opinion. The view that Israel, not the Soviet Spottiswoode, 1970; Tucker, Robert C. Stalin Union, was the most immediate threat to in Power. New York: Norton, 1990. Arab security left the West’s Cold Warriors preaching to an audience that proved reluc- tant to interest itself in the dangers suppos- The Communist Manifesto (1848) edly posed by “Red Colonialism.” By the end This groundbreaking work of Communist of the 1950s, a significant section of the Arab propaganda was published in London (in world, with Syria and Egypt in the vanguard, German) in 1848 by two German exiles, had shifted markedly toward the Soviet camp, Friedrich Engels (1820–1895), who pro- a development that, while ultimately a shal- duced the first draft, and Karl Marx (1818– low and transient victory for the Soviets, was 1883), who transformed it into dynamic a clear sign of the impotence of much West- prose. Of little impact at the time, its influ- ern Cold War propaganda in the Middle East. ence grew, and by the end of the century it James Vaughan had helped to inspire an international Com- See also Arab World; Cold War; IRD; Suez Crisis; USIA munist movement. References: Dawisha,Adeed, and Karen The Communist Manifesto sought to chart Dawisha, eds. The Soviet Union in the Middle the crimes of the system of “bourgeois prop- East:Policies and Perspectives. London: erty,” arguing that the solution lay in the ex- Heinemann, 1982; Lashmar, Paul, and James ploited working class rising up and taking Oliver. Britain’s Secret Propaganda War, control of the “means of production.” For 1948–1977. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1998; Rawnsley, Gary, ed. Cold-War Propaganda in the Marx and Engels this was not a possibility but 1950s.Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1999. a scientific inevitability. Their work sought to rally the working class by illuminating this prospect of a utopian future. Beyond its argument and analysis, the Comintern (1919–1943) work included some memorable phrases. In This international propaganda organization the manner of a Gothic novel, the opening founded by the Soviet Union was the Third statement claimed that “a spectre is haunting International, the name used by various asso- Europe: the spectre of Communism.” At the ciations formed to unite Socialist and Com- conclusion of the work Marx and Engels pro- munist organizations throughout the world. claimed that “the proletarians have nothing to The Third (Communist) International was lose but their chains; they have a world to formed by the Bolshevik administration in win. ‘Working Men of All Countries, Moscow in March 1919. For Joseph Stalin Unite!’”(The latter was often rendered as (1879–1953) the Comintern was a means of “Workers of the World, Unite!”) increasing Soviet influence abroad and publi- Nicholas J.Cull cizing and defending shifts in Soviet policy. See also Engels, Friedrich; International; Marx, Stalin agreed to disband the organization in Karl; Russia May 1943 as a goodwill gesture toward his References: Cowling, Mark. The Communist capitalist allies. The Comintern’s impact on Manifesto:New Interpretations.Edinburgh: Counterinsurgency 97

University of Edinburgh Press, 1998; Engels, ing as a necessary response to the bank- Friedrich, and Karl Marx. The Communist ruptcy (or unavailability) of political chan- Manifesto.London:Verso, 1998; McLellan, nels in a repressive regime susceptible to David. Karl Marx:His Life and Thought. London: Macmillan, 1973; Raddatz, Fritz J. Karl Marx:A change only through violent means. Political Biography.London: Weidenfeld and The precise measures that constitute coun- Nicolson, 1979. terinsurgency strategy vary in terms of geo- graphical settings and time.Although general- ized definitions are problematic, it is possible Counterinsurgency broadly to suggest that in the interwar period Counterinsurgency is a term applied to rebellion against British colonial rule— strategies—military, political, and psycho- whether in Ireland (the Anglo-Irish War of In- logical—employed to quell violent chal- dependence in 1919–1921), in Palestine lenges to authority over a particular terri- under the Mandate (the Arab rebellion of tory. In its earliest twentieth-century uses, 1936–1938), or in the North-West Frontier the term tended to denote the responses of province of India—tended to be met primar- colonial regimes to militant resistance that es- ily with force, as was the case with unrest in poused an anti-imperialist and/or nationalis- French colonial territories. Counterinsur- tic political program. In the 1950s and 1960s gency thus combined policing and military it aptly described U.S. strategy in Vietnam. operations; in extra-European, imperialist Under the presidencies of John F. Kennedy settings it made considerable use of airpower and Ronald Reagan in particular, the provi- as a means of quelling dissent. After 1945 sion of counterinsurgency training and assis- counterinsurgency became more commonly tance to troubled regimes in the developing associated with a strategy that combined world, such as Indonesia and the Philippines, physical repression of violence with psycho- formed a key plank of U.S. global strategy. logical strategies to regain popular support Since “insurgencies” arise from struggles for precarious regimes. Commentators on over political legitimacy and territorial particular counterinsurgencies frequently dif- sovereignty, it is important to recognize fer in their estimation of the balance struck that language itself forms a site of contesta- between violence, coercion, and persuasion, tion between incumbents and challengers. with some suggesting the primacy in British “Counterinsurgency” is thus a designation strategy of “minimal force,” while others see favored by embattled regimes to denote only brutal repression. (and legitimate) their responses to the Since the 1950s counterinsurgency has provocation of a substate group that has re- frequently been subsumed under the banner sorted to violence rather than pursuing of “winning hearts and minds,” a phrase at- grievances through political channels. To tributed to Field Marshal Sir Gerald Templer underscore their opponents’ illegitimacy (1898–1979) referring to the approach he even further, states often elide the terms pursued in Malaya against the Communist “insurgent” and “terrorist.” Thus, British Malayan Races Liberation Army (MRLA). colonial authorities who encountered vio- The phrase emphasizes the psychological and lence in Palestine, Malaya, Kenya, and material inducements to cooperate with the Cyprus in the early postwar period rou- colonial government that were presented to tinely termed their opponents “terrorists.” the peoples of Malaya during the “Emer- For their part, these insurgents (or terror- gency” (1948–1960). Propaganda was em- ists) prefer to describe themselves as “free- ployed intensively and was aimed at both the dom fighters” or “guerrillas.” Reversing the insurgents and the population as a whole. allocation of responsibility for violence, Leaflets and aerial broadcasts encouraged the these characterizations stress armed upris- surrender of armed members of the MRLA, 98 Counterinsurgency who quickly retreated to Malaya’s mountain- 1992). Although some aspects of U.S. strat- ous jungle interior to pursue a guerrilla cam- egy in Vietnam bear a clear resemblance to paign against locally recruited and British British innovations in Malaya—most notably armed forces. Some of those who duly gave the “Strategic Hamlets” program—the trans- themselves up were then recruited as psywar ferable lessons proved rather few. Arguably (psychological warfare) operatives, produc- American strategists underestimated the con- ing “black” propaganda that purported to em- siderable differences between Britain’s posi- anate from Communist sources. As for the tion in Malaya and their own in Vietnam. In civilian population, propaganda not only en- Malaya, a colonial power, British authorities couraged Malays to reject the Communist in- were able to promise (and deliver) self-gov- surgents as a foreign movement controlled by ernance, capitalizing on the Chinese ethnicity the Chinese Communist Party in Beijing but of the insurgents, which set them apart from also to appreciate the benefits that British the majority Malay population and undercut rule had provided and the quickened pace of the MRLA’s claims to represent the national- self-government that Templer encouraged. istic aspirations of all of Malaya’s ethnic However, the physically coercive compo- groups. In Vietnam the United States enjoyed nents of the strategy—played down by the neither formal status as a sovereign colonial phrase “hearts and minds”—should not be ig- power nor the same opportunities to pursue nored. Templer’s campaign also relied heavily a “divide and rule” strategy. Where Britain on the construction of “New Villages,” con- had been able to employ military force sisting of fortified encampments in rural against the MRLA (including aerial bombard- Malaya into which the largely Chinese peas- ment and the use of defoliants), with only ant population was forcibly “swept.” Govern- minimal international press scrutiny, the ment propaganda promoted “villagization” as same was clearly not the case in Vietnam, a progressive measure, not only securing vul- where press attention to the military dimen- nerable peasantry from Communist attack sions of U.S. strategy became ever more in- but also delivering amenities (electricity, vasive—and critical—as the war progressed. water, health care, education) hitherto un- Susan Carruthers known to rural “squatter” populations. Tem- See also Black Propaganda; British Empire; pler’s detractors characterized these New Ireland; Philippines; Psychological Warfare; Villages as little better than concentration Southeast Asia; Terrorism;Vietnam;Vietnam camps. Far from prioritizing the welfare of War their inhabitants, critics charged that the References: Carruthers, Susan L. Winning Hearts heavily fortified villages were primarily de- and Minds:British Governments,the Media and Colonial Counter-Insurgency,1944–1960. vices to deny the Communists their bases of Leicester: University of Leicester Press, 1995; logistical support. High security was in- Mockaitis, Thomas. British Counterinsurgency, tended to lock in villagers (whose guilt was 1919–60. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1990; assumed) as much as it was intended to keep Purcell,Victor. Malaya:Communist or Free? the “Communist terrorists” out. London:Victor Gollancz, 1954; Schmid,A. P., and J. de Graaf. Violence as Communication: Whether primarily through coercion, per- Insurgent Terrorism and the Western News Media. suasion, or their judicious combination, Tem- London: Sage, 1982; Stubbs, Richard. Hearts pler’s strategy served to quell Communist in- and Minds in Guerrilla Warfare:The Malayan surgency. When the United States stepped up Emergency,1948–60. Oxford: Oxford its endeavors to repel the forces of Commu- University Press, 1990; Thompson, Robert. nist nationalism in Indochina, it turned to Defeating Communist Insurgency:Experiences from Malaya and Vietnam. London: Chatto and Britain’s “success” in Malaya as a model. The Windus, 1966; Townshend, Charles. Political U.S. government drew on the expertise, in Violence in Ireland:Government and Resistance Since particular, of Sir Robert Thompson (1916– 1848. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983. Crimean War 99

CPI (Committee on Public mittee on Public Information (CPI), the offi- Information) cial responsible for “selling” the war effort to A U.S. government propaganda agency oper- the traditionally neutral American public. ating both at home and abroad, CPI was CPI activities included poster campaigns and founded in April 1917 to promote the national war-bond drives. Methods used by the CPI effort during World War I. Under the direc- included the “Four Minute Men,” a network tion of George Creel (1876–1953)—it is of volunteer speakers across the entire coun- sometimes known as the Creel Committee— try who received their instructions by tele- it represented the first major U.S. government graph. In 1920 Creel published an account of initiative in the field of propaganda. The CPI his achievements and in so doing contributed strove to avoid the extremes of private inter- to the growth of a public reaction against ventionist propaganda. It avoided atrocity sto- propaganda, which created a major obstacle ries in favor of building up the promise of the for propagandists attempting to rally Ameri- American system and the personal prestige of can support against Hitler two decades later. the president. In September 1917 the CPI ac- Nicholas J.Cull quired a film division to create film propa- See also CPI; United States; World War I ganda for the home market; by linking the dis- References: Creel, George. How We Advertised tribution of CPI films to the export of America: The First Telling of the Amazing Story of the Committee on Public Information.New York: Hollywood entertainment, it also gained ac- Harper, 1920; Mock, James R., and Cedric cess to foreign audiences. The CPI’s Foreign Larson. Words That Won the War:The Story of the Section directed propaganda to Allied, neu- Committee on Public Information. Princeton, NJ: tral, and enemy territory. It included a news Princeton University Press, 1939. service called Compub. The CPI provided propaganda support during President Wood- row Wilson’s (1856–1924) antirevolutionary Crimean War (1853–1856) intervention in Russia. In 1919 the agency Also known at the time as the “Russian War,” closed amid allegations that it had been too with its main theater of action in the Crimea, partisan in its presentation of Wilson. it was fought—chiefly by France and Britain Nicholas J.Cull (from 1854) as allies of the Ottoman Em- See also Creel, George; United States; World War I pire—principally to halt the encroachment of References: Mock, James R., and Cedric the Russian empire into southeastern Europe, Larson. Words That Won the War:The Story of the marking a watershed in European war propa- Committee on Public Information. Princeton, NJ: ganda. The war was precipitated by long- Princeton University Press, 1939;Vaughn, Stephen. Holding Fast the Inner Lines:Democracy, standing regional strategic issues arising from Nationalism,and the Committee on Public the decline of Ottoman power. But in the eyes Information.Chapel Hill: University of North of the European press the immediate cause Carolina Press, 1980. was the emotive issue of the rival claims of Russia and France to be the guardian of the “Holy Places” of Palestine. Although the Creel, George (1876–1953) French effectively controlled their press An American propagandist active during through censorship and sustained popular en- World War I and a muckraking journalist, thusiasm for the war, Britain proved a different Creel was born in Blackburn, Missouri. He story. Newspaper reports of living conditions initially campaigned on social issues, such as from the theater of war—relayed by child labor. Creel was first exposed to politi- steamship and telegraph, particularly those cal propaganda while working on Woodrow sent to the Times (London) by the Anglo-Irish- Wilson’s presidential campaign in 1916. He man William Howard Russell (1821–1907), then shot to fame as the director of the Com- which earned him the first-ever use of the title 100 Crossman, Richard

“war correspondent”—caused a scandal in quently Labour cabinet minister. A brilliant London. Russell’s criticisms led the Times to classical scholar at Oxford University, denounce the government of Lord Aberdeen Richard Crossman seems to have developed (1784–1879), playing a part in its fall and also an interest in propaganda during a visit to encouraging a climate of reform after the war. Germany in 1930, when he gained much in- This and other demonstrations of the power of sight into the working of Communist propa- the press—including descriptions of the main ganda in that country. While still teaching at British hospital at Scutari, near Constantino- Oxford he became active in British Labour ple, by Thomas Chenery (1826–1868), also of politics and became assistant editor of the the Times—forced subsequent governments to New Statesman in 1938. In 1940 he joined the take the media and war reporting seriously. wartime Ministry of Economic Warfare, par- Florence Nightingale (1820–1910) also used ent organization for the Political Warfare the press to exaggerate her own role in med- Executive. He masterminded British propa- ical reform at Scutari. At the prompting of ganda against Nazi Germany and, as assistant Prince Albert (1819–1861), the British gov- chief of the Psychological Warfare Division ernment responded by sending court photog- of SHAEF (Supreme Headquarters Allied rapher Roger Fenton (1819–1868) to the Expeditionary Force), played a leading role Crimea in 1855 as the world’s first accredited in the Allied effort to break the German will war photographer. to resist following D-day. Crossman’s ap- Russell’s account of the charge of the proach to psychological warfare emphasized British light cavalry brigade at the Battle of the value of credibility and the reliance on Balaclava in 1854 inspired Alfred, Lord Ten- the truth, particularly in such gambits as nyson (1809–1892) to write his poem The leaflets appealing for enemy troops to sur- Charge of the Light Brigade. While appalled at render. His views on such matters were the losses in the charge, Tennyson, like Rus- widely circulated within NATO during the sell, stressed the heroism and sense of duty of early Cold War. the men. His poem became a cornerstone of Crossman’s subsequent political career propaganda stressing the ethic of self-sacri- never really lived up to his intellectual prom- fice and was recited in British schoolrooms ise, although he served in Harold Wilson’s for the next hundred years. cabinet, finishing as minister of health and so- Nicholas J.Cull cial security. His association with the See also British Empire; Civil War, United States; wartime “cloak and dagger world” did not Ottoman Empire/Turkey; Poetry serve him well, and he was nicknamed “Dick References: The History of the “Times.”Vol. 2, The Double-Crossman.” Returning to the back- Tradition Established,1841–1884. London: Times, 1939; Hankison,Alan. Man of Wars: benches of Parliament, in his final years he William Howard Russell of “The Times.” London: became best known for his legal battle to Heinemann, 1982; Keer, Paul. The Crimean War. publish his Diaries of a Cabinet Minister (1975, London: Boxtree, 1997; Lambert,Andrew. The 1976, and 1977), whose revelations about Crimean War:British Grand Strategy against Russia, the Wilson government proved once again 1853–1856. Manchester: Manchester that the truth could be excellent propaganda. University Press, 1990; Lambert,Andrew,and Stephen Badsey. The Crimean War:The War Nicholas J.Cull Correspondents. Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1994. See also Black Propaganda, Psychological Warfare, PWE, World War II (Britain). References: Crossman, Richard, “Supplementary Essay,” in Lerner, Daniel. Sykewar:Psychological Warfare against Germany,D-Day to VE-Day.New Crossman, Richard (1907–1974) York: G. W.Stewart, 1949, pp.323–346; Expert British practitioner of psychological Howard,Anthony. Crossman:The Pursuit of Power. warfare during World War II and subse- London: Jonathan Cape, 1990. Cultural Propaganda 101

Cuba fluence on language, fashion, and consumer See Caribbean behavior. By World War II film had estab- lished itself as the most successful medium of mass entertainment, as well as a social force Cultural Propaganda of fundamental significance. Cultural propaganda is a long-term process The Cold War was perceived as a conflict intended to promote a better understanding between opposing ways of life. In 1948 the of the nation that is sponsoring the activity. Smith-Mundt Act created the legal frame- The United States refers to it as “public work for a permanent overseas information diplomacy,” whereas Britain and France pre- program, using the media, exchange pro- fer to call it “cultural diplomacy” or “cultural grams, and exhibitions to counter the mas- relations.” Such activity involves the dissemi- sive disinformation campaigns launched from nation of cultural products—films, maga- Moscow by the KGB to discredit the United zines, radio and television programs, art ex- States. Beginning in the mid-1950s, U.S. pol- hibitions, traveling theater groups and icymakers believed that cultural diplomacy orchestras—as well as the promotion of lan- would successfully complement psychologi- guage teaching and a wide range of “educa- cal warfare and in the long term might prove tional” activities, such as student-exchange more effective. During this period the export schemes. Over a period of time, these activi- of American culture and the American way of ties are designed to enhance the nation’s life was heavily subsidized by the U.S. gov- image among the populations of other coun- ernment and coordinated by the United tries, with a view to creating goodwill and in- States Information Agency (USIA). Cultural fluencing the polices of their governments exchange programs, international trade fairs through the pressure of public opinion. and exhibitions, and the distribution of Hol- Following the demise of the Empire Mar- lywood movies were just some of the activi- keting Board in 1933, the British Council was ties designed to extract propaganda value established in 1934 under Foreign Office based on the appeal of America’s way of life, control to promote Britain’s long-term cul- particularly its popular culture and material tural relations. The model for the British success. The Voice of America (VOA) broad- Council was the successful French Alliance cast American jazz and rock music to audi- Française. The British Council emphasized ences behind the Iron Curtain, using their the educational and cultural aspects of its popularity to boost the standing of the work. Equally important, however, were United States. While radio remained an im- pressing political considerations. The totali- portant weapon for waging psychological tarian use of propaganda, much of it directed warfare against the Soviets,American author- against British interests abroad, persuaded ities saw broadcasting as a means by which the British government that the council the United States could win hearts and minds should develop a response focusing on British around the world through a long-term democratic institutions and the “British way process of cultural propaganda. of life.” During the Cold War, the United States The universal appeal of American mass was also able to call upon private “philan- culture had been clear as early as the 1920s, thropic” and multinational concerns such as given the enormous success of Hollywood Coca-Cola, McDonalds, and Levis. The uni- movies, music, and other mass-produced versal popularity of such symbols of “Ameri- goods. During the interwar period the Amer- canization” testified to the success of this ap- ican studios were producing over 75 percent proach. Such “cultural imperialism” was of all films shown worldwide. The mass ap- designed to homogenize the world into a peal of American films exerted a powerful in- global village dominated by American values. 102 Cyprus

One of the most interesting and bold ex- References: Hixson, Walter L. Parting the periments in cultural propaganda was the pol- Curtain:Propaganda,Culture and the Cold War, icy of “reeducation” adopted by the Allies in 1945–1961.Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1997; Ninkovich, Frank A. The Diplomacy of different forms after the war. It represented a Ideas:U.S.Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, political experiment unique in modern his- 1938–1950.Cambridge: Cambridge University tory. The rationale behind Britain’s policy of Press, 1981; Taylor, Philip M. British Propaganda reeducation in the period 1945–1955 was to in the Twentieth Century:Selling Democracy. change the political behavior and social out- Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999; look of the German people through a funda- Turner, Ian D., ed. Reconstruction in Post-war Germany:British Occupation Policy and the Western mental restructuring of the various media. In Zone.Oxford: Berg, 1989; Wagnleitner, practice this control extended beyond the Reinhold. Coca-Colonization and the Cold War. press, radio, and film to include the entire ed- Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina ucational system. The methods of presentation Press, 1994. to be employed in the media and the cultural sphere were seen not as a means of reestablish- ing German culture but rather of projecting Cyprus British values and the British way of life. See Greece David Welch See also Austrian Empire; BBC; British Empire; Canada; CIA; Cold War; Disinformation; Public Diplomacy; Shakespeare, William; Czech Republic USIA;VOA See Austrian Empire D

David, Jacques-Louis (1748–1825) ing the Alps, which pictures the emperor, A French neoclassical painter active during with billowing cloak, astride a rearing horse, the French Revolution, who later became recalling Hannibal, whose name is carved on court painter to Napoleon, David was born a stone at Napoleon’s feet. After Napoleon’s in Paris and trained in Italy. He gained fame defeat, David went into exile in Brussels, based on a series of historical paintings—in- where he died in 1825. cluding The Oath of the Horatii (1784) and The Nicholas J.Cull Lictors Returning the Bodies of His Sons to Brutus See also Art; France; Napoleon; Revolution, (1789)—which caused a sensation by giving French unprecedented life and drama to classical References: Crow,Thomas. Emulation:Making Artists for Revolutionary France. New Haven, CT: subjects. They also reflected an admiration Yale University Press, 1994; Lajer-Burcharth, for the classical civic virtues associated with Ewa. Necklines:The Art of Jacques-Louis David after the Roman Republic and hence were propa- the Terror. New Haven, CT: Yale University ganda for a revival of republicanism. During Press, 1999; Nanteuil, Luc de. Jacques-Louis the Revolution David recorded events in his David.New York:Abrams, 1985. sketchbook and painted portraits of the major figures. His best-known work was The Dead Marat (1793), which depicted the revo- Defoe, Daniel (1660–1731) lutionary leader as a martyr. David was active Said by some to be the founder of British in revolutionary politics, sat in the Conven- journalism, the son of a London butcher, tion, and was one of the revolutionaries who Daniel Foe was educated at a Dissenting (that voted for the execution of Louis XVI is, non-Anglican Protestant) academy in (1754–1793). David worked closely with Stoke Newington. He worked as a hose factor Robespierre (1758–1794), serving as artistic (seller of leggings), establishing a substantial director for the cycle of propagandistic festi- mercantile business while traveling through- vals held to promote the new ideas of the out Britain. His political sympathies at this Revolution. Under Napoleon (1769–1821) time were evident in his support for the David used his skills to develop a heroic Monmouth Rebellion (1685) and the Glori- image of the emperor. Strong classical echoes ous Revolution (1688–1689). In 1692 he resurfaced in his painting of Napoleon cross- faced bankruptcy, subsequently taking a

103 104 De-Nazification

minor government office in 1695 and adopt- See also Britain; Britain (Eighteenth Century); ing the name Defoe. Novel Defoe’s poem “The True Born English- References: Black, Jeremy, ed. Britain in the Age of Walpole. London: Macmillan, 1984; Rogers, man” (1701) attracted royal attention for its Pat, ed. A Tour through the Whole Island of Great attack on prejudice against the king’s foreign Britain, by Daniel Defoe. Harmondsworth, birth. However, his irony in “The Shortest UK: Penguin, 1971. Way with the Dissenters” (1702), which called for the suppression of dissent, was mis- interpreted as an assault on the Anglican De-Nazification Church. As a result Defoe was fined, pillo- See Reeducation ried, and jailed in Newgate Prison. In 1703 Robert Harley (1661–1724) recruited Defoe as a propagandist for the Tory Party and as a Denmark negotiator in the union debates with Scot- See Scandinavia land. Using treasury funds, in 1704 Defoe es- tablished a triweekly newspaper, The Review, and supported the Tory ministry in several Disinformation antiopposition pamphlets. When Harley fell Disinformation is a term used to describe from power, Defoe again found himself in propaganda that is usually covert and there- prison. After 1715 he began working for the fore considered a form of “black” propa- Whig ministry. ganda. The term is derived from the Russian Defoe was a prolific writer, publishing over dezinformatsia, which comes from the section 560 books and pamphlets. His reputation as (known as Service A for “Active Measures”) “the Great Reporter” is based on his nonfic- of the KGB devoted to black propaganda. tion, including The Complete English Tradesman Disinformation means false, incomplete, (1726), and his numerous accounts of criminal or misleading information that is passed, fed, lives. His three-volume Tour through the Whole or confirmed to a targeted individual, group, Island of Great Britain (1724–1727) and London or country. Disinformation is not merely the Most Flourishing City in the Universe (1728) misinformation that is erroneous. Disinfor- provide a vivid, firsthand survey of Britain. Pat mation is comprised of news stories deliber- Rogers, however, has remarked that “the truth ately designed to weaken opponents, which is that Defoe possessed a wild inventive streak, are often planted in newspapers by secret a demonic imaginative power...he was the agents of a foreign country masquerading as Great Fabricator.” Defoe’s imaginative talent is journalists. The intention is to obscure the illustrated by his account of a journey to the identity of the originator of the message in moon entitled The Consolidator (1705) and the order to foster a high degree of credibility for New Voyage Round the World (1724), as well as both the message that is being planted and his History of the Pirates (1724–1728) and Letters the apparent source that is giving it credence. by a Turkish Spy (1718). Defoe’s keen observa- The CIA and the KGB have long been at- tion and literary skill combined to provide an tempting to discredit the other side by authoritative narrative that often masked his spreading rumors of the other country’s dirty ultimate political intent. Defoe’s lasting legacy deeds. Invariably these are passed off as true is his development of the novel as a literary and from a verifiable source. Testifying be- form in such works as Robinson Crusoe (1719), fore the House of Congress in 1980, Ladislav Captain Singleton (1720), Journal of the Plague Bittmann, former deputy chief of the Disin- Year (1722), Captain Jack (1722), Moll Flanders formation Department of the Czechoslovak (1722), and Roxana (1724). Intelligence Service, claimed that Soviet in- Karen M.Ford telligence services had successfully pene- Disinformation 105 trated Western newspapers around the world Mitrokhin (1922– ) and Christopher An- and that a relatively high number of these se- drew. Mitrokhin worked for thirty years in cret agents were operating as journalists. the KGB archives. Following the Soviet In 1985 the Soviet Union launched a con- Union’s collapse, he carried to Britain a mas- certed disinformation campaign, accusing the sive secret collection of Cold War material United States of developing the virus respon- about the KGB’s activities. sible for AIDS for use in biological warfare. According to the Mitrokhin archive, in Despite repeated denials, the story appeared 1971 the KGB sought to stir up racial tension in newspapers throughout the world and was in the United States. KGB chief Yuri An- still surfacing in British newspapers in 1987. dropov (1914–1984) personally approved Turkey was also targeted by this story, which the fabrication of pamphlets full of racist urged Turkish citizens to campaign for the propaganda purporting to emanate from the removal of U.S. bases in Turkey as a result of extremist Jewish Defense League (JDL) and servicemen infected with AIDS. Another calling for a campaign against “black mon- story planted by the KGB in the 1980s grels,” who, it was claimed, were looting claimed that wealthy Americans were plun- Jewish businesses. At the same time, forged dering children in Third World countries for letters were sent to numerous black organi- “spare-parts surgery” back home. zations providing fictitious details of atroci- Whereas the extent of Soviet disinforma- ties committed by the JDL against blacks. tion is now well documented as a result of So- Similarly, before the 1984 Los Angeles viet defectors and the end of the Cold War, Olympics, KGB agents sent forged letters, the activities of the CIA remain more obscure. purportedly written by the Ku Klux Klan, to For many years the United States denied using the Olympic committees of the African and disinformation, although there now exist a Asian nations. number of Internet sites intent on exposing Mitrokhin also claimed that Philip Agee— CIA activities. One notorious example that the CIA’s first ideological defector, who came to light in 1985 involved a CIA propa- wrote the best-selling book Inside the Com- ganda officer named John Stockwell who ad- pany: CIA Diary (1975), which identified 250 mitted to fabricating a widely reported story agency agents and made serious allegations of that Cuban soldiers who had raped some girls CIA malpractice—was, in fact, not the au- in Angola had subsequently been caught, tried, thor of the work but rather the KGB and its and executed by a firing squad. Even the pho- Cuban equivalent, the DGI (Directorate tograph of the “firing squad” was a fake. In General of Intelligence). In 1978 Agee, again 1995 the Times reported that American aca- with assistance from the KGB and the DGI, demic research centers in Moscow were front began publishing the Covert Action Information organizations for the CIA. In the 1980s a U.S. Bulletin, which was designed to destabilize disinformation campaign charged the Sandin- the CIA by exposing its covert activities. One istas in El Salvador with drug running. The of its claims, picked up and carried in the Iran-Contra hearings in 1987 revealed that for American media, was that CIA agents were many years the CIA and the Contras were, in behind the assassination of President fact, involved in a major Central American Kennedy. Forged letters from Lee Harvey drug-smuggling operation. Oswald, dated two weeks before Kennedy The scope of the KGB’s disinformation was murdered, to CIA officers were passed operations in the West during the Cold War on anonymously to groups and individuals in was overwhelming. One of the most com- the United States who were susceptible to plete pictures of the KGB and its operations conspiracy theories. is presented in The Sword and the Shield: The Once the planted stories have been taken Mitrokhin Archive (1999), written by Vasili up by the mainstream media and reported as 106 Drugs fact, invariably the United States denounces foisting drugs on American youth to turn them as forgeries, allowing Moscow to claim them into “heroin maniacs.” In 1930 the U.S. “anti-Soviet slanders.” The important point government established a Federal Bureau of from the propaganda perspective is that both Narcotics under an eager commissioner, sides would be reported. The disinformation Harry J.Anslinger (1892–1975), who served that journalists were fed by the KGB often in this post until 1962. Like his similarly contained a kernel of truth surrounded by a long-serving contemporary J. Edgar Hoover tissue of lies. The falsehood, however, can (1895–1972) of the FBI,Anslinger was a tire- frequently become conventional wisdom. As less campaigner and publicist for his views Philip M. Taylor has noted, future historians and his agency. He successfully lobbied for will need to be wary when searching the in- the 1937 Marijuana Tax Act, which criminal- ternational media of this period as primary ized possession and use of this drug. He also sources for their research since such stories lobbied internationally for uniform antidrug abounded, making it difficult if not impossi- laws, in particular to “protect” U.S. military ble for contemporaneous readers to identify personnel serving overseas during World which story was real and which was a propa- War II. Film propaganda made by sympa- ganda plant. thetic antidrug campaigners included the no- David Welch torious Reefer Madness (1936). See also CIA; Cold War; Intelligence; Olympics; The 1960s brought the phenomenon of Psychological Warfare; Russia; USIA propagandists for drug use, most notably References: Agee, Philip. Inside the Company:CIA Timothy Leary (1920–1996) and Ken Kesey Diary.New York: Stonehill, 1975; Mitrokhin, Vasili, and Christopher Andrew. The Sword and (1935–2001). Drug experiences were a key the Shield:The Mitrokhin Archive. New York: Basic element in the counterculture of the era, Books, 1999; Schultze, Richard H., and Roy which duly launched a campaign to relax Godson. Dezinformatsia:Active Measures in Soviet America’s drug laws. The Nixon administra- Strategy.Washington, DC: Brasseys, 1986. tion reasserted the law with the Controlled Substances Act of 1970. In 1971 protestors demonstrated to free jazz musician and Drugs writer John Sinclair (1941– ), who re- Illegal narcotics and legal intoxicants have ceived a ten-year jail sentence for supplying been a staple of state and pressure-group two joints to an undercover police officer. propaganda since the nineteenth century, The “ten for two” campaign included a when the campaign against alcohol produced protest song by John Lennon (1940–1980) the temperance movement. By the end of the and a benefit concert. Sinclair was released twentieth century, the U.S. government’s after serving three years. A drift toward lib- war on drugs had brought state propaganda eralization came to an abrupt halt with the against the traffic in and use of drugs to the election of Ronald Reagan to the presidency international stage. in 1980. The most sustained propaganda campaign President Reagan (1911– ), whose family against drugs was developed in the United had experienced drug abuse at first hand, States in the early years of the twentieth cen- made drugs a major policy issue. First Lady tury in tandem with prohibition. Legal land- Nancy Reagan (1923– ) became the figure- marks included the Harrison Narcotics Act of head of a campaign to “just say no” to drugs. 1914. Drug use was variously associated with His successor, President George H. W.Bush “foreign threats”: newspapers associated (1924– ), launched a “War on Drugs,” which opium with the Chinese and marijuana with included a strong foreign policy component Mexican immigrants. During World War I and whose message was disseminated by the they spread stories that German spies were United States Information Agency (USIA). Drugs 107

Events included the 1989 invasion of Panama 1992, and links between the Taliban of to remove dictator, drug supplier, and former Afghanistan and heroin traffic surfaced in U.S. ally Manuel Noriega (1940– ) from Western propaganda early in the 2001 War power. Pressure groups engaged in propa- on Terrorism. ganda for drug-law reform at the end of the Nicholas J.Cull century included a lobby on both sides of the See also Reagan, Ronald; Reefer Madness; Atlantic to legalize marijuana for medicinal Temperance; Women’s Movement: First use. Recurrent problems in government an- Wave/Suffrage tidrug campaigns include the refusal to dis- References: King, Rufus. The Drug Hang-Up: tinguish between various classes of drugs and America’s Fifty-Year Folly. New York: Norton, the loss of credibility inherent in lecturing to 1974; McWilliams, John C. The Protectors:Harry an audience that has experienced the sub- J. Anslinger and the Federal Bureau of Narcotics, 1930–1962. Newark: University of Delaware stances under discussion. The issue of past Press, 1990; Sloman, Larry “Ratso.” Reefer student drug use was raised to embarrass Bill Madness:The History of Marijuana in America. Clinton during the presidential election of New York: St. Martin’s, 1998.

E

Egypt Elections See Arab World The purpose of propaganda may be to influ- ence people to adopt attitudes that corre- spond to those of the propagandist or to en- Eisenstein, Sergei (1898–1948) gage in certain patterns of behavior (for A Soviet filmmaker best known for his example, joining a political party or pres- recreations of revolutionary events in Bat- sure group or contributing money to a tleship Potemkin (1926) and October (1927), cause). In democracies elections are viewed Eisenstein was a master of what was then as the legitimization of the political process called “American editing,” which involved whereby citizens make their voices heard. pacing and communicating meaning However, elections have increasingly be- through rapid cutting between images. De- come a vehicle for propagandists or “spin spite their subject matter, his films were doctors” to influence the political agenda widely admired in the West, where he and voting behavior. Prior to World War II achieved considerable influence, especially the press largely shaped political debate in among documentary filmmakers. In 1938 democracies and voters tended to buy news- he made the anti-Nazi allegory Alexander papers that reflected their own political Nevsky about the Russian hero resisting Teu- views and values. Paul Lazarsfeld and his as- tonic knights. The film was initially sup- sociates conducted a study during the presi- pressed because of the Nazi-Soviet pact of dential election of 1940 to determine 1939. By the end of the war Eisenstein had whether mass media influenced political at- fallen out of favor with the Stalin regime. titudes. To their surprise, they discovered He died in obscurity. that face-to-face discussions were a more Nicholas J.Cull important source of political influence than See also Battleship Potemkin; Film (Feature); the media. However, since the 1950s the Revolution, Russian; Russia mass media has played a very important role References: Barna, Ion. Eisenstein. London: in influencing voting behavior and now Secker and Warburg, 1973; Taylor, Richard, ed. S. M.Eisenstein:Selected Works,Vol.1, largely displaces traditional allegiances to 1922–1934. Bloomington: Indiana University political parties. Television, in particular, Press, 1988. has radically reshaped politics.

109 110 Elections (Britain)

Politicians have to air “sound bites” to en- See also Blair, Tony; Censorship; Elections sure themselves limited coverage on tele- (Britain); Elections (Israel); Elections (United vision news, and television commercials ac- States); Fakes; Italy; Kennedy, John F.; Opinion Polls; Poland; Reagan, Ronald; Spain; Thatcher, count for a major portion of campaign Margaret budgets. The television image of candidates, References: Lazarsfeld, Paul, Bernard Berelson, and political leaders in particular, has become and Hazel Gaudet. The People’s Choice:How the a determining factor in voter decision mak- Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Election. ing. In a complex society where a prolifera- New York: Duell, Sloan & Pearce, 1948; tion of information exists, voters depend on Lowery, Shearon, and Melvin DeFleur. Milestones in Mass Communication Research.New the media to set the agenda for public discus- York: Longman, 1988. sion and to supply information they lack and have neither the time nor the inclination to find out. There is evidence to suggest that more and more voters are abandoning party Elections (Britain) lines and dividing their votes among candi- The story of election propaganda in Britain is dates from different parties. This develop- intimately linked to the course of political re- ment is partly due to the “personality cult” form and technological innovation. In the that television has fostered and to a growing eighteenth and nineteenth centuries British reliance on issues to simplify voting choices. elections were riotous, as candidates plied These issues have largely been shaped by the electors with drink and bribes. Election media, which determine the political agenda. propaganda ranged from speeches, cartoons, Politicians are then required to appear on poems, and debates at the election hustings television to “sell” their policies. The gate- to painted signs and special pottery items. keeping function of the media has become a The Westminster campaign of 1784 attracted significant factor that determines what (and particular attention as the duchess of Devon- who) gets into print or is televised. Shearon shire, the former Lady Georgiana Spencer Lowery and Melvin DeFleur predict that me- (1757–1806), allegedly sold kisses to butch- diated information may play a greater role in ers on behalf of Whig politician Charles Fox future elections, whereas, “reinforcement and (1749–1806). The chaos at elections contin- crystallization, in the sense of cultivating ued well into the nineteenth century, reach- prior loyalties, presumably will have a re- ing a peak of disorder in the 1860s. duced role.” Electoral reform became a principal de- When the electorate thinks of recent presi- mand of the Chartists, who were named after dents or prime ministers, it is arguable that the their list of demands, the People’s Charter of first thing that comes to mind is how the candi- 1838. Chartist propaganda methods included dates looked on television—which can be at rallies and a national petition. Further reform the expense of issues and policies. Indeed, came in 1867, though not as a direct result of there is evidence that the grind of daily fund- their efforts. Charles Dickens (1812–1870) raising, together with the need to project an drew attention to the absurdities of British appropriate image for the television cameras, elections in a memorable scene in The Pick- causes talented candidates to leave politics. In a wick Papers (1836–1837). The introduction of TV-dominated world, television propaganda the secret ballot in 1872 and the Corrupt and may be turning the electorate off politics to the Illegal Practices Act of 1883 significantly extent that they no longer bother to vote. cleaned up British elections. The latter set Again, there is evidence to suggest that voters limits on election expenditure and permitted have become increasingly cynical of the politi- only one election agent for each candidate; cians and their spin doctors during elections. all other election workers had to be volun- David Welch teers. This legislation necessitated the rapid Elections (Britain) 111 development of constituency parties to pro- important in the election of 1959, but it vide volunteers. proved a real advantage for the Labour Party William Ewart Gladstone (1809–1898), of the 1960s under the leadership of the the politician behind the reforms of 1872 and telegenic Harold Wilson (1916–1995). In 1883, was also the great pioneer of political 1964 Wilson trounced the stiff Conservative campaigning. After losing office as prime prime minister Alec Douglas-Home (1903– minister, Gladstone rebuilt his political for- 1995). The Labour Party slogan in that elec- tunes by campaigning for the seat of Midloth- tion, “Let’s Go with Labour for the New ian, near Edinburgh, Scotland. The Midloth- Britain,” curiously anticipated the party’s suc- ian Campaign of 1879–1880 utilized cessful slogan “New Labour, New Britain” in American-style whistle-stop speeches. Glad- 1997. stone fought on a broad platform of nation- The Conservative Party introduced a fresh ally relevant (Liberal) ideologies rather that wave of modernization in the late 1970s local issues tied to an individual candidate. under the leadership of Margaret Thatcher The Conservative Party eventually matched (1925– ), who employed the advertising this approach, and elections in Britain came agency Saatchi and Saatchi. In elections held to be fought in national party terms. Candi- during the 1980s the party introduced morn- dates offered up individual election state- ing press conferences, which effectively set ments and pledges. The first party with a for- the agenda for the day’s debates and news. By mal manifesto was the Labour Party in the the late 1980s the key figure in Conservative general election of 1906. propaganda was Tim Bell (1941– ). The In the twentieth century the Conservative party was greatly helped by the support of Party led the way in campaign innovations. the mainly Conservative tabloid press in Radio broadcast time was allocated equally. Britain. Following the April 1992 election, Conservative prime minister Stanley Baldwin the Sun went so far as to claim responsibility (1867–1947) proved a master of the “fireside for the result by printing the following mem- chat” technique. Baldwin also made great use orable headline: “It’s the Sun wot won it.” of film in the general elections of 1931 and The Labour Party, however, took steps to 1935, and the party apparatus included mo- modernize under the influence of former tele- bile screening vans. Joseph Ball (1885– vision producer Peter Mandelson (1953– ). 1961), the party’s director of publicity in the The climax of the 1992 campaign suggested 1930s, was a former intelligence officer who that there were limits to the public tolerance resorted to dirty tricks, including placing a of American-style election razzmatazz. Labour spy in the Labour Party’s printing works. On leader Neil Kinnock (1942– ) apparently occasion Conservative rhetoric proved self- damaged his fortunes by appearing overly con- defeating, as was the case during the general fident at an election-eve rally in Sheffield. The election of 1945, when Prime Minister Win- Labour Party had more success with the ston Churchill (1874–1965) made the mis- American technique of rapid rebuttal, devel- take of predicting that a Labour government oping a computer database of Conservative would use some form of “Gestapo” to force political statements to permit almost instanta- socialism on Britain. He lost. neous responses. The campaign of 1997, The strict controls on political broadcast- which resulted in a landslide victory for Tony ing devised in the radio era remained in the Blair (1953– ), witnessed the distribution by television age. Parties are allocated a fixed the Labour Party of a how-to-vote video for amount of air time for “party election broad- young voters and a ubiquitous campaign pop casts” in proportion to their share of the vote, song entitled “Things Can Only Get Better.” and commercial stations cannot carry paid Oddities of British elections include the political advertising. Television was already continued use of posters. Their unveiling 112 Elections (Israel) became favorite campaign photo opportu- 3.5 million eligible voters in 1992; some 4 nities, and particularly effective or contro- million in 1996; 4.2 million voters in 1999; versial posters could be cross-reported as and 4.7 million in the 2001 elections. First, a news stories in their own right. Key exam- new generation of young leaders has ples of the controversy genre included a emerged who possess neither the historical Conservative poster in 1997 showing Tony reputation nor the charismatic personal qual- Blair with demonic eyes and Labour posters ities of their predecessors. Second, the elec- in 2001 showing the Conservative leader as tion industry has developed over the years. A a zombie sporting a Margaret Thatcher wig. few advertising firms, undoubtedly respond- British politicians have avoided American- ing to increasing demand, have offered their style presidential debates, viewing them as professional services in managing political an unnecessary risk. campaigns, thereby exposing the parties to Nicholas J.Cull professional communicators for the first See also BBC; Blair, Tony; Britain; Churchill, time, including consultants, advisers, copy- Winston; Elections; Thatcher, Margaret; writers, public relations professionals, adver- Zinoviev Letter tisers, and their respective staffs. Third, the References: Cockerell, Michael. Live from Number 10:The Inside Story of Prime Ministers and adoption of certain components of U.S. elec- Television.London: Faber and Faber, 1988; toral style raises hopes for a stable and pow- Cockett, Richard. “The Party, Publicity and the erful leadership. Media,” in Conservative Century:The Conservative Recent campaigns have rapidly adopted a Party since 1900.Ed.Anthony Seldon and Stuart new style of electoral politics that can be Ball. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994; characterized by at least five main features: Cull, Nicholas, ed. “The Battle for Britain: Political Broadcasting and the British Election of 1997.” Historical Journal of Film,Radio and 1. Telepolitics:Vigorous propaganda Television 17 (October 1997); Foreman, campaigns conducted through the Amanda. Georgiana,Duchess of Devonshire. broadcast media, particularly London: HarperCollins, 1998; Hanham, H. J. television, including extensive Elections and Party Management:Politics in the Time of Disraeli and Gladstone.London: Longmans, candidate coverage. Spin doctors set 1959; Kavanagh, Dennis. Election Campaigning. up events to coincide with Oxford: Blackwell, 1995. broadcasting lineups. 2. Consultant Involvement: Having imported the best available know-how Elections (Israel) on effective and rational campaign Israeli election propaganda has strikingly and management, professionals isolate dramatically reflected the shift from represen- candidates and take control of election tation by trustee that characterized the found- headquarters, shoving aside dedicated ing fathers of the State of Israel to a new style party members and campaign workers. of mass media–era politics largely based on 3. Personalization of the Political Debate: representation by delegate. This shift has been The increasing presence of experts in identified with the sweeping Americanization campaign staffs reduces public debate of Israeli politics. to a personal confrontation between Several social trends and political shifts candidates. The candidates and their have accelerated the adoption of American- personalities occupy center stage in style campaigning in Israel. The size of the Is- the election campaign. raeli electorate has increased significantly: 4. “Carnivalization”: Every political event around 500,000 voters in the first elections and election rally turns into a kind of of 1949; over 2.5 million in the tenth elec- gala, complete with balloons, signs, tions of June 1981; 3 million in 1988; about performers, singing, and dancing. Party Elections (United States) 113

conventions become projects for professional producers, who freely mix entertainment and political speeches. 5. “Pollsification”: The political weakness that first opened campaign headquarters to outside experts also spurs candidates to commission polls to analyze every move they make. Politicians and the media are trapped in a kind of vicious circle that benefits the poll industry: the more polls, the more findings; the more findings, the more differences among them; the more differences, the greater the uncertainty; and so on. During the 1952 presidential campaign Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson was photographed with his legs The new electoral propaganda style is crossed,revealing a most-visible hole in the sole of his shoe. likely to shape the quality of the political Small sterling silver lapel pins of the shoe sole became leadership, for it promotes a process of nega- symbols of Stevenson’s campaign.(Courtesy of David Culbert) tive selection that encourages mediocre can- didates possessing manipulative skills but lacking vision and leadership qualities. The be more ill-judged than that intolerant spirit mediocrity that is taking control of democ- which has at all times characterized political racy—the demediocracy—is perhaps more parties.” Elections in America have been bearable in an established Western democ- transformed by revolutionary changes in racy but may prove disastrous for a younger transportation as well as through the advent one that still faces problems of survival. of electronic mass media. In addition, the Dan Caspi electoral process as one observes it today is See also Elections (United States); Israel vastly different from that imagined by the References: Caspi, Dan. “When Americanization founding fathers, as indicated by the senti- Fails? From Democracy to Demediocracy in ment expressed by Hamilton. When George Israel.” Israel Studies Bulletin 15 (Fall 1999): 1–5; ———. “American-style Electioneering in Washington (1732–1799) was elected first Israel:Americanization versus Modernization.” In president of the United States in 1789, the Politics,Media and Modern Society. Ed. D. L. Constitution allowed for no direct vote, fear- Swanson and P.Mancini. Westport, CT: Praeger, ing that the average citizen was not intelli- 1996; Lehman-Wilzig, S. “The 1992 Media gent enough to cast a vote with proper in- Campaign: Toward the Americanization of Israeli sight. Instead, the Constitution called for an Elections?” In Israel at the Polls. Ed. D. Elazar and S. Sandler. Lanham, MD: University Press of electoral college system in which each state America, 1995; Weimann,G., and G. Wolfsfeld. has the same number of electoral votes as its “Struggles Over the Electoral Agenda: The congressional delegation (in other words, Elections of 1996 and 1999.” In The Elections in large states have more votes than smaller Israel 1999. Ed. M. Shamir and A.Arian. ones). Jerusalem: Israel Institute for Democracy, 2000. The system, which is regularly de- nounced, continues to this day. Now citizens are allowed to vote directly for their presi- Elections (United States) dent, but they are actually only voting for a “Nothing,” wrote Alexander Hamilton slate of electors pledged to vote for a partic- (1755–1804) in Federalist no. 1 (1787),“could ular candidate. The system is a testament to 114 Elections (United States)

the fear of democracy that characterized the date who should have won—Samuel B. Tilden many lawyers who wrote the Constitution. (1814–1886). The explanation was vote fraud There were no political parties before 1828, in three Southern states (South Carolina, which helps explain how different campaign- Florida, and Louisiana) where federal troops ing techniques were in a preindustrial soci- were still enforcing military reconstruction: ety. But this does not mean that voting was a An electoral commission was set up in the sedate occupation of prosperous gentlemen. House of Representatives to examine the The scurrilous efforts of James Callender nineteen electoral votes in dispute—votes (?–1803)—who first raised the issue of that would, of course, have gone to the Demo- Thomas Jefferson’s (1743–1826) having fa- cratic candidate since the South accepted as a thered the children of his slave and mistress given that the Republican Party was synony- Sally Hemings (1773–1836)—appeared in mous with Radical Reconstruction and the Virginia newspapers during the election of military occupation of the South. Thanks to 1800. Those who did not like Jefferson read yet more fraud, every disputed electoral vote such information with pleasure. The year went to the Republican candidate, and Hayes 1828 marks the beginning of the party sys- became president by a single electoral vote. tem in American politics, though what is The result was something that shaped elec- today’s two-party system of Democrats and toral politics in America until the 1960s: the Republicans did not become the norm until so-called solid South, which blamed Recon- 1860 and, in some respects, not until the end struction on the Republican Party and voted of the Civil War in 1865. any Democrat to office rain or shine, and no The election of 1860 featured four candi- Republican, however qualified. dates and was viewed as a mandate for what Ironically, progressive reform in the selec- to do about slavery. The election of Abraham tion of presidential candidates helped fix the Lincoln (1809–1865) helped persuade the South’s commitment to the Democratic South to secede. Lincoln was not the first Party. In 1904 Florida became the first state president to be photographed—Andrew to institute a system of presidential primar- Jackson (1809–1845) was photographed on ies, in which candidates for the office of the his deathbed in 1845—but Lincoln’s singular presidency campaigned and citizens voted di- appearance (which gave rise to the euphe- rectly on primary day, the winner gaining mism “Lincolnesque” to describe a very that state’s delegation at the national party homely individual) was a genuine campaign convention. The result was to greatly extend asset. The pre-electronic era is perhaps best the season of campaigning and make fund- captured in a series of public debates be- raising a major requirement for any serious tween Lincoln and his chief opponent, candidate for president. Stephen A. Douglas (1813–1861), which From the early days of the Republic, the were heard at most by a few hundred per- chief political strategist for an incumbent sons. They were mostly read in newspaper president was the postmaster general, who accounts published with the aid of the tele- did not need to spend much time arranging graph, but they were still published by local for slow-moving mail delivery in an era in newspapers. The vast size of America and the which most bulk mailing was unknown, al- primitive nature of mass transportation made though many newspapers—particularly it impossible for any single newspaper to weeklies—were delivered by mail. Jim Far- cover the entire country. ley (1888–1976), FDR’s postmaster general, The election of 1876 is remembered be- was one of the most effective strategists. The cause the candidate who lost the popular last postmaster general to occupy a cabinet vote—Rutherford B. Hayes (1822–1893)— post resigned in 1971; since then political was able to steal the election from the candi- strategists come from elsewhere. Engels, Friedrich 115

The twentieth century has seen an enor- tant, Elizabeth spent much of the early years mous change in the style of campaigning, of her reign engaged in fending off Catholic given the arrival of the automobile and air- opposition, and to this end she built up the plane and the advent of radio and television, state, including both a considerable intelli- to say nothing of the Internet. Radio first gence service and a cult of personality cen- covered a national party convention in 1924; tering on herself. Elizabeth paid considerable television followed in 1940. In 1960 four attention to her image, distributing portraits one-hour national television debates heralded throughout the kingdom made from officially a new style of campaigning in which voters sanctioned originals. Elizabeth also proved a would decide which candidate to vote for formidable public speaker, most famously based solely on the issues. John F. Kennedy rallying the country against the Spanish Ar- (1917–1963) defeated Richard Nixon mada of 1588, declaring: “I know I have the (1913–1994) by 115,000 votes out of 69 body of a weak and feeble woman, but I have million cast, but television turned out to be the heart and stomach of a king and a king of more useful for paid political messages than England too” (collected in Lord Somers, A as a medium for public debate. The 2000 Third Collection of Scarce and Valuable Tracts election was also hotly contested. The ques- [1751]). In later years the image of Elizabeth tion of how to count ballots in Florida left became a staple of British patriotic propa- the outcome in doubt for weeks until the ganda. The British film Fire over England U.S. Supreme Court intervened in a decision (1937) and the U.S. film The Sea Hawk (1940) that left supporters of Democratic candidate used the Spanish threat as an effective alle- Al Gore (1946– ) livid. A detailed recount- gory for British resistance against the Nazis. ing, completed months later, revealed that Nicholas J.Cull George W. Bush (1947– ) had won in See also Britain; Portraiture; Reformation and Florida, but the closeness of the popular vote Counter-Reformation nationally clearly indicated that voters saw References: Cole, Mary Hill. The Portable Queen: Elizabeth I and the Politics of Ceremony. Amherst: little difference between Gore or Bush. University of Massachusetts Press, 1999; David Culbert MacCaffrey, Wallace T. Elizabeth I:War and See also Civil War, United States; Clinton, Politics,1588–1603. Princeton, NJ: Princeton William Jefferson; Elections; Kennedy, John F.; University Press, 1992; Strong, Roy. The Cult of Lincoln,Abraham; Long, Huey; Nixon, Elizabeth:Elizabethan Portraiture and Pageantry. Richard; Roosevelt, Franklin D.; United States London: Thames and Hudson, 1987. References: Farley, James A. Behind the Ballots: The Personal History of a Politician. New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1938; McGinniss, Joe. The Selling of the President 1968. New York: St. Engels, Friedrich (1820–1895) Martin’s, 1969; Posner, Richard A. Breaking the Although born in Germany, this nine- Deadlock:The 2000 Election. Princeton, NJ: teenth-century pioneer of Communism Princeton University Press, 2001; White, Theodore H. The Making of the President 1960 lived most of his life in England, where his [and 1964, 1968, and 1972]. New York: father owned a cotton factory. Engels devel- Atheneum, 1961 [1965, 1969, and 1973]. oped his political ideas in the 1840s. Shocked by the poverty that followed in the wake of industrialization, in 1845 he pub- Elizabeth I (1533–1603) lished The Condition of the Working Classes in Queen of England from 1558–1603 and a England in 1844. In 1844 he had met Karl masterly manipulator of her own image, Eliz- Marx (1818–1883), who was to be his life- abeth was the daughter of Henry VIII long friend and collaborator and with (1491–1547) and his ill-fated second wife, whom he wrote the Communist Manifesto Anne Boleyn (c. 1504–1536). As a Protes- (1848). Both men took part in radical activity 116 Environmentalism in the German Rhineland during the revo- servation per se began with campaigns initi- lutions of 1848–1849, fleeing to London ated by a lobby with an interest in hunting. when the revolutions collapsed. Engels sup- George Bird Grinnell (1848–1938) cam- ported Marx both financially and intellectu- paigned for the preservation of America’s ally, and following Marx’s death in 1883 he wilderness as the editor of the magazine For- arranged for the posthumous publication of est and Stream. In 1872 he succeeded in win- his friend’s remaining works. Engels was ac- ning protection for Yellowstone as the first tive in the formation of the Second Interna- U.S. national park, and in 1886 he founded tional of 1864. the first major environmental advocacy Nicholas J.Cull group, the Audubon Society, named for the See also The Communist Manifesto; International; ornithologist and bird painter John James “The Internationale”; Marx, Karl; Russia Audubon (1785–1851). Other key cam- References: Carver, Terrell. Friedrich Engels:His paigners included the Scottish-born writer Life and Thought. London: Macmillan, 1989; McLellan, David. Friedrich Engels. New York: John Muir (1838–1914), through whose ef- Viking, 1977. forts California’s Yosemite Valley became a national park in 1890. In 1892 Muir founded the Sierra Club, one of the key en- vironmental advocacy groups in the United Environmentalism States. He also formed a strong political al- A belief in the need to conserve the natural liance with President Theodore Roosevelt environment, environmentalism developed (1858–1919). Roosevelt matched his per- from localized intellectual routes in the nine- sonal eloquence on the subject of the envi- teenth century to become a movement of ronment (and hunting) with legislation to global significance by the end of the twenti- develop a network of national parks during eth century. Its propaganda has ranged from his presidency (1901–1909). serious literature to headline-grabbing feats In the twentieth century politicians sought of direct action. Local and national govern- to manipulate ideas about the environment ments have sponsored antipollution propa- for their own ends. Much environmental ganda and a number of politicians have writing emphasized a mystical bond between sought to endorse the cause as part of their the individual and the national landscape. The personal campaign rhetoric.Al Gore (1948– ), environment hence became a common prop- U.S. vice president in 1993–2001 and unsuc- aganda theme in Nazi Germany, where art, cessful presidential candidate in 2000, cam- rhetoric, and state-sponsored activities em- paigned with a genuine commitment to envi- phasized “blood and soil.” ronmentalism and authored Earth in the The environmental movement moved into Balance (1992). a new phase in the 1950s and 1960s as con- The foundations of environmentalism can cern deepened over the effect of pollution on be found in an admiration for nature that wildlife. Key advocates included Rachel Car- emerged from nineteenth-century romantic son (1907–1964), who addressed the prob- art and literature. In the United States the lem of ocean pollution in The Sea Around Us writers Henry David Thoreau (1817–1862) (1951) and that of pesticides in Silent Spring and Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803–1882) ar- (1962). The issue of respect for nature fitted gued for respect for the natural world. In in well with other countercultural currents of 1864 George Perkins Marsh (1801–1882) the era. Public demonstrations in the cause of published the pathbreaking book Man and the environment culminated in global cele- Nature—reissued in 1874 as The Earth as brations to mark Earth Day in 1970. Govern- Modified by Human Action—which laid the ment-backed campaigns included a poster and foundations for the science of ecology. Con- TV advertisement featuring Native American Environmentalism 117

Environmentalist John Muir,c.1902.(Library of Congress) actor Iron Eyes Cody (1907–1999) weeping end of the century as “anti-road” protestors at the sight of litter and pollution, bearing the blocked the path of projected new roads, slogan “Keep America Beautiful.” The envi- forcing confrontations with the police, and ronmental movement developed in tandem campaigners against genetic modification with the antinuclear movement. The best used direct action, destroying “GM” crops in known radical environmental group, Green- the fields while symbolically dressed in bio- peace, emerged in 1971 to protest against hazard protection suits. U.S. government nuclear tests off Alaska. Environmentalism has emerged as a major Many European countries developed issue in global politics. In 1972 the United “Green” parties. The most successful of these Nations held its first conference on the envi- is probably the Germany Green Party ronment in Stockholm. Major Earth summits (founded in 1979); by the end of the century followed in Rio (1992) and Kyoto (1997). Germany’s Greens had become the nation’s Countries whose politicians have made par- third party. In 1998 they became part of a ticular commitments to environmentalism coalition government together with the So- include Sweden and Denmark. The island na- cial Democrats, and were rewarded when the tions of the Pacific have campaigned on the government agreed to phase out nuclear issue of global warming and the associated power. Green parties also joined coalitions in problem of rising sea levels. In response, France, Finland, New Zealand, and else- global corporations engaged public relations where. Britain’s “first past the post” electoral consultants to seek to identify themselves system kept Greens out of Parliament, but with sound environmental practice. environmental politics was still visible at the Nicholas J.Cull 118 Exhibitions and World’s Fairs

See also Pacific/Oceania; Peace and Antiwar given over to British and imperialist prod- Movements (1945– ); Scandinavia; Silent ucts. From the very outset exhibitions were Spring therefore strongly connected with national References: Fox, Stephen. John Muir and His Legacy:The American Conservation Movement. pride and the promotion of national culture. Boston: Little, Brown, 1981; Hays, Samuel P. The British used exhibitions and fairs to Beauty,Health and Permanence:Environmental show off their empire and encourage impe- Politics in the United States,1955–1985. rial unity. The second half of the nineteenth Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, century witnessed a number of fairs of this 1987; O’Neill, Michael. Green Parties and kind in Sydney (1879–1880), Melbourne Political Change in Contemporary Europe:New Politics,Old Predicaments.London:Ashgate, (1880–1881), Calcutta (1883–1884), Lon- 1997; Pearce, Fred. Green Warriors:The People don (1886), and Adelaide (1887–1888). In and the Politics behind the Environmental 1911 Sydenham, the home of the Crystal Revolution. London: Bodley Head, 1991; Wall, Palace after its removal from Hyde Park, wit- Derek. Green History:A Reader in Environmental nessed a Festival of Empire. Huge military Literature,Philosophy and Politics.London: Routledge, 1994. tattoos, reenactments of famous imperial battles, and other entertainments all served to stress the idea of a powerful, united em- pire. The culmination of these celebrations Exhibitions and World’s Fairs occurred in 1924–1925 at Wembley. The Ever since the huge success of the 1851 centerpiece of the exhibition was the new Great Exhibition in London, the idea of ex- Empire Stadium. King George V (1865– hibitions and world’s fairs to promote trade, 1936) opened the exhibition in a lavish cere- industry, art, and knowledge has become an mony involving representatives from across industry in itself. In 1928 an international the far-flung empire. The exhibition drew convention established the Bureau of Inter- large crowds—proving that the appeal of national Expositions to organize and control empire was much greater than has sometimes exhibitions and fairs. Exhibitions and world’s been suggested—as did the Glasgow Festival fairs have always been about far more than of Empire in 1938. the simple promotion of knowledge and For other nations, too, trade and industrial trade. They have been used to celebrate his- fairs provided an opportunity to promote na- torical events, which usually meant that the tional pride and culture. In 1876 Philadelphia host country took the opportunity to stress hosted a world exhibition, which also cele- its national culture and achievements. They brated the centennial of the Revolution. have also been used to underscore a nation’s Chicago hosted the World’s Columbian Ex- superiority over its rivals, thereby, strictly position in 1893; it marked Chicago as the speaking, violating the original spirit behind great city of the Midwest, boosting civic the concept. pride after having won the right to host the The inspiration for the Great Exhibition fair following stiff competition from New was Prince Albert (1819–1861). The prince York. In 1905 Portland, Oregon, played host consort was very much a man of his time, and to the Lewis and Clark Centennial and Amer- his idea for a celebration of the industry of ican Pacific Exposition and Oriental Fair, nations reflected nineteenth-century con- proving that the United States was as much a cepts of liberalism, where free trade and free Pacific country as an Atlantic one.Victory in discourse would bring peace to the world. the Spanish-American War was never far The Crystal Palace promoted this idealism from the surface at the 1898 Omaha Trans- while simultaneously celebrating Britain. As Mississippi Exposition. Strong racial mes- the world’s greatest industrial and imperial sages were also imparted, for the exhibition power, the vast bulk of the exhibition was stressed the need for paternal control of the Exhibitions and World’s Fairs 119

People in Bolivia inspect John Glenn's Mercury space capsule,exhibited in 1962 as part of its Cold War information program by the U.S.Information Agency.(National Archives)

“degenerate” Indians. A similar spirit per- built villages designed to display the customs vaded the famous 1904 Louisiana Purchase and culture of the various subject peoples. International Exposition, held in St. Louis, Between 1890 and 1914 Belgium hosted a where there were numerous “anthropological cluster of fairs and exhibitions that largely re- exhibits.” (The St. Louis Fair committee also flected the growing wealth and confidence of brought the Olympics to the city.) The Belgium as an industrial and colonial power: British imperial fairs also contained specially Antwerp (1894), Brussels (1897), Liège 120 Exhibitions and World’s Fairs

(1905), Brussels (1910), and Ghent (1913). ganda effort at the New York World’s Fair of The French revealed themselves to be even 1939. Aiming to win American sympathy on more infatuated by the concept. After a the eve of World War II, they stressed the hugely successful fair in 1867, Paris hosted common heritage of Britain and the United exhibitions in 1878, 1889, and 1900. The States, sending over the king and queen for a 1889 centenary of the Revolution proved to related visit. be a particularly spectacular affair, with the The Cold War continued the theme of po- completion of the Eiffel Tower. The 1900 ex- litical rivalries, seeking propaganda opportu- hibition witnessed the presence of interna- nities through the medium of exhibitions and tional rivalries. Britain had recently clashed fairs. At the 1958 exhibition in Brussels the with France over Africa. The Germans had United States was determined to outshine wanted to host the exhibition and so were the USSR. The latter was equally determined determined to outshine France, which duly to rise to the occasion. President Eisenhower occurred. Meanwhile, the Americans and the demanded huge sums to pay for the U.S. ex- Japanese also put on strong displays, causing hibits and wanted to promote the United a certain amount of national introspection. States as an affluent and happy society. The The Paris exhibition of 1925 served as a mo- Soviets stressed their scientific knowledge— ment of rehabilitation, giving Soviet Russia particularly in the field of space explo- the chance to make its presence felt on the ration—and their allegedly superior culture. international stage. In the depths of eco- West Germany was keen to be seen as a well- nomic depression in 1931, France seized the balanced and hardworking society, while moment to promote its empire, holding a Britain, France, and Belgium presented the successful Exposition Coloniale Interna- last glimmers of their imperial glory. tionale, in which French culture and its civi- More recently exhibitions have returned lizing influence on the globe were the main to the tradition of celebrating important themes. landmarks. In 1967 the Montreal Expo per- The most politically volatile of the Parisian mitted Canada to celebrate its hundredth exhibitions occurred in 1937. It was clear birthday.Vancouver seized the chance to pro- that Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia were mote itself on its centenary in 1986. In 1988 planning to use the occasion for maximum Brisbane hosted the World Expo; it was a propaganda effect. Albert Speer (1905– major part of the bicentennial celebrations 1981) designed an imposing German pavil- and was opened by the queen. Seville played ion, topped by an enormous German eagle host to the 1992 Columbus Quincentennial over which floated an even bigger swastika- Exposition. The exhibitions—including the emblazoned flag. Visitors were able to view World’s Fair in Hanover—mounted to mark Leni Riefenstahl’s famous film Tr iumph of the the millennium proved disappointing. The Will (1935). The Soviets erected an equally Millennium Dome in London became a big pavilion and decorated with a similarly major political embarrassment for the gov- huge hammer-and-sickle–emblazoned flag. ernment of Tony Blair (1953– ). Britain was drawn in, to a certain extent, em- Mark Connelly ploying Sir Edwin Lutyens (1869–1944), one See also British Empire; Cultural Propaganda; of its finest architects, to design its pavilion; Freedom Train; Olympics; USIA unfortunately, the contents of the British References: Cull, Nicholas J. “Overture to an pavilion were rather tame by comparison. Alliance: British Propaganda at the New York World’s Fair, 1939–1940.” Journal of British Other exhibits at the fair included Picasso’s Studies 36, 3 (July 1997): 325–354; Findley, antiwar painting Guernica (1937). The British John E., and Kimberly D. Pelle. A Historical pulled out all the stops for a massive propa- Dictionary of World’s Fairs and Expositions, Exhibitions and World’s Fairs 121

1851–1988.Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1990; Press, 1984; Rydell, Robert W., John E. Rydell, Robert W. All the World’s a Fair:Visions of Findling, and Kimberly D. Pelle. Fair America: Empire at the American International Expositions, World’s Fairs in the United States.Washington, 1876–1916. Chicago: University of Chicago DC: Smithsonian Institution Press, 2000.

F

Fakes on the anniversary of the sinking. This at- Throughout history propagandists have re- tracted so much attention that the British de- sorted to the use of fake texts or visual mem- cided to further exploit anti-German feeling orabilia to elicit an emotional response from by producing a boxed replica together with the intended audience. Usually fake propa- an “explanatory” leaflet intended to demon- ganda is employed to create or reinforce ex- strate the bestiality of German actions isting prejudices against a target group. An against innocent women and children. example of this is The Protocols of the Elders of Wellington House initially produced fifty Zion, a scurrilous publication describing al- thousand replicas of the Lusitania medal. De- leged Jewish plans for world domination, mand was so great that responsibility for which remains one of the most notorious production and distribution was handed over uses of a fake text for propaganda purposes. to Gordon Selfridge (1858–1957), the de- Another example of the use of a fake for partment-store entrepreneur. The replica of propaganda purposes involves the sinking of the medal was eventually produced in the the Lusitania. On 7 May 1915 the Lusitania hundreds of thousands. What was originally was sunk by a German U-boat without prior a private German initiative on the part of an warning, resulting in the loss of 1,198 lives, individual artist to justify the submarine 128 of them American. A year later a Ger- campaign to his own people became an in- man artist named Karl X. Goetz (1875– ternational cause célèbre. 1950) struck a medal privately to commem- Although the Lusitania incident coincided orate the sinking of the passenger liner, with the publication of the Bryce Report, it which the Germans claimed had been carry- did not bring America into the war. How- ing munitions. The German medal depicted ever, the British version of events generally the Lusitania laden with guns, beneath which prevailed, helped by the fake commemora- were the words “No Contraband.” On the re- tive medal struck by them. The replica verse was the motto “Business before Every- medal, together with the “explanatory” note, thing.” The British Foreign Office managed served to reinforce the stereotype of the to obtain a copy of the medal, photographed brutal Hun that British propaganda had been it, and sent copies to the United States, trying to create. Goetz continued to treat where it was published in the New York Times political subjects in his work, designing coins

123 124 Falklands/Malvinas War

and producing propaganda medals in Nazi The key organs of British propaganda on Germany. the home front were the tabloid newspapers David Welch (with the exception of the Daily Mirror). See also Anti-Semitism;Atrocity Propaganda; These papers supported the war for com- Latin America; Oates, Titus; Protocols of the mercial and editorial reasons, much as the Elders of Zion;World War I; Zinoviev Letter U.S. yellow press had behaved during the References: Cohn, Norman. Warrant for Genocide: The Myth of the Jewish World-Conspiracy and the Spanish-American War of 1898. The most Protocols of the Elders of Zion. London: Eyre and notorious of many jingoistic headlines was Spottiswoode, 1967; Sanders, Michael, and the “Gottcha” response of the Sun to the sink- Philip M. Taylor. British Propaganda During the ing of Argentina’s warship General Belgrano. First World War,1914–18.London: Macmillan, Operating under Foreign Office counsel, the 1982. BBC World Service stressed Britain’s eager- ness to find a peaceful solution. When the domestic BBC news attempted to open dis- Falklands/Malvinas War (1982) cussion of British policy early in the conflict, Lasting from April to June 1982, this war be- this effort was branded as “unpatriotic” by the tween Argentina and Britain was fought over Thatcher government. the Falkland Islands and South Georgia in the The remoteness of the islands permitted South Atlantic. Britain’s management of the an extraordinary level of British control of media during the war showed the application images of the war. Twenty-nine journalists— of the lessons of Vietnam and established an all British—and seven official “minders” influential model, reflected in U.S. govern- sailed with the troops. The latter applied ment practice in Grenada (1983), Panama moral pressure for “supportive” reporting (1989), and the Gulf War (1991). The con- and occasionally blocked stories. One even flict originated as a result of a crisis in the brazenly informed a journalist: “You knew military regime of Argentina. The junta, led when you came you were expected to do a by General Leopoldo Galtieri (1926–2003) 1940 propaganda job.” Ministry of Defense faced economic difficulty (600 percent infla- censors removed particular phrases, such as tion) and revived a long-standing territorial the description of British casualties as “horri- claim to “las Islas Malvinas” to rally his popu- bly burned.” Radio (and other audio) reports lation. This claim had been a basic element in could be heard virtually in real time, but the geography lessons at school and hence was television pictures were flown back by air and widely supported. In a prime example of screened between nine and twenty-one days propaganda by deed, the Argentinean mili- after the actual events had taken place (taking tary seized the Falklands and South Georgia longer to reach London than dispatches from on the second and third of April, respectively, the Crimean War). In London the BBC at- and waited for the British to react. tracted criticism for plugging the gaps with The British response included the securing footage from enemy sources. The Ministry of of a UN resolution (502), which required the Defense altered its usual practice of closed withdrawal of Argentina’s troops prior to any briefings and placed Ian McDonald, its acting negotiations over sovereignty, which gave head of public relations, in front of the cam- Britain’s response moral standing. Margaret eras to deliver the official version of the news Thatcher (1925– ), utilizing World War II in an intentionally monotone voice. Closed rhetoric, compared Galtieri to Hitler and ar- briefings resumed as the conflict progressed. gued that a dictator should never be appeased. It later emerged that ministry briefings in- She successfully rallied the support of both the cluded comments and outright denials calcu- British and much of the American public in lated to mislead the enemy, which proved sending a task force to recapture the islands. controversial. Fascism, Italian 125

Radio propaganda also figured in war. Ar- songs performed by Billy Bragg (1957– ). gentina established Radio Nacional Islas Malv- Accounts of the fighting that could be consid- inas on the facilities of the Falkland Islands ered antiwar propaganda include the memoir Broadcasting Station (FIBS). The station When the Fighting Is Over:A Personal Story of the broadcast a mixture of morale-boosting pro- Battle for Tumbledown Mountain and Its After- grams for the occupying troops and news in math (1990) by wounded officer Robert English for the Falkland Islanders mounted by Lawrence (1960– ). the old staff.A television service (with plenty Nicholas J.Cull of soccer coverage) followed. Meanwhile the See also Black Propaganda; Britain; Caribbean; British sought to address enemy troops Censorship; Latin America; Radio through a clandestine short-wave radio sta- (International); Sport; Thatcher, Margaret; United Nations;Vietnam War tion called Radio Atlántico del Sur (Radio References: Cockerell, Michael. Live from Number South Atlantic), based on Ascension Island. 10:The Inside Story of Prime Ministers and Listenership was limited since few Argen- Television.London: Faber, 1988; Freedman, tinean soldiers had short-wave radios. The Ar- Lawrence, and Virginia Gamba-Stonehouse. gentinean position could be heard in English Signals of War:The Falklands Conflict of 1982. on Radio Liberty, where “Miss Liberty, the Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991; Glasgow Media Group. War and Peace Buenos Aires Belle” roundly denounced Mar- News.Milton Keynes: Open University Press, garet Thatcher from a studio either in Ar- 1985; Morrison, D., and H. Tumbler. Journalists gentina or, some believed, Algeria. After the at War:The Dynamics of News Reporting during the war FIBS returned with increased short- and Falklands Conflict. London: Sage, 1988; Rock, medium-wave transmissions in conjunction David. Argentina,1516–1987:From Spanish Colonization to Alfonsin.Berkeley: University of with the British Forces Broadcasting Service. California Press, 1989. In Argentina the press followed the mili- tary line. The latter portrayed the invasion as both just and successful and exaggerated both the morale and capabilities of their forces on Fascism, Italian (1922–1943) the islands. When the promised victory evap- This Italian right-wing movement was orated with the British landings and recap- founded by Benito Mussolini (1883–1945), ture of the islands, the regime lost credibility. who ruled Italy from 1922 to 1943. Italian Argentina’s counterstrategies included blam- Fascism relied heavily on propaganda to legit- ing the United States for having deserted a imize its rule and motivate its participants. fellow American power, but the debacle led Key areas of activity included control of the directly to the fall of the junta in 1983 and a press and film and radio propaganda. Key return to civilian rule. In Britain the war techniques included promoting the cult of “il proved a welcome political boost for Mar- Duce,” or the leader. garet Thatcher. She made the most of the vic- Mussolini’s background as the founder of tory, mounting homecoming celebrations for the newspaper Populo d’Italia in 1914 gave the forces and a victory parade. She won re- him a deep understanding of the importance election in 1983 by a landslide due—many of the press. Mussolini was adamant about believed—to the “Falklands Factor.” preapproving interviews and articles that Subsequent debates arising from the war could be distributed only by the Agenzia Ste- have included allegations of British atrocities fani. Il Duce also established a press office, against prisoners of war (now largely dis- which, from the mid-1920s onward, sent di- proved), mistakes that increased British casu- rectives to the press and tried to exert con- alties, and discussion of the role of the British trol through financial subsidies. Journalists arms industry in supplying Argentina in the could retain their positions only after demon- first place. The conflict figured in protest strating loyalty to the new regime. During 126 Fascism, Italian

World War II the Giornale d’Italia engaged in mercial film. The institute lasted until the fall heavy propaganda. As the war progressed, of Mussolini. Fascist propaganda became more pervasive in Prewar cinema was expected to help re- newspapers such as Il Resto del Carlino, La Voce form Italian taste and create a mass culture. d’Italia, Il Secolo,and others. In 1934 Mussolini established the Direzione Mussolini created a mass “Fascist culture” Generale per la Cinematografia, headed by through the use of photographs, symbols, and Luigi Freddi, which was designed to be a posters. Pictures of Il Duce launching gran- “form of positive, energetic encouragement diose public projects such as the “Battaglia del aiming to encourage the spiritual and cultural Grano” (Battle of the Grain), or followed by growth of the Nation and the civilization.” an army of blackshirts, symbol of Fascist However, Italian cinematographers preferred virility, were widespread. Il Duce also fa- farces and comedies, leading to the era of vored monumental architecture, attempting Italian filmmaking known as the “white tele- to build a new Rome out of marble and con- phones,” named after a favorite prop. In 1941 crete. As a result, Cinecittà, a Hollywood-in- the Direzione Generale created the slogan spired studio, and EUR, a new borough of “Discipline, Imagination, Intelligence” to in- Rome, reflected a mixture of neoclassical and spire filmmakers to create films that “repre- futuristic architecture. sented for our people a weapon of faith, re- At the beginning of World War II Fascist sistance, and serenity.” Despite the regime’s propaganda artists used posters to depict efforts, the film industry never fully re- Italy as victorious and all-powerful. As the sponded to the call for propaganda, produc- Axis lost ground, Fascist propaganda changed ing a total of only thirty-four propaganda direction, using images of a heroic country films between 1930 and 1943. and a people being destroyed by ferocious In April 1924 Mussolini effected a major monsters. They depicted Britain as a spider, governmental reorganization that reflected with a death’s head, about to trap Italy in its his new commitment to the development and web; the United States and Russia were control of communications by consolidating brutes, ready to bomb churches, kill chil- the Department of Transportation, Posts, dren, and destroy art and culture.After Mus- Telegraphs, and Telephones under the Min- solini fled to the north in 1943, the last ef- istry of Communications. In the same year, forts of Fascist propaganda concentrated on after denying Guglielmo Marconi (1874– promoting the new government and enticing 1937) exclusive franchise over radio, Il Duce young men to join Il Duce’s army to fight the approved the formation of the first Italian regime’s traitors. broadcasting company, the Unione Radiofon- Despite intense efforts, Mussolini failed to ica Italiana (URI). By 1927 URI was trans- control the film industry. Italian moviemak- formed into the Ente Italiana Audizioni Ra- ers escaped strict control and produced diofoniche (EIAR), marking the end of Italian satires and farces that sharply contrasted with radio’s experimental stage and its entry into the artificial facade presented by the Fascist the world as a mass communication medium. Party. In 1924 the Istituto Luce was created Despite strict government controls in the to promote images of Fascist culture. Run by 1920s, radio enjoyed a certain degree of free- Luciano de Feo, the institute produced docu- dom in the area of entertainment program- mentaries and newsreels reflecting various ming. The government created a department achievements of the regime, such as the within the Ministry of Communications “Battaglia del Grano” and “Il Cammino degli above EIAR, the Committee of Vigilance, Eroi,” related to Italy’s conquest of Ethiopia. whose aim was to supervise programming A decree passed in 1926 made it mandatory and improve technical development. Repre- to show a LUCE newsreel before any com- senting a wide spectrum of political, indus- Film (Documentary) 127 trial, and artistic interests, its appointees wasn’t until 1938 that the foreign stations be- were all loyal members of the Fascist Party. came truly popular. By 1935, on the eve of the Ethiopian war and In 1940 the inspectorate was reorganized Italy’s anti-British broadcasts through Radio into three sections, one for internal affairs, Bari and Radio Roma, radio was brought di- one for foreign affairs, and one devoted to rectly under the control of the state’s Min- jamming anti-Fascist broadcasts. Starting on istry of Press and Propaganda. 23 June 1940, Italian radio broadcast primar- From 1935 to the beginning of World ily war information and commentaries, as War II, Il Duce’s desire to strengthen state well as domestic and foreign propaganda, de- control of radio was evident in the abolition voting almost no airtime to entertainment. of the Committee of Vigilance, which was As the war progressed, it became increas- no longer deemed fit to serve the regime’s ingly difficult for EIAR commentators to deal interests. In its place, with the intended goal with the increasing number of Italian defeats of “simplifying” the committee, a royal de- at sea and in North Africa, as well as to justify cree created a four-member commission German aid. Most of these news items were composed of two artistic experts, a techni- either ignored or mentioned much later. cal expert, and a representative chosen by Weak Italian propaganda was countered by the government. accurate and powerful British counterpropa- Mussolini used Radio Bari’s short-wave ganda. Following landings in Italy in 1943, broadcasts as an important tool to spread the Allies successfully used psychological- anti-British propaganda. Initially Radio Bari warfare techniques to speed up the surrender aimed primarily at establishing itself among of Italian forces and to break the ideological the Arabs as a good source of news and enter- hold of the Fascist regime. tainment. In 1935, however, Fascist propa- Livia Bornigia ganda took a drastic anti-British turn. Mus- See also Civil War, Spanish; Hitler,Adolf; Italy; solini hoped to foster anti-Arab feelings and Mussolini, Benito encourage a revolt that would divert atten- References: Arnold, W.V. The Illusion of Victory: Propaganda and the Second World War. New York: tion from his imperialist goals, both of which Peter Lang, 1998; MacDonald, C. “Radio Bari: proved unsuccessful. Radio Bari broadcasts, Italian Wireless Propaganda in the Middle East which incited Arabs to free themselves from and British Countermeasures, 1934–38.” their British oppressors, sharply contrasted Middle Eastern Studies (1991): 195–207; Reeves, with Mussolini’s own repressive actions in N. The Power of Film Propaganda.London: Libya. Cassell, 1999; Sassoon, D. Contemporary Italy. New York: Longman, 1986. In 1937 the Ministry of Press and Propa- ganda was transformed into the Ministry of Popular Culture, whose Inspectorate for Radio Diffusion and Television was created to Film (Documentary) “coordinate all activities attributed to the The nonfiction documentary film dates back ministry concerning radio diffusion and tele- to the birth of cinema in 1895 and the Lu- vision.” As the war intensified and Italy’s de- mière brothers—Louis (1864–1948) and feats grew, audiences became increasingly Auguste (1862–1954). The cinematograph skeptical of Il Duce’s propaganda. Moreover, could go virtually anywhere and did so, cap- the government was concerned about foreign turing footage of remote parts of the planet radio stations—especially London’s BBC and as well as everyday scenes from specific lo- Radio Moscow—broadcasting anti-Fascist cales. Soon the subject matter turned to royal propaganda. In 1935 the Ministry of Press personages to give the new medium greater and Propaganda had already forbidden Ital- respectability. The feature film came to dom- ians to listen to foreign radio shows, but it inate filmgoing, leaving the documentary to 128 Film (Documentary) occupy space on the program with the news- portant to remember that the documentary reel. The history of the documentary, then, is filmmaker need not represent the spirit of often—though by no means always—that of the left; many prominent documentary film- a poor country cousin. makers have worked for the right. Robert Flaherty (1884–1954) in the World War II was a golden age for docu- United States and Dziga Vertov (1896–1951) mentary film, much of it either military in in the Soviet Union made important types of subject matter or concerned with issues of documentaries in the 1920s. Flaherty en- peace. Frank Capra’s (1897–1991) Why joyed genuine commercial success with We Fight series explained official American Nanook of the North (1922), a film about Inuit war aims to soldiers and, in some cases, life in the Canadian north, with charming vi- civilians as well. Capra’s series used the sual touches that leave the viewer with a techniques of compilation (the recutting of pleasurable feeling—not always the case with other films, often from an enemy source) in the earnest, humorless documentarian. Ver- combination with a strident commentary to tov (a pseudonym meaning “spinning top”) sell the meaning of the series title to all made a monthly series of Kinopravda (Film who would view the finished product. Truth) based on daily events, such as a trolley Some documentaries about World War II being repaired or needy children being came later, most memorably Alain Resnais’s helped in a hospital. The editing was in- Night and Fog (1955) about the Holocaust. tended to emphasize meaning through juxta- Erik Barnouw’s Hiroshima-Nagasaki, August position. In Britain the father of the docu- 1945 (1970) is a brilliant compilation of mentary was John Grierson (1898–1972), footage shot on location by Japanese cam- who remains the most eloquent propagandist eramen just after the dropping of the first of the documentary to date. Grierson was atomic bombs. more spokesman and coordinator than film- The late 1950s saw the rise of the docu- maker; his support made possible such mem- mentary in a new medium—television—and orable social documentaries as Housing Prob- the use of hand-held cameras to offer a seem- lems (1935) by Edgar Anstey (1907–1987) ing authenticity in films about social prob- and Arthur Elton (1906–1973). In the lems, what we remember as cinema verité.A United States Roosevelt’s New Deal program striking use of such techniques is seen in presented its solution to the problems of ero- Claude Lanzmann’s (1938– ) Shoah (1985), a sion and conservation in two films by Pare nine-hour film about the Holocaust that nev- Lorentz (1905–1992), The Plow That Broke the ertheless was commercially released. The ad- Plains (1936) and The River (1937). vent of the mini–video camera in the 1980s In Germany the documentary took on fea- permitted the filmmaker to shoot and edit ture-length form in the extraordinary films the final product. Thanks to cable and satel- of Leni Riefenstahl (1902– ). Her Tr iumph of lite, inexpensive documentaries are pro- the Will (1935) glorified Hitler and remains duced today on a variety of subjects—some of value to every political handler assigned to mundane, some highly charged exposés; make a candidate look good. Her camera some thoughtful; some not. team was skilled in using the camera in mo- In the United States Ken Burns (1953– ) tion to give the feeling of action to essentially has become the resident documentary film- static events, such as 100,000 party faithful maker for the Public Broadcasting System standing at attention, listening to a long- (PBS). His miniseries The Civil War (1990) at- winded speech. Her Olympia (1938) remains tracted an enormous number of viewers, and is the finest sports film of all time; the editing used extensively in classrooms. His miniseries of the concluding high-diving sequence is one on the history of jazz was careful not to get em- of the great moments of filmmaking. It is im- broiled in the more recent history of the sub- Film (Feature) 129 ject, where exposing the racism of whites is which transformed moviegoing in America. just one of several controversial issues. Griffith was able to charge more for this lav- David Culbert ish, lengthy film, which called for pleasure See also Capra, Frank; Film (Nazi Germany): palaces rather than dingy storefronts. The re- Film (Newsreels); Grierson, John; Indonesia; spectable sort flocked to see his brilliant The Plow That Broke the Plains;Riefenstahl, Leni; achievement, with editing skills still worthy Russia; Tr iumph of the Will;Why We Fight References: Barnouw,Erik. Documentary. 2d ed.; of note. But this was a film with a virulent New York: Oxford, 1992; Cumings, Bruce. message of racism: the South lost the Civil War and Television.New York:Verso, 1992; War and was ruined during federal military Nichols, Bill. Representing Reality:Issues and occupation (1865–1877, known as Recon- Concepts in Documentary.Bloomington: Indiana struction) because blacks were given control University Press, 1991; Toplin,Robert Brent, of a world for which they lacked the intellec- ed. Ken Burns’s “The Civil War”:Historians Respond. New York: Oxford, 1996. tual ability. Once in power, blacks turned to sex and liquor, resulting in chaos. It was the Ku Klux Klan that saved the prostrate South. This incendiary message may not have per- Film (Feature) suaded every viewer, but the film literally The feature film is the twentieth century’s served as the inspiration for the revival of the great contribution to leisure-time activity, a Ku Klux Klan in the 1920s, a movement that type of entertainment that has proved popular eventually numbered some five million mem- in every country on the planet. Motion pic- bers. Anyone studying race relations in the tures may be said to have begun in 1895; soon United States in the twentieth century cannot the film turned to fictional plots, aided by the ignore the impact of Griffith’s deeply flawed illusion of movement created by projecting a masterpiece. One might seriously argue that strip of film onto a screen. Early filmmakers the South lost the Civil War but won the bat- in every country worked to improve the style tle for the hearts and minds of Americans in and the content of what was at first escapist the first decades of the twentieth century fare for working-class audiences. Soon films thanks to this film. became longer, movie theaters grander, and Nazi Germany provides another notorious plots and editing more sophisticated. This example of a feature film capable of deliver- process occurred in every country. In the ing an explicit racist message within a feature United States, by the time production facili- film with high production values and plenty ties had moved from the East Coast to Holly- of sex and violence—the staples of escapist wood (1915 at the latest) the feature film as- fare. Jud Süss (1940) was one of the most suc- sumed the form it possessed in its heyday (the cessful feature films produced in Nazi Ger- 1930s and 1940s), aided by the arrival of many between 1933 and 1945. sound in 1927. Feature film is a wonderful A third example of the propaganda poten- medium for the propagandist. Every feature tial of the feature film is instructive for differ- film—good or bad; lavish or spartan in its ent reasons. In Hollywood’s heyday there production values; frivolous or earnest—is were five major studios—Loew’s (including loaded with cultural propaganda for the coun- MGM), Paramount, Twentieth Century-Fox, try or society that produced it. Moreover, fea- Warner Brothers, and RKO—all of them in- ture films can also be overt vehicles for spe- tegrated companies that not only produced cific content sought by the film director, motion pictures but distributed them world- slipped in by the scriptwriter, or specifically wide and owned chains of theaters where dis- called for by the sponsoring agency. tribution of a particular studio’s films were Notorious examples include D. W. Grif- guaranteed. During World War II, after the fith’s (1857–1948) Birth of a Nation (1915), German invasion of the Soviet Union in 130 Film (Nazi Germany)

1941, each of the major studios agreed to However, the film industry represented a promote friendship between the United number of structural, economic, and artistic States and the Soviet Union by releasing a fea- problems for the Nazis. Indicative of the high ture film with a Russian theme. In 1943 estimation of film is the fact that the Reich Warner Brothers released Mission to Moscow, a Film Chamber was founded by Goebbels sort of docudrama in which Joseph Davies some months before the Reich Chamber of (1876–1958), the former ambassador to the Culture, of which it became a part. The Soviet Union, related what had happened to Nazis also regulated film finance by means of him while stationed in Moscow. The result a Filmkreditbank, which assisted officially ap- was a ridiculous puff piece glorifying Stalin. It proved films. A Reich Cinema Law, intro- created an uproar, its silly falsifications were duced in February 1934, created a new “posi- exposed, and it flopped at the box office. tive” censorship by which the state Audience response is essential to under- encouraged the production of National So- standing the propaganda content of the feature cialist films. film, both in Hollywood’s heyday and today. An analysis of the different type of films The propagandist is concerned with numbers produced during the Third Reich reveals a of tickets sold and evidence of mass attitudes good deal about Goebbels’s Filmpolitik. Of shaped or changed by a particular film. Social the 1,097 feature films produced, only about scientists have long known that this presumes a one sixth were overtly propagandistic, with sort of “magic bullet,” in which general atti- direct political content. The majority of tudes on a particular question are changed by a these films were Staatsauftragsfilme (state- powerful film. This is asking more than a fea- commissioned films). Such films were classi- ture film is capable of. But any feature film that fied as Tendenzfilme, that is, films that exhib- attracts a large number of viewers is valuable ited “strong National Socialist tendencies.” Of to the student of propaganda, who wants to the entire production of feature films, half see how and in what ways a popular feature were either love stories or comedies, and a film suggests the general shaping of societal quarter were dramatic films like crime values. Certainly feature films can shape atti- thrillers or musicals. Yet all went through the tudes and dictate appropriate behavior or precensorship process and all were associated modes of attire—and sometimes their impact with the National Socialist ideology in that can prove even greater. they were produced and performed in accor- David Culbert dance with the propagandistic aims of the pe- See also All Quiet on the Western Front;Australia; riod. Balkans; Battleship Potemkin;The Birth of a Surprisingly, little or no overall pattern to Nation;Capra, Frank; Casablanca;Eisenstein, German film propaganda is discernible. A Sergei; Greece; The Green Berets;Mission to Moscow trilogy of films (SA-Mann Brand, Hitlerjunge References: Ellwood, David, ed. The Movies as Quex, and Hans Westmar) eulogized the History:Visions of the Twentieth Century. Stroud, Kampfzeit (time of struggle) and glorified the UK: Sutton, 2000; Harpole, Charles, ed. movement and its martyrs in 1933. Similarly, History of the American Cinema. 10 vols. New in 1940 three films (Die Rothschilds, Jud Süss, York: Scribner’s, 1990–2000; Rosenstone, Der ewige Jude [The Wandering Jew]) intended to Robert. Revisioning History:Film and the Construction of a New Past.Princeton, NJ: prepare the German people for the “Final So- Princeton University Press, 1995. lution” appeared. The year 1941 marked the highest concentration of Staatsauftragsfilme produced at the bidding of the Propaganda Film (Nazi Germany) Ministry. Goebbels’s main concern was to Hitler (1889–1945) and Goebbels (1897– keep the important themes of Nazi ideology 1945) shared a common interest in film. constantly before the public. These films in- Leni Riefenstahl,in an elevator used for filming crowd scenes from above,at a Nazi Party rally in Nuremberg,1934.(Courtesy of David Culbert) 132 Film (Newsreels)

cluded Das alte recht (The Old Right, 1934), theaters either weekly or semiweekly be- which justified the state’s hereditary farm tween 1908 and the late 1970s. Newsreels law; Ich für Dich—Du für mich (I for You— were silent until the late 1920s, with any You for Me, 1934), which emphasized the message beyond purely pictorial information importance of “blood and soil”; Der Herrscher being relayed through titles. With the arrival (The Ruler, 1937), which provided analogies of sound in the late 1920s, they assumed with Hitler’s teachings and called for strong their most familiar form, consisting of back- leadership; Sensationsprozess Casilla (The Sen- ground music and an authoritative, unseen sational Trial of Casilla, 1939), a work of commentator. In the era before television, anti-American propaganda designed to they were a powerful medium for the com- ridicule the American way of life; and munication (and suppression) of news in Heimkehr (Homecoming, 1941), which pre- moving images, and their impact on millions sented the sad fate of German nationals living of viewers was considerable. abroad. Goebbels chose to keep prestigious News stories had been a staple of moving film propaganda at its maximum level of ef- pictures since their inception in the mid- fectiveness by spacing out the films—except, 1890s, but the first attempt to bring together that is, for newsreels (“Deutsche Wochen- a selection of such news stories on a single schau”), which depended on their ability to reel occurred in France with “Pathé Fait- capture the immediacy of events. Full-length Divers”(1908), which subsequently became documentaries such as Leni Riefenstahl’s Tr i- “Pathé Journal.” The Pathé firm dominated umph des Willens (Triumph of the Will, 1935) world film distribution at this time; its “Ani- and Olympia (1938) were all the more effec- mated Gazette” followed in Britain in 1910, tive for their comparative rarity. and Pathé’s “Weekly” in the United States in This strategy illustrates Goebbels’s desire 1911. Many competitors emerged, with to mix entertainment with propaganda. He Pathé and its French rival Gaumont establish- encouraged the production of feature films ing a news presence in many territories. that reflected the ambience of National So- Newspaper interests began to add newsreels cialism instead of loudly proclaiming its ide- to their empires, notably William Randolph ology. The results of such a Filmpolitik were a Hearst (1863–1951), the producer of “Inter- monopolistic system of control and organiza- national News” and later “Hearst Metrotone tion that stressed profits, increased audience News” in the United States and Lord Beaver- attendance, and resulted in an extremely high brook (1897–1964), onetime owner of standard of technical proficiency. In the final “Pathé Gazette” in Britain. Starting in the analysis, however, it contributed little stylisti- 1930s, although the names of Pathé and Gau- cally to the history of the cinema. mont retained their presence and impor- David Welch tance, the Hollywood studios Universal, See also Germany; Goebbels, Joseph; Hitler, Paramount, and Fox (owners of Movietone) Adolf; Jud Süss; Riefenstahl, Leni; RMVP; controlled the major newsreels. Tr iumph of the Will;World War II (Germany) The newsreels became notorious for their References: Leiser, E. Nazi Cinema. London: Secker and Warburg, 1974; Welch, David. light approach to the news. While Oscar Propaganda and the German Cinema,1933–45. Levant’s (1906–1972) oft-quoted comment London: I. B. Tauris, 2002. that the newsreel was “a series of catastro- phes, ended by a fashion show” is unjust, the attitude of the newsreels toward the news Film (Newsreels) was undeniably passive. Forced by the neces- Newsreels consisted of a diverse selection of sary delays of film processing and the weekly news stories contained on a single reel of or biweekly release schedule to follow the film. They were generally shown in movie newspapers in the supplying of news stories, Film (Newsreels) 133 the newsreels were most often content to be mercial newsreels. Similarly, in Britain the purveyors of moving pictures of what had al- Newsreel Association produced the compos- ready been read as news in other media. ite “British News” for consular and British Their most insidious effect was support of Council use, which ran from 1940 to 1967. the status quo. Commentators critical of the In Germany official control was absolute. newsreels in the 1930s generally accused Newsreels had been used to prepare the Ger- them of a right-wing bias, and only “Para- man people for war, and in 1940 all newsreel mount News” in the United States and production was reorganized under the title Britain did not shy away from controversy “Deutsche Wochenschau.” Goebbels first and a less supine attitude toward prevailing used the newsreel to glorify early Nazi tri- orthodoxies. The regular excuse of the umphs and then to present a sanitized picture newsreels was that they were an entertain- of the war. Public resistance to what Nicholas ment medium. There was pressure by ex- Reeves has described as the “remorseless op- hibitors, who wanted nothing controversial timism” of the newsreel demonstrated the ul- added to the overall movie package; given timate futility of offering news that ran the small portion of that program occupied counter to people’s experience and under- by the newsreels, they were in no position to standing of events. Following Germany’s de- protest. feat, the American and British authorities Direct government intervention in news- created a reeducation newsreel, “Welt im reel content first occurred with the arrival of Film,” for exhibition in Germany, which ran World War I. Officialdom gradually recog- until 1950. nized the growing popularity and power of the Newsreels in the United States and partic- movies; in mid-1917 the French created an of- ularly in Britain enjoyed their greatest hour ficial newsreel entitled “Annales de la Guerre,” during World War II; they were eloquent, in- closely followed by the British, who took over formative, and committed, reflecting a an existing newsreel to create the “War Office medium that understood that its hour had Official Topical Budget,” later called the “Picto- come. In the postwar years the newsreels un- rial News (Official)” under Lord Beaverbrook’s successfully tried to combine this newfound (1879–1964) Ministry of Information. Follow- seriousness of purpose with the entertain- ing its entry into the war, the United States fol- ment values that were part of the total pack- lowed suit with the “Official War Review,” pro- age that the movies offered. The concerns of duced by George Creel’s (1876–1953) the Cold War were juxtaposed with beauty Committee on War Information. pageants and horse races—both topics that During World War II, governmental con- the newsreels presented best. The competi- trol of the newsreels was present in varying tion presented by live television of the 1950s, degrees in different countries. In Britain ini- together with a shrinking movie audience, tial plans for official control through a single spelled their end. They continued in some lo- newsreel were fought off by the newsreel cations until the 1970s, often by using color companies, but a pooling or rotation (“rota”) to differentiate their product from television system controlled the footage that was sup- news, but they had descended to reporting plied, and all newsreels were subject to offi- trivia. In their time, however, they repre- cial censorship. In the United States a similar sented a powerful and influential medium, rota system was introduced, with all footage and the existence of extensive newsreel li- censored and processed by the war and navy braries and the use of archival footage in tele- departments. The U.S. government financed vision documentaries ensures that the news- its own newsreel, “United Newsreel,” which reels will continue to shape our view of the ran from 1942 until 1945, for overseas exhi- recent past. bition, taking material from the five com- Luke McKernan 134 Flagg, James Montgomery

See also Britain; Canada; Civil War, Spanish; charge to anyone who purchased a thousand- Fascism, Italian; Latin America; Mussolini, dollar Liberty Bond.After the war he thrived Benito; Reeducation; RMVP; World War I; as a society portrait painter. In the 1930s he World War II (Britain); World War II (Germany); World War II (Russia); World War created Forestry Service and polio-related II (United States) posters. During World War II he produced References: Fielding, Raymond. The American recruitment posters (including a more mus- Newsreel,1911–1967. Norman: University of cular version of his 1917 Uncle Sam), and a Oklahoma Press, 1972; ———. The March of reelection poster for President Franklin De- Time,1935–1951. New York: Oxford lano Roosevelt (1882–1945). University Press, 1978; Reeves, Nicholas. The Power of Film Propaganda:Myth or Reality? Nicholas J.Cull London: Cassell, 1999. See also CPI; Posters; Uncle Sam; World War I References: Flagg, James Montgomery. Roses and Buckshot.New York: Putnam, 1946; Meyer, Susan E. James Montgomery Flagg.New York: Watson-Guptill, 1974; Paret, Peter, Beth Irwin Flagg, James Montgomery Lewis, and Paul Paret. Persuasive Images:Posters of (1877–1960) War and Revolution.Princeton, NJ: Princeton Flagg, the American artist who in 1917 cre- University Press, 1992. ated the famous Uncle Sam poster (“I want you for U.S. Army”), was born in New York. By World War I he had become a popular France magazine illustrator, working for such publi- Propaganda has been a factor in French soci- cations as Harper’s Weekly and Cosmopolitan, ety, religion, politics, and war since 1500. In and had gained a reputation as a man-about- those five centuries the role of the vox populi town. His personal life was colorful and has grown, as have the propaganda channels often scandalous. He also illustrated books of and techniques that address it. The printing comic poems and produced satirical portraits press entered French life in the sixteenth of the famous faces of his day. With the entry century. Mass-produced books, pamphlets, of the United States into World War I in placards, journals, newspapers, and cartoons 1917, Flagg accepted work from the gover- were all useful as propaganda tools, as were nor of New York and joined the Division of photography, film, and broadcasting in the Pictorial Publicity, a New York–based volun- nineteenth and twentieth centuries. What- tary group of artists assembled by illustrator ever the cause—religion, rebellion, abso- Charles Dana Gibson (1867–1944) to create lutism, revolution, reaction, republicanism, posters for the federal government. Flagg socialism, laissez faire, democracy, fascism, modeled his famous Uncle Sam poster on a or patriotism—the purpose was the same: to British poster of 1914 featuring Secretary for appeal to the crowd in support of a particular War Lord Kitchener (1850–1916). Flagg position either for or against the status quo. used his own face as the model for Uncle Protestantism emerged in France during Sam. He also created the poster bearing the the reign of Francis I (1515–1547). Dis- caption “Tell that to the Marines,” which de- senters posted placards in Paris and across picted a man responding to a newspaper ac- the country attacking the “abuses” of the count of German atrocities by putting on his papal mass and distributed books, tracts, and coat—presumably to enlist. woodcuts such as “Muster of the Archers at In addition to creating some forty-odd the Popinjay” and “The Great Marmite [pot] posters, Flagg’s contributions to the war ef- Overturned.” The church responded in kind fort included work on propaganda films for with censorship, sermons, and bloody perse- the Marine Corps and the Red Cross. He also cution of heretics, probably in league with offered his services as a portrait artist free of the parliament of Paris but not with the France 135 crown. Even Marguerite of Navarre (1492– wonder drug “Catholicon.” Unable to over- 1549), the king’s independent-minded sister, come the league through propaganda or war, was attacked for daring to question clerical Henry “recanted” his Protestantism. This was dogma. A satirical play staged at the College his ultimate propaganda ploy. Taking com- de Navarre depicted her as preaching heresy munion at Notre Dame gained him recogni- and tormenting all those who would not tion by all as the king of France but repre- heed her. Francis and his heirs failed to re- sented no genuine change of heart regarding solve the religious conflict, and the “war of religion. Paris was “worth a mass” if it ful- words” often became one of bloody mayhem filled a vital political necessity. as well. Governments and dissidents used propa- The 1560s, 1570s, and 1580s were charac- ganda to promote political and social action terized by Catholic-Protestant civil war, in- throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth cluding assassinations and massacres. Both centuries. Royal governments patronized sides appealed to the crowd through propa- newspapers such as the Gazette de France, the ganda. François Hotman’s (1524–1590) Journal des Savans, and Mémoires de Trévoux, Francogallia argued that France had been en- which reciprocated by promoting state poli- slaved by popery, while Louis Dorléans’s cies. Dissidents sometimes spoke out in the (1542–1629) Advertisement of the English theater, as in the play La Fausse Prude, of un- Catholics to the French Catholics wasa call to certain authorship, allegedly a satire on arms to the Catholic League. In 1589 Henry Madame de Maintenon, the mistress of Louis IV (1553–1610) ascended the throne as a XIV (1643–1715); the state censored it im- Protestant. His struggle with the league, mediately. Dissident propaganda was even which controlled Paris and a number of other more evident in the writings of the cities, went on for years, propaganda playing philosophes. Rousseau (1712–1778) advocated a central role on both sides. Paris printers social and political improvement for the peo- were well paid to produce material that ex- ple and coined the revolutionary slogan “Lib- tolled Catholicism while excoriating Protes- erté, égalité, fraternité.” Voltaire (1694– tantism and King Henry.An example was an 1778) attacked the ecclesiastical establish- antiheretical placard that read: “Hang and ment. Beaumarchais (1732–1799) poked fun strangle them / So that death can strap them at the privileged classes in Le Mariage de Fi- in / And dissolve them into the earth / Be- garo. Diderot (1713–1784) and the Ency- cause they haven’t wanted to live / Accord- clopédie (1751–1772) recognized the impor- ing to the Church of Saint Peter.” For the far tance of propaganda in implementing change. larger illiterate population, engravings, After the early volumes set the writers on a paintings, orations from the pulpit, and street collision course with church and state, demonstrations were used to advocate the Diderot’s coeditor d’Alembert (1717–1783) same thing. resigned. In 1753 La Grand Remonstrance, an Meanwhile, Henry’s propagandists pre- attack on l’ancien régime, sold twenty thou- sented him to the French as a chivalric, sand copies in three weeks. Such material en- courageous, patriotic absolute ruler who couraged popular resentment of a govern- worked for the well-being of all of the peo- ment unresponsive to change and of a society ple. Miniature portraits of the king were sold in which the “haves” were indifferent to the in the Latin Quarter in Paris to rouse “have nots.” Parisians for Henry and against the league. In 1788, a time of national economic cri- Propagandists also produced satirical pieces sis, Louis XVI (r. 1774–1792) summoned the like “Pleasant Satire or the Efficacy of first Estates General in nearly two hundred Catholicon,” in which league zealots con- years, opening the door for propaganda advo- fessed their sordid motives when fed the cating populist change and even revolution. 136 France

Since only members of the Third Estate were léanist press helped Louis Philippe (1773– elected, the opposition began circulating 1850) replace Charles X (1757–1836); he guides for writing “cahiers de doléances” appeared on a balcony of the Hôtel de Ville (grievance petitions) and published the pam- draped in the revolutionary tricolor flag. In phlet by l’Abbé Sieyès (1748–1836), Qu’est-ce 1848 an anti-Orléanist press (in which Hon- que le Tiers Etat? (What Is the Third Estate?). oré Daumier [1808–1879] caricatured the Meanwhile, in Paris speeches, pamphlets, and king by giving his visage the shape of a pear), newspapers were stirring the poor against the public orations, and revolutionary art helped regime. Revolution soon followed, beginning replace Louis Philippe with the Second Re- with the fall of the Bastille on 14 July 1789, in public. Louis Napoleon (1808–1873), itself a piece of symbolic propaganda. There nephew of Bonaparte, used populist propa- followed cartoons depicting revolutionary ganda to create support for his overthrow of women urinating on the crowned heads of that republic and established the Second Em- Europe and “mooning” royalist soldiers, mass pire. As Emperor Napoleon III he played on rallies on the Champ de Mars to celebrate the the heroic, Caesarian image of his uncle, people’s victory, and extremist newspapers, which was maintained and promoted through such as Le Père Duchesne and L’Ami du Peuple, the press, official ceremonies, Paris-based which encouraged mob violence and glorified world’s fairs in 1855 and 1867, and through revolutionary soldiers. The latter were the his transformation of the city of Paris into a subject of some three thousand revolutionary New Rome. (He once remarked: “I want to songs; one of these was Rouget de L’Isle’s be a second Augustus.”) However, Napoleon’s (1760–1836) “La Marseillaise,” which evolved failures overseas, as in Mexico, and his rela- into one of the first national anthems in his- tions with the Austrian Empire and Prussia, tory. Meanwhile, artists like Jacques-Louis gave his Caesarian propaganda an increasingly David (1748–1825) illustrated the revolution hollow ring. The anti-Napoleonic journal and its imperial aftermath with cartoons of Lanterne, with a circulation of five hundred fallen aristocrats and heroic paintings of thousand, was only one example of propa- everyone from Danton (1759–1794) to Na- ganda disseminated against him in the latter poleon Bonaparte (1769–1821). part of the 1860s. Bonaparte represented the final stage in The Franco-Prussian war of 1870–1871 the revolutionary process. He emerged in was partly the result of a clever piece of 1804 as Emperor Napoleon, modeling him- Prussian propaganda intended to inflame self on Julius Caesar. Napoleon used propa- French opinion. The war ended Napoleon’s ganda songs, fireworks, parades, public balls, reign, saw Germany annex Alsace-Lorraine, annual celebrations of his coronation, and flag and inspired the Paris-based Commune up- ceremonies to celebrate his famous battles, rising in March 1871. The Communards while patriotic theater and the press served took control of the city and disseminated to glorify his reign and promote patriotism propaganda that demeaned their enemies, for his endless wars. He also promoted Italian proclaimed their own heroism, and de- and Polish nationalism as weapons against nounced any who attempted to betray the Austria and Russia and supported a general Commune. The government of the newly European repudiation of Britain. Construc- formed Third Republic spread anti-Commu- tion of the Arc de Triomphe began during his nard propaganda across France that justified reign. Patterned after the Arch of Constan- the bloody violence used in crushing the tine in Rome, it was an excellent example of Commune in June. This included a fake pho- “monument propaganda.” tograph depicting Communards summarily Propaganda played a central role in subse- executing French officers, clergy, and civil- quent revolutions in France. In 1830 an Or- ians lined up against a brick wall. France 137

The Third Republic’s propaganda sought vate filmmakers to make propaganda films to minimize the defeat of 1871, romanticize for public consumption. Film also was an im- the French empire, and to call for la revanche. portant propaganda tool for leftists and paci- As reparation for its treatment of the Com- fists in the 1930s, celebrated examples of mune, the state built the basilica of Sacre which are René Clair’s A Nous la liberté Coeur in Paris, which bears the inscription (1931), Jean Renoir’s La Marseillaise (1938), “Gallia Paenitens” (France Penitent) on the and Abel Gance’s J’Accuse! (1938). domed ceiling. Populist General George World War II presented a dramatically dif- Boulanger (1837–1891) found himself dis- ferent experience. France fell in 1940, with credited by a government-inspired “whisper- Germany occupying northern and western ing campaign.” In the press Les Droits de France, including Paris. The profascist Vichy l’Homme and L’Humanité called for socialism, state was established under the leadership of La Citoyenne advocated women’s rights, and World War I icon Marshal Philippe Pétain. the Confédération Général du Travail advocated Vichy propaganda attacked Jews and pro- trade unionism by threatening violent strikes. moted an anti-Paris view of a France re- Le Petit Journal and La Croix blamed the politi- turned to its rural roots.Vichy also presented cal failings of the Third Republic on Jews. the British as war criminals, Pétain as a hero, Posters depicted Jews as freaks, while street and the Germans as saviors of Europe from mobs shouted anti-Jewish slogans and the bolshevism. Collaborationists in occupied press lauded Catholic leaders. During the France published profascist newspapers, Dreyfus Affair, a toy gallows with a noose speeches, and posters. Meanwhile, the resist- around the neck of Alfred Dreyfus (c. 1859– ance put out such clandestine newspapers as 1935) and a toy-size Émile Zola (1840– Pantagruel and Combat, slipped pamphlets and 1902) with removable trousers sold well. tracts—some written by Jean-Paul Sartre Despite this, Zola’s pro-Dreyfus article (1904–1980) and Albert Camus (1913– “J’Accuse” had sold three hundred thousand 1960)—into letterboxes, and wrote anti- copies. Dreyfus was tried and convicted but Nazi graffiti on posters advertising German was eventually exonerated. films. The BBC encouraged the French peo- World war and extremist politics domi- ple with “Ici Londres” broadcasts of war news nated France in the first half of the twentieth and speeches by Free French leaders. century. World War I opened with the popu- Since 1945 France has experienced a shaky lace generally favoring war with Germany. period of economic recovery, political crises, Poster and press propaganda encouraged this colonial wars in Vietnam and Algeria, the by promoting patriotism (“pour la Patrie”), emergence of the anti-immigrant National France as the defender of democracy, public Front, the bicentennial of the French Revolu- support for loans needed to pay for the war, tion (which met with a mixed response), and and recovery of Alsace-Lorraine, as well as by development of the European Community. depicting “les Boches” (slang for Germans) in Propaganda was a constant in all such devel- the pages of La Liberté, Le Gaulois, Le Matin, opments. Examples include American eco- L’Echo de Paris, and L’Action Française in partic- nomic propaganda in association with Mar- ular as perpetrators of atrocities. Popular en- shall Plan aid, which was countered by thusiasm waned after the slaughter at Verdun, French Communist propaganda claiming that and pacifist propaganda began to circulate— Coca-Cola was part of a U.S. spy network; probably secretly financed by Germany. Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970) using radio Film now entered the scene as a propa- broadcasts to undercut Secret Army Organi- ganda tool. The Service Photographique et zation (OAS) opposition to ending the war in Cinématographique de l’Armée oversaw Algeria; university students temporarily par- newsreel filmmaking and commissioned pri- alyzing Paris through mass demonstrations 138 Freedom Train against the war in Vietnam; the National (no. 1776), exhibition cars carried 150 docu- Front railing against immigrants and other ments reflecting freedom and the triumph of foreigners; farmers clogging roadways with democracy, including Thomas Jefferson’s tractors to protest the government’s agricul- original draft of the Declaration of Indepen- tural policies; and the government itself dence, key documents dating from the Civil using the press and the broadcast media to War, a selection of historic banners, and such gain public support for French involvement recent documents as the articles of surrender in the European Union. Traditional propa- signed by Japan in 1945. The train’s visit to ganda tools were supplemented first by tele- the Deep South prompted controversy since vision and then by the Internet. Southern railroads were still racially segre- Robert Cole gated. The African American poet Langston See also Art; Cultural Propaganda; David, Hughes (1902–1967) commented on this in a Jacques-Louis; Exhibitions and World’s Fairs; protest poem called “Freedom Train,” which Film (Newsreels); “The Internationale”; was first published in the New Republic. “J’Accuse”; “La Marseillaise”; Marshall Plan; Mexico; Napoleon; Novel; Pacific/Oceania; Hughes asked, “When it stops in Mississippi Paine, Thomas; Peace and Antiwar Movements will it be made plain / Everybody’s got the (1500–1945); Portraiture; Revolution, French; right to board the Freedom Train.” As things Spain;Vietnam; Women’s Movement: turned out, the train skipped Birmingham, European; World War I Alabama, and Memphis, Tennessee. It was References: Greengrass, Mark. France in the Age featured in popular songs and comic strips of Henri IV:The Struggle for Stability.London: Longman, 1984; Horne,Alistair. The Terrible and sparked imitations in Kentucky and New Year:The Paris Commune,1871. London: York relating to state government docu- Macmillan, 1971; Klaits, Joseph. Printed ments. The train stopped rolling in 1949 and Propaganda under Louis XIV:Absolute Monarchy and the final display of its contents at the National Public Opinion.Princeton, NJ: Princeton Archives closed in late 1950. University Press, 1976; McMillan, James F. Dreyfus to De Gaulle:Politics and Society in France, Nicholas J.Cull 1898–1969. London: Edward Arnold, 1985; See also Advertising; Cold War; Exhibitions and Rude, George. The Crowd in the French World’s Fairs; Revolution,American, and War Revolution.Oxford: Oxford University Press, of Independence 1959. References: Fried, Richard M. The Russians Are Coming! The Russians Are Coming! Pageantry and Patriotism in Cold War America.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998; Lucas, Scott. Freedom’s Freedom Train (1947–1949) War. Manchester: Manchester University Press, This exhibition, mounted in a touring train, 1999; Hughes, Langston. Selected Poems.New featured the key documents of American po- York: Knopf, 1973. litical history and toured the United States between 1947 and 1949. The Freedom Train was one of the most successful examples of Friedan, Betty (1921– ) patriotic propaganda, rallying American self- A feminist writer, Betty Naomi Friedan was confidence for the Cold War. The train was born in Peoria, Illinois, the daughter of a the brainchild of Attorney General Tom Jewish furrier. Friedan graduated from Smith Clark (1889–1977), who sought to encour- College in 1942, settling uneasily into the life age a reawakening of American civic virtues. of suburban mother, trying to find fulfillment Congress provided funds and additional pri- in raising her three children. Her unease with vate support came from the specially incor- such “domestic bliss” led to a series of articles porated American Heritage Foundation, the and the 1963 best-seller, The Feminine Mys- railroad industry, and the Advertising Coun- tique, a key text in the American feminist cil. Powered by a red, white, and blue engine movement. Friedan defined woman only as Funerals 139

“husband’s wife, children’s mother, server of the qualities of the deceased. Funerals were a physical needs of husband, children, home, key part of the European monarchy. As with and never as person defining herself by her coronations, the funeral similarly provided own actions in society.” In 1966 Friedan the opportunity to list the titles and honors founded the National Organization for of the monarch. In this way contentious Women (NOW), though her forceful person- claims were often kept alive. All English ality was ill suited to the sharing of authority monarchs, for example, were also buried as with other feminists and she eventually lost monarchs of France up until the reign of her position in the organization. Friedan Queen Victoria (1819–1901). Possibly the worked hard to assure the passage of the most brilliant list of titles belonged to Em- Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), but on 30 peror Charles V (1500–1558).At his funeral June 1982 it failed to be adopted by the req- it was intoned that he was king of the Ro- uisite three-quarters majority of the states. mans; emperor of the Holy Roman Empire; Friedan’s best-seller bears a curious relation- semper augustus; king of Spain, Sicily, ship to demographics: far from American Jerusalem, the Balearic Islands, the Canary women being forced back into the home as Islands, the Indies, and the mainland on the homemaker after 1945, by 1960 twice as far side of the Atlantic; archduke of Austria; many women were employed as had been in duke of Burgundy, Brabant, Styria, Carinthia, 1940; two fifths of all women over the age of Carniola, Luxembourg, Limburg, Athens, sixteen held jobs. Nevertheless, Friedan’s im- and Patras; count of Habsburg, Flanders, and passioned plea undoubtedly encouraged Tyrol; count palatine of Burgundy, Brabant, women seeking professional careers to act on Hainault, Pfirt, and Rousillion; landgrave of their desires. Friedan, who divorced in 1969, Alsace; count of Swabia; and lord of Asia and has been featured recently in Modern Maturity, Africa. Occasionally states staged “antifuner- house organ for millions of American re- als” to desecrate the memory of an individ- tirees. Today, she publicly claims to have ual. Charles II (1630–1685) ordered the ex- found fulfillment in the success of her chil- humation of Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658) dren and grandchildren. and the removal of his head, which was David Culbert placed on a spike on the gatehouse of London See also Abortion; Women’s Movement: Second- Bridge as a warning to all who would defy Wave/Feminism the monarch. In twentieth-century Argentina References: Friedan, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. Eva Perón (1919–1952) first received a lavish New York: Dell, 1984; Hull, N. E. H., and Peter Charles Hoffer. Roe v.Wade:The Abortion public funeral marked by frenzied mourning Rights Controversy in American History. Lawrence: from her adoring public, followed by an “an- University Press of Kansas, 2001. tifuneral” as her body was stolen, hidden, and buried in exile. She was granted a second state funeral in the 1970s when the body was Funerals finally returned to Argentina. Rites of passage such as birth, coming-of-age, By the nineteenth century,with the growth marriage, and death have been used to trans- of the modern nation-state, funerals had be- mit propaganda messages. Funerals, in par- come important celebrations of the nation as ticular, have become associated with the dis- well as the individual. In this way, famous semination of ideas and ideals, serving as commoners could achieve a funeral akin to reminders of individual worth while also those reserved for royalty. London saw three providing common rallying points and potent impressive state funerals in the nineteenth symbols of nation, duty, and power. Pane- century, each of which commemorated much gyrics were often composed to accompany more than the deceased. In 1805 Lord Nel- the funeral rites, providing summations of son’s (1758–1805) body was transported 140 Funerals

from the Royal Navy College at Greenwich, sent all who had died in the service of the where it had lain in state, down the Thames to empire. Buried on Armistice Day 1920, im- St. Paul’s Cathedral. A huge crowd gathered mediately after George V had unveiled the to witness the funeral procession and filled Cenotaph, this anonymous soldier was in- the cathedral to capacity. The whole cere- terred in a ceremony marked by ritual and mony served to emphasize Britain’s naval deep sadness. The service was far more than might and its unity with God. When the a mere burial, for it united the entire empire greatest British soldier of the Napoleonic in a common moment of homage to the king- Wars died, the capital witnessed similar emperor. Other countries soon followed scenes. The Duke of Wellington (1769–1852) Britain’s example, with the century of the was accorded a full state funeral in 1852. He common man marked by funeral ceremonies lay in state at the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, once reserved for monarchs. where so many people filed past his coffin that By the end of the twentieth century, fu- two mourners were accidentally crushed to nerals were frequently used as media events death. Once again the funeral was used to to draw attention to a political cause. In stress Britain’s martial prowess and benefi- Northern Ireland, Israel, and the Israeli-oc- cence. Former prime minister William Glad- cupied territories, funerals became a key stone (1809–1898) lay in state in Westmin- venue at which communities demonstrated ster Hall before being buried at Westminster their grief and displayed their respective po- Abbey. Each occasion was carefully used to litical symbols. Terrorist funerals in North- promote a particular image of Britain. Given ern Ireland frequently included masked gun- the renewed interest in ceremony and ritual men who fired a volley of shots over the in the nineteenth century, it was hardly sur- grave. The funeral of Diana, Princess of prising that Queen Victoria’s funeral in 1901 Wales (1961–1997) reflected a number of was a perfectly stage-managed propaganda competing agendas. In the wake of her death, event. It brought together the largest congre- the new prime minister, Tony Blair (1953– ), gation of royalty and potentates ever wit- proved rather more successful in capturing nessed.Victoria was also the first monarch to the nation’s mood than Elizabeth II, Diana’s have her body transported to the funeral on a estranged mother-in-law. The royal family gun carriage pulled by sailors. The cortege hence attempted to use the funeral to reasso- was followed by troops of the empire and thus ciate itself with Diana. Diana’s brother, Earl reflected her worldwide significance. It was a Spencer (1964– ), used his eulogy to deliver stunning advertisement of the reach and im- a stinging attack against the royal family and portance of Britain. the media, which had “hunted” Diana. In the In the twentieth century, statesmen and funeral service the expected elements of na- monarchs continued to be buried with pomp tional pageantry were mixed with such inno- and ceremony. Significant examples include vations as the use of a pop song. The British the lavish funerals of presidents Franklin D. public, meanwhile, mourned on the streets Roosevelt (1882–1945) and John F. Kennedy of London and at improvised memorials in (1917–1963) in the United States, General town centers. Through such public mourning Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970) in France, the funeral became a stage on which hitherto and Winston Churchill (1874–1965) in excluded groups in British society—includ- Britain. Perhaps the most significant burials ing gay, young, and minority Britons—came of the twentieth century were those accorded forward and demonstrated both their grief to the various unknown warriors. At the end and their presence in British life. The funeral of the Great War the British set a precedent reflected the level of social change in Britain by choosing one unknown soldier to repre- in recent years. The funeral of Queen Eliza- Funerals 141 beth, the Queen Mother (1901–2002), pro- References: Ben-Amos,Avner. Funerals,Politics,and voked a tussle between the Blair government Memory in Modern France,1789–1996. Oxford: and the British press over the prime minis- Oxford University Press, 2000; Fussell, Paul. The Great War in Modern Memory.Oxford: Oxford ter’s alleged attempt to increase his own role University Press, 1975; Houlbrooke, Ralph, ed. in the associated ceremonial. Death,Ritual and Bereavement. London: Mark Connelly Routledge, 1989; Woodward, Jennifer. The See also Civil War, English; Ireland; Kennedy, Theatre of Death:The Ritual Management of Royal John F.; Memorials and Monuments; Perón, Funerals in Renaissance England,1570–1625. Juan Domingo, and Eva Duarte; World War I Woodbridge, UK: Boydell, 1997.

G

Gandhi, Mohandas K. (1869–1948) value of the well-turned phrase. When asked This Indian nationalist leader, more com- about European civilization, he quipped that monly known by the title Mahatma (great it sounded like “a good idea.” His leadership soul) Gandhi, was born in Kathiawar, India. was instrumental in winning Indian independ- Gandhi trained as a lawyer in London and ence in 1947, but his mystical vision of India’s practiced law in Bombay.In 1893 he moved to destiny was not strong enough to contain the South Africa and spent the next two decades various factions warring within India. Seeing fighting racial discrimination. In 1914 he re- India riven by violence between Hindu and turned to India and joined the struggle for Muslim, Gandhi sought to restore order home rule. Realizing that violent resistance through a fast for peace. In January 1948 a would lead to further violence, he resorted to Hindu fanatic murdered Gandhi on his way to nonviolent methods of opposition. This ap- a public prayer service. Gandhi’s life illus- proach both frustrated British rule and trated the propaganda value of nonviolence demonstrated Indian restraint, which deep- and provided a powerful model for the ened the gravity of the Indian cause before a African American civil rights movement of global audience. In 1930 Gandhi led a mass the 1950s and 1960s. march to the sea, where he proceeded to boil Nicholas J.Cull a small pan of seawater and collect the salt See also Civil Rights Movement; Indian residue—in direct violation of the British Subcontinent; Ireland; King, Martin Luther, government’s salt monopoly. He repeatedly Jr.; Peace and Antiwar Movements (1945– ) used the hunger strike as a means of bringing References: Gandhi, M. K., An Autobiography. the British to the negotiating table and was London: Penguin, 1982; Watson, Francis. frequently jailed for his political activity. Gandhi. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Every aspect of his life served as an argument 1967. against British domination and in favor of his vision of a return to a purer way of life for India. He wove his own clothes and, whether Garrison, William Lloyd in India or on a visit to London, sought the (1805–1879) company of and championed the poor and the An American abolitionist born in Newbury- needy. As a lawyer, he also understood the port, Massachusetts, Garrison displayed an

143 144 Garvey, Marcus aptitude for journalism and by the age of 1916 Garvey traveled to the United States nineteen had become editor of the town and began building a movement. Finding the paper. His great cause was opposition to the black middle class already committed to ex- evils of slavery in the American South. He isting reform movements, Garvey turned to was not so much an organizer of the aboli- the working class. In 1917 he founded the tionist movement as a communicator, bring- first chapter of UNIA in Harlem, New York. ing the cause alive as never before. Motivated The following year he established the weekly by religious conviction, in 1831 he founded newspaper Negro World; the daily paper Negro The Liberator to advance these ideas. In 1833 Times followed in 1922 to disseminate Gar- he founded the American Anti-Slavery soci- vey’s ideas to a mass readership. ety. He worked closely with such black The core of Garvey’s message was racial American abolitionists as Frederick Douglass pride. He taught that black skin was as beau- (1817–1895). Garrison was a gifted lecturer, tiful as white skin. Although his slogan “Back well known in both Britain and the United to Africa” was more a cultural goal than a States. He also pioneered the peace move- concrete scheme for migration, Garvey ment in the United States, leading one group founded the Black Star steamship line to link within the movement that felt it was their the peoples of the African diaspora by trade. moral duty to fight a war against slavery. Fol- He designed a tricolor flag: red symbolizing lowing the end of slavery, Garrison devoted the blood of struggle and revolution; black his energies to the twin causes of winning representing the African race; and green re- votes for women and promoting the just flecting the vegetation of Africa. Since Gar- treatment of Native Americans. vey believed that “the greatest weapon used Nicholas J.Cull against the Negro is disorganization,” he See also Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement; founded a host of organizations, including a Civil War, United States; Narrative of the Life of paramilitary African Legion, a Black Cross Frederick Douglass . . .; Peace and Antiwar Nurses corps for women; choirs; marching Movements (1500–1945); United States References: McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of bands; and numerous other auxiliary units Freedom:The Civil War Era.New York: Oxford filled with eager African American recruits. University Press, 1988; Merrill, Walter These groups had chapters wherever there McIntosh. Against Wind and Tide:A Biography of was a large population of black Americans; William Lloyd Garrison.Cambridge, MA: they took part in elaborate rallies and pa- Harvard University Press, 1963. rades. By some estimates, UNIA’s total mem- bership in the United States, the Caribbean, and West Africa exceeded ten million. When Garvey, Marcus (1887–1940) Garvey called on his followers to demon- Garvey was the charismatic leader of the strate their strength, the results were often Universal Negro Improvement Association impressive. In August 1920 twenty-five thou- (UNIA), the largest mass movement of black sand Garveyites marched south from Harlem people in U.S. history, which was active in to fill Madison Square Garden, carrying ban- the early 1920s, as well as a student and prac- ners that read: “The Negro Knows No Fear.” titioner of propaganda. Born in Jamaica, in Garvey’s success alarmed other black lead- 1912 he moved to London, where he worked ers, who looked down on his working-class as a journalist. Garvey realized the role that power base. Garvey did not help matters by symbols played in underpinning the political seeking allies in unusual quarters. In 1922 he power of the British Empire and resolved to began negotiations with one Edward Clarke, create a similar set of symbols—flags, uni- second in command of the Ku Klux Klan, on forms, parades—to restore pride and build the grounds that both UNIA and the Klan power for peoples of African descent. In agreed that the black and white races had Germany 145 separate destinies. The rival African Ameri- striking regional variations based more on po- can paper The Messenger began a “Garvey must litical and cultural history than geography. go!” campaign. The Black Star shipping line Medieval Germany under the Saxon and ultimately proved his undoing. Its finances Salian dynasties was characterized by the feu- were sloppy and left Garvey open to allega- dal organization of society and politics, with tions of corruption. In 1925 he was sent to the dominance of a military aristocracy. The jail in Georgia for mail fraud. In 1927 his sen- revival of intellectual life was largely due to tence was commuted to exile. He died in ob- the church, with its monasteries and cathe- scurity in Britain in 1940. dral schools, many of which were revived in Garvey’s achievement as a propagandist the tenth century. The mid-eleventh to the was considerable. He developed both the mid-twelfth century was a period of political message of black pride and the media to conflict and religious strife. The great dynas- carry that message to his audience. His teach- ties that were to leave their mark on German ings were part of the background to the black history emerged during this period. The aris- literary renaissance of the 1920s and reap- tocracy was essentially a warrior class that peared in the anticolonial movements of developed an elaborate code of honor that in- Africa and the Caribbean in the 1950s and in formed Middle High German art and litera- the American black power movement of the ture toward the end of the twelfth century. 1960s. Lyric poetry (Minnesang) gave expression to Nicholas J.Cull the ethos of the knightly class. Equally impor- See also Caribbean; Civil Rights Movement; tant, narrative poetry, in the form of the first Malcolm X; United States German version of the Tristan and Isolde leg- References: Cronon, Edmund D. Black Moses:The end, dates from approximately 1170. An- Story of Marcus Garvey and the Universal Negro Improvement Association.Madison: University of other category was the heroic epic, the most Wisconsin Press, 1955; Stein, Judith. The World famous being the Nibelungenlied. of Marcus Garvey:Race and Class in Modern Society. The period encompassing the end of the Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, twelfth century and the beginning of the thir- 1986. teenth is associated with the political legend of the great emperor Frederick Barbarossa (c.1123–1190). For many nationalistic Ger- Germany mans of the nineteenth century this was German history is renowned for its peculiari- viewed as the golden age of imperial great- ties and paradoxes. The “land in the center of ness; propaganda techniques took the form Europe,” with its constantly shifting bound- of personal display, costume, and pageantry aries, was also the land of Martin Luther to disseminate the majesty of Frederick I and (1483–1546), Ludwig van Beethoven (1770– the development of courtly civilization. In 1827), Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749– the next three centuries, a series of changes 1832), and Adolf Hitler (1889–1945). Al- took place that laid the foundation for mod- though it is the Third Reich that is synony- ern Germany. In the late Middle Ages Ger- mous with the abuse of propaganda, consensus many remained politically decentralized and politics has largely remained absent from Ger- fragmented, with local princes assuming re- man political culture throughout its nondemo- sponsibility for maintaining peace and waging cratic route to modernity. Indeed, the term war within their principalities. This patch- “Germany” had no real political significance at work of dynastic and ecclesiastical territories the beginning of the nineteenth century. The was loosely held together by the wider pro- numerous states of which it was comprised tection of the Habsburg empire, whose dy- were loosely bound by their membership in nastic possessions stretched from the Low the old Holy Roman Empire while retaining Countries to Italy and Burgundy. Consensus 146 Germany politics was not a feature of the Germanic The German Empire, or Second Reich, form of kingship, which was a limited was created in 1871, founded on an unequal monarchy. Propaganda had the dual role of alliance between the national and liberal proclaiming the great power of the emperor movements and the conservative Prussian and obtaining allegiance to the feudal system state leadership. It has been stated that Otto at the local level. von Bismarck (1815–1898), the Prussian From the mid-fourteenth to the mid-sev- chancellor, united Germany as a result of a se- enteenth century German society continued ries of successful military wars. However, to be largely based on feudal agrarian princi- closer examination reveals that the conditions ples. Political relations within the empire for unification had been achieved before Bis- were subjected to an explosive new element marck came to power. The result of overt in the form of the Reformation, which shat- militarism, the creation of the German Em- tered European religious and cultural unity. pire appeared to have fulfilled Bismarck’s pre- The years 1525–1526 saw widespread re- diction of 1862 that Prussia would unite Ger- volts by peasants and common townspeople many by “blood and iron.” In fact, the empire against the abuses of the existing system and was only established following numerous notions of “godly law.” The German Refor- compromises and was immediately criticized mation did not, however, foster the cause of for being incomplete. By and large, however, wider German unity, leading to the enhance- the majority warmly greeted the achievement ment of the powers of local rulers. of national unity. Following the euphoria of Germany thus entered the age of abso- 1871, imperial Germany failed to adapt its in- lutism embodying a unique pattern of politi- stitutions to the newly developing economic cal multiplicity. Until its abolition under and social conditions. No firm parliamentary Napoleonic rule in 1806, the Holy Roman principle was established, such as the govern- Empire actively encouraged the survival of ment’s responsibility to a sovereign parlia- small principalities at the expense of a cen- ment; rather, the situation was one of “gov- tralized state. Broadsheets, illustrated manu- ernment of the parties,” a system dubbed scripts, and proclamations were employed to “chancellor dictatorship.” To this end, propa- inculcate obedience and servility as subjects ganda and the strict use of censorship, largely rather than as citizens. The emergence of controlled by Bismarck and Prussia, contin- Brandenburg-Prussia was of immense impor- ued to whip up nationalist fervor (Pan- tance. In the nineteenth century Prussia Germanism) and stressed the economic ad- would assume control of “small Germany” vantages of political unity. Propaganda was (Kleindeutschland) from an excluded Austria. employed to “sell” Bismarck’s social legisla- Although one should avoid simplistic conclu- tion to the whole world as an unrivaled sions, the “enlightened absolutism” that model. In 1874 the Reichspressegesetz (Imperial emerged in Germany produced a literate, ar- Press Law) rationalized a highly fragmented ticulate public that separated the spheres of regional press and provided the basis for a na- “power and spirit” (“Macht und Geist”) that tional legal framework. The law also abolished sustained rather than challenged the existing the practice of prepublication censorship status quo. Written and visual forms of polit- (Vorzensur), although it retained postpublica- ical persuasion characterized German con- tion censorship (Nachzensur), which guaran- cepts of propaganda during this period; por- teed that publications continued to be sup- traiture, political poems, tracts and treatises, pressed. Overcoming draconian state as well as a growing body of political pam- censorship was a problem, but the liberal phlets—although not on the same scale as in press continued to attack the status quo and England—were all features of the political cartoons and caricature (notably in Simplicis- culture of the time. simus) were especially popular in satirizing po- Germany 147 litical figures (although rarely the Emperor). ligerents Germany had been the only power Propaganda and persuasion continued to be to pay serious attention to propaganda before seen as a means of influencing the masses 1914. For some years, and with considerable rather than developing a dialogue or consen- thoroughness, imperial Germany had been sus. The bureaucratization and militarization attempting to influence popular and official of public life and an imperialist foreign policy, opinion in foreign countries. When war which stirred people’s emotions at home, broke out in August 1914, Germany had a bound nationalism and militarism with the distinct advantage over the Allied govern- monarchist authoritarian state. ments in the field of propaganda. Germany With Bismarck’s resignation in 1890, had been developing a semiofficial propa- Kaiser Wilhelm II (1859–1941) presented ganda network through her embassies, lega- himself as the Volkskaiser (people’s Kaiser); tions, consular offices, and branches of Ger- idealized portraits of a statuesque Wilhelm man banks and shipping companies—all of obscured his insecurity and complex person- which acted as agents for the dissemination ality, masking his stunted body and withered of literature favorable to the fatherland. arm from the public. The new policy of im- The “peculiarities” of German history perialism adopted by Wilhelm II represented led—although not inevitably—to Nazism. a final attempt to overcome internal divisions During the Weimar Republic the state con- through foreign policy successes. The kaiser’s tinued to mingle in and control broadcasting. motto remained: “Weltpolitik as a task; to be- Ownership of the press was concentrated in come a world power as an aim; and the fleet the hands of the right-wing Hugenberg press [military force] as an instrument.” empire, which greatly facilitated the rise of The declaration of war in 1914 was appar- the National Socialists. When Hitler came to ently greeted with enthusiasm, and the polit- power, Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945) was ical parties agreed to a truce (Burgfrieden). appointed to head the Reichsministerium für The nation appeared united behind the ban- Volksaufklärung und Propaganda (Ministry ner of a fully justified war of self-defense. for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda). Following the outbreak of war, the German It is not surprising that propaganda in Nazi government immediately surrendered to Germany should have been considered im- local army commanders extensive political portant enough to warrant an entire govern- powers over civil administration. General ment ministry; in Mein Kampf Hitler had mobilization was accompanied by the procla- stressed the importance of propaganda as a mation of the Prussian Law of the Siege, vehicle of political salesmanship in a mass which gave sole responsibility for public market and laid down the broad lines along safety to the deputy commanding generals in which Nazi propaganda was to operate. In- each of the twenty-four army corps districts. deed, the Nazi rise to power is often viewed The military attempted to solve the problem as a classic example of political achievement of coordinating propaganda through the by means of propaganda. The two most im- Zivilversorgungsschein—penetrating civil soci- portant ideas that distinguished the Nazis ety with military values. from other political parties and allowed The impression that emerges from the Goebbels’s propaganda to mobilize wide- study of propaganda in the Great War is one spread grievances were the notion of the of generally uncoordinated improvisation. By Volksgemeinschaft (community of the people), the end of the conflict, however, propaganda based on the principle of the common good would for the first time be elevated to the coming before the good of the community, position of a branch of government. It is and the myth of the charismatic Führer. Once ironic (in the light of later criticisms from in power, Goebbels believed that propaganda right-wing nationalists) that of all the bel- was to play a central role and that the function 148 Germany

of the new Propaganda Ministry was to coor- not invented by Joseph Goebbels, although it dinate the political will of the nation with the is largely as a result of Nazi propaganda that aims of the Nazi state. To this end he quickly the term has come to have such a pejorative set about monopolizing the means of commu- connotation. nication by a process known as Gleichschaltung At the end of World War II the country (coordination), which referred to the obliga- was geographically truncated and politically tory assimilation within the Nazi state of all divided into the German Democratic Repub- political, economic, and cultural activities. lic (GDR) and the Federal Republic of Ger- Propaganda in Nazi Germany was not, as many (FRG). The break with the past was is often thought, a “catchall” process. The symbolized by the concept of “Stunde Null” “revolutionary” aim of the Nazi regime to (zero hour) and the stress on renewal. The bring about the Volksgemeinschaft, the true use made by the National Socialists’ propa- harmony of all classes, reflects the highly am- ganda machine had a profound influence on bitious nature of its propaganda and its con- the early development of political cultures tinuing success in maintaining its ideology and media systems in the respective occupied and totalitarian vision. Terror always lurked zones. In the GDR a monolithic and oppres- behind such “consensus” and represented a sive system based on the Soviet model and real fear, but propaganda played a crucial role the pervasive use of state censorship was in- in securing at least passive support for the stituted, while in the FRG allied “reeduca- regime. After the grandiose edifice of the tion” placed political culture on a democratic Third Reich was laid bare in 1945, the Nazi and pluralistic basis. legacy resulted in a deep mistrust of propa- The structure of the media system in the ganda throughout the world and a new GDR was established on the principle of awareness of how easily the mass media could “democratic socialism.”At the pinnacle of this be manipulated to serve the opportunistic structure was the Politibüro of the Socialist purposes of their masters. Propaganda was Unity Party (SED), which directly controlled the Press Office of the Council of Ministers, which in turn presided over the State Radio and Television Committees. In 1971 an addi- tional service called “Stimme der DDR” (Voice of the GDR) was established to pro- vide a twenty-four-hour service mixing en- tertainment and information but aimed at a West German audience and broadcasting propaganda (the GDR counterpart to the FRG’s “Deutschlandfunk”). A youth channel (“Jugendradio 64”) was also established, and since the mid-1950s “Radio Berlin Interna- tional” has provided short-wave service for international consumption. The press was similarly controlled; the SED party press consisted of two dailies (Neues Deutschland and Berliner Zeitung) and fourteen daily SED “district papers.”A state news agency, the All- gemeiner Deutscher Nachrichtendienst The official Nazi Party membership lapel pin:National- (AND), provided officially sanctioned news. Sozialistische-D.A.P (National Socialist German Workers' In practice, however, the party never enjoyed Party).(Courtesy of David Culbert) an information monopoly. Most areas of the Goebbels, Joseph 149

GDR received Western television and radio, languages. In 1963 the Zweites Deutsches and in the 1960s the authorities waged an un- Fernsehen (ZDF; Second [Channel of] Ger- successful campaign to counter West Ger- man Television) went on the air; located out- man broadcasts. side Mainz, it is the largest single, centralized In the FRG the Allied occupation laid the organization devoted to television program- basis for the resurrection of a strong press, ming and production in Europe. Since 1991 freed from the threat of political oppression the ZDF has been entrusted with coordinat- and abuse. It also had the effect of suppressing ing Europe’s cultural television channel, all other forms of discourse and concentrating ARTE. Since 1992 Deutsche Welle TV has the media in the hands of such giants as Axel been broadcasting a magazine-type program Springer (1912–1985), who personified press fourteen hours each day via satellite, revealing power in the FDR. He was granted a license to the FRG’s commitment to keep a worldwide launch a new radio-program magazine, Hör zu audience informed about German culture and (Listen), in 1946. He founded the Hamburger politics. Abendblatt two years later, and in June 1952 The transformation of Germany into two came the mass-appeal Bild Zeitung. In the fol- very different states—one democratic and lowing year he bought Die Welt from the capitalistic, the other Communist—came to British, who had established it as the mouth- an end in October 1990 with the collapse of piece of their military government in Ger- Communism in Eastern Europe and the unifi- many. Springer also established a number of cation of the two Germanys. Unification took magazines and moved into commercial broad- place very much on Western terms, and this casting. The right-wing political stance that the applied to the mass media, where the new Springer media empire adopted beginning in system had to conform to the regulatory the late 1950s led to an ongoing feud with the framework and principles that had evolved in country’s intelligentsia. In West Germany the the FRG. Allies were concerned that broadcasting should David Welch be decentralized. In 1954 the Arbeitsgemein- See also Art;Atrocity Propaganda; The Big Lie; schaft der Öffentlich-rechtlichen Rund- Engels, Friedrich; Goebbels, Joseph; Hitler, funkanstalten der Bundesrepublik Deutschland Adolf; Jud Süss; Lord Haw Haw; Marx, Karl; Mein Kampf; Morale; Peace and Antiwar (ARD; Working Group of the Public Broad- Movements (1500–1945); Propaganda, casting Corporations of the Federal Republic Definitions of; Reeducation; RMVP; Tr iumph of of Germany) was formed; consisting of eleven the Will;Women’s Movement: European; regional public broadcasting organizations, its World War I; World War II (Germany); mandate was to create national radio and tele- Zimmermann Telegram vision programs while drawing on the re- References: Eyck, Erich. Bismarck and the German Empire.New York: Norton, 1964; Humphreys, sources of regional stations. When the FRG Peter. Media and Media Policy in Germany:The gained full sovereignty in 1955, the federal Press and Broadcasting Since 1945.Oxford: Berg, states were granted full autonomy in broad- 1994; Scribner, R. W. Popular Culture and casting. The two foreign-language radio or- Popular Movements in Reformation Germany. ganizations operating under federal law are London: Hambledon, 1987; Welch, David. Germany,Propaganda and Total War 1914–1918. Deutsche Welle (DW;Voice of Germany; lit- New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, erally, German [Air] Wave) and Deutschland- 2000; ———. The Third Reich:Politics and funk (DL; Radio Germany). Both stations en- Propaganda. London: Routledge, 2002. countered Soviet jamming during the Cold War. Presently the DW’s radio broadcasts (which in 1993 took over the DL’s foreign- Goebbels, Joseph (1897–1945) language programs for Europe) consist of A politician and Hitler’s propaganda minister, ninety-three daily programs in thirty-four Goebbels was arguably one of the most skillful 150 Goebbels, Joseph

temporarily the film All Quiet on the Western Front (1930). On 13 March 1933, shortly after the Nazis assumed power in Germany, Goebbels be- came minister for “Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda.” Newspapers, radio, film, and all other cultural activities were brought in line with the dictatorship’s principle of co- ordination (Gleichschaltung). As president of the Chamber of Culture (autumn 1933), it was primarily Goebbels who defined the new “German culture.” Despite some competitors in the field like Alfred Rosenberg (1893– Joseph Goebbels,German minister of propaganda,attends a 1946), Heinrich Himmler (1900–1945), and demonstration in 1934.(Illustrated London News Picture Hermann Goering (1893–1946), he re- Library) mained the central figure of propaganda in Nazi Germany. His influence upon Hitler varied, reaching its weakest point during and cynical propagandists of the twentieth Goebbels’s affair with Czechoslovakian ac- century. tress Lida Baarova (1914–2000), which Although a serious childhood illness left threatened his ministerial position. The out- him with a clubfoot, he excelled academically break of war took Goebbels by surprise, but as a student. In 1921 he graduated from the he soon turned the German newsreel into a University of Heidelberg with a doctorate. gripping part of his film program, personally After fruitless attempts to make a living as supervising the latest installments. His role journalist, writer, or dramatic adviser, he became even more important when the na- began his political career by joining the Nazi ture of the war altered. His rallying cries and Party (NSDAP). His antibourgeois attitudes the part he took in reorganizing the arma- made him a sympathizer with the Strasser ments industry definitely contributed to the wing of the party, but in 1926 he took prolongation of the war. Hitler´s side in an internal power struggle As Goebbels often and quite frankly ex- and subsequently advanced in the party hier- plained, his convictions about propaganda archy. Hitler appointed him leader of the were based on the dual assumption that prop- Berlin NSDAP the same year. Goebbels be- aganda and truth had no necessary connec- came one of the party’s most prominent and tion and that the best type of propaganda was effective speakers, easily exploiting the free- that which was not felt by the audience. These dom that a democratic society granted even assumptions resulted in a mixture of dema- its fiercest enemies. As editor of the party gogic presentations and seemingly apolitical newspaper Der Angriff (The Attack) he fash- entertainment. Organizing the anti-Semitic ioned it into a powerful propaganda weapon. pogroms of 9 November 1938, promoting He became a member of parliament in 1928 Hitler as a messiah, and forcing his audience and served as the Nazi Party´s national prop- to support “total war” during his infamous aganda leader beginning in 1929. Continuing speech delivered in February 1943, he to organize demonstrations and unrest to dis- proved his ability as a ruthless and effective rupt democratic order, he was one of the propagandist. His policy resulted in overtly major figures to turn the NSDAP into a pow- propagandistic attempts in radio and film erful political force. In 1930 he succeeded in combined with a wealth of supposedly non- persuading the German government to ban political works. This combination altered Gray Propaganda 151 with the political situation, with a prepon- Spanish cause is clear from his 1814 painting derance of pure propaganda in the first years The Third of May. Between 1810 and 1814 he of the war. Nevertheless he consistently executed sixty-five etchings, collected under aimed to keep the people content, which the title Los Desastres de la Guerra (The Disas- gave his approach to propaganda an undeni- ters of War), showing all manner of atroci- able modern touch. An agitator against bol- ties, including limbs hanging from trees and shevism, democracy, and liberalism and a monstrous figures greedily devouring human preacher of hate, Goebbels did not merely flesh. Goya’s etchings can be considered true threaten people or make them obey his mes- antiwar propaganda, opening the way for fu- sage; he also calculated the effects of enter- ture artists to represent the horrors of war. tainment sanitized of any forbidden or sub- Nicholas J.Cull versive qualities. His loyalty to Hitler was See also Art;Atrocity Propaganda; Napoleon; finally rewarded when the dictator declared Peace and Antiwar Movements (1500–1945); him his successor as chancellor (with Admiral Spain References: Edwards, Samuel. The Double Lives of Karl Dönitz [1891–1980]) in his last will and Francisco de Goya:A Biography. New York: testament. A few hours after Hitler commit- Grosset & Dunlap, 1973; Holland,Vyvyan ted suicide, Goebbels and his wife poisoned Beresford. Goya:A Pictorial Biography.Thames & their six children before following the exam- Hudson: London, 1961. ple of their leader. Rainer Rother See also All Quiet on the Western Front; The Big Lie; Gray Propaganda Film (Nazi Germany); Film (Newsreels); Gray propaganda falls somewhere between Germany; Hitler,Adolf; Holocaust Denial; Jud white and black propaganda. The source may Süss; Propaganda, Definitions of; Riefenstahl, Leni; RMVP; White Propaganda; World War II or may not be identified, and the accuracy of (Germany) the information is uncertain. During World References: Heiber, Helmut. Goebbels:A War I Britain’s War Propaganda Bureau, bet- Biography.New York: Hawthorne, 1972; ter known as Wellington House (where it Moeller, Felix. The Film Minister:Goebbels and the was headquartered), conducted a major cam- Cinema of the “Third Reich.” Stuttgart:Axel paign directed at the then neutral United Menges, 2000; Reuth, Ralf Georg. Goebbels:The Life of Joseph Goebbels.London: Constable, 1993; States through an American branch headed by Roberts, Jeremy. Joseph Goebbels:Nazi Sir Gilbert Parker (1862–1932), a Canadian- Propaganda Minister. New York: Rosen, 2000. born writer and British M.P. British propa- ganda was not explicitly designed to per- suade America to enter the war on the side of Goya (Francisco de Goya y the Allies; benevolent neutrality was consid- Lucientes) (1746–1828) ered infinitely more preferable. Wellington A Spanish painter, Goya was born in Aragon. House therefore decided to provide Ameri- In 1789 he became court painter to the can policymakers with the material they young Spanish king Charles IV (1784–1819; needed to make up their own minds about r. 1788–1808), a position he retained when the issues (unlike the German propagandists, Spain came under the rule of Napoleon’s who bombarded American public opinion brother, Joseph Bonaparte (1768–1844; r. with their propaganda of exhortation). 1808–1816). Although sympathetic to some Wellington House targeted America’s elite in of the Bonaparte regime’s liberal reforms, the belief that it would, in turn, influence the Goya had a keen sense of nationhood and an larger public. abhorrence of the violence used by the An educated or elite audience likes to be- French to suppress the guerrilla uprisings lieve that it can spot propaganda when con- protesting their rule. His sympathy for the fronted by it, and then duly dismiss it as 152 Gray Propaganda

“propaganda.” British propaganda therefore preserve of the secret intelligence service required delicate handling. Wellington House MI6, but rather gray propaganda, biased in- had to disseminate material to its target audi- formation emanating from an indeterminate ence that did not appear to be propaganda— source. The target was Communist Russia or at least not all the time. Rather, it had to and the task was to attack and expose this take the form of reasoned argument based on ideological enemy and offer “something bet- the facts—although not necessarily all the ter.” Gray propaganda was adopted because it facts—and presented in an objective manner. was more direct and aggressive than white Some of this propaganda material came di- but less likely to offend the Soviets quite as rectly from Wellington House (white), while much as black propaganda. The content of other portions were disguised (gray). For this anti-Communist gray propaganda was to purpose, a clandestine publishing operation highlight Western values as a counterpoint to produced material that was distributed under Soviet activities. At one level IRD material the imprint of famous commercial publishing consisted of in-depth confidential studies on houses such as Hodder and Stoughton, John aspects of Soviet Communism designed for Murray, and Macmillan. high-level consumption by senior Allied In World War II Britain’s Political Warfare politicians. On a less classified level, radio Executive (PWE) produced gray propaganda broadcasts, pamphlets, articles, letters, and as well as black. An example was the highly speeches were all used and directed at policy- praised newspaper for German troops enti- makers in Eastern Europe, who could use tled Nachrichten für die Truppen,which was de- such material as factual background in their livered by air. The contents of the paper general work without the need for attribu- could not possibly be reconciled with official tion. To distinguish its activities from those of German authorship, but the failure to dis- the Americans, the IRD concentrated on close its true origin permitted the newspaper areas threatened by Communism outside the to express views that might have been embar- USSR. The ability of IRD to disguise its spon- rassing if attributed to an official British sorship of cultural activity until the late source. 1970s points to the reason for its success, In the late 1940s and early 1950s Western namely, the fact that much of it was not gen- powers attached great importance to psycho- erally recognized as propaganda. logical warfare, employing propaganda meas- When the Soviet Union invaded Afghani- ures to sway international opinion to support stan, Radio Moscow employed gray propa- the free world and, ultimately, to bring about ganda when it attempted to justify its actions. the disintegration of Communist regimes. In A television documentary entitled “Afghani- 1948 the British Foreign Office sponsored a stan: The Revolution Cannot Be Killed” was peacetime covert propaganda agency, the In- broadcast on Christmas Day 1985. The pro- formation Research Department (IRD), gram deliberately gave the impression that which was intended to counter Soviet and the conflict had been started by other pow- Communist propaganda and defend Western ers. Iran and Pakistan were specifically impli- liberal democracy. The IRD was formed in cated and captured mercenaries claimed that the aftermath of the Communist coup in they had been sent to Afghanistan by the CIA. Prague and increasingly hostile Soviet propa- The film ended with pro-Soviet troops being ganda. Supported by Foreign Minister Ernest cheered by Afghan crowds. The source of the Bevin (1881–1951), the approach adopted message was not in question, but the infor- was secretive and aggressive, designed to take mation was largely inaccurate. the initiative away from the enemy. IRD was In the wake of 11 September 2001 involv- in many respects a peacetime PWE. Its task ing terrorist attacks against New York and was not black propaganda, which was the Washington, D.C., the United States pre- Greece 153 pared the population of Afghanistan for a Capo D’Istrias (1776–1831), president of the planned U.S. air and land war by dropping new Greek state from 1828 to 1831. In 1832 food containers and radios that could only Greece became the first Balkan nation to for- pick up one signal. The U.S.-run radio sta- mally win its independence from the Ot- tion, which did not formally identify itself, toman Empire. Greece sought to export na- simply referred to itself as Afghan FM. Sand- tionalism to its Balkan neighbors and at one wiched between some lively Afghan music an point attempted to sponsor the idea of Balkan announcement was broadcast “for the atten- unity (under Greek leadership). One of the tion of the noble people of Afghanistan.” The earliest representatives of this view was the announcer then proceeded to explain that nationalistic eighteenth-century Greek poet American forces would be passing through Rigas Velestinlis (1757–1798), whose image the area and that their aim was not to harm graces the 20 lepta coin. the people but rather to arrest Osama bin The Greek state sought to incorporate Laden (1957– ) and those who support him. other Greek-speaking parts of the region and David Welch used propaganda to nurture a sense of na- See also Black Propaganda; CIA; IRD; tionalism in such areas. The desire for union Psychological Warfare; PWE; Terrorism, War with Crete led to the Greco-Turkish war of on; White Propaganda 1897, which Greece lost, though the Great References: Qualter, Terence H. Opinion Control in the Democracies.New York: St. Martin’s Press, Powers eventually assigned Crete to Greece 1985; Roetter, Charles. Psychological Warfare. in 1913. Propaganda concerning the Mace- London: Batsford, 1974; Taylor, Philip, M. donian question has also been part of Greek Munitions of the Mind:A History of Propaganda politics. Following a long struggle for Mace- from the Ancient World to the Present Day. donian independence (culminating in the Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, Ilinden uprising of 1903), the Macedonian 1985. lands were split between Greece, Bulgaria, and Serbia in 1913. Besides vocal Macedon- ian propaganda for reunification and libera- Greece tion, this resulted in a well-organized inter- The history of propaganda in Greece has national underground terrorist network, as much in common with the rest of the Balkan well as other conspiracies. Greece, like Bul- Peninsula, including nationalistic propaganda garia and Serbia, carried out specific assimila- first for liberation from Ottoman rule and tionist and propaganda policies to suppress later to redress grievances against neighbors the Macedonian struggle for independence, (most famously Turkey but also Bulgaria, Al- all of which largely failed. bania, and Macedonia). As elsewhere in the In 1921 Greece took advantage of the po- Balkans, nationalistic propaganda has focused litical ferment in Turkey by seeking to extend on the glories of the pre-Ottoman past; in control of Greek-speaking territories. In the case of Greece, this meant the achieve- 1922 Turkey repelled this Greek intervention ments of the classical era. (the so-called Smyrna disaster) and Greece The Greek struggle for independence lost control over its territories in Asia Minor, from the Ottoman Empire produced much resulting in a huge migration of refugees to propaganda in the romantic vein, with such Greece proper. The loss of these territories foreign champions of the Greek cause as gave rise to the irredentist ideology of the Lord Byron (1788–1824). Greek voices for megali (or great) idea and a sustained history independence included Alexander Ypsilanti of tension with Turkey, including mutual (1792–1828), who headed the secret Philike claims of atrocities connected to 1922. Hetairia organization and declared independ- From 1924 to 1935 Greece was a repub- ence during a revolt in 1821, and Ionnes lic, but in 1936, with the support of the 154 Greece

monarchy, General Iannis Metaxas (1871– ing in mutual accusations and propaganda be- 1941) established a pro-Italian, semifascist tween Greece and Turkey. regime (with centralized censorship). The Memories of the Greek civil war ensured a regime fell following Metaxas’s death in strain of anti-Communism in postwar Greek 1941. Germany occupied Greece, together government propaganda. This reached its with Bulgarian and Italian participation.After peak during the rule of the Greek military the war, evidence of atrocities committed junta (1967–1974), which also saw wide- during the war was used as a powerful indict- spread political violence. Although the Com- ment against those who had aligned them- munist Party had been illegal in Greece since selves with the Nazis. The resistance in the civil war, it still had many sympathizers. Greece was split into Communist (EAM- Dissidents included the composer Mikis ELAS) and monarchist (EDES) factions, Theodorakis (1925– ), who led the Lam- which became antagonists in a bitter civil brakis Youth Organization, which was named war. At the end of World War II, Greece was after Grigoris Lambrakis, one of the mur- the only Balkan country left in the Western dered leaders of the democratic left. Lam- sphere of influence; the government, aided brakis’s murder in 1963 also provided the first by Britain and then by the United States, basis for the acclaimed film Z (1969) by fought its civil war with the Communists. Greek expatriate director Constantin Costa- The last Communist enclaves fell in 1949. Gavras (1933– ). Theodorakis was forced That year twenty thousand children were into exile by the junta. Another outspoken sent abroad (some under coercion) to escape critic of the colonel’s regime was actress the war, mostly to Communist countries. Melina Mercouri (1923–1994). The incident was widely used for propaganda In 1974 Greek democracy returned. purposes. Early issues included the referendum on the The postwar period saw a revival of ten- issue of the monarchy, which rejected such a sion with Turkey, particularly during the anti- restoration. Greek propaganda has also in- Greek riots in Istanbul in 1956. The Greek cluded an anti-American strain, which was government also encouraged the dream of evident in the 1960s when George Papan- enosis (reunification) with the Greeks of the dreou (1888–1968), who served as prime diaspora, especially the Cypriots. Supporters minister from 1964 to 1965, attacked “pa- of enosis on Cyprus included Archbishop ternalistic capitalism.” Anti-Americanism Makarios (1913–1977) and General George returned (with lesser intensity) in the Pan- Grivas (1898–1974). In 1955 Grivas’s EOKA Hellenic Socialist Movement (PASOK) gov- organization (Ethniki Organosis Kyprion ernment of Papandreou’s son, Andreas Pa- Aghoniston [National Organisation of Cypriot pandreou (1919–1996), who was elected to Fighters]) launched a guerrilla war against office in 1981. That same year Greece British rule on the island. The British made joined the European Union. International tactical use of propaganda in their counterin- campaigns have included demands from surgency campaign. Enosis was strongly op- Mercouri (as culture minister) for the re- posed by the not insignificant Turkish minor- turn of antiquities of historical and symbolic ity of the island and was subsequently importance, including the Elgin Marbles, forbidden in 1960 under the terms of Cypriot which are presently housed at the British independence. In 1974, following a Greek- Museum. backed coup against Makarios (who had been The 1990s saw a diversification of the president since 1960), Turkey invaded and oc- media in Greece. Until 1990 the state had cupied part of the island. The United Nations enjoyed a monopoly in the broadcasting in- intervened to separate the hostile parties, but dustry and intervened frequently to further the situation still remains unresolved, result- its political ends. Restrictions on the media Grierson, John 155 in Greece include regulations outlawing at- The Green Berets (1968) tacks against the church and a law forbidding This Warner Brothers film was the first “unwarranted publicity for terrorists.” Ter- major Hollywood production to deal with rorist-group operations in Greece include the issue of the Vietnam War. It was the pet the small left-wing November 17th move- project of its star, John Wayne (1907–1979), ment, whose “propaganda by action” in- who also acted as codirector with Ray Kel- cluded the assassination of a British military logg (1906–1976). Wayne sought to rally attaché in 2000. In the 1990s the Macedonia public sympathy for an increasingly unpopu- question returned. Despite fierce Greek lar war. The U.S. military cooperated in its propaganda against its statehood, in 1991 production. The film tells the story of an Macedonia managed to establish its inde- elite Special Forces unit and its mission to as- pendence within the borders of the “Former sist the South Vietnamese. It tried to make Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia,” which, at the Vietnam War appear to be as moral, ex- the insistence of Greece, remains the coun- citing, and successful as World War II, with try’s official name on the grounds that call- which John Wayne was so closely identified ing itself Macedonia implied a claim to the as an actor. Subplots include the conversion Greek province of the same name. Internal of a skeptical journalist to the cause of the Greek politics has led to a heated debate war, camaraderie among the soldiers, and a over the return of Greeks from the territo- special friendship between a Vietnamese or- ries of the former Soviet Union, as well as a phan and a kindly G.I. Most critics found the wave of immigrants from Albania, who relo- film overly long and too blatant in its propa- cated as a result of the “right of return” pol- ganda. Screenings became a focus for protests icy for Albanian citizens of Greek descent. against the war, and although box office re- The Greek Orthodox Church has proved a ceipts were the tenth largest for a film that major source of nationalistic propaganda. year, it would take a decade before main- Tensions with Turkey remain, including a stream Hollywood ventured back to the issue 1999 dispute over an uninhabited tiny island. of Vietnam. As a result of major earthquakes in both Nicholas J.Cull countries that same year, feelings improved See also Film (Feature); United States;Vietnam somewhat following mutual offers of aid. War The government’s plan to improve Greece’s References: Anderegg, Michael. Inventing Vietnam:The War in Film and Television. international image by hosting the 2004 Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1991; Olympic Games was tempered by problems Wills, Garry. John Wayne:The Politics of Celebrity. encountered during the early stages of New York: Simon and Schuster, 1997. preparation. Dina Iordanova See also Balkans; Cold War; Counterinsurgency; Grierson, John (1898–1972) Olympics; Poetry A Scottish-born pioneer in the field of docu- References: Brewer, David. The Flame of Freedom: mentary filmmaking, Grierson was active in The Greek War of Independence,1821–1833. London: John Murray, 2001; Brewer, David, both Britain and Canada, serving as the lat- and Misha Glenny, The Balkans,1804–1999: ter’s wartime minister of information. While Nationalism,War and the Great Powers. New York: studying in Chicago in the early 1920s, Gri- Viking, 2000; Mazower, Mark. The Balkans. erson developed an interest in propaganda London: Weidenfeld and Nicholson, 2000; and public opinion. In an article written in Woodhouse, C. M. Modern Greece:A Short 1926, he developed the notion of what he History.London: Faber, 1984; Zaharopoulos, Thimios, and Manny E. Paraschos. Mass Media called “documentary” film, which he defined in Greece:Power,Politics and Privatization. as “the creative treatment of actuality.” Begin- Westport, CT: Praeger, 1993. ning in 1928, he applied these ideas in Britain 156 Guernica as a member of the Empire Marketing Board, References: Hardy, Forsyth. John Grierson:A promoting awareness of empire-related prod- Documentary Biography.London: Faber, 1979; ucts. His first film, Drifters (1929), was a doc- Evans, Gary. John Grierson and the National Film Board:The Politics of Wartime Propaganda. umentary about herring fishing. Beginning in Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1984. 1933, he headed the General Post Office (GPO) film unit, commissioning documen- taries that he hoped would educate the British public about the working classes. His most fa- Guernica (1937) mous GPO film, Night Mail (1936), which This painting (1937) by Pablo Picasso (1881– followed a mail train from London to Scot- 1973) is one of the best-known examples of land, was directed by Harry Watt (1906– art as propaganda. The picture protests the 1987) and Basil Wright (1907–1987). bombing of the Basque town of Guernica on In 1938 Grierson quarreled with the the night of 26 April 1937 by German flyers British government over the sorts of films it in the service of the Nationalist (fascist) side wished to show at the New York World’s Fair in the Spanish Civil War. The Republican (so- of 1939. He accepted a mission to Canada to cialist) government commissioned Picasso to consult on the foundation of a National Film paint the work for exhibition in the Spanish Board to promote national cohesion through pavilion at that summer’s Paris International film. With the coming of World War II Gri- Exposition; hence the painting is also tied to erson agreed to remain as director of the the use of exhibitions for propaganda. He board. A string of powerful documentaries completed the painting in six weeks. Draw- followed. His activities also included feeding ing on images and a cubist technique already captured German newsreel to filmmakers in well established in his work, Picasso created a the then neutral United States to ensure that monumental canvas. The painting incorpo- U.S. audiences understood the German way rated a frenzied horse, a stamping bull, and of war. In 1943 Grierson’s responsibilities four women distorted as though by the vio- expanded to include all Canadian propaganda lence of the bombing. One woman clutches a activity. Grierson had the ear of William dead baby, while another runs from a burning Lyon Mackenzie King (1874–1950), the house. Overhead a light bulb swings madly prime minister of Canada, and his War Infor- and on the ground lie the screaming head and mation Board. At the end of the war he re- lifeless limbs of a soldier. In 1945 Picasso ex- signed his post in order to develop documen- plained his belief that art could be “an instru- tary film production and distribution in New ment of war for attack and defense against York, but this scheme foundered. Grierson the enemy.” In The Charnel House (1944– then fell under suspicion during Canada’s 1945) Picasso used art to protest against early Cold War witch-hunts. From 1946 to senseless destruction in World War II; in 1948 he served as director of mass communi- Massacre in Korea (1951) and War and Peace cations for UNESCO, and from 1948 to 1950 (1952) he did the same for the Korean War; he worked as controller of films for Britain’s and in the series entitled The Rape of the peacetime government information bureau, Sabines (1962–1963) he responded to the the Central Office of Information. Although Cuban Missile Crisis. the nature of his legacy has been questioned, Nicholas J.Cull his views of documentary film and propa- See also Art; Civil War, Spanish; Exhibitions and ganda have remained a starting point for World’s Fairs; Peace and Antiwar Movements scholars as well as filmmakers. (1500–1945); Spain References: Barr,Alfred H., Jr. Picasso:Fifty Years Nicholas J.Cull of His Art.New York: Museum of Modern Art, See also Britain; British Empire; Canada; Film 1946; Huffington,Arianna S. Picasso:Creator and (Documentary); United Nations Destroyer. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, Gulf War (1991) 157

1988; Wiener, Malcolm H. “Picasso and the Cuban Missile Crisis.” Apollo (October 2001): 3–9.

Gulf War (1991) This war against Iraq for the liberation of Kuwait was waged between 16 January and 28 February 1991 by an alliance led by the United States. The war saw both the battle- field use of psychological warfare and at- tempts at news management on both sides. On 2 August 1990 the Iraqi regime of Sad- dam Hussein (1937– ) invaded neighboring Kuwait and took control of its oil fields. The administration of U.S. president George Bush (1924– ) knew that effective action Pamphlets dropped on Iraqi lines during the Persian Gulf War against Iraq required a coalition of Western in 1991.The leaflets fell both before and after U.S.bombing and Middle Eastern countries and deployed using the 15,000-pound BLU-82/B "Daisy Cutter" bomb. The first leaflet (left) reads in Arabic,"Flee and save your life, public diplomacy to ensure that the region or remain and meet your death!" The second reads,"You have understood the motives and limits of his suffered heavy losses because we have used the most powerful country’s actions. As the coalition moved its and destructive conventional bomb of this war.It is more military into Saudi Arabia in the first phase of powerful than 20 Scud Missiles in respect of explosion its response—Operation Desert Shield—the capability.We warn you! We shall bomb your position again. Bush administration summed up the stakes in Kuwait will be liberated from Saddam's aggression.Hurry and join your brothers from the south.We shall treat you with the campaign as “a battle for the New World all our love and respect.Abandon this position.You will never Order.” The U.S. government and commer- be safe!" (Reuters NewMedia Inc./CORBIS) cial media both tended to personalize the campaign as a war against the Hitler-like Sad- dam. In order to maximize the legitimacy of the “team.” At the regional headquarters, a the campaign, Bush secured a UN resolution larger number of journalists enjoyed regular calling for military action against Iraq before briefings from Gen. Norman Schwarzkopf launching Operation Desert Storm. (1934– ), the commander of U.S. forces, Both the Iraqis and the United States had who proudly displayed images of U.S. “smart Vietnam in mind as they formulated their weapons” in action. The official U.S. view of propaganda strategies for the Gulf War. Sad- the war emphasized technology and preci- dam, claiming that the United States lacked sion, striving to obliterate the image of blood- the will to fight and sustain significant casual- shed and death from the U.S. bombardment ties, acted on this assumption. The Bush ad- of Iraq. Contrary to the impression that this ministration similarly hoped the war would created in the Western media, the “smart produce minimal American casualties, aiming weapons” campaign accounted for only 8 per- for the strictly limited objective of liberating cent of the bombing effort. Kuwait. Unlike the relatively free reporting in The government of Kuwait used propa- Vietnam, the United States sought to manage ganda to support the liberation of its coun- reporting from the Gulf War by instituting a try, using the front organization Citizens for system of press pools with its armed forces.A a Free Kuwait to engage the American pub- limited number of journalists were brought lic relations firm Hill and Knowlton Public on board and encouraged to become part of Affairs Worldwide at a cost of some $10.8 158 Gulf War (1991) million. Hill and Knowlton’s tactics in- Iraq attempted to demoralize the coalition by cluded a staple of propaganda: the “atrocity parading prisoners of war. The wider Iraqi story.” On 10 October 1990 a distraught media policy rested on Western news broad- Kuwaiti teenager identified only as Nayirah casts from Baghdad during the latter’s attack. told a hearing of the U.S. Congressional The presence of journalists like Peter Arnett Caucus on Human Rights that invading Iraqi (1934– ) of CNN or John Simpson (1944– ) soldiers had stolen incubators from a mater- of the BBC ensured that it was possible for nity hospital in Kuwait and had left babies to viewers around the world to watch the ef- die on the floor. The report subsequently fects of the Western bombardments. The became a fixture in Western human rights Iraqi Ministry of Information steered jour- stories and was included in President Bush’s nalists to sites of civilian damage, such as a denunciations of Saddam. Nayirah had not factory identified—in what was clearly a re- witnessed the events but was simply the cently painted sign in English and Arabic—as daughter of the Kuwaiti ambassador to the a powdered-milk plant whose product was United States. Once the war had begun, in- ostensibly intended for babies, and waived all novations in American propaganda included censorship to facilitate reporting of the ex- the extensive use of images of the environ- tensive civilian casualties at a public air raid mental damage allegedly caused by Sad- shelter in the Amiriya district of Baghdad. dam’s tactics—such as his use of crude oil as Coalition analysts later claimed that both tar- an anti-invasion measure—in Kuwait; in an gets had duel military and civilian functions environmentally sensitive era, television and suggested that instigating damage to pictures of oil-soaked cormorants and civilian targets was part of Saddam’s propa- chemical fires in Kuwait had a marked im- ganda strategy. Other Iraqi tactics included pact on European (particularly German) the creation of a black propaganda radio sta- opinion. Analysis after the campaign re- tion—Holy Mecca Radio—designed to fer- vealed that the pictures of seabirds, while ment opposition within Saudi Arabia. genuine, predated the particular crime they On the battlefield the United States de- were used to illustrate. ployed the techniques of psychological war- Iraqi propaganda began with Saddam Hus- fare. As on the eve of D-Day in June 1944, sein’s efforts to intimidate his enemies—who the United States undertook a considerable were massing in Operation Desert Shield— campaign of deception to convince the Iraqis by pledging “the mother of all battles.” Radio that the land assault on Kuwait would begin Baghdad broadcasts by a female announcer— with a seaborne invasion; in actuality troops nicknamed “Baghdad Betty”—aimed to de- crossed the frontier from Saudi Arabia. The moralize U.S. troops. She alleged that their United States attempted to sow dissent by wives were home “having sex” with movie creating black propaganda stations like The stars but lost credibility when she included Voice of Free Iraq and Radio Free Iraq, which the animated character Bart Simpson on her purported to be the voice of opposition list of offenders. Most analysts felt she actu- groups within Iraq. A white propaganda sta- ally helped boost American morale in the au- tion, the Voice of the Gulf, broadcast war tumn of 1990. Saddam Hussein often ap- news to the Iraqi front lines. Between 30 De- peared on Iraqi television alongside Western cember 1990 and 28 February 1991 the captives taken from planes in transit in United States dropped around twenty-nine Kuwait at the time of his invasion. The cap- million leaflets over Iraqi lines. These in- tives included Stuart Lockwood, a five-year- cluded safe-conduct passes to encourage old British child whom he proceeded to pet. mass surrender, as well as intimidating The broadcast did not endear him to Western leaflets warning of imminent aerial bombard- viewers. During Operation Desert Storm ment. Loudspeaker teams broadcast instruc- Gulf War (2003) 159 tions on how to surrender, and sixty thou- Propaganda in the Gulf War.Berkeley, CA: sand Iraqi troops did so, greatly accelerating University of California Press, 1993; Taylor, the progress of the Western campaign. The Philip M. War and the Media:Propaganda and Persuasion in the Gulf War.Manchester: experience boosted U.S. confidence in the Manchester University Press, 1992. power of psychological warfare. The restrictions of the UN resolution and the fragility of the coalition meant that the Bush administration had to limit its campaign Gulf War (2003) in Iraq. The war ended with the liberation of The war to remove Saddam Hussein (1937– ) Kuwait. The United States also appreciated as the leader of Iraq began on 19 March 2003 the value of the “clean war” image to bolster with an invasion by the United States and domestic and international support. Analysts Great Britain. The decision to invade was op- have noted that the United States ended the posed by much of the Arab world, as well as war at precisely the moment that the world by France, Germany, Russia, and China, all of saw the effect of its bombs on the Iraqi army’s whom promised to veto such a move if a vote evacuation route, the Basra Road, which was were taken by the United Nations Security subsequently dubbed the “Highway of Death.” Council. U.S. President George W. Bush Saddam remained in office and proceeded to (1947– ) and Britain’s Prime Minister Tony consolidate his dictatorship by attacking the Blair (1953– ) chose to bypass the Security Shiite Muslim opposition in the south and the Council vote, putting the future of the United Kurdish opposition in the north. The coali- Nations at risk, for a war whose aims re- tion had held for the duration of the conflict, mained unpersuasive to most Europeans and but many in the Islamic world were not con- most intellectuals in the United States. Offi- vinced of the wider benevolence of American cially, the war was related to the campaign involvement in the region. The spectacle of against international terrorism (the connec- American troops operating from Saudi Ara- tion to the 11 September 2001 incidents), in- bia, a land holy to Muslims, enraged a number cluding weapons of mass destruction, but also of religious extremists, including Osama bin became a plan to “liberate Iraq” by “Coalition Laden (1957– ), whose actions would pre- Forces,” the latter a propaganda device to de- cipitate the next major Western intervention scribe the United States and Britain in flatter- in the region ten years later. The media as- ing terms. The taking of Basra by British pects of the war represented a high point of forces and the taking of Baghdad by U.S. the post–Cold War Western domination of forces on 9 April marked the end of the overt the global media. In subsequent campaigns conquest of Iraq, although long-term ramifi- the United States had to contend with alter- cations remained unclear. native voices on both the Internet and non- The buildup to war in late 2002 and early Western satellite news channels. 2003 saw intense domestic and international Nicholas J.Cull propaganda activity on the part of the U.S. and UK governments as they sought to justify See also Arab World; Censorship; CNN; Hussein, Saddam; Israel; Morale; Opinion Polls; their hard-line diplomacy and the impending Psychological Warfare; Public Diplomacy; conflict. Key moments included U.S. Secre- Satellite Communications; Terrorism, War on; tary of State Colin Powell’s address to the United Nations UN Security Council. During this period the References: Kellner, Douglas. The Persian Gulf TV British government issued a succession of War. Boulder, CO: Westview, 1992; Manheim, dossiers on Iraqi weapons programs and Jarol B. Strategic Public Diplomacy and American Foreign Policy:The Evolution of Influence.New human right abuses. The revelation that one York: Oxford University Press, 1994; of these dossiers was heavily plagiarized from McArthur, John R. Second Front:Censorship and a thesis written some years previously by a 160 Gulf War (2003) graduate student in California dented the porters were generally, because of censorship Blair administration’s reputation for skillful concerns, far from actual scenes of battles or “spin.” able to report only after filing reports to be Media reporting of the war and the war’s approved by an official military censor. In psychological dimension are of particular 2003, war correspondents were not allowed concern to the student of propaganda. In to reveal exact information as to location, so both areas, the Gulf War of 2003 can claim a the viewer was rarely able to place fighting number of firsts. Clearly this was a war of within a particular geographical context. swift military action, but also of competing Journalists who violated this rule were ex- information systems, a war in which tele- pelled from the theater of war. Critics feared vision reporting of the war was a weapon for the new information policy would make both Iraq and the United States and Britain, cheerleaders of those who reported the war particularly with an eye toward influencing as part of the invasion forces. Media journal- European as well as Arab public opinion. The ists made use of the videophone, allowing re- United States controlled channel 3 of Iraqi porters to send an imprecise visual report by state television, broadcasting directly to the satellite directly from the field of battle, al- Iraqi people. Direct e-mail and SMS (sent to beit with low resolution. The videophone mobile phones) text messages contacts with also allowed direct conversation with news large numbers of Iraqi citizens provided a anchors halfway around the world. communication from the United States over By 2003, television news had adopted a the heads of the Iraqi government, part of the form of print communication as well—the campaign for the “hearts and minds” of the news crawl, in which news bulletins Iraqi people. streamed across the bottom of the screen, a The war produced a number of media in- relief if what was being shown lacked inter- novations, particularly the decision to send est, a distraction if not. Roughly a full third reporters and television journalists as actual of the screen was thus filled with competing members of the invasion forces, on the one textual forms of information at all times, in- hand allowing a direct immediacy never be- cluding information about the stock market. fore possible and on the other hand introduc- In Britain, critics termed this obsession with ing a new intensity of information overload. styles of graphic information “war porn,” dis- Britain’s Foreign Secretary Jack Straw argued missing such round-the-clock broadcasting as that twenty-four-hour news changed the re- relentless images lacking context or explana- ality of warfare, now actually compressing tion. In sum, technology was better able to time scales.All three of Britain’s rolling news increase the speed and directness of commu- channels—Sky, BBC News 24, and the ITV nication than to provide greater accuracy, de- News Channel—experienced early increases tailed information, or balance. in numbers of viewers, with Sky winning the The three major U.S. television networks, ratings war. For viewers of cable news in the ABC, CBS, and NBC, had reporters covering United States, it was possible to watch the the war, often from inside neighboring war twenty-four hours a day on Rupert Mur- Kuwait, but also in the form of numerous doch’s Fox News (the largest cable news au- stringers, many of them British nationals. dience in the United States, with 3.4 million The war also offered opportunities for vet- viewers at the war’s outbreak), CNN, and eran journalists, some of whom posed in MSNBC. Some 600 reporters,“embedded” in front of American tanks wearing simple t- advancing units, with satellite phones and live shirts. Both CNN and the three major net- visual feeds, could actually report a fire fight works stationed news anchors, regularly in while it occurred. This represents a sharp de- New York, on location in Kuwait. A number parture from previous wars, in which re- of journalists, including several who were Gulf War (2003) 161 killed by American “friendly fire,” covered the most significant television source, one avail- invasion from inside Baghdad. able to Arabs in the United States who have The print media did a good job of covering the necessary satellite reception. Saddam the war, even if at some distance from fast- Hussein was able during the invasion to moving events. Technology served the cause broadcast directly to Western audiences in of print graphics. Aerial topography, brilliant feeds from Iraqi state television that were graphic design, and the use of color allowed taken by numerous Western television net- the New York Times to run daily full-page maps works, often with a news crawl in Arabic, al- showing precisely what was happening, even lowing the Arab speaker to know for sure the inside metropolitan Baghdad, thanks to de- original intent of an Iraqi soundbite. tailed photographic enlargements superim- Iraq’s propaganda war swiftly became a posed on an aerial map of the city. comedy of errors. The central figure, Minis- Reporting an Arab or Iraqi perspective ter of Information Mohammed Saeed al-Sah- proved more difficult. In the first Gulf War, haf (1940– ), attracted much amusement in CNN’s Peter Arnett (1934– ) was able to re- the West for his unflinching optimism in the port the war from Baghdad, a first for tele- face of American advances. He earned the vision news: a reporter describing the impact nicknames “Baghdad Bob” in the United of missile strikes from the heart of enemy ter- States and “Comical Ali” in the UK. Websites ritory. Now such reporting comes from com- in those countries swiftly began to offer peting channels of information. Since 1996, mugs, t-shirts, and even talking dolls featur- Al Jazeera, the Arab television network in ing his slogans: “God will roast their stom- Qatar, has provided the Arab world with news achs in hell at the hands of the Iraqis” or “We programming of considerable independence. will kill them all...most of them.” Al-Sah- The United States included Al Jazeera corre- haf became a symbol of the absurdity of the spondents among the “embedded” journalists Iraqi regime, which had sustained itself travelling with invasion forces. American through propaganda, attempting to save itself shells killed two Al Jazeera correspondents in through propaganda alone, and a reminder central Baghdad. Peter Arnett, back reporting that propaganda needs to be underpinned at the war from Baghdad, was fired when he some point by a physical ability to deliver gave an interview on Iraqi state television in what is promised. which he insisted that most Americans op- The conflict between Western media cov- posed the war, a claim that suggested he was erage of the invasion and Arab coverage has giving aid and comfort to Saddam Hussein’s largely turned on the issue of gore—that is, forces. Arnett’s firing suggests something what will or will not be shown of the war’s about what may or may not be done by for- violence. A reporter for Al Jazeera was eign reporters inside enemy territory. quoted as saying that “we don’t see any of Western reporters (generally non-U.S. cit- those killed by the American forces.” Howell izens) in Baghdad during the invasion, hoping Raines of the New York Times indicated a dif- to discover the sentiment of the Iraqi people, ferent attitude: “the avoidance of the gratu- had to conduct their interviews in the pres- itous use of images simply for shock value.” ence of official government “minders,” with Self-censorship may play a role, but to date predictible results: those Iraqis interviewed American media have revealed little in terms were obliged to find only good things to say of violent images. Still photographs, whether about Saddam Hussein. BBC correspondents in newspapers or newsmagazines, have been in Baghdad, such as Rageh Omaar (1967– ), mostly in color, technically excellent, but had more success than U.S. reporters in get- curiously lacking in interest.As Susan Sontag ting a more representative sample of Iraqi notes: “War is about dead people, not public opinion. For Arabs, Al Jazeera is the gorgeous-looking soldiers.” 162 Gulf War (2003)

U.S. and British forces have intensified the tion. If such evidence is found, it will make it use of psychological operations, known as harder to justify the value of the United Na- “psy-ops.” The United States engaged in a tions in keeping world peace. comprehensive airwaves campaign to soften There are many additional unanswered its enemy and soothe its population at home. questions at this time about the unilateral in- Spearheading the electronic propaganda vasion: whether the long-term impact will be campaign were converted C-130 cargo to hasten the collapse of the United Nations; planes transmitting a mixture of Arabic and whether there will be long-term damage to Western music, along with announcements the Security Council or NATO; whether the to the troops and citizens of Iraq, urging invasion will intensify hatred of the United them to lay down their weapons. These States in the Arab world; and whether the in- planes were the coalition’s weapons of mass vasion will lead to trade boycotts of U.S. persuasion. The radio transmissions were products. It is clear that propaganda will play backed up with an intense leaflet-dropping an important part in a post-Saddam Iraqi campaign. Over 17 million leaflets were dis- government and that Iraqi citizens will ques- persed in the first week of the war, offering tion the goodwill of U.S. and British occupa- detailed information about how to signal tion forces, wondering, for example, how surrender to advancing coaliation troops. much credence to give to a widely distrib- Warnings printed on the leaflets included uted British leaflet (in English) to those “Attacking coalition aircraft invites your de- around Basra: “This time we won’t abandon struction. Do not risk your life and the lives you. Be patient. Together we will win.” If the of your comrades. Leave now and go home. actual invasion was quickly successful, the Watch your children learn, grow and pros- work of nation-building is certain to prove a per.” Or “Military fiber optic cables have far more difficult task. been targeted for destruction. Repairing David Culbert and David Welch them places your life at risk.” See also Gulf War (1991); Hussein, Saddam; The war to eliminate Saddam Hussein was Memorials and Monuments; Terrorism, War on officially connected to a war against interna- References: Bobbitt, Philip. The Shield of Achilles: tional terrorism, particularly to the events of War, Peace,and the Course of History. New York: 11 September, a connection that remains to Knopf, 2002; Hamza, Khidhir, with Jeff Stein. Saddam’s Bombmaker:The Inside Story of the Iraqi be demonstrated persuasively. U.S. (and Nuclear and Biological Weapons Agenda. New British) justifications required the uncovering York: Scribner, 2002; Kuttab, Daoud. “The of evidence of biological and chemical Arab TV Wars,” New York Times Magazine, 6 weapons of mass destruction, something that April 2003, 44–47; McCarthy, Michael. “Iraq had not been found by teams of UN arms in- Information Minister Strikes Pop-Culture spectors after months of effort. In the ab- Chord.” USA Today, 4 May 2003. McLuhan, Marshall. Understanding Media:The Extensions of sence of such evidence, many questioned the Man. New York:Vintage Books, 1964; Sontag, necessity of the invasion, although the success Susan. Regarding the Pain of Others. New York: of that invasion muted some vocal opposi- Farrar, Straus, 2003. H

Health longer. The Ministry of Agriculture was re- The promotion of public health has become a sponsible for increasing land under cultiva- staple subject of propaganda for governmen- tion in order to grow more vegetables to feed tal and nongovernmental organizations the population. One of the most famous slo- around the world. Government-sponsored gans of the war was “Dig for Victory.” In 1943 health campaigns first appeared during Ernest Brown (1881–1962), the minister of World War I, although at this early stage they health, was responsible for the booklet How were rarely coordinated. Most of the bel- to Keep Well in Wartime, which offered com- ligerent states worried about the spread of monsense advice on a range of health issues. venereal disease and launched campaigns to One particular health problem singled out warn of the danger of unprotected sex. In was the need to combat venereal disease. A World War II health campaigns figured more striking poster that accompanied the cam- prominently in official propaganda. The paign depicted the “easy” girlfriend, as a skull wartime emergency meant that citizens had in a fancy hat, as a source of VD. to be physically fit in order to fight, work in A major concern for the authorities was industry, cope with air raids, and endure the spread of germs, resulting in large-scale hardship caused by food and other shortages. absenteeism from work. One of the most fa- In Britain during World War II adequate mous wartime slogans on posters was: food supplies were recognized as a key factor “Coughs and Sneezes Spread Diseases.” The in the maintenance of morale. The British booklet urged people to cough or sneeze into government mobilized a number of min- a handkerchief and denounced any failure to istries to explain official policy and to stress do so as a “rude and disgusting habit.” Popular the importance of good health for the suc- film stars and celebrities were recruited to cessful conclusion of the war effort. The add weight to these health campaigns. In Ministry of Food was one of the largest 1942, for example, the comedian Arthur spenders on publicity, issuing a constant flow Askey (1900–1982) appeared in a short film of leaflets, press advertisements, and short documentary entitled The Nose Has It! films explaining the rationing system and The maintenance of good health was a providing information on wartime recipes major concern of the fascist regimes as well. and ways of making limited supplies last Health education figured prominently in Nazi

163 164 Hearst, William Randolph

propaganda, although this was largely in sup- public.A group of male inhabitants protested port of its sinister racial and eugenics cam- by gathering on the main piazza, and “with paigns. In July 1933 the “Law for the Preven- one accord they struck a blow for freedom.” tion of Hereditarily Diseased Offspring” David Welch permitted the compulsory sterilization of See also Drugs; Hitler,Adolf; MoI; Reefer Madness; people suffering from a number of allegedly United Nations; World War I hereditary illnesses. Less well known is the References: Persuading the People:Government Publicity in the Second World War.London: world’s most aggressive antitobacco health HMSO, 1995; Jowett, Garth, and Victoria campaign, launched by the Nazi government O’Donnell. Propaganda and Persuasion. London: in the 1930s. Nazi policies included bans on Sage, 1992; MacLaine, Ian. Ministry of Morale: smoking in public places, increased tobacco Home Front Morale and the Ministry of Information taxes, advertising bans, and research into in World War II.London: Unwin, 1979; Proctor, links between tobacco and lung cancer. A R. H. Racial Hygiene:Medicine Under the Nazis. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, massive antismoking propaganda campaign 1988; Winkler,Alan. The Politics of Propaganda. was launched (and maintained) with posters New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978. showing smokers being swallowed by ciga- rettes, bearing the caption: “You don’t smoke it—it smokes you!” Hitler was also drafted to support the program. The caption beneath a Hearst, William Randolph picture of a determined-looking Hitler reads: (1863–1951) “Our Führer Adolf Hitler drinks no alcohol William Randolph Hearst was a successful and does not smoke . . . His performance at American newspaper publisher who built up work is incredible.” a readership through the technique of yel- In the 1980s a new global threat posed by low journalism, which emphasized the sen- the AIDS epidemic persuaded many govern- sational, lurid, entertaining, and scandalous ments around the world to launch campaigns elements in news coverage. In 1887 Hearst’s (mainly television and advertising posters) father handed over control of his inconse- warning of the dangers of unprotected sexual quential San Francisco Examiner to his son, intercourse. A British campaign warned: who modeled it after Joseph Pulitzer’s “AIDS: Don’t Die of Ignorance.” Some of (1847–1911) New York World. Hearst dou- these campaigns broke new ground in terms bled its circulation in less than a year by of their explicit reference to sexual practices stressing themes that were sure to please the and the stark honesty about the scale of the masses: love, sex, crime, and violence. His epidemic. Some critics argued that they most effective tool for publicity and propa- proved counterproductive because the mes- ganda was the “crusade,” often in the form sage was so bleak that it scared people, who of exposés attacking police graft or govern- “turned off ” or chose not to listen. Major ment corruption. sources of international information on AIDS In 1895 Hearst bought the New York Morn- included the UN’s World Health Organiza- ing Journal and sought to dominate the New tion (WHO) and broadcasters such as the York newspaper scene. He placed public ac- Voice of America. ceptance ahead of profit—or at least publicly Occasionally health propaganda has pro- claimed that this was the case. His champi- voked a backlash.As Alan Winkler has noted, oning of social reform seemed to improve his during the American occupation of the Italian circulation figures. Involvement in interna- island of Lampedusa toward the end of tional events culminated in his most impor- World War II, the citizens took exception to tant crusade: “Cuba Libre!” Hearst attacked new rules and exhortations in the U.S. army Spain’s treatment of Cubans. His approach to propaganda newspaper against defecating in the Cuban question reflected the self-right- Herzl,Theodor 165 eous mentality of many Americans of the came frustrated by the increasing level of 1890s. When staff artist Frederic Remington anti-Semitism.Although he later claimed that requested permission to return from Cuba, it was his coverage of the Dreyfus Affair that complaining that no war seemed likely, made him a Zionist, his epiphany was actually Hearst allegedly replied: “Please remain. You a gradual process. In the aftermath of Drey- furnish the pictures and I’ll furnish the war.” fus’s public degradation and the vulgar anti- More recently Joseph Campbell, a historian Semitism associated with it, Herzl concluded of journalism, has suggested that this story is that only through the creation of a Jewish just too good to be true. Hearst and his rival homeland could the problem of anti-Semi- Pulitzer insisted that America had to go to tism be resolved. In 1896 he published his war with Spain over the issue of Cuban inde- most famous work, Der Judenstaat (The Jew- pendence. President William McKinley ish State), which envisioned a multiethnic, (1843–1901) obliged. polylingual nation similar to the Austro-Hun- Hearst used his publishing empire to run garian Empire. Herzl dedicated the rest of his (unsuccessfully) for both mayor and governor life to the furtherance of the Zionist agenda. of New York. He unsuccessfully opposed Although known primarily for his diplo- American involvement in World War I. His matic efforts and organizational ability on be- publishing empire went into a steep decline half of the Zionist movement—in particular by the end of the 1930s. Hearst is the subject the creation of the World Zionist Organiza- of Orson Welles’s (1915–1985) film master- tion—Herzl was also extremely cognizant of piece Citizen Kane (1941), in which all of the importance of publicity. Herzl’s Zionist Hearst’s psychological problems are sub- ideology sought to unify European Jewry be- sumed within his quest for “Rosebud,” that hind a distinct secular national vision intent elusive element missing from his childhood. on regaining the ancestral homeland of the Brian Collins Jews. Herzl’s major goal was to create a See also Spanish-American War; United States “New Jewish Man” through various Zionist (Progressive Era) cultural and educational program, and to dis- References: Campbell, W.Joseph. Yellow seminate these ideas in the print and visual Journalism:Puncturing the Myths,Defining the Legacies.Westport, CT: Praeger, 2001; Procter, media. For example, Herzl’s statement fol- Ben. William Randolph Hearst:The Early Years, lowing the First Zionist Congress (held in 1863–1910.New York: Oxford, 1998; Basel, Switzerland, in 1897) that he had “cre- Robinson, Judith. The Hearsts:An American ated the Jewish State” must be seen in the Dynasty.Newark: University of Delaware Press, context of generating excitement for the new 1991; Swanberg, W.A. Citizen Hearst. New movement. Herzl himself was presented as York: Scribner’s, 1961. the archetype of the “New Jew” that Zionism sought to create through art and literature. Herzl and the Zionists were pioneers in the Herzl,Theodor (1860–1904) use of visual images. Indeed, Herzl believed Journalist, playwright, essayist, and the that it was crucial for people to “think in im- founder of modern Zionism, Herzl was born ages” since they provided the primary moti- into an assimilated Austrian Jewish family, al- vation for action.As a journalist Herzl recog- though his commitment to Jewish causes did nized the powerful symbolic impact of music not feature prominently in his early life.After and other cultural activities on an educated earning his doctorate from the University of middle class. The earliest publicity materials Vienna, Herzl became a journalist for the Vi- of Herzlian Zionism consisted of a series of ennese Neue Freie Presse, which enabled him to postcards and delegates’ cards produced in travel extensively.Although initially a propo- connection with the First Zionist Congress. nent of assimilation, in the 1890s Herzl be- Although crude by later standards, they 166 Hitler, Adolf

helped introduce to a wider audience the how to seek out and express the hidden feel- pantheon of Zionist heroes—such as Herzl ings of his audience, hammering away at the and Max Nordau (1849–1923)—who formed idea of the uniqueness of the German people the mainstay of Zionist imagery until the end and stressing the way in which their destiny of World War I. After his death in 1904, had been betrayed by their leaders and was Herzl’s imagery took on epic proportions in now threatened by the two great evils of both print and visual formats. Various por- Communism and a Jewish world conspiracy. traits of him continued to circulate during By the early 1930s Hitler had become a subsequent Zionist congresses, and his life force to be reckoned with. He campaigned was presented as the quintessential journey relentlessly, using all the methods of mass from assimilation to Zionism. communication to extend his reach and the Frederic Krome airplane to maximize his personal appear- See also Anti-Semitism; Israel; “J’Accuse”; ances. In January 1933 mainstream German Zionism conservatives voted him into the government References: Berkowitz, Michael. The Jewish Self- as chancellor in the hope that he could Image in the West.New York: New York University Press, 2000; Kornberg, Jacques. thereby be controlled. Instead, he lost no Theodor Herzl:From Assimilation to Zionism. time in consolidating his power. Propaganda Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1993. was at the heart of Hitler’s state, whose em- Robertson, Ritchie, and Edward Timms. bodiment was in the person of Hitler him- Theodor Herzl and the Origins of Zionism. self. The Nazi Party was organized according Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1997. to the “leadership principle” (Führerprinzip), with every man obeying his appointed com- mander, and Hitler was the leader of all Ger- Hitler, Adolf (1889–1945) many. His image was everywhere, strong and Dictator of Nazi Germany and arguably the staring into a distance at a glorious future twentieth century’s most notorious exponent that only he could see. A favorite Nazi slogan of propaganda, Hitler was born in Austria. proclaimed the union of Germany, the state, After training as an artist, he served and was and Hitler: “One people, one empire, one wounded in the German army during World leader.” He paid particular attention to edu- War I. By his own account (Mein Kampf) his cation and censorship, creating an environ- war service taught him the power of propa- ment dominated by the Nazi view of the ganda. He saw how British propaganda de- world. Hitler’s Third Reich became famous stroyed German morale and paved the way for its great propaganda spectacles, such as for Germany’s surrender. In 1919, while sup- the Nuremberg rallies, the monumental ar- posedly spying on extremist political activity chitecture of Albert Speer (1905–1981), and for the army, he actually joined a tiny group, propaganda films directed by Leni Riefen- which he swiftly renamed the National So- stahl (1902– ), including the spectacular Tr i- cialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP). In umph of the Will (1935). Despite the latter, the 1923 Hitler’s Nazi party took part in an un- Ministry for Popular Enlightenment and Pro- successful putsch in Munich. Following a pe- paganda (RMVP) spent much more time riod in jail, he began the slow task of building commissioning escapist fantasy art and films. the Nazi Party into a serious political force. With the outbreak of World War II, Ger- Hitler was a gifted orator whose rhetorical man propaganda moved overseas. Hitler used style was far more complex than the news- propaganda like an artillery barrage to soften reel footage of his impassioned speeches sug- up his enemy before the decisive blow. Here gests. His opening remarks often seemed Hitler’s personal role sometimes proved a li- clumsy and faltering, and he would build ability. He weakened the credibility of Ger- upon the sympathy of his listeners. He knew many’s case by issuing needlessly grandiose Holocaust Denial 167

German Chancellor Adolf Hitler receives the ovation of the Reichstag in Berlin in March 1938 after announcing the "peaceful" acquisition of Austria.(National Archives) statements that became hostages to fortune, Lord Haw-Haw; Mein Kampf; Poland; as was the case in July 1940, when he an- Portraiture; Portugal; Propaganda, Definitions nounced that the war had been won, or in of; Psychological Warfare; RMVP; Rumor; World War II (Germany) July 1941, when he proclaimed the defeat of References: Domarus, Max. Hitler:Speeches and the USSR. As early victories gave way to a Proclamations 1932–1945.4 vols. Wauconda, IL: stalemate on the steppes of the USSR, and Bolchazy-Carducci, 1990– ; Kershaw,Ian. The the noose of Allied air power tightened Hitler Myth:Image and Reality in the Third Reich. around Germany’s neck, Hitler and Joseph Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987; Welch, David. The Third Reich:Politics and Propaganda. 2d Goebbels (1897–1945), his propaganda min- ed. New York: Routledge, 2002. ister, attempted to use propaganda to rally the German public for a total war. At this point Nazi Germany paid the price for its Holland “leadership principle.” Hitler—as though be- See Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg lieving his own propaganda—assumed per- sonal command of numerous military opera- tions and refused to acknowledge that victory had deserted him. No amount of propaganda Holocaust Denial could prevent the destruction of Hitler’s This term is applied to any individuals, Germany in 1945. groups, or institutions that seek to dispute or Nicholas J.Cull minimize the events relating to the destruc- See also Anti-Semitism;Austrian Empire; The Big tion of European Jewry during World War II. Lie; Civil Defense; Fascism, Italian; Germany; The primary goal of the deniers is to rehabil- Goebbels, Joseph; Health; Holocaust Denial; itate Hitler and Nazi ideology by belittling 168 Holocaust Denial what they believe to be the prime event that historians found that canard to be untrue, discredited Nazism, namely, the Holocaust. deniers leaped into the fray, arguing that it Holocaust deniers cast themselves as “revi- brought into question the entire story of the sionists,” thereby attempting to lay claim to Holocaust. historical legitimacy by arguing that they are Another common tactic of the deniers is merely trying to examine the “other” side of to engage in historical inquiries that on the the issue in order to uncover the true facts. surface appear legitimate but upon closer ex- The basic tenets of the deniers’ arguments in- amination prove to be based on pseudo- volve one or more of the following themes: science. One prominent example was the in- (1) Hitler never intended to destroy the Jews vestigation of the Auschwitz gas chambers by and was unaware of what was happening—no Fred Leuchter (1944– ), who bore the nick- document bearing Hitler’s signature can be name Dr. Death because he earned his living found ordering the destruction of the Jews. making execution devices for prisons. (2) Hitler’s plan was to force the emigration Leuchter, who claimed to be an engineer, of the Jews. Accordingly, Jews were rounded went to Auschwitz in 1988 and took samples up and herded into camps. Because of the Al- off the walls of the gas chambers and crema- lied blockade and bombings, the available toria in order to test for the presence of food supply was drastically reduced, and cyanide. His conclusion that these chambers many Jews died of hunger and disease, al- could not have been used to gas people was though the total number was less than six applauded and publicized by the deniers. De- hundred thousand. Allied action also led to tailed study of the “Leuchter Report” re- the deaths of hundreds of thousands of inno- vealed that it was based on erroneous as- cent Germans—thus the Allies and the Nazis sumptions (cyanide does not penetrate are moral equals. (3) The Jews, in conjunc- deeply into concrete). It also emerged that tion with Soviet Russia, engineered the es- Leuchter had falsified his credentials and cape of the Jews eastward and then blamed overstated his expertise. Despite this, his re- the German people for genocide. (4) port is still cited by deniers. Auschwitz was not a death camp and no one Perhaps the most serious inroads of the was gassed there. (5) The Holocaust was an deniers into legitimate historical circles re- anti-German propaganda myth spread by the sulted from the writings of David Irving victorious Allies and orchestrated by the Jews (1938– ). A self-trained British historian, to justify harsh reparations. The unifying sub- Irving had written a number of popular his- text behind all these theories is a Jewish con- tory books about World War II and wartime spiracy. Although many deniers refuse to ac- personalities. Although specialists in the field knowledge it, anti-Semitism motivates most often criticized his work as pro-Nazi and adherents of Holocaust denial. careless in its treatment of primary sources, Holocaust deniers use a variety of tactics Irving was often accepted as a reputable to justify their claims. One employs the old scholar who had uncovered new sources on Roman legal maneuver whereby if one part the Nazi era. Claiming to have been won over of a testimony is found to be false, the entire to the revisionist camp by the “Leuchter Re- testimony is invalidated. Deniers conse- port,” Irving became the primary spokesman quently look for small inconsistencies in ei- for the notion that Hitler had not known ther survivor testimony or historical works, about the plight of the Jews and that no one claiming that these mistakes invalidate the was gassed at Auschwitz. His biography of entire narrative. One such effort, which oc- Joseph Goebbels attracted special attention curred in the 1970s, revolved around the by claiming that it was Goebbels and not old story that the Nazis used the body fat of Hitler who was behind all the anti-Semitic their victims to make soap. When legitimate activities. After his publisher cancelled the Horst Wessel Lied 169 book’s publication in 1997, Irving depicted History:Who Says the Holocaust Never Happened himself as a free-speech martyr, the victim of and Why Do They Say It? Berkeley: University of a Jewish conspiracy. Irving later sued Ameri- California Press, 2000. can historian Deborah Lipstadt (1947– ) for libel in a British court after she had branded him a Holocaust denier. Irving, who repre- Horst Wessel Lied (1929) sented himself during the trial (January– The Horst Wessel Lied (“Die Fahne hoch!”— April 2000), lost his suit and was assessed a Raise the Flag!) became the second national heavy monetary fine. anthem in Nazi Germany between 1933 and Holocaust denial is the special provenance 1945. It was easy to sing and was meant to be of the Institute for Historical Review (IHR), sung by persons marching in uniform. The a California-based organization, which held song’s success in 1930 owes much to Joseph its first annual convention in 1979. In addi- Goebbels’ (1897–1945) propaganda and tion to its meetings, IHR publishes a journal publicity tactics in Berlin. The song’s author, and maintains a website. Between 1990 and Horst Wessel (1907–1930), was the son of a 2001 Holocaust denial reached a broader au- prominent Lutheran pastor in Berlin who dience through the Internet. One such or- served as military chaplain before his death in ganization is the Committee for the Open 1915. Wessel joined the SA (Nazi storm Debate on the Holocaust (CODOH), run by troopers) and published the text of his song Bradley R. Smith (1939– ). Smith routinely in a Nazi newspaper in the autumn of 1929. sends full-page ads to college newspapers Early in 1930 Wessel was shot by Commu- challenging the validity of the Holocaust nists in his Berlin apartment; he had moved under the guise of open debate. The most in with a prostitute whom he planned to significant inroads of Holocaust denial have make an honest woman. When Wessel died been in the Islamic world, where it has be- in a hospital room on 23 February 1930, come an integral part of the ongoing Israeli- Goebbels arranged for a lavish funeral. Palestinian/Israeli-Arab conflict. Islamic Wessel’s song became so ubiquitous after Holocaust denial is based on the notion that it 1933 that it threatened to replace “Deutsch- was Western guilt over the Holocaust that land, Deutschland über Alles” in the affec- led to the creation of the State of Israel. Since tions of many an ardent Nazi, in part because the Holocaust is a creation of Zionist propa- the song’s range was easier for the amateur ganda, and since Israel uses the Holocaust to singer. Wessel did not write the tune, though “drum up sympathy” in the Western world, he was officially credited as its composer. The according to this argument, the exposure of tune shares many similarities with earlier the “myth” of the Holocaust is necessary in German folksongs, but the exact source was order to eliminate Western support for the a familiar sailor’s song dating from the early Jewish state. Holocaust denial has thus be- 1900s. Nevertheless, the official Berlin pub- come part of the conventional wisdom of Is- lisher To-Ma credited Wessel with tune and lamic polemics, which seeks to delegitimize text. This was the first Nazi marching song Israel. released as a record (1930) and was available Frederic Krome in an amazing number of arrangements, in- See also Anti-Semitism;Arab World; Internet; cluding mandolin quartet, guitar solo, and Israel harmonica, to say nothing of vocal arrange- References: Evans, Richard J. Lying about Hitler: ments for women’s choruses and school History,Holocaust,and the David Irving Trial. New choirs. The first verse runs: “Die Fahne hoch, York: Basic Books, 2001; Lipstadt, Deborah E. Denying the Holocaust:The Growing Assault on die Reihen dicht geschlossen, / S.A. Truth and Memory. New York: Free Press, 1993; marschiert mit mutig festem Schritt. / Shermer, Michael, and Alex Grobman. Denying Kam’raden, die Rot front und Reaktion er- 170 Hungary schossen, / marschier’n im Geist in unsem tion of 1968. During the 1970s he came to Reihen mit.” (Raise the flag! Close ranks! / dominate the revolutionary government in The SA marches calmly with purposeful Iraq, emerging as president in 1979. tread. / Comrades killed by the Red Front Propaganda was at the heart of Saddam’s and reactionaries / march with us in spirit.) Ba’ath Party regime. He controlled the David Culbert media and nurtured the sort of personality See also Goebbels, Joseph; Music cult familiar from other twentieth-century References: Baird, Jay W. To Die for Germany: dictatorships. Saddam’s portrait was ubiqui- Heroes in the Nazi Pantheon. Bloomington: tous in Iraq and was often rendered as a vast Indiana University Press, 1990; Murdoch, Brian. Fighting Songs and Warring Words:Popular mural. The chief architect of his image in Lyrics of Two World Wars. London: Routledge, print was the poet and journalist Abdul- 1990; Welch, David. Propaganda and the German Amir Malla. Part of Saddam’s brand of na- Cinema,1933–1945. London: I. B. Tauris, 2001. tionalism included appealing to the past glo- ries of Iraq. Murals frequently depicted him as one of the great rulers of Iraq’s past. To Hungary this end he sponsored vast archeological ex- See Austrian Empire cavations at such ancient sites as Nineveh and Babylon, which included massive recon- structions. Modern propaganda projects in- Hussein, Saddam (1937– ) tended to boost his image included some Saddam Hussein was born in 1937 in Tikrit, eighty-three palaces and an enormous vic- near Baghdad. In the 1950s he became in- tory arch in Baghdad—an immense sculp- volved in the Ba’ath Party, which combined ture consisting of crossed swords erected to socialism and Iraqi and Arab nationalism in a mark the end of the eight-year war with potent blend. Like European fascists of the Iran, which included an extended radio early 1920s, its leaders preached that vio- propaganda duel. Saddam also deployed one lence could be a creative force. Saddam took of the most ancient propaganda devices, part in two unsuccessful coups (1959 and claiming genealogical descent from Ali, the 1964) before playing a key role in the revolu- fourth caliph of Baghdad.

Iraqi 25-dinar note bearing the likeness of Saddam Hussein.The notes were overprinted for use as occupation currency when Iraq controlled Kuwait after the invasion,August 1991.(Courtesy of David Culbert) Hussein, Saddam 171

Hoping to use Kuwaiti oil revenues to not be in violation of UN resolutions. The speed his postwar reconstruction, in 1990 he United States refused to compromise and in invaded Kuwait. He remained in power long March 2003 led a war to oust Saddam from after the victorious Western forces in the Gulf power. Saddam was seldom seen during this War of January and February 1991 forced him war. The burden of representing the regime to leave that country. During this armed con- in public fell to the minister of information, flict Saddam pursued a number of propaganda Mohammed Saeed al-Sahhaf (1940– ), who strategies. He addressed himself to the people became famous for his absurdly overopti- of the Arab world as a truer representative of mistic press briefings. Within three weeks the people’s aspirations than their ruling elites Saddam’s regime lay in ruins. The demolition and sought the approval of the region by of statues of Saddam provided potent images launching missile attacks against Israel. In his for his defeat: propaganda from the destruc- approach to the West Saddam sought to ex- tion of propaganda. Saddam’s exact fate, like ploit the so-called Vietnam Syndrome, gam- that of Osama bin Laden following the U.S. bling that the U.S.-led coalition could not sus- war in Afghanistan, soon became a matter for tain massive casualties. His tactic of revealing propaganda claims and counterclaims. As Iraqi casualties resulting from bombardment with bin Laden, defiant taped messages pur- to the Western media and steering correspon- porting to be from the missing leader were dents like Peter Arnett (1934– ) of CNN to released to the press. Given the simultaneous such scenes proved effective. news that Saddam’s family had absconded Contrary to Western expectations, Sad- with billions of dollars from the Iraqi treas- dam survived the Gulf War and the Shi’ite ury—enough to build a pile of banknotes and Kurdish rebellions that followed. His three times as high as New York City’s Em- control of the media sustained the regime, pire State Building—Saddam out of power and in 2002 he orchestrated a public display seemed unlikely to have much of a future as a of his popularity by organizing a plebiscite folk hero in Iraq or elsewhere. and winning around 99 percent of the vote. Nicholas J.Cull He continued to present himself to the world See also Arab World; Gulf War; Israel; as the man who had defied the West and Memorials and Monuments; Terrorism, whose people suffered “unjust” sanctions and War on periodic U.S. and British air attacks. References: Karsh, Efraim, and Inari Rautsi. In late 2002 Saddam engaged in an inter- Saddam Hussein:A Political Biography. London: Brasseys, 1991; Taylor, Philip M. War and the national propaganda duel with the United Media:Propaganda and Persuasion in the Gulf War. States and Britain, insisting that he had no Manchester: Manchester University Press, weapons of mass destruction and hence could 1992.

I

Iceland describe their work. In 1622 the Vatican See Scandinavia made him a saint. Nicholas J.Cull See also Latin America; Reformation and Ignatius of Loyola, Saint Counter-Reformation; Religion; Switzerland (1491–1556) References: Meissner, W.W. Ignatius of Loyola. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992; The founder of the Jesuit Order and pioneer Caraman, Philip. Ignatius Loyola:A Biography of of systematic propaganda, Iñigo Lopez de the Founder of the Jesuits. San Francisco: Harper Recalde was born in Loyola, northern and Row, 1990. Spain, to a wealthy family. He began his reli- gious activity in 1522, after a war wound cut short a promising military career. Ig- Indian Subcontinent natius of Loyola’s core idea was to apply The history of propaganda in the Indian sub- military discipline and structure to religious continent is unique thanks to the linguistic, enterprise. In 1534 he and his associate socioeconomic, and cultural diversity of the Francis Xavier (1506–1552) founded the region. Propaganda became a central feature Society of Jesus in Paris. In 1539 he traveled of the state during British colonial rule. to Rome, and beginning in 1540 he oper- Though news writers (known as waquiah ated with the authority of Pope Paul III (r. nawis) were already present during the 1534–1549). The original objective of the Mughal period (1526–1857), the birth of order was to convert the Islamic world to modern newspapers made propaganda cen- Christianity, but the Jesuits were soon rede- tral to government and public discourse in ployed in the struggle against the Reforma- India. Britain’s East India Company made ex- tion and again to win new converts in the tensive use of news reporters, who used lands then being opened up to European newsletters to disseminate “speedy and up- trade. Ignatius of Loyola himself sent mis- to-date information about the market, busi- sionaries to Brazil, India, and Japan. He re- ness transactions, shipping, [and] decisions of alized the importance of education to the the administration” to the Indian capitalist propagation of Catholic doctrine. Members class, which had emerged under British pa- of his order used the term “propaganda” to tronage. In 1780 James Augustus Hicky, a

173 174 Indian Subcontinent

“disgruntled” employee of the company, A number of laws were passed between launched the first newspaper, the Bengal the late eighteenth and twentieth centuries Gazette or Calcutta General Advertiser, with the with the objective of limiting public exposure aim of “effecting more easy circulation of to “antistate” views and opinions. Three of such information as are either useful or en- them deserve mention. The Vernacular Press tertaining and tending to promote the trad- Act of 1878 discriminated against Indian-lan- ing concerns of industrious individuals.” guage newspapers. Many papers had to pub- In the colonial era British state propaganda lish entirely in English following the act. The was covert and indirect and took the form of Newspapers (Incitement to Offences) Act of suppression and censorship. The period be- 1908 was passed “in view of the close con- tween 1780 and 1818 witnessed stringent nection between the perpetration of outrages government regulation and control. Lord by means of explosives and the publication of Wellesley (1760–1842), who served as the criminal incitements in certain newspapers.” governor general between 1798 and 1805, In such cases the administration was empow- appointed an official censor to inspect all ered to confiscate the printing press used in newspaper copy well in advance of publica- the production of the newspaper and to stop tion. Failure to submit papers for censorship its lawful issue. The Indian Press Act of 1910 was a punishable offense and on several occa- had a wider scope.Apart from incitements to sions led to editors being deported without murder and acts of violence, the act dealt benefit of trial. Many others were censured with other “specified classes of published and forced to apologize. matter, including any words or signs tending With the abolition of censorship in 1818 to seduce soldiers or sailors from their alle- by the then governor general, Lord Hastings giance to duty, to bring into hatred or con- (1754–1826), the reins of control over pub- tempt the British Government, any native lic opinion loosened. This trend continued prince or any section of His Majesty’s sub- until the end of the 1860s. Of Hastings’s suc- jects in India or to intimidate public servants cessors neither Lord Amherst (1773–1857) or private individuals.” nor William Bentinck (1774–1839) insisted With the change in the colonial govern- on the enforcement of existing regulations. ment’s attitude to the question of India’s The period 1818 to 1868 was most con- freedom, some of these acts were subse- ducive for the nationalistic media to take quently either amended or repealed. Such root and flourish. In fact, newspapers be- events as the end of World War I, the Jalian- came potent instruments in the hands of an walla Bagh massacre in 1919, and the home- emerging bourgeois middle class, who advo- coming of Mahatma Gandhi (1869–1948) in cated socioreligious movements under the 1921 gave a fillip to the freedom movement, influence of liberal Western ideas and were which in turn generated hunger for news largely beholden to the patronage of the among the public. Both the English- and re- colonial administration. They also reflected gional-language press fostered such eager- the increasing clash of interests between for- ness through consistent coverage. eign rulers and the rising nationalistic mid- The years 1930 to 1945 witnessed a signif- dle class. For the latter, press and education icant transformation in the organizational were significant factors that could effectively patterns and ideological moorings of the counter the incursion of the state into the media. By then it had become increasingly ideological realm. By the end of the 1870s difficult even for successful newspapers to the propaganda function of the press was remain in production without sustained fi- widely recognized and a clear distinction was nancial support and the patronage of big visible between a pro-Raj press and a nation- business. Although many of the nationalistic alistic, anticolonial press. Indian newspapers had brilliant editors, their Indian Subcontinent 175 printing and composing machines were to- middle class for the military in eastern India. tally outdated and worn out. This made it Newspapers were ensured of liberal supplies impossible for them to compete in get-up of newsprint and suitable news material to and “class” with the privileged few, who not sustain wartime nationalism and a negative only received large subsidies in the form of propaganda against congress, which declared government advertisements but also could its opposition to the war. Also, a Film Advi- afford to hire trained and experienced staff sory Board was introduced in 1940 with a and buy expensive modern equipment. Hav- view to creating the necessary infrastructure ing realized the significance of financial pa- of documentary production to aid the war ef- tronage, newspapers like the Free Press Jour- forts. In 1943 two other agencies—the Infor- nal, Sentinel, Hindustan Times, and National mation Films of India and the Indian News Call were “flirting with” or trying to woo big Parade—were launched to broaden film pro- businesses—to help the mill owners in the duction and distribution. The exhibitors name of swadeshi, boost Indian insurance in were asked to include two thousand feet of the name of nationalism, and support Indian government-approved propaganda film. shipping because it was a national enterprise. It may be noted that the religious rift in National Call campaigned on behalf of Gen- the freedom movement became apparent in eral Motors and Dunlop in return for fi- the first decade of the twentieth century nances to run the paper. when the All-India Muslim League was The pro-independence Congress Party formed with a view to protect and advance proved well able to mobilize mass support the political rights and interests of the Mus- through propaganda. Gandhi proved a mas- lims of India. The formation of the league ter of propaganda through symbolic action. signified the “emergence of Muslim national- This reached a climax in 1930 with the ism in an organised form.” Throughout the launch of the civil disobedience movement. four decades that followed, under the politi- The center of Congress Party activity shifted cal and intellectual guidance of leaders like form urban to rural areas. There was height- Muhammad Ali Jinnah (1876–1948) and Al- ened propaganda to mobilize the rural lama Iqbal (1875–1952) the league actively masses through a committed cadre and by campaigned to gain more support from In- using a variety of instruments, including dian Muslims. A consolidated northwest newspapers and volunteer organizations. Muslim Indian state (consisting of Punjab, This shift eventually led to the radicalization North-West Frontier Provinces, Sind, and of congress and an ideological transforma- Baluchistan) within or outside the British tion in the direction of socialism. However, Empire had become its cardinal demand by despite limited success in organizing differ- 1930. In 1940 Jinnah declared that Muslims ent segments of the society—peasants, were a nation according to any definition of a workers, students, and women—and win- nation and had a right to their homeland, ning the support of cultural organizations, their territory, and their state. This had the the spokesmen for socialist ideas could not potential to become a slogan to rally the hold a hegemonic position in the nationalis- Muslim masses. Under these circumstances, tic propaganda. in contrast to the decision of the congress to Censorship was used effectively by the oppose the British involvement in World War British administration during World War II II, the league supported it on the condition (1939–1945) both to counter the Japanese that the latter accepted its demands. short-wave propaganda and the “Quit India” The immediate postindependence years campaign of congress. Food and financial in- constituted one of the most tumultuous peri- centives were used to gain the support of the ods in the history of the subcontinent. The poor, the laboring class, and the educated British left behind two nations—Pakistan, 176 Indian Subcontinent which chose to be an Islamic country, and from intervening militarily in the Indo-Pak- India, which sought to remain secular—thus istan war of 1971. Since the Cold War has redrawing the political map of South Asia. become a thing of the past, and given the Like the country, the provinces of Punjab and strengthening of nonproliferation norms Bengal were divided, leading to bloody riots and antiterrorism propaganda, political re- within these divisions. There was a complete lations within and outside the subcontinent separation of religious communities in the are undergoing realignment. northwestern province of Punjab. The elite who came to power in free India Both India and Pakistan inherited ruined projected themselves as strong champions of economies. Their charismatic leaders—in- freedom of expression. In his address to the cluding Gandhi, Jinnah, and Allama Iqbal— All-India Newspapers Editors’ Conference lost their lives not long after the end of colo- held in 1950, Nehru stated that it is better to nial rule. The newly independent India, have a completely free press, with all the dan- under the premiership of Jawaharlal Nehru gers resulting from the misuse of that free- (1889–1964) and Pakistan, under the prime dom, than a suppressed or regulated press. ministership of Liaquat Ali Khan (1895– The Indian press has remained the one with 1951), defined their foreign policy in terms the least political control, with the exception of carving out distinct spaces for themselves of the Emergency period (1975–1977) im- in global politics as uncommitted nations. Li- posed by Indira Gandhi (1917–1984), aquat Ali Khan, like Nehru, was a staunch Nehru’s daughter and the then prime minis- supporter of nonalignment. Ironically, from ter, during which the press was subjected to the 1950s through the 1970s the foreign poli- censorship and owners were threatened with cies of both countries were molded and mod- seizure and the transfer of their property.As a ified by the politics of the Cold War between result, it was forced to play a docile role. the United States and the USSR, each super- While this episode exposed the weakness of power possessing military and political aspi- the Indian fourth estate, it also provided the rations in the Asian region. Pakistan’s need champions of freedom of expression with a for economic aid and international safeguards hard lesson in democracy. The Anti-Defama- for its sovereignty and security eventually tion Bill, introduced by the Rajiv Gandhi drew it closer to the United States, whose (1944–1991) government in 1988 to curb the agenda was to contain Communist China in investigative role of the press, failed to be- the continent. Pakistan was considered by the come law in the face of widespread protests. United States as a potential “advocate of The press in Pakistan cannot claim to be Western policies that can exert a moderating free to the same degree, though it is consid- influence on extreme nationalism and anti- ered one of the most outspoken in the re- Western attitudes.” Under the presidency of gion. It has suffered heavily at the hands of General Muhammad Ayub Khan (1907– authorities—both elected governments and 1974), since the early 1960s Pakistan had martial regimes—who have resorted to re- also taken steps to develop a closer under- pressive legal and constitutional measures to standing with China. At the other end, the make them toe the official line. The Press and USSR nurtured ties with India to counter- Publication Ordinance (PPO) promulgated balance China in the region and to check the in 1963, which was repealed and replaced by advance of Western capitalism. The Indo- the Registration of Printing Press Ordinance Soviet relationship culminated in the Treaty (RPPO) in the mid-1980s, is by far the on Peace, Friendship and Cooperation of strongest instrument used by the govern- 1971. This treaty is considered by many as a ment to close down newspapers and silence major political and strategic factor that re- the press. Governments could also indirectly strained both China and the United States curb the press since it controlled the alloca- Indonesia 177 tion of newsprint and the release of public cable and satellite programs because of advertisements. In the absence of adequate their purported anti-Pakistan propaganda. democratic and constitutional safeguards to More recently even the Indian press has protect their interests, journalists have been been accused of playing a propaganda role in compelled either to work under a self-im- specific contexts. The most conspicuous in- posed censorship or to engage in political stance is the partisan role played by a section propaganda that suits the government. Ef- of the English and regional language press— forts are now being made to enhance the especially the Hindi press—in the early scope of media freedom in Pakistan. 1990s when the Hindutva ideology was being Newsprint quotas were abolished in 2000 propagated vehemently by such right-wing and a customs duty on newsprint was re- parties as the Bharatiya Janata Party. Capital- duced. In 2001 the government presented a izing on the sentiments of the upper castes model freedom of information act for wider during the antireservation agitation of the public debate. late 1980s, this party rekindled the federat- Interestingly, in the case of television in ing tendency of the essentially caste-centered India, the involvement of the private sector electoral politics in the country around a has become significant since the mid-1990s. common platform called “Hindutva.” The Until then the government had maintained phenomenal growth of the Hindi-language total control over this media institution. press in the post-1979 period is directly The party in power has always used tele- linked to this tendency. vision to influence and alter the terms of Tara S.Nair political debate. For instance, it has been See also British Empire; Gandhi, Mohandas K. argued that the soap-opera serialization of References: Brass, Paul R. Language,Religion and the Ramayana on national television from Politics in North India. Delhi:Vikas, 1975; Chakravarty, Nikhil. “The Press: Changing Face January 1987 to September 1990 helped of the Watchdog.” India, 15 August 1997; the Hindu right propagate and assert its po- Mahmood, Safdar. Pakistan:Political Roots and litical agenda, which centered on the issue Development. New Delhi: Sterling, 1990; Media of the reconstruction of the Ram temple in Watch. State of the Media and Press Freedom Ayodhya. On the other hand, radio, which Report,Pakistan,2000–2001. Islamabad, was introduced to the subcontinent in 1921 Pakistan: Green Press, 2000–2001; Moitra, Mohit. A History of Indian Journalism. Calcutta: as an experiment and was made into a state National Book Agency, 1969; Nair, Tara S. monopoly in 1930, remained an important “Growth and Structure of the Indian Press.” arm of state propaganda machinery until Ph.D. dissertation. Centre for Development the mid-1990s. Legislation was passed to Studies, Trivandrum and Jawaharlal Nehru make both radio and television au- University, New Delhi, 1998; Ram, N. “An Independent Press and Anti-Hunger Strategies: tonomous. In the case of Pakistan, the elec- The Indian Experience.” In The Political Economy tronic media is virtually owned by the gov- of Hunger.Vol. 2, Famine Prevention. Ed.Amartya ernment. This has given rise to the Sen and Jean Dreze. Oxford: Clarendon Press, criticism that this segment of media “pres- 1990; Sahni, J. N. Truth About the Indian Press. ents an unrealistically positive and sanitized Bombay:Allied Publishers, 1974. version of reality.” The mutual banning of media broadcasts by Pakistan and India has figured centrally in the conflict between the Indonesia two countries. For instance, in June 1999 Indonesia is the fourth largest country in India banned the relaying of Pakistan Tele- Asia, with the fourth largest population in vision (PTV) programs, saying that they the world (estimated at almost 213 million in contain malicious matter. In September 2000). It comprises some fourteen thousand 2001 Pakistan banned the airing of Indian islands, many tiny and uninhabited; two 178 Indonesia thirds of its population resides on a handful of wartime collaborator with the enemy. These these islands, including Java and Bali. The issues are dealt with in a film by Joris Ivens vast majority of Indonesia’s inhabitants are (1898–1989), who in 1946 resigned as Muslim. Propaganda has figured centrally in Dutch film commissioner for Indonesia, sub- each religion’s efforts to capture the hearts sequently releasing Indonesia Calling, a docu- and minds of the three hundred ethnic mentary made in Sydney, Australia, with the groups in today’s Indonesia. It has been a sta- support of the major Australian dockwork- ple in the nationalistic-colonialist struggles of ers’ unions. Ivens’s outspoken appeal for In- the twentieth century. To Westerners In- donesian independence was a prototype for donesia evokes powerful associations with a later Third World solidarity films. The film primitive “otherness,” sometimes viewed caused the Dutch to strip Ivens of his citizen- simply as exotic but also viewed as offering a ship, leading an unidentified contemporary more truthful alternative to Western civiliza- enthusiast to note that “this film explains why tion, as popularized by American anthropolo- his waits for sponsorship have often been gist Margaret Mead (1901–1978) in her long.” writings of the 1930s. Today’s Indonesia is a Much of Indonesian history since 1975 blend of enormous urban congestion and ex- has involved a variant form of nationalism, treme rural isolation, the latter imposed by the effort by Indonesia to impose itself mili- the need for water transportation. tarily on East Timor, half of a large island Indonesia came under Dutch control in east of Bali that had been a Portuguese 1602, when the Dutch East India Company colony until gaining independence in 1975. seized power, operating a highly lucrative East Timor’s inhabitants, reflecting centuries trade with the Netherlands until 1798. The of Portuguese rule, were primarily Roman latter’s government itself controlled the Catholic. Its independence movement, using Netherlands East Indies, as Indonesia was the acronym FRETILIN, waged a guerrilla then known, from 1816 until 1941. Japan as- war against Indonesia from the western part sumed power from 1942 to 1945. On 17 Au- of Timor. UN observers estimate that some gust 1945 Ahmed Sukarno (1907–1970) de- sixty thousand people were killed as a result clared the independence of Indonesia; on 17 of ethnic cleansing, in which Muslim West December 1949 the Dutch granted Indonesia Timor attacked Catholic East Timor. On 30 full independence. In 1966, following months August 2001 East Timor’s independence was of political turmoil and the assassination of confirmed in UN-supervised free elections. many of the most powerful Indonesian gener- World media attention focused on the als, Lt. Gen. Mohamed Suharto (1921– ) re- bombing of mostly Australian tourists at a placed Sukarno and was reelected every five Bali nightclub in 2002, the act of Muslim years until 1998. After additional turmoil, terrorists. Megawati Sukarnoputri, Sukarno’s daughter The student of propaganda should not (1947– ) became president in 2001. neglect the contribution of ethnographic The story of Indonesian nationalism pitted writing, photography, and film to Western against Dutch colonialism is a familiar tale, perceptions of an idyllic “precivilized” world. but there are important differences that will For example, Margaret Mead became a be of particular interest to the student of household name in the United States in the propaganda since they are occasioned by 1930s thanks to her publications based on media campaigns of persuasion. For example, fieldwork as a young anthropologist, first in when the Japanese established a protectorate Samoa and then in Bali. She took thousands in 1942, they brought Sukarno back from of photographs, a selection of which ap- exile, making him the leader of his country, peared in book form in 1942. She also filmed though to the Dutch he simply became a tribal customs, often emphasizing the cul- Intelligence 179 ture’s sexual freedom, a subject that found Indonesia.” Asian Society 20 (December 1980): wide interest in American mass-circulation 1253–1270; Foerstel, Leonota, and Angela magazines of the 1930s. A Balinese Family (ca. Oilliam. Confronting the Margaret Mead Legacy: Scholarship,Empire,and the South Pacific. 1942) illustrates Mead’s approach. In the Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1992; words of an anonymous reviewer, this film is Mead, Margaret, and Gregory Bateson. Balinese “a study of a Balinese family showing the way Character:A Photographic Analysis. New York: in which father and mother treat the three New York Academy of Sciences, 1942; youngest children... There are scenes Schwarz,Adam. A Nation of Waiting:Indonesia in showing the father giving the baby his breast.” the 1990s.Boulder, CO: Westview, 1994. Subsequent ethnographic films of Indonesia include Robert Gardner’s Dead Birds (1964), a powerful study of symbolic warfare among Intelligence the Dani of western (Indonesian) New The relationship between intelligence and Guinea. propaganda involves a fine—and sometimes Given the remoteness of so many of the controversial—distinction. Intelligence agen- smaller islands and the enormous ethnic di- cies can provide invaluable guidance to propa- versity of the country, it is impossible to pub- gandists and have frequently engaged in psy- lish a single national newspaper. In Jakarta, chological-warfare activities. Propaganda the capital, Kompas is the leading newspaper, agencies have also set up their own intelli- with a circulation of over 500,000. In 1995 gence apparatus to monitor the content of there were 28.1 million radios, not nearly their output. The most spectacular example enough to permit one to say that radio of cooperation between intelligence and reaches all 213 million inhabitants. Television propaganda is probably the Zimmermann was introduced in 1962. By 1995 the country telegram of 1917, when a German telegram had 11.5 million sets. There are three major intercepted by British intelligence became an television networks: TV Indonesia (TVRI), explosive piece of propaganda after being Rojawali Citra TV, and a small educational leaked to the U.S. press. network in Jakarta. Officially there is no cen- The case of Britain during World War I sorship of the press, but this does not extend provides a clear example of the structural to foreign journalists or foreign films and problems that can arise in the area of intelli- television programs, which might be more gence. The Ministry of Information (MoI) inclined to comment on domestic affairs. and the Foreign Office (FO) argued over Since 1975 Indonesian electronic media have who was responsible for intelligence activi- used a great deal of American programming, ties. When the Department of Information as well as American commercials—the latter, (DOI) was set up in January 1917, intelli- of course, edited for local consumption and gence became a branch of the newly formed with Indonesian voice-overs. As one Indone- DOI, but under the 1918 reconstruction it sian official noted, Indonesia is a country that was transferred to the FO and the Political wants a national mass media but needs the Intelligence Department (PID). The ensuing technological assistance of outsiders. It is a struggle between the MoI and the FO over dilemma that makes virtually every television the PID reflected their differing perception program or foreign feature film a source of of the role of propaganda and intelligence. interest to the student of propaganda. Lord Beaverbrook (1879–1964), who David Culbert headed the MoI, believed that matters of po- litical intelligence (for example, the enemy’s See also Australia; Philippines; Southeast Asia; Sukarno; United Nations; World War II (Japan) morale) was only of value to the propagan- References: Anderson, Michael. “Transnational dist and tried unsuccessfully to secure the in- Advertising and Politics: The Case of telligence for his new ministry. The FO, on 180 International (Communist and Socialist) the other hand, argued successfully that in- tellectuals disseminating anti-Communist lit- telligence work was not solely concerned erature. For its part the Soviet secret police with propaganda. Rather, its function was to (KGB) planted fabricated stories in the inter- compile periodic summaries, based on a national media as part of its “disinformation” wide sampling of diplomatic sources, for campaign. policymakers on the political situation in David Welch foreign countries. In World War II this real- See also Beaverbrook, Max; CIA; Cultural ization led to the setting up of the Political Propaganda; Disinformation; IRD; KGB; MoI; Warfare Executive (PWE) and the Special Okhrana; PWE; RFE/RL; World War II (United States); Zimmermann Telegram; Operations Executive (SOE). The British Zinoviev Letter government and the MoI decided that there References: Beesley, Patrick. Room 40:British was a need to establish a system of intelli- Naval Intelligence,1914–1918. Oxford: Oxford gence to monitor what the public was think- University Press, 1984; Sanders, Michael, and ing about the war. In January 1940 the min- Philip M. Taylor. British Propaganda during the istry set up its Home Intelligence Division, First World War.London: Macmillan, 1982; Saunders, Francis Stoner. Who Paid the Piper? The with responsibility for compiling weekly in- CIA and the Cultural Cold War.London: Granta, telligence reports for use by ministers and 1999; Taylor, Philip M. British Propaganda in the top officials. When victory seemed certain at Twentieth Century:Selling Democracy.Edinburgh: the end of 1944, the reports were discontin- University of Edinburgh Press, 1999. ued. In Nazi Germany, by contrast, intelli- gence operations were largely directed by the Abwehr and remained separate from International (Communist propaganda. and Socialist) During World War II U.S. intelligence was This term describes a succession of interna- carried out by a special warfare bureau, the tional alliances of left-wing parties established Office of Strategic Services (OSS), which since the nineteenth century.The internation- grew out of the Office of the Controller of als have not only successfully coordinated so- Information, founded in 1940. Propaganda cialist movements and propaganda but have was among the duties carried out by the also become a stage for major ideological OSS. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), struggles, including the split between anar- founded in 1947, also engaged in covert ac- chism and socialism in the nineteenth century tivities and was largely responsible for subsi- and communism and socialism in the twenti- dizing anti-Communist propaganda. eth. The first international gave its name to It is difficult to draw a clear distinction be- the song “The Internationale.” tween “intelligence” and “propaganda.” In the Karl Marx (1818–1883) founded the First 1950s, after the British and French humilia- International (or International Working- tion during the Suez Crisis, the Soviet Union men’s Association) in London in 1864, but stepped up its propaganda offensive. The the organization became mired in a dispute British responded by using cultural propa- with the anarchist Mikhail Bakunin (1814– ganda to ensure that British interests were 1876). The First International expelled being fostered abroad and, through its intelli- Bakunin and his faction in 1872, gradually gence organizations, to counter Soviet propa- declining thereafter until it was finally dis- ganda on its own covert terms. The CIA se- solved in 1876. The Second (or Socialist) In- cretly sponsored short-wave radio stations ternational was founded in Paris in 1889, such as Radio Free Europe (RFE) and Radio with Friedrich Engels (1820–1895) among Liberty (RL) and funded the British magazine its leaders. It established an International So- Encounter. It also supported the Congress for cialist Bureau in Brussels under Émile Van- Cultural Freedom, a group of European in- dervelde (1866–1938) and successfully nur- “The Internationale” 181 tured the growth of trades unions across Eu- prime minister of Portugal. The Socialist In- rope, as well as Social Democratic parties, es- ternational adopted the red rose grasped by a pecially in Germany (led by August Bebel, fist as its logo. It holds twice-yearly council 1840–1913), and Russia (led by Georgi meetings and congresses every three years. Plekhanov, 1857–1918). The movement lost The twentieth congress took place in New momentum at the outbreak of World War I York City in 1996, and the twenty-first con- in 1914, with the international working-class gress convened in Paris in 1999, where it is- movement collapsing in the face of rampant sued a declaration on globalization. Recent nationalism. Following the Russian Revolu- campaigns have included pressure for the tion of 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir cancellation of Third World debt. Lenin (1870–1924), claimed the leadership Nicholas J.Cull of the world socialist movement and estab- See also Comintern; Engels, Friedrich; “The lished the Third International (the Commu- Internationale”; Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich; Marx, nist International, or Comintern) in 1919. Karl; Russia; Stalin, Joseph; Trotsky, Leon References: Braunthal, Julius. History of the This became a major channel of Communist International.3 vols. London: Nelson, 1966, propaganda in the interwar years. The mod- 1967, 1980; Joll, James. The Second erate European Social Democratic parties re- International,1889–1914.London: Routledge, sponded by reviving the Socialist Interna- 1974; Katz, Henryk. Emancipation of Labour:A tional, which merged with a second History of the First International.London: alternative grouping (the Vienna Interna- Greenwood, 1992. tional of 1921) in 1923. In 1938 the follow- ers of Leon Trotsky (1879–1940) established the militant Fourth International, which later “The Internationale” (1871–1888) broke into splinter groups. The rousing anthem of the international So- The Comintern ceased operation in 1943 cialist movement and one of the best-known as Stalin, seeking cooperation with the Allied propaganda songs since “La Marseillaise.” The powers, pulled back from a global socialist words appeared as a poem written in June mission and switched Soviet propaganda to 1871 by the French Communard Eugène Pot- more nationalistic themes. During the early tier (1816–1887) following the bloody defeat Cold War the Comintern’s functions passed of the Paris Commune. The tune was com- to a new Soviet propaganda agency, the Com- posed in 1888 by a Lille wood-carver named munist Information Bureau, or Cominform Pierre Degeyter (1848–1932). The song (1947–1956). The Socialist International opens with the following couplet: “Debout les continued (and still continues) to operate, damnés de la terre. Debout les forçats de la having been reconstituted in 1951 at the faim,” which in the American version reads: Frankfurt Congress. It embraces Labour, So- “Arise you starvelings from your slumbers, cialist, and Social Democratic parties from Arise you wretched of the earth.” around the world. Its secretariat is located in The title derives from the First Interna- London, and publications include the maga- tional, the alliance of Socialist parties formed zine Socialist Affairs, as well as press releases by Karl Marx (1818–1883) and Friedrich and statements on such issues as human Engels (1820–1895) at a congress, held in rights and economic exploitation. Willy London in 1864, which Pottier had attended. Brandt (1913–1992), the former chancellor After penning the song’s text, Pottier went of West Germany, served as president from into exile to escape government reprisals, 1976 to 1992. Pierre Mauroy (1928– ) for- eventually returning to France, where he mer prime minister of France, served from died penniless in 1887. Degeyter composed 1992 to 1999, whereupon the post passed to the tune for the choir of the Lille section of António Guterres (1949– ), the Socialist the French Worker’s Party. Degeyter’s 182 Internet

brother Adophe (1858–1917) contested its of the most potent media of mass communi- authorship, which gave rise to an eighteen- cation spanning the end of the twentieth and year lawsuit that was decided in Pierre’s the beginning of the twenty-first centuries. favor. The song rapidly became popular in The Internet began in 1969 with the linking France, which hosted the Second Interna- of key U.S. defense computers to enable tional (1889) soon after its composition. In them to cope with a nuclear strike. This sys- 1910 the International Socialist Congress in tem developed into the ARPAnet (Advanced Copenhagen adopted it as its official Socialist Research Projects Agency Network). In the anthem. In January 1913 Lenin (1870–1924) 1980s it was superseded by the NSFnet (cre- wrote an admiring article in Pravda to mark ated by the National Science Foundation in the twenty-fifth anniversary of Pottier’s the United States), and the privately operated death, calling him “one of the greatest propa- World Wide Web followed in the 1990s. The gandists in song.” From 1917 to 1943 it Internet performed two major communica- served as the national anthem of the Soviet tions roles: virtually instant transmission of Union. It was dropped by Stalin as part of his letters in the form of e-mail and access to attempt to redefine the USSR in more na- websites displaying easily updatable informa- tionalistic terms. tion in the form of hypertext. Access from The phrase “les damnés de la terre” was personal computers took off thanks to a used by the anticolonial activist Frantz Fanon major breakthrough in software in 1993. (1925–1961) as the title of his 1961 call for At its most benign the Internet acceler- anticolonial revolution in Africa. In 1989 ated the dissemination of news and dramati- Chinese students sang the song in Tien’an- cally increased the availability of information men Square. The “Internationale” has also worldwide, yet in the process it also changed been recorded by activist singers such as Pete the sort of information available. Because it is Seeger (1919– ) in the United States and arranged horizontally without the same sort Billy Bragg (1957– ) in Britain. Negative of government or big business “gatekeepers” uses of the song include a scene in the Nazi who control newspapers and broadcasting, propaganda film Hitlerjunge Quex (1933), in the Internet made it possible for small organ- which a Communist father bellows the song izations to reach mass audiences. It also in his young son’s face and forces him to sing proved very hard to censor. Nevertheless, the along while bullying him. Chinese government managed to restrict In- Nicholas J.Cull ternet access within its borders. The Internet See also Engels, Friedrich; International; “La soon became a favorite propaganda medium Marseillaise”; Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich; Marx, for the extreme right and a major forum for Karl; Russia such ideas as Holocaust denial and the References: Borkenau, Franz. World Communism:A History of the Communist International. Ann antigovernment militia movements in the Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1962; United States. The Internet has proved a Brochon, Pierre. Eugène Pottier.St.-Cyr-sur- medium ideally suited to the circulation of Loire, France: Christian Pirot, 1997; Lenin, rumor—and a major outlet for the circula- V. I . Collected Works.Vol. 36. Moscow: Progress, tion of stories relating to the unpresidential 1950; Miller, Peter [director]. The activities of former U.S. president Bill Clin- Internationale.New York: First Run Icarus Films, 2000. ton (1946– ). During the Kosovo conflict in 1999, both sides used the Internet to state their respective cases. Yugoslavian gambits included a puppet show featuring a caricature Internet of Tony Blair (1953– ), the British prime Also known as the World Wide Web, the in- minister. Computer hackers have also been terconnection of computers has created one able to slip their own propaganda messages Iran 183 into frequently visited websites. Some inter- 1736–1747), who briefly attempted to re- national radio stations, including the Voice of unite the Sunni and Shiite factions. Nadir Shah America, used the Internet to supplement named his monarchy “the peacock throne” (and, in some cases, replace) broadcasts in in- after a trophy brought back from an invasion dividual foreign languages. The Internet fig- of India. Between 1794 and 1925 Persia was ured as an issue in the U.S. presidential elec- ruled by the Qajar dynasty, whose leaders tion of 2000 because of the special faced the mounting tide of western European contribution of Democratic candidate Al and Russian influence. With the British tele- Gore (1948– ) to the development of the in- graph to India crossing Persia, the latter be- formation superhighway. The Republicans came better connected to the outside world taunted Gore for exaggerating his role by than other countries in the region, facilitating “claiming to have invented the Internet.” both political modernization and the birth of Nicholas J.Cull newspapers in the late 1890s. The period See also ADL; Black Propaganda; China; Clinton, 1905–1911 saw a constitutional revolution William Jefferson; Disinformation; Holocaust during which the press played a significant Denial; Kosovo Crisis and War; Laden, Osama role in popularizing Western political con- bin; Rumor; Scandinavia; Southeast Asia; United States cepts of democracy and human rights. Iran References: Moschovitis, Christos, Hilary Poole, unveiled the office of prime minister in 1907. and Tami Schuyler. History of the Internet.Santa Foreign interest in Persia deepened in the Barbara, CA:ABC-CLIO, 1999; Taylor, Philip twentieth century thanks to the discovery of M. Global Communications,International Affairs oil. Russia and Britain established themselves and the Media Since 1945.London: Routledge, as the dominant powers, and in 1907 they di- 1997. vided Iran into spheres of influence. In 1921 an army officer named Reza Khan (1877–1944) seized power and established a Iran military dictatorship. In 1925 he successful The Islamic Republic of Iran, known until ousted the last Qajar shah and proclaimed 1935 as Persia, has a long history of propa- himself the first shah of the Pahlavi dynasty. ganda but is now best known for the Iranian The dynastic name was a propagandistic ref- Revolution of 1979, in which relatively sim- erence to the language of the Sassanid dy- ple media—primarily consisting of smug- nasty (224–640) and the lost “golden age” be- gled cassette tapes—helped precipitate a fore Arab domination of Persia. The dynasty major revolution, culminating in a religious also sought to evoke the glories of ancient dictatorship. Persia by developing an architectural style for Persia entered the early modern period public buildings modeled upon those of under the leadership of Shah Ismail Persepolis, with columns and rampant lions. (1484–1524), who in 1502 founded the Like Atatürk (1881–1938) in Turkey, Reza Safavid dynasty. Ismail made Shiite Islam his Shah insisted on modern dress and renamed state religion, hence setting Iran apart from his country Iran. He also kept tight control the rest of the Islamic world—especially the on the press. The chief target of the regime’s Sunni Ottoman Empire. The Safavid dynasty propaganda was the left-wing Tudeh Party. In reached its zenith under Abbas the Great 1939 the regime established what amounted (1557–1629; r. 1587–1628), whose propa- to a propaganda ministry as the Office for the ganda methods included the magnificent ar- Education and the Guidance of Public Opin- chitecture he created for his capital city of Es- ion. Programs, whether magazines or lec- fahan. The dynasty fell following an Afghan tures on health, were liberally interjected invasion in 1722. Persia recovered under the with propaganda supporting the shah. De- brutal rule of Nadir Shah (1688–1747; r. spite these measures, the Reza Shah seemed Campaign poster featuring the late Ayatollah Khomeini and Ali Khamenei.(BAHAR/IMAX/CORBIS SYGMA) Iran 185 too pro-German for Allied tastes, and when Much criticism came from the clerics, in- British and Russian forces occupied Iran he cluding a dissident refugee from the regime, abdicated in favor of his son, Muhammad Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1900–1989), Reza Shah Pahlavi (1918–1980). who had been living in exile in Iraq since The career of the second Muhammad Reza 1964 (and latterly in Paris). His views were Shah was intimately bound up with the U.S. circulated widely throughout religious net- presence in the region. At the end of World works by means of cassette tapes. Under- War II Iran became the scene of Western-So- ground newspapers and eye-catching posters viet tension. Britain and the United States also carried his message. In the autumn of nurtured the shah accordingly. In 1952 he fled 1978 the strength of this propaganda was en- Iran because of the leftist rule of the National- hanced when revolutionaries caused frequent ist prime minister, Muhammad Mossadeq power outages, which crippled the state (1881–1967), who wished to institute consti- broadcasting apparatus. In January 1979, as tutional rule and to nationalize the oil indus- demonstrators surged through the streets, the try. Mossadeq was a skilled politician and a shah fled the country and the Ayatollah particularly effective broadcaster, but in 1953 Khomeini returned from exile to lead the the United States, which had now succeeded new religious government of Iran. The Britain as the dominant foreign power in the regime gave short shrift to its erstwhile re- country, stepped in, with the CIA backing a formist allies and reintroduced the veil for coup to restore the shah to power. Iranian women. Propaganda strategies in- This coup effectively cut short the devel- cluded strict censorship, the use of posters, opment of a Western-style public sphere in portraits of the Ayatollah, and rallies inter- Iran, leaving the Islamic clerics as the chief al- spersed with slogans couched in religious ter- ternative to the shah. Both the coup and sub- minology. The United States, a rallying point sequent nation-building projects in Iran owed for the regime’s emotional zeal, was dubbed much to U.S. propaganda. In the 1960s the “the Great Satan.” The regime staged massive shah offered up a program dubbed the open-air theatrical spectacles based on Shiite “White Revolution.” Reforms included the religious themes, sometimes altering original enfranchisement of women. Americans also texts to give them a contemporary twist. The facilitated the arrival of television in Iran, new regime restructured broadcasting under which appeared in 1967 as a tool of state the Voice and Vision of the Islamic Republic propaganda. The regime staged events for the (VVIR). In November 1979 Iranian students cameras, including an elaborate coronation in seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran. They held 1967; spectacular celebrations in 1971 mark- 52 Americans hostage for 444 days, demand- ing the twenty-five hundredth anniversary of ing that the United States surrender the shah the founding of the empire of Cyrus the so he could be tried. The incident had great Great (r. 550–529 B.C.E) ; and the unveiling symbolic value both in the United States and of a new calendar in 1976, dating from the in Iran. Following a failed American attempt coronation of Cyrus. As Annabelle Sreberny to rescue the hostages in April 1980, the affair has noted, it is possible that these events and swiftly turned into a massive propaganda de- ubiquitous royal speeches actually overex- bacle for the administration of U.S. president posed the shah and contributed to his de- Jimmy Carter (1924– ), paving the way for cline. By the 1970s the shah employed a bru- the election of Ronald Reagan (1911– ) later tal secret police force (SAVAK) to repress that year. dissent. In 1978 the discontent erupted in In September 1980 Saddam Hussein demonstrations across the country that (1937– ) of Iraq invaded Iran, seeking to re- united radical political and religious positions dress a long-standing border dispute. Iran re- and in which women figured prominently. taliated by proclaiming a holy war, rallying its 186 IRD (Information Research Department)

men and women to engage in a struggle that been to underplay any reform and to main- included the use of “human wave” tactics on tain pressure on the country as a pariah and the battlefield. Iranian propaganda stressed “sponsor of terrorism.” Iran figured promi- the duty (and virtue) of self-sacrifice. The nently in U.S. rhetoric during the War on war—which included a prolonged radio Terrorism (2001) and its aftermath, appear- propaganda duel—ended in a stalemate in ing as one of the pariah nations in the Bush 1988. Meanwhile, Iran became a major administration’s “Axis of Evil.” sponsor of propaganda through direct ac- Nicholas J.Cull tion, that is, terrorism. Iran’s international See also Arab World; Cold War; Hussein, propaganda is generally expressed in terms Saddam; Novel; Ottoman Empire/Turkey; of religious piety; hence the regime’s much Posters; Religion; RFE/RL; Terrorism; Terrorism, War on publicized attack against British author References: Avery, Peter, Gavin Hambly, and Salman Rushdie’s (1947– ) novel The Satanic Charles Melville, eds. The Cambridge History of Verses (1989) as blasphemy and the death sen- Iran.Vol.7, From Nadir Shah to the Islamic tence, declared in absentia, on its author. Republic. Cambridge: Cambridge University Iranian politics was clearly split between two Press, 1991; Hiro, Dilip. Iran under the forms of power. The clerical power concen- Ayatollahs.London: Routledge, 1985; Rosen, Barry, ed. Iran Since the Revolution.New York: trated in the rahbar (leader) of the revolu- Columbia University Press, 1985; Sreberny- tion: the Ayatollah Khomeini, the president Mohammadi,Annabelle, and Ali Mohammadi. during the 1980s, and Sayid Ali Khamenei Small Media,Big Revolution:Communication, (1939– ), the rahbar following the Ayatol- Culture and the Iranian Revolution.Minneapolis: lah’s death in 1989. This clerical power has University of Minnesota Press, 1994. been in conflict with popularly elected rep- resentatives. Reformers such as Mohammed Khatami (1943– ), the minister of culture IRD (Information Research from 1982 to 1992, made some attempts to Department) ease censorship but was forced from office The British Foreign Office’s Information Re- by charges of permissiveness. search Department (IRD) was formed in In 1989 Hashemi Rafsanjani (1934– ), 1948 by the Labour government, marking who had openly opposed the shah, became Britain’s entry into the Cold War. Although president of Iran. He served two terms Ernest Bevin (1881–1951), the foreign sec- (1989–1998). His government increased retary, had initially been reluctant to launch a Iranian propaganda overseas. VVIR began propaganda offensive to counter the growth satellite television broadcasts to Europe in of Soviet ideological and military influence, response to a number of opposition tele- the increasingly hostile propaganda attacks vision channels based overseas, including a launched by the Soviets against Britain finally U.S. government channel organized under convinced him to take up the weapon urged the auspices of Radio Free Europe. The elec- upon him since 1946 by his officials at the tions of 1997 returned Khatami to the presi- Foreign Office. The paper presented to the dency. His government faced internal criti- cabinet by the Foreign Office gave the mis- cism from conservatives, such as Khamenei, taken impression that the IRD would be con- and radical reformers. Beginning in 1999, ducting a positive campaign for social democ- Khatami tightened censorship regulations, racy as much as a negative campaign against resulting in prodemocracy demonstrations. Communism. Increased access to the World Wide Web en- The IRD grew rapidly as the Cold War in- sured a freer flow of news into the country tensified; at its peak in the mid-1950s it em- than had been the case earlier. The U.S. ployed a staff of three hundred researching, propaganda strategy with regard to Iran has compiling, and distributing material through- Ireland 187 out the world. The approach adopted was to One of the most contentious activities of be secret, direct, and aggressive. While the the IRD was its involvement in seeking to in- IRD occasionally strayed into “black” propa- fluence opinion within the British Labour ganda activities—particularly secret radio movement—particularly by means of the stations—its role was largely to disseminate Labour Party International Department. In “gray” propaganda, by which was meant the 1955 the latter began receiving the IRD’s dissemination of biased information from an new bimonthly publication Quotations. By far indeterminate source. Indeed, the IRD had the largest IRD publishing operation con- close, if informal, links with MI5 and MI6 sisted of a series of books, collected under (domestic and overseas British intelligence), the title of “Background Books,” which began with personnel moving between the organi- appearing in 1951. Over the next thirty years zations and, in certain cases, working for over a hundred titles were published. The both. The IRD also established a working re- main target audience, as far as the IRD was lationship with the CIA despite concern that concerned, was the educated middle class, the Labour Party would object should this particularly in the Third World. Information collaboration become known. officers would distribute the books free of Although the IRD never attempted to con- charge. These books were also available in struct anything like the orchestrated propa- Britain. In 1977 the IRD shut down on the ganda directed by the CIA against the Soviet orders of David Owen (1938– ), the Labour Union, it was quite prepared to respond to foreign secretary. For thirty years the IRD Soviet targets and to escalate the propaganda had conducted a covert propaganda war offensive by forcing the enemy to defend it- aimed at influencing opinion both interna- self and its policies. The IRD has been tionally and domestically. likened to a peacetime Political Warfare Ex- David Welch ecutive (PWE); indeed, its first head was Sir See also BBC; Black Propaganda; CIA; Cold War; Ralph Murray (1908–1983), who, together Gray Propaganda; Intelligence; PWE with a number of his staff, had worked in the References: Crozier, Brian. Free Agent:The Unseen War, 1941–1991. London: HarperCollins, PWE during the war. 1994; Lasmar, Paul, and James Oliver. Britain’s The majority of propaganda produced by Secret Propaganda War,1948–1977. Stroud, UK: the IRD was solidly based upon fact, and one Sutton, 1998; Lucas, W.Scott, and C. J. of its working slogans was “anything but the Morris. “A Very British Crusade: The truth is too hot to handle.” Factual evidence Information Research Department and the would be utilized in order to back the argu- Beginning of the Cold War.” In British Intelligence Strategy and the Cold War.Ed. Richard ment that the briefing or publication was at- Aldrich. London, Routledge: 1992; Rothwell, tempting to make. One of the formats in Victor. Britain and the Cold War,1941–1947. which the IRD presented its “factual” mate- London: Jonathan Cape, 1982. rial was a series of pamphlets. The themes of these “information reports” were—at least in the first few years—all anti-Communist, ex- Ireland amining such topics as “forced labor in the Since 1500 Ireland has been shaped by propa- USSR,”“the Communist peace offensive,” and ganda from within and without. The Irish “Russian imperialism and Asian nationalism.” people have been stereotyped in the interna- The international distribution network built tional media. Irish politics produced elo- up by the IRD included the BBC, Reuters, quent writing and rabble-rousing oratory in bogus radio stations and news agencies, and a the conflict between Catholic and Protestant host of “clients,” many of whom were well- communities and the struggle to achieve in- known journalists, as well as information of- dependence from Great Britain. In the twen- ficers in diplomatic posts overseas. tieth century the government of the Republic 188 Ireland of Ireland made extensive use of propa- great Irish political tract, The Case of Ireland ganda—especially censorship—to shape the (1698), by William Molyneux (1656–1698). development of the country. The greatest voice of the era was that belong- As with so much Irish history, the story of ing to the clergyman and satirist Jonathan propaganda in Ireland is inextricably linked Swift (1667–1745). Swift’s works included to England. Ireland entered the sixteenth his Proposal for the Universal Use of Irish Manu- century with English power concentrated facture (1720), which called for the boycott of around Dublin. With the arrival of the Refor- English products, and A Modest Proposal mation, Catholic Ireland seemed like an ideo- (1729), in which he satirized the British ex- logical threat to the Protestant English ploitation of Ireland by suggesting that the crown. Hence between 1534 and 1603 the Irish eat their own children. British tactics armies of the Tudor dynasty conquered Ire- used to assert control in Ireland included land inch by inch. Tudor anti-Irish images, regulation of the educational system. The such as John Derrick’s series of woodcuts en- Catholic population improvised “hedge titled Image of Ireland (1581) laid the founda- schools” to teach the basics of a Catholic edu- tion for English stereotyping of the Irish that cation in secret. The French Revolution and would endure up to the present. With Ire- the Napoleonic Wars brought a flurry of na- land under English rule, Protestant settlers tionalistic feeling and pamphleteering to Ire- moved from Scotland and established them- land. The United Irishman’s Rebellion of selves in the northeastern province of Ulster, 1798 was fueled by the popular newspaper where English military power was strongest. The Northern Star. After the failure of the re- These settlers used oral and print culture to bellion, Ireland was formally incorporated develop a vigorous sense of themselves as an into the United Kingdom. embattled minority with a destiny to remain The early nineteenth century saw a flower- on Irish soil.A Catholic uprising in 1641 gen- ing of Irish political rhetoric reflected in the erated numerous accounts of atrocities careers of men like Daniel O’Connell against the settlers, the most famous being (1775–1847), whose skill in rousing those at- Sir John Temple’s best-selling History of the tending mass meetings was legendary. Irish Rebellion (1646), with its numerous gory O’Connell used press advertisements and a woodcuts. But the Catholic community had network of reading rooms around Ireland to its own atrocity stories, especially the brutal spread his ideas. The great famine of campaign of 1649, during which the army of 1845–1849 accelerated the existing move- the English Parliament led by Oliver Crom- ment of Irish people to seek new lives over- well (1599–1658) crushed Irish support for seas, but they met a surge of anti-Irish, racist the cause of the pro-Catholic English King propaganda in Britain and the United States. Charles I (1600–1649). Memories of such Drawing on three centuries of stereotypes, atrocities established the battle lines for the the Victorian press on both sides of the At- war of 1689–1691 between forces loyal to lantic transformed the Irish working-class the former English king, the Catholic James immigrant into the pariah of the age. Irish II (1633–1701), and his Protestant successor, people were presented as lazy oafs, drunk- William III, also known as William of Orange ards, superstitious, with excessively large (1650–1702). The events of this war, includ- families. In Ireland, however, a major nation- ing the climactic Battle of the Boyne of 1690, alistic revival was in progress. The Fenian would in turn be mythologized by propa- movement’s ideas were spread through news- ganda generated in later years. papers such as The Irish People and The Irish- The seventeenth century saw the develop- man. Interest in the Gaelic language culmi- ment of a rich vein of Irish political rhetoric, nated in the founding in 1893 of the Gaelic which followed in the footsteps of the first League by such academic activists as Douglas Ireland 189

Hyde (1860–1949), author of the tract The the promotion of “traditional” Irish culture Necessity for De-anglicising the Irish People (including the Gaelic language) and regula- (1892).Associated Gaelic League propaganda tion of the print media through censorship. included the newspaper Claidheamh Soluis In 1926 the Irish Free State government (Sword of Light) and Irish-language poetry. founded a “Committee on Evil Literature.” The era also saw a revival in Gaelic sports. Religious pressure groups demanded more. In the early years of the twentieth century An Irish Censorship Board followed in 1929, Irish nationalism reached a new level of in- possessing sweeping powers to ban books tensity and organization, culminating in the and periodicals that it felt promoted crime creation of a new party, Sinn Féin (Ourselves or favored such social evils as contraception Alone), in 1905. However, this was matched or abortion. The same priorities affected the by equally determined voices in Northern development of radio broadcasting in Ire- Ireland for continued union. In 1795 Protes- land, which began in 1926. Similarly, Irish tants in the north of Ireland had established film censors tried to hold back the tide of the Orange Order, a political lodge society Hollywood “immorality.” Between 1923 and similar to the Freemasons, dedicated to pre- the end of the 1970s they banned over one serving the memory of King William of Or- thousand films and edited out scenes involv- ange. The Orange Order had dissolved in the ing sex or criminal acts from ten thousand 1830s but had reemerged as a focus for more. In Protestant-controlled Northern Protestant Unionism in the 1880s. In 1910 Ireland the provincial government also Ulster Protestants formed their own Ulster sought to monitor the images reaching its Unionist Parliamentary Party, led by skilled citizenry; targets included Soviet propaganda orator Edward Carson (1854–1935). Events and films sympathetic to the nationalist cause came to a head during World War I. Irish na- in the south. tionalists had always understood the power of The history of postindependence Ireland the emotive event. To achieve this end they was dominated by Eamon de Valera (1882– sought to rally Ireland to their cause by 1975).A formidable rhetorician and major fig- mounting an uprising in Dublin during Easter ure in the war of independence, he dissented 1916. The event was threatening to become a from the compromise peace and in 1926 military fiasco but was effectively trans- founded the Fianna Fáil (Soldiers of Ireland) formed into an act of martyrdom when the Party. He became president of the Executive British executed the ringleaders. A guerrilla Council in 1932 and prime minister under the war against British rule followed in 1919, new constitution of 1937. De Valera kept Ire- leading to the compromise peace of 1922, ac- land neutral in World War II and was hence cording to which the six counties of North- the focus of both Allied and Axis propaganda. ern Ireland remained part of the United The government’s resolve was not shaken. De Kingdom, while the south reconstituted itself Valera’s wartime emergency powers included as an autonomous Irish Free State. censorship. The film Casablanca (1942) was The government of the Irish Free State considered too politically charged to be re- proved as keen to regulate the country’s leased before June 1945. media as London had been. It sought to nur- The 1960s brought troubling issues to the ture a sense of national identity, which was government of Northern Ireland. The econ- generally identified during this period with omy of the province was heavily dependent the morality set down by the Catholic on the shipbuilding industry, which was in Church. The twin threats to Irish identity decline. The political status quo—which were the two cultural giants that lay to the amounted to a Protestant hegemony—was east and the west: England and America. The underpinned by that community’s domina- government’s chief tool of propaganda was tion of the media and a cycle of public events 190 Ireland that emphasized the Protestant view of his- The most dramatic propaganda event of tory. The annual marches by branches of the “the troubles” was a protest by Republican Orange Order were an eloquent form of prisoners at the Maze prison in 1976–1981. propaganda in which one community’s ver- The issue was the withdrawal of the special sion of the past was remembered and that “political status” granted to paramilitary pris- community’s power demonstrated in the po- oners. The Labour government sought to un- tent ritual of marching through minority dermine the media position of the IRA by neighborhoods to the beat of an enormous treating its prisoners as criminals rather than drum. In 1967 Protestant power was sud- prisoners of war. Resistance began with the denly called into question by a Catholic civil so-called dirty protests, where prisoners re- rights movement, which drew inspiration fused to wear clothes and soiled their cell from the contemporaneous achievements of walls with human waste. The newspaper and African Americans. The movement used television pictures flashed around the world marches and rallies to focus world attention did little to enhance the reputation of the on basic grievances. Its success provoked a vi- British government. In 1981, two years into olent backlash from parts of the Unionist the government of Margaret Thatcher community. The crisis escalated beyond the (1925– ), the prisoners took the protest to control of the provincial government. In Au- another level by beginning a hunger strike. gust 1969 the first British troops arrived in Such protests had a long tradition in Irish Re- Ulster, ostensibly to protect the Catholic mi- publican political action, dating back to the nority.As the British army attempted to con- aftermath of the Easter Rising. Although its tain Catholic anger, they too were drawn into alleged precedents could be found in Irish a cycle of violence. folk tradition, the hunger strike owed more By the early 1970s the situation in North- to the experience of the Suffragettes and, ern Ireland had produced a perverse stale- later, the tactics of Gandhi (1869–1948) in mate. Paramilitary groups based in each com- India. Ten prisoners died in the protest, in- munity—the Provisional Irish Republican cluding Bobby Sands (1954–1981), who had Army and Irish National Liberation Army rep- by that time been elected an M.P.The hunger resenting the Catholic/Nationalist; the Ulster strike consolidated support for Sinn Féin in Defence Association and Ulster Volunteer the Catholic community and marked the Force representing the Protestant/Unionist— apex of international sympathy for the Re- were locked in a piecemeal war of retaliatory publican cause. bloodshed. Nationalist violence was also di- The violence in Northern Ireland created rected at the British security forces in North- profound issues for the media in both Great ern Ireland, which eventually spread to mili- Britain and the Irish Republic. In 1971 the tary and civilian targets on the British Irish government attempted to clamp down mainland. Each side had its newspapers and on coverage of illegal terrorist activities. In leaflets, and each sought to garner sympathy 1972 Radio Telefis Éireann (Irish Radio and through such events as elaborate funerals. Television; RTE) had its authority withdrawn Communities also developed a distinctive style because the station had carried an interview of visual propaganda in the form of murals on with an IRA spokesman. In Britain censor- the gable ends of houses, which often featured ship on Northern Irish issues was common- flags, images drawn from Irish history, or ro- place. This reached a climax in 1988 when manticized portraits of paramilitary activists. Margaret Thatcher, seeking to deny terrorists Republicans became particularly adept at pro- what she had called “the oxygen of publicity,” moting their cause in the United States, where adopted the practice of the Irish Republic and Irish-American sympathizers rallied to the banned the broadcasting of the voices of ter- cause with financial support. rorists. British broadcasters responded by Israel 191 employing actors to dub their remarks. J. J. Ireland,1912–1998:Politics and Society. Thatcher’s successor, John Major (1943– ), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, lifted the ban in 1994. The British govern- 1990; Mac Cuarta, Brian, ed. Ulster 1641: Aspects of the Rising.Belfast: Queens University, ment was also an active player in the Irish 1993; Miller, David. Don’t Mention the War: propaganda war, circulating its own version Northern Ireland,Propaganda and the Media. of events internationally and within the do- London: Pluto, 1994. mestic media of Britain. In the 1990s the entrenched positions of factions in Northern Ireland began to soften. Israel The years 1994–1995 brought hope in the As a state that avows allegiance to the princi- form of an IRA cease-fire. Britain’s Northern ples of Western democracy, Israel is repelled Ireland Office began a new propaganda cam- by the very idea of “propaganda.” The term is paign bearing the slogan “Rat on a Rat,” applied only to others—primarily its Arab which utilized television appeals for informa- enemies—or to defined periods in demo- tion on terrorism. On Good Friday 1998 the cratic regimes, such as election campaigns or parties to the conflict agreed to seek a new in wartime, during which propaganda activi- and mutually acceptable form of government ties are condoned and conducted openly. for the province centered on a Northern Irish For these reasons, and perhaps as part of assembly. The Northern Ireland Executive an overall strategy, when propaganda is convened in late 1999, and it seemed that deemed necessary Israeli officials prefer to Irish politics had entered a new era. Symbolic substitute the more refined Hebrew term points remained moot, with intense debate hasbara, which has several interrelated mean- over such issues as which flags would fly and ings, including “information,” “explanation,” what the name of the police force ought to “publicity,” and, of course, “propaganda.” be. However, the executive stalled over the Among Western democracies, such nomen- issue of “arms decommissioning,” and rule clature is apparently unique to Israel. The from London returned. By 2001 the Irish Hebrew word for propaganda proper, taa- struggle had fragmented once again, with the mula, is said to derive from at least two ety- mainstream faction of the IRA agreeing to mological sources. One possible root means decommission its arms, thereby clearing the “work,” perhaps applied in the slang sense of way for cooperation within the terms of the “doing a number on someone.” Another Northern Ireland Executive, and splinter points to the Arabic term amil (agent), whose groups calling themselves the “Continuity meaning is similar to that of the Latin root of IRA” and the “Real IRA” continuing their “propaganda,” alluding to the dissemination struggle. of values, ideas, views, or opinions. The He- Nicholas J.Cull brew euphemism for propaganda, in turn, See also BBC; BIS; Britain; Censorship; signifies a kind of reaction, an act of defense, Counterinsurgency; Funerals; Poetry; a more positive kind of propaganda to be dis- Prisoners of War; Temperance;Terrorism; tinguished from the negative, hostile variety. Thatcher, Margaret References: Cull, Nicholas J., ed. “Irish Media In time the distinction between the two be- History” [special issue]. The Historical Journal of came firmly rooted in the Hebrew language: Film,Radio and Television 20 (August 2000); While “others,” the proverbial “bad guys” Curtis, Liz. Ireland:The Propaganda War: The (primarily political rivals), engage in taamula, British Media and the Battle for Hearts and Minds. in Israel the “good guys” practice hasbara. (In Belfast: Sásta, 1998; Foster, R. F. Paddy and Mr. the present essay the term “propaganda” is Punch.London: Penguin, 1995; Hutchinson, John. The Dynamics of Cultural Nationalism:The translated as either taamula or hasbara unless Gaelic Revival and the Creation of the Irish Nation- the context specifically mandates otherwise.) State.London:Allan and Unwin, 1987; Lee, An aphorism popular among officials declares 192 Israel that the difference between the two terms is Mandate recruited the cultural elite to help that propaganda works. further this cause: writers, artists, com- Over the years, the State of Israel has in- posers, and other intellectuals applied their vested considerable effort in the develop- skills and talents to nurture an affinity with ment of various types of propaganda. Gener- Jewish sources and the land of Israel, as well ally speaking, Israeli propaganda may be as to revitalize the Hebrew language. The classified according to at least two features: principles of the Zionist ethos were dissemi- front and target audience (see accompanying nated not only through a well-developed ed- table). ucational system but also in routine leisure- Sociological propaganda aimed at rein- time cultural activities.At that time (and, to a forcing collective identity was part of the na- lesser extent, even today) community singing tional struggle even during the days of the was a popular pastime, with themes reflect- British Mandate. As in similar situations in- ing longing and love for the new homeland. volving the establishment of a new state, na- The rhythms of the hora and debka mingled tion-building, and perhaps even national re- with those of original local folk dances. birth, the political leadership of the pre-state Group hikes, some of which included games Jewish community in Palestine—as well as proposed by the Jewish National Fund, en- the successive governments of Israel—had to riched the fund of knowledge of the new land rally the public around common national and strengthened the physical attachment to goals. The mass influx of immigrants intensi- the soil. fied the need for a dynamic melting pot in With the establishment of the State of Is- which the various ethnic groups and their rael, the new demographic realities created cultural heritage were gathered together or two national camps consisting of a Jewish perhaps simply tossed. majority and an Arab minority. The latter Sociological propaganda practices that collectivity was not ignored in the country’s helped forge a national identity were of con- propaganda campaigns. Various means were siderable concern to scholars studying Israeli employed, especially through the broadcast society. Ceremonies and texts were devised media, to encourage local Arabs to legitimize through which the Zionist ethos could be dis- their permanent status as a minority and to seminated and the bond between the land accept Jewish majority rule and the new and its new residents could become institu- order as legitimate. tionalized in the secular culture of the State Activity considered acceptable in all new of Israel. The political leadership during the states was accorded special priority because

Types of Propaganda in Israel Target Audience Front Jews Non-Jews

Domestic Sociological propaganda to cultivate Propaganda to promote consensus and national identity. reconciliation with the State among its Routine and emergency propaganda. minorities. Election propaganda. Foreign Sociological propaganda to reinforce Initiative and reactive propaganda toward national identity among Diaspora Jews. enemy states and others. Agitprop to encourage immigration to War time propaganda aimed at Arab states. Israel. Peace propaganda toward Western states. Israel 193 of the new state’s extended armed conflict Zionist publicity efforts, in particular instill- with its neighbors, entailing a struggle for le- ing values and symbols vital to the Jewish gitimization of its very right to exist among collective identity and raising economic re- the family of nations, especially those of its sources for the pre-state Jewish community; own region. To a great extent, domestic and both continued these efforts even more vig- foreign propaganda were considered part of orously after 1948. NGO activity became es- the State of Israel’s battle for survival. sential thereafter as well, especially in places Fluctuations in the severity of the conflict and at times that restricted or precluded offi- between Israel and the Arab states and the cial state access. NGOs were thus found to be Palestinians have left their mark on propa- effective cultural propaganda disseminators. ganda efforts on Israel’s domestic and foreign For example, they succeeded in penetrating fronts alike. The frequent wars demanded the Iron Curtain and rehabilitating the na- several types of propaganda activities, con- tional identity of Soviet Jews, encouraging ducted on different fronts and aimed at vari- many of them to emigrate to Israel—first on ous audiences, including war-mongering a highly limited scale and then, as of the late against the Arab states and wartime propa- 1980s, with no restrictions whatsoever. ganda aimed at its own soldiers and civilian NGOs were also recruited to mount interna- populations. In the Six-Day War (1967) Israel tional propaganda campaigns, such as secur- aimed its Arab-language broadcasts at Egyp- ing the release of Israeli prisoners by their tian soldiers, seeking to weaken their morale captors in Arab countries. Two Israeli web- and motivation and encouraging them to sites are operated by NGOs to influence abandon the battlefield and surrender to Is- world public opinion, with one focusing on raeli troops. Israeli POWs and MIAs whose fate has been The Jewish Diaspora has always been con- unknown for periods ranging from several to sidered a peripheral reserve of human and as many as twenty months. economic capital for the State of Israel. Con- For their overseas propaganda efforts, sequently, special propaganda efforts were NGOs and ancillary bodies are likely to rely directed at Jewish communities worldwide, on materials produced by various govern- particularly those of affluent Western coun- ment agencies. The Israel Foreign Ministry’s tries, if only to reinforce national identity Public Affairs Division distributes up-to-date among Jews and their affinity to Israel, both information about Israel through its repre- symbolic and instrumental, including the sentatives worldwide, while the Ministry of readiness to extend economic and occasion- Tourism maintains an overseas branch of the ally also political assistance to the new and Tourism Marketing Authority, whose emis- resource-poor state.Agitprop was directed at saries and brokers “sell” Israel as a tourist at- Jews in distressed countries—Islamic states traction to individual visitors and groups and and those of the Communist bloc—encour- host travel agents and journalists from all aging their immigration to Israel, a key com- over the world. At the same time, the Min- ponent of Zionist ideology known by the istry of Education’s Information Center is os- value-laden Hebrew term aliyah (ascension). tensibly responsible for disseminating infor- To carry out its widespread propaganda mation to the Israeli public; in practice it work, the State of Israel equipped itself with continues to develop public ceremonies and a variety of tools and systems, including non- to promote the internalization of national governmental organizations (NGOs) not di- symbols by the public. rectly identified with the state or its objec- The Jewish Agency operates a series of ed- tives. Even before the formal establishment ucational programs aimed at reinforcing ties of Israel, the Jewish Agency and the Jewish between Diaspora Jewry and the State of Is- National Fund were involved in a variety of rael, including the Jewish Identity Project, in 194 Israel which Hebrew teachers help Jews all over tion and is attributed to the lack of suffi- the world rediscover their national identity. cient propaganda. Political inferiority, for Furthermore, Israel is assisted in no small example, whether actual or perceived by measure by the activities of Jewish lobbies world public opinion, spurs the govern- throughout the world, such as the American ment to initiate propaganda activity ac- Israel Public Affairs Committee (AIPAC), cordingly.Alternatively, a real or perceived which helps Israel explain its positions to the worsening of conditions, such as an in- U.S. administration. Other bodies develop crease in domestic violence—or in its support for the Israeli government’s policies media coverage—generates pressure for a and seek to build a national consensus. A solution. At this stage some may even des- well-oiled government public relations ma- ignate a factor putatively responsible for chine has expanded over the years. the situation—a scapegoat, as it were— In Israel, as in other countries, the govern- dismissing enemy propaganda gains as ex- ment initiates periodic information cam- aggerated in their perceived efficacy. Such paigns—in both peacetime and wartime— rhetorical claims lay the groundwork for rallying the public around specific policies, the next stage—redeployment—in which such as water-conservation campaigns in arid financial and human resources are invested regions and during dry spells. The most suc- to reinforce existing propaganda devices cessful nationwide campaign of this kind was or, alternatively, to create new ones and conducted during the 1960s, reflecting the prepare for emergencies, such as the hiring young society’s concern for nature preserva- of advertising agencies in Israel or over- tion and endangered wildflower species. By seas. During the third stage—standby— contrast, at the height of the economic crisis national leaders await the positive results during the extended Intifada of 2001, private of the propaganda campaign, which in itself groups attempted to raise morale by illumi- alleviates immediate pressure for a solu- nating the Azrieli Towers, the tallest buildings tion. At times the propaganda campaign in the Middle East, with a giant image, visible serves as a kind of safety valve for the re- throughout Tel Aviv and beyond, depicting a lease of tension, rejecting criticism and/or hand holding the national flag aloft and bear- evidence of the government’s resolve to ing the legend “It’s in our hands.” Other public deal with a given situation. During the final affairs campaigns involve preventing traffic fa- stage—resignation—national leaders are talities, personal safety (gas mask kits), cancer exposed to real-world exigencies and tend prevention, the war on narcotics, plastic bot- to resign themselves to prevailing conditions, tle recycling, and the like. including the limitations of propaganda. An additional distinction can be made In each case the same principle is applied: with respect to the two types of propa- success is credited to the propaganda cam- ganda mentioned earlier, namely, initiative paign, whereas failure is attributed to some versus reactive propaganda. An external other factor, be it the enemy or some uncon- propaganda campaign aimed at a non-Jew- trollable force. If a situation does not im- ish audience may be either initiative—for prove—such as Israel’s status in the interna- example, if it precedes the adoption of a tional arena—well-worn and familiar new policy–or reactive, such as campaigns rhetorical claims are immediately adduced, following a decline in or total loss of posi- such as “the few against the many,” “the tive world public opinion. Irrespective of whole world is against us,” or “a hostile circumstance, reactive propaganda appears media,” whether Israeli, Palestinian, or for- to follow a likely four-stage cycle. During eign. In contrast, a change for the better, the first stage—irritation—some issue such as a decline in road accidents or in and/or stimulus arouses the need for ac- worldwide criticism of Israeli policies, will Italy 195 immediately be credited to intensified prop- of the production of ongoing events. The sig- aganda efforts. nificance of propaganda has become institu- One well-known reflection of this cyclical tionalized in Israeli domestic politics. This process was discerned in the mid-1970s. In change is strikingly and dramatically re- response to a sense of increasing diplomatic flected in election propaganda and is identi- distress over international criticism of Israel’s fied with the sweeping Americanization of Is- control of territories conquered in the Six- raeli politics. Day War, the government decided to concen- Dan Caspi trate propaganda efforts in a special official See also Arab World; Cold War in the Middle body, the Information Ministry, entrusted to East; Elections (Israel); Herzl, Theodor; Brig. (res.) Aharon Yariv (1920–1994), a for- Olympics; Public Diplomacy; Religion; Terrorism; Zionism mer intelligence chief in the Israeli Defense References: Arieli, D.“Nature as a Builder of Force (IDF) responsible for political contacts Culture: The Case of the Society for the with Egypt. The ministry disappeared once Protection of Nature in Israel” (in Hebrew). that government’s term of office ended. Sim- Megamot 38 (1966): 189–206; Bar-Gal, Y. An ilarly, in 2001 Zippi Livni (1958– ), one of Agent of Zionist Propaganda:The Jewish National the ministers without portfolio in Ariel Fund,1924–1947 (in Hebrew). Haifa: Haifa University Press, 1999; Horowitz, D., and M. Sharon’s (1928– ) extensive cabinet, was Lissak. The Origins of the Israeli Polity. Chicago: placed in charge of hasbara, this time without University of Chicago Press, 1978; Mishory,A. setting up a special ministry. This decision Lo and Behold:Zionists Icons and Visual Symbols in aroused internal tension, especially in the Israeli Culture (in Hebrew). Tel Aviv:Am Oved, Foreign Ministry, which is traditionally re- 2000; Shavit, S. “Filling in the Missing Cultural Layer: Between Official and Unofficial Popular sponsible for Israeli propaganda throughout Culture in Israeli National Culture” (in the world. Hebrew). In Popular Culture:A Research Above all, this cyclical process reflects Is- Anthology. Ed. B. Z. Kedar. Jerusalem: Zalman raeli political conceptions regarding the im- Shazar Center, 1966. portance of propaganda and propagandists, a view that does not lack a factual basis. In at least two dramatic cases, propaganda and Italy propagandists proved essential, underscoring Propaganda, a term that first appeared on the their absence in other critical situations. Italian peninsula during the Reformation, has During the Six-Day War, in Israel’s pretele- played a central role at key moments in mod- vision era, Israel Radio offered military com- ern Italian history, including the develop- mentary by Brig. (res.) Chaim Herzog ment of fascism and the establishment of (1918–1997), who acted as a kind of democracy. Earlier in Italy’s history it was in- “spokesman to the nation.” In the early strumental in the Risorgimento, which led to 1990s, then IDF spokesman Nahman Shai the creation of an Italian state. Stimulated by held this position during the Gulf War, when the French Revolution, the appearance of the Israeli residents barricaded themselves in Risorgimento in 1815 coincided with the de- sealed rooms, equipped with gas masks to sire for self-governance and independence protect them against attack by Iraqi dictator from Austria, the pope, and the Kingdom of Saddam Hussein. The Two Sicilies. The old ruling elites imple- In contrast, in the remaining wars and mented political censorship to avoid the dis- crises, the Israeli public was left to its own semination of the new nationalist ideals. The devices, with no national voice to guide it. Austrians tried to block pro-Italian appeals in The presence—and absence—of a spokes- the press and the arts. A powerful contribu- man for the nation clearly indicates that the tion to independent thought was provided by public hungers for propaganda in the sense the music of Giuseppe Verdi (1813–1901). 196 Italy

Masked by other themes, Verdi’s operas in- classes to finance new publications. Newspa- flamed the hearts of their listeners, trans- pers around World War I were loosely con- forming each performance into a celebration trolled by prominent figures in various indus- of patriotism. trial sectors, as well as by the government. Three prominent nationalistic leaders and Both industry and the state understood the propagandists emerged during this period. importance of the press but did not exert Giuseppe Mazzini (1805–1872), a member their influence in a clearly organized, system- of the famous secret society Carbonari and a atic way. The first reputable national newspa- long-term exile in France, founded the peri- pers, both originating in northern Italy, were odical Giovane Italia (Young Italy), which Alfredo Frassati’s (1868–1961) La Stampa championed the cause of Italy’s need for self- (The Press) and Luigi Albertini’s (1871– governance and change. The journal ap- 1941) Il Corriere della Sera (The Evening peared on 18 March 1832 and ran until July Courier). Both men were wealthy entrepre- 1834, publishing a total of six issues, each neurs. Despite their divergent political from one to two hundred pages in length. A views, they were united in their desire to front-page quote by the Italian poet Ugo Fos- publish objective journalism based on British colo (1778–1827) summarized its message: and German models. However, both newspa- “Raise your voice in the name of all and tell pers primarily represented the political views the world that we may have misfortune but of their founders since objectivity was under- we are neither blind nor cowardly.” Count stood as expressing one’s own views rather Cavour (1810–1861), leader of Piedmont, than fairly representing all opinions. Other founded the newspaper Il Risorgimento in newspapers served as forums for debate on 1847. A masterful journalist and diplomat, Italian politics, such as Sidney Sonnino’s Cavour sought Italian unification by separat- (1847–1922) conservative Il Giornale d’Italia ing northern Italy from Austria and gradually (The Journal of Italy), Giuseppe Prezzolini’s incorporating the south into an Italian state (1882–1982) La Voce (The Voice), and Enrico through a campaign of plebiscites. In 1860 Corradini’s (1865–1931) Il Regno (The King- Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807–1882), a charis- dom) and L’Idea Nazionale (The National matic figure, led an army of one thousand in Idea). the conquest of Sicily and Naples. Garibaldi’s In 1902 Guglielmo Marconi (1874–1937) army selected red shirts as part of their uni- granted to the Italian government the free form purely by chance; initially meant for Ar- use of his radio patent for twenty years. Pro- gentinean butchers, the shirts were available mulgated in 1910, a special law guaranteed at low cost. Garibaldi took advantage of the the state the right to award to an Italian- color, transforming the red shirts into a po- owned private enterprise the concession for tent republican symbol of independence, broadcasting equipment “to be built for sci- freedom, and courage. entific, educational, and also public or private After Italy’s unification in 1870, the parlia- service.” Significantly, the administrative mentary democracy, led by the monarchy, functions for the actual management of the was faced with the difficult task of imposing a new electronic medium were to be decided sense of uniformity on the diverse population by the government itself and by a permanent and the disparate territories. In 1892 indus- consulting committee appointed by the gov- trial workers founded the Partito Socialista ernment. Control soon also extended to (Socialist Party), and 1896 saw the appear- film. The Ministry of the Interior’s decree of ance of Democrazia Cristiana (Christian De- 1914 established censorship regulations that mocratic Party). banned all films considered “injurious to the At the beginning of the twentieth century, national fame and self-respect, or against the journalists looked to the wealthy industrial public order...that would lessen the name Italy 197 and fame of public institutions and authori- arranged audience responses and rhetoric ap- ties, or of the offices and agents of the law.” pealing to the glory of the Roman Empire, In 1912 Italy became the first country to Mussolini was initially successful in winning use leaflets dropped from airplanes as a form over the crowds. However, Fascist propa- of propaganda. Specifically, these appeals to ganda became increasingly less credible, cul- surrender were dropped near enemy lines in minating in the defeats of World War II, the North Africa during the Italo-Turkish War. Allied liberation of Rome in 1943, and Mus- When Italy joined World War I (1915), the solini’s flight to the north. By the time of same technique was used against Austria. Ital- Mussolini’s death in 1945, the last remains of ian airmen dropped as many as two hundred Fascist propaganda and ideology had been thousand leaflets over Vienna. World War I shattered. and the unsettled postwar period temporar- Mussolini left Italy a war-ravaged nation ily halted wider media development in Italy, with a defunct ideology. In 1943 the Allies although radio had demonstrated its military took over the key organs of Italian mass potential in combat. During the war Italy re- communication, such as Radio Bari, for ceived much British, French, and German their own propaganda purposes. Paradoxi- propaganda. Of the newspapers, La Stampa cally, in so doing the British and the Ameri- took a neutral position regarding Italian in- cans introduced Italian journalists to a new volvement in the war, while the Corriere fa- type of broadcasting freedom. Many jour- vored intervention, exalting war efforts and nalists had been imprisoned for their politi- ignoring criticism. The Italian press was cal beliefs and felt a kinship with the Allies eventually placed under the control of the based on the common hatred of Fascism and Press and Propaganda Bureau for the dura- a desire to rebuild the nation’s communica- tion of the war. tions infrastructure. At the end of the war, Italy experienced a Allied propaganda concentrated on anti- period of financial and political instability. Fascist programs intended for German-occu- The era saw the creation of three new politi- pied territories and aimed at winning the ap- cal parties, each with an accompanying surge proval of the Italian public. A good example of propaganda: the Partito Popolare (a con- was “Italia Combatte,” the most famous mili- tinuation of Democrazia Cristiana); the tary program of the time. Broadcast by Radio Communist Party, which was founded in Bari, the program started with the “Bollettino 1921 by Antonio Gramsci (1901–1937); and della Guerra Partigiana,” which emphasized a the right-wing Fasci di Combattimento policy of unconditional surrender. The more (combat action groups) founded in 1919 by interesting part of the program, in line with Benito Mussolini (1883–1945), which was BBC strategy, discredited the enemy through nationalistic, (initially) anti-Communist, an- fake intercepted correspondence, offered tichurch, and primarily voicing the frustrated valuable information about the German army, aspirations of World War I veterans. In 1922, and revealed espionage activity. with Mussolini in control of the parliament, The leading force in postwar Italian poli- the Fasci di Combattimento became the Par- tics was the Democrazia Cristiana. With the tito Nazionale (National Party). Italy’s Fascist help of the British, the Americans, and the era had begun. church, this party became the leading politi- Mussolini sought to use propaganda to cal force in the country, leaving the left iso- create a “culture of Fascism” in Italy centering lated and weak. The church played a funda- on himself as “Il Duce,” or the leader. The mental role in helping the party grow. On 8 press became the main agent of this system, July 1949 Pius XII passed a decree proclaim- followed by radio, film, and Mussolini’s fa- ing opposition to “materialistic and atheistic mous staged balcony speeches. Using pre- Marxism” and threatening to excommunicate 198 Italy

all who “professed Marxist ideas or were ac- postwar Italy. Audiences, however, turned tive in Communist parties.” But the church their backs on neorealist films, preferring alone was not enough to ensure the party’s more escapist, mass-produced Hollywood success. Part of the latter’s appeal was that, fare. following an initial reassessment of political Italian newspapers remained the propa- life during the postwar period, the Italian ganda tools of the multiparty system. Both middle class, the aristocrats, and the industri- news reports and editorial views covered a alists all felt that their interests converged in wide spectrum of Italian political views. this Catholic party. Meanwhile, as the Cold Newspapers became (and remain) platforms War intensified, Britain and the United States of opinion and debate, affirming their own recognized the Democrazia Cristiana as the political ideologies and criticizing opposing only party that could protect the country points of view. Between 1954, which saw the against Communism. birth of television, and 1975, the year in The United States played an active role in which RAI reform was passed, Italy witnessed postwar Italian politics, bankrolling the a chaotic blend of dominant control by the Democrazia Cristiana and conducting much Democrazia Cristiana, political struggles on propaganda for the free-enterprise system the part of the opposition, and experimental under the auspices of the Marshall Plan. The coalitions between the center and the left. election of April 1948 became one of the first The reform of 1975 was intended to reduce set-piece confrontations of the Cold War, government influence within RAI while pro- with the United States doing all it could viding Italian media with more freedom to re- through overt and covert propaganda to de- flect the pluralistic interests of the Italian feat the left. The Christian Democrats won electorate. Unfortunately, it did not fulfill the by an overwhelming majority. The victory expectations of its promulgators. also sealed the party’s hegemony within the In 1976 new legislation permitted inde- national broadcasting corporation (RAI) as pendent television stations to broadcast lo- well. At a 1952 convention RAI was granted cally, marking the beginning of commercial exclusive radio and television broadcasting television. The next twenty years were char- rights for another twenty-five years. Despite acterized by the steady decline of RAI’s influ- the efforts of the left and discussions on the ence as a result of the erosion of its monop- importance of fair political representation oly. In these years Silvio Berlusconi (1936– ) and objectivity of information, radio was al- created a media empire (MEDIASET) that ready under the tight control of the dominant transformed Italy’s broadcasting scene from a government party. For the next twenty-five monopoly to a “duopoly.” On the one hand, years, such control would become apparent RAI struggled to find a new identity; on the in RAI’s news broadcasts and programming. other, private stations expanded rapidly, facil- By the end of World War II, the Italian itated by ineffective antitrust legislation. cinema had tried to distance itself from the The “clean hands” investigation of 1992 Fascist era. Its filmmakers attempted to cre- brought newer political forces to the fore. ate a new genre, dubbed “neorealism,” which Berlusconi became heavily involved in poli- aimed to reach the masses with films that tics and filled top RAI positions with trusted contrasted with both Fascist propaganda films members of his new party, Forza Italia (Go, and the light, Hollywood-based models of Italy!). As the reelected prime minister of earlier years. Films like Roberto Rossellini’s Italy, Berlusconi has had a dominant influence (1906–1977) Rome Open City (1946), as well on the media, causing bitter political wars as Vittorio de Sica’s (1902–1974) The Bicycle between right- and left-wing parties. The lat- Thief (1947) presented the grim reality of ter have not yet succeeded in forcing the Italy 199 prime minister to resolve the conflict of in- Reformation; Religion; Sport; Women’s terest between his political career and his Movement: European; World War I media monopoly. Berlusconian policy makes References: Arnold, W.V. The Illusion of Victory: Propaganda and the Second World War. New York: use of the mass media in a totalitarian way. Peter Lang, 1998; Caretti, P. Diritto Pubblico The prime minister also owns some print dell’Informazione. Bologna: Il Mulino, 1994; media, including the newspapers Il Giornale Elwood, D.“Italy: The Regime, the Nation and and Libero,and Mondadori, Italy’s largest pub- the Film Industry:An Introduction.” In Film & lishing company. Independent newspapers Radio Propaganda in World War II.Ed. K. R. M. such as La Repubblica and Il Corriere della Sera, Short. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1983, 220–229; MacDonald, C. “Radio as well as the international press, have con- Bari: Italian Wireless Propaganda in the Middle demned the prime minister’s media monop- East and British Countermeasures, 1934–38.” oly and his many conflicts of interest. Middle Eastern Studies (1991): 195–207; Livia Bornigia Monteleone, F. Storia della Radio e della Televisione in Italia.Venice: Saggi Marsilio, See also Art; CIA; Fascism, Italian; Health; 1992; Reeves, Nicholas. The Power of Film Marshall Plan; Mussolini, Benito; Psychological Propaganda.London: Cassell, 1999; Sassoon, D. Warfare; Reformation and Counter- Contemporary Italy.New York: Longman, 1986.

J

“J’Accuse” (“I Accuse”) (1898) Jackson, 1987; Halasz, Nicholas. Captain This open letter addressed to French Presi- Dreyfus:The Story of Mass Hysteria.New York: dent Félix Faure (1841–1899) attacking offi- Simon and Schuster, 1955. cial anti-Semitism was written in January 1898 by the French novelist and radical Émile Zola (1840–1902). The letter, pub- Japan lished in L’Aurore, accused the French army of In the centuries leading up to the 1590s, anti-Semitism in its treatment of Alfred Japan had been reduced to a state of constant Dreyfus (c. 1859–1935), a Jewish officer warfare among competing regional warlords. convicted of spying for Germany. The letter Through a series of stunning battles and by did not so much win readers over to the sheer force of will, the warrior Oda Dreyfus cause as much as it forced the issue Nobunaga (1534–1582) initiated a process of out into the public domain. The succeeding unification. His henchman, the samurai political storm surrounding the Dreyfus af- leader Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598), ex- fair divided the French political and intellec- panded this initiative and amalgamated the tual establishment. Zola found himself on formerly hostile regional fiefdoms. Hideyoshi trial and fled to England to escape imprison- dictated that large castles be built to demon- ment. The French courts twice retried Drey- strate both the splendor and strength (tenka) fus and twice reconvicted him, but the pres- of his realm. He began employing Confucian ence of anti-Semitism was evident in each terminology to justify his reign. Hideyoshi at- instance. The president of France intervened, tempted to suppress powerful Buddhist granting Dreyfus a pardon. The guilty party, groups that opposed his rule. Japan, he in the person of Maj. Hubert Joseph Henry claimed, was the land of the gods and he was (1846–1898), the chief of French military in- its ruler. Neither Hideyoshi nor the other telligence, confessed to forging Dreyfus’s sig- shoguns (literally, barbarian-subduing gen- nature and subsequently committed suicide. eral) who followed him ever attempted to Nicholas J.Cull usurp the imperial title from the emperor of See also Anti-Semitism; France; Herzl, Theodor Japan, instead ruling in his name. This act of References: Bredin, Jean-Denis. The Affair:The fiat resulted in a major social upheaval 250 Case of Alfred Dreyfus. London: Sidgwick and years later. In the 1850s, during the onset of

201 202 Japan the Meiji Restoration, Japan witnessed fierce more apparent. A proliferation of newspa- ideological struggles. On one side stood the pers and illustrated magazines helped both imperial supporters who argued that the em- the literate and illiterate populations to un- peror should once again head Japanese soci- derstand what was happening. Of course, ety to guard against the encroaching West. government censorship continued, with the On the other side stood the rapidly declining difference that it became more difficult for shogun and his band of conservative adminis- the authorities to inspect the wealth of infor- trators, who wished to maintain the status mation now available. quo. Even before the government concentrated The shogun’s authority rested on imperial on reining in the nascent press, it focused its concession and the concept of kogi where efforts on the theater and popular entertain- public welfare takes precedence over individ- ment. The government hired various enter- ual rights. The Tokugawa authorities, the rul- tainers and teachers, as well as religious ing house that assumed power from clergy, to lecture to the population and urge Hideyoshi in the early 1600s, put this quasi- the masses to support the new government Confucian concept into practice through ex- and its ideology. The Meiji state eagerly iden- tensive public laws, posted outside towns and tified itself with the native Shinto religion. villages, that restricted movement from re- The authorities hoped to draw the entire gion to region and controlled the bearing of population into the fold of Shintoism, with arms; through ornate imperial processions; state holidays and ceremonies reflecting and through sumptuary laws. A subsequent Shinto rituals and practices. Entertainers had ban on Christianity and the use of Buddhist to be licensed. In addition, they were admon- temples to register local inhabitants helped ished not to perform profane acts or beg consolidate villages. These measures essen- openly in the streets. tially closed the country off to the outside As the Meiji era progressed, the concept world for the next 250 years. of a single emperor under which the country By the mid-nineteenth century, Japan was could be united gained in importance in the no longer able to keep its doors closed to the eyes of the oligarchy that actually governed outside world. The legitimacy of Tokugawa the nation. From the late 1860s through the rule began to wane in the face of increasing 1880s, the new government, under the lead- economic, military, and cultural threats from ership of men such as Ito Hirobumi (1841– the West. Regardless of government efforts, 1909), paraded the Meiji emperor around through a multitude of state-sponsored the entire country and orchestrated lavish media, to denigrate foreign ideas and peoples ceremonies designed to accustom the popu- as unworthy,the reality of Japan’s helplessness lation to recognize their new leader. By the proved too shocking to ignore any longer. turn of the century, schools were required to For the newly appointed official bureau- mark the beginning of each day with the crats of Meiji Japan the problem was one of recitation of an oath to the emperor, whose how to convince a population taught to image hung in the schoolroom. These meas- loathe the nonnative to accept foreign ideas. ures proved exceedingly successful. Within This shift was nothing if not phenomenal. Ini- thirty years of opening up to the outside tially the fledgling government initiated a se- world, Japan was victorious in a battle against ries of laws, called the kaiishiki jorei that at- China in what historians have described as tempted to get the populace to dress and Japan’s “first modern war.” During the comport itself differently. Japan wanted to 1894–1895 Sino-Japanese War, the Japanese look good in Western eyes and—just as im- populace eagerly read comic books mocking portant—to make the distinction between it- the Chinese, but real modern propaganda self and the “not yet modernized” China even would not be utilized until the Japanese gov- Japan 203

government commandeered several agencies concerned with propaganda. Along with the institutions that would eventually give rise to the Cabinet Board of Information, the Japan- ese military ran its own separate media divi- sions. The South Manchurian Railway Com- pany, a quasi-governmental conglomerate with offices all over the world, also had so- phisticated propaganda operations afoot in mainland China and Soviet border areas. Fol- lowing Japan’s invasion of China and subse- quent war against the West, Japanese propa- ganda activities continued to escalate but remained far from unified. After the disastrous experience of World War II, the Japanese found themselves occu- pied by the U.S. military. The Allies, led by the Americans, set themselves the task of dis- mantling all the supposed operations that had led Japan into war, including propaganda (re- lying largely on the paradigm used to explain U.S. entry into World War I). U.S. reforms included a new constitution, a free press that An English-language Guide to Manchoukuo, published still had to conform to occupation policies, by the South Manchuria Railway Company,1934.The book attempted to justify Japanese aggression in Manchuria,now an end to censorship, and major changes under Japanese control with Emperor Pu Yi as titular leader. within the Japanese educational system. (Courtesy of David Culbert) Teachers were required to sever all connec- tions with the old regime and new textbooks were published. Ironically, due to the ex- ernment mobilized the entire country for tremely small number of Westerners fluent war with Russia in the Russo-Japanese War in Japanese, combined with the expansive na- of 1904–1905. ture of the occupation, most key posts were The Japanese government now realized it filled by the same Japanese propagandists had to influence both domestic and foreign who only months earlier had supported opinion in order to remain in control. Japan- Japan’s war in Asia. This shift was paralleled ese press authorities issued strict orders gov- by the transformation of the workforce of erning foreign coverage and began sending Domei, one of the largest media monopolies, newspaper reporters over to China. These into Dentsu, the largest advertising agency in reporters linked up with military platoons the world.At the same time, the new push to and sent stories back to the censors. Film align Japan with American policy led both the companies were permitted to send over au- Allied authorities and the Japanese bureau- thorized crews, and their resulting efforts cracy to develop systematic surveys of public brought about mass support for the war. opinion in Japan. In pursuit of this ideal, the Throughout World War I Japanese media headquarters of the occupation forces cre- analysts and government bureaus continued ated a Civil Information and Education Sec- to research British and German propaganda tion. In order to persuade and assuage the methods. With the outbreak of hostilities newly defeated Japanese, it was first neces- with China in the mid-1930s, the Japanese sary to assess and influence Japanese public 204 John Bull opinion. Prior to surrender, emperor wor- antinuclear movement and the persistence of ship and a belief in Japan’s imperial mission nationalism. The best-known nationalist-ori- in Asia had been a core focus of an increas- ented propagandist outside Japan was the ingly nationalistic educational system devel- novelist Yukio Mishima (1925–1970). Con- oped under state-controlled media. A belief troversies have included accusations by Chi- that democratization involved the molding of nese and Korean observers that the govern- minds mandated the study and measurement ment had amended school textbooks to of public opinion. underplay atrocities committed during On the cultural front, the United States World War II. sought to remold Japan, in part by gaining Barak Kushner the cooperation of the six major domestic See also China; Churchill, Winston; Korea; film studios (much as the OWI had worked Olympics; Pacific/Oceania; Philippines; Public with Hollywood during the war). As in the Diplomacy; Reeducation; Southeast Asia; Sukarno; Tokyo Rose; World War II (Japan) print media generally, the United States dis- References: Berry, Mary. Hideyoshi. Cambridge, couraged active discussion of the Japanese MA: Harvard University Press, 1982; Garon, past, including the atrocities committed on Sheldon. Molding Japanese Minds. Princeton, NJ: the Chinese mainland and throughout Asia. Princeton University Press, 1997; Gluck, More important, unlike Germany, in Japan Carol. Japan’s Modern Myths:Ideology in the Late blame for the war was placed squarely on the Meiji Period. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1985; Hirano, Kyoko. Mr. shoulders of the Japanese military establish- Smith Goes to Tokyo:Japanese Cinema under the ment; until recently few citizens have proac- American Occupation.Washington, DC: tively researched civilian responsibility. U.S. Smithsonian, 1992; Huffman, James L. Creating authorities also routinely repressed images of a Public:People and Press in Meiji Japan. damage caused by the dropping of the atomic Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1997; Ikegami, Eiko. The Taming of the Samurai. bomb. In part to promote a new sense of Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, openness, scenes reflecting the new Japan, 1995; Ooms, Herman. Tokugawa Ideology. such as images of couples kissing in public, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, were now permitted by the film authorities. 1985. Smith, Dennis B. Japan Since 1945. As the Cold War hit East Asia, the United London: Macmillan, 1995. States slowed its ideological reconstruction of Japan and turned its attention to the rapid development of the Japanese economy. Ex- John Bull tensive media operations appear to have been A symbolic figure representing England implemented in Japan, where U.S. officials and/or Great Britain and often used in politi- secretly financed feature films, TV programs, cal cartoons, this character is usually de- thousands of hours of radio programming, picted as a plump, middle-aged, clean-shaven hundreds of books, and numerous intellectu- man often dressed in a Union Jack waistcoat. als to bring Japan under the aegis of Ameri- John Bull first appeared in print in 1712 in a can policy. pamphlet by Scottish-born satirist and court The Japanese government and private in- physician John Arbuthnot (1667–1735). It is terests engaged in international publicity and unclear whether Arbuthnot, an associate of propaganda to promote the new image of Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), invented John postwar Japan. The central event in this cam- Bull or drew upon an existing character. The paign was the Tokyo Olympics of 1964. Pub- first pamphlet, entitled Law is a Bottomless Pit lic diplomacy has included an emphasis on or a history of John Bull, used the story of a technology and both traditional and contem- wildly expensive court case to attack the porary achievement in the arts. Domestic- Whig government and its foreign policy. The propaganda issues have included both a lively satire also included a French character called Jud Süss 205

Lewis Baboon. Four subsequent pamphlets script, Jud Süss represented a reworking of a followed, establishing John Bull firmly in the celebrated historical novel of the same name British imagination. The character became a by Lion Feuchtwanger (1889–1958), which favorite of satirists, a familiar figure in plays was sympathetic to its subject, as was a film and pageants, and a staple of cartoons by on the same subject produced by the Gau- artists like James Gillray (1757–1815) and mont British studios in 1934. contributors to such illustrated magazines as The historical figure of Jud Süss was not Punch. In 1906 Horatio Bottomley (1860– the stuff of transparent virtue. In fact, he 1933), a scandal-mongering journalist, was notorious, so the Nazi production, politician, and notorious fraud, established a overseen by Joseph Goebbels, the minister weekly newspaper called John Bull,which was of propaganda, showed villainous behavior aimed at working-class readers. The paper to best effect. claimed a readership of one and a half mil- Süss, an official in eighteenth-century lion. In 1914 this paper and Bottomley be- Württemberg, committed serial adultery, came a fount of jingoistic propaganda in sup- raised taxes to unheard-of levels, and was in port of World War I. The image of John Bull fact hanged as a Jew within an enormous iron figured on recruiting posters for the Great cage. Jud Süss was successful thanks to the tal- War, though it was not as ubiquitous as that ents of Germany’s finest actors and as a result of his American equivalent Uncle Sam. of splendid production values. Millions paid Nicholas J.Cull to see a film with a virulent anti-Semitic mes- See also Britain (Eighteenth Century); Uncle Sam sage. Although the film encouraged a dislike References: Bower,Alan W., and Robert A. of all Jews, there is no evidence to suggest Erickson, eds. The History of John Bull by John that this particular film made every German a Arbuthnot.Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1976; Huggett, Frank E. Victorian England as seen by willing executioner. “Punch.”London: Sidgwick and Jackson, 1978; David Culbert Hyman,Alan. The Rise and Fall of Horatio See also Anti-Semitism; Film (Nazi Germany); Bottomley:The Biography of a Swindler.London: Goebbels, Joseph; Hitler,Adolf; World War II Cassell, 1972. (Germany) References: Etlin, Richard A., ed. Art,Culture, and Media under the Third Reich.Chicago: Jud Süss (1940) University of Chicago Press, 2002; Taylor, This was one of the most notorious and suc- Richard. Film Propaganda:Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany.London: I. B. Tauris, 1998; Welch, cessful pieces of anti-Semitic film propaganda David. Propaganda and the German Cinema, produced in Nazi Germany. Directed by Veit 1933–1945. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1983 Harlan (1899–1964), who also wrote the (rev. ed., London: I. B. Tauris, 2001).

K

Kennedy, John F.(1917–1963) phrase that had been used to good effect by Thirty-fifth U.S. president and arguably the many, including the headmaster of his school: finest American orator of the twentieth cen- “Ask not what your country can do for you— tury, John Fitzgerald Kennedy was born into ask what you can do for your country.” He a well-to-do family. His father, Joseph P. loved this sort of sentence construction and Kennedy (1888–1969), groomed him for a used it throughout his presidency. Kennedy political career. He served with distinction in got along well with the Washington press the navy during World War II and entered corps, drawing them into the spirit of what Congress as a Democrat in 1947. In 1952 he he called the “New Frontier.” With his press won the junior Senate seat for Massachusetts secretary, Pierre Salinger (1925– ), he be- and by 1960 was able to run for the presi- came a master of the press conference. dency.As a senator he had a keen eye for pub- Kennedy was the last American president to licity, and his doings were frequently re- benefit from a bipartisan media that consid- ported in the press. His reputation grew with ered itself as having a stake in the success of the success of his book Profiles in Courage the administration. The press turned a blind (1956). During the election campaign eye to such things as his ill health and his sex- Kennedy paid particular attention to his ap- ual adventures. pearance. His clean-cut image contrasted Kennedy gave new leadership to the insti- startlingly with that of his Republican con- tutions of American propaganda overseas. He tender, Richard Nixon (1913–1994), during persuaded veteran broadcaster Edward R. their famous television debate. Kennedy also Murrow (1908–1965) to serve as USIA di- made the image of the United States into a rector; the Kennedy era was later remem- campaign issue, claiming that a secret United bered as a golden age for that agency. He also States Information Agency (USIA) poll had understood the need for the United States to revealed that America had fallen in world es- be active in world affairs. To this end, teem. Following a lively campaign, Kennedy Kennedy adopted a number of policies with a won the presidency by a narrow margin. strong propaganda component designed to Attempting to develop a distinctive meet the challenge of the Soviet Union head rhetorical style, in his inaugural address on. These included: the creation of the Peace Kennedy set out his agenda by borrowing a Corps, whose volunteers served in develop-

207 208 Kennedy, John F.

The United States Information Agency prepares giant pictures of Kennedy for export at the time of his inauguration in 1961. (National Archives) ment projects overseas; the expansion of the image game. No president was ever so loved American space program, with the declared or admired in Europe. Following the standoff objective of placing a man on the moon of the Cuban missile crisis, he convinced the within the decade; and high-profile military Soviet Union to participate in talks leading actions. The last proved the weakest. up to a nuclear test ban treaty. Kennedy’s Kennedy’s support for the invasion of Cuba death in November 1963 at the hands of an at the Bay of Pigs in 1961 was a public rela- assassin gave the United States a martyr, but tions disaster, and his policy of providing aid it also robbed the country of a perceptive to the government of South Vietnam created leader who understood both the potential problems for his successor. Nevertheless and the limits of propaganda. Kennedy remained a skilled player in the Nicholas J.Cull King, Martin Luther, Jr. 209

See also Castro, Fidel; Cold War; latter’s propaganda techniques overseas in- Counterinsurgency; Elections; Funerals; Latin cluded the use of “disinformation”—well- America; Murrow, Edward R.; Nixon, placed rumors or faked stories calculated to Richard; Silent Spring; United States; USIA; Vietnam;Vietnam War undermine the enemy. References: Reeves, Thomas C. A Question of Graham Roberts Character:The Life of John F.Kennedy.New York: See also CIA; Cold War; Disinformation; Free Press, 1991; Salinger, Pierre. With Okhrana; Revolution, Russian; Russia; Stalin, Kennedy.New York: Doubleday, 1966; Sperber, Joseph A. M. Murrow:His Life and Times. New York: References: Nove,Alec, ed. The Stalin Freundlich, 1986. Phenomenon. New York: St. Martins, 1993; Shentalinksky,Vitaly. The KGB’s Literary Archive. London: Harvill, 1997. KGB (Committee of State Security, Soviet Union) The KGB was officially charged with defend- King, Martin Luther, Jr. ing the Soviet Communist regime against do- (1929–1968) mestic and foreign enemies. The KGB’s prin- An African American civil rights leader, cipal internal function was surveillance of the King successfully won the support of the Soviet population. The suppression of anti- liberal white community for basic reform Soviet behavior was largely achieved through and attracted worldwide media attention intimidation but could be enforced by means concerning race relations in the United of incarceration in special prisons, forced States. Born in Atlanta and the son of a labor camps, and even corrective psychiatric preacher, King attended Boston University hospitals. A key internal group targeted for and thereafter worked as a Baptist minister surveillance and control were intellectuals, in Montgomery, Alabama, gaining recogni- particularly writers, while the flow of infor- tion in 1955 as a result of his leadership of mation emanating from the West was consid- that city’s 382-day bus boycott, which even- ered the primary external threat. Thus, tually resulted in a law ending desegregated much KGB activity was focused on either re- buses. By 1957 he had been elected presi- pressing or countering “enemy” propaganda. dent of the Southern Christian Leadership The KGB, established in 1954, was the last Conference (SCLC) and used nonviolent di- in a long line of institutions of repression em- rect action to coordinate high-profile sit- ployed by Russian regimes since the reign of ins, freedom rides, boycotts, and protest Ivan the Terrible (1530–1584). In terms of marches throughout the South. His most form and function, the committee was cer- successful campaigns occurred in Birming- tainly a worthy successor to the prerevolu- ham, Alabama, in 1963, when he made cer- tionary Okhrana secret police. Officially it tain that the media bore witness to violent was the successor to a series of state security police attacks against young black protest- agencies, including the Cheka, OGPU, ers, and the August 1963 March on Wash- NKVD, and the MGB/MVD. ington (250,000 strong), where he deliv- The KGB was constituted as an organ of ered his famous “I Have a Dream” speech. In the Soviet Council of Ministers. The Com- 1963 alone he delivered approximately 350 mittee of State Security also organized and speeches and traveled 275,000 miles. He administered subordinate committees of won Time magazine’s Man of the Year state security within individual republics as Award, followed by the Nobel Peace Prize well as at district and city levels. The ultimate in 1964. His popularity among white Amer- master of agencies operated by the Soviet icans fell after 1965 as he turned his atten- Union’s Communist allies was the KGB. The tion to poverty in northern cities and spoke 210 King, Martin Luther, Jr.

Martin Luther King Jr.delivers his "I Have a Dream" speech from the Lincoln Memorial during the March on Washington, August 1963.(Flip Schulke/CORBIS )

out against the war in Vietnam. King was ha- strategic alliances with northern whites bol- rassed by the FBI and criticized by the grow- stered his success in terms of influencing ing militant “black power” movement. On 4 public opinion throughout America. Liberal April 1968 King was assassinated. His death white audiences approved of his moderate led to outbreaks of violence in several major approach to reform, while blacks were en- cities. couraged by his talk of equality and the grad- King’s propaganda skill lay in the art of elo- ual improvements taking place. King was an quent and persuasive public speaking, derived ideal promoter of the civil rights movement, from the vibrant oral tradition of the black presenting the public image of an educated church in which he had grown up. He used and well-spoken Christian. He frequently simple words and imagery and stressed basic appeared on live debates and talk shows, but moral truths. King was not so much original he was most eloquent when preaching. King or intellectual but rather personal and inspira- also clearly understood the power of visual tional; he spoke often of his own suffering and images and relied on the medium of tele- willingness to die for his cause, which elicited vision to dramatically convey acts of white intense emotions from his audiences. Al- violence. though King’s approach owed much to the By the 1980s his image had become part of nonviolence practiced by Mahatma Gandhi the collective American memory, which (1869–1948) in India, he always appealed to stood at odds with the radical approach of his traditional American symbols, including the later years. His family successfully cam- Declaration of Independence and the memory paigned to make his birthday (15 January) a of Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), and federal holiday, and it was first celebrated as stressed his belief in the American dream and such in 1986. the “Americanness” of his campaign. His Samantha Jones Korea 211

See also Civil Rights Movement; Gandhi, Ming China. Although Korea now entered a Mohandas K.; Malcolm X; NAACP; United long period of isolation from the non-Chi- States nese world, foreign ideas still managed to fil- References: Cook, Robin. Sweet Land of Liberty? The Black Struggle for Civil Rights in Twentieth- ter into the country. Koreans learned of Century America.London: Longman, 1998; Christianity from diplomatic visits to China; Oates, Stephen B. Let the Trumpet Sound:The Life before the first missionaries had even reached of Martin Luther King,Jr.London: Search, 1982; Korea, the state passed preemptive laws to Taylor, Branch. Parting the Waters:America in the halt the spread of this “dangerous” belief sys- King Years,1954–63. New York: Simon and tem, with its “intolerable irreverence for an- Schuster, 1988; ———. Pillar of Fire:America in the King Years,1963–65. New York: Simon & cestors” and its rejection of Confucian ritual. Schuster, 1998; Washington, James Melvin, ed. Christian missionary activity met with perse- A Testament of Hope:The Essential Writings of cution. Meanwhile, a reformist movement Martin Luther King,Jr. New York: Harper and among the scholar class known as “practical Row, 1986. learning” reflected the first stirrings of the Western concept of nationhood. By the nine- teenth century Korean culture had rejected Korea rigid Chinese models. Literary and artistic Korea has experienced the propaganda of works of this period would become the sta- outsiders, not least that of its powerful neigh- ples of the cultural nationalists of the twenti- bors China and Japan, but its rulers have de- eth century. ployed propaganda of their own since the Yi In the 1860s a powerful religious move- dynasty (1392–1910). Modern times pro- ment called Tonghak (Eastern Learning) duced the cult of personality around North rocked Korea. Founded by a scholar named Korea’s leader Kim Il Sung (1912–1994). Ch’oe Che-u (1824–1864), it borrowed from The Yi dynasty came to power with the multiple Eastern religions and set out to help of China, legitimizing its rule with ref- purge secret Christian sects and challenge the erence to Chinese culture—especially Con- power of the West. The Yi dynasty clamped fucianism. The architecture of its new capital down and embarked on a conservative, anti- of Seoul underpinned its dynastic power. In Christian campaign of its own under the lead- 1443 scholars, under the supervision of King ership of the regent, or Taewongun, Yi Ha-ung Se-jong (1418–1450), developed Han’gul (1821–1889). In 1871 Korean guns fended (Korean writing), a phonetic alphabet that off a U.S. attempt to “open” Korea as it had permitted Korean to be printed efficiently earlier done in Japan, but in 1876 the Japan- utilizing a movable typeface, thereby increas- ese themselves accomplished the same feat. A ing the impact of the dynasty’s ideology. The pawn in Sino-Japanese politics, economic kingdom based its civil service on the Confu- conditions in Korea deteriorated and the cian examination model and practiced rigor- Tonghak cult grew. Members demonstrated ous censorship. The system sustained the Yi with drums and bells outside the royal palace dynasty for five centuries, an achievement as part of a campaign to win its founder a unmatched elsewhere in Eastern or Western posthumous pardon. When Tonghak support- history. On occasion scholars launched ideo- ers rebelled again in 1894, Japan intervened, logical initiatives to reform the state along precipitating the Sino-Japanese War of more perfect Confucian lines, as in the no- 1894–1895, which Japan won. The aftermath table campaign by Cho Kwang-jo in the early resulted in a flowering of nationalistic feel- 1500s. ing—including propaganda—in Korea. Its Having resisted Japanese invasion in the chief advocate was So Chae-p’il, who re- 1590s, in 1636 Korea fell to the armies of the turned from exile in the United States to Manchu during their campaign to conquer found both the Korean-language newspaper 212 Korea

the Independent and a network of “Indepen- ganda parted company with the rest of the dence Clubs.” In 1898 the court suppressed Communist bloc and became an idiosyn- this reform movement. cratic projection of the “Great Leader” and In 1905 Japanese troops entered Korea “sun of the nation” Kim Il Sung. Kim de- and crossed it to fight Russia. They stayed manded the usual trappings of a personality and dominated the country. The Yi emperor cult (massive statues, ubiquitous portraits), appealed to international opinion—to no establishing his own version of Marxist- avail—and in 1910 Korea became a Japanese Leninism known as Juce, which emphasized imperial possession. Korean resistance to the significance of the leader. Kim’s personal Japan included the so-called Samil demon- propaganda included his name; born Kim stration of 1 March 1919, which consisted of Sung Chu, he had taken the name of a guer- a day of national protest during which leaders rilla leader who resisted the Japanese early across the country simultaneously read a during the occupation. The exact nature of Proclamation of Independence. Utilizing the his wartime activity is open to dispute; he language of Western nationalism, it was in- claimed to have led resistance forces against tended to win the support of Western lead- the Japanese. In due course he also empha- ers who had gathered at the Versailles confer- sized his role in resisting the “American Im- ence. Japan violently crushed the movement. perialists” during the Korean War; monu- Japanese domination of Korea included a pol- ments dedicated to the “great leader” were icy of cultural assimilation—especially in the linked to the lavish memorials to the dead at educational system—whereby the use of the end of the Korean War. Following Kim’s both the Korean language and Korean names death in 1994, the leadership passed to his were banned during the 1930s. The Korean son, Kim Jong Il (1942– ), who had served nationalist movement formed a government- as regent during his father’s decline. in-exile in Shanghai under Syngman Rhee Despite economic hardship (which was (1875–1965). more acute following the end of Commu- During World War II Allied propaganda nism in the USSR and reform of the old Chi- pledges included a promise to restore an in- nese Communist ally), North Korea has con- dependent Korea. This aim was frustrated by sistently invested heavily in propaganda at the entry of the USSR into the war against home and overseas. The key to North Korean Japan. The Soviets established control over propaganda remains Radio Pyongyang, which the northern, industrialized portion of the broadcasts to most of the world. North country, north of the thirty-eighth parallel. Korea figures frequently as a pariah in U.S. By 1948 the division had produced two sepa- propaganda and was one of the seven nations rate regimes: the Communist Democratic singled out for special vilification in early People’s Republic of Korea in the North, 2001 as a sponsor of terrorism. under Kim Il Sung, and the Republic of The South Korean state also began with an Korea in the South, under Rhee. In June authoritarian figure, namely, Rhee. Student 1950 the Moscow-trained Kim Il Sung protests against the rigging of the 1960 presi- launched a massive invasion of the south. dential election were effective not so much The three-year Korean War followed, ending because of the content of their words as the in a cease-fire along the same border. The savagery of Rhee’s response, following which latter became part of a geographical table he fled the country. Between 1961 and 1979 tennis match involving propaganda ex- the military ruled South Korea in the person changes that has lasted until the end of the of Gen. Park Chung-hee (1917–1979). Fol- century and beyond. lowing Park’s death at the hands of his own Although based on the ideas of Marx and intelligence chief, power passed to Gen. Lenin, North Korean ideology and propa- Chun Doo-hwan (1931– ). Chun’s regime Korean War 213 dealt brutally with prodemocracy demon- democracy in his region, he was awarded the strators, massacring hundreds of individuals Nobel Peace Prize in 2000. in Kwangju in 1980. Despite some liberaliza- Nicholas J.Cull tion and reform, the regime continued to be See also Art;Atrocity Propaganda; China; Japan; marked by considerable corruption. Both Korean War; Olympics; Public Diplomacy; Chun and his successor, Roh Tae-woo Terrorism; Terrorism, War on References: Cumings, Bruce. The Two Koreas. (1932– ), were later jailed for corruption. New York: Foreign Policy Association, 1984; South Korea’s international propaganda gam- Fairbank, John K., Edwin O. Reischauer, and bits have included the hosting of the 1988 Albert M. Craig. East Asia:Tradition and Seoul Summer Olympics, as well as various Transformation. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, cultural ventures sponsored by the privately 1989; Kang Hyeon-dew. Media Culture in Korea. funded International Cultural Society of Seoul: Seoul National University Press, 1993; Kim Chie-woon and Lee Jae-won, eds. Elite Korea and King Se-jong Foundation. The Media Amidst Mass Culture:A Critical Look at Mass South Korean government also maintains the Communication in Korea.Seoul: Nanam, 1994; Korea Overseas Information Service to han- Manheim, Jarol B., Strategic Public Diplomacy dle its press relations and has used the ser- and American Foreign Policy:The Evolution of vices of commercial public relations firms to Influence. New York: Oxford University Press, 1994; Oliver, Robert T. A History of the Korean influence American public opinion. People in Modern Times:1800 to the Present. The South Korean media has developed Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1993. along Western lines, with a plurality of news- papers and television stations in addition to the state-controlled Korean Broadcasting Service. Regulations imposed on the media Korean War (1950–1953) include restrictions on the transmission of This was the first major military conflict of Japanese popular culture (a sensitive issue re- the Cold War period, one that greatly inten- lated to Korea’s colonial experience). Free sified the propaganda struggle between East expression in the media was—and re- and West. The war erupted suddenly in June mains—circumscribed by the fact that many 1950 when the North Korean army, supplied papers were either owned by or dependent and supported by the USSR, invaded South upon advertising revenues from the big in- Korea. Within a week, the United States had dustrial combines. Journalists who broke formed a coalition under the auspices of the ranks and criticized the government or United Nations and had sent military forces praised North Korea were subject to intimi- to push back the North Korean invaders. dation or worse. The most significant voice During the next six months the conflict esca- of opposition to authoritarian rule in South lated, with UN forces routing the North Ko- Korea was that of Kim Dae-jung (1924– ).A reans at Inchon, which in turn provoked the veteran writer and prodemocracy cam- intervention of Communist China. By the paigner, Kim ran for the presidency in 1971, summer of 1951 the war had reached a stale- 1987, and 1992. In the interim he endured mate, with the belligerents agreeing to periods in jail, assassination attempts, and armistice negotiations at Panmunjom, which exile. In 1997 he finally won the presidential dragged on for two years. During this period, election. Korean regimes and protestors in the great powers (the United States, USSR, both North and South Korea have used patri- and China) hoped to restrict the actual fight- otic appeals for reunification as a staple of ing to the Korean peninsula. At the same their propaganda. Kim similarly launched the time, with relations between East and West “Sunshine Policy” of cross-border reconcilia- having deteriorated markedly, both Washing- tion. In recognition of his successful easing of ton and Moscow redoubled their efforts to tensions and his lifelong fight to promote wage the wider Cold War, mobilizing inter- A U.S.soldier loads propaganda leaflets into a hollow bomb case during the Korean War.This picture was used by the U.S. government to counter Communist claims that such cases found empty on the battlefield were evidence of American use of germ warfare.(National Archives) Korean War 215 nal resources, cementing their respective al- sages. The Korean War greatly sharpened the liance blocs, and appealing for support tendency on both sides to paint the world in among emerging Third World nationalist black and white terms. For American propa- groups. Consequently, between 1950 and gandists, Red China was now clearly depicted 1953 propaganda played an important role as part of the monolithic Communist con- not just in the actual Korean conflict but also spiracy. Not only were Chinese Communists in the broader ideological struggle between portrayed as puppets of Moscow; they were East and West. also attacked as brutal and savage, responsible In the year before the Korean War, both for a range of atrocities against POWs, from superpowers had already established signifi- brutal executions to the “brainwashing” of cant propaganda capabilities. The Commu- captured G.I.s. The Communist states re- nist Party had always exerted tight control sponded in kind.At the start of the war, Mao over the flow of information inside the Soviet Zedong (1893–1976) launched a “Hate Union. In 1947 Stalin (1879–1953) set up America” campaign aimed at “unmasking the Cominform, which coordinated activities American imperialism.” In 1952 the Soviet in the international Communist movement Union constructed an elaborate and false and vehemently attacked U.S. policies in Eu- propaganda story, charging Americans with rope. In 1950 the USSR also encouraged using biological warfare in North Korea and peace groups within the West,like the Stock- northeast China. holm Peace Appeal, which gathered millions Such arguments were largely intended for of signatures on petitions protesting against domestic consumption. Even in the authori- nuclear warfare. The United States was quick tarian Communist bloc, leaders deemed it to respond. Aware that the American public essential to drum up domestic support. This had long been suspicious of anything that was especially true in China, where the smacked of domestic propaganda, the Tru- Communist regime had only just come to man administration often relied on a network power after a long and bloody civil war. For of private groups to sell its policies at home. Mao the “Hate America” campaign offered an With the revival of the Voice of America ideal way of mobilizing domestic support (VOA) in 1948, U.S. propagandists were also and establishing legitimacy for Communist in a position to appeal to “captive nations” Party rule. Rallying the public was also vital under Communist control. in the United States, particularly since the The Korean War gave a tremendous boost war had become increasingly unpopular dur- to propaganda efforts on both sides. The U.S. ing 1951. As opposition mounted at home, Congress tripled funds for America’s propa- President Harry Truman (1884–1972) ganda program (the “Campaign of Truth”) found it necessary to explain to Americans enabling the Truman administration to inten- why Korea was vital to U.S. security. Tru- sify its efforts at home, and provided the VOA man also had to combat Republican with the facilities to broadcast to more than a charges—most vociferously and recklessly hundred countries in forty-six different lan- voiced by Joseph McCarthy (1909–1957)— guages. Given their firm faith in the efficacy that his administration was soft on Commu- of propaganda, the Communist powers made nism and to challenge the claim of his mili- an even more concerted effort. By the end of tary commander, Douglas MacArthur 1950, Soviet short-wave programming was (1880–1964), that the United States should able to reach more countries in more lan- expand the fighting in Asia to obtain a com- guages than anything the Americans could plete and total victory. muster. Nationalistic groups in Asia were another These channels were principally used to target for propagandists. Coming just months disseminate simplistic and ideological mes- after Mao’s success in the Chinese civil war, 216 Kosovo Crisis and War the conflict in Korea had shifted the focus of 1945–1961. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, the Cold War from Europe to Asia.Attempt- 1997; Lucas, Scott. Freedom’s War:The U.S. ing to gain the upper hand in this new the- Crusade against the Soviet Union,1945–1956. Manchester: Manchester University Press, ater, both the United States and the USSR 1999; Stueck, William. The Korean War:An hoped to rally support in countries like India, International History. Princeton, NJ: Princeton Indonesia, and Indochina. One of the most University Press, 1995. important forums for doing so was the United Nations. At the start of the Korean War, the Soviet boycott of the United Na- Kosovo Crisis and War (1999) tions enabled the United States to intervene The Kosovo crisis was an extreme case of the in Korea under the auspices of this interna- use of propaganda by all sides in a late-twen- tional body, backed by the votes of fifty-nine tieth-century Western war of intervention. countries around the world. Naturally, this The crisis consisted of four main phases. The cloak of international legitimacy remained at first phase, beginning in January, involved a the heart of America’s propaganda message successful attempt by the Kosovo Liberation throughout the war. The USSR tried hard to Army (KLA) to provoke a confrontation be- regain the initiative, returning to the United tween the United States, representing North Nations to suppress debate and constantly Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) pow- claiming that the UN action in Korea was il- ers, and the Serbian government. The second legal, but Moscow’s initial absence from the phase, which began in mid-March, saw the body cost it dearly in the battle to win over launching of a Serbian military campaign of neutral opinion. “ethnic cleansing” to drive out the ethnic Al- As the war dragged on into 1952 and banian population of Kosovo. The third 1953, the armistice talks in Panmunjom be- phase, which began on March 24, was came yet another arena in which the two marked by a NATO bombing campaign sides exchanged propaganda tirades, from against Serbia. The Serbs conducted no mili- charges of bad faith to accusations of war tary action against NATO other than antiair- crimes. Only after a change in leadership in craft defense. Their main response to the Washington and Moscow was an armistice fi- NATO bombing was a propaganda campaign nally concluded in July 1953, demonstrating intended to maintain support at home, win it that, despite the intensified propaganda bat- internationally, and to dissuade NATO from tle, East and West could still reach a limited launching a ground war. NATO countries agreement, and paving the way for the slight viewed the maintenance of public support for thaw in superpower relations during the mid- their actions at home as a critical area of vul- 1950s. However, the Cold War remained nerability.This was also the first war in which very much alive, with the propaganda capa- the Internet featured as a significant part of bilities that the two sides had expanded and the information and propaganda campaign. refined during the Korean conflict continuing The final phase, on June 9, involved the ac- to play an integral part in this protracted ide- ceptance by Serbia of the presence of the ological struggle between East and West. NATO-led peacekeeping force KFOR (Ko- Steven Casey sovo Force), which entered Kosovo unop- See also Atrocity Propaganda; Brainwashing; posed, thereby permitting the Albanians to China; Cold War; Guernica; Korea; Mao return. The formal end to the air war came Zedong; McCarthy, Joseph R.; Prisoners of on June 20 after all Serb forces left Kosovo. War; United Nations;VOA Despite the termination of the Bosnian References: Clews, John C. Communist Propaganda Techniques. London: Methuen, 1964; crisis and war in 1995, diplomatic confronta- Hixson, Walter L. Parting the Curtain: tions continued between Serbia, under Slo- Propaganda,Culture and the Cold War, bodan Milosevic (1941– ), and the United Kosovo Crisis and War 217

States, which were exacerbated by the con- ferences and updates of Internet websites. tinuing separatist tendencies among the other After a decade of experiencing the pace of a states and regions of the former Federal Re- television war, most countries took these public of Yugoslavia. (Serbia and Montenegro structures and methods for granted. NATO, both continued to refer to themselves as Yu- as an institution, had no comparable struc- goslavia in 1999, but Montenegro distanced tures, and as the war progressed serious defi- itself from Serbia during the crisis.) By 1999 ciencies were revealed in its approach. the United States had concluded that Milose- By 1999 the Serbs—and particularly Milo- vic himself must relinquish power in order sevic—had been so completely demonized by for a peaceful settlement to be reached. the Western media and its governments that Kosovo, a region rather than a state under critics of NATO found it virtually impossible the 1974 Yugoslav constitution, with a ma- to argue the Serbian cause. Instead, criticisms jority of ethnic Albanians, had been agitating were voiced by small but vocal minorities for independence since 1992. This included a claiming that the bombing was illegal or im- propaganda campaign directed chiefly at the moral—and largely ineffectual—in prevent- United States. A first crisis occurred in Sep- ing the ethnic cleansing campaign. Some crit- tember 1998 when Serbian troops began an ics also condemned Western information “ethnic cleansing” campaign within Kosovo, campaigns as propaganda intended to mislead only to back down under NATO pressure.An their own people. American-led “Kosovo Verification Mission” The response of the Serbian government coincided with the Serbian massacre of Alba- to the bombing campaign was directed both nians on 15 January 1999 at the village of at their own people and at NATO. Home Racak, an event that was fully exploited for propaganda included frequent references to its propaganda value by the KLA. This led to the bombing of Belgrade in April 1941 by negotiations, supervised by the NATO pow- the Germans, accusations of NATO war ers near Paris, leading up to a peace settle- crimes, and the portrayal of Serbia as the ment whereby a NATO-led protection force weak and innocent victim of superpower ag- would occupy Kosovo. The Serbian rejection gression. Propaganda directed at NATO em- in March 1999 of the “Rambouillet Accords” phasized the difficulties of mounting a led to war. ground war and the cost in NATO casualties. Claiming the right of intervention, the Serbia also coordinated its propaganda war NATO countries denied that they were at war with its military operations in Kosovo ex- with Serbia, arguing that the bombing cam- tremely well. Overseas reporters were en- paign was justified by UN Security Council couraged to remain in Belgrade, but access (UNSC) resolutions passed in 1998 calling for to Kosovo itself was severely restricted by a halt to ethnic cleansing in Kosovo. NATO both sides until the very end of the crisis. also relied on precision (“smart”) bombing, NATO media specialists were critical of this largely avoiding city centers and hitting tar- lack of information—above all of visual im- gets of low political sensitivity in order to ages—from Kosovo, which they felt allowed minimize Serbian civilian casualties. This was Serbia to dictate the pace and nature of the in keeping with media-sensitive targeting propaganda war. policies going back to the 1991 Gulf War. In- The Kosovo crisis and war witnessed the formation strategies directed at the home first systematic use of the Internet for com- populations of NATO countries were based munication and propaganda on both sides, in- on the “sand castle” model of popular support cluding nongovernmental players. The extent and consent, the belief that these could erode of institutional and informal mass media rapidly if not continually bolstered. Methods available meant that the media and propa- included daily special government press con- ganda permeated this war to an extent and in 218 Kosovo Crisis and War a manner that had not been previously seen. pool since the 1991 Gulf War. Modeled on It was also argued that a combination of in- IFOR, which grew out of the Bosnian crisis formal media and institutional controls and war, KFOR also possessed similar infor- meant that the days of the independent tele- mation capabilities and plans. vision or newspaper “war correspondent” Stephen Badsey were over. See also Balkans; Blair, Tony; Bosnian Crisis and Milosevic fell from power a year after the War; Censorship; Internet war and went on trial for war crimes at The References: Badsey, Stephen, and Paul Latawski, eds. Britain,NATO and the Lessons of the Balkan Hague, which he used as a platform for dis- Conflict. London: Frank Cass, 2002; playing his defiance. The reasons behind Carruthers, Susan L. The Media at War. London: Milosevic’s acceptance of KFOR in 1999 re- Macmillan, 2000; Chomsky, Noam. The New main obscure, and the relative importance of Military Humanism:Lessons from Kosovo.London: the propaganda campaign on both sides is still Pluto, 1999; Hammond, Philip, and Edward S. being debated. Concern about possible fight- Herman, eds. Degraded Capability. London: Pluto, 2000; Knightley, Philip. The First ing led the KFOR to use a media “pool” for Casualty:The War Correspondent as Hero and Myth- the first twenty-four hours following its Maker from the Crimea to Kosovo. Rev. ed. entry into Kosovo—the first use of such a London: Prion, 2000. L

Labor/Antilabor Conversely, in the USSR in 1936 that Labor propaganda techniques have included country’s propaganda machine used Commu- posters, banners, and a succession of memo- nists everywhere to play up the new constitu- rable songs, but on the whole they must be tion, which supposedly guaranteed Soviet considered a failure. Workers and their or- workers rights denied them in capitalist ganizations have never really received even- countries. The reality was quite different. In- handed treatment from the media organs of ternal passports were issued that could tie society in which labor has lived and operated. workers to their jobs like serfs. The year Whether in the capitalistic industrialized 1936 also marked the beginning of the Stalin- countries or in the socialist states, even when ist terror, which eliminated or placed in the lip service is paid to them, workers and their Gulag most of the ostensible leaders of Soviet labor organizations are given short shrift. For trade unions as well as many workers. example, the actual reasons behind strikes Attempts by workers worldwide to place are often lost in superficial media coverage, before the public often quite limited and whether in the popular press at the end of the reasonable demands have foundered for lack last century, television and film media in the of a proper forum—since they were usually twentieth century, or, more recently, elec- controlled by those who wish to squelch tronic media. labor or use it for their own political ends. Consider how newsreels in the United Weimar Germany saw a wide variety of ef- States dealt with labor unrest during the forts on the part of a dedicated left to prop- 1930s. Although hundreds of thousands of agandize on behalf of workers. Like agitprop workers struck the textile industry nationally theater, these efforts had a certain cultural in 1934 (one of the largest walkouts ever in impact, but they ultimately gave little voice U.S. labor history), on American movie to labor. Interestingly enough, Hitler screens audiences only saw worker violence (1889–1945) and his cohort won over the that had been engendered by management in- salaried classes and wage earners after transigence. When, during another strike in crushing organized labor through propa- 1937, newsreel cameras caught the Chicago ganda that stressed unity at the expense of police turning against the workers (killing individuality, the Labor Front instead of ten), this footage was temporarily suppressed. unions.

219 220 Labor/Antilabor

Antilabor forces (such as the Nazis) gener- Workers do have friends and supporters ally succeeded because they had the resources who speak out for labor, but, as has become necessary to sell and implement their ideas clear in the United States, labor organizations and to eradicate any program that organized tend to work through the political process. labor might wish to promote. This was done The picket line and the strike cannot, despite in Britain during the General Strike of 1926 labor’s efforts, garner sufficient support. As as well as under the Thatcher government. was the case with New Labour in Britain, de- During the late nineteenth and early twenti- spite a great deal of hoopla, workers did not eth centuries in the United States, antilabor benefit as a result of political action. Unions forces were willing not only to apply extrale- in the non-Communist world are well posi- gal force but also to propagandize successfully tioned to plead their case—possessing suffi- about their use of it as they wrapped them- cient funds, savvy staffs, and sound political selves in the cloak of “Truth, Justice, and the connections—but antilabor propaganda con- American way of life.” tinues unabated. During the heyday of the 1930s, the Con- In the 1980s President Ronald Reagan gress of Industrial Organizations (CIO) at- (1911– ) crushed the Air Traffic Con- tempted to unionize America’s industrial trollers’ Union but managed, through clever workers. Management stalled that very manipulation of the media, to retain the sup- forceful drive using what was dubbed the port of many workers, the so-called Blue “Mohawk Valley Formula,” which involved Dog Democrats, who opposed the policies of disseminating propaganda about the need for their party’s leaders. The German unions are “law and order” and the threat of “outside ag- powerful and have trumpeted their success at itators” through a friendly or bribed media, achieving “Mitbestimmung,”(participation in thereby obfuscating such real issues as hours, decision-making), but, notwithstanding their wages, and working conditions.Variations of boasts, the propaganda is much better than that successful technique, which was based the results. Worker representation on com- on earlier initiatives, are still in use in the pany boards does not seem to have made United States. much of a difference. Other countries may possess a less violent Organized labor seems to have fallen into a labor history than the United States, where state of stasis despite a handful of energetic strikes often led to pitched battles that organ- vocal leaders. They do not hesitate to find a ized labor, however successful in the field, forum to speak out, but it is generally not one generally lost in the media. Opponents of that is a major component of the mass media. labor in these countries successfully utilized Throughout much of the second half of the the forces of propaganda. In the 1930s in twentieth century, organized labor tried to France, the Popular Front lost out to the cry fund its own radio stations to sponsor pro- “Better Hitler than Blum”—an appeal to grams, make films, and win over public opin- anti-Semitism at the expense of the Socialist ion, but what can justifiably be called “Big prime minister Léon Blum (1872–1950). In Labor” in various parts of the world has not the decades following World War II, an anti- been able to overcome hostile propaganda. Communist smear campaign succeeded in Antilabor forces continue to be successful in discrediting militant unionism in France and utilizing the media to promote their ideas. Italy. Whatever kernels of truth may have Daniel Leab been present, the labor movement was tarred with a Red brush and the charge ceaselessly See also BBC; International; “The Internationale”; Marx, Karl; Reagan, Ronald; Thatcher, broadcast that the Communists worked not Margaret in the interests of the worker but rather that References: Dubofsky, Melvyn, and Foster Rhea of the Soviet Union. Dulles. Labor in America.6th ed. Wheeling, IL: Laden, Osama bin 221

Harlan Davidson, 1999; Slomp, Hans. Labor Ali Khel. After the war he became a regular Relations in Europe:A History of Issues and speaker in mosques throughout Saudi Arabia. Developments. New York: Greenwood, 1990. Recordings of his powerful speeches were widely circulated. He argued that the victory over the Russians showed that a jihad (holy Laden, Osama bin (1957– ) war) could not be stopped and that Islam was An Islamic militant and exponent of terror as the wave of the future. The Saudi regime ini- a means of political communication, Osama tially supported bin Laden but subsequently bin Laden was born into a wealthy Saudi fam- distanced itself following the Iraqi invasion of ily that had made its fortune in the construc- Kuwait in 1990. Bin Laden called for the lib- tion business. At the time of the Soviet war eration of Kuwait by means of a religious with Afghanistan, he underwent a religious jihad, but the Saudi government preferred to awakening to militant Islamic fundamental- join the United States and accomplish the ism, specifically Saudi Arabia’s Wahhabi sect. task through a more conventional campaign. After a period devoted to raising funds for Now a persona non grata, bin Laden relo- the struggle against the USSR, he traveled to cated to the Sudan in East Africa. The pres- Afghanistan and used his family’s wealth and ence of U.S. troops on the holy soil of Saudi equipment in support of the resistance. In Arabia was an outrage to bin Laden and led particular, he became associated with two him to consider the United States the epicen- 1987 battles against the Russians at Jaji and ter of evil.

U.S. Navy SEALs hold an Osama Bin Laden propaganda poster found in an Al Qaeda classroom,14 January 2002.(Reuters NewMedia Inc./CORBIS) 222 Laden, Osama bin

Sudan was the base for a number of Is- where the ultrareligious Taliban regime of- lamic militant organizations with which bin fered a safe haven to Al Qaeda to construct Laden became associated, including the In- and operate terrorist training camps. Bin ternational Muslim Brotherhood and Al Laden’s political activities within Afghanistan Qaeda (The Base), which began as a financial included one of the most potent acts in the network; its activities originally included aid region: intermarriage with the family of Tal- to Muslim fighters in Bosnia. Propaganda iban leader Mullah Mohammad Omar emanating from the Sudan included an Iran- (1962– ). In the wider Middle Eastern re- ian-sponsored radio station. In 1992 the gion, bin Laden became a folk hero to the United States committed troops to nearby poor and disenfranchised: his picture ap- Somalia. Bin Laden was active in mobilizing peared in bazaars in Pakistan and was placed an Islamic opposition in support of Somali in the hands of demonstrators in the Gaza “warlord” Muhammad Farah Aydid (1936– strip. No Arab leader had commanded such 1996). In a 1997 CNN interview bin Laden popular appeal since Gamal Abdel Nasser claimed that his followers had been behind (1918–1970) in the 1950s. the killing of eighteen American soldiers in On 11 September 2001 Islamic terrorists Somalia in 1993. These deaths proved a hu- crashed hijacked planes into prestige targets miliation for the United States and further in the United States: the World Trade Cen- increased bin Laden’s reputation. ter in New York City and the Pentagon in Bin Laden made use of the fax and the In- Washington, D.C. Bin Laden denied direct ternet to extend his reach. He moved fre- responsibility but endorsed the action. As a quently but spent part of 1994 as a resident U.S.-led coalition mounted a War on Ter- in London. Although his campaign included rorism against his Afghan strongholds, bin religious-based arguments against the Laden issued statements to the outside United States, Israel, and the pro-Western world in the form of video messages, broad- governments of Egypt and Saudi Arabia, he cast on the Qatar-based satellite TV channel increasingly looked to dramatic acts of ter- Al Jazeera. As the war progressed, bin rorism to publicize his message and humili- Laden lost this link with the outside world. ate his enemies. Early incidents associated Despite the military success of Allied air with bin Laden include a 1995 car bombing power and the anti-Taliban Northern Al- in Riyadh. Bin Laden then issued a declara- liance on the ground, it was clear that the tion of war against the United States. The threat of Islamic terrorism was bigger than first major blow in this war fell in August one man, and that, dead or alive, bin Laden 1998 when bombs exploded at the U.S. em- would remain a rallying point for dissent bassies in Kenya and Tanzania, killing 224 and anti-Western feeling. mostly local people. This simultaneity, Nicholas J.Cull which multiplied the psychological impact of See also Arab World; Gray Propaganda; Gulf the attacks, became a trademark of bin War; Satellite Communications; Terrorism; Terrorism, War on Laden’s activities. Foiled plans included plots References: Bearden, Milton. “Afghanistan, to hijack and destroy two planes in Hong Graveyard of Empires.” Foreign Affairs 80 Kong and eleven planes in U.S. airports. He (Nov.–Dec. 2001): 17–30; Bergen, Peter L. also sought out prestige targets, with plans Holy War,Inc:Inside the Secret World of Osama bin to attack the World Cup Soccer match in Laden.New York: Free Press, 2001; Bodansky, France in 1998. Successful operations as- Yossef. Bin Laden:The Man who Declared War on America.Rockilin, CA: Forum, 1999; Reeve, cribed to bin Laden included a suicide attack Simon. The New Jackals:Ramzi Yousef,Osama Bin on the U.S.S. Cole in the Gulf of Aden. In Laden and the Future of Terrorism. Boston: 1996 bin Laden returned to Afghanistan, Northeastern University Press, 1999. Latin America 223

Latin America quest of their master, Spain. Simon Bolivar From its colonial period, through liberation (1783–1830) had lived in Paris at the time of struggles and revolutions, to the Cold War, the Revolution and rallied first Venezuela and Latin America has been both a battleground then other colonies of the region against for propaganda and has itself spawned some Spain. His skill as a self-publicist and his un- masters of the art. European contact with the derstanding of slogans and stage-managed Americas following the voyage of Columbus events—like his victorious entry into Cara- sparked one of the great surges of propa- cas in 1813—established him as a major ganda as writers, in addition to the church force. By the end of his life he had liberated and state, sought to digest and disseminate not only Venezuela and Columbia but also news of the “discovery” and exploit it to suit Ecuador and Peru. their own ends. Enthusiasts for the colonial The nineteenth century saw the emer- project, such as the Englishman Walter gence of a characteristic figure in Latin Raleigh (1552–1618), sought to spur con- American politics in the person of the quest of the region with tales of the fabulous caudillo, or regional boss. These figures com- wealth of El Dorado. Raleigh’s inability to bined financial and military power with deliver the promise of his propaganda led to bonds of family loyalty to guarantee their po- his execution. The conquest of the Americas litical control; many also added a newspaper led to the production of maps, with vast to their business interests, viewing a “kept swathes of territory claimed for a particular press” as part of their hold on power. In European power. The terminology adopted places this linkage between individual politi- carried powerful meanings: “New World” cians and the media endured throughout the implied a careful distinction between Europe twentieth century. In Argentina the nine- and the Americas, establishing the latter as a teenth century saw a flowering of literary blank page on which the newcomers could propaganda. Esteban Echeverría (1805– write as they pleased. Other motivating ideas 1851) used poetry and prose to nurture a included the belief that the natives were not love of country and to attack the brutal dicta- just different but the inverse of Europeans— torship of Jean Manuel de Rosas (1793– “children of the devil,” as Europeans were 1877). Echeverría’s political novels included “children of God.” El Matadero (The Slaughterhouse, 1837). An- Priests accompanied the Spanish and Por- other critic of de Rosas was Domingo tuguese conquistadors. The Americas first Faustino Sarmiento (1811–1888), whose witnessed religious propaganda for initial works included Facundo, o Civilización i bar- conversion and then the inquisition as the barie (Life in the Argentine Republic in the church sought to ensure that the initial con- Days of the Tyrants, 1845). Some years after versions were genuine. The conquest and the the fall of de Rosas, Sarmiento served as inquisition became a major subject of anti- president of Argentina. In 1888 in Brazil the Spanish and anti-Catholic atrocity propa- writer Joaquim Nabuco (1849–1910) led a ganda during the Reformation, particularly campaign for the abolition of slavery. He sub- in the Netherlands. Catholics questioning the sequently campaigned for Pan-American co- validity of the stories of excess dubbed this operation and presided at the Pan-American “the black legend.” Conference of 1906. As Latin Americans sought to move be- In the twentieth century, U.S.-based com- yond their colonial relationships, they looked panies exported radio technology to Latin to propaganda techniques of the French Rev- America. U.S. private radio programming olution. The aftermath of that revolution aimed at Latin America developed in the provided an opportunity in Napoleon’s con- 1930s. Latin America looked to Europe for 224 Latin America its political models and developed the equiva- tine-born Ernesto “Ché” Guevara (1928– lent of propaganda-driven dictatorships. The 1967), whose photograph became an icon for region produced a succession of fascist-style a generation of student radicals throughout leaders, each with their own radio style, feel- the Western world. The United States mobi- ing for their people, taste in uniforms, and lized such organs as USIA for a lively holding censorship requirements. Examples include action. Particular U.S. initiatives included Getulio Vargas (1883–1954) of Brazil and the President John F. Kennedy’s (1917–1963) Al- formidable husband-and-wife team of Juan liance for Progress and publicity surrounding and Eva Perón in Argentina. the Peace Corps. Other novelties in U.S. During World War II Latin America be- propaganda in South America included the came a major theater of the propaganda creation of, by USIA, a TV soap opera called struggle between the Allies and the Nazis. Nuestra Barrio (Our Neighborhood). Origi- The Nazis used propaganda to promote nally intended for Mexican audiences, this se- sympathy for their cause; their agents ap- ries eventually won sizable audiences across pealed to national opinion, unveiling extrav- the entire region. agant plans to redraw the continent’s American aid seemed only to strengthen boundaries—usually at the expense of the old order. During the 1960s many of whichever neighbor seemed most in disfa- Latin America’s fledgling democracies vor at the time. The British scored a major slipped back into military rule, with its atten- success by stealing such a map, altering it to dant press censorship. The election of left- exaggerate Nazi designs, and passing it on to wing Salvador Allende (1908–1973) in Chile Franklin Delano Roosevelt (1882–1945), in 1970 prompted a notorious campaign of who in October 1941 cited it as evidence of CIA support for the right-wing opposition, the need for a strong defense against Nazi which included the payment of some $1.6 Germany. To promote hemisphere defense, million to the newspaper El Mercurio to attack in 1940 the United States created the Office Allende. This opposition culminated in Al- of the Coordinator of Inter-American Af- lende’s murder during a violent military fairs (CIAA), led by Nelson D. Rockefeller coup in 1973. Despite its dictatorships, the (1908–1979). The CIAA broadcast short- region produced a lively anti-American intel- wave propaganda, trained local radio work- lectual discourse on the theme of “depend- ers in U.S. methods, and placed readymade ency” and American economic imperialism. programs with Latin American stations. It Propagandists against the dictatorships in- also promoted “suitable” Hollywood films cluded Catholic priests in what became and persuaded U.S. distributors to withhold known as “Liberation Theology.” films from theaters that screened Axis news- In 1976 UNESCO called a meeting of reels. U.S. propaganda activity continued in twenty Latin American nations to discuss the the Cold War. As the Soviet Union flooded issues of politics and control of communica- the region with print propaganda through tions in the region. The conference called for Montevideo, Uruguay, the United States wider participation and access to the air- struggled to keep up with cultural programs waves. At the time this goal seemed far off, of its own. but by the early 1980s the so-called southern In 1959 the Cuban revolution established a cone of the continent moved toward democ- major and enduring figure in the regional racy. Liberalization of the press and an easing propaganda war in the person of Fidel Castro of censorship constituted one of the first (1927– ). Castro mixed charisma with rigid signs of this change. Censorship ended in censorship and the suppression of dissent. Brazil in 1978. The press’s exposure of state- Cuba now sent propagandists and revolution- sanctioned torture in Chile and Brazil accel- aries into the region, including the Argen- erated the fall of the dictatorships. Latin America 225

The 1980s saw a renewal of the Cold War Maoist guerrilla movement Sendero Lumi- in Central America and the Caribbean. The noso (Shining Path) in Peru. Founded in 1970 key theaters of this Cold War struggle were a by a philosophy lecturer called Abimael propaganda war between the United States Guzmán Reynoso (Chairman Gonzolo; and Cuba and struggles by proxy in El Sal- [1934– ]), the Shining Path preached a po- vador and Nicaragua. In El Salvador the Rea- tent mixture of Marxist and Maoist teaching gan administration supported an anti-Com- combined with Andean folk law and elements munist government in its war against the of Catholicism. Guzmán used posters and guerrillas of the Frente Farabundo Martí para pamphlets decorated with a symbolic black- la Liberación Nacional (Farabundo Martí Na- and-red color scheme symbolizing the strug- tional Liberation Front; FMLN). Issues in the gle between the revolution and the state, but propaganda war included the precise level of his most emotive weapon was terrorist vio- Cuban and Soviet support and the extent of lence. In 1992 Peruvian president Alberto atrocities attributable to the government’s Fujimori (1938– ) instituted martial law and “death squads,” which included the assassina- successfully jailed Guzmán. The movement tion of Archbishop Oscar Romero (1917– dwindled, with the image of the jailed 1980) in 1980 and the rape and murder of Guzmán serving as propaganda for Fujimori. three U.S.-born nuns and a church worker. He himself was no stranger to the world of In Nicaragua the declining days of the So- propaganda, having won a masterful election moza family dictatorship (founded in 1937) in 1990 by donning blue jeans and campaign- witnessed some of the crudest methods of ing as a “common man.” Columbia’s Medellín media control, including acts of terror drug cartel later claimed to have funded his against the press, most notably the murder of campaign to the tune of a million dollars. Pedro Joaquín Chamorro (1924–1978), the Once in office, Fujimori clamped down on editor of the opposition paper La Prensa. In expressions of opposition. In 2000, beset by 1979 the Somoza regime fell to a coalition corruption scandals, Fujimori fled into exile. led by the left-wing Sandinista guerrilla Powerful anti-Fujimori propaganda included movement, their name derived from guer- the broadcast, in September 2000, of a video- rilla fighter Augusto Sandino (1895–1934), tape of Vladimiro Montesinos (1947– ), his who had opposed the Americans in the early intelligence chief, bribing a Peruvian con- years of the century. As the Sandinistas ac- gressman to vote Fujimori’s way. cepted Cuban and Soviet aid and began to In the final years of the twentieth century build a socialist state (with accompanying the region became the focus of a number of propaganda campaigns), the United States key ideological global battles, including is- sponsored the opposition. U.S. tactics in- sues relating to the environment—in partic- cluding training the so-called Contra rebel ular the destruction of the rain forests— army in the sort of guerrilla warfare and poverty, and the fate of indigenous peoples. propaganda tactics that had been a trademark In Brazil a diary written on scraps of paper of the Communists since the 1960s. A guer- by one Carolina María de Jesus (1914–1977) rilla war followed. During the 1980s the and published under the title Child of the newspaper La Prensa continued its role as an Dark provided insight into the lives of people oppositional voice, and in 1990 its owner, forced to reside in that country’s slums, Pedro Chamorro’s widow,Violeta Barrios de while the memoir I Rigoberta Menchú (1983) Chamorro (1929– ), won the presidential by the Guatemalan activist Rigoberta election and moved the country toward Menchú (1959– ) attracted world attention peace. to the cause of the Mayan Indians living in The most notorious propaganda campaign that country. In 1992 (symbolically marking in the region during the 1980s was that of the the five hundredth anniversary of the voyage 226 Leaflet of Columbus) Menchú won the Nobel Peace W. The White Labyrinth: Cocaine and Political Prize. In 1999 the book attracted criticism Power. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction, 1989. for having altered key facts in Menchú’s life. The region remained the site of large-scale religious propaganda, this time on behalf of Leaflet Christian evangelical denominations. In Cen- The leaflet is a common device in the arsenal tral America the tradition of the caudillo of the propagandist, dating from shortly after seemed alive and well in the form of media- the invention of the printing press. There is, savvy drug barons, who regularly appeal to however, some confusion as to terminology. anti-Communism, patriotism, and regional A leaflet (a nineteenth-century term) is a pride. The drug cartels have proved masters printed—usually folded—handbill or flyer of propaganda by bestowing lavish gifts—a intended for free distribution.A flyer (a nine- sports stadium here or a new school there. teenth-century American word) is a pam- The wider South American media has come phlet or circular intended for mass distribu- under the control of a small number of tion. According to William Safire (1929– ), media conglomerates. The most powerful of “flyer” and “handbill” are used interchange- these is the Brazilian Globo conglomerate, ably to mean a cheap circular devoted to an established by Roberto Marinho (1904– issue or calling attention to an upcoming 1998). The media played a major role in the event or visit; he further states that the term rise of Fernando Collor (1949– ), the first “circular” is no longer in current use in poli- elected president of Brazil since 1960. In tics. The propagandist is nevertheless likely 1989 Collor ran a highly sophisticated TV to see these pieces of paper intended to per- campaign for the presidency, attacking cer- suade enemy soldiers to surrender (or an tain exploitative civil servants he dubbed enemy public to give up a hopeless quest) “Maharajas.” With the Globo conglomerate variously described as leaflet, flyer, or hand- on his side, he rapidly became an unstop- bill. The flyer or leaflet is the inexpensive sta- pable force. However, the combination of ple of every politician. The neophyte may lit- media criticism of his corruption and the erally hand out such materials personally to ire of the newly aggrieved Globo conglom- constituents. erate brought about his resignation in 1992 The leaflet also plays a significant role in under threat of impeachment. Globo’s as- wartime by demoralizing the enemy. Napo- sault on Collor included attacks in the leon Bonaparte (1769–1821) once famously country’s most popular medium, the soap declared that “in war, the moral is to the opera. physical as three is to one.”As a result, armies Nicholas J.Cull have long sought to sow doubt and divide See also Castro, Fidel; CIA; Falklands/Malvinas loyalties by dropping leaflets into enemy War; Mexico; Perón, Juan Domingo, and Eva hands. For example, in 1806 the British Navy Duarte; Spain used kites to carry notes to France. In World References: Alisky, Marvin. Latin American Media: War I some nine million leaflets urging sur- Guidance and Censorship.Ames: Iowa State University Press, 1981; Cull, N. J. “Faked render were transported by aerial balloon to Boundaries: Latin America,‘Nazi Maps’ and German troops. It is unclear how effective Britain’s Secret War Against U.S. Neutrality.” such strategies were since at the time little LABSA [Latin American British Studies Association] thought was given to assessing their impact Journal 1 (July 1997): 9–20; Fox, Elizabeth. by,say, interviewing enemy troops or exam- Latin American Broadcasting:From Tango to ining the enemy press to see if such leaflets Telenovela.Luton, UK: University of Luton Press, 1997; Fox, Elizabeth, ed. Media and were discussed. Politics in Latin America:The Struggle for World War II saw the massive use of Democracy.London: Sage, 1988; Lee, Rensselaer leaflets by virtually all of the major combat- Nazi propaganda leaflet,Italy,1944,aimed at the American soldier:"Rich Man’s War—Poor Man’s Fight.”The businessman is depicted as stereotypically Jewish,with large paunch and cigar.(Courtesy of David Culbert) 228 Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich ants. German flyers dropped behind advanc- of psychological warfare, but that not enough ing Allied lines emphasized preexisting preju- energy went into targeting the German sol- dices or class divisions. One flyer, printed in dier—the significant military target—as op- red and black, is entitled: “Rich Man’s War— posed to the German populace generally. Poor Man’s Fight.” A sorrowful-looking Leaflets played a definite role in the Viet- wounded G.I., his arm in a splint, is con- nam War, though the actual results are still trasted (in the background) with a stereotyp- the subject of debate. They were dropped by ical anti-Semitic caricature showing an obese American planes over Vietcong strongholds businessman, cigar in hand, who looks con- and distributed by American troops to the tentedly at a safe decorated with a victory Vietnamese. Leaflets played a role in the Gulf wreath. The message on the reverse is not War of 1991–1992, as well as the war in very subtle: “While you are fighting and Afghanistan in 2001. The Fourth Psychologi- dying in the scorching heat of Italy thousands cal Operations (Psyops) Group at Fort Bragg, of miles away from your family, the war prof- North Carolina, which is part of the U.S. iteers and war slackers back home are safe Army Civil Affairs and Psychological Opera- and sound.” Americans dropped some seven tions Command, prepared a leaflet campaign million leaflets each week over various parts for use in Afghanistan. These days such leaflets of Europe between 1944 and 1945, thanks in are tested on focus groups composed of native part to the invention of a leaflet bomb, a speakers, including captured enemy prison- cylinder composed of laminated paper that ers. In short, to be effective the leaflet must held some eighty thousand leaflets. When the speak directly, in idiomatic language, to its in- bomb was a thousand feet above the ground, tended audience—the same quest that con- it opened automatically. If not an exact sys- cerns the intelligent advertising executive. tem of delivery, it was a notable improve- David Culbert ment over what went before, namely, simply See also Psychological Warfare; Revolution, tossing leaflets from a great height and rely- American, and War of Independence; World ing on the vagaries of wind and weather as to War I; World War II (Britain); World War II (United States) where they landed. A particularly successful References: Lerner, Daniel. Sykewar:Psychological American leaflet was a “Safe Conduct Pass,” Warfare against Germany. Cambridge, MA: MIT which was printed in German and English Press, 1974; Rhodes,Anthony. Propaganda,The and encouraged German soldiers to surren- Art of Persuasion:World War II.New York: Chelsea der: “The German soldier who carries this House, 1976; Taylor, Philip M., and N. C. F. safe conduct is using it as a sign of his genuine Weekes. “Breaking the German Will to Resist, 1944–1945:Allied Efforts to End World War II wish to give himself up. He is to be disarmed, by Non-Military Means.” Historical Journal of to be well looked after, to receive food and Film Radio and Television 18 (March 1998): medical attention as required, and to be re- 5–48. moved from the danger zone as soon as possi- ble.” Another effective American leaflet dropped over German cities in 1944 asked: Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich (Ulyanov) “Wo ist die Luftwaffe?” (“Where is the Luft- (1870–1924) waffe?...Now,in broad daylight, masses of Lenin (pseudonym of Vladimir Ilyich American bombers fly over Berlin.Ask Goer- Ulyanov) was a Russian revolutionary and ing! Ask Hitler!”) In their revisionist article political theoretician, leader of the Bolshe- Philip Taylor and N. C. F. Weekes have ar- viks, and consequently the architect of the gued that leaflets designed to encourage the USSR (Union of Soviet Socialist Republics) surrender of German soldiers in 1944–1945 and the creator of the Soviet Union. (as, for example, “What Capitulation Lenin was born in Simbirsk, on the middle Means”) were an important and effective part Volga, on 22 April 1870, the son of a success- Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich 229

tional theory, What Is to Be Done? (1902), laid out his plan for a revolution centered on a highly disciplined party of professional revo- lutionaries who would serve as the “vanguard of the proletariat.” Lenin’s insistence on pro- fessional revolutionaries caused a split among the Russian Marxists. Lenin’s faction emerged with a small majority at their 1903 congress—thus they were dubbed Bolsheviks (the majority), while his opponents were permanently damned as Mensheviks (the mi- nority) whether they won succeeding votes or not. Lenin viewed World War I not as a disas- ter but as an opportunity to ferment the rev- olution that would destroy the old empires. When the war broke out in Russia, Lenin gained safe passage through Germany in a sealed train. He arrived at the Finland Station in Petrograd and immediately repudiated the policy of cooperation with the provisional An official portrait of Lenin from the postrevolutionary government. Under the slogan “All Power to period.(Courtesy of Bernard O'Callaghan) the Soviets” the Bolshevik Party took control of the workers’ organizations and thus as- sumed political power.After setbacks experi- ful government official. In 1887 his elder enced during the summer, Lenin went into brother was executed for plotting the assassi- hiding and wrote his (rather idealistic) blue- nation of Tsar Alexander III (1845–1894). print for Socialist government entitled State Lenin was immediately expelled from Kazan and Revolution (1917). He convinced his com- University and sent into exile within Russia. rades to risk an armed uprising, which was While in exile he read the works of Karl successfully executed on November 7. After Marx (1818–1883). He went on to work as a the Bolsheviks engineered a coup that left lawyer for the poor in Samara, on the Volga, them in control of all the institutions of gov- before moving to St. Petersburg in 1893. In ernment, Lenin was elected chairman of the 1895 he helped create the St. Petersburg Council of People’s Commissars. He contin- Union for the Struggle for the Emancipation ued to exhibit a pragmatic approach to the of the Working Class. The police soon ar- process of administration, including the ac- rested the leaders of this organization. After ceptance of Germany’s terms under the another period in exile, Lenin went abroad, Brest-Litovsk peace treaty, as well as the where he joined Georgi Plekhanov (1857– ruthless suppression of political resistance 1918) and other Russian Marxists. Lenin was (utilizing the newly formed security police, a key figure in creating the party newspaper the Cheka). Victorious in the civil war of entitled Iskra (The Spark). Lenin’s grasp of 1918–1921 yet uncertain of continued sup- propaganda was primarily based on port, Lenin was able to promulgate the New Plekhanov’s views. His original contribution Economic Policy, which permitted a partial was one of praxis. His goal-orientated prag- return to a market economy but asserted matism guided the Bolsheviks to seize and even tighter political control over Soviet so- maintain power. His masterpiece of organiza- ciety—and his own party in particular. 230 Lincoln, Abraham

Lenin suffered his first stroke in May Republican nomination for president in 1922, following which he was never again 1860. His campaign successfully articulated able to resume an active role in government the candidate’s image as a “rail-splitting” fron- or his party. He suffered a second stroke in tiersman, using the log cabin as a logo. His March 1923. Lenin died in Gorkii on 21 Jan- reputation as an uncompromising antislaver uary 1924. Following his death, Lenin be- was such that even before he took office the came a central icon of Soviet Communism. slave-holding states of the South had seceded The city of Petrograd was renamed Lenin- from the Union. grad in his honor. His image became ubiqui- In the Civil War the Union benefited from tous, with his well-preserved body, lying in Lincoln’s skill as an orator. He relied on sim- its tomb on Moscow’s Red Square, serving as ple, homespun metaphors and Biblical lan- a destination for pilgrims. The tomb became guage. Lincoln combined this skill with a the focal point for propaganda events, such as keen understanding of the value of ideals to the annual May Day parade. mobilize mass participation in the Civil War Graham Roberts effort. When the Union’s fortunes hit a low See also Marx, Karl; Revolution, Russian; point in the autumn of 1862, he effectively Russia; Stalin, Joseph; Switzerland; Trotsky, transformed what had originally been a war Leon to rebuild the Union into a crusade to free References: Fischer, Louis. The Life of Lenin. London: Phoenix, 2001; Service, Robert. the slaves and (as stated in the Gettysburg Lenin:A Biography. London: Pan, 2003; Address of November 1863) to bring about a Volkogonov, Dmitri. Lenin,Life and Legacy. national renewal, “a new birth of freedom.” London: HarperCollins, 1994. Lincoln’s ability to express the war aims of the Union paid dividends both at home and overseas. Lincoln, Abraham (1809–1865) As the war drew to an end, Lincoln turned A politician and the sixteenth president of his attention to the future of the Union, set- the United States, Lincoln used his consider- ting out a vision of reconciliation “with mal- able gifts as a speaker first in the cause of an- ice toward none and with liberty and justice tislavery and then to lead the United States in for all,” as was memorably stated in his sec- its war against the Confederacy.Born in 1809 ond inaugural address of March 1865. One in Kentucky, Lincoln grew up on the then month later, an assassin ended Lincoln’s life Illinois frontier. He studied and practiced law before he could put these words into prac- and moved up in state politics in the 1830s tice. His death transformed Lincoln into a na- and 1840s. Campaigning for the Whig Party, tional icon, a symbol of wise leadership and he was not above the use of such dirty tricks racial tolerance. The year 1922 marked the as circulating anonymous letters accusing the completion of the Lincoln Memorial in opposition candidate of fraud. In the 1850s Washington, D.C., a monumental seated he became a founding member of the anti- sculpture of Lincoln by Daniel Chester slavery Republican Party. In 1858 he came to French (1850–1931). The memorial—and national attention when he ran for the Illinois Lincoln’s legacy as a whole—has been vari- Senate seat against incumbent Stephen A. ously appropriated, most famously in 1963, Douglas. Lincoln challenged Douglas’s view when it provided the venue for the climax of that the issue of slavery could be settled by the great civil rights march on Washington “popular sovereignty” at the state level, argu- and the “I Have a Dream” speech by Martin ing that “a house divided against itself cannot Luther King Jr. (1929–1968). stand.” (speech in Springfield, Illinois, 16 Nicholas J.Cull June 1858). Although Douglas won the Sen- See also Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement; ate race, Lincoln’s performance won him the Civil War, United States; King, Martin Luther, Livingston, William 231

Jr.; Memorials and Monuments; Nast, Thomas; New Jersey, a post he was to hold until 1790. United States He continued to take an active hands-on role References: Donald, David Herbert. Lincoln. in the War of Independence, becoming the New York: Simon and Schuster, 1995. McPherson, James M. Battle Cry of Freedom:The target of a number of loyalist assassination Civil War Era.New York: Oxford University plots. His greatest contribution was his Press, 1988; Wills, Garry. Lincoln at Gettysburg: awareness that the Revolution was a cam- The Words That Remade America. New York: paign of the mind. Davidson has remarked Simon and Schuster, 1992. that while Livingston was “above rather than of the people, he knew them shrewdly, and was one of the few who...realized the ur- Livingston, William (1723–1790) gency of reanimating their enthusiasm.” An American political writer and colonial Livingston established the New Jersey politician, Livingston is frequently cited as a Gazette to promote support for the war. He propagandist of the American Revolution, wrote a prolific number of essays and broad- primarily because his use of a pseudonym sides under twenty different pseudonyms functioned not only to shield him from (“Adolphus,” “Hortentius,” and “Cato”) de- prosecution but also to deceive his readers signed not only to appeal to republican rhet- as to the social background of the author. oric but also—by being identified as “a Penn- Livingston’s talent lay in his ability to appeal sylvania Dutch farmer” or “a New Jersey to a wide swath of society and to motivate gentleman”—to capture distinct constituen- American colonists to address their com- cies. For example, during the visit of the mon injury, to the point of engendering a Peace Commission he used different signa- sense of hatred against their British oppres- tures to sign several letters urging support sors. Philip G. Davidson has argued that his for the war—including an appeal to patriotic propaganda shows “a real knowledge of women to use their influence on their men- crowd psychology.” folk, signed “Belinda.” William Livingston was born in Albany, Livingston’s political vision reflected a tra- New York, into a prominent political fam- ditional “country” republicanism that champi- ily.After graduating from Yale, he practiced oned agrarian virtue, yet his support for law in New York, actively engaging in poli- commerce and western settlement also tics. Inspired by such English pamphleteers demonstrated an unusual sympathy for the as Addison, Steele, Trenchard, and Gordon, common man. Despite his patrician back- in the 1750s and 1760s Livingston pub- ground, Livingston adopted radical causes, lished the Independent Reflector, launching such as antislavery and land redistribution, frequent attacks against his family’s political and embraced the confiscation of loyalist rivals, the De Lanceys, using the pseudo- property as an opportunity for social reform. nyms “American Whig,” “Sentinel,” and In 1787 he served as a delegate to the federal “Watch Tower.” His controversial attack on Constitutional Convention, lending his writ- the Anglican establishment and defense of ten support to the federalist faction. religious tolerance drew Livingston into Karen M.Ford radical politics. See also Britain (Eighteenth Century); In 1772 Livingston moved to Elizabeth- Revolution,American, and War of town, New Jersey. Increasingly involved in Independence; United States the colonial resistance to British policy, in References: Davidson, Philip G. “Whig 1774 he was elected to represent New Jersey Propagandists of the American Revolution.” American Historical Review 39, 3 (1934): at the Continental Congress and took com- 442–453; Klein, Milton M. The American Whig: mand of the East Jersey militia. In 1776 Liv- William Livingston of New York. New York: ingston was elected the first governor of Garland, 1993. 232 London Can Take It

London Can Take It (1940) This was one of the most potent pieces of documentary film propaganda produced in Britain during World War II. Directed by Humphrey Jennings (1906–1950) and Harry Watt (1906–1987) for the Ministry of Infor- mation (MoI), it showed daily life in London during the German Blitz. The film was specifically aimed at the neutral United States; to this end, it was scripted and nar- rated by Quentin Reynolds (1902–1965), an American journalist who was covering the war for Collier’s Weekly. Although Reynolds identified himself as a “neutral reporter,” he went on to extol the virtues of Londoners in a most unneutral way. The MoI arranged for the film to be distributed in the United States by Warner Brothers. It was screened without an indication that it represented anything other than the views of Reynolds. Such films, as well as sympathetic coverage of the Blitz The cover for the sheet music for “Every Man a King”(1933), by journalists like Reynolds or broadcasters with words and music by Huey P.Long and Castro Carazo. It became the theme song for Louisiana Governor Huey Long, like Edward R. Murrow (1908–1965), paved whose Share Our Wealth Clubs were found in every state in the way for American aid to Britain in 1941 the spring of 1935.(Courtesy of David Culbert) and arguably made the entry of the United States into the war all but inevitable. Nicholas J.Cull commitment to change. Aside from attending See also Britain; Film (Documentary); MoI; the University of Oklahoma Law School for Murrow, Edward R.; World War II (Britain); one term and spending one year at Tulane Law World War II (United States) School in New Orleans, Long possessed no References: Aldgate,Anthony, and Jeffrey Richards. Britain Can Take It:The British Cinema formal higher education, becoming a lawyer in the Second World War. Edinburgh: Edinburgh after passing a special oral examination. He University Press, 1994; Cull, Nicholas J. Selling was elected railroad commissioner in 1918, War:British Propaganda and American “Neutrality” representing his first political office. Long in World War Two.New York: Oxford University built up his career by portraying himself as a Press, 1995. friend of the downtrodden. His national prominence coincided with the Great Depres- sion; hard times made millions of Americans Long, Huey (1893–1935) eager to hear about Long’s Share Our Wealth A Depression-era politician in the American Clubs (which had chapters nationwide), a pro- South, Huey Pierce Long was President gram meant to redistribute wealth so that one Franklin D. Roosevelt’s (1882–1945) most out of every four families in America would powerful opponent. Long served as governor have a guaranteed yearly income of $5,000 at a of Louisiana (1928–1932) and U.S. Senator time when one could purchase an automobile (1930–1935). He died following an assassina- for $750. Critics noted that Long’s economic tion attempt inside the Art Deco–style state plan did not add up; his vision of hope mat- capitol he had ordered built in Baton Rouge as tered more to listeners than whether he had architectural propaganda to underline his his facts and figures straight. Lord Haw-Haw 233

Long was a master propagandist, second Lord Haw-Haw only to Roosevelt as the most gifted Ameri- This was the nickname of Nazi radio propa- can radio personality of his generation. His gandist William Joyce (1906–1946), who catchy theme song “Every Man a King” broadcast to Britain during World War II. claimed that everyone could “be a million- Joyce was born in Brooklyn to Irish parents. aire.” Long’s autobiography of the same title He grew up in Ireland and Britain, where he (1933) was distributed widely and proved to became involved in extreme right-wing poli- be an effective piece of self-promotion. He tics. He split from the British Fascist leader started his own newspaper, American Progress, Oswald Mosley (1896–1980) on the grounds and insisted that every state employee sub- that Mosley was insufficiently anti-Semitic. scribe to it. Long was deemed newsworthy On the eve of World War II he fled to Ger- enough to receive numerous invitations to many and volunteered his services as an anti- speak on NBC-Red, the most prestigious British broadcaster on Radio Hamburg. The national radio network in America. He name Lord Haw-Haw was coined in October threatened to run for president as a third- 1939 by Jonah Barrington of the Daily Express party candidate in 1936; his ability to organ- as a nickname for the German broadcaster ize political clubs all across the country (probably Wolf Mittler), who possessed an made his candidacy a serious threat. His upper-class British accent. Joyce inherited sense of humor made him a natural for the name. With an estimated six million lis- newsreels, always on the lookout for a col- teners, his broadcasts became part of the folk orful personality. culture of life in Britain during the early Long died on 10 September 1935, two years of the war and were even the butt of days after allegedly being shot by Baton the popular song “Lord Haw-Haw the Hum- Rouge physician Carl Weiss (1906–1935); it bug of Hamburg.” The British press, attempt- is now believed that he died from bullets fired ing to deal with the broadcasts through at Weiss by Long’s bodyguards. His career is humor, only succeeded in publicizing them. described in one of America’s greatest politi- Lord Haw-Haw’s broadcasts followed the cal novels, All the King’s Men (1946) by Robert classic propaganda tactic of divide and con- Penn Warren (1905–1989), who taught En- quer. He stressed class differences within glish at Louisiana State University during Britain, alleged that the rich didn’t care about Long’s heyday. Long was accused of being a working-class casualties in the Blitz, and fascist and of having dictatorial ambitions. His mocked Churchill (1874–1965) as a war- desire for power seemed boundless, but he monger. He spread rumors of severe bomb never lacked for political opponents. His plan damage. Occasionally he scooped the BBC to censor the Louisiana newspapers that op- with major war news, throwing doubt on the posed him backfired, through the unanimous British media. Later in the war he stressed U.S. Supreme Court decision in the matter of differences between Britain and the United Grosjean v. American Press Co., in February States, and on 16 April 1943 he dropped a 1936, occurring after Long’s death. monkey wrench in the area of Allied relations David Culbert with the Soviet Union by revealing evidence See also Roosevelt, Franklin D.; United States of the mass murder of Polish officers by the (1930s) USSR in the Katyn forest. In a diary entry for References: Brinkley,Alan. Voices of Protest:Huey March 1941 Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945) Long,Father Coughlin,and the Great Depression. recorded his admiration for Joyce as “the best New York: Knopf, 1982; Long, Huey. Every Man horse in my stable.” a King.New Orleans, LA: National Book Co., 1933; Warren, Robert Penn. All the King’s Men. The Nazi regime operated other propa- New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1946; Williams, T. ganda-driven radio stations that targeted Harry. Huey Long. New York: Knopf, 1970. niche audiences during this period, including 234 Luther, Martin

the Christian Peace Movement, Radio Cale- donia (aimed at Scotland), and Worker’s Challenge. Other “traitor” broadcasters in- cluded John Amery (1912–1945; son of British cabinet minister Leo Amery [1873– 1955]) and renegade soldier Norman Baillie- Stewart (1915–1966). At the end of the war, the British government resolved to make an example of Joyce, even though he was not legally a British subject, by ordering both his and Amery’s executions for treason. Nicholas J.Cull See also Germany; Goebbels, Joseph; Radio (International); RMVP; Tokyo Rose; World War II (Britain); World War II (Germany) References: Cole, John Alfred. Lord Haw-Haw and William Joyce:The Full Story.London: Faber and Faber, 1964; Doherty, M. R. Nazi Wireless Propaganda:Lord Haw-Haw and British Public Opinion in the Second World War.Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh Press, 2000.

Portrait of Martin Luther,sixteenth-century German theologian and instigator of the Protestant Reformation. Luther, Martin (1483–1546) (Library of Congress) A German religious leader and founder of the Reformation, Luther was the son of a miner. He was ordained a priest in 1507. Beginning in fronted his critics directly. He knew the value 1508 he lectured at the University of Witten- of a symbolic act, such as nailing his theses to berg. After a visit to Rome in 1510–1511, he the door or publicly burning a papal writ is- began to preach against corruption in the sued against him. Luther’s activity unleashed an church—especially attempts to raise money ideological storm that, despite the Vatican’s at- through the sale of “indulgences,” which gave tempts to rein it in, gave the world the term the purchaser dispensation from a certain “propaganda.” number of future sins. In 1517 he formulated a Nicholas J.Cull list of ninety-five theses objecting to this prac- See also Germany; Ignatius of Loyola, Saint; tice and nailed it to the cathedral door in Wit- Reformation and Counter-Reformation; tenberg, with others soon rallying to adopt his Religion position. He developed his case against the Vat- References: Edwards, Mark U. Printing, Propaganda,and Martin Luther.Berkeley: ican in such works as On the Babylonist Captivity University of California Press, 1994; Mee, of the Church of God (1520). With the German Charles L. White Robe,Black Robe:Pope Leo X, states in an uproar over Luther’s ideas, Protes- Martin Luther and the Birth of the Reformation. tant doctrine was codified in the Augsburg New York: Putnam, 1972. Confession of 1530. Luther was a gifted preacher and writer whose output included learned theological works and popular hymns. Luxembourg He was skilled in face-to-face debate and con- See Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg M

Malaysia Jr. (1929–1968). Whereas King spoke of the See Southeast Asia “American dream,” Malcolm X pointed to the “American nightmare” of inner-city poverty. Television appearances brought Malcolm X Malcolm X (1925–1965) to national attention. The American media A controversial figure in the struggle for tended to view Malcolm X as a convenient black liberation in America who became counterpoint to the moderation exemplified larger in death than he had been in life, Mal- by King. colm X was born Malcolm Little in Michi- Malcolm X quarreled with Elijah Muham- gan, the son of a preacher who was active in mad over the former’s widely reported re- the Garvey movement. Having lost both his mark that the “chickens had come home to parents at a young age, he moved first to roost,” which was made at the time of John F. Boston and then to New York. Here he led a Kennedy’s assassination. In 1964, following a life of crime, eventually being sent to prison pilgrimage to Mecca, Malcolm X formed the for burglary in 1946. There he fell under the Muslim Mosque, Inc., an Islamic movement influence of Elijah Muhammad (1897–1975) devoted to working within the political and his black nationalist religious movement, sphere. Malcolm X’s thinking departed from Nation of Islam (NOI). Behind prison walls his earlier radical and anti-integrationist he quickly emerged as a powerful orator. opinions and moved toward a broader hu- Upon his release, he took the name Malcolm manism. In 1965 he died at the hands of as- X (the NOI believed that names could be sassins loyal to Elijah Muhammad. used as propaganda, so members rejected Since his assassination, Malcolm X has at- their “slave names”). Malcolm rose quickly tracted many followers and gained a symbolic through the ranks. He helped establish the status in the eyes of young black people on movement’s first nationally distributed news- both sides of the Atlantic. In life he spoke paper, Muhammad Speaks, and became well their language and encouraged them to take known as an orator. His rhetoric was con- pride in their heritage and culture. Inspired frontational. He refused to work within the by Third World examples, he pointed to framework of American nationalism like his black nationalism—“taking control of the southern contemporary Martin Luther King politics of your community”—as the way for

235 236 Mao Zedong black Americans to advance. In death he be- where Mao and others developed a brand of came a martyr and an undisputed icon for Communism more suited to rural life than angry young men. Many activists have associ- Marx’s and Lenin’s more industrial model. In ated themselves with his name and cited him 1934, as the Nationalists closed in again, the as an inspiration, including Huey Newton Communists began a two-year, six-thousand- (1942–1989) and Bobby Seale (1937– ), who mile “Long March” to the town of Yan’an in formed the Black Panthers in 1966. His auto- mountainous Shaanxi province. During this biography, dictated to journalist Alex Haley period Mao emerged as the preeminent (1921–1992), became a cult text, and his leader of Chinese Communism, with the speeches were published widely. In the 1980s, Long March becoming an integral part of the as mainstream politics seemed to leave black mythology surrounding him. His image in the America behind, he reemerged as an icon of West was greatly enhanced thanks to his street culture. His message, determination, lengthy conversations with American journal- and passion have endured through black folk- ist Edgar Snow (1905–1972), which became lore, and his popularity with the young has the foundation for the book Red Star over China been maintained through rap music, black- (1937). pride literature, and the 1992 film Malcolm X, Mao understood the importance of propa- directed by Spike Lee (1957– ). Over the ganda and put much effort into disseminating years people eager to profit from his cult sta- Communist ideology. Moreover, he realized tus have distorted many of his original ideas. that in what he called a “people’s war” there His precise ideology is still being contested could be no disparity between what the party because his life was cut short just as his think- claimed and how its army behaved. Mao un- ing was reaching maturity. derstood that daring guerrilla raids against Samantha Jones the Nationalists or the Japanese during See also Civil Rights; Garvey, Marcus; King, World War II had as much propaganda as mil- Martin Luther, Jr.; United States itary value. The guerrilla approach saw the References: Dyson, Michael Eric. Making Communist movement through its wilder- Malcolm:The Myth and Meaning of Malcolm X. New York: Oxford University Press, 1995; ness years and provided a solid foundation for Fairclough,Adam. The Civil Rights Movement in the more conventional Communist victory America,1941–1988.London: Macmillan, over the Nationalists in the postwar period. 1995; Malcolm X, The Autobiography of Malcolm However, recent research suggests that the X,with the assistance of Alex Haley. London: Communists were not as militarily successful Penguin, 1968. as their propaganda maintained, and one of their great retrospective victories was to minimize the Nationalist government’s war Mao Zedong (1893–1976) effort against the Japanese. A Chinese Communist leader and the focus of In 1949 Mao established the People’s Re- personality cult, Mao was born in 1893 into a public of China, which maintained direct “middle peasant” family in Hunan province in control over the mass media and the educa- the south of China. In 1921, while a univer- tional system in China. The party used a sity librarian in Shanghai, Mao became a wide range of propaganda techniques—in- founding member of the Chinese Communist cluding mass meetings, posters, and the- Party. The party initially cooperated with the ater—to communicate an easily understand- wider Chinese Nationalist movement, led by able message that became closely identified Chiang Kai-shek (1887–1975), but in 1927 with its leader; a personality cult around the Nationalists turned on the Communists in Mao, “the Great Helmsman,” soon followed. a bloody purge. The Communists regrouped Partly as a result of Mao’s proclivity for be- first in Jiangxi province in southeast China, lieving his own propaganda, by 1960 the “La Marseillaise” 237

Chinese poster from 1968 encouraging the people to "respectfully wish Chairman Mao eternal life." (Stefan Landsberger) country was in the grips of a horrendous Stuart. The Thought of Mao Tse-tung. famine. After being sidelined by his col- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, leagues, Mao relaunched himself in the mid- 1989; Snow, Edgar. Red Star over China.London: Gollancz, 1937. 1960s by reaching out first to the army and then to China’s youth with an anthology of his writings, Quotations from Chairman Mao. In “La Marseillaise” (1792) 1966 he unleashed the Cultural Revolution, A marching song of the French Revolution which was marked by successive waves of vi- and later the national anthem of France, this olence and propaganda until 1969. By the is arguably the most potent use made of a time of his death in 1976, his significance as a song for propaganda purposes. Both its propagandist was being felt far beyond words and music were composed on 25–26 China. Other movements in Asia,Africa, and April 1792 by Claude Joseph Rouget de Latin America (with and without formal Lisle (1760–1836), an officer of engineers in Chinese aid) have sought to adapt his model the French Army of the Rhine. The new rev- of guerrilla warfare. olutionary government in Paris had just de- Nicholas J.Cull clared war on Austria, and as the army mus- See also China; Korean War; Latin America; tered in Strasbourg for an advance into the Quotations from Chairman Mao; Te r rorism References: Fairbank, John K., and Edwin O. German states, the mayor of that city noted Reischauer. China:Tradition and Transformation. that they lacked any appropriate marching Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1989; Schram, songs. He commissioned Rouget de Lisle, 238 Marshall Plan

whose musical skill he admired, to write the dissemination within their borders of “in- something appropriate. The result was origi- formation and news” on the workings of the nally entitled “The War Song of the Army of plan itself. From these premises there sprang the Rhine” but was renamed after being used arguably the greatest international propa- in action by a battalion from Marseilles as it ganda operation ever seen in peacetime. stormed the Tuileries Gardens in August With the unveiling of the Marshall Plan, 1792. Its simple tune and rousing words the United States had invented a new method (“Come, children of the fatherland / The day for projecting its power into Europe. What of glory is here!”) made it an infectious started out as a suggestion from Secretary of propaganda vehicle for the spirit of the Rev- State George Marshall (1880–1959) to olution. Rouget de Lisle subsequently ques- jump-start Europe’s ailing postwar recon- tioned the Revolution and narrowly escaped struction process quickly evolved into a execution. Under Napoleon he attempted wide-ranging effort to modernize Europe’s (unsuccessfully) to use his authorship of the industries, markets, unions, and economic song to secure a position of influence in the control mechanisms. The means used were French musical establishment. His enemies economic loans and grants, technical assis- questioned whether he had actually written tance, “missions” established in each country, the tune. La Marseillaise is also the popular and as much advice and exhortation as the title (more properly called The Departure of plan’s technocrats thought they could get the Volunteers) of a dramatic relief sculpture away with. by François Rude (1784–1855) that adorns Such crucial Marshall Plan concepts as the Arc de Triomphe (1806–1836) in Paris, “counterpart,” the dollar gap, productivity, as well as a 1938 film on the Revolution by and European integration were not only Jean Renoir (1894–1979). “La Marseillaise” quite new to European ears but difficult to has been featured in music promoting Russ- communicate in the best of circumstances.As ian nationalism—the “1812 Overture” by the Marshall Plan’s administrator, former car Tchaikovsky (1840–1893)—and peace—the salesman Paul Hoffmann, explained later, Beatles’ “All You Need is Love.” One emo- there were but two objectives: “One to pro- tive use in twentieth-century propaganda is mote economic recovery and the other to the 1942 feature film Casablanca, where it is promote understanding of the Marshall Plan used to symbolize the defiant spirit of the Al- itself. We had to move quickly and vigorously lied nations. in order to get results.” The key countries Nicholas J.Cull were France, the bi-zone (British and U.S.- See also Casablanca; France; “The Internationale”; occupied Germany) and Italy. This was fol- Music; Revolution, French lowed by a second group that included References: Arnold, Eric A., Jr.“Rouget de Lisle Greece, Turkey, Austria, Trieste, and the and the Marseillaise.” Proceedings of the Western Society for French History 5 (1978): 61–70; French zone of Germany.A third group con- Hobsbawm, Eric. Echoes of the “Marseillaise.” sisted of England and Sweden, with a fourth London:Verso, 1990. group encompassing the rest. It was in Italy that the largest Marshall Plan campaign emerged, the one considered Marshall Plan (1947–1951) “tops” in the Paris field headquarters. It fol- Also known as the European Recovery Pro- lowed hard on the heels of a massive U.S. ef- gram (ERP), the Marshall Plan was an eco- fort to ensure the defeat of the Communists nomic aid program launched by the United in its 1948 elections (including covert CIA States following World War II. When the Eu- aid to the anti-Communists). The Marshall ropean countries signed on for the Marshall Plan campaign in Italy, which began in June Plan, each accepted a clause that allowed for 1948, continued this effort, aiming to reach Marshall Plan 239 the people it was benefiting in order to chan- concerts, essay contests, art competitions, nel attitudes, mentalities, and expectations in radio variety shows, trains, and ceremonials. the direction of mass production for mass- Troubadours sang the tale of Marshall consumption prosperity. Italians were told Plan–sponsored miracles in Sicilian villages. that the United States was a land of full Even mobile puppet shows were provided “to shelves and shops crammed to the rafters, bring the Marshall Plan message ostensibly to thanks to increased productivity and good children but actually through the children... wages, and that its prosperity might be emu- to semi-literate or illiterate adults.” In terms lated elsewhere by those willing to work to- of print propaganda, there were calendars, ward this goal. cartoon strips, postage stamps, and atlases. The operating principles arrived at in Italy Film was the preferred medium for get- were spelled out more clearly than else- ting the message across—especially to diffi- where, and although similar to the methods cult “target groups” such as Communist used in the other Marshall Plan countries, workers in factories. The aim was not to they were probably applied more intensively preach democracy or even to teach the lat- after the experience of the 1948 elections, est American industrial techniques but hardly changing until the outbreak of the Ko- rather to find a nonpropagandistic point of rean War. A January 1950 report from the contact with such an audience. “Even though Rome mission insisted:“Carry the message of these films do not openly praise the Ameri- the Marshall Plan to the people. Carry it to can way of life,” explained the embassy in them directly—it won’t permeate down. Rome, “they reflect a part of it in the way And give it to them so that they can under- the workers dress, the shining conditions in stand it.” The basic thrust was for a truly mas- the factories, the technical excellence of the sive program using “every method possi- machinery, etc.” ble...to reach Giuseppe in the factory and According to a July 1950 report to Con- Giovanni in the fields,” or, as the Paris office gress, in the whole of Western Europe fifty put it, “slugging it out way down among the Marshall Plan–sponsored documentaries and masses.” This came to mean carloads of docu- newsreels were being seen every week by up- mentary films, hundreds of radio programs, wards of forty million people (thirty million thousands of mobile film screenings, millions of whom watched newsreels and ten million, of copies of pamphlets, and tens of millions documentaries). “Our inquiries in various of spectators who attended exhibitions and countries,” said the report, “have shown to us films. the great potential of the cinema in transmit- When applied on the ground, the meth- ting information in ways that spectators can ods proved extremely flexible. No idea understand, believe and remember.” seemed too large or too daring for the infor- Summing up the results of its efforts after mation program in its heyday. Millions of two years of activity, the Information Divi- balloons were launched from Marshall Plan sion in Rome calculated that at least thirty events in countries bordering the Iron Cur- million citizens could now be considered tain. Waterborne shows toured the canals of “well informed” concerning the Marshall Holland, Belgium, and northern Germany, Plan. Of the entire population, 52 percent as well as the islands of the Aegean. A Mar- considered it good for the country, while 11 shall Plan train stopped at major European percent perceived it negatively. Women and railway stations, while trucks brought mo- young people were considered the key target bile exhibits to fairs the length and breadth groups from a long-term perspective. The of the Continent. plan’s objectives had evolved on the strategic In addition to the traditional media, in Italy level, now being defined as “the mobilization there were also Marshall Plan–sponsored of the Italians around the idea that only on 240 Marshall Plan the basis of a free economy can a strong, dem- NATO was to drag Europe into America’s ocratic and free Italy be constructed, together wars. Henceforth problems of military secu- with a peaceful and prosperous Europe.” In rity would override economic reconstruction fact, the division considered the enthusiasm of in terms of U.S. priorities in Europe. The mil- the Italians for European unity (together with itarization effort, coinciding with the prospect the growth of a nonconfessional trade union of general rearmament, cost the promoters of movement where none had existed before) productivity and prosperity dearly. among its greatest successes. Throughout the ECA it was assumed that In private, however, there were many the strains of rearmament could lead to “in- doubts about the effectiveness of the message ternal security crises” in France and Italy, or and the overall results. As early as February at best skeptical neutralism already evident in 1949 a high-level official in the Paris head- a number of other countries. However, ECA quarters noted: “The European worker lis- men on the ground had already decided that tens listlessly while we tell him we are saving there was no contradiction between defense Europe, unconvinced that it is his Europe we and the Marshall Plan’s objectives, it being are saving.” just a matter of bending the existing policy An opinion poll carried out by the Eco- goals to the new requirements. nomic Cooperation Administration (ECA) in The Americans were under no illusions as mid-1950 had interviewed almost two thou- to the difficulties they faced. In a top-level sand people, including citizens from France, analysis carried out for the Paris headquar- Norway, Denmark, Holland, Austria, and ters and lasting two and a half years, it was Italy. On average, approximately 80 percent admitted that knowledge of the Marshall Plan of those interviewed knew about the Mar- and its popularity were stagnant by that time shall Plan, and 75 percent approved of it. Be- (November 1950). While the percentage of tween 25 and 40 percent of those inter- the population opposing the plan in countries viewed understood its functioning. But, as such as France and Italy was smaller than the the official sponsors of the poll commented, Communist vote, doubts still persisted in it was among the minorities “not on the “much too great a segment of the European team” that the most important target population” surrounding the question of groups—workers and peasants—for whom whether America’s aims were genuinely to the persuasion strategy was intended were improve living standards or simply to shore still to be found. They still seriously doubted up the existing system. the motives behind American action, just as Senior-level Americans in Europe felt they Communist propaganda had prompted them had been “led down the garden path” in coun- to do. tries such as France, Germany, and Italy, The greatest challenge to American action where their investments showed few signs of in Europe from summer 1950 onward was the paying visible social or political dividends. battle against the effects of the Korean War. It Only from this point forward was there an is impossible to overestimate the impact awareness that the effectiveness of the mes- throughout Europe of this decisive moment sages ultimately depended on their being marking the escalation of the Cold War. The adapted to local circumstances. In the early Korean War brought in its wake a qualitative months it was considered more important to change, an unprecedented intensification in have available press articles and formulas for the ideological and psychological commit- radio shows, exhibitions, and films that could ment to the anti-Communist crusade. For its be used in any country in Europe—and even part the left-wing opposition insisted—with be shown on American television. some success—that the entire episode con- In a country like Italy, the need for more firmed its prediction that the purpose of meaningful contact with native residents led Marx, Karl 241 to local scriptwriters and directors being re- tiveness of its energizing impulses soon be- cruited to fabricate the film propaganda ma- came clear. In Italy government, industry, terial based on schemes furnished by the and the public all bet on the future in these sponsor, which they would then translate years.At the dawn of the era of the economic into the symbolic, visual, and spoken lan- “miracle,” it quickly became apparent that the guage of the Italian audience. In this way the same psychological processes had been oper- Organizzazione Epoca was born, set up not ating in Italy, as in other Western countries, to proclaim but to conceal the American ori- since the end of the war. In the striking gins of its operations. No one, however, was phrase coined in 1949 by Harlan Cleveland, taken in. an economist and senior Marshall Plan offi- In its discussion of the Marshall Plan, cial, the transformation became known as today’s European historiography emphasizes “the revolution of rising expectations.” Ac- the capacity of the European governments of cording to Enzo Forcella, a veteran left-wing the era to elude, neutralize, or ignore Ameri- intellectual, “The American myths kept their can exhortations. Outside France few com- promises and won through.” In his post–Cold prehensive or coherent strategies were ever War discussion of the impact of American drawn up for the use of American aid, this culture on the radicalized Italy of the 1950s, despite incessant ECA pressure in this area. Forcella was referring to the images offered Hardly any of the reforming, modernizing by Marshall Plan documentaries of the Amer- methods proposed by the Americans for the ican way of life, specifically those showing national states and economies were ever workers arriving at factories behind the adopted. Yet in a more diffuse, cultural sense wheel of their own cars—an unthinkable no- the Marshall Plan in all its manifestations did tion in the Italy of 1949. place the American challenge of psychologi- David Ellwood cal and technical modernization on national See also Cold War agendas. Current speculations regarding the References: Carew,Anthony. Labour under the overall impact of the Marshall Plan on the Marshall Plan. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1987; Cheles, L., ed. The Art participating countries see it not only in of Persuasion:Political Communication in Italy from macroeconomic terms but also as a sort of 1945 to the 1990s. Manchester: Manchester psychological plasma. The limits of its inno- University Press, 1999; Ellwood, D. W. vative goals have become clear, as has the Rebuilding Europe:America and West European crudeness of its insistence on the American Reconstruction. London: Longmans, 1992; way as the solution to every problem. In- Kipping Matthias, and Ove Bjarnar, eds. The Americanisation of European Business. London: tended to serve as a weapon in the Cold War, Routledge, 1998. the Marshall Plan failed to stop the growth of Communist parties and trade unions in France and Italy, while in Greece more force- ful methods were needed to stop the revolu- Marx, Karl (1818–1883) tionary left. Even so, the combination of the Founder of Communism, historian, and Marshall Plan and NATO left no room for philosopher, Marx was born in 1818 in the doubt as to America’s commitment to the se- German Rhineland. His family was originally curity and prosperity of Western Europe, Jewish, but his father had converted to Chris- and at a time of widespread despair it greatly tianity to avoid anti-Semitism. Marx studied revived the Old World’s faith in its own po- philosophy in Bonn and Berlin and in 1842 tential for renewal. began work as a radical journalist in Cologne. The Marshall Plan ended prematurely in Having angered the state government, in December 1951, giving way to the Mutual 1843 Marx fled to Paris and began to develop Security Program. But the underlying effec- the notion of a worker’s revolution as a means 242 McCarthy, Joseph R.

much that of a communicator as a theorist and philosopher. The full impact of his ideas be- came apparent through the intercession of more gifted rhetoricians such as Lenin (1870–1924) and Mao Zedong (1893–1976). Nicholas J.Cull See also The Communist Manifesto; Engels, Friedrich; International; “The Internationale”; Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich; Mao Zedong References: Katz, Henryk. Emancipation of Labour:A History of the First International. London: Greenwood, 1992; McLellan, David. Karl Marx:His Life and Thought. London: Macmillan, 1973; Raddatz, Fritz J. Karl Marx:A Political Biography.London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1979.

McCarthy, Joseph R. (1909–1957) A virulent American anti-Communist pro- pagandist, Joseph McCarthy was born into a poor Catholic family. He rose from lawyer to judge in 1939, earning a reputation for Karl Marx.The full beard was a virtual trademark. arranging quick divorces. In 1942 he joined (Illustrated London News Group) the Marine Corps and served in the Pacific. Although his war record was undistin- guished, it became the foundation of his of social change. While in Paris he met his postwar political career. He campaigned lifelong friend and collaborator, Friedrich En- successfully as “tail-gunner Joe” for a Senate gels (1820–1895). The two men fled to Brus- seat in 1946, promising to represent the in- sels and wrote The Communist Manifesto terests of the veteran in Washington, D.C. (1848), a masterpiece of political propa- His early Senate career was also undistin- ganda. The core of Marx’s teaching was the guished, and he feared he might not be re- idea that all history was a driven by the engine elected. After seeking advice from friends, of conflict between social classes and that this he hit on anti-Communism as the cause that conflict would inevitably produce a revolution would advance his career. McCarthy following which power would pass to the launched his campaign against Communism working classes. In 1848 he returned to on 9 February 1950 in a speech to the Re- Cologne to edit the Neue Rheinische Zeitung, publican women’s club in Wheeling, West but after the collapse of the paper the follow- Virginia. He claimed that he had a list of 57 ing year he sought refuge in London. His Communists working at the State Depart- study Das Kapital appeared in three volumes ment; by the end of the month he had raised in 1867, 1884, and 1894. From 1864 to 1872 this number to 205. The American political he was a leading figure in the First Interna- lexicon had a new term: “McCarthyism,” a tional. He spent the remaining years of his life term allegedly coined by the political car- writing and relying on Engels for financial toonist Herblock. support, eventually dying in relative obscu- An immediate investigation of McCarthy’s rity. Despite the brilliance and accessibility of claims found no evidence of Communists in the Manifesto, Marx’s achievement is not so the State Department, but this news was Mein Kampf 243 dwarfed by the arrest of Julius (1917–1953) 1972) had himself used similar scare tactics in and Ethel (1916–1953) Rosenberg on spy his early attempts to rally the United States charges and the outbreak of the Korean War. to the cause of the Cold War. Other militant McCarthy’s accusations offered a convenient anti-Communists proved more dexterous explanation for the apparent reversal of polit- and adaptable. McCarthy fell in 1954, but ical fortunes. McCarthy’s alarmism won him Richard Nixon (1913–1994), who also built reelection and a position of considerable his career on postwar Communist witch- power as chairman of the Senate’s Permanent hunting, went on to become president. Mc- Subcommittee on Investigations beginning in Carthyism remains one of the most potent January 1953. From this platform he con- terms of abuse in the Anglo-American politi- ducted a round of investigations into alleged cal lexicon. subversion in high places, at one point dis- Nicholas J.Cull paraging America’s official propagandists, the See also Canada; Cold War; Murrow, Edward R.; Voice of America and the United States Infor- Oates, Titus; Television; United States;VOA mation Service, which he alleged were run References: Fried, Richard M. Men Against McCarthy.New York: Columbia University by dangerous liberals. McCarthy’s charges Press, 1976; Reeves, Thomas C. The Life and became ever more extreme and his targets Times of Joe McCarthy:A Biography. New York: more diverse in an attempt to maintain polit- Stein and Day, 1982; Rovere, Richard. Senator ical momentum. In 1954 he attacked the Joe McCarthy. New York: Harcourt, 1959. U.S. Army, conducting thirty-six days of na- tionally televised hearings, which eventually proved his undoing. Under the sustained Mein Kampf (1925) purview of the camera he came across as a This foundational work of Nazi propaganda crass bully. McCarthy was outmaneuvered by was written by Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) and skilled defense attorney Joseph Welch first published in 1925. The significance of (1890–1960), who won over the American Mein Kampf (My Struggle) is often overlooked public with his simple rebuke: “Have you no by historians. The book may be turgid and ir- sense of decency, sir?” Edward R. Murrow’s rational, but mere stylistic analysis overlooks (1908–1965) contemporaneous CBS docu- the propaganda aspects of the work. mentary in the “See It Now” series also did The failure of the Munich putsch (1923) much to expose McCarthy as a demagogue, and a period of imprisonment elevated Adolf with the latter’s hectoring response in a Hitler from an obscure, provincial, right- “right to reply” piece the following week only wing politician into a national figure. The making matters worse. In December 1954 nine months he spent in Landsberg Prison the Senate passed a vote of censure. His provided Hitler with the opportunity to power broken, McCarthy died of acute alco- write Mein Kampf. Unable to address his audi- holism in 1957. ence in person, Hitler dictated his ideas. The McCarthy, like Titus Oates (1649–1705), text of Mein Kampf is thus a piece of political the notorious English perjurer of the 1670s, demagoguery in prose, an outpouring of proved that a demagogue can go far if his Hitler’s half-baked ideas and prejudices. It claims are extreme enough and repeated was clearly written as a work of propaganda. often enough. Yet it should also be remem- The extent to which Mein Kampf consti- bered that he was a creature of his times. He tuted a blueprint that the Nazi Party system- based his approach on the heritage of mid- atically implemented when it came to power western mistrust of Washington and all in 1933 remains a source of intense debate. things foreign that had shaped the populist Hitler devoted two chapters to the study and movement of the 1880s and interwar isola- practice of propaganda. His thoughts on war tionism. President Harry Truman (1884– propaganda largely reflected the prevailing 244 Memorials and Monuments

nationalist claims that Allied propaganda was See also Anti-Semitism; The Big Lie; Germany; responsible for the collapse of the German Goebbels, Joseph; Morale; Propaganda, Empire in 1918. Convinced of the essential Definitions of; Psychological Warfare; World War I; World War II (Germany) role of propaganda in any movement intent References: Bramsted, Ernst. Goebbels and on gaining power, Hitler saw propaganda as a National Socialist Propaganda,1925–1945.East vehicle of political salesmanship in a mass Lansing: Michigan State University Press, market, arguing that the consumers of propa- 1965; Welch, David. Hitler:Profile of a Dictator. ganda were the masses and not the intellectu- London: Routledge, 2001; Welch, David. The als. According to Hitler, the masses were Third Reich:Politics and Propaganda.London: Routledge, 2002. malleable and corrupt, “overwhelmingly feminine by nature and attitude.” As such, their sentiment was not complicated “but very simple and consistent.” In other words, Memorials and Monuments they were led not by their brains but by their Mankind has been erecting memorials and emotions. monuments since ancient times. Memorials In Mein Kampf Hitler laid down the broad have been used to commemorate a wide outlines along which Nazi propaganda was to range of human endeavor and emotions: to operate. The function of propaganda was to mark great victories and discoveries and to “see that an idea wins supporters...it tries celebrate the lives of great men and women, to force a doctrine on the whole people.” To but also to commemorate moments of great achieve this, propaganda was to bring to the stress, sorrow, or loss. Memorials are an ex- attention of the masses certain facts, tremely important propaganda medium, ca- processes, and necessities “whose significance pable of imparting a wide range of messages. is thus for the first time placed within their However, it is equally remarkable how little field of vision.” Accordingly, for the masses they have changed in design and function propaganda had to remain simple, concen- over the centuries. trating on as few points as possible, which Egyptian and Assyrian civilizations both then had to be repeated many times, focusing built memorials, and their traits can be seen on such emotional elements as love and ha- in the use of memorials by other classical civi- tred. Through the continuity and sustained lizations. The Romans were great monument uniformity of its application, Hitler con- builders, using them to illustrate battles and cluded that propaganda would lead to results mark great victories. Columns became a fa- “that are almost beyond our understanding.” vorite device for relating the stories of war Unlike the Bolsheviks, Hitler and the Nazis campaigns. Some are still extant today, one of did not make a distinction between agitation the most important being Trajan’s Column in and propaganda. In Soviet Russia agitation Rome. The Romans also built arches and was concerned with influencing the masses gates to mark important events. Triumphal through ideas and slogans, while propaganda arches, like columns, were used to provide served to spread the Communist ideology of narratives and to commemorate the accom- Marxist-Leninism. Hitler, on the other hand, plishments of emperors and generals. All of did not view propaganda as merely an instru- these devices were passed down throughout ment for reaching the party elite but rather European civilization. However, the medieval as a means to persuade and indoctrinate all world did not show quite the same reverence Germans. During World War II Allied propa- for memorial architecture. The commemora- gandists quoted from and published portions tion of martial prowess was most often em- of Mein Kampf to illustrate the scale of bodied in the architecture of the tomb itself. Hitler’s ambitions. Great kings and princes were often entombed David Welch beneath effigies of themselves in full armor. Memorials and Monuments 245

The Renaissance, with its revival of inter- commission employed the finest architects in est in the classical world, inspired a return to the empire to create cemeteries and memori- greater diversity in the use and design of me- als that reflected the glory, dignity, and power morials. Following the Great Fire of London of the British Empire.After World War II the in 1666, Sir Christopher Wren (1632–1723) commission completed a new set of memori- used the classical column to provide a memo- als and cemeteries. Now renamed the Com- rial to mark the event. The base of the monu- monwealth War Graves Commission, it con- ment contains inscriptions relating the story tinues to care and maintain such sites across of the fire; one, added in 1681, was deliber- the globe. ately aimed at maintaining the Protestant as- Memorials such as that to the United cendancy of England by implying that the fire States Marine Corps in Arlington, Virginia, was started by Catholics. Another panel con- fulfill a similar purpose. Based on the famous tains a bas-relief of Charles II (1630–1685), photograph showing marines hoisting the in Roman dress, directing the relief of the Stars and Stripes over Iwo Jima, the memo- sick and the destitute, linking him with rial is intended as a powerful reminder of the Christian charity and the wisdom and power might and resolution of the United States. In of the ancient world. complete contrast is the Vietnam War memo- By the eighteenth century, with the arrival rial, completed in 1982. The memorial, de- of the Enlightenment, memorial architecture signed by Maya Lin (1959– ), tried to heal not only mirrored the diversity and ubiquity the deep wounds created by the war in Amer- it had achieved in the classical world but was ican society by remaining simple, dignified, equally dedicated to the dissemination of and rather austere. Consisting of a reflective messages and images. Columns and arches black surface, the wall contains the names of proliferated, as seen in such memorials as the the 58,000 U.S. war dead and missing. Rep- column to Horatio Nelson (1758–1805) in resenting a call to quiet reflection and contri- London and the Arc de Triomphe in Paris. tion, it is far removed from the Marine Corps Both memorials were meant to impress the memorial. people with the significance of their nation Totalitarian powers also used memorials as and its national traits. The French revolution- reminders and imparters of a certain ideol- ary wars and the growing importance of the ogy. For example, the Soviet Union erected nation-state and its citizens affected the ap- statues to their revolutionary heroes with al- pearance of such memorials. Precursors of most spendthrift enthusiasm, and memorials twentieth-century memorials can be seen in abounded in Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. The de- the Guards’ Crimean Memorial at the foot of struction of a giant statue of Saddam, seen Regent Street in London. The memorial is worldwide on live television, became a defin- surmounted by an angel of victory holding ing image of the U.S. victory in the Gulf War aloft a laurel wreath and is fronted by bronze of 2003. Similar images defined the collapse statuary depicting ordinary guardsmen rather of Communist power in Eastern Europe in than a great commander. the early 1990s. The two great wars of the twentieth cen- Mark Connelly tury turned war memorials into potent sym- See also Art; British Empire; Funerals; Hussein, bols of the political landscape. Smaller me- Saddam; Lincoln,Abraham; Portugal; morials built at the community level tended Revolution,American, and War of to stress the element of grief and loss, Independence; Russia; Spain; World War I; whereas larger schemes expressed pride in World War II (Russia) References: Borg,Alan. War Memorials,from victory and the glory of war. The British Em- Antiquity to the Present.London: Leo Cooper, pire and Commonwealth instituted an Impe- 1991; Curl, James. A Celebration of Death. rial War Graves Commission in 1917. The London: Batsford, 1993; Mosse, George L. 246 Mexico

Fallen Soldiers:Reshaping the Memory of the World served as propaganda for his own cause. The Wars. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990. Spanish court responded by banning the cir- culation of his first and last letter, but the others became famous across Europe and did Mexico much to establish the idea of Mexico as a From buttressing the empire of the Aztecs to mirror image of Europe and ripe for colo- present-day struggles for social justice, prop- nization. While Cortés was busy subduing aganda issues have been at the core of Mexi- the country militarily, Catholic priests at- can history. Aztec architecture and ritual tempted the ideological conquest of Mexico served to perpetuate this group’s control under the leadership of Bishop Juan de over the peoples of the region, establishing Zumárraga (1468–1548). Doubts over the the Aztec “chief speaker” as a descendant of completeness of Mexico’s “conversion” led to the gods, with a responsibility to practice the subsequent waves of inquisition. The alleged ceremonies necessary to keep the cosmos in behavior of both the Spanish and their priests motion. At the heart of Aztec rituals was the in Mexico became a favorite subject for early practice of human sacrifice.As the Aztecs ex- Protestant propaganda then emerging from tended their reach across Mexico, the scale of the Low Countries. their sacrifices grew. Although the practice The mixture of Spanish and indigenous underscored the Aztecs’ power over their cultures produced new symbols. The most subject peoples, it predisposed the latter to enduring was “Our Lady of Guadalupe.” In join forces with an outside “liberator” in the December 1531 an Aztec peasant, Juan person of the Spanish explorer Hernán Diego, saw a vision of the Virgin Mary speak- Cortés (1485–1547). The Europeans also ing in his language on a hill sacred to the used the Aztec understanding of war to their Aztec goddess Tonastsi. A miraculous paint- advantage. Aztec war included a ritual and ing of this Aztec madonna appeared on his symbolic content, with combat taking place cloak, which became an object of veneration between powerful individuals, and with lim- across the region. The Virgin of Guadalupe ited aims, such as the capture of prisoners for figured as an icon in the conversion of Mex- later sacrifice. The Aztecs were not prepared ico to Christianity, but one could argue that it for a European-style war of annihilation. was far more significant in later Mexican Upon arriving in Mexico in 1519, Cortés propaganda campaigns, from the struggle for attempted to utilize Old World symbols, freedom from Spain through the revolution- such as a banner of the Virgin Mary. In his at- ary movements of the twentieth century. In tempts to convince potential allies to join his 2001 the Virgin of Guadalupe remains a po- campaign against the Aztecs, he scored a tent symbol of Mexican and Chicano/Chi- breakthrough when he came upon a multilin- cana (Mexican American) identity and can be gual woman nicknamed “La Malinche” (ca. found everywhere, from church publications 1500–ca. 1551), who acted as his translator and public murals to car hubcaps and even during the conquest. In the twentieth cen- tattoos. tury this woman, known to the Spanish as Mexico was the first country in the Ameri- Dona Marina, has been a major figure in cas to have a printing press and hence also the Mexican literary propaganda, branded as a first to produce news sheets resembling traitor in nationalistic texts but reconfigured newspapers. The press played an important as a complex mother of mixed-race Mexico role in church mission activity. The first in feminist writing. printer in the country was Juan Paoli, or Pab- Between 1519 and 1526 Cortés wrote a los, an agent of the Casa Cromberger in series of five self-serving letters (“cartas de Seville, Spain, who established his press relación”) describing the conquest, which around 1536.The Spanish ruled the New Mexico 247

World with recourse to censorship in the aimed at Napoleon III rather than Mexico) name of “public morality.” By the eighteenth included a rendering by Édouard Manet century this censorship had become overtly (1832–1883) of the emperor’s death before a political and was directed at oppositional firing squad. pasquines, or pamphlets. The first Mexican In 1876 Porfirio Díaz (1830–1915), newspaper appeared on 1 January 1722. The Juárez’s former general, seized power in Gazeta de México y Noticias de Nueva España Mexico. He consolidated his power by ap- (Mexico Gazette and News of New Spain) peasing the church and U.S. business inter- was published monthly, edited by Dr. Juan ests and allowing only token debate or oppo- Ignacio de Castorena Ursua y Goyeneche sition. He nurtured his state with all the usual (1668–1733), priest in the cathedral of Mex- propaganda techniques of the era, including ico City and later bishop of Yucatan. ostentatious uniforms, flattering portraits, Full-scale rebellion in Mexico followed and lavish public ceremonies. Díaz began the hard on the heels of the French Revolution Mexican practice of sending propagandists to and Napoleon I’s conquest of Spain.A mixed- the United States to promote his regime and race priest named Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla encourage investment in Mexico. (1753–1811) organized an uprising against Cinema came early to Mexico. In July Spanish rule. His propaganda campaign, 1896, the Lumière brothers sent French which mixed religion and class conscious- cameramen, a camera, and the projector ness, can be summed up in his “Grito de Do- used in the first public film performance in lores” (Cry of Dolores) of September 1810, the world (given in Paris just six months pre- which demanded racial equality and land for viously). Mexico’s first film performance the peasants. Although Hidalgo managed to was held privately for Díaz on 5 August assemble an army of eighty thousand people, 1896; the following days saw performances the rebellion foundered in 1811. However, for journalists and for the public. The first the flame of independence in Mexico now movies, or vistas, were images of Mexico and burned brightly. Newspapers of the revolu- scenes of Don Porfirio, the Pane Baths, the tionary era included El Despertador Americano Military School, and the Canal de la Viga. (American Alarm Clock). Mexico was The first Mexican fiction films appeared in granted independence from Spain in 1821. 1907. Meanwhile antigovernment publica- Mexico’s rulers in the nineteenth century tions multiplied; they included Francisco included Antonio López de Santa Anna Madero’s (1873–1913) La Sucesión Presiden- (1794–1876), who used a personality cult to cial en 1910 (The 1910 Presidential Succes- rule dictatorially for three terms (1832– sion), published in 1908. In 1910 Madero 1855). He became an enduring bogeyman in campaigned against Díaz for the presidency, U.S. propaganda as a result of his massacre of only to be defeated as a result of election Texans at the Alamo in 1836. Liberal figures fraud. Jailed and subsequently released, he included Benito Juárez (1806–1872), who fled to the United States but later returned first opposed Santa Anna and then the French to lead a successful revolution against Díaz in army of Napoleon III (1808–1873), with his 1911. Soon after becoming president, in “marionette emperor” Maximilian (1832– early 1913 he died at the hands of the forces 1867), during the war of French intervention of a new contender for power, Gen.Victori- (1863–1867). Juárez, Mexico’s first presi- ano Huerta (1854–1916). dent of Indian descent, served from 1858 Huerta knew the propaganda value of the until his death during a rebellion, becoming symbolic deed. On seizing power he at- an enduring icon akin to Abraham Lincoln in tempted to build nationalist credentials by the United States. In France memorable provoking the United States. In April 1914 treatments of Maximilian (in propaganda his contrived insults to American prestige (he 248 Mexico was described at the time as dishonoring the embarked on a campaign of public diplomacy U.S. flag) led U.S. president Woodrow Wil- in the United States, sending speakers north son to seize the port of Vera Cruz. A further to establish his regime’s liberal credentials U.S. intervention followed in 1916. and to discourage further U.S. intervention. The continuing revolutionary struggle of From 1917 the United States conducted the poorest Mexicans—first against Díaz, propaganda in Mexico through the Commit- then Huerta, and finally against the liberal tee on Public Information (CPI). Its chief “Constitutionalists”—resulted in a barrage of agent was Robert H. Murray, a foreign corre- slogans, cartoons, and songs about the rebel spondent of the New York World. The CPI leaders of the period, such as the charismatic placed particular emphasis on the teaching of peasant generals Emiliano Zapata (ca. 1879– English. 1919) and “Pancho” Villa (ca. 1877–1923). By 1920 the revolution had ended. The Villa had a keen sense of the media and went postrevolutionary government sought to use so far as to sign a film deal with Hollywood’s propaganda to build a sense of Mexican iden- Mutual Film Company. He obliged its direc- tity and nationalism. The government experi- tor, Raoul Walsh (1887–1980), by staging ac- mented with broadcasting in 1924. The Min- tion when and where the light was best. He istry of Public Education (under José allegedly also executed a few federal troops Vasconcelos) commissioned a massive nation- for the cameras, but the studio cut these wide program of mural painting. Its three scenes for reasons of taste. In the final version most famous exponents (“Los Tres Grandes”) of the film, which was called The Life of Gen- were José Clemente Orozco (1882–1949), eral Villa (1914), Walsh himself played Villa as David Alfaro Siqueiros (1896–1974), and a youth. Diego Rivera (1886–1959), who later painted During World War I the combatants vied politically tinged murals in the United States. for Mexican opinion. German propaganda, The muralists used a rich historical vocabu- trading on resentment against U.S. interven- lary of national struggle, including images of tions, was particularly intense. Wireless the conquest and Mexico’s Aztec past, to broadcasting played an important role. Presi- build a sense of Mexican identity. Working on dent Venustiano Carranza (1859–1920) al- a smaller scale but toward similar ends, dur- lowed German agents to rig up large trans- ing the 1930s a group of artists called Taller mitters and receivers atop Mexico City’s de Gráfica Popular (Workshop of Popular Chapultepec Heights, which were used to Graphics) revived earlier opposition print send and receive war and propaganda mes- techniques as a means of educating the masses sages, including (from 1917) press bulletins and spreading the cause of antifascism. Spe- about the war for Central American newspa- cific issues of political propaganda within pers. In 1917 Mexico figured in British prop- Mexico included the bitter clash in the late aganda to draw the United States into World 1920s between the revolutionary state and War I. British intelligence intercepted and the church. State anticlericalism (which in- leaked the Zimmermann telegram, a com- cluded propaganda, the closure of religious munication from the German foreign minis- schools, and a ban on church services) ter that offered Mexico U.S. territory in ex- sparked the so-called Cristero Rebellion of change for entering the war. 1926–1929 in western Mexico. Peace be- The war years also saw the launch of two tween church and state was not established of the most significant Mexican newspapers: until 1940, when newly elected president El Universal (1916) and Excélsior (1917). Manuel Ávila Camacho (1897–1955) memo- Meanwhile, in Mexico the new president, rably declared: “I’m a believer.” Constitutionalist leader Venustiano Carranza, Commercial radio broadcasting in Mexico unveiled a new constitution. He then wisely dates from September 1930, when XEW Mexico 249 went on the air from Mexico City. It grew under the auspices of the office of the Coor- into the most influential commercial station dinator of Inter-American Affairs (CIAA), in Latin America, and during the 1950s its founded in 1940. CIAA initiatives included young owner, Emilio Azcárraga Milmo covert subsidies to develop the Mexican film (1930–1997), became the region’s first great industry. television mogul. In January 1938 President Mexico’s postwar propaganda was marked Lázaro Cardenas (1895–1970) launched the by repeated attempts to market the nation in Departamento Autónomo de Prensa y Publi- the United States as well as prestige projects cidad (DAPP), very similar to European min- such as the Inter-American Highway. For istries of information. The DAPP controlled much of the postwar period Mexico’s ruling all federal ministry briefings. It attempted Partido Revolucionario Institucional (Institu- (and failed) to increase government owner- tional Revolutionary Party; PRI) enjoyed a ship and direction of the media and later cozy relationship at home with the state adopted a more pragmatic course. From 1940 broadcaster Mexico Televisa. The highlight of the new president, Manuel Avila Camacho es- postwar Mexican propaganda was supposed tablished secret agreements, which his succes- to have been the prestigious staging of the sors maintained, for full support with the 1968 Olympic Games, though the event was owners of the mass media. hijacked by agendas other than that of Presi- On 18 March 1938, President Cardenas dent Gustavo Díaz Ordaz (1911–1979) when signed a wildly popular decree nationalizing students took advantage of the presence of the foreign-owned oil industry in Mexico. cameras to stage massive protests against the Protests by the affected companies and the regime. Since the 1970s Mexico Televisa has British, U.S., and Dutch governments only attempted to export programming elsewhere intensified the wave of national feeling. These in Latin America and to the Hispanic popula- attitudes were very fresh at the outbreak of tion of the United States, where its owner- World War II and had to be counteracted by ship of the popular Univision network Britain and the United States during the first sparked U.S. cries of “cultural imperialism.” years of the war. In 1992 Mexico conducted a large-scale pub- As in World War I, Mexico leaned toward lic relations and lobbying campaign in the Germany during World War II. From 1936 United States to lobby for the passage of the on, the German Legation in Mexico City un- North American Free Trade Agreement dertook an intense propaganda campaign to (NAFTA). spread Nazism. In 1939 the British Ministry In the latter half of the twentieth century of Information fought back by establishing Mexico’s indigenous population achieved a the Inter Allied Committee of Propaganda, number of breakthroughs in the field of polit- by which French and English companies ical communication. The Worker-Peasant- worked to manipulate the treatment of the Student Coalition of the Isthmus of Tehuante- war in the Mexican media through selectively pec (COEI), founded in 1973 to represent the increasing or cutting their advertising. The Zapotec Indians, made local gains against the Allied Information Office under Robert PRI by campaigning in the Zapotec language H. K. Marett (an Englishman resident in and promoting its indigenous culture. In 1981 Mexico City) used much the same tactics as the COEI won the municipal election in the the Nazi chief propagandist,Arthur Dietrich. city of Juchitán and established a “People’s In June 1940 Mexico´s government pledged Government,” which the PRI removed by itself to the Allied cause, and by 1941 the force in 1983. The COEI remains a major British had effective control of all the key force in the region. On 1 January 1994—the media channels in Mexico. U.S. propagan- very day on which Mexico became a member dists operated extensively in wartime Mexico of NAFTA—an uprising of Mayan Indians in 250 Milton, John the province of Chiapas captured the atten- propaganda (1641–1642) attacked the power tion of the Mexican and world media. The of bishops and the marriage laws in England. rebels called themselves the Ejército Zapatista His best-known rhetorical work was Are- de Liberación Nacional (EZLN), or Zapatista opagitica: A Speech for the Liberty of the Unli- National Liberation Army, thereby claiming censed Printing (1644), an eloquent defense of the mantle of the revolutionary hero Emiliano the freedom of the press for all except Zapata. Having seized a string of major towns Catholics, who, he felt, were too great a in Chiapas, they proved adept at presenting threat to the freedom of others. Milton themselves to the broadcast media. Their worked as a licensor, effectively administer- masked, eloquent, non-Indian leader “Subco- ing state censorship policies. In 1649 Milton mandante Marcos” began by reading a “Decla- wrote a passionate defense of the execution ration of the Lacadón Jungle” to the TV cam- of King Charles I (1600–1649) called The eras, claiming that the rebellion’s national Tenure of Kings and Magistrates. This led to his goal was the establishment of a democratic appointment as Latin Secretary to the Coun- socialist government. Over a hundred thou- cil of State (or “Secretary of Foreign sand supporters rallied in Mexico City. In the Tongues”), with associated responsibility for months that followed, the Zapatistas provided explaining the new regime’s policies over- an articulate challenge to the slick publicity seas. His Latin arguments were widely read machine of the PRI, thereby hastening the fall in Europe. This role anticipated that of public of President Carlos Salinas de Gortari diplomacy of the twentieth century. Milton (1948– ). Marcos and the Zapatistas had held this post until 1660, coinciding with the proved that the propaganda mechanisms of restoration of Charles II (1630–1685) to the the international media could work for the throne. After spending a brief period in jail, weak as well as the strong. he was released thanks to the intervention of Nicholas J.Cull fellow poet Andrew Marvell (1621–1678). See also Art; Latin America; Olympics; Religion; Now blind, Milton resumed his poetic career, Spain; Zimmermann Telegram completing Paradise Lost in 1665 and Paradise References: Britton, John A. Revolution and Regained in 1671. Milton’s Areopagitica re- Ideology:The Image of the Mexican Revolution in the United States.Lexington: University Press of mains one of the great masterpieces of per- Kentucky, 1995; Carrasco, Davíd. City of suasive writing and is still quoted whenever Sacrifice:Violence from the Aztec Capital to the the freedom of the press is threatened. Modern Americas. Boston: Beacon, 1999; Nicholas J.Cull Carrasco, Davíd, ed. The Oxford Encyclopedia of See also Britain; Civil War, English; Poetry Mesoamerican Cultures.New York: Oxford References: Fallon, Robert Thomas. Milton in University Press, 2001; Fox, Elizabeth. Latin Government. University Park: Pennsylvania State American Broadcasting:From Tango to Telenovela. University Press, 1993; Raymond, Dora Neill. Luton, UK: University of Luton Press, 1997; Oliver’s Secretary:John Milton in an Era of Revolt. Krauze, Enrique. Mexico:Biography of Power. New York: Minton, Balch, 1932. London: HarperCollins, 1997; MacLachlin, Colin, and William Beezley. El Gran Pueblo:A History of Greater Mexico.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1994; Ortiz Garza, José Luis. La guerra de las ondas. México City: Planeta, 1992; Mission to Moscow (1943) ———. México en guerra. México City: During World War II, following the German Planeta, 1989. invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, each of the major Hollywood studios agreed to pro- mote better friendship between America and Milton, John (1608–1674) its “awkward” ally, the Soviet Union, by re- An English poet who turned to propaganda leasing a feature film with a Russian theme. during the civil war, Milton’s early works of Warner Brothers produced Mission to Moscow MoI (Ministry of Information) 251

(1943), one of the most notorious pieces of and Gregory D. Black. Hollywood Goes to War: feature film propaganda ever released in the How Politics,Profits,and Propaganda Shaped World United States. Like Casablanca (1942), it was War II Movies. New York: Free Press, 1987. directed by Michael Curtiz (1886–1962). Unlike the latter, it was a docudrama, pur- porting to provide an accurate account of So- MoI (Ministry of Information) viet politics in the 1930s, as seen through the This was the name of the British propaganda eyes of American ambassador Joseph E. ministry during both World Wars I and II. Davies (1876–1958). Although it appeared Writing in the BBC’s handbook for 1941, that Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945) con- Harold Nicolson (1886–1968), the ministry’s trolled the content of the film, in fact it was parliamentary secretary, observed that the Davies who did. The result was a ridiculous MoI was “the most unpopular department in puff piece glorifying a kindly Stalin and justi- the whole British Commonwealth of na- fying the Moscow purge trials as a necessary tions,” as a result of the public’s “healthy dis- evil to rid Russia of the supporters of Leon like for all forms of government propa- Trotsky (1879–1940), who is revealed in the ganda.” During World War II the MoI was film to be in the employ of Nazi Germany. restricted to domestic propaganda and cen- The release of the film did not proceed as in- sorship, as well as propaganda in neutral and tended by those who controlled production. Allied countries. Since British propaganda It created an uproar when its silly falsifica- policy had been designed for a news-rich en- tions were exposed, and despite enormous vironment, it faired especially badly during production costs, it enjoyed a poor run and the news-depleted “phony war” period (Sep- never returned its production costs—in tember 1939 to April 1940). Critics con- short, it was a flop. One can say that the mak- demned the MoI for overstaffing and patron- ing of this film is a tale of zeal gone awry, of izing slogans. Its reputation improved steadily misplaced enthusiasm, of government offi- when Lord Hugh Macmillan (1873–1952), cials at cross-purposes, a story of the buck the ineffective original minister, was replaced never stopping anywhere. first by Lord John Reith (1899–1971) in Jan- After 1945, this film’s falsehoods helped uary 1940, next by Alfred Duff-Cooper persuade many that Hollywood was con- (1890–1954) in May 1940, and finally by trolled by Communist enthusiasts. It helped Brendan Bracken (1901–1958) in July 1941. prepare the way for Sen. Joseph McCarthy The MoI’s attempts to survey British public (1909–1957), for in promoting untruth as opinion through mass observation sparked truth, as a conspiratorial “revealed” history, criticism and the label “Cooper’s Snoopers.” it helped promote the method later used by Individual success stories included the pro- McCarthy, while giving a specious sub- duction of documentary films by the Crown stance to the burden of his allegations of Film Unit, assisting in American coverage of betrayal of American institutions from the Blitz, and communicating war-related within. news to the United States before American David Culbert entry into the war. In 1945 the Central Of- See also Cold War; Film (Feature); McCarthy, fice of Information (COI) took over the do- Joseph; World War II (United States) mestic publicity functions of the MoI, while References: Culbert, David. Mission to Moscow. overseas functions passed to the relevant for- Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980; Davies, Joseph E. Mission to Moscow. New York: eign or colonial office department. Simon and Schuster, 1941; Doherty, Thomas. Nicholas J.Cull Projections of War:Hollywood,American Culture, See also BBC; BIS; Bracken, Brendan; Britain; and World War II. New York: Columbia Censorship; Churchill, Winston; Health; University Press, 1993; Koppes, Clayton R., London Can Take It; Morale; Murrow, Edward 252 Morale

R.; Orwell, George; Reith, Lord John; World ing divisiveness between the kaiser and the War II (Britain) German people became one of the main ele- References: Aldgate,Anthony, and Jeffrey ments in American propaganda once the Richards. Britain Can Take It:The British Cinema and the Second World War.Edinburgh: Edinburgh United States entered the war in 1917; the University Press, 1994; Cole, Robert. Britain same scenario occurred in British propaganda and the War of Words in Neutral Europe, once Lord Northcliffe (1865–1922) was ap- 1939–1945.London: Macmillan, 1990; pointed director of propaganda in enemy MacLaine, Ian. Ministry of Morale:Home Front countries in 1918. Leaflets, flyers, small pam- Morale and the Ministry of Information in World War phlets, and booklets were dropped behind II.London: Unwin, 1979. German lines by aircraft and unmanned bal- loons. This material combined words and im- ages in the form of cartoons, photographs, or Morale maps showing German soldiers the quickest The spirit of a nation’s armed forces or its route home. The Allied propaganda offensive population has long been recognized as a cen- was directed against the evils of the German tral concern for any leader and a key target government, caricaturing the kaiser or at- for an enemy. Morale became a central issue tacking Prussian militarism and German im- for propagandists in the twentieth century. perialism. One of the most famous leaflets Although it is difficult to arrive at a working contained a drawing that depicted the kaiser definition of morale during wartime, there and his six sons in full military regalia—all appears to be a consensus that behavior and unscathed by war—marching blindly past action are involved. Morale is often viewed as hundreds of skeletal arms reaching out to meaningless, or at least ineffective, unless it them in anguish. The caption read: “One promotes action. family which has not lost a single member.” One of the most significant lessons to be Sustaining civilian morale was considered learned from World War I was that public to be even more important in World War II. opinion could no longer be ignored by gov- Modern technology affected the nature of ernments. Unlike previous wars, the Great warfare, with mass bombings killing thou- War was the first “total war” in which nations sands of civilians and injuring many more. and not just professional armies were locked Moreover, the needs of modern war required in mortal combat. The war served to increase the mass mobilization of people and the the level of popular interest and participation economy to provide fighting forces and the in affairs of state. The gap between the sol- equipment necessary to sustain their efforts. dier at the front and civilians at home nar- In Britain the Ministry of Information (MoI) rowed substantially since the full resources of set up a Home Intelligence Division. In Oc- the state were mobilized. In “total war,” tober 1941 Stephen Taylor (1910–1988), its which requires civilians to participate in the head, submitted a report indicating that good war effort, morale came to be recognized as morale depended on such material factors as a significant military factor. adequate food, warmth, rest, a secure base, Writing in Mein Kampf, Adolf Hitler and the safety of dependants. Morale was also (1889–1945) claimed that Allied propaganda affected by mental factors, including belief in had undermined civilian morale and was re- victory, equality of sacrifice, the justice of the sponsible for the collapse of the German Em- war, and efficient leadership. pire in 1918. There is, in fact, compelling ev- The need to address morale applied equally idence to suggest that Allied propaganda had to such totalitarian regimes as Nazi Germany greater success in driving a wedge between and Soviet Russia. During World War II bel- the German armed forces and the political ligerent states used propaganda to undermine and military leadership. This theme of creat- the morale of the enemy.The Japanese, for ex- Murrow, Edward R. 253 ample, invested a great deal of its resources in Murdoch was born in Melbourne into a creating short-wave propaganda aimed at the distinguished newspaper family. His father, United States. Little of this propaganda ad- Keith Murdoch (1885–1952), had made his versely affected morale because the Japanese name as a crusading war correspondent dur- failed to devise messages that were meaningful ing World War I. Following his father’s death, to their intended target; it also failed to realize Murdoch inherited his paper, the Adelaide that the attack on Pearl Harbor was sufficient News. After establishing a chain of papers in justification for U.S. participation in the con- Australia, in 1969 Murdoch moved into inter- flict. To compound their mistakes, the Japan- national publishing by buying the London ese claimed that Americans had become deca- News of the World and The Sun. In the 1970s he dent and “soft” and were unable to withstand purchased the New York Post.He gained a repu- the pressures of war in the face of the superi- tation as the king of the tabloids, increasing ority of the Japanese fighting forces and its im- circulation by catering to the lowest common mense spiritual strength. Such propaganda is denominator—scandal. In 1981 he purchased more likely to stiffen rather than weaken the London Times.In 1985 Murdoch became a morale. Similar Iraqi broadcasts from “Bagh- U.S. citizen, clearing the way for his purchase dad Betty” during the Gulf crisis and war of domestic U.S. media conglomerates (1990–1991) seem to have improved morale Metromedia and Twentieth Century-Fox, among U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia as a result over which he assumed full control in 1992. of their unintended comic value. In propaganda terms, his papers have sup- David Welch ported such conservative politicians as Ronald See also Austrian Empire; Gulf War; Hitler, Reagan and Margaret Thatcher. In 2000 Mur- Adolf; Mein Kampf; Psychological Warfare; doch seized a substantial share of the U.S. TV World War I; World War II (Japan) news market with his flagrantly partisan Fox References: MacLaine, Ian. Ministry of Morale: Home Front Morale and the Ministry of Information News broadcasts. Regular targets include the in World War II.London: Unwin, 1979; Roetter, European Union. For all its domestic conser- Charles. Psychological Warfare.London: Batsford, vatism, Murdoch’s empire has been notori- 1974; Welch, David. Germany,Propaganda and ously soft on the People’s Republic of China, Total War,1914–18. New Brunswick, NJ: where his News Corporation has commercial Rutgers University Press, 2000. interests. For example, in 1998 Murdoch or- dered HarperCollins to reject the book East and West by Chris Patten (1944– ), the last Murdoch, Rupert (1931– ) governor of Hong Kong, purportedly because This Australian-born communications entre- it included anti-Chinese statements. preneur’s global News Corporation empire Nicholas J.Cull includes: Twentieth Century-Fox films; the See also Blair, Tony; CNN; Falklands/Malvinas London Times and the Chicago Sun-Times; the War; Reagan, Ronald; Satellite Communications; Sky satellite TV news and cable network; and Te rrorism, War on; Thatcher, Margaret References: Bagdikian, Ben H. The Media HarperCollins publishers. Murdoch has also Monopoly.6th ed. Boston: Beacon, 2000; invested heavily in direct digital broadcasting. Chenoweth, Neil. Virtual Murdoch.New York: Although the latter part of the twentieth cen- Secker and Warburg, 2001; Shawcross, tury produced a number of powerful media William. Murdoch.New York: Simon and magnates—such as Axel Springer (1912– Schuster, 1992. 1985) in Germany, Roberto Marinho (1904– 1998) in Brazil, and Ted Turner (1938– ) in the United States—no one has exercised the Murrow, Edward R. (1908–1965) same degree of control over such a diverse An American radio and television broad- media empire. caster, subsequently appointed director of 254 Music the United States Information Agency the Kennedy assassination, Murrow was al- (USIA), Murrow was born in North Carolina ready seriously debilitated by the lung can- and raised in the Pacific Northwest. His un- cer that would bring about his early retire- dergraduate studies in speech and rhetoric ment in January 1964 and death in 1965. equipped him for a career in the emerging Nevertheless his agency played an important radio industry. In 1935 Murrow joined the role in easing the trauma of the transition Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS) and in from Kennedy to President Lyndon B. John- 1937 began coverage of the growing interna- son (1908–1973) overseas, and developed tional crisis from London. Although frus- Kennedy’s image as a champion of the high- trated by Britain’s appeasement of Nazi Ger- est political ideals. many, Murrow advised the British on how Nicholas J.Cull best to facilitate American coverage of the See also Kennedy, John F.; McCarthy, Joseph; coming war. The officials at the Ministry of MoI; Radio (International); United States; Information (MoI) soon grew to trust Mur- USIA; World War II (Britain) References: Cull, Nicholas J. Selling War:British row, g iving him and his colleagues privileged Propaganda and American Neutrality in World War access to the British war effort and restrict- Two. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995; ing conventional propaganda appeals to the Sperber,A. M. Murrow:His Life and Times. New U.S. public. Murrow’s live broadcasts of the York: Freundlich, 1986. Nazi Blitz of London in September 1940 brought the war into American homes and played a key part in turning the tide against Music isolationism. Later governments would use Although a basic tool of the propagandist, press reporters to achieve similar ends, in- music inevitably is more meaningful to those cluding Harrison Salisbury (1908–1993) in with professional training or who are at- Hanoi during the Vietnam War and Peter Ar- tracted to it than those for whom music re- nett (1934– ) in Baghdad during the Gulf mains at best something to while away the War of 1991. time in an elevator or while waiting for a In postwar America Murrow pioneered cur- telephone call to be completed. The ancient rent affairs broadcasting in the new medium of Greeks used a primitive trumpet at the television. His “See It Now” program (first Olympic Games.According to the Old Testa- broadcast in 1951) championed numerous ment (and the spiritual tune based on this causes, achieving lasting fame for effectively story), Joshua won the battle of Jericho by exposing the bullying propaganda techniques sounding a trumpet “and the walls came tum- of Sen. Joseph McCarthy (1909–1957). blin’ down.” In the preindustrial era, martial In 1961 Murrow agreed to join President music—drums, fifes, bagpipes, trumpets— John F. Kennedy’s (1917–1963) administra- played an enormous role in boosting morale tion as director of USIA.Although he contin- in battle, encouraging troops to ever greater ued to publicly emphasize the importance of heroic achievements. Music plays a similar open media and balanced reporting (show- role in modern sporting events. ing America “warts and all”), he expected his Music can serve a variety of purposes, all principle organ, the Voice of America, to toe of which can benefit the student of propa- the line in terms of fairly rigid Cold War ganda. It can be patriotic, romantic, or es- propaganda. Murrow oversaw new initia- capist. It can function in the popular media, tives in overt American propaganda, includ- as in film scores, or as a form of high culture. ing increased expansion in the Third World. In organized religion, the required “leap of Although illness prevented him from playing faith” is abetted by music, which forms part a significant role in the Cuban Missile Crisis, of the act of worship. Martin Luther’s hymn his agency performed well. By the time of “A Mighty Fortress Is Our God,” for which Music 255 he provided both melody and text, is univer- (1750–1836). Although millions of individu- sally considered the national anthem of the als can sing the simple melody of England’s Protestant Reformation. The success of “God Save the Queen” with ease, America’s Methodism is directly related to the melodies national anthem has a melody that has notes and texts of John Wesley (1703–1791) and so high that few can sing it properly, includ- his younger brother Charles (1707–1788). In ing the amateur soloists who open many a the United States, the spiritual served as a sporting event. central device for comprehending the reli- High culture often includes a predilection gious piety and militant protest of slaves in for classical music. In this sense all such the antebellum South. music is a form of cultural propaganda, a way Popular song includes folk songs as well as of defining one’s status. But classical com- popular music. Although popular music tra- posers have on occasion also dealt with mat- ditionally relates romantic tales of boy- ters of war and peace in memorable ways. meets-girl or boy-loses-girl, it can also serve Sergei Prokofiev (1891–1953) wrote the as a mechanism of social protest. During the score for director Sergei Eisenstein’s (1898– 1960s in the United States, Bob Dylan’s 1948) film Alexander Nevsky (1938), which (1941– ) “Blowin’ in the Wind” was one of contains a memorable depiction of the defeat many protest songs attacking the Vietnam of the German Teutonic knights at the Battle War. Attempting to define the parameters of of Lake Peipus (1242). The programmatic the protest movement of the 1960s, one music conveys a clear message to even the scholar has argued that it encompasses every nonmusical listener, making it clear that a single person who listened to such songs—a moral distinction separates the barbaric Ger- rough interpretative device at best. Certainly man invaders from the peace-loving Rus- folk song has been coopted by those singing sians. In 1942 Aaron Copland (1900–1990) songs of protest in general, such as various wrote a short piece for brass and percussion labor organizers. The best known of all entitled “Fanfare for the Common Man,” worker songs is “The Internationale,” which which is correctly considered a form of civil was written in Paris after the Commune of religion. The title indicates that the com- 1871 and served as the official national an- poser wished his music to speak directly to them of the former Soviet Union from 1917 the average person, whom he considered a to 1943. modern hero. Music lends itself to patriotic appeals since Nazi Germany dealt with music in a the latter depends upon an emotional re- specifically racist fashion by banning jazz and sponse, and music is well suited to the ex- the music of Jewish composers. For example, pression of emotions. The first truly great na- not a note of Mendelssohn could be played in tional anthem is still “La Marseillaise,” Germany between 1933 and 1945. The composed by Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle Holocaust has produced a substantial musical in 1792. As a direct response, Franz Joseph response, both by composers who died in Haydn (1732–1809) composed the Austrian concentration camps and by those writing national anthem in 1797, whose tune was so music that comments on the meaning of the good that the Germans adopted it for their Holocaust. national anthem, “Deutschland, Deutschland One of the least imaginative forms of mu- über Alles.” The national anthem of the sical propaganda is the Hollywood feature United States, “The Star-Spangled Banner,” film, where unimaginative directors have in- was only made official in 1931; it combines a sisted on pedestrian musical scores. Roman- stirring text by Francis Scott Key (1780– tic melody still reigns when boy meets girl. 1843) with the popular English drinking song The concerns of Theodor Adorno (1903– “Anacreon in Heaven” by John Stafford Smith 1969) and Hanns Eisler (1898–1962), whose 256 Mussolini, Benito

Composing for the Films (1947) is still the best book written on the subject, suggest that in film music the endless recycling of musical clichés is all that is required—which is to say that another gibe continues to have currency: “In Hollywood, everyone knows his business, and music.” David Culbert See also Horst Wessel Lied; “The Internationale”; “La Marseillaise”; Peace and Antiwar Movements (1945– ) References: Adorno, Theodor, and Eisler, Hanns. Composing for the Films. London: Athlone, 1994; Reed, W.L., and M. J. Bristow, eds. National Anthems of the World.8th ed. New York: Cassell, 1993; Sonneck, Oscar. Report on “The Star-Spangled Banner,”“Hail Columbia,” “America,”and “Yankee Doodle.” (1909). Reprint. New York: Dover, 1972.

Mussolini, Benito (1883–1945) The Italian Fascist leader, Mussolini was born near Forli in northeastern Italy. His fa- Benito Mussolini,in a characteristic braggadocio pose. ther, a blacksmith, was an active Socialist and (Illustrated London News Group) Mussolini’s early forays in the field of propa- ganda were also left-wing. In 1913 he be- came editor of the Socialist newspaper mances of playwright Gabriele D’Annunzio Avanti! (Forward!).World War I saw his dra- (1863–1938), including frenzied balcony matic conversion to nationalism, with Mus- speeches and the straight-arm “Roman” solini supporting Italy’s entry into the war salute. Mussolini’s first major success came in on the Allied side. In 1914 he founded his 1921 when he and thirty-four other Fascists own daily paper, Popolo d’Italia (People of were elected to the Chamber of Deputies. In Italy), to advance this cause. Beginning in 1922 he used the tactic of a massive “March 1915, he drew a substantial subsidy from the on Rome” to force the king to name him French government’s propaganda budget. prime minister. Mussolini swiftly consoli- After a period of war service, Mussolini re- dated his control of the media. His interna- sumed his editorship of the newspaper in tional propaganda efforts included a famous 1917. The latter became a key platform series of articles (1927–1934) for the Hearst from which he organized his Fasci di Com- newspaper chain in the United States. battimento (Fascist Party) in 1919. Mussolini placed himself at the center of Mussolini’s rise to power rested on nation- his regime’s propaganda, with slogans pro- alistic propaganda, a personality cult, and a claiming that “Mussolini is always right.” He willingness to engage in street violence. Mus- stage-managed rallies and speeches; ensured a solini utilized many tools of paramilitary flattering appearance in the papers and news- propaganda, including uniforms (the Black reels by adopting athletic or energetic poses; Shirt), flags, and parades to create a sense of and supported everything from larger families belonging among his followers. He borrowed to increased levels of agricultural production. much from the earlier nationalistic perfor- Mussolini’s drive to project his regime as the Mussolini, Benito 257 successor to the Roman Empire brought forth German paratroops, Mussolini ruled a puppet grandiose public works and even overseas Italian National Socialist Republic (Salo) in military adventures, such as the conquest of northern Italy. In April 1945 he was captured, Abyssinia in 1935–1936, which resulted in tried, and executed by partisans. In death this the expulsion of Italy from the League of Na- inveterate propagandist himself became an tions. As an international pariah, Mussolini icon; his body was exhibited up-side down, grew closer to his onetime imitator Adolf the traditional fate of traitors during the Re- Hitler (1889–1945), with whom he con- naissance in the Florentine republic. cluded the Axis pact of 1936 and the “Pact of Nicholas J.Cull Steel” in 1939. He joined Hitler’s war against See also Civil War, Spanish; Fascism, Italian; the European democracies in 1940, but in Hitler,Adolf; Italy; Perón, Juan Domingo, and July 1943, with the Allies landing on the Ital- Eva Duarte; Sport References: MacSmith, Denis. Mussolini.London: ian mainland, found himself out of office Paladin, 1985; Whittam, John. Fascist Italy. through the simple expedient of having been Manchester: Manchester University Press, sacked by the king. After being rescued by 1995.

N

NAACP (National Association Legal Defense and Education Fund. It won for the Advancement of high-profile victories against U.S. army seg- Colored People) regation and, most important, precipitated The most significant and enduring African the 1954 Supreme Court decision in the American civil rights organization, the Na- case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, tional Association for the Advancement of Kansas. The NAACP’s national network be- Colored People (NAACP) began its work came the framework upon which the civil during the Progressive Era as a response to a rights movement was built. In the 1950s rise in antiblack violence, specifically two segregationists attacked the organization for lynchings in Springfield, Illinois, in 1908. being a communist front. The NAACP re- White and black activists, led by a white sponded by purging left-wing members. In woman, Mary White Ovington (1865–1951) the 1960s black radicals attacked the convened at a conference in New York City NAACP (as they had in the 1920s) for being in 1909 and formed the NAACP. When the too middle class and limited in its goals. The organization started operations in 1910, its NAACP weathered both storms and re- key propagandist was the African American mained active under the leadership first of sociologist W. E. B. Du Bois (1868–1963), Roy Wilkins (1901–1981) and then of Ben- who edited its house organ, Crisis. At first Du jamin Hooks (1925– ). After a spate of fi- Bois was the only black board member. Crisis nancial scandals in the early 1990s, the lead- swiftly built up a circulation of a hundred ership passed to former congressman thousand. Early campaigns included picket- Kweisi Mfume (1948– ). ing of the film The Birth of a Nation (1915) Nicholas J.Cull and a silent march through New York to See also The Birth of a Nation;Civil Rights protest the brutal race riot in East St. Louis Movement; United States (Progressive Era) in 1917. In 1920 the organization appointed References: Finch, Minnie. The NAACP:Its Fight its first African American secretary, the for Justice.Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1981; writer James Weldon Johnson (1871–1938). Wilson, Sondra Kathryn, ed. In Search of Democracy:The NAACP Writings of James Weldon In the 1940s, under the leadership of Wal- Johnson,Walter White,and Roy Wilkins ter White (1893–1955), the organization (1920–1977). New York: Oxford University launched a legal initiative through the NAACP Press, 1999; Zangrando, Robert L. The NAACP

259 260 Napoleon

Crusade Against Lynching,1909–1950. the lion was too closely associated with the Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1980. British. Finally he chose the eagle. Not only did it soar high in the heavens and pounce on its prey with powerful talons, but it also re- Napoleon (1769–1821) minded the public of imperial Rome and its Napoleon had the advantage of inheriting the dominance of western Europe and the lessons of the French Revolution, which used Mediterranean. pamphlets, art, architecture, music, plays, As Napoleon rose from first consul to con- and festivals to convert the public to its ideol- sul for life to emperor, he utilized a variety of ogy. Napoleon Bonaparte—he was not called governmental agencies to control and direct by his first name until he became emperor in public opinion. The Ministry of Police kept 1804—needed propaganda as much as his careful watch over public opinion in the revolutionary predecessors since he first streets. The Postal Administration supervised gained power through a coup (1799) rather the dissemination of information. The De- than by virtue of inheritance or by being partment of the Interior controlled theaters elected and therefore had to establish his le- and the arts. The Ministry of Public Worship gitimacy. Moreover, he needed propaganda made sure that churches and synagogues toed to muster support for his ongoing warfare the official line. The Ministry of Finance and against other European powers, which lasted the Ministry of the Public Purse subsidized all but fourteen months of the period in those media that influenced public opinion. which he led France. In addition to these ministries, there were Napoleon never used the term “propa- personal functionaries who assisted in spe- ganda,” but he was keenly aware of the im- cialized areas of propaganda. Thus, the bu- portance of shaping public opinion. “The reaucratic state, modernized by the Revolu- truth,” he once asserted, “is not so important tion, was mobilized to create a favorable as what people think to be true.” He under- image of the leader, his civic administration, stood the importance of public opinion while and his military exploits. still an army officer. He had been promoted Since the press was still the major means to general because of his leadership in com- of disseminating information, it received spe- manding the artillery at Toulon, which had cial attention. The Napoleonic regime first been handed over to the British. Napoleon’s reduced the number of Parisian newspapers recapture of this important naval base on the from seventy-three to eighteen and then to Mediterranean coast in 1793 was celebrated only four. In the regional departments, news- in all the media of the day, catapulting him papers were reduced to only one per depart- into public prominence. ment. The newspapers that remained were Later, as the commander of the French subject to censorship and were forbidden to army in Italy in 1796, he publicized his ex- treat certain sensitive topics. The govern- ploits effectively in speeches, dispatches, and ment occasionally even appointed editors fa- commissioned works of art. As he rose to vorable to the emperor and his regime. power, he considered an appropriate symbol. Other forms of print were likewise con- Although the bee represented his family trolled. Books were censored, distribution name, it did not have enough prestige for was carefully supervised, and certain authors public use. He considered three powerful an- were subsidized. At the same time, minor imals: the elephant, the lion, and the eagle. forms of print such as pamphlets, handbooks, He commissioned an elephant fountain for posters, and proclamations were tightly regu- the place de la Bastille, had a huge model lated. When all these controls failed to work built near the site, but never carried the idea satisfactorily, the government used financial through to completion. He also realized that constraints. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave 261

The other media were not neglected. Rev- medals was issued to commemorate similar olutionary festivals were suppressed and new achievements. Caricatures were also em- ones substituted, such as Napoleon’s birth- ployed to ridicule the enemy and counter its day, the anniversary of the battle of Jena (Oc- claims. tober 1806), the coup of 18 Brumaire (No- In the long run this propaganda was not vember 1799), the coronation of Napoleon completely successful. The public came to as emperor (December 1804), or the victory realize that the media only published what at Austerlitz (December 1805). Other special the government wanted it to know. Foreign festivals were staged to celebrate such events news was sometimes able to filter into as the marriage of Napoleon to Marie-Louise France. Finally, there was no way for a ruler (March 1810) or the birth of an heir, the king and a regime that always portrayed itself as of Rome (1811). These periodic or special invincible to overcome military defeat. Even festivals combined parades, band music, po- so, a myth grew up around Napoleon that be- etry readings, speeches, and fireworks. Such came a powerful political force in the nine- festivals were, however, much more mili- teenth century, eventually leading to the Sec- taristic and involved much less popular par- ond Empire under Napoleon III ticipation than their revolutionary proto- (1808–1873), who ruled from 1852 to 1870. types. Frequently government agents Moreover, appropriately named monuments mingled with the crowd in order to spread and place names continued to stir up memo- rumors favorable to the regime. ries of Napoleon and his “grande armée.” The Napoleonic government also paid close James A.Leith attention to education in the widest sense of See also David, Jacques-Louis; France; Goya; the term. The regime trained teachers, se- Portraiture; Revolution, French; Spain lected textbooks, and suppressed rival publi- References: Boime,Albert. Art in an Age of Bonapartism,1800–1815.Chicago: University of cations. Catholic and Protestant churches and Chicago Press, 1990; Collins, Irene. Napoleon, Jewish synagogues were employed as branches First Consul and Emperor of the French.London: of education; they were ordered to read bul- Historical Association, 1986; Holtman, Robert letins, pray for the emperor, and use cate- B. Napoleonic Propaganda. Baton Rouge: chisms that taught the legitimacy of the em- Louisiana State University Press, 1950; Leith, peror and his successors. Theaters were also James, and Andrea Joyce. Face à Face:French and English Caricatures of the French Revolution and Its considered a branch of public education. The Aftermath.Toronto:Art Gallery of number of theaters was controlled, produc- Ontario/Musée des Beaux-Arts d’Ontario, tions were censored, and certain topics were 1989; Wilson-Smith,Antony. Napoleon and His proscribed. There could be nothing dealing Artists. London: Constable, 1996. with the Bourbons, the private life of Napo- leon, usurpation of the throne, punishment of a tyrant, or a victory over France.At the same Narrative of the Life of Frederick time positive themes were encouraged, such Douglass, an American Slave, as those about 18 Brumaire, military victories, written by himself (1845) peace settlements, or the birth of the king of This autobiography of runaway slave Freder- Rome. ick Douglass (1817–1895) was first pub- Napoleon and his agents also mobilized lished in 1845 by the Boston Anti-Slavery So- the fine arts. A program was unveiled to dot ciety. Its impact as abolitionist propaganda the landscape with imperial buildings, was surpassed only by Harriet Beecher columns, and triumphal arches. Printers and Stowe’s novel Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852). As a engravers were commissioned to glorify the firsthand account, Douglass’s work had im- military feats of the emperor and the achieve- mediacy and moral conviction. The narrative ments of the civil administration. A series of included multiple beatings and Douglass’s 262 Nast,Thomas

for the Republican Party, popularized the donkey as an emblem for the Democratic Party, and established modern representations of both Uncle Sam (lean visage, sporting a goatee) and Santa Claus (rotund, with full beard). Nast arrived in the United States in 1846. He began work on Frank Leslie’s Illus- trated Newspaper and in 1859 moved to Harper’s Weekly, where he worked for nearly thirty years. He covered the war in Italy in 1860 (for the New York Illustrated News and other papers) and then returned to the United States to il- lustrate the Civil War. Nast contributed nu- merous propaganda images during the Civil War, including conditions in prison camps and alleged Confederate guerrilla atrocities, typical of which was his “John Morgan’s High- waymen Sack a Peaceful Village in the West” (Harper’s, 30 August 1862). Santa Claus first appeared with a wartime spin, dressed in the stars and stripes and cheering up Union sol- diers by handing out gifts—specifically a rather ghoulish statue depicting Confederate President Davis with his neck in a noose Frederick Douglass.(Perry-Castaneda Library) (Harper’s cover of 3 January 1863). Nast’s pictures had a great visual impact, frequently covering large double-page spreads. His illustrations were utilized as presidential eventual escape from slavery. His eloquence election posters for Abraham Lincoln (1809– as a writer gave the lie to the Southern claim 1865) and, later, Ulysses S. Grant (1822– that an African American was intellectually 1885). The most famous targets of Nast’s inferior, suited only to perform manual postwar work were Lincoln’s successor, An- labor. Subsequent volumes of his autobiogra- drew Johnson (1808–1875), whom he lam- phy dealt with his work in the abolitionist pooned as a caesar or “King Andy,” and the no- movement. He also served as a diplomat for toriously corrupt New York city politician the U.S. government. William “Boss” Tweed (1823–1878), who was Nicholas J.Cull also depicted as a Roman emperor. In the See also Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement; 1860s and early 1870s Nast pursued Tweed Civil War, United States; Uncle Tom’s Cabin relentlessly, rendering his Tammany Hall po- References: Douglass, Frederick. Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass.London: Penguin, litical machine as a tiger. His images became 1982; McFeely, William S. Frederick Douglass. so well known that when Boss Tweed fled to New York: Norton, 1991. Spain, he was recognized from a Nast cartoon and arrested. Nast stopped working for Harper’s in 1886. His images frequently re- Nast,Thomas (1840–1902) flected anti-Irish stereotyping, and in the later Nast, a German-born illustrator and cartoon- 1880s he drew regularly for the anti-Catholic ist who transformed American visual commu- propaganda paper America. In 1892 he at- nication, invented the elephant as an emblem tempted to launch his own paper, Thomas Neo-Militia Groups 263

“Neo-militias” is a term used to describe the armed military groups that have been form- ing in recent years. These “new”’ militia groups often refer to themselves as “unorgan- ized militia.” They do not approve of modern American society or its government and seek to return to the past and the spirit of the Founding Fathers. The stereotypical neo- militia member is a strict nationalist, Cau- casian Protestant (leaning toward cultural and religious lack of tolerance), conspiracy theorist, gun-rights activist, and avowed enemy of oppressive “big government.” Neo-militia groups believe that less gov- ernment is better and that civil liberties are best protected by individuals themselves. Crucial to such thinking is a strong desire to own firearms as a necessary precondition for the protection of individual liberties. Com- mon to many of the conspiracy theories held by such groups is the fear that they may be at- tacked by agencies of their own government. Religious militia groups often cite a turning away from God or even a coming apocalypse. Thomas Nast,in a formal portrait late in life.(Library of Most groups claim that society is disintegrat- Congress) ing and view themselves as the last bulwark against such decline. Consistent with their conspiracy theories, neo-militia groups are Nast’s Weekly,but it failed after only thirteen is- highly critical of what they view as the lib- sues. Nast died in 1902 while serving as a eral-biased media. Neo-militia groups cited diplomat in Ecuador. media coverage of the 1995 bombing of the Nicholas J.Cull Alfred Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma See also Cartoons; Civil War, United States; City and the subsequent conviction of Timo- Lincoln,Abraham; Uncle Sam thy McVeigh (1968–2001) as further evi- References: Hess, Stephen, and Sandy Northrop. Drawn and Quartered:The History of American dence of bias and misrepresentation of their Political Cartoons.Montgomery,AL: Elliott and aims. As a result new militias tend to eschew Clark, 1996; Keller, Morton. The Art and Politics the “controlled media” and instead dissemi- of Thomas Nast.New York: Oxford University nate their propaganda via the Internet and Press, 1975. publish their own right-wing literature. The steady flow of propaganda from neo-militia groups is carefully monitored by opponents National Anthems such as the Anti-Defamation League. See Music David Welch

See also ADL; Internet; Revolution,American, and War of Independence; United States Neo-Militia Groups References: Dees, Morris. The Gathering Storm: Militia groups have existed in the United America’s Militia Threat. New York: Harper States since the founding of the colonies. Collins, 1996; Diamond, Sara. Roads to 264 Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg

Dominion:Right-wing Movements and Political orange color became as potent a symbol of Power in the Unites States.New York: Guilford his cause as the green flag of Irish nationalism Press, 1995; Hoffman, David. “The Web of or the red flag of the revolutionary left. Hate: Extremists Exploit the Internet.”Anti- Defamation League Research Report, 1996. A key propagandist of the anti-Spanish cause was Philips van Marnix (1540–1598), William’s secretary and chief publicist. Marnix’s works included a widely read anti- Netherlands, Belgium, Catholic pamphlet called De Biënkorf der and Luxembourg Roomsche Kercke (The Beehive of the Roman The Low Countries were an ideological Church, 1569), but rebel propaganda tended hotbed during the early modern period, wit- to avoid religious issues (William himself was nessing both the Protestant Reformation and slow to convert to Calvinism), focusing in- the Dutch Revolt of 1566–1581. The golden stead on the idea that Netherlandish freedom age of the seventeenth century saw the flow- had been violated by Spain. Marnix’s works ering of national propaganda. The nineteenth in this vein included the Vraye Narration et century saw the emergence of Belgium as an apologie (True Narrative and Apology) of independent kingdom after centuries of for- 1567. Writing in a similar vein, Jacob van eign rule. In the twentieth century the Low Vesembeeke (1524–1575) produced a series Countries endured the propaganda of two of tracts in 1568–69 on the “natural in- German occupations. The Netherlands and grained freedom” of the Netherlands. This Luxembourg have both played a significant articulation of an abstract concept of free- part in broadcasting history. Enduring issues dom was a legacy of the Dutch Revolt and in the region include the clash between proved influential in the wider development Catholic and Protestant (the Netherlands still of Western political thought. has sectarian newspapers, trade unions, polit- The rebel cause swiftly accumulated a ical parties, and broadcasting organizations) repertoire of rousing songs, the best known and between the French and Flemish/Dutch being “Wilhelmus van Nassauwe” (William of languages. Nassau), which became the national anthem The Low Countries entered the early of the Netherlands in the late nineteenth cen- modern period with a highly developed intel- tury. As the revolt unfolded, the printing lectual and print culture, being one of the presses of the Netherlands produced visual heartlands of the Protestant Reformation. atrocity propaganda dealing with the “Black Netherlandish engraving was world famous Legend” of Spanish brutality in Spain, the and would become a powerful weapon of po- Netherlands, and the New World. The par- litical propaganda in the sixteenth century ticular villain, in the eyes of the Dutch, was when the northern provinces opposed the the Duke of Alba (1507–1582), who gov- rule of the Habsburg dynasty, which had ac- erned the Netherlands from 1567 to 1573. quired the region in a series of marriage al- Among his excesses was the notorious liances. The problem began in 1555 when “Court of Blood” established in Brussels, Emperor Charles V abdicated his rule to his which executed eighteen thousand people. son, Phillip II of Spain (1527–1598). Phillip’s Later atrocities included the “Spanish Fury,” attempts to reassert Catholicism in a region an attack against Antwerp in 1576. Like of religious diversity and toleration provoked prints and engravings, coins also played an a revolt in the northern provinces, led by important role in the propaganda of the William the Silent, Prince of Orange Dutch Revolt, utilizing a rich iconography in (1533–1584). William had the advantage of which the Netherlands was represented as a the family color, which figured in the tricolor lion and the Spanish king as a tyrant in armor. flag of the country he effectively founded; his These coins first popularized the image of a Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg 265 cap to denote liberty and used the image of a anti-Dutch propaganda, the best known ex- circular fence to represent historical restric- ample of which was a poem by Andrew Mar- tions on the power of kings in the region. vell entitled The Character of Holland (1651). The upsurge of national feeling growing Marvell insulted the people of the Nether- out of opposition to Spanish rule led to the lands by comparing them to the silt on which political union of the northern provinces they lived, which he called “indigested vomit under the Pacification of Ghent (1576) and of the sea.” The court of William III (1650– Union of Utrecht (1579), by which they ef- 1702) drew upon the services of the prolific fectively declared independence from Spain engraver Romeyn de Hooghe (1645–1708) as the United Provinces. In 1580 William and the epic poet Lucas Rotgans (1654– himself sent a defiant Apologie to Philip II ex- 1710); William’s formidable propaganda ar- plaining his actions in terms of principles of senal proved its worth during the Glorious liberty and denouncing Spanish atrocities at Revolution, following which William III be- home and abroad. The document, actually came king of England in 1689. written by William’s chaplain, was published The ideas of the French Enlightenment, in French, Dutch, English, German, and popularized in the Netherlands by writers Latin and was aimed at a wide European au- such as Joan Derck van der Capellen (1741– dience. It thus foreshadowed the interna- 1784) and newspapers like Politieke Kruijer tional propaganda of the modern age. Spain (Political Courier; 1783–1787), sowed the did not acknowledge the independence of the seeds of opposition to the rule of the House United Provinces until the Treaty of West- of Orange. Many welcomed the occupation phalia (1648), which ended the Thirty Years’ of the Netherlands by a French revolutionary War. The remaining Spanish lands (modern army in 1795. France established the Batavian Belgium) passed to Austrian rule in 1714. Republic (again harking back to the classical The United Provinces remained a hotbed history of the region), which lasted until of propagandist writing and art, shaping the 1806. Napoleon created the kingdom of Hol- public image of the state and its rulers. En- land as a throne for his brother, Louis. In gravers often returned to the iconic events of 1814 the Congress of Vienna restored the an- the Dutch Revolt, and the notion of liberty, cient Grand Duchy of Luxembourg in the which proved very real for the Protestant and south and combined the United Provinces of Jewish refugees who had found safety in the the Netherlands with the former Austrian Netherlands at this time. The image of the territories (Belgium) under a restored House circular fence evolved into a fertile garden of Orange. symbolic of the Netherlands’ prosperity; In 1830 Belgium declared its independ- other symbols of wealth that appeared on ence from the Netherlands. Britain inter- coins included a plump cow. Writers like ju- vened to prevent Dutch reconquest. Bel- rist Hugo Grotius (1583–1645) and artists gium industrialized rapidly and produced a Rembrandt van Rijn (1606–1669) and Otto lively socialist movement. The Second Inter- van Veen (1556–1634) embroidered on the national (1889) established an International national mythology by retelling the story of Socialist Bureau in Brussels under Émile Van- ancient resistance to Rome by the Batavi dervelde (1866–1938), which nurtured the tribe. The Netherlands also produced a lively left-wing and trade union movement across genre of propaganda that influenced the ethi- Europe. Vandervelde served as Belgium’s cal behavior of its citizens. The virtuous foreign minister in the 1920s. Belgian poli- household became a particularly important tics included a conflict between church and theme in the work of poets like Jacob Cats liberal factions over education and the strug- (1577–1660) and Jan Luiken (1649–1712).A gle of the Flemish population to assert its series of wars with England inspired British language within the Walloon-dominated 266 Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg

(and French-speaking) government; the year embourg, a station founded by an interna- 1898 saw a major victory, as Flemish transla- tional consortium with the blessing of the tions of laws were finally declared as valid as grand duke, came on the air in 1934 with an those in French. State propaganda gambits in- immensely powerful medium-frequency sig- cluded the staging of and participation in nal. The station caused a headache for the fairs, a tradition that lived on into the twenti- BBC since it challenged the corporation’s eth century, most memorably in the Brussels monopoly over the British news. Despite World’s Fair of 1958. In part for reasons of this, Radio Luxembourg enjoyed a close rela- prestige, the Belgian crown obtained colonies tionship with British intelligence. With in the Congo basin in West Africa; propa- Britain hiding behind the official neutrality of ganda exposing colonial excesses included Radio Luxembourg, the station became a the novel Heart of Darkness (1898) by Polish- mechanism for black propaganda. During born novelist Joseph Conrad (1857–1924). and following the Munich crisis of September Despite their status of neutrality, in 1914 1938, the British used Radio Luxembourg to the German army invaded the Low Countries broadcast German translations of key state- and occupied them for the duration of World ments and appeals. Hence the words of the War I, much of which was fought on Belgian British prime minister Neville Chamberlain soil. German occupation propaganda in Bel- (1869–1940) and U.S. President Franklin D. gium followed a strategy called Flamenpolitik, Roosevelt (1882–1945) reached the German which targeted the Flemish speakers and pro- people directly through an “innocent” station moted their division from the French. The just ten miles across the frontier, which, un- suffering of “gallant little Belgium” became a like the BBC, was audible on most German major issue in British war propaganda at radio sets. home and abroad, especially in the United The Great Depression produced small but States. The United States also emphasized the extreme right-wing movements in the Low theme after joining the war in 1917. Belgium Countries. In the Netherlands A. A. Mussert was somewhat disappointed that the wealth (1894–1946) founded the National Socialist of wartime Allied sympathy did not translate Beweging (Movement; NSB); in francophone into peacetime support and attempted to sus- Belgium Léon Degrelle (1906–1994) formed tain its wartime image well into the 1920s. the catholic Rexist movement; Flanders Following the war, Belgium abandoned neu- (Flemish Belgium) produced the De Vlag (the trality and formed a political alliance with flag) movement. Degrelle, a charismatic France and an economic union with Luxem- speaker and writer, achieved a modest degree bourg. Active anti-German propagandists of electoral success in 1936. His propaganda during the war included Louis Raemakers outlet included the daily newspaper Le Pays (1869–1956), the cartoonist of the Amster- Réel (The Real Country). In April 1940, fol- dam newspaper Telegraaf, whose work be- lowing a sustained propaganda campaign of came famous in British and, later, American intimidation, Nazi Germany invaded the Low newspapers. Countries. The indigenous far right proved In 1927 the Netherlands became the first eager collaborators, and Degrelle formed the European country to begin regular short- SS Brigade Wallonie, which he led on the wave radio broadcasts when the Philips Cor- eastern front. The nationalistic message of poration inaugurated radio service to the the Rexists and the NSB was compromised Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia). Multilan- by their cooperation with Nazi rule. Ele- guage services followed the next year. The ments of the region’s media continued to op- station had the call sign PCJ, which an enter- erate under the Nazis, including Belgium’s fa- prising announcer (Edward Startz) claimed mous cartoonist Hergé, the pseudonym of stood for Peace, Cheer, and Joy. Radio Lux- Georges Rémi (1907–1983), who intro- New Zealand 267 duced anti-America (and arguably anti-Se- NATO in 1949 (with Belgium hosting the mitic) material into his Tin-Tin story “The headquarters) and formed the Benelux Shooting Star.” union in 1958. The Netherlands played a Belgian resistance included the symbolic prominent role in the Cold War antinuclear emblazoning of the letter “V” for victory on movement, generating major opposition to walls, one of the best known examples of the deployment of American cruise missiles graffiti as propaganda. In London the BBC in the 1980s. In Belgium language played a adapted the “V” as part of it propaganda cam- key role as both a vehicle of and issue in paign aimed at occupied Europe, and the “V” propaganda. Belgium developed two sepa- hand gesture became the trademark of Win- rate broadcasting systems—one in Flemish ston Churchill (1874–1965). The Dutch and one in French—each with its own inter- government-in-exile in London broadcast national divisions.A 1962 law sought to bro- home over the BBC as Radio Oranje (Radio ker a compromise by recognizing the Brus- Orange). The Nazis suspended prewar sels region as bilingual, Flemish as the Dutch broadcasting (which had been organ- official language of Flanders, and French as ized along sectarian lines by associations the official language of Wallonia (including such as the Katholieke Radio Omroep separate rights for German speakers); but (KRO; Catholic Radio Broadcasting), creat- the issue remained unresolved and in 1968 it ing a single counterpropaganda station brought down the government. In 1993 the aimed at the Dutch public, which was first three regions gained even more autonomy called Rijksradio Om-roep (State Radio under a new constitution. Broadcasting) and later Nederlandsche Om- Nicholas J.Cull roep (Netherlands Broadcasting). When this See also Art; Exhibitions and World’s Fairs; failed to capture much of an audience, the International; Latin America; Marshall Plan; Nazis confiscated all radios. Most citizens ei- Radio (International); Raemakers, Louis; Reformation and Counter-Reformation ther handed over their old radios or impro- References: Conway, Martin. Collaboration in vised homemade sets, thereby maintaining a Belgium:Léon Degrelle and the Rexist Movement, substantial audience for Radio Oranje from 1940–1944.New Haven, CT: Yale University London.As the liberation of Europe began in Press, 1993; Israel, Jonathan. The Dutch 1944, Radio Luxembourg became a major Republic:Its Rise,Greatness and Fall,1477–1806. weapon in Allied radio propaganda to Ger- Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995; Kossmann, E. H. The Low Countries,1780–1940. many, while Dutch broadcasters established Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1978; a radio station in the liberated portion of Schama, Simon. The Embarrassment of Riches:An their country called Radio Herrijzend Ned- Interpretation of Dutch Culture in the Golden Age. erland (Radio Resurrected Netherlands) that London: Collins, 1987; Schama, Simon. Patriots broadcast into German-occupied territory. and Liberators:Revolution in the Netherlands, 1780–1813.London: Collins, 1977; Taylor, In 1947 this station formally became the Philip M. British Propaganda in the Twentieth multilingual Radio Netherlands Interna- Century:Selling Democracy.Edinburgh: tional, which played an important role dur- Edinburgh University Press, 1999; Wansink, ing the Cold War. The sectarian broadcasting H., ed. The Apologie of William of Orange Against associations resumed their prewar role in the the Proclamation of the King of Spaine.Leiden: postwar Netherlands, extending operations Brill, 1969. into the new field of television. Following a second experience of wartime occupation in a generation, the Low New Zealand Countries became key advocates of Euro- The New Zealand press began in 1840, the pean security through cooperation and even- year Britain assumed sovereignty over the tually union. The three countries joined country. From the start newspaper proprietors 268 New Zealand

were interested in serving their communities Advertising managers, and later advertising by printing classified advertisements and agencies and display advertising, became in- news. But news was a scarce commodity in fluential in determining the success or failure settlements that, until the end of the 1860s, of a newspaper. A style of journalism devel- often remained isolated for months at a time. oped that purported to speak for the entire The raison d’être for the newspapers was community while at the same time continu- persuasion, propaganda favoring a particular ing to represent a decidedly partisan political political view. Newspaper proprietors were understanding of the proper course for the deeply involved in the political life of the country. Moreover, the new commercial colony, and their newspapers were there to journalism was gradually seen as itself a form ensure that the development of the nascent of propaganda, both politically partisan and country took an acceptable form. From supportive of a particular economic under- Wellington The New Zealand Gazette and standing of the country’s future. Wellington Spectator argued the case for the Journalism among the Maori, the indige- New Zealand Company, a private, colonizing nous population, was mainly concerned with enterprise always at odds with the Crown convincing the Maori of the advantages of Colony Government. In the north, first from European settlement. A variety of publica- Russell and then from Auckland, The New tions, the best known being Te Karere Maori Zealand Advertiser and various successor jour- (Maori Messenger), were sponsored by the nals were short-lived since they dared to government. Most were written in Maori, an present settlers’ views before being closed oral language that took a written form soon down by the Crown Colony Government— after the arrival of missionaries early in the in the early years the owner of the only print- nineteenth century. Literacy—though not ing press in the region. Christianity—was immediately embraced by Beginning in the mid-1840s, two newspa- the Maori; in the mid-nineteenth century the pers were advocates for the Crown Colony Maori had higher literacy rates than the Eu- Government. The rest were firmly allied ropean population.Arguably the first genuine with the settlers and led the charge for self- Maori newspaper was Te Hikioi o Nui Tirini e government, a provincial form of which was Rere atu na (The War Bird of New Zealand granted by the British Parliament in 1852. Soaring Above), which began publication in From that point on newspapers became allies 1861 in support of Maori nationalism. Its ad- of individual politicians. In all provinces lead- vocacy was countered by a government ing politicians owned or otherwise con- newspaper, Te Pihoihoi Mokemoke i Runga i te trolled the local newspapers. It was accepted Tuanui (The Lonely Sparrow on the House- as proper that the task of a newspaper was top). The latter had a short existence; its partisan political propaganda in support of its printing press was seized and its offices were politician-owner. If one did not agree with a sacked by Waikato Maori. This act of defi- paper’s politics, the alternative was to start ance helped to start the Waikato war, during one’s own and not question the propriety of which Te Hikioi also ceased publication, its partisan journalism. The 1860s saw the ap- lead type melted down and reconfigured as pearance of a new type of commercially ori- musketshot. ented and economically profitable journal- The country’s various daily newspapers ism, which coincided with the spread of the gradually coordinated their efforts and telegraph and steamer-based shipping, as formed press associations. In the 1870s polit- well as a general surge in the population. It ical input remained strong, with the first na- emphasized news and a doctrine of objectiv- tional association under the control of the ity while resting securely and independently prime minister, Julius Vogel. However, this on the financial base of advertising revenues. marked a turning point for such direct con- New Zealand 269 trol of the press. Member newspapers regu- Classical music and English programming larly complained that press telegrams “are su- were favored, with alternative fare sup- pervised with paternal care in high places.” pressed. In particular, popular music, along Gradually commercial imperatives and a with programs from the United States—es- wider political ideology neutralized the pecially the new genre of radio serials— newspapers’ ability to offer unwavering sup- gained public favor but official opprobrium. port for individual politicians. Beginning in Indeed, only in the 1960s did popular pro- 1880 the country’s newspapers formed a co- gramming from the United States gain offi- operative press association that provided a cial acceptance. Radio’s introduction was cheap and reliable news source while pro- also accompanied by a regulation that the tecting individual newspapers from competi- new medium “shall not be used for the dis- tion. Only one current daily, Wellington’s semination of propaganda of a controversial Dominion, has been established since that nature.” The regulation was interpreted date. New Zealand newspapers represented a strictly and resulted in the absence of news cohesive conservative force united in their and serious discussion from the airwaves. opposition to new political developments, Even sermons were jammed during religious especially those having to do with socialism broadcasts when such controversial topics as and the politics of the developing Labour the prohibition of alcohol or the reading of movement. For example, a press association the Bible in schools were mentioned. The directive in 1919 required newspapers not to most famous cases occurred during the report anarchist utterances nor to help 1930s, when figures such as Major (Clifford spread the creeds of Bolshevism and the In- Hugh) Douglas (1879–1952), the advocate ternational Workers of the World move- for Social Credit, and the Indian philosopher ment. Newspapers presented views support- Krishnamurti (1895–1986) were denied the ive of government policy and suppressed right to broadcast. Only George Bernard alternative views. This practice was most no- Shaw (1856–1950), a man of enormous ticeable during World War I, when the press stature in the English-speaking world, was collaborated with government and the mili- considered beyond the state’s ability to cen- tary to publish propaganda for the assumed sure. In a famous radio talk in 1934, which good of the country and its war effort. Such caused much embarrassment for his broad- efforts were not peculiar to New Zealand, casting hosts, Shaw admirably argued that resulting in general postwar disillusionment New Zealand was a communist nation sec- with the newsprint medium. ond only to Russia. The most important in- The introduction of film gave New stance of government censorship for New Zealanders a new source of entertainment, Zealanders took place during the 1935 elec- providing a glimpse of activities in the rest of tion campaign, when broadcasts from 1ZB, a the world—but it also brought a strict sys- private Auckland station, were jammed on tem of censorship to ensure that the New the eve of the election, while support was Zealander’s eye was not opened too widely. voiced for the Labour Party, which won the Censorship was cultural, moral, and political election—its first victory. and was regularly fueled by moral crises over Propaganda took a new turn when the the supposed injurious influences of the new government nationalized all radio stations in medium. The decisions of the censor—a order to create a new government depart- “clean, average man” according to the minis- ment intended to counter opposition from ter—could not be appealed until the 1930s. the country’s newspapers. Direct broadcasts The start of radio broadcasting in the of parliamentary proceedings were intro- 1920s was accompanied by a concern that duced—a first. Less positively, the new gov- broadcasting be used for cultural elevation. ernment began its own news service. News 270 New Zealand broadcasts were prepared in the prime minis- the country’s newspapers. Responding to the ter’s office and were required to be broadcast increased competition, they permitted a without any alterations. There was no se- broader range of journalism. A new freedom crecy about the practice, with Michael of expression swept the country, which was Joseph Savage (1872–1940), Labour’s inau- further extended in broadcasting with the ad- gural prime minister, openly acknowledging vent of private radio. This began forcefully this method of bringing his government’s with the Auckland station Radio Hauraki, message to the people. “Propaganda of a con- which began life as a pirate, broadcasting troversial nature” was banned from radio, from offshore international waters. Its popu- with the meaning of the term defined politi- larity resulted in a grudging political accept- cally, thereby effectively denying broadcast- ance and, beginning in 1970, a shore-based ing rights to government opponents. Even future. Any further extension of private after the defeat of the Labour government in broadcasting was restrained by successive 1949, the incoming National government, a governments and was only extended to tele- conservative alternative, continued the prac- vision in 1989. That move was part of a radi- tice, along with daily control of all program- cal reordering of government activities in the ming. Examples of the practice are legion. belief that much of what had previously been Among the most significant were the broad- considered proper state activity was best casts in support of military conscription dur- conducted privately. ing the 1949 conscription referendum. Both Since that change, ownership of New press and radio were fulsome in their support Zealand newspapers, radio, and television has of the proposal. Peter Fraser (1884–1950), increasingly shifted to the same international the Labour prime minister, initially refused corporations that are dominant in many other to permit conscription opponents to broad- countries. The various media have expanded cast. Eventually he granted them some air- beyond anything previously imagined, thanks time while ensuring that it remained ineffec- to the introduction of computers, communi- tive by nominating those groups that could cations satellites, and fiber-optic technology. broadcast and vetting their material. The Na- In broadcasting, local programming is essen- tional government illustrated its willingness tially funded by the state Broadcasting Com- to use similar tactics during the 1951 water- mission. While the political slanting of news front dispute, one of New Zealand’s longest- and programming has not disappeared, a new lasting and most bitter industrial battles. It emphasis has emerged in which international introduced emergency regulations stipulating interests—from sports, fashion, and enter- that both radio stations and newspapers were tainment to news, fast food, and a consumer available only to government supporters. lifestyle—and greater advocacy of globaliza- These laws made it a criminal offense to offer tion have become dominant voices. Propa- opposing views. ganda has expanded, moving from political The system was overturned in the 1960s, advocacy and the suppression of alternatives a decade that saw not only the advent of tele- to a wholesale endorsement of a new way of vision broadcasting but also the political ac- life. ceptance that broadcasting should be con- Patrick Day trolled by an independent corporation rather See also Australia; British Empire; Censorship; than by a government department. The Environmentalism; Pacific/Oceania; World emergence of public broadcasting also intro- War I duced the view that news broadcasts were a References: Day, Patrick. The Making of the New Zealand Press.Wellington, NZ:Victoria proper activity for broadcasters. Independent University Press, 1990; ———. The Radio news broadcasts matured during this decade. Years:A History of Broadcasting in New Zealand. They were also of considerable influence on Vol. 1.Auckland, NZ:Auckland University Nixon, Richard 271

Press: 1994; ———. Voice and Vision:A History of Broadcasting in New Zealand.Vol. 2.Auckland, NZ:Auckland University Press, 2000; Meiklejohn, G. M. Early Conflicts of Press and Government. Auckland, NZ: Wilson and Horton, 1954; Scholefield, G. H. Newspapers in New Zealand, Wellington, NZ:A. H. and A. W. Reed, 1958; Watson, Chris, and Roy Shuker. In the Public Good? Censorship in New Zealand. Palmerston North, NZ: Dunmore, 1998; Williams, John F. Anzacs,the Media and the Great War. Sydney: University of New South Wales Press, 1999.

Nixon, Richard (1913–1994) Coming from a poor family, in 1946 Richard Nixon entered politics as a Republican con- gressman representing Southern California. In 1948 he came to national attention for his role in exposing Alger Hiss (1904–1996) as a former Communist in hearings conducted by the House Committee on Un-American Ac- Richard Nixon,official presidential photograph.(Library of tivities. Nixon was elected to the U.S. Senate Congress) in 1950. In 1952 he served as Dwight D. Eisenhower’s (1890–1969) vice-presidential Democratic opponent. Nixon was widely running mate. In 1960 Nixon lost his bid for thought to have lost the first round because the U.S. presidency to John F. Kennedy. Un- of his evident discomfort before the cam- daunted, Nixon ran again and was elected eras—something that was easy to see but not president, serving from 1969 to 1974. Facing to hear, as radio listeners attested. Television conviction on three impeachable offenses re- covered Nixon’s tearful farewell speech to lating to a failed attempt on 17 June 1972 to his White House staff on the morning of 9 bug the Democratic National Committee August 1974, an emotional moment in headquarters (at the Watergate apartment which Nixon came as close as he ever would building—hence the appellation “Watergate to apologizing for the Watergate cover-up, affair”), Nixon resigned the presidency on 9 which he admitted having orchestrated. A August 1974. now-obsolete technology provided the evi- Nixon’s career as propagandist is closely dence that forced Nixon’s resignation: voice- tied to the medium of television. He first ap- activated tapes recorded every conversation peared on national television on 23 Septem- held in the Oval Office; it is unclear what ber 1952 to defend his integrity in what has kept Nixon from destroying these tapes of become known as the “Checkers” speech his. Although Nixon is remembered for his (during which he adroitly introduced a red strong stand against Communism, in time he herring near the end of the broadcast by may also be thought of as a prime example of promising that his daughters would not re- the long-term survivor in American politics, turn a black-and-white cocker spaniel as well as a pioneer in the use of television as named Checkers sent to Nixon as a gift). In a medium of political persuasion. 1960, now a front runner, Nixon agreed to a David Culbert series of four one-hour televised debates See also Cartoons; Elections (United States); with John F. Kennedy, his less-well-known Kennedy, John F. 272 Northcliffe, Lord

References: Ambrose, Stephen E. Nixon.3 vols. Norway New York: Simon and Schuster/Touchstone, See Scandinavia 1991; Bernstein, Carl, and Robert Woodward. All the President’s Men.New York: Simon and Schuster/Touchstone, 1974; Kutler, Stanley I. Abuse of Power:The New Nixon Tapes.New York: Novel Simon and Schuster/Touchstone, 1997; Nixon, Fictional narratives, a key mode of human Richard. Six Crises. New York: Simon and expression, have played their part in the story Schuster/Touchstone, 1990. of propaganda. Early examples of novels used as propaganda include religiously inspired works such as John Bunyan’s (1628–1688) Northcliffe, Lord (1865–1922) Pilgrim’s Progress (1678) and political satires A pioneer of the popular press in Britain and such as Jonathan Swift’s (1667–1745) Gul- propagandist during World War I, over the liver’s Travels (1726). In the nineteenth cen- course of his long career he built up a pub- tury the novel became a vehicle for emerging lishing empire that included regional newspa- nationalist aspirations (especially in Latin pers—he reshaped the British press by intro- America and Eastern Europe). It was also ducing such American techniques as banner used to propound reformist messages, such headlines—as well as a host of popular edu- as Harriet Beecher Stowe’s (1811–1896) cational and self-improvement books. Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852), which dramatized Born Alfred Harmsworth in Ireland, and the evils of slavery. The works of Émile Zola raised in London, he plunged into journalism (1840–1902) in France and Charles Dickens immediately after leaving school. In 1896 he (1812–1870) in Britain revealed the need for launched the Daily Mail and in 1908 he social reform. The British labor movement bought the London Times. In 1917 he led the drew inspiration from The Ragged Trousered British War Mission to the United States, Philanthropists (1914) by Robert Tressell, the using publicity to consolidate the transat- pen name of the Irish-born working-class lantic alliance. In 1918 he directed Britain’s novelist Robert Noonan (1870–1911). propaganda offensive against the Central In the twentieth century those opposing Powers: the Department of Enemy Propa- war have been particularly well served by ganda, located in London’s Crewe House, novels, the classic example being Erich Maria which many observers, including Adolf Remarque’s (1898–1970) All Quiet on the Hitler (1889–1945), claimed played a major Western Front (1928). In the United States role in destroying German and Austrian Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961) wrote in morale. Displaying alarming symptoms of support of the cause of the Spanish Republic nervous collapse, he died shortly after war’s in the Spanish Civil War. John Steinbeck end. Lord Northcliffe’s service at Crewe (1902–1968) highlighted the misery of the House ensured that for the generation fol- dust bowl migrants in The Grapes of Wrath lowing World War I his name would become (1939). More controversially, Eugene Bur- synonymous with propaganda, as that of dick and William Lederer’s The Ugly American Joseph Goebbels (1897–1845) was for the (1958) argued in favor of American coun- generation following World War II. terinsurgency operations in Vietnam and Nicholas J.Cull helped build a consensus for U.S. interven- See also Austrian Empire; Britain; Morale; tion in that country. Novels were also an im- Psychological Warfare; World War I portant means of expressing dissent within References: Pound, Reginald, and Geoffrey the Soviet Union. The regime sought to sup- Harmsworth. Northcliffe.London: Cassell, 1959; Sanders, Michael, and Philip M. Taylor. press the works of dissident novelists like British Propaganda During the First World War. Boris Pasternak (1890–1960), author of Doc- London: Macmillan, 1982. tor Zhivago (1958), and Alexander Solzhenit- Novel 273 syn (1918– ), author of The Gulag Archipelago ing Jane Austen’s Mansfield Park (1814), Joseph (1973). Their works were published in the Conrad’s Heart of Darkness (1898), and Albert West, were circulated clandestinely in the Camus’s L’Étranger (The Stranger; 1942)— USSR, and frequently figured in radio broad- implicitly bolstered imperialism. casts beamed back to Russia over stations Nicholas J.Cull such as RFE/RL. More recently, the Islamic See also All Quiet on the Western Front;Austrian regime in Iran denounced The Satanic Verses Empire; Britain (Eighteenth Century); British (1989) by Salman Rushdie (1947– ), calling Empire; Caribbean; Censorship; Defoe, it blasphemy and placing a death sentence (in Daniel; Japan; Latin America; Mexico; Orwell, George; Ottoman Empire/Turkey; Peace and absentia) on its author. Antiwar Movements (1500–1945); Peace and While the novel has had a distinguished his- Antiwar Movements (1945– ); Russia; Uncle tory as an oppositional medium, literary criti- Tom’s Cabin; United States (1930s); United cism has demonstrated the extent to which States (Progressive Era) novels have also underpinned the dominant References: Foulkes,A. P. Literature and cultural order in terms of racial, class, and Propaganda.London: Methuen, 1983; Said, Edward. Culture and Imperialism. New York: gender stereotyping. In his book Culture and Knopf, 1994; Thompson, Oliver. Easily Led:A Imperialism (1994) Edward Said (1935– ) ar- History of Propaganda. Stroud, UK: Sutton, gued that much European literature—includ- 1999.

O

Oates,Titus (1649–1705) passed and Oates had lost credibility. In 1685 English anti-Catholic propagandist, cleric, Oates was convicted of perjury and sen- and convicted perjurer, Oates was born in tenced to life imprisonment, with an annual Rutland. His early career gave ample indica- public pillorying and flogging. He was freed tion of his fondness for lying. He was ex- in the wake of the English Revolution, mar- pelled from school, discharged from service ried a rich widow, and lived out his life on a as a naval chaplain, and narrowly escaped a state pension. The career of Titus Oates, like term in jail for libel. In the mid-1670s he fell that of Sen. Joseph McCarthy (1909–1957) in with Israel Tonge (1621–1680) and the in the twentieth century, demonstrates what two men became fixated on the danger of a demagogue can achieve when building on Catholicism to the crown of England. Fol- existing suspicion. lowing a false conversion and a period spent Nicholas J.Cull in Jesuit colleges in France and Spain to See also Britain; Fakes; McCarthy, Joseph R.; gather evidence, in 1678 Oates established Reformation and Counter-Reformation; himself as England’s foremost authority on Religion References: Kenyon, John. The Popish Plot. the Catholic conspiracy, spreading his ideas London: Heinemann, 1972; Lane, Jane. Titus through a stream of leaflets and at public Oates:The First Biography.London:Andrew meetings. Specifically, Oates alleged that the Dakers, 1949. Jesuit order planned to murder King Charles II (1630–1685) and substitute his brother, James, to rule England in his place. His alle- Okhrana gations caused a sensation at court—espe- The Russian tsarist security police was ini- cially after the magistrate to whom Oates had tially formed by Tsar Ivan IV—Ivan the Ter- presented his allegations was found mur- rible (1530–1584)—to serve as his personal dered. With London in an uproar, the king bodyguard. The Okhrana (like its postrevo- granted Oates a fat pension. The search for lutionary extensions) was not so much a conspirators now began in earnest. Some propaganda organ as an antipropaganda insti- thirty-five people were executed during the tution. Nonetheless this supposedly secret course of the investigation. By 1680 the pop- organization was very keen to project an ular fever for the “Vile Popish Plot” had image of all-pervasive, ruthless power. Its

275 276 Olympics functions included infiltrating revolutionary teenth-century ideals. European liberalism or seditious groups and generally harassing believed in free and unbridled discourse any group that could be seen as a threat to among nations, which, it was hoped, would tsarist hegemony. When not contributing to promote peace, happiness, and progress the general fear ingrained in the Russian rul- worldwide. The development of “Muscular ing class, much of the Okhrana’s time and ef- Christianity” encouraged the idea of “manly” fort was expended in seizing and preventing godliness. “Christian Gentlemen” sought to the distribution of dangerous materials. Al- improve and test themselves in the pursuit of though the organization was known by vari- physical excellence. The games were conse- ous names under Nicholas I’s reign (1825– quently full of symbolic import, reflecting 1855), it was referred to as the “third sec- the dominant ideals of the Western world at tion”—Okhrana remained the generic term. that moment in history. The golden age of the Okhrana began in Given the British obsession with sports, it 1881 with the “Reaction” to the attempt on is perhaps unsurprising that de Coubertin’s the life of Alexander III (r. 1881–1894). inspiration came as much from Britain as it Okhrana activity increased again in 1912– did from ancient Greece. He was much im- 1914 concomitant with an increase in labor pressed with the Much Wenlock Olympian unrest following the assassination of Petr Games, initiated by Dr. William Penny Stolypin (1862–1911), the minister of the Brooks (1809–1895) in 1850, which he wit- interior. Okhrana agents were undoubtedly nessed in 1889. The first few games remain working behind the scenes; the massacre of rather hazy affairs. Though competitors were workers in Siberia’s gold fields was caused by nominally connected with national teams, agents provocateurs. The Okhrana filed re- there was a greater feeling of individual ef- ports of peasant unrest in 1916 and of the fort and competition. By the 1908 games, actions of revolutionary groups in February which were held in London, the concept of 1917. Although the organization was offi- the national team was beginning to take cially disbanded by the provisional govern- shape. The Olympics thus became an impor- ment, its traditions were revived in 1918 by tant stage for propaganda—and hence were the Cheka and, later, the KGB. more highly politicized—as nations sought to Graham Roberts stress the virtues of their own society. The See also KGB; Protocols of the Elders of Zion; International Olympic Committee (IOC) Revolution, Russian; Russia and the various national committees have al- References: Smith, Edward Ellis. The Okhrana. ways denied this combination, but the con- Stanford, CA: Hoover Institution, 1967; Zuckerman, Frederic. The Tsarist Secret Police in junction of the two is difficult to ignore. Russian Society,1880–1917. Basingstoke, UK: In 1920 the games took place in Antwerp, Macmillan, 1996. marking the rehabilitation of Belgium after the devastation of the Great War. The IOC banned Germany,Austria, Hungary, and Bul- Olympics (1896– ) garia from competing. Germany returned in The first modern Olympic Games were held 1928 for the games in Amsterdam. After in Athens in 1896. The games were largely World War II international political state- the brainchild of a Frenchman, Baron Pierre ments and the Olympics became even more de Coubertin (1863–1937), who certainly intimately linked. The 1964 games were had a political agenda in mind. He saw the re- awarded to Tokyo, marking Japan’s return to vival of the ancient Olympics as a way of pro- the fold as a rehabilitated nation, and intro- moting peace among nations through a duced the world to the Japanese economic friendly sports competition. His ideas re- miracle. This was also the year in which flected the coming together of many nine- South Africa was banned in response to its Olympics 277 apartheid laws. The next games, held in that the press was most interested in this as- Mexico in 1968, were used as an overt prop- pect. In 1956 the Melbourne games were aganda platform. Mexican students rioted to dominated by the Soviet invasion of Hun- protest the money lavished on the games gary, which led to the first boycott in mod- while the poor starved. Several black Ameri- ern Olympic history, when the Dutch, Span- can athletes also used the opportunity to give ish, and Swiss teams refused to take part. the black power salute during the medal cer- Matters reached their nadir in 1980, when emony in order to highlight the problems of the United States led a boycott of the racism in U.S. society. Four years later in Moscow games in response to the Soviet in- 1972 Palestinian terrorists used the Munich vasion of Afghanistan. Sixty-three nations games to highlight their cause by kidnapping stayed away, including West Germany, Japan, members of the Israeli team; nine Israeli ath- China, and Canada. At the opening cere- letes died as a result of the kidnap attempt monies many nations made a propaganda and bungled rescue. statement by using the Olympic flag instead The most overtly political and propagan- of their national flag and by performing the dist games in modern times were those held Olympic hymn instead of their national an- in Berlin in 1936. The Nazi government in- them during the medals ceremonies. The tit- vested vast sums in the games, believing it for-tat response came in 1984 when much of would provide an excellent test of Nazi racial the Eastern bloc boycotted the Los Angeles theories. Stage-managed to the hilt, the games. These games were notable for their games introduced a significant innovation. overt show-biz razzmatazz and promotion of Dr. Carl Diem (1882–1962) had the idea of the “American Way of Life.” Full-blooded bringing the Olympic torch from Mount capitalism and nationalism were everywhere Olympus itself. In July 1936 fifteen Greek as many of the European nations, in particu- maidens—clad in short tunics imitating the lar, complained that the American press and robes of the priestesses of ancient Olym- television did not appear to notice that any pia—gathered at dawn on the plain by the other nation was taking part. The whole mountain. The rays of the morning sun, re- thing was a triumph of Reaganism. Contro- flected off a concave mirror, lit the torch. A versy had still not died down by 1988,when relay of runners then brought the torch to the next games were held in South Korea, a Berlin. The imagery was unmistakable: Nazi state much of the Eastern bloc did not recog- Germany was hereby claiming for itself the nize, though most of its member countries legacy of ancient Greece as the home of civi- did attend. The Seoul games sought to re- lization and defender of Western ideals. The produce the success of Tokyo in 1964, but games were given added propaganda value by the result actually had more in common with filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl (1902– ) in her the Mexico games, for prodemocracy ac- brilliant film Olympia (1938). Today the tivists staged protests to use the extra media games are best remembered for the perfor- attention to their advantage. mance of African American athlete Jesse The millennial games were held in Sydney Owens (1913–1980), who won four gold in September 2000. The choice marked the medals and almost single-handedly deflated importance of the Pacific Rim to the world Nazi racial arrogance. economy and also gave Australia an opportu- Beginning in 1945, the Olympics became nity to project a new multicultural image. a stage for the Cold War, though the USSR The IOC awarded the 2004 games to first joined the games as late as 1952 in Athens, and in 2001 it voted to hold the Helsinki. At times the games appeared as if 2008 games in Beijing. The decision prom- their sole intention was to pit the United ised to deliver a propaganda coup for the States against the Eastern bloc; it was clear Chinese government, but it also prompted a 278 Opinion Polls

storm of criticism concerning China’s abysmal process centers on the idea of “public opin- human rights record. ion,” which since the mid-twentieth century Mark Connelly has been conducted through polling. The See also Cold War; Exhibitions and World’s concept of public opinion, however, is prob- Fairs; Germany; Greece; Japan; Korea; lematic, for there is no such thing as a single Mexico; Satellite Communications; Spain; opinion or public. Public opinion may be dis- Sport References: Buchanan, Ian, and Bill Mallon. tinguished from “norms” or “customs.” Its ef- Historical Dictionary of the Olympic Movement. fectiveness in bringing about change depends Lanham, MD: Scarecrow,1995; Espy, Richard. on the political and societal context in which The Politics of the Olympic Games. 2d ed. it operates. Nevertheless polling has become Berkeley: University of California Press, 1981; increasingly sophisticated, particularly in spe- Hargreaves, Jenny, ed. Sport,Culture and cialized areas like voting behavior, and is now Ideology.London: Routledge, 1982; Kanin, David B. A Political History of the Olympic Games. generally accepted as representing public at- Boulder, CO: Westview, 1981; MacAloon, titudes across a wide range of issues. There John J. This Great Symbol:Pierre de Coubertin and have been occasions when opinion polls have the Origins of the Modern Olympic Games. turned out to be completely misleading, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981; most notably the 1948 and 1960 U.S. presi- Manheim, Jarol B. Strategic Public Diplomacy and American Foreign Policy:The Evolution of Influence. dential elections and the British general elec- New York: Oxford University Press, 1994; tion of 1970. Senn,Alfred Erich. Power, Politics and the Olympic Opinion polling is both a commercial ac- Games. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1999. tivity and a political intervention staged within the media. Political polling in the broadest sense is undertaken largely by spe- Opinion Polls cialized firms commissioned by newspapers, Formal surveys of public opinion first ap- television, political parties, and other interest peared in the 1930s and have since become a groups. The polls that influence public per- central feature of democratic government. ceptions and debate are those that appear in They can set an agenda for propaganda, the mass media. By the 1930s there was a showing how and when the public needs to growing recognition that participation in the be persuaded, but they can also be part of war, coupled with greater access to education propaganda itself since slanted or loaded and the extension of the franchise, legit- questions or polls cited out of context can be imized mass participation in the democratic used to sway the public. Many nations ban process. The question was to determine how polling in the period immediately preceding public opinion could be measured and acted an election. upon. In 1935 George Gallup (1901–1984), Napoleon once famously remarked: a professor of journalism and director of re- “Power is based on opinion. What is a gov- search for the advertising agency Young and ernment not supported by opinion? Noth- Rubicam, founded the American Institute of ing.” Theoretically democracy is the political Public Opinion Research. The following year expression of mass opinion according to British anthropologist Tom Harrison and which a government should respond to the journalist Charles Madge founded Mass Ob- popular will. In reality the relationship is far servation. Although much of its material was more complex. In a democratic state the unscientific when compared to Gallup’s or- views of ordinary members of society are ganization, Mass Observation’s findings taken into account. The government and its added a new dimension to social investigation institutions must be shown as representative and public attitudes, one that was coopted by of the majority of individuals through a sam- the British government during World War II pling of individual opinion. This democratic as a means of gauging civilian morale. As his- Orwell, George 279 torian Thomas E. Mahl has shown, while the showing that the American public wanted it United States was still neutral, British intelli- to stop. A week later another poll indicated gence successfully penetrated the Gallup or- that a substantial number of voters now be- ganization and subtly manipulated polls in lieved that the war should have been contin- order to undermine the popular isolationist ued until Saddam Hussein (1937– ) had been position and stimulate a “bandwagon” of sup- captured or deposed. port for Britain. Opinion pollsters have long recognized Despite the remarkable growth in both the that subtle changes in the wording of a ques- use and accuracy of public opinion surveys tion can produce dramatically different re- since the mid-1930s, some problems remain. sponses. For example, the percentage of Public opinion polls have a natural appeal in a Americans supporting aid for the contras in democratic society. While many political fig- Nicaragua between 1983 and 1986 varied ures claim to speak for the people, or main- from 13 percent to 42 percent, depending tain that “pubic opinion will not support a on how the question was worded. If the particular course of action,” opinion polls let question explicitly mentioned President the people speak for themselves. At best, Reagan (1911– ) or the contras, more polling can amplify the public’s voice so that Americans supported the aid, whereas if the it may be heard over the clamor of special in- question mentioned the amount of the aid or terests. As George Gallup claimed: “Public presented both sides of the issue, fewer opinion research is a necessary and valuable Americans supported aid to the rebels. aid to a truly representative government.” Faulty or incomplete readings of survey re- However, since the mid-1970s the number of sults or problems with the surveys now gen- polls conducted and reported has increased erate as much research and analysis as the exponentially. Rather than providing clarity, original opinion polls. In the 1990s—espe- this wealth of polling data can actually distort cially in Britain—governments increasingly the public’s voice. Moreover, an underlying used focus groups rather than the more un- assumption is that public attitudes as ex- wieldy polls in such delicate matters as pol- pressed through opinion polls reflects a ra- icy development. tional process, whereby the public makes de- David Welch cisions after all the facts are known. Yet most See also Elections; Elections (Britain); Elections important public decisions result from crises (Israel); Morale that demand immediate action to effect some References: Gallup, George H. The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion,1935–1971.New York: Random crudely defined yet necessary goal—with the House, 1972; Hennessy, Bernard. Public full knowledge that all the facts are not Opinion. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1985; known. On many issues large segments of the Lippmann, Walter. The Phantom Public. public want only a result and have no definite Macmillan: London, 1953; Mahl, Thomas E. view about how to achieve it; for example, Desperate Deception:British Covert Operations in the the public wants peace, but individuals may United States,1939–44.Washington, DC: Brasseys, 1998; Mills, C. Wright. The Power not feel that they have greater insight into Elite.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1956. how to achieve peace than their elected offi- cials. Thus, the relationship between the pub- lic’s view, at a specified moment, about what the government does is far from a mirror Orwell, George (1903–1950) image.Another problem with opinion polls is British novelist and sometime propagandist, that the public’s response to an issue may Orwell (the pen name of Eric A. Blair) was change daily and be wildly inconsistent. born in India. He attended Eton College in George Bush (1924– ) allegedly decided to England and then joined the Burma police end the Gulf War (1991) after seeing a poll force before launching a career as a left-wing 280 Ottoman Empire/Turkey writer and journalist. His writing was dle East, and the Balkans. It also inspired unashamedly political. “All art” he once much propaganda from others, not least in wrote “is to some extent political.” In his Europe, where the Turkish threat remained a 1946 essay “Why I Write” he explained: perennial theme. In the nineteenth century “What I have most wanted to do... is to the sultan faced challenges from without and make political writing into an art.” Orwell within, responding with a vigorous reasser- used his writing to raise public consciousness tion of state ideology. The Turkish national about such issues as poverty—in Down and state that emerged from the ashes of the Out in Paris and London (1933) and The Road to Great War produced one of the most impres- Wigan Pier (1937)—and the Spanish Civil sive personality cults of the twentieth cen- War—in Homage to Catalonia (1938). During tury, namely, that of Atatürk. World War II he worked for the BBC Eastern Following its capture of Constantinople in Service, writing and producing propaganda 1453, the Ottoman Empire used propaganda broadcasts to Asia. His firsthand experience to hide the dynasty’s nomadic origins, devel- of censorship and intimate knowledge of oping the ideological core of the empire as a such things as the 850-word language called potent fusion of Byzantine and Turkish tradi- Basic English—which was occasionally used tions. Pageantry and architecture under- in BBC broadcasts—provided the foundation pinned the image of ruler Mehmet II (1430– for his account of a future propaganda state in 1481), who pointedly constructed his Top- the novel Nineteen Eighty-Four (1949). kapi Palace on the site of the Byzantine Orwell’s experiences in the Spanish Civil acropolis. The Ottomans prospered in the War, during which the faction on whose side sixteenth century under rulers like Selim I he fought (the POUM) was brutally sup- (1467–1520) and his son, Suleyman I (1494– pressed on the orders of the Soviet Union, its 1566; known as Suleyman the Magnificent supposed ally, instilled in him an enduring and Suleyman the Lawgiver). Selim I’s propa- bitterness toward Stalin. In 1945 he pub- ganda strategies included his assumption of lished Animal Farm, an allegorical fable of the the title of caliph following his conquest of Russian Revolution. The novel was widely Egypt in 1517. In doing so the Ottoman em- circulated during the Cold War, with the CIA peror claimed both political and religious au- subsidizing translations and even an animated thority, assuming the role carried out in pre- film adaptation. Orwell was a willing partici- vious centuries by the immediate associates pant in the propaganda campaign of the early of the prophet Muhammad. Suleyman the Cold War, secretly briefing British intelli- Magnificent cultivated this connection, pre- gence on fellow writers whom he considered senting the title of caliph as a counterweight untrustworthy. to that of his Christian competitor, Charles V Nicholas J.Cull (1500–1558), the Holy Roman Emperor. See also Bracken, Brendan; Britain; CIA; Civil The Ottoman Empire maintained an effective War, Spanish; Cold War; Novel propaganda machine and a broad administra- References: Crick, Bernard. George Orwell:A Life. tive network, which included a remarkable London: Penguin, 1980; West, W.J. Orwell: The War Commentaries. New York: Pantheon, 1985. level of tolerance for non-Islamic religion and diverse cultural practices. By the beginning of the nineteenth cen- tury the Ottoman Empire faced multiple Ottoman Empire/Turkey challenges. In the Balkans the flame of the The Ottoman Empire (named for the ruling French Revolution had spread to Greece as Osmanli family) mobilized propaganda to fa- well as other national groups, precipitating cilitate its conquest and legitimize its domin- the Greek War of Independence (1821– ion over a vast swath of Asia Minor, the Mid- 1827). The Russians remained eager to roll Ottoman Empire/Turkey 281 back Ottoman power (as seen in the Russo- paper. His writings included biographies of Turkish War of 1828–1829) and put them- the great Ottoman and Arab rulers of the selves forward as champions of the Slav past, the play Silistre (Fatherland; 1873) and cause. In Arabia the teachings of Muhammad the poem Ode to Freedom. Working while ex- ibn Abd al-Wahab (1703–1791) roused fol- iled in Paris, Kemal and other Young Ot- lowers to holy war against non-Arab rule. tomans, including the poet Ziya Pasa (1825– The Wahhabis remained a major challenge 1880), organized the journal Hüriyet (Free- for much of the nineteenth century,reemerg- dom) to advance their ideas for the future of ing in the early twentieth century to threaten the Ottoman Empire. the Ottoman hold on Arabia as the ideology Responding to pressure from reformers, in behind Ibn Saud (1880–1953). The Egyptians 1876 Sultan Abdülhamid II (1842–1918) in- defied the empire under the leadership of troduced a new constitution, revoking it the Muhammad Ali (1769–1849). following year and rallying the empire to seek The empire responded by initiating war with Russia (1877–1878). He utilized reforms. Mahmud II (1785–1839), who be- propaganda extensively to legitimize his rule. came sultan in 1808, made broad use of in- For example, he reasserted the idea of the Ot- ternal propaganda. He adopted the non-Is- tomans as caliphs and appealed to dynastic his- lamic practice of displaying his portrait in the tory by placing renewed emphasis on genealo- manner of a European monarch and “guiding” gies (of dubious authenticity) and building the preaching of Friday sermons in mosques. elaborate tombs on the alleged sites of Ot- The content of Mahmud II’s propaganda in- toman ancestral graves. State-sponsored reli- cluded justification of the bloody annihilation gious teachers (da’iyan) worked to promote in 1826 of the Janissary Corps, which had Sunni Islam across the empire, while second- once been the heart of the Ottoman army; ary schools promoted the Turkish language. with its political power compounded by Shi- The Hamidian state paid particular attention ite religious beliefs in the ranks, it was now to its image overseas. Its policies ranged from viewed as a threat to the Sunni state. Follow- making lavish contributions to various world’s ing Mahmud II’s death in 1839, his son, Sul- fairs to bribing Western journalists in Istanbul. tan Abdülmecid (1823–1861), launched the Ottoman embassies protested against unflat- first in a series of reforms known as the Tanz- tering or overly exotic representations of their imat (reorganization). This period saw a flow- culture, targets that ranged from a comedy ering of “Young Ottoman” oppositional cul- sketch in Amsterdam set in a harem and fea- ture. Two individuals came to the fore: turing eunuchs to a group of dervishes per- Ibrahim Sinasi (1826–1871) and Namik forming for money in the streets of New York. Kemal (1840–1918). Educated in France, The sultan presented photographic collections Sinasi founded modern Turkish journalism to the Library of Congress and the British Li- and was a pioneer in a number of fields, in- brary that reflected the “preferred” view of the cluding science, in addition to introducing modern empire. Contradicting these state-ap- the concepts of modernization and democ- proved images was an ample supply of critical racy. He wrote not merely for the elite but to depictions of Ottoman behavior, including win over public opinion. His works of satire William Gladstone’s (1809–1898) popular include The Marriage of a Poet (1860), the first pamphlet Bulgarian Horrors and the Question of Turkish play. He edited the newspaper Tercü- the East (1876), which sparked mass demon- man-I Ahval (Interpreter of Events) until strations in London, as well as the equally being sacked for a provocative editorial on emotional reports of the Armenian massacres the principle of “no taxation without repre- of 1894–1896. Despite the state’s efforts, by sentation.” He fled the country in 1865. the end of the century the image of Turkey in Namik Kemal succeeded him as editor of the the West had seldom been more dismal. 282 Ottoman Empire/Turkey

While Abdülhamid’s “ideological regener- for Armenian and Syrian Relief, which pro- ation” apparently rallied the masses in the pounded an enduring image of Turks as eager empire, the emerging middle class did not participants in atrocities real and imagined. accept his political repressions passively. Re- As the Ottoman Empire became frag- sistance lived on in the Young Turk move- mented, the army provided a measure of co- ment, which developed a powerful hold on hesion under the leadership of Mustafa the Ottoman military establishment. Litera- Kemal (1881–1938). At the end of World ture remained a key method of political per- War I he organized a nationalistic movement suasion. In addition to established reformist that drew upon Turkish outrage at the Greek writers like Namik Kemal, Mehmet Akif military presence in Asian Turkey. In Ankara Ersay (1873–1936) called for an Islamic re- Kemal created a nationalistic alternative to vival, Tevfik Fikret (1867–1915) for modern- the Constantinople-based sultan. In 1921– ization along Western lines, and Ziya Gökalp 1922 he led a brilliant campaign to drive out (1876–1924) for Turkish nationalism. Others the Greeks, which remains a source of propa- soon followed their lead. Fatma Aliye Hanim ganda claims and counterclaims. In 1923 the (1864–1936) argued for reform in the treat- parliament of the new Turkish republic ment of women in novels such as Muhazarat elected Kemal as president. A formidable (Disputations; 1892). speaker, his performances included a leg- The Young Turk–inspired revolution of endary six-day speech delivered in 1927 at 1908 led to the deposition of Abdülhamid II the opening of the third national assembly. by parliament in 1909, but in 1913 (following Kemal spearheaded multiple reforms, the the disastrous Balkans wars) the military as- most important of which was his insistence sumed dictatorial power.A committee of offi- on a secular state. He abolished the caliphate cers known as the Committee of Union and in 1924 and religious orders in 1925. Islam Progress (CUP), which included Enver Pasha ceased to be the state religion in 1928. His (1881–1924), ruled Turkey from 1913 to cultural policies included the rooting out of 1918. It brought Turkey into World War I on imagery reflecting the Greek presence and the side of Germany, the Ottoman state’s such symbols of Ottoman religiosity as the long-standing ally. During World War I the fez, the characteristic headgear. He intro- CUP government attempted to maintain the duced Latin script and adopted a Swiss legal empire by emphasizing Islam, only to be chal- system. A “language reform” policy removed lenged in Arabia by the Wahhabis, who were works with Arabic or Persian roots. Kemal now armed by the British in a full-scale Arab even dropped his own Arabic honorific Gazi revolt. Closer to home, the government ap- (warrior). In 1935 Turkey switched over to pealed to Turkish ethnicity, which apparently the Western twenty-four-hour timekeeping prevented large-scale desertions from the system, the Gregorian calendar, and adopted army but set the Young Turks at odds with mi- the concept of the “weekend,” with Sunday as nority populations, including the Christian a day of rest. Such changes were aimed at Armenians of the northeast. In April 1915 an creating a cultural break with the past. More- isolated Armenian revolt in the town of Van over, Kemal sought to nurture pride in the triggered a second spate of mass killings of national language, literature, and history of Armenians across the Ottoman empire. The Turkey. In 1934 he adopted the name genocide became a staple of British propa- Atatürk, meaning father of the Turks. His ganda against Turkey’s German ally, including Cumhuriyetci Halk Partisi (Republican Peo- a substantial report published by historian ple’s Party) was the only political party in the Arnold Toynbee (1889–1975) in 1916. In the country between 1923 and 1946. At the end United States Armenians and sympathetic of the century Atatürk remained the central Americans formed the American Committee symbol of Turkish identity and, according to OWI (Office of War Information) 283 the constitution of 1982, “immortal leader specifically Necmettin Erbakan (1926– ), and unequaled hero.” His portrait is every- leader of the Refah Partisi (Welfare Party) where in Turkish shops and homes, and criti- and prime mover in its predecessors, the Na- cism of his life or legacy remains largely tional Order Party (banned 1971) and the taboo. National Salvation Party (banned in 1980). During World War II both Axis and Allied The Welfare Party gained the most seats in propaganda vied for the attention of neutral the parliamentary election of 1995, and dur- Turkey.At war’s end the country became the ing a coalition period Erbakan, as prime min- focus of Cold War tension. In 1947 President ister, worked to advance Islamic education Truman made his famous “Containment” and culture at home and to align Turkey with speech to rally U.S. support and aid for the Islamic regimes (including Iran). His propa- Turkish government in its struggle against ganda strategies included denouncing capital- the domestic Communist threat. In 1950 ism as a Zionist conspiracy. The military re- Atatürk’s successor, President Ismet Inönü acted by pressing Erbakan to resign. In 1998 (1884–1973), organized the first free general the Welfare Party became illegal, though its elections, which he and his party lost. The members regrouped to form the Fazilet Par- new administration, with Celâl Bayar (1884– tisi (Virtue Party). 1986) as president, advanced what would be- Nicholas J.Cull come an enduring element in Turkey’s inter- See also Arab World;Atrocity Propaganda; national image, namely, commitment to the Austrian Empire; Crimean War; Reformation Cold War alliance with the United States. and Counter-Reformation; Religion; World War I After a potent piece of propaganda by deed— References: Ahmad, Feroz. The Young Turks. fighting in the Korean War—Turkey became Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969; a full member of NATO in 1952 and a found- Deringel, Selim. The Well-Protected Domains: ing member of the Central Treaty Organiza- Ideology and the Legitimation of Power in the tion (CENTO) in 1954. At home Bayar ex- Ottoman Empire,1876–1909.London: I. B. tended religious freedom, permitting Tauris, 1998; Hale, William. Turkish Foreign Policy,1774–2000. London: Frank Cass, 2000; mosques to broadcast religious programs. Kinross, Lord. Atatürk:The Rebirth of a Nation. Freedom in the Turkish press has varied. In London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1964; the late 1950s the press faced serious repres- Lewis, Bernard. The Emergence of Modern Turkey. sion, with journalists jailed by Prime Minister 3d ed. New York: Oxford University Press, Adnan Menderes (1899–1961). In 1960 a 2002; Mardin, Serif. The Genesis of Young Ottoman Thought.Princeton, NJ: Princeton military coup removed his government. A University Press, 1962. new constitution followed in 1961. Political turmoil in 1980 led to the declaration of mar- tial law by Gen. Kenan Evren (1917– ), who remained head of state until 1989. OWI (Office of War Information) In the 1990s Turkey remained a key re- America’s overt propaganda office during gional base for U.S. armed forces, playing an World War II, the Office of War Information important role in supporting U.S. operations (OWI) was created by executive order in during the Gulf War (1991).Against this pos- June 1942 and operated until August 1945. It itive image, Turkey faces powerful negative consolidated an array of agencies created criticism, including human rights abuses, re- during the buildup leading up to U.S. entry pression of Kurds, and the penal system. into the war. These included: embassy press Such issues loomed large during Turkey’s ap- bureaus; the Foreign Information Service, plication to join the European Union. At which had been part of the Office of the Co- home a serious challenge to the principle of a ordinator of Information (later the Office of secular state came from religious politicians, Strategic Services); and the new radio station 284 OWI (Office of War Information) the Voice of America. OWI’s director, jour- Picture Branch urged U.S. film producers to nalist Elmer Davis (1890–1958), had come ask themselves: “Will this picture help to win to public attention as one of the CBS radio the war?” Other notable employees of the network’s chief commentators on war news. OWI included the theatrical producer John In this capacity he had argued for a unifica- Houseman (1902–1989) and the anthropolo- tion of the U.S. news and information appa- gist Ruth Benedict (1887–1948). ratus. Davis worked on the same sort of The OWI soon became the focus of contro- “propaganda with fact” approach used by the versy. Its constituents fought each other rather British Ministry of Information (MoI). His than the Germans. The military proved intran- motto was: “This is a people’s war, and the sigent with respect to releasing information, people are entitled to know as much as possi- and Republican politicians attacked the organ- ble about it.” ization as too partisan. Cowles resigned in The OWI included the Domestic Branch, 1943 following allegations that he was “man- directed by journalist Gardner Cowles Jr. aging” the news. He was succeeded by E. (1903–1985). This branch operated the Palmer Hoyt (1897–1979). In the aftermath News Bureau, which released information of the war, the OWI became a major target of and news about the war effort to the domes- McCarthyite anti-Communist attacks on the tic audience—and withheld information in grounds that it had been soft on Stalin. Elmer conjunction with the Office of Censorship.A Davis, in turn, became a major figure in the separate Overseas Branch, directed by media counterattack against McCarthy. Robert Sherwood (1896–1955), a play- Nicholas J.Cull wright and Franklin D. Roosevelt’s speech- See also Roosevelt, Franklin D.;VOA; World writer, distributed American news and infor- War II (United States) mation overseas, operated the Voice of References: Roeder, George H. The Censored War: American Visual Experience During World War Two. America, and coordinated propaganda policy New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993; with Allied nations. Sherwood received over Shulman, Holly Cowan. The Voice of America: 80 percent of the OWI’s budget. Much of the Propaganda and Democracy,1941–1945. Madison: OWI’s domestic propaganda effort involved University of Wisconsin Press, 1990; Steele, managing the commercial channels of Ameri- Richard W. Propaganda in an Open Society:The can mass communication through its War Ad- Roosevelt Administration and the Media, 1933–1941.Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1985; vertising Council and its Motion Picture Winkler,Allan M. The Politics of Propaganda:The Branch, located in Hollywood and directed Office of War Information,1942–1945. New by Lowell Mellett (1884–1960). The Motion Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1978. P

Pacific/Oceania Willem Cornelis Schouten (ca. 1567–1625) The inhabitants of the Pacific islands (ethno- and Abel Tasman (ca. 1603–1659) and logically divided into Melanesia, Micronesia, reaching a climax with the voyages of the and Polynesia and known in the West histori- Englishman Capt. James Cook (1728– cally as the South Sea Islands), who possessed 1779). The propaganda elements in these their own rich traditions of social and politi- “first contact experiences” ranged from a cal communication, were exposed to West- display of portraits of European monarchs ern methods in the nineteenth and twentieth and products to pointed demonstrations of centuries through Christian missionary activ- European firearms. Such experiences con- ity and colonial educational projects. In the tinued into the 1930s, with some captured second half of the twentieth century Oceania on film. generated propaganda for independence and During the nineteenth century the Pacific both contributed to and figured in environ- Islands became the focus of European inter- mental propaganda campaigns. est. The islands experienced a gradual in- The traditional societies of the Pacific crease in economic activity and frenzied drew on a rich and infinitely varied mix of competition between Catholic and Protestant creative arts, including wood carving, mask missionaries (and even among various making, tattooing, and dances. These arts Protestant denominations). The key institu- described and perpetuated a complex world tion in the region was the London Missionary of religious and kinship obligations, affirm- Society (LMS), which was founded in 1795 ing leadership structures and confirming and sent missionaries to Tahiti and Tongatapu roles. Contact with the West can be traced in 1797. These missionaries included back to the sixteenth century. The Por- William Ellis (1794–1872), who established tuguese reached Sumatra (which had been a printing press and devised a written form known to the Arabs for centuries) in 1509; of the Hawaiian language, and John Williams the Spanish reached Guam in 1521 and the (1796–1839), who not only “discovered” the Solomon Islands in 1568. The seventeenth island of Rarotonga in 1823 but also trans- and eighteenth centuries saw a succession of lated the Bible into the island’s native lan- pathbreaking European expeditions, begin- guage. Reverend Williams became a cele- ning with those led by the Dutch explorers brated figure in Victorian Britain. He raised

285 286 Pacific/Oceania substantial sums to finance a missionary expe- cluding Western Samoa (New Zealand) and dition and his book Narrative of Missionary En- New Guinea (Australia). The Japanese held a terprises (1837) became well known. His similar mandate with respect to the Marshall fate—being eaten by the inhabitants of Errog- and Caroline Islands. Japan’s bid to conquer mango in the New Hebrides in 1839—led to the Pacific during World War II involved lit- his being called the “Apostle of Polynesia.” A tle in the way of propaganda to island groups. staple of Victorian religious propaganda, his Ideological control in New Guinea included tale, which attracted new recruits, created an the imprisonment of indigenous church enduring image of Oceanic culture. workers. The United States held several pos- The sexual frankness of the art appalled sessions in the region, including Hawaii missionaries, resulting in the wholesale de- (which was finally annexed in 1898), Guam struction of cultural artifacts, especially in (1898), and Eastern Samoa near the port of Polynesia. What offended the missionaries at- Pago Pago (1899). It extended its cultural tracted others, most famously the artist Paul presence in the region dramatically during Gauguin (1848–1903), whose eroticized im- the war with Japan. The wartime presence of ages of Tahitian women perpetuated race and Allied war material in Melanesia sparked a gender stereotypes. Conversely, Fijians (and, surge in the indigenous millenarian move- no doubt, other islanders) were appalled by ments, which contained elements of cultural the short intervals between the pregnancies resistance and even nationalism. After the of missionaries’ wives, imagining the hus- war the United States assumed responsibility bands themselves to be grossly lustful. for the Marshall and Caroline Islands. In In many places the missionary presence 1961 the United States launched a major de- precipitated political control, as was the case velopment program on American Samoa, in- in the Cook Islands, which was proclaimed a cluding the pioneering use of television for British protectorate in 1888. Mission schools educational instruction. After a promising imposed Western-oriented education and start, the scheme foundered, in part owing to values. This sometimes included bans on power supply problems. teaching in indigenous languages. (The gov- During the Cold War the Pacific region ernment of New Zealand only approved figured prominently in propaganda as a result Maori schools in the 1960s.) Mission schools of the testing of nuclear weapons there by elevated the “mother country,” which in some Britain, France, and the United States. Local places reflected changing diplomatic rela- and international groups protested against tions. At the turn of the nineteenth century these tests, the best known of these being the Germany traded part of the island of voyages of the Golden Rule, Phoenix, and Every- Bougainville for parts of British Samoa. man I, II, and III. The issue of nuclear testing French missionaries predominated in the was still alive in the 1980s. The French secret Marquesas and Society Islands, which were service struck back in July 1985 when it sank annexed by France in 1842, with Tahiti fol- the Greenpeace vessel Rainbow Warrior in lowing in 1844. In 1903 the French govern- Auckland Harbour, New Zealand. The inci- ment established French Polynesia as an ad- dent became a massive propaganda backfire ministrative entity. resulting in the resignation of the French The twentieth century saw continued mis- minister of defense. In August 1985 the is- sionary activity and colonial education proj- lands of the South Pacific signed the Raro- ects. In Papua Australia took control from tonga Pact, asserting their nuclear-free sta- Britain in 1905. World War I brought Aus- tus. In 1996 France announced the end of its tralia and New Zealand into a more active nuclear testing program. role, with mandates by the League of Nations Influential broadcasters in the region have to administer formerly German islands, in- included the Australian Broadcasting Corpo- Paine,Thomas 287 ration (ABC), Radio France Overseas 1975 drew inspiration from the U.S. civil (RFO), and the Central Pacific Network of rights and black power movements. Oceania the U.S. Armed Forces Network (AFN). As has also taken part in international indige- territories in the region gained their inde- nous/aboriginal rights campaigns. In 1994 pendence, they established state-run broad- the United Nations sponsored a global con- casting companies, though programming re- ference on small islands in Barbados, which mained dominated by the West. Radio adopted a convention designed to assist in endured as an important medium of state both economic development and cultural and and religious propaganda. Indigenous move- environmental conservation on island nations ments with active propaganda campaigns in- worldwide. Many of the Pacific nations made clude the autonomy movements in French their first foray into international propaganda Polynesia. In the late 1950s Pouvanaa A. in the final years of the twentieth century Oopa (1895–1977), a veteran of the French over the issue of global warming at venues Resistance, led the Democratic Assembly of such as the United Nations Earth Summit in the Tahitian People (RDPT) against French Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992, or the Cli- rule. His campaign met with censorship, ar- mate Summit in Kyoto, Japan, in 1998. Na- rest, and exile in France (1960–1968). At tions such as the Marshall Islands stressed the the end of the twentieth century the Polyne- problem of rising sea levels, which pose an sian Liberation Front remained active. Fiji obvious threat to a country where the highest gained its independence from Britain in elevation is less than seven feet above sea 1970 under the leadership of Ratu Sir level. Kamisese Mara (1920– ), who, as Fiji’s first Nicholas J.Cull prime minister, attempted to create a form See also Australia; British Empire; of regional leadership. Papua New Guinea Environmentalism; New Zealand; Peace and gained independence in 1975 under Sir Antiwar Movements (1945– ); Religion References: Campbell, I. C. A History of the Michael Somare (1936– ). Pacific Islands. Christchurch, NZ: University of Since independence, secessionist move- Canterbury Press, 1989; Denoon, Donald, et ments in the region have challenged the in- al., eds. The Cambridge History of the Pacific tegrity of colonially established states. In Islanders. Cambridge: Cambridge University 1980 the island of Espiritu Santo attempted Press, 1997; Northcott, Cecil. John Williams to break away from the newly independent Sails On. London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1939; Robie, David. Blood on Their Banner: Vanuatu (formerly the New Hebrides). Aus- Nationalist Struggles in the South Pacific. London: tralia and Papua New Guinea helped to quell Zed, 1989; Scarr, Deryck. The History of the the revolt. In 1988 Papua New Guinea expe- Pacific Islands. London: Macmillan, 1990. rienced a secessionist uprising on the island of Bougainville, during which a propaganda radio station (Radio Free Bougainville) man- Paine,Thomas (1737–1809) aged to keep broadcasting into the mid- A political writer and professional propagan- 1990s by running generators powered by co- dist for the revolutionary cause on both sides conut oil. Other political problems in the of the Atlantic, Thomas Paine was born in region include a dispute between the South Thetford, England. After immigrating to Asian and ethnically Polynesian inhabitants of America in 1774, he began his writing career Fiji and an independence movement among in Philadelphia editing The Pennsylvania Maga- the ethnically Melanesian inhabitants of In- zine. His political career was launched mete- donesian-ruled Irian Jaya. orically in January 1776 with the publication Groups from across the region have prof- of Common Sense, a pamphlet calling for ited from international freedom movements. American independence under the future Maori demonstrations in New Zealand in Continental Congress. The pamphlet is often 288 Paine,Thomas

souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman. Tyranny, like hell, is not easily con- quered; yet we have this consolation with us, that the harder the conflict, the more glori- ous the triumph.” Washington ordered the paper to be read to the starving, freezing vol- unteer troops on Christmas Eve, before launching his successful attack on Trenton. The astonishing triumph of the ragtag colo- nial army over the mighty British Empire emerged from this pivotal moment. Between 1777 and 1778 Paine served as secretary to Congress’s new Committee of Foreign Affairs; he was forced to resign after denouncing the war profiteer Silas Deane (1737–1789), which proved an embarrass- ment to the French government. Although Paine was part of the radical “constitutional- ist” faction supporting the democratic Penn- sylvania Constitution of 1776, he was also a vocal supporter of stronger union, drawing him into early federalist circles. The Articles of Confederation assigned no tax-levying powers to the United States, thus crippling the war effort. Attempts by the Continental The cover of the 1791 Bradford edition of Thomas Paine's Congress to raise funds by printing paper Common Sense. (Library of Congress) notes not backed by gold resulted in a devas- tating inflation. Paine traveled to Rhode Is- land, where he published six letters in the credited with shifting popular opinion from Providence Gazette in an attempt to convince loyal protest to independence, although the tiny state to agree to a 5 percent duty to Paine’s point was that the British did this pay for the war.At the behest of Robert Mor- themselves by opening fire on the militia at ris (1734–1806), the government’s superin- Lexington in April 1775, an act he compared tendent of finance, beginning in 1782 Paine to that of a brutal mother devouring her was awarded an annual salary of $800, drawn young. from secret service funds, to write in sup- Paine served as aide to Generals George port of Congress and taxation. Although Washington (1732–1799) and Nathanael sometimes accused of “prostituting his pen,” Greene (1742–1786) during the Revolution- Paine vigorously defended his integrity. He ary War, but his greatest contribution to the wrote primarily to spread his ideas, fre- war effort was maintaining morale. In De- quently donating the proceeds of his writings cember 1776 he wrote the first of the “Crisis” to the revolutionary cause. papers, meant to rally support for a war that In 1787 Paine traveled to Europe to find the colonists appeared to be losing, which backers for a bridge design. English reform- began: “These are the times that try men’s ers greeted him as a hero. The outbreak of Peace and Antiwar Movements (1500–1945) 289 revolution in France spurred Paine to return for symbolic use in his political campaign, to politics. Edmund Burke’s (1729–1797) Re- only to be lost sometime thereafter. Up until flections on the Revolution in France (1790) gen- the 1850s Paine’s birthday was celebrated by erated a furious debate in Britain. Paine re- radical societies in Britain and by labor sponded by penning The Rights of Man unions in the United States. His rhetoric has (1791), which proved a best-seller: 50,000 been employed by politicians as diverse as the copies were sold in the first three months British M.P. Tony Benn (1925– ) and U.S. alone, with perhaps 200,000 in the first year, president Ronald Reagan (1911– ). to a population of only 10 million. Public Karen M.Ford readings of it were widespread in the new See also Revolution,American, and War of popular political societies, causing perhaps Independence; United States 40,000 working-class people to engage in References: Aldridge,Alfred Owen. Thomas Paine’s American Ideology. London:Associated political debate for the first time. Numerous University Presses, 1984; Claeys, Gregory. towns and cities planted “Liberty Trees,” and Thomas Paine:Social and Political Thought. rioters in the streets of Edinburgh were London: Unwin Hyman, 1989; Conway, heard to cry out “Tom Paine and no King!” Moncure D., ed. The Writings of Thomas Paine. 4 The Rights of Man Part Second (1792) called for vols. 1908. Reprint, New York: Burt Franklin, the creation of a constitutional convention in 1969; Foner, Eric. Tom Paine and Revolutionary America. Oxford: Oxford University Press, Britain to reform Parliament from the out- 1976; Ford, Karen M., ed. Property,Welfare and side. Prime Minister William Pitt (1759– Freedom in the Thought of Thomas Paine. New 1806) responded with unprecedented acts of York: Edwin Mellen, 2001; Keane, John. Tom repression. The government prosecuted Paine:A Political Life. London: Bloomsbury, Paine for seditious libel against the constitu- 1995; Philp, Mark. Paine. Oxford: Oxford tion. Now mobs burned him in effigy, popu- University Press, 1989. lar poems and songs denounced him, and medals depicted him hanging from a gibbet. A royal proclamation banned his book, and Pakistan five Scotsmen were sent to the penal colony See Indian Subcontinent in Australia for disseminating his ideas. Mon- cure Conway, Paine’s modern biographer, has claimed that Pitt went to war with France in Peace and Antiwar Movements 1793 not over the fate of Louis XVI but in (1500–1945) order to halt the spread of the ideas con- Although most closely identified with war, tained in The Rights of Man. propaganda has also been a staple of those ei- Revolutionary France embraced Paine, ther seeking peace or voicing opposition to a electing him to their National Assembly as particular war, from the writings of the deputy for Calais in 1792. Associated with Dutch scholar Erasmus (1466–1536) against the Girondin faction, Paine attracted the hos- the brutality of the religious wars of his time tility of the Jacobin dictatorship. He was im- to street demonstrations against the bombing prisoned for eleven months, during which of Afghanistan in 2001. Arguments for peace time he published The Age of Reason (1794), have been based on the horrors of war, reli- which challenged the idea of the Bible as “re- gious feelings, and humanist philosophy de- vealed text.” He returned to the United rived from ancient Greek thought. Early de- States in 1802 but was shunned for his reli- pictions in art include the works of Jacques gious ideas. Since his death, Paine’s ideas and Callot (ca. 1592–1635) (in response to the image have been appropriated by numerous Thirty Years’ War). The best-known sectar- causes. In 1819 the English radical William ian preaching against war was that of the Re- Cobbett (1763–1835) dug up Paine’s bones ligious Society of Friends or Quakers, founded 290 Peace and Antiwar Movements (1500–1945) by George Fox (1624–1691). Other sects gresses, beginning in London in 1843 with the preaching peace included the Mennonites First Universal Peace Congress. The second and Brethren. In 1693 Quaker colonist (Brussels, 1848) combined arguments for an William Penn (1644–1718) wrote “An Essay international organization with calls for disar- towards the Present and Future Peace of Eu- mament. Prominent European pacifists in the rope, by the establishment of an European era included the Frenchman Ferdinand Diet, Parliament or Estates.” The same idea Edouard Buisson (1841–1932), Russian novel- of a league of states to underwrite peace sur- ist Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910), and Austrian au- faced in the work of Charles Irénée Castel, thor Bertha von Suttner (1843–1914), best Abbé de Saint-Pierre (1658–1743), who in known for her internationally popular 1889 1713 published his Projet de la Paix Perpétuelle novel Die Waffen nieder (Lay Down Your Arms). (Scheme for Perpetual Peace). Younger activists included Alfred Hermann The Napoleonic Wars sparked artistic Fried (1864–1921), founder of the Deutsche condemnation of the excesses of war in the Friedensgesellschaft (German League for works of Goya (1746–1828) and among non- Peace). The major powers seemed responsive, sectarian peace organizations on both sides of attending the First International Peace Con- the Atlantic. These groups founded newspa- ference in 1899 and establishing an interna- pers such as the Herald of Peace (1819) in tional tribunal at The Hague in Holland. These Britain and Friend of Peace (1821) in the years also saw the founding of the Nobel Peace United States. The idea of a “Congress of Na- Prize. The emerging peace movement, how- tions” was popular with numerous state-level ever, could not prevent the coming of World American peace organizations of the early War I. The latter provoked a lively antiwar nineteenth century, which came together in movement variously led by liberal humanists, 1828 to form a national, nonsectarian Ameri- sectarian pacifists, and socialists. Leaders in can Peace Society (APS) under the leadership Britain included Bertrand Russell (1872– of William Ladd (1778–1841). Unfortu- 1970), who at war’s end was jailed for his nately the APS soon split over the issue of views. The leading antiwar activist in the whether it was moral to fight a defensive war. United States was the Socialist presidential William Lloyd Garrison (1805–1879) be- candidate Eugene V. Debs (1855–1926), who lieved that it was not and organized the was likewise imprisoned from 1918 to 1921. breakaway New England Non-Resistance So- Those draftees in Britain and the United States ciety. This organization also split over the who refused to bear arms were arrested as morality of the American Civil War, which conscientious objectors (a term coined during Garrison, being an abolitionist, endorsed. In the war). Groups supporting them included 1862 Garrison’s chief opponent on the issue, the Fellowship of Reconciliation and the Alfred Henry Love (1830–1913), published American Union against Militarism, whose An Appeal in Vindication of Peace Principles and propaganda included the exhibition of a di- Against Resistance by Force.Love argued:“Let us nosaur as a warning against human extinction. seek to convert rather than coerce.” In 1866 Hollywood produced a number of feature Love presided over the founding of the Uni- films with a pacifist message, the most famous versal Peace Union, which attracted many being Civilization (1916), directed by Thomas prominent female members. Although it H. Ince (1882–1924). Jane Addams (1850– matched the APS in its endorsement of an in- 1935) helped found the Women’s Interna- ternational organization, it extended its anti- tional League for Peace in 1915, which four war arguments to include war-inspired toys years later became the Women’s International and violent sports. League for Peace and Freedom (WILPF). An- The mid-nineteenth century saw the estab- tiwar activity led to the founding (also with lishment of a series of international peace con- Addams’s help) of the American Civil Liber- Peace and Antiwar Movements (1945– ) 291 ties Union (ACLU) in 1920. Internationally tional Council for the Prevention of War coor- the experience of the Great War energized the dinated these disparate groups. peace movement as never before. Eloquent antiwar novels included a The interwar peace movement had no graphic account of the suffering of a muti- shortage of remarkable polemical material, lated solider in Johnny Got His Gun (1939) by including novels such as All Quiet on the West- Dalton Trumbo (1905–1976), which was ern Front (1928) by Erich Maria Remarque turned into a film in 1971. Propaganda (1898–1970), in Germany (which was against U.S. intervention in World War II in- turned into a classic film in 1930), and A Fare- cluded arguments that fell short of the high well to Arms (1929) by Ernest Hemingway ideals of pacifism. The emotive radio broad- (1899–1961). British fiction included plays casts of Father Charles Coughlin (1891– like Journey’s End (1929) by R. C. Sherriff 1971) and later speeches by the aviator (1896–1975) and polemical essays by writers Charles Lindbergh (1902–1974) were not like Sir Norman Angell (1872–1967) and opposed to war per se but just a war against even A.A. Milne (1882–1956). The focus for Hitler “on behalf ” of Britain and “the Jews.” It much of this effort was the League of Nations is a mark of the success of the pacifists in the Union, which was organized to support the interwar years that World War II concluded international body established in 1919.As the with universal agreement on the need for an hope of world peace crumbled with the rise international organization. Doctrines first of Hitler and Mussolini new polemical works promulgated in pacifist and liberal interna- appeared, among the most famous being tional writing in the nineteenth century be- Pablo Picasso’s painting Guernica (1937). came aims in Allied wartime propaganda, In the United States pressure from peace leading to the establishment of the United activists like Dorothy Detzer (1893–1981), Nations in 1945. who was a Washington lobbyist for WILPF,re- Nicholas J.Cull sulted in a congressional hearing on the arms See also All Quiet on the Western Front; Garrison, industry. During these “Merchants of Death” William Lloyd; Goya; Guernica; Peace and hearings (1934 and 1935), Sen. Gerald P.Nye Antiwar Movements (1945– ); Switzerland; Women’s Movement: European; World (1892–1971) exposed the willingness of arms War I manufacturers to exploit war to suit their own References: Brock, Peter. Pacifism in the United ends. These ideas became orthodoxy in paci- States from the Colonial Era to the First World War. fist films of the era, such as William A. Well- Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, man’s The President Vanishes (1934), in which 1968;———. Twentieth-Century Pacifism. arms manufacturers kidnap the president and Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1999; DeBenedetti, Charles. The Peace Reform in try to start a war. Similar views surfaced in American History. Bloomington: Indiana 1938 in the first adventure of the comic book University Press, 1980; Martin, David. Pacifism: hero Superman. U.S. pacifism added addi- A Historical and Sociological Study. London: tional weight to the preexisting isolationist Routledge, 1965. trend in American politics, resulting in a com- plex web of neutrality acts passed between 1935 and 1939 to keep the United States out Peace and Antiwar Movements of future wars. Pacifist arguments remained (1945– ) central to U.S. isolationist politics and could Although 1945 brought hope in the form of be found in student movements, same-sex or- the United Nations, it also saw the new ganizations (such as WILPF, or the National threat of atomic weapons. The A-bomb gave Women’s Committee to Keep the United added intensity to the pleas of peace activists, States Out of War, led by Katherine Curtis), who for the first time could claim that the labor-based movements, and farmers. The Na- survival of the human race would be at stake 292 Peace and Antiwar Movements (1945– )

A protester holds a banner stating "Don't Attack Iraq" before an antiwar demonstration in London,15 February 2003. (Reuters NewMedia Inc./CORBIS) in a future war. The first formal statement of cluded mass vigils entering nuclear-testing this position appeared in the 18 August 1945 sites on land (such as those in Nevada) and issue of the Saturday Review of Literature in an sea (such as attempts by the ships Golden Rule editorial entitled “Modern Man Is Obsolete” and Phoenix to sail into areas in the Pacific in by Norman Cousins (1915–1990). In 1957 1958). Novels highlighting nuclear dangers he became a founding member of SANE (Na- have included On the Beach (1957) by Nevil tional Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy), Shute (1899–1960) and Fail-Safe (1962) by which launched a campaign against atmos- Eugene Burdick and Harvey Wheeler (both pheric nuclear testing. In Britain antinuclear of which were later turned into films). The activists formed the Campaign for Nuclear most enduring antinuclear work was the film Disarmament (CND), whose activities in- Dr. Strangelove (1964), directed by Stanley cluded a mass march at Easter 1958 from Kubrick (1928–1999). The protests began to London to the British government’s nuclear pay dividends in 1963 when the United arms laboratory at Aldermaston. Protests States and the USSR concluded the nuclear proved particularly large and effective in test ban treaty. However, the Cold War con- Scandinavia, where in 1959 the Swedish Ac- tinued by proxy in Vietnam, which became tion Group demanded its government aban- the focus of world peace activism for the rest don nuclear research—at least officially. of the decade. The antinuclear protests of the Cold War The Vietnam War united activists in the used nonviolent direct action of the sort that United States across lines of color, class, reli- had been pioneered by the Indian pacifist and gion, and age. Organizations opposing the nationalist Mahatma Gandhi. Protests in- war included: Students for a Democratic So- Peace and Antiwar Movements (1945– ) 293 ciety (SDS), founded in 1962; the Women’s missiles in Europe. The United States International League for Peace and Free- spawned the Nuclear Freeze movement, dom; the War Resisters League; and the Stu- whose advocates included journalist Jonathan dent Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Schell (author of the 1982 book The Fate of the (SNCC). Prominent figures endorsing the Earth) and scientist Carl Sagan (1934–1996), cause included the pediatrician Benjamin who propounded the theory of “nuclear win- Spock (1903–1998) and civil rights leader ter,” claiming that nuclear war would result Martin Luther King Jr. (1929–1968). Meth- in catastrophic climatic changes. In Britain ods ranged from mass protests, concerts, the CND returned to the fore under the joint and draft card burnings (two Catholic priests leadership of Labour politician Joan Ruddock symbolically doused draft cards in blood) to (1943– ), historian E. P. Thompson (1924– teach-ins at universities. The movement 1993), and Catholic priest Bruce Kent communicated its message through songs— (1929– ). Its techniques included a widely including the protest songs of Bob Dylan circulated pamphlet called Protest and Survive (1941– ) and Joan Baez (1941– )—poetry, that parodied the British government’s civil and the graphic arts, becoming a marker of defense literature; mass rallies; and screen- generational identity. The most dramatic ings of the film The War Game, originally com- protests occurred when three peace protes- missioned for the BBC in 1965 but never tors burned themselves to death (emulating aired, which used a documentary style to Vietnamese monk Quang Duc). dramatize the effect of a nuclear bomb on Antiwar membership and activism surged London. Other significant polemical works when President Richard Nixon (1913–1994) included the strip cartoon book When the invaded Cambodia in 1970 but declined once Wind Blows (1982) by Raymond Briggs, which he stopped drafting students. The movement followed an elderly couple through the after- remained strong among Vietnam Veterans math of a nuclear explosion to their deaths against the War (VVAW), which was founded from radiation sickness. Methods used across in 1967. VVAW members returned their Europe included commemorations of the an- Vietnam War medals in 1971 and arranged niversary of Hiroshima, and mass “die-ins” the “Winter Soldier” hearings in Detroit, simulating the casualties of a nuclear strike. which revealed the true scope of U.S. atroci- Cities, including Manchester and Leicester in ties in Vietnam. Debate continues as to the Britain and Tromsö in Norway, declared precise impact of the movement on the war. themselves to be nuclear-free. Women estab- According to some estimates, aggregate lished “peace camps” outside the Greenham membership of U.S. peace organizations Common air base in Oxfordshire and the Vi- reached four million during this period. In borg nuclear bunker in Denmark. Europe the 1960s also saw mass protests The second wave of the antinuclear and against the Vietnam War, frequently with a peace movement overlapped with the devel- radical anticapitalist and anti-American fla- oping environmental movement. The best- vor, including a celebrated riot outside the known environmental organization, Green- U.S. embassy in London in 1968. peace, began life in 1971 by protesting Although active throughout the 1970s, the nuclear testing in Alaska. With the end of the peace movements returned to prominence Cold War, the environmental movement toward the end of the decade when U.S. maintained the impetus of activism and con- president Jimmy Carter (1924– ) announced tinued to use many of the tactics pioneered the deployment of the neutron bomb. The by the peace movement, including mass in- scale of protests forced him to scrap the idea cursions into “off limits” sites and filming vio- but did not prevent his successor, Ronald lators on location, as from Greenpeace’s ves- Reagan (1911– ), from deploying cruise sel Rainbow Warrior.Although neither the Gulf 294 Perón, Juan Domingo and Eva Duarte

War nor the war in Bosnia sparked large- Juan and Eva married and together they cam- scale peace movements, the memory of paigned for the presidency of Argentina, 1960s activism served as a break on U.S. for- which he won in 1946. She consolidated his eign policy and that of other governments position by buying three of the country’s through the 1990s. Succeeding U.S. presi- major newspapers and winning over the dents assumed that the American people poor, whom she emotively named “los would object to a large or prolonged military descamisados” (the shirtless). The Perón commitment and sought to fight wars in ways regime was characterized by a personality that did not jeopardize U.S. lives, such as the cult focused on both Eva (Evita) and Juan, use of airpower or “smart weapons.” which was buttressed by posters, press and Nicholas J.Cull radio propaganda, and stage-managed events. See also Capa, Robert; Environmentalism; Eva carved out a prominent role for herself Music; Peace and Antiwar Movements in the field of both women’s rights and wel- (1500–1945); Scandinavia; United Nations; fare. She replaced the old welfare system Vietnam War; The War Game References: Carter,April. Peace Movements: with a personal charity named after herself. International Protest and World Politics Since 1945. Perón lost ground following her death in London: Longman, 1992; Chatfield, Charles. 1952. In 1955 Perón fled the country. How- The American Peace Movement:Ideals and Activism. ever, his popular support remained, permit- New York: Twayne, 1992; Garfinkle,Adam. ting his triumphant return from exile to as- Telltale Hearts:The Origins and Impact of the sume the presidency in 1973. He died in Vietnam Antiwar Movement.New York: St. Martins, 1994; Wittner, Lawrence S. Rebels 1974. The cult of Eva Perón lasted long after against War:The American Peace Movement, her death, transforming her physical remains 1933–1983.Philadelphia: Temple University into a potent political symbol. Her body was Press, 1984;———. The Struggle against the variously stolen, hidden, reburied in exile, Bomb: A History of the World Nuclear Disarmament and reburied in state before being moved to Movement. 3 vols. Palo Alto, CA: Stanford University Press, 1993–2002. its final resting place in her hometown of Recoleta in 1976. Nicholas J.Cull See also Funerals; Latin America; Mussolini, Perón, Juan Domingo (1895–1974) Benito and Eva Duarte (1919–1952) References: Barager, Joseph R. Why Perón Came to Power:The Background to Peronism in Argentina. The president and First Lady of Argentina in New York: Knopf, 1968; Potash, Robert A. The the period following 1946, this formidable Army and Politics in Argentina,1945–1962:Perón husband-and-wife team possessed a potent to Frondizi. London:Athlone, 1980. understanding of the power of the media. Juan Perón had studied the techniques of Benito Mussolini while a military attaché in Philippines Fascist Italy. His mistress Eva Duarte worked From early missionary activity to contempo- as an actress and radio broadcaster. In 1943 rary political turmoil, propaganda has Perón was one of a number of army officers loomed large in the history of the Philippine who seized power in a military coup. He took islands. In the fourteenth century Arab a backseat as minister of labor, but his com- traders introduced Islam to the southern is- pelling oratory earned him the admiration of lands. The first European contact occurred in Argentinean workers. In 1945 a group of 1521 during the voyage of Ferdinand Magel- army and navy officers attempted to end his lan (ca. 1480–1521). In 1542 an expedition rise to power by jailing him, but the pressure from New Spain (Mexico) named the islands of an already adoring public mobilized by Eva in honor of Philip II (1527–1598), the heir to Duarte brought his speedy release. In 1945 the Spanish throne, but this was a symbolic Philippines 295 gesture rather than one based on political re- The U.S. government ruled the Philip- ality. Spain did not launch its conquest of the pines with an eye to appeasing nationalistic islands until the 1560s. Catholic missions— sentiment. Thanks to the agitation of leader specifically the Jesuit order—soon followed. Manuel Quezon (1878–1944), the Ameri- Although by the late sixteenth century the cans first promised Filipinos their independ- Philippines had become a hub of trade be- ence as early as 1916. As a stage in this tween the West and the East, popular unrest process, in 1935 the Philippines became a was never far below the surface, with the commonwealth under American protection Moro (Muslim) population remaining a par- and elected Quezon as their first president. ticularly thorny problem. In December 1941 the Japanese attacked the By the nineteenth century the church had Philippines. By the spring of 1942 the U.S. become the most powerful force in the lives and Filipino army were fighting a hopeless of ordinary Filipinos. This, combined with the rearguard action in defense of the Bataan abuses of Spanish colonial rule, proved fertile peninsula and island of Corregidor, which ground for a Philippine independence move- became a staple of U.S. wartime propaganda. ment. The preeminent propagandist of this The Japanese established a puppet regime in movement was José Rizal (1861–1896). A the Philippines and attempted to win over physician, poet, and writer whose academic the population by employing teams of local career took him to Europe, in 1886 (while in propagandists. Their recruits included the fa- Berlin) Rizal published a novel called Noli me ther of postwar Philippine politician Ferdi- tangere (The Lost Eden). This stinging attack nand Marcos. The Japanese used the aging on the church and Spanish rule resulted in Aguinaldo to broadcast propaganda for “the Rizal’s exile. In 1891 (while in Hong Kong) Greater East Asian Co-Prosperity Sphere.” he wrote a sequel entitled El Filibusterismo Both nationalists and Communists organized (The Subversive). He then returned to the resistance groups. The latter took the name Philippines but was promptly banished to the Hukbalahap (People’s Anti-Japanese Army), southern island of Mindanao. When a rebel- or Huks for short. lion broke out in 1896, the Spanish tried and In 1946 the Philippines became a fully in- executed Rizal as its instigator. His death dependent republic, but the Huks mounted proved as powerful a piece of propaganda as an antigovernment insurrection on the island his poems or novels, with the government of Luzon. The United States assisted Presi- soon facing a full-scale revolution under the dent Ramón Magsaysay (1907–1957) in sup- leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo (1870–1964). pressing the Huks. Advisers in the campaign In 1898 the Philippine revolutionaries re- included Colonel Ed Lansdale (1908–1987), ceived a substantial windfall in the form of who taught propaganda techniques and the Spanish-American War. After sinking the helped build the image of Magsaysay. Success Spanish fleet at the battle of Manila, the against the Huks bolstered American confi- United States armed Aguinaldo and gave its dence in unconventional warfare, marking a blessing to his cause. At this point the impe- step on the path to U.S. involvement in Viet- rial lobby in the United States unleashed a nam. The Philippines served as a key regional considerable amount of propaganda about outpost for U.S. Cold War propaganda. In the religious needs and economic potential of 1950 the State Department established a Re- the Philippines. When President William gional Service Center (RSC) in Manila to McKinley (1843–1901) bowed to pressure print propaganda for use across the region; it and purchased the islands from Spain, the was here that the United States printed the United States found itself in a bitter guerrilla leaflets it dropped in such quantities over war against Emilio Aguinaldo, which lasted Vietnam. The Philippines eventually became from 1899 until his capture in 1901. part of the U.S. image war in South Vietnam 296 Philippines by sending a medical team (and eventually forced Marcos to flee the country. Aquino’s some military engineers) to the war in what techniques included the use of a protest was known as the “Many Flags.” The scale and color, designated yellow.This display of what nature of this involvement became a major was called “People Power” was widely cited diplomatic issue, with the Philippine govern- in the West as an example of the dawn of a ment extracting a high price in U.S. aid new era in both the East and the West, link- money for a small show of support. ing reform in the Soviet Union and the Soli- Anti-Communism offered an ideal chan- darity movement in Poland. As in Poland, nel for a Philippine politician to win Ameri- the Catholic Church played a major role in can support. The man who cornered the the revolution under the leadership of Jaime market was Ferdinand Marcos (1917–1989), Cardinal Sin (1928– ). who was elected president in 1965. Marcos’s Although Cory Aquino failed to deliver on propaganda techniques included shameless many of the promises of her campaign, re- exaggeration of his career as a wartime re- forms included the creation of a new consti- sistance fighter, saber rattling over his coun- tution in 1987 guaranteeing freedom of the try’s territorial claims against Malaysia, and press. Faced by economic crises, civil unrest, the rapid construction of a personality cult. and multiple attempts to unseat her, she did He retained CIA advisers from the Mag- not stand for reelection in 1992. Fidel saysay era. Internal problems included a new Ramos (1928– ), a senior figure in the Mar- uprising by the Communist Huks and a re- cos military whose defection had proved a bellion of the Moro (Muslim) population on turning point in the revolution, succeeded Mindanao, which called itself the Moro Na- her. In 1996 the Muslim population won a tional Liberation Front (MNLF). In the sum- measure of self-determination in the au- mer of 1972 Marcos staged a series of propa- tonomous region on Mindanao, but the ganda events, including the seizure of a Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) fac- Communist arms shipment containing “ter- tion continued fighting. The thirty-year-old rorist” bombs, in order to justify declaring insurgency of the New People’s Army (NPA) martial law and claiming dictatorial powers. also continued. He took control of the media and launched In 1998 Joseph Marcelo “Erap” Estrada the New Society Movement. His wife, (1937– ) won the presidency, campaigning Imelda Marcos (1929– ), emerged as a pow- vigorously on the slogan “Elect Erap as Presi- erful figure, sharing state-scripted media dent of the Masses.” As he had done during adulation, wooing Western leaders, and his term as vice president (1992–1998), heading prestigious cultural projects. Estrada traded on nationalism, anti-American In 1981 Marcos ran for election and won rhetoric, and his 1960s celebrity as a film amid allegations of fraud. Marcos’s camp star. He swiftly gained a reputation for cor- sought to strengthen its hand by getting rid ruption. During 2000 public opposition to of the opposition. However, the murder of Estrada mounted critics included the church, Benigno Aquino (1932–1983) as he returned led by Cardinal Sin. In January 2001 demon- from exile in the United States, like the strators mounted a mass protest at the Edsa Spanish execution of Rizal ninety years ear- religious shrine, using messages sent on mo- lier, merely provided a focus for protest. bile phones to coordinate activities. Estrada Aquino’s widow, Corazon “Cory” Aquino resigned in favor of his vice president, Mrs. (1933– ), now assumed the leadership of Gloria Arroyo (1947– ).Arroyo faced multi- the opposition. The presidential election of ple challenges, including deciding what to do 1986 ended indecisively, with Marcos claim- with her predecessor, continuing civil unrest, ing victory and Aquino alleging fraud. and the activities of the Muslim separatists— Aquino rallied a tide of popular support and particularly Abu Sayyaf (Sword of God), Photography 297 which kidnapped Westerners to draw atten- example, though the American Civil War was tion to its demands. the bloodiest ever fought by Americans, with Nicholas J.Cull most wounds requiring amputation in the See also Counterinsurgency; Japan; Southeast field, there is only a single extant image of an Asia, Spanish-American War; Terrorism, War operation—and even this is lacking in detail on;Vietnam War; World War II (United States) because of inadequate interior light. The few References: Bonner, Raymond. Waltzing with a Dictator:The Marcoses and the Making of American images of battlefield dead remind us of entire Policy.London: Macmillan, 1987; Karnow, subject areas rarely photographed. Stanley. In Our Image:America’s Empire in the The student of propaganda is most con- Philippines.New York: Random House, 1989; cerned with documentary photography, Seagrave, Sterling. The Marcos Dynasty.New which can be used to prove or back up asser- York: Harper and Row, 1988. tions made either with accompanying text or through the use of explanatory captions. Al- though documentary photography apparently Photography bears a close resemblance to official docu- Photography is the process of producing im- ments, such as photographs used to identify ages on a sensitized surface through the ac- someone on a driver’s license, documentary tion of radiant energy (light). A photograph photographers always insist that the true doc- freezes a moment in time. The first photo- umentary image is a blend of fact plus emo- graph, the daguerreotype, was made by Louis tion (generally pity) and that a documentary Daguerre (1789–1851) in 1839. His process photograph does not merely reflect the at- involved a copper plate coated with silver io- tempt to record the appearance of something dide and exposed to light for a short time. but rather a call for action on the part of the This created a latent image enhanced in the viewer. For example, in How the Other Half darkroom through the use of mercury vapor. Lives (1890) Jacob Riis (1849–1914) used Brief exposure to light, followed by a process photography to awaken the conscience of of development to bring out the latent comfortable, middle-class, suburban viewers image, is still the heart of the photographic to the slum conditions of the “other half,” the process. poor of the inner city.Photography proved an Early photography centered on portraits, important tool for Progressive Era reform- landscapes, and architecture. An outstanding ers, such as Riis and Lewis Hine (1874– portrait, seeming to reveal something of the 1940). The latter photographed instances of psychological makeup of the subject, is child labor abuse, including preadolescent Robert Howlett’s (1831–1858) portrait enti- girls working in textile mills in the South tled Isambard Kingdom Brunel Standing before whose stature is dwarfed by the machines the Launching Chains of the Great Eastern they are employed to operate. Late in his ca- (1857), portraying the engineer as hero pos- reer Hine turned to photography to celebrate ing before the largest ship afloat. Abraham the patriotic embrace of laborers helping to Lincoln (1809–1865) was frequently pho- construct the Empire State Building. His Men tographed during the Civil War; the cost of at Work (1932) consciously attempts to find in leadership is seen in the suffering apparent in the construction of what was then the his face. Roger Fenton (1819–1868) pho- world’s tallest building a spirit of optimistic tographed various aspects of the Crimean hope in the future. War, just as Mathew Brady (ca. 1823–1896) President Franklin D. Roosevelt’s (1882– and Alexander Gardner (1821–1882) did for 1945) New Deal used a small group of photog- the American Civil War. Because of technical raphers, employed by the Farm Security Ad- constraints, such as lengthy exposure, these ministration (FSA), to photograph rural Amer- images rarely capture the face of battle. For ica, focusing on such problems as malnutrition, A 1936 example of New Deal propaganda by Farm Security Administration photographer Walker Evans.Evans arranged the interior of this Alabama tenant farmer's kitchen to show middle-class viewers that the poor were driven by the dicates of tidy housekeeping.(Courtesy of David Culbert) The Plow That Broke the Plains 299 soil erosion, and endemic poverty. The best crowd. Photomontage involves the conscious known of these photographers was Walker construction of an image from bits and pieces Evans (1903–1975), who was less interested of other photographs to create a new image in people than in creating beautiful composi- that may bear little resemblance to the origi- tions depicting worn or abandoned struc- nal photographs. Careful cropping or re- tures. Dorothea Lange (1895–1965) cap- touching can make an artistic or aesthetic tured the spirit of survival in hard times in statement out of what would otherwise not “Migrant Mother,” the best-known image of be as visually satisfying. The digital image and the FSA years. the digitalization of images has led some to World War II was a time of unprecedented wonder if 2000 marks the end of the photo- importance for photographers, both on the graph’s power to persuade based on the lat- home front and the battle front, and for all of ter’s presumed relationship to visual truth. the major combatants. Nor should one forget What may be more significant in the short the amateur photographer, for the war was of run, however, is the ability of the amateur or interest to countless millions of persons who professional photographer to see whether the owned both simple and quite elaborate desired image has been captured in appropri- equipment. For example, photographs taken ate fashion without undertaking a trip to the by German soldiers in the Soviet Union be- darkroom. Digitization also makes possible came an important source of documentation the transmission of photographic images lit- for the Holocaust. Yevgeny Khaldei (1917– erally around the world at low cost, assuming 1997) photographed the raising of the Russ- that the computer possesses sufficient resolu- ian flag atop the burning ruins of Berlin’s tion capability. The painted image may not be Reichstag on 2 May 1945; he was allowed to suitable for digitization, but photography retouch his official image a few days later certainly is. It seems clear that this is the when someone noted that one Russian sol- most significant technological advance in dier had wristwatches on both arms, a sure photography in the past century. indication of looting. Joe Rosenthal (1912– ) David Culbert an Associated Press photographer, captured See also Capa, Robert; Civil War, United States; the second flag raising atop Iwo Jima on 23 Crimean War; Riis, Jacob; United States February 1945, the iconic American image of (1930s); United States (Progressive Era); Vietnam War World War II, subsequently inspiring the References: Curtis, James. Mind’s Eye,Mind’s larger-than-life sculpture known as the Ma- Truth:FSA Photography Reconsidered.Philadelphia: rine Monument in Arlington, Virginia. Pho- Temple University Press, 1989; Faber, John. tographers brought the reality of the Holo- Great News Photos and the Stories behind Them. 2d caust to disbelievers in gruesome shots of ed. New York: Dover, 1978; Goldberg,Vicki. piles of dead bodies that greeted soldiers at The Power of Photography:How Photographs Change Our Lives.New York:Abbeville, 1991; the opening of such concentration camps as Hambourg, Maria Morris, et al. The Waking Bergen-Belsen in the spring of 1945. Dream:Photography’s First Century.New York: Photography for propaganda purposes Abrams, 1993. often entails manipulation. For example, every shot emphasizes something by pur- posely omitting something else. A smiling, The Plow That Broke the Plains well-fed, well-clothed child can be used to (1936) reflect a general sense of well-being, whereas This documentary film, one of the most in- the opposite can be implied through the use novative pieces of propaganda for President of a tearful, emaciated, shabbily dressed Franklin Roosevelt’s (1882–1945) New child. A close-up of a small number of per- Deal, was directed by Pare Lorentz (1905– sons can be used to suggest an enormous 1992) for the Resettlement Administration. 300 Poetry

The film tells the story of the mechanized below, covering the period between roughly cultivation of the prairies to feed the world 1500 to the present. First is the expression of during World War I and the disastrous effect national aspiration, supremacy, or unique- of “high winds and sun” on the land during ness. Poets have consistently written poems the 1930s. Lorentz’s images of the Dust that celebrate, justify, and call into being par- Bowl, many featuring the children of the re- ticular nation-states and empires, often based gion, are made even more poignant by a on ethnic or linguistic groupings. Narrative- powerful musical score by Virgil Thomson based poetry—first in Homer (ca. 700 (1896–1989). Although it was well made, as B.C.E.) and later in Virgil (70–19 B.C.E.)— a documentary the film’s impact was limited, consists of epic poems reflecting the struggle thanks in part to low production values. Mil- of opposing armies and nations, followed by lions more were affected by the photographs the founding of just states pleasing to the of Dorothea Lange (1895–1965) or the pow- gods. This jingoism is most evident during erful novel The Grapes of Wrath (1939) by John times of war, when the poetic genre of “war Steinbeck (1902–1968). poetry” is practiced. Rudyard Kipling Nicholas J.Cull (1865–1936) was the Victorian poet most See also Film (Documentary); Roosevelt, emphatically associated with such patriotism, Franklin D.; United States; United States and his mostly vernacular verse remained, (1930s) until late in World War I (when he lost a son References: Lorentz, Pare. FDR’s Moviemaker: Memoirs and Scripts.Reno: University of Nevada in battle), an almost uninterrupted love let- Press, 1992; Snyder, Robert L. Pare Lorentz and ter to Britannia’s empire and military victo- the Documentary Film. Reno: University of ries—and the lowly soldiers who make such Nevada Press, 1968. victories possible. His poem “Dane-Geld” is a clear call to fight against German expansion- ism at all costs. Poetry Not all war poetry takes sides, but it is Although poetry shares many characteristics usually inherently infected with subjective with other cultural artifacts identified as and ideological positioning in favor of the propaganda, it is not itself regularly identified poet’s “own” forces. The case of the American as such by mainstream literary discourse. Yet modernist poet Ezra Pound (1885–1972) poetry is often used by publishers, politicians provides a startling example of the inversion (among other agents), and poets themselves of this principle, for he took active aim as a vehicle for the dissemination of “infor- against the United States during World War mation” and “emotion” meant to alter opinion II and was later arrested as a traitor for his on matters great and small, and hence has seditious broadcasts from Italy. On the other been and continues to be an instrument of hand, Dylan Thomas (1914–1953), who statecraft, politics, and social struggle. often used his wonderful performing voice Indeed, Plato (ca. 428–ca. 348 B.C.E.) on radio, obliquely slanted some poems to- feared poets for their radical misuse of the ward the anti-Nazi cause, such as “A Refusal potent resources of rhetoric, in that they to Mourn the Death, by Fire, of a Child in played with false statements in order to in- London,” which describes the aerial bom- duce emotion in their audiences and could bardment of London during the Blitz. Other threaten state security by manipulating the poets, such as Lord Byron (1788–1824), masses with their seductive lies. In his ideal were leading figures in the struggle for inde- state, as portrayed in The Republic, he consid- pendence (in Byron’s case on behalf of ered them persona non grata. Greece). Slovenia’s national poet, France The main strategies and elements that po- Preseren (1800–1849), imported his native etry shares with propaganda are briefly noted language into his poetry and espoused his Poetry 301 people’s desire for liberty and self-gover- A fourth characteristic involves a defense nance while subjugated by imperial Austria, of linguistic and societal norms or, con- especially in the collection entitled Poems versely, attacking said norms. Poets by defini- (1847), which helped to inspire the 1848 up- tion work through language and are identi- risings. So did the legendary and provocative fied with particular linguistic communities in poems of Hungarian rebel Sandor Petofi the course of their career. Many poets prac- (1823–1849), who published his call-to-arms tice a de facto chauvinism against other cul- in the poem “National Song” (which he read tural communities and languages, which can on the steps of the National Museum) on 15 amount to a sort of propaganda. Philip March 1848, setting off a revolt that is still Larkin (1922–1985), a key figure in English celebrated to this day. W. B. Yeats (1865– poetry of the mid-twentieth century, ex- 1939) maintained a similar relationship, pressed his disdain for things foreign and/or through his poems, to the Easter Rising in non-British in poems, letters, and criticism. Ireland. The Scottish poet Christopher Murray Church or government sponsorship is a Grieve (1892–1978), better known as Hugh third important factor. Throughout recorded MacDiarmid, combined a strong interest in history poets have sought and received pro- establishing a unique Scots-based (literary) tection and support from powerful men and language for his nation with—in such later, women, organizations, and rulers. In ex- rambling poems as Third Hymn to Lenin change for money, official positions of cul- (1955)—exceptionally didactic Marxist pro- tural and diplomatic significance at court, or nouncements. abroad, and titles (including that of England’s A point worth noting is that the poet’s poet laureate), poets have been willing to rhetorical arsenal is inherently militaristic. dedicate poems and verse plays to their bene- Poets have long cherished a close relationship factors, praise the latter’s aims and achieve- with militaristic themes and tropes. During ments, and promote the patron’s belief sys- the Elizabethan period, many leading court tems through their written works. John poets were soldiers; some were even accused Milton (1608–1674) issued inflammatory of being spies, as was the case with Christo- pamphlets and took sides during Britain’s po- pher Marlowe (1564–1593). litical conflicts, leading to charges of treason It is no accident that modernist poets liv- that were only dropped thanks to the influ- ing in Europe in the early twentieth century ence of his friends at court. His Paradise Lost were described as being in the “avant-garde” (among other works) is considered by some together with other artists. The issuing of critics to be a veiled allegory on Cromwell “poetic manifestos”—for example, by the and the regicidal government of his day, for Fascist Futurists in Italy under Mussolini— which he had worked as a propagandist. clearly echoes the tactics of such master pro- Yevgeny Yevtushenko (1933– ), the So- pagandists as Lenin. Finally, the aim of poetry viet-born poet, wrote poems early in his ca- is subtly to convey strong impressions, emo- reer that celebrated Stalin’s worldview, tions, images, and ideas. Unlike prose, which which made him a national hero and led to tends to be a vehicle for lucid exposition, po- his poems being recited before stadium-size etry is characterized by enigmatic, opaque, crowds. In 1956, in his long poem Stantsiia and even gnomic statements, phrases, allu- Zima (Winter Station), he turned against sions, and references that are, in some ways, Stalin, following revelations of Stalin’s atroci- subliminal. Just as with any “good” propa- ties made during the Twentieth Party Con- ganda, a good poem operates below the radar gress. In this way he worked the system and of a reader’s conscious mind, enabling dis- continued to provide material of value to the turbing, inspiring, or irrational forces to pen- state machinery. etrate the latter’s defenses. By using such 302 Poland mnemonic devices as rhyme, rhythm, and years of foreign rule—and been the target of meter, the poem engages the reader by propaganda, not least during World War II means of seductive properties designed to and the Communist era. As with many Euro- convert the reader to often-aphoristic pean countries, the early modern period in “truths” that defy logic and are nearly impos- Poland saw propaganda on behalf of the royal sible to refute. This enables strong poets to house (and opposition nobles), in connection influence the opinion of their age through the with the Reformation and Counter-Reforma- sheer force of their poetic ability, assuming tion, and at the beginnings of a popular print near-oracular status. For example, T. S. Eliot culture. Poland witnessed the publication of (1888–1965) single-handedly created a con- Eastern Europe’s oldest vernacular newspa- sensus on what was and was not canonical— per, Merkuriusz Poliski Ordynaryjny (Polish and hence worthy of cultural attention— Common Mercury), which was founded in while masking his anti-Semitism and Krakow in 1661. In the eighteenth century conservative social values in a cloak of poetic Poland suffered a series of partitions (1772, objectivity.It is this “Big Brother” iconic func- 1793, 1795) during which the country was tion assumed by major poets that most re- divided between neighboring Austria, Prussia, sembles the propagandistic constructions of and Russia (which took the largest share of consensus normally associated with political territory). Nationalistic movements, with at- movements and dictators. tendant patriotic propaganda, culminated in a Todd Swift rebellion led by Tadeusz Kosciuszkó (1746– See also British Empire; Crimean War; Fascism, 1817), a veteran of the American Revolution. Italian; Germany; Ireland; Latin America; Kosciuszkó was a master of the emotional ap- Milton, John; Peace and Antiwar Movements peal, as exemplified in his 1794 plea to the na- (1945– ); Shakespeare, William;Vietnam References: Bergonzi, Bernard. Wartime and tion to rise up, which he delivered in the mar- Aftermath:English Literature and Its Background, ket square in Krakow symbolically attired in 1939–1960.Oxford: Oxford University Press, the Polish national costume. He remained a 1993; Eliot, T.S. Points of View.London: Faber key figure in Polish national propaganda. Art and Faber, 1941; Hanák, Péter. The Corvina embodying a political agenda is exemplified in History of Hungary. Budapest: Corvina Books, the poem “Myszeidos” (Mouse Poem), an alle- 1991; Larkin, Philip, ed. The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse. Oxford: Oxford gory on political disorder by Ignacy Krasicki University Press, 1973; Preseren, France. (1735–1801). Poems. Ljubljana: DZS, 1997; Quiller-Couch, The Napoleonic Wars did little to im- Arthur, ed. The Oxford Book of English Verse. prove the lot of Poland, sparking a revival of Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1931; nationalistic feeling. In 1830–1831 the Rus- Redman, Tim. Ezra Pound and Italian Fascism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, sians crushed the so-called November Upris- 1991; Scarfe, Francis. Auden and After:The ing in “their” Polish territory. This led to a Liberation of Poetry,1930–1941.London: George large-scale migration to Paris, which became Routledge & Sons, 1945; Schmidt, Michael. the locus of Polish émigré activity and prop- Lives of the Poets.London: Weidenfeld and aganda for the remainder of the century. Nicolson, 1998; Sutherland, John. Literary Lives. Leading émigrés included the pianist and New York: Oxford University Press, 2001; Todd,Albert C., and Max Hayward, eds. 20th composer Frédéric Chopin (1810–1849). Century Russian Poetry,sel. Yevgeny Yevtushenko. Chopin’s music regularly included pieces in New York:Anchor, 1994. such specifically Polish idioms as the mazurka and the polonaise, which served as nationalistic propaganda in musical form. Poland Equivalent figures in the field of poetry in- Poland has both produced propaganda—es- cluded Adam Mickiewicz (1798–1855), pecially in the cause of nationalism during Juliusz Slowacki (1809–1849), and Zygmunt Poland 303

Krasinski (1812–1859). Art by painters like 1926. Between 1926 and his death in 1935 he Piotr Michalowski (1800–1855), which fre- dominated Polish politics (both as premier quently celebrated Kosciuszkó and his bat- and minister of war). His successor, Edward tles, circulated widely in print form. Rydz-Smigly (1886–1941), joined with the Russian- and Austrian-occupied Poland nationalists, resulting in a rise in anti-Semi- rose up in 1848, with the former again re- tism. The interwar period thus witnessed a volting in 1866 during the January Revolu- mixture of nationalistic propaganda and the tion. In the wake of these rebellions, the Rus- exuberant expression of Polish culture in an sians in the east and Prussians in the west increasingly right-wing political context. both began campaigns of Russification and Overseas propaganda enterprises included a Germanization, respectively, which included sizable Polish pavilion at the New York censorship, propaganda, and educational con- World’s Fair of 1939. trols, as well as the renaming of places. Op- In September 1939 Adolf Hitler (1889– ponents of this policy included Count 1945) invaded Poland, triggering World War Mieczislaw Ledóchowski (1822–1902), arch- II. The early months of the war saw what bishop of Poznan, who in 1874 refused to amounted to a new partition of Poland, with obey the Prussian order not to teach in the Hitler sharing the spoils with Stalin (1879– Polish language. The Prussians were involved 1953), his new ally. In occupied Poland the in a wider conflict with the church during the resistance operated an underground press period known as the Kulturkampf (cultural with strong propaganda content. The Polish struggle). Artists who promoted Polish na- government-in-exile, led by Wladyslaw tionalism included the painter and dramatist Sikorski (1881–1943), worked hard to com- Stanislaw Wyspianski (1869–1907) and the municate news of Nazi atrocities in Poland to novelist Stefan Zeromski (1864–1925). Po- the outside word, publishing reports and litical activists involved in the Polish inde- photographs smuggled out by the under- pendence movement later in the century in- ground Polish Home Army. The Polish Min- cluded the young Józef Pilsudski (1867– istry of Information-in-exile was among the 1935), who in 1894 launched the under- first institutions to provide news of the ground left-wing journal Robotnik (Worker). genocide of European Jews, which was During World War I Pilsudski led the Pol- downplayed as a war atrocity story by many. ish army against Russia, but he also quarreled Beginning in 1941, the Poles were techni- with the Central Powers. In 1918 he declared cally fighting on the same side as their old an independent Polish republic, which was enemy, Russia, a relationship that was made confirmed by the Treaty of Versailles in 1919. more complicated in 1943 with the discov- The 1920s saw a heated debate over the na- ery of a mass grave of Polish officers mur- ture of the Polish state. Lithuanian-born Pil- dered by Russians in the Katyn Forest near sudski favored a multiethnic Poland with a Smolensk—the news of which proved a place for Germans, Jews, and Ukrainians. In- coup for Nazi propaganda. The issue became cluded among the ethnic nationalist propa- the subject of charge and countercharge in gandists who disagreed with this approach wartime and postwar propaganda, and it was was Roman Dmowski (1869–1939), who not until 1990 that the Russians admitted re- had assembled an anti-German army during sponsibility and apologized. the Great War, was editor of Przeglad Wszech- Despite Allied propaganda at the begin- polski (All-Polish Review) and served as min- ning of the war stressing the need to defend ister of foreign affairs in 1923. Dmowski’s ar- Poland, World War II ended with the de facto guments were frequently racist and acceptance by the Allies that Poland lay anti-Semitic. Seeking to maintain his broader within Stalin’s sphere of influence. The ex- vision, Pilsudski seized power in a coup in tent to which President Franklin Roosevelt 304 Poland

(1882–1945) had “betrayed” Poland at the In 1980 workers at the Gdansk shipyards Yalta Conference of 1945 became an issue in went on strike under the leadership of Lech domestic U.S. party propaganda in the post- Walesa (1943– ), who had organized the Sol- war years. The Lublin Poles, a pro-Soviet fac- idarity trade union, whose slogan was: “There tion that had spent the war in the USSR, is no freedom without Solidarity.” The union’s dominated the new Polish government, and demands included an end to censorship and Poland swiftly became an integral part of the biased media coverage. A substantial propor- emerging Soviet bloc. Significant events dur- tion of Polish media workers joined the ing this period included: rigged elections in union. Solidarity’s publications included the 1947, which returned a Communist govern- newspaper Jednosc and the national magazine ment to power; membership in the Commu- Ty g odnik Solidarnosc (Solidarity Weekly). nist economic organization COMECON in Wajda documented the upheaval in his 1981 1949; the unveiling of a Soviet-style constitu- film Czlowiek z zelaza (Man of Iron). The tion in 1952; and membership in the Warsaw Communist government clamped down, im- Pact military alliance in 1955. Communist posing martial law from 1981 to 1984. Poland Poland experienced rigid party control of ed- became a major issue in international propa- ucation and the media, which included the li- ganda in the revived Cold War. Examples in- censing of journalists. State sponsorship of cluded the United States Information the arts produced the Polish equivalent of So- Agency’s (USIA) star-studded television spe- viet-style Socialist Realism. “Ideologically cial Let Poland Be Poland (1982), which was sound” writers included the poet Konstanty broadcast worldwide by satellite. Walesa pre- Ildefons Galczynski (1906–1953). Following sented himself as the embodiment of the the death of Stalin, Poland experienced a pe- gritty, Catholic, patriotic Polish worker. He riod of media liberalization during the early captured the imagination of the Western administration of Wladyslaw Gomulka (1905– media, making repression of the movement 1982), who had come to power in 1956, but much harder. Other important figures in- by the 1960s the party propaganda machine cluded the articulate academic Bronislav was back in full swing. Geremek (1932–). Solidarity’s leaders seemed External anti-Communist propaganda all the more inspiring when compared to the aimed at Poland included U.S. government- stiff Gen. Wojciech Jaruzelski (1923– ), sponsored broadcasts of the Voice of America whose appearance was rendered significantly (VOA) and Radio Free Europe (RFE). Indige- more sinister thanks to his dark glasses, which nous anti-Communist propaganda circulated he was forced to wear for medical reasons. In in the form of underground newspapers, the November 1988 Walesa confronted Mieczs- largest being Ty g odnik Mazowsze (Mazovian law Rakowski the prime minister of Poland, Weekly). The economic crisis of the 1970s in a live television debate. In 1989 Solidarity widened the gap between Polish government negotiated political reforms, including free propaganda and reality. The church remained elections. The government allowed the oppo- a center of oppositional thought and received sition to publish a daily newspaper to cover a massive moral boost with the election in the election. Entitled Gazeta Wyborcza (Elec- 1978 of Polish pope John Paul II (1920– ) tion Gazette), this paper drew many of its and his emotional visit to Poland in 1979. staff from the underground Ty g odnik Mazowsze. Liberal voices in film included Andrzej Wajda Walesa recruited Adam Michnik (1946– ) as (1926– ), whose 1978 film Cztowiek z Mar- editor. Solidarity won a majority in the result- muru (Man of Marble) questioned the legacy ing elections. The Communist era in Poland of the leaders from the 1950s. Political dissi- had ended. Gazeta Wyborcza remains one of dents included Adam Michnik (1946– ), Poland’s leading newspapers, although it split who was jailed six times for his views. with Walesa in 1990. Portraiture 305

Post-Communist Poland saw a prolifera- one of two purposes in art. German master tion of political parties and a lively culture of Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528) expressed this interparty propaganda. Although Walesa won as preserving the “likeness of men after their the presidency in 1990, the country went death.” Portraits naturally raise a number of though eight prime ministers in rapid succes- considerations when being viewed. They are sion. In 1995 Walesa lost the presidential the result of the interplay between artist and election to Aleksander Kwasniewski (1954– ), sitter. Their aesthetics are conditioned by the a former Communist propagandist who had traditions of the genre and the requirements made his mark as a student activist in the of the patron or buyer. Their intention is 1970s and editor of the reformist party jour- often highly fluid. Questions as to why the nals ITD (Et Cetera) and Sztandar Mlodych, work was commissioned and for what end who now led the Democratic Left Alliance purpose are always prevalent in all genres, (SDL). Jerzy Urban (1933– ), another vet- but in portraiture this assumes a more eran of Communist propaganda and General prominent place. It is a truism that the patron Jaruzelski’s press officer, reinvented himself or purchaser determines the final image and for the post-Communist era by launching the what can be inferred from an examination of muckraking satirical weekly Nie (No). The the work. This intent is often revealed in the magazine soon commanded a circulation over setting, which helps to define the sitter’s seven hundred thousand and claimed a read- place in society. The spectator learns of the ership in excess of 2 million. Its declared tar- latter’s interests and values through the re- gets were “nationalism, clericalism, and big- sulting appropriation of objects and symbols otry, rightist parties and factions, Solidarity reflecting social mores. and Lech Walesa.” The success of Nie reflected This is not to say that portraiture may only the scale of dissatisfaction with the media fol- be read in terms of iconography. The devel- lowing the collapse of Communism. Many opment of individual portrait types indicates Poles felt that “black (church) censorship and that different styles of portraiture serve dif- propaganda were replacing the red.” Criticism fering purposes. Full-length portraits have of the church, abortion law, women’s rights, mostly been reserved for royalty and nobility. and anti-Semitism seemed stifled in the main- In such cases direct communication with the stream media. In 1999 Poland joined NATO, viewer is aided by presenting different views a substantial coup for Kwasniewski that of the subject’s features. Profile views, which helped him win reelection in 2000. are often used in elite circles as well, are de- Nicholas J.Cull rived from classical forms and were per- See also Atrocity Propaganda;Austrian Empire; ceived in the Renaissance and thereafter as Elections; Philippines; Religion; Russia; Stalin, representing a dignified character in a hier- Joseph; World War II (Germany) atic manner. In all these cases the use of the References: Ash, Timothy Garton. The Polish Revolution:Solidarity,1980–82.London: Granta, individual portrait demonstrates the social 1991; Davies, Norman. God’s Playground:A standing of the sitter as an autonomous indi- History of Poland. 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon, vidual. Group portraits consequently define 1981; Goban-Klas, Tomasz. The Orchestration of the social status of those portrayed. Often the Media:The Politics of Mass Communications in they depict various hierarchies within a given Communist Poland and the Aftermath.Boulder, group through the use of complex composi- CO: Westview, 1994. tional techniques to indicate this. Portraits of couples or families are often concerned with creating the impression of the nuclear family, Portraiture in line with the conventions of the age. This Historically the role of portraiture was ac- complexity is revealed through rhetorical knowledged in the Renaissance as serving gestures and facial expressions, coupled with 306 Portraiture

the iconography of emblems and attributes. at San Quentin, although the image suggests In short, the very nature of portraiture is that he is riding forth to win a crucial battle. propagandist: the projection of an image— In France many painters depicted Napo- which may or may not be true—to a passive leon as emperor and military leader, espe- audience. cially Jacques-Louis David (1748–1825), Early portraiture reflected the grandeur of Baron Antoine-Jean Gros (1771–1835), and the Renaissance. The rise of humanism gave most notably Jean-Auguste-Dominique In- the practice of portraiture a conceptual dig- gres (1780–1867), whose Napoleon on His Im- nity as a result of theoretical and cultural fac- perial Throne (1806) transformed the subject tors. Earlier portraiture was mainly religious into an otherworldly figure, complete with in nature, with the subject often shown per- imperial paraphernalia and presented in the forming an act of veneration toward a saint frontal posture recalling late medieval repre- or holy person. The frontal depiction of the sentations of God. In this ambitious work the face was reserved solely for Christ; prior to hero worship surrounding Napoleon had Dürer’s self-portrait (1500), which appropri- made tenable his removal from the con- ated the traditional image of Christ to further straints of the physical world into a timeless the claims of the artist as creator, few por- realm. traits adopted this approach (a notable excep- During this period portraiture in the form tion was the depiction of Napoleon). The of caricatures and cartoons was becoming portrait developed along didactic lines. The popular, particularly of prime ministers and prominence of physiognomy in intellectual other leaders. In Britain the rise of print theory meant that often portraits were shops established a wide market for such thought to provide an insight into the person- works. It is a moot point as to the extent the alities of the model. As a result, portraits caricatures of James Gillray (1757–1815) were often painted as realistically as possible, played in the downfall of Charles Fox although in time idealization and monumen- (1749–1806). Britain’s imperial policy also tality prevailed in the portraits of the ruling represents a prime example of the use of por- classes. traiture as propaganda, particularly through Portraits served as a potent type of propa- the erection of statues of Queen Victoria ganda in the depiction of rulers. Early-eigh- (1819–1901) in India, which, as symbols of teenth-century diplomatic protocol saw the allegiant nationalism, were intended to in- vicarious use of portraiture as representing spire a sense of patriotic feeling in the local the subject as actually present. The portrait natives. Often these took on the form of alle- could thus serve a “representative” function, a gory; in Calcutta the queen is depicted as a frank demonstration of power, hegemony, Roman goddess and elsewhere she is gener- and prestige. Portraits of ruling princes often ally shown as matriarchal, suggesting fair reflected a desire for power, as, for example, treatment for those under the British yoke. in equestrian portraits, where military pres- Portraiture within avant-garde art holds tige was viewed as the foremost duty of a little in the way of propaganda value. The prince. Hence Titian’s (ca. 1488–1576) Em- avant-garde’s stress on art’s autonomy re- peror Charles V after the Battle of Muhlberg moved portraiture from the realm of politics shows the subject in a historical context, hav- in most cases, assuming a more critical stance ing defeated his rival Protestant princes. Such toward the subject. This was compounded by imagery is not always realistic. For example, the rise of abstraction. This autonomy of art in 1653 Antonis Mor (ca. 1519–ca. 1575) was compromised under political dictator- portrayed Philip II of Spain in armor prior to ships. Hitler (1889–1945) and Stalin (1879– the “War of San Quentin” purely for propa- 1953) both saw the importance of controlling ganda purposes. Phillip II was, in fact, never state culture. In both cases the ideology and Portugal 307 culture of the political parties merged with References: Archer, Mildred. India and British the personality of the leader, with aesthetics Portraiture,1770–1825.Karachi, India: Oxford largely a reflection of the leader’s taste. Offi- University Press, 1979; Campbell, Lorne. Renaissance Portraits:European Portrait-Painting in cial art in general veered toward the conser- the 14th,15th and 16th Centuries.New Haven, vative and the grandiose, with the figure of CT: Yale University Press, 1990; Halliday, the leader being depicted as alternately pater- Anthony. Facing the Public:Portraiture in the nal, caring, and vengeful. The iconography Aftermath of the French Revolution.Manchester: may have differed slightly from one dictator- Manchester University Press, 2000; Pointon, ship to another, but the message generally re- Marcia Rachel. Hanging the Head:Portraiture and Social Formation in Eighteenth-Century England. mained the same: the hopes and fears of a na- New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993; tion were focused on one man, who was most Wilton,Andrew. The Swagger Portrait:Grand often depicted as a warrior-leader. This natu- Manner Portraiture in Britain from Van Dyck to rally expressed itself through portrait cycles Augustus John,1630–1930.London: Tate or iconic history paintings. Examples of these Gallery, 1992; Woodall, Joanna. Portraiture. Manchester: Manchester University Press, genres are evident in all totalitarian regimes; 1997. for example, Hubert Lanzinger’s (1880– 1950) The Protector of German Art and Heinrich Knirr’s (1862–1944) modern depiction of Hitler executed in the style of an eighteenth- Portugal century English portrait. A country such as Portugal—which has expe- Stalin was more intimately and personally rienced Islamic, Catholic, Masonic, fascist, depicted in painting than in print. Often, in and even quasi-Marxist forms of govern- an act of political legitimation, he is dwarfed ment—has naturally been subjected to many by a statue of Lenin, as Grigori Shegal’s forms of indoctrination and persuasion over (1889–1956) Leader, Teacher and Friend the past eight hundred years. The longest-run- (1936/7). This was a popular motif in both ning confidence game in history must surely Social Realist art depicting Stalin and in po- be the claim that in medieval Portugal the litical posters. Gustavs Klucis’s (1895–1944) Christians were the legitimate rulers of the Raise the Banner of Marx,Engels,Lenin and Stalin land and the Muslims the alien usurpers. The (1937) and Long Live the Stalinist Order of He- Christians of the north, with their pre-Chris- roes and Stakhanovites! (1936) are two prime tian overlay of Celtic culture and their Bur- examples of Soviet propaganda fostering gundian aristocracy, had no better claim to Stalin’s personality cult. Such imagery was ethnic purity than the Muslims of the south, frequent and commonplace, particularly after with their strong Roman traditions of archi- the suppression of the Russian avant-garde tecture and their lyrical Arabic poetry. His- and the return to iconic subject matter. tory, however, belongs to the victors, and The association of figurative art with totali- when Christian crusaders from England tarian states has led to the gradual rejection of sacked Muslim Lisbon (en route to further ex- portraiture as a dominant art form in postwar ploits involving plundering in the Mediter- art. Portraiture is still paramount in art, al- ranean), the Portuguese of the north worsted though not in the mainstream avant-garde, the Portuguese of the south and eventually where abstraction has led to the dissolution of captured not only the great plains beyond Lis- the art object. The rise of photography has also bon but also appropriated the Algarve—the struck a blow to this once popular art form. crown of the Muslim “Kingdom of the West.” Daniel Cooper So persuasive was the propaganda relating to See also Art;Austrian Empire; Britain; Cartoons; these religious civil wars that when a Por- David, Jacques-Louis; Elizabeth I; France; tuguese academic was recently asked to de- Napoleon; Russia; Spain; Stalin, Joseph liver a paper on Portuguese “independence” to 308 Portugal an international seminar, he spoke neither of A century after Henry’s death Portugal the liberation from Spanish rule in 1640 nor of still believed it had the right to conquer the the ending of British rule in 1820 but rather lands beyond the Pillars of Hercules in the the Christian “victories” of the Middle Ages. name of Christ—and imperial profit—but One of the beneficiaries of the Christian the expedition of 1578 into Morocco, led by conquest of Muslim Portugal was Prince King Sebastian (1554–1578), proved a fiasco. Henry (1394–1460), a commander of the When the long-lamented warriors failed to Order of Christ with a papal license to plun- return from Africa, Philip II of Castile, the der the lands of the “infidels.” The Lancas- widowed former king-consort of England, trian prince, a grandson of John of Gaunt— took over Portugal, claiming that he had “in- onetime claimant to the thrones both of herited it, bought it, and conquered it.” He Castile and of England—was the younger thereafter used the Portuguese fleet, the Ar- son of the king of Portugal and a past master mada, to attempt the capture of England. By of political propaganda. It is said that “he 1640 Portugal had become as closely inte- who pays the piper calls the tune,” and grated into Spain as Catalonia or Andalusia, Henry’s piper, one Azurara, whose chroni- but the Castilianized aristocracy in Lisbon cles the next fifteen generations of historians greatly feared that heavy taxation and large treated as evidence rather than as propa- military levies might lead to a peasant revolt, ganda, was second to none in the art of as had already happened in 1637. They were praising. At the age of sixteen Henry em- also concerned that the court at Madrid barked on a catastrophic venture into Mus- would be so preoccupied in suppressing re- lim North Africa—hitching a ferry ride on a volts in richer provinces that it would not large but ill-fated international expedition have the military resources to suppress a re- commissioned by the pope—and although volt against the landowners of Portugal. Thus the little Moroccan port of Ceuta was it was that on 1 December 1640 the aristoc- seized, Henry had to sacrifice his elder racy seized local power in Lisbon, persuaded brother, murdered for want of an adequate the duke of Braganza (1604–1656) to adopt ransom. Like Churchill (1874–1965) at the style of “king,” and announced, with all Dunkirk, Henry’s propagandists turned bit- the propaganda devices at their disposal, that ter defeat into songs of victory over the Is- they were restoring l’ancien régime of King lamic “forces of darkness,” and four centuries Sebastian and claiming independence for Por- later Victorian Englishmen dubbed Henry tugal. It took twenty-eight years of civil and “the Navigator,” although he is not known international war—part of the Thirty Years’ ever to have set foot on a boat again. Instead War that settled the future of early modern he commissioned the fishermen of the Al- Europe—for Spain, France (which had a garve to raid the coast of Morocco for Moor- powerful court faction at Lisbon), and the pa- ish slaves to work the conquered latifundia of pacy (which had refused to consecrate any the Portuguese main. He even managed to bishops for the Portuguese church during claim credit for his brother’s shrewd efforts hostilities) to accept Portuguese independ- to bring Italian bankers and sea captains to ence under English patronage. This patron- Lisbon, where they alleviated the city’s peri- age, however, cost Portugal dearly, and in ex- odic bread famines by initiating the first change for agreeing to take the Portuguese overseas colonization and planting of wheat- princess Catherine of Braganza (1638–1705) fields on the Atlantic islands. By the twenti- as his bride, Charles II of England (1630– eth century Prince Henry had become the 1685) demanded the remnants of the Por- idol of imperialism and was the ubiquitous tuguese empire in North Africa—Tangier— symbol of power during Portugal’s half- and the safe haven of the Portuguese in century of fascist-style autocracy. India—Bombay—as a dowry. Portugal’s Portugal 309

“oldest ally” demanded its pound of flesh and the erection of one of Lisbon’s most potent its pint of blood. In 1703 the neocolonial de- statues honoring brute power. pendency between Portugal and England was After Wellington’s (1769–1852) Peninsu- consolidated by John Methuen (ca. 1650– lar Wars, the English army, under the com- 1706), but the terms of his famous treaty mand of Field Marshal William Carr Beres- were not as unequal as Portuguese patriots ford (1768–1854), ruled Portugal for a and propagandists would have their readers decade and began a century-long process of believe, with England agreeing to buy quanti- English modernization. Although some of ties of occasionally inferior Portuguese wine this modernization proved effective, a great in return for a guaranteed Portuguese market deal was window dressing in the style for English woolens. adopted by provincial officials in Catherine The propaganda and counterpropaganda the Great’s (1729–1796) Russia. The phrase relating to the Methuen Treaty rumbled on “para o inglês ver”—putting on appearances for three centuries, but in 1755 an earth- for the benefit of the English—became one quake destroyed Lisbon and its government of the country’s most frequent sayings as as- was taken over by a quasi-enlightened des- piration failed to match reality. But change pot, the future Marquis of Pombal (1699– did occur: the monasteries were dissolved 1782), who devoted considerable skill to the and the land was given to a merchant bour- rewriting of history. His postings as chargé geoisie, which turned itself into a British- d’affaires in both Vienna and London had style House of Lords while the generals given him powerful insights into both the played musical chairs with seats in the cabinet Old World aristocracy and the New World and the house of Saxe-Coburg took over the merchant bourgeoisie. Following the earth- monarchy. The English were constantly quake, Pombal wrongly claimed all the credit breathing down the necks of the Portuguese. for “feeding the living and burying the dead,” Lord Palmerston (1784–1865) was heard to banishing the true leaders of the philan- mutter: “I occasionally find it necessary to ad- thropic recovery program to remote monas- minister a sound chastisement to the semi- tic houses. He then set about spreading a barbarous nations of the world such as China campaign of disinformation about Portugal’s or Portugal.” This arrogant style of politics fi- aristocrats, who had allegedly been disloyal nally exploded in 1890 when Portugal’s to the crown, and eventually killed some of claim to a natural sphere of influence in Cen- them with an excessive public display of cru- tral Africa—from Angola across the Zambezi elty—a symbolic use of power politics that River and the Zimbabwe highlands to Mo- was fearfully recalled by ordinary Portuguese zambique—was absentmindedly dismissed when a new police state was established in by Lord Salisbury (1830–1903) in London, the 1930s. Pombal gave power and status to an insult that still rankled in Portugal a cen- the king, his feeble patron, even obliterating tury later but was scarcely noticed at the time the names of the benefactors from the tower- in England. ing Lisbon aqueduct and anachronistically at- The twentieth century began violently for tributing the grand structure to his tame Portugal when the king was assassinated in master. Although claiming to be a great pa- 1908 and Portugal was once more disputing triot, Pombal in fact sold commercial rights with England over the continuing trade in to largely English foreigners when he estab- colonial slaves captured in Angola and lished the quality port wine trade to replace Mozambique. No amount of sugarcoating the dwindling colonial revenues of Brazil. could disguise the fact that Britain was buying Two centuries later the Portuguese Republic Portuguese cocoa from slave-run plantations, claimed Pombal as one of its sources of inspi- and soon thereafter the trade was banned and ration, and the Masonic lodges helped fund the Saxe-Coburg dynasty was overthrown by 310 Portugal a working-class conspiracy fomented in se- that his regime’s minuscule and carefully vet- cret carbonari cells. A subsequent revolution ted electoral elite represented “democracy.” was orchestrated by middle-class Freema- Salazar’s greatest coup was to present himself sons. The propaganda spread by the republic as the champion of white “civilization” just from 1910 to 1926 blamed the country’s ills when the United Nations seemed about to be on aristocrats, clergymen, and the foreigners flooded with black Third World applicants, who dragged Portugal into the Great War of and in 1955 Portugal was admitted to the or- 1914, thereby bankrupting the exchequer. ganization as though it had been an approved The outlawed Catholic Church fought back democracy. by blaming the postwar depression on Ma- However, the admission of Portugal as a sonic incompetence, encouraging Catholic white counterweight at the United Nations army officers to oust their Masonic counter- soon backfired in a most spectacular and parts, which occurred in the military coup ironic fashion, and Salazar once again had to d’état of May 1926. To hold on to its power summon all his skills in political persuasion. the army turned to Antonio Salazar (1889– In 1961 the Portuguese colonies rebelled 1970), a part-time journalist and lecturer in against two generations of cruel economic bookkeeping who proved to be one of the exploitation that utilized forced labor and century’s most adept (if mendacious) manip- centuries of virulent racial abuse. The propa- ulators of information and propaganda. ganda machine denied that forced labor was Salazar was a modest landowner and a one- practiced, claiming that Africans were natu- time fledgling priest with a taste for wine and rally idle and would never become “civilized” women that outstripped his income but not unless forced to adopt methodical work prac- his ability to market himself as an ascetic re- tices. During a particularly severe bout of cluse and a financial genius. By adopting a compulsory cotton cropping in 1945, Salazar crude form of early monetarism and denying is alleged to have remarked: “Famine is a fig- both the theory and the morality of Keynes- ment of the Bantu [African] imagination.” He ian economics, he was able to cut back on so- was even more incensed by the accusations of cial expenditures so savagely that his ministry racism leveled against Portugal, and the city of finance could afford to pay the upper eche- of Lisbon was plastered with posters pro- lons of the army enough to live in idle com- claiming that black and white were equal in fort. He presented himself as a messiah, his great empire. One of the most peculiar though he rapidly eschewed the posters of features of the hysteria was the claim that the himself as a sword-bearing crusader and in- mixed-race mestizo element of the colonial stead adopted the social restraints perfected population was a symptom of equality rather by Mussolini (1883–1945) in Italy, though than an indication that however well the without imitating the latter’s bombastic modesty of white girls might be protected by speeches or the grand popular marches. Al- church and state, African women were fair though Salazar never left his country, through game for all; even novices in convents lost shrewd diplomacy he maintained working re- their virginity to lustful colonial officials, lations with both Franklin Roosevelt (1882– while other black girls were taken at will by 1945) and Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) until their employers or by conscripted soldiers their deaths, enabling him to survive—along for whom sex was almost the only solace in a with his much-despised neighbor, Gen. Fran- lonely posting. Even so, the propaganda ma- cisco Franco (1892–1975) of Spain—while chine continued to blare out the message that other fascist dictatorships fell. He billed him- Portugal did not abuse and exploit nonwhites self as a stalwart anti-Communist fit to be ad- in the way South Africa had commonly done. mitted to the North Atlantic Treaty Organi- Strident rhetoric was less effective than zation (NATO) and even attempted to claim silent diplomacy in protecting the Por- Postage Stamps 311 tuguese empire for another half generation, Old Moscow-style Communists participated and Salazar was able to force U.S. president in new governments, while more energetic John F. Kennedy (1917–1963) to reverse an left-wing political groups painted every avail- American policy of proclaiming “Africa for able wall in Lisbon with graffiti advocating the Africans” by threatening to close the mid- everything from free love to land nationaliza- Atlantic airfields on the Portuguese islands. tion. The radicalism of the daily street The Washington climb-down enabled Salazar demonstrations and the gaudiness of nightly quietly to divert weapons issued to Portugal spray-can artistry persuaded some Por- for the defense of the North Atlantic against tuguese to emigrate, but the majority waited the USSR to bomb rebel colonies in Africa for the tide to turn. Twenty-five years later back into submission. No amount of diplo- many people were not even sure whether the macy and papal lobbying, however, enabled “revolution of the carnations” had been a rev- Portugal to recover its Indian colonies, and olution at all, though the verbal barrage had the thousands of monotone posters proclaim- been nothing if not exhilarating. ing “Goa is ours” began peeling along the David Birmingham colonnades of Lisbon shopping arcades. See also Africa; International; Reformation and Meanwhile, in Africa white vigilantes Counter-Reformation; Spain butchered any educated blacks they could lay References: Birmingham, David. A Concise History of Portugal.Cambridge: Cambridge their hands on, exploding once and for all the University Press, 1993;———. Portugal and myth of colonial racial harmony. In the end, Africa. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave, 1999; Boxer, colonial propaganda failed not only in the C. R. Race Relations in the Portuguese Colonial colonial and international spheres but also in Empire.Oxford: Oxford University Press, the domestic one as a hundred thousand Por- 1963; Macaulay, Rose. They Went to Portugal. tuguese turned their backs on the rose-col- London: Jonathan Cape, 1946; Maxwell, Kenneth. The Making of Portuguese Democracy. ored empire of the propaganda images and, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, hidden under freight trains, set off to work il- 1995; Nogeira, Franco. Salazar.6 vols. licitly in the “miracle” factories of postwar Coimbra, Portugal:Atlantida, 1977–1985; France. The captains of Portuguese industry Pélissier, René. Explorar.Voyages en Angola et soon abandoned the myth of imperial propa- autres lieux incertains. Orgeval, France: Pélissier, 1979; Saramago, José. The Year of the Death of ganda too, tired of government development Ricardo Reis. London: HarperCollins, 1992; plans often based on fictitious statistical pro- White, Landeg. The Lusiads of Camoes. Oxford: jections prepared for propaganda purposes Oxford University Press, 1997. and then recycled as hard data. The industri- alists joined forces with young army offi- cers—many of whom had not made adequate Postage Stamps speculative profits out of colonial black mar- Postage stamps are receipts for prepaid deliv- kets and currency speculation—and between ery of envelopes or packages, but they can them they overthrew the dictatorship of convey messages displayed on them along Salazar’s dauphin, Marcelo Caetano (1906– with the amount paid. Thus, they can serve as 1980). Young soldiers marched into Lisbon little posters, which make up for their small as ecstatic crowds thronged to put carnations size by the scale and scope of their distribu- in their rifle barrels, while businessmen pre- tion. Canada, for instance, has produced pared to enter the European Union. stamps displaying images of the monarch, po- Before Portugal made the full transition litical leaders, church leaders, the maple leaf, from imperial pariah to industrial democ- distinguished authors, outstanding artists, racy, it underwent a phase of political experi- flags of the ten provinces, national flora and mentation in which propaganda scribbled on fauna, discoveries by Canadians, national avi- walls was at its most colorful and exuberant. ation history, distinctive artifacts, national 312 Postage Stamps parks, aboriginal peoples, important cities, During its eighty-five years of existence, expositions, ships, and sports heroes. In this the Soviet Union likewise promoted favor- way Canada seeks to project a favorable able images of its ideology and accomplish- image of its country. ments, although, unlike Hitler, Stalin seldom The United States has produced similar appeared. On the other hand, Marx, Engels, stamps, plus some conveying American ideol- and Lenin appeared often. Typical Soviet ogy. During World War II its stamps and can- symbols included the red star, hammer and cellations featured slogans such as “Defense sickle, and flags of the federated Soviet states, Comes First,” “Let’s Go U.S.A.,” “Keep ’Em along with mine workers, peasants, and sol- Flying,” “Speed Up for Victory,” and “Nations diers. The success of each Five-Year Plan was United for Victory” (with the American bald underscored with images of factories, blast eagle often appearing with its powerful wings furnaces, hydroelectric power stations, trac- forming a “V”). These stamps also bore im- tors, and new public buildings. As in Nazi ages of various allies holding swords to sym- Germany, during World War II Soviet bolize their united military power. In the half postage stamps depicted military hardware, century since the war, the United States has naval ships, the defense of Stalingrad, and disseminated its ideology by producing Red Army scouts and snipers. Stamps also re- stamps about religious freedom, freedom of minded the public of Soviet exploits in space, the press, world peace through law and famous Soviet writers, and victories in inter- trade, NATO united for freedom, John national sports, especially hockey. Kennedy’s Alliance for Progress, food for Postage stamps issued by Communist peace, and freedom from hunger. Often China are especially interesting. Beginning in stamps have appeared with quotations by 1927, Chinese Communists began using Washington, Franklin, and Lincoln. Space ex- postage stamps for propaganda in their base ploration has also been a popular theme. territories. Their crude stamps exhibited the Revolutionary and totalitarian regimes use red star, the hammer and sickle, and the stamps, along with other instruments of mass globe with red spreading across its surface to persuasion, in a deliberate way to mold the signify the worldwide scope of the move- opinions of their citizenry toward the regime. ment. (Red has been associated with violent During the twelve years of Germany’s Third events since the French Revolution, but Reich, the commonest image on postage crimson or hones red has had a special appeal stamps was that of Hitler, usually flanked by to the Chinese, symbolizing joyous events.) Nazi symbols such as the swastika, torches, After losing their foothold in southeastern giant swords, huge eagles, and powerful steeds China and the Long March to the north, the (a symbol of Aryan power in the sense of pure Communists issued similar stamps in liber- breeding) pulling a chariot driven by the god- ated regions. Once the Chinese Communists dess Victory. To make him appear more won national power in 1949, they began to human, Hitler was often shown alongside produce better-quality stamps designed to mothers and children. During World War II impress the masses. Popular themes in- many stamps featured an array of transport ve- cluded: the Communist Manifesto, Russia’s Oc- hicles, such as armored tanks, submarines, air- tober Revolution, China’s May Fourth Move- planes, and gun ships. Sometimes Hitler was ment (1919), the founding of the Chinese depicted facing Mussolini with a slogan that Communist Party, the Long March, the inau- read: “Zwei Volkes, Ein Krieg” (Two peoples, guration of the People’s Republic of China, One War). Cancellations also featured a huge and the “liberation” of Tibet (showing cattle sword emerging from a giant swastika pene- grazing peacefully alongside the Communist trating into the east with the slogan: “Gegen Chinese flag). With the start of the Cultural Bolshevismus” (Against Bolshevism). Revolution in 1966, the look of Chinese Posters 313 stamps changed in terms of size and theme. nineteenth century. Lithography had been in- Chairman Mao’s sayings (either in type or in vented in the 1790s by the German named his own handwriting) appeared alongside his Aloys Senefelder (1771–1834), who used likeness. Other stamps featured heroes who Bavarian limestone. The lithographic process had died, terraced hillsides symbolizing the is based on the mutual antipathy of oil and conquest of nature, scenes from Mao’s wife’s water. The drawing is made in reverse di- new revolutionary operas, and the integra- rectly on a smooth, flat stone using crayon or tion of women into the workforce. ink containing a greasy substance. The fatty James A.Leith substance interacts with the stone to form an See also Black Propaganda; China; Posters; insoluble layer that accepts printer’s ink but Russia; Spain rejects water. In other words, those portions References: Altman, Dennis. Paper Ambassadors: of the stone that have been drawn on have an The Politics of Stamps.North Ride,Australia: Angus and Robertson, 1991; Leith, James A. affinity for ink while the rest of the wet stone “Postage Stamps and Ideology in Communist rejects it. China.” Queen’s Quarterly 78, 2 (1971): Lithography proved a relatively fast way of 176–186; Stoetzer, Carlos. Postage Stamps as producing illustrated posters. Later improve- Propaganda. Washington, DC: Public Affairs ments permitted drawings to be transferred Press, 1953;Strauss, Harlan J. Subliminal from paper onto stone by means of pressure, Propaganda:The Postage Stamp. Eugene: University of Oregon Press, 1972. avoiding the necessity for the artist to reverse his image. Color lithography was made possi- ble by using as many stones as the colors needed in the design. With the invention of Posters photolithography, a negative was exposed Posters are handwritten or printed notices, over a gelatin-covered paper. Wherever the announcements, and advertisements dis- light did not strike the gelatin the latter re- played in a public space. Posters have been mained soluble, while the rest remained in- around ever since people began to write an- soluble. The soluble sections were then nouncements on parchment or paper and washed away, with the drawing inked and mounted them on buildings, especially in transferred to stone. conspicuous places such as public edifices and These techniques developed concurrently streetcorners. After the invention of printing with the rise of a consumer society. In the by means of movable type, such announce- late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries ments could be disseminated with ease and in striking posters advertised consumer prod- much greater numbers. Until the nineteenth ucts such as tonics, alcoholic beverages, ciga- century most posters consisted of large head- rettes, clothing, bicycles, and sewing ma- ings with smaller type underneath. Such chines, as well as concerts, plays, cabarets, printed posters were issued primarily by po- and sporting events. As railways linked Euro- litical and religious groups.At the start of the pean countries, eye-catching posters adver- French Revolution posters still consisted tised trips to beach and mountain resorts. mainly of printed words with the royal coat Companies representing transatlantic and of arms at the top, whereas after the over- Mediterranean ocean liners produced appeal- throw of the monarchy in 1792, such an- ing posters advertising trips to exotic desti- nouncements appeared with Liberty Bonnets nations. With the advent of automobiles in or a female figure representing Liberty as the the early twentieth century, rival manufac- sole graphic work. turers advertised their vehicles on a large Most posters continued to consist primar- scale. ily of printed messages until the spread of li- With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, thography (literally “writing on stone”) in the illustrated posters became indispensable as 314 Posters the belligerent powers waged “total war” being the color of counterrevolution—with against their enemies. Such warfare involved the slogan “Beat the Whites with the Red the mobilization of huge armies, the produc- Wedge.” Posters were affixed to walls, store- tion of vast quantities of military supplies, fronts, on canal boats, and on propaganda and the raising of huge amounts of money. trains. The widespread use of posters contin- Recruitment posters generally depicted a ued after 1928 under Stalin, but they were military leader or a soldier who pointed a fin- less modernistic and cluttered with wordy ger at the onlooker, asking: “Have you volun- exhortations. teered?” Recruitment campaigns also used Twentieth-century revolutions on the right posters in which wives and sweethearts ap- in Italy,Spain, and Germany all used posters to pealed to their men to enlist immediately. rally people to their cause. Nazi posters fea- Many posters urged citizens to finance the tured swastikas, eagles, huge swords, images war effort, while others called on those be- of leaders—especially Hitler—and repellant hind the lines to produce more food and depictions of Jews. During World War II many weapons. Still others warned citizens not to posters featured soldiers in armed conflict, discuss what they knew about military opera- planes, ships, and submarines. Italian Fascist tions lest the enemy glean valuable informa- posters were similar except for prominent tion. To whip up popular support, all the fasces—an ancient Roman image consisting of warring states produced images of alleged a bundle of rods tied closely together, with an atrocities by the enemy, especially against axe in the center—a symbol of state power women and children. and corporate union. During the Spanish Civil Like total war, revolutions demand poster War both the right and the left made wide- propaganda. Revolutionary leaders need to spread use of posters to rally support. When discredit the old regime, create support for Francisco Franco’s (1892–1975) right-wing their new ideology, stimulate recruitment for Falangist Party won the war in 1939, it em- the revolutionary army, and convey the ad- ployed posters to consolidate power. vantages of the new order. The Paris Com- Despite the advent of radio and moving mune of 1871 set a precedent when both pictures, World War II, like World War I, Communards and Anti-Communards pro- made heavy use of posters. Since then there duced a flood of lithographed words and im- have been occasional upsurges in the utiliza- ages. The Russian Revolution in 1917 re- tion of posters: during the Chinese civil war sulted in thousands of posters denouncing and the Communist victory in 1949, espe- tsars, priests, and wealthy farmers (kulaks) cially throughout the Cultural Revolution, while glorifying workers and peasants. In the from 1966 onward; following Castro’s con- 1920s many posters were designed in a con- quest of Cuba in 1959; during the student- structivist style, with a stress on the evils of worker insurrection in France in 1966; and the old regime and the promises of the new during the Iranian revolution in 1979. In the one. A typical poster portrayed (in the upper West they continue to be used to promote left) the old regime in black with poorly consumer products, but they are also em- dressed peasants carrying oil lamps and living ployed widely in political campaigns and in dilapidated log houses, while (in the lower demonstrations. It seems reasonable to pre- right) in red one saw well-dressed peasants dict that despite the current popularity of the using electric lights and living in modern electronic media, they will continue to be homes. Red, of course, was the international mobilized in the twenty-first century. symbol of radical revolution since the French James A.Leith Revolution. El Lissitzky (1890–1941) cre- See also Art; China; Elections (Britain); Flagg, ated a famous abstract poster showing a large James Montgomery; Health; Iran; Russia; Uncle red triangle piercing a white circle—white Sam; World War I; World War II (Russia) Prisoners of War 315

References: Barnicourt, John. Posters:A Concise propaganda activities aimed at their country History.London: Thames and Hudson, 1988; of origin. North Korea’s and China’s alleged Bonnel,Victoria A. Iconography of Power:Soviet brainwashing of British and American prison- Official Posters under Lenin and Stalin.Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997; Evans, ers during the Korean War (1950–1953) Harriet. Picturing Power in the People’s Republic of caused an intense moral panic in the United China:Posters of the Cultural Revolution.Lanham, States in the mid-1950s. Ironically, both MD: Rowman and Littlefield, 1999; Gallo, British and American authorities themselves Max. The Poster in History.New York:American engaged in attempts to reeducate POWs, in- Heritage, 1972; Leith, James A., ed. Images of cluding German POWs during World War II the Commune/Images de la Commune.Montreal and London: McGill–Queen’s University (as part of the wider denazification effort), Press, 1967. Rickards, Maurice. Posters of Protest and in Korea, where hundreds of thousands and Revolution.New York: Walter, 1970. of Communist prisoners were persuaded to renounce North Korea for South Korea at the conclusion of hostilities. Pravda (Truth) It is hardly surprising that the presence of The official organ of the Central Committee captured personnel in enemy hands should of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, arouse anxiety not only over the prisoners’ the paper began as the title of the Bolshevik treatment but also their behavior while in cap- faction of the Russian Social Democrats in tivity. Various agreed-upon conventions—at 1912. The naming of the official voice of So- least on paper—govern the treatment of viet Communism as “truth” gives a clear indi- POWs by their captors and the behavior their cation of the unquestioned value of official own armed forces expect of them should pronouncements within the Soviet Union. In they fall into enemy hands (for example, a similar fashion the official newspaper of the making clear that “collaboration” may be an Supreme Soviet was named Izvestiya (The offense punishable by court-martial). Strictly News). Editors of Pravda included the then speaking, the Geneva Conventions prohibit rising star Joseph Stalin (1879–1953) and captors from requiring more information Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938). from their prisoners than their name, rank, Graham Roberts and serial number. The conventions also out- See also Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich; Revolution, law other abuses, including attempts either Russian; Russia; Stalin, Joseph to influence prisoners’ attitudes while in cap- References: Roxburgh,A. Pravda:Inside the Soviet tivity or to manipulate POWs for propaganda News Machine. London: Gollancz, 1987. purposes. These safeguards notwithstanding, POWs remain in a uniquely exposed and vulnerable Prisoners of War position, with internationally agreed-upon Prisoners of war (POWs) have been both ac- codes of conduct commonly breached. Wars tively and passively enmeshed in propaganda. in which combatants develop mirror-image In the aftermath of war, prisoners have often conceptions of their opponents’ inhumanity been transmuted into mythic figures and are unlikely to generate propitious circum- popular cultural icons, but POWs have also stances for humane treatment of surrendered become the direct target of propagandistic or captured enemy personnel. Moreover, initiatives aimed at them. The closed condi- even states that do recognize the Geneva tions of POW camps facilitate far-reaching Conventions balk at extending its protective attempts to reshape prisoners’ attitudes and clauses to prisoners captured in conflicts that manipulate their behavior toward specific fall short of declared war (as seen early in ends: to render prisoners docile, extract in- 2002 with regard to the Al Qaeda/Taliban telligence, or compel them to participate in fighters transported by the United States to 316 Prisoners of War

Viet Cong prisoners captured during Operation Starlite await transfer by helicopter to a prisoner-of-war camp in August 1965.The Marine search-and-destroy operation south of Chu Lai resulted in 599 Viet Cong casualties.(National Archives)

Guantanamo Bay in Cuba). The treatment of popular iconography and national myth-mak- “terrorist suspects” thus poses particularly ing. In the twentieth century POW hero- vexing questions concerning the legal status ism—and the camaraderie of camp life—in- of those incarcerated in what is nominally spired a plethora of feature films, television peacetime. Prisoners may demand the politi- series, comics, and novels. World War II cal status that a state is keen to deny them by loomed large, inspiring multiple representa- treating their actions as criminal, and such tions of Allied escapes from notorious Nazi contests readily become the site of intense strongholds, such as Colditz (the subject of a propaganda. In the case of the IRA hunger British film and television dramas). Likewise, strikes (1980–1981), the election of partici- Japan’s treatment of Allied POWs during pant Bobby Sands (1954–1981) to Parlia- World War II has been well documented in ment, followed by his death, helped galvanize fiction and film, perhaps most memorably in support for the nationalist cause both within David Lean’s movie The Bridge on the River Northern Ireland and overseas as the IRA Kwai (1957). But while tales of resistance and placed itself within a long tradition of Irish endurance or, alternatively, of escape form martyrdom at English hands. staples of POW mythology, POWs have also Subject to abuse, exploitation, and brutal- inspired much controversy, with less heroic ization, POWs provide much material for behavior in captivity sometimes taken as il- Propaganda, Definitions of 317 lustrative of failings of “national character.” Lawrence Hill, 1992; Gruner, Elliot. Prisoners of After the Korean War, for example, a num- Culture:Representing the Vietnam POW. New ber of prominent American social critics Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1993; Kinkead, Eugene. In Every War But One. charged that POWs had never before failed New York: Norton, 1959; O’Malley, Padraig. to escape, succumbed to disease and death, Biting at the Grave:The Irish Hunger Strikes and the or collaborated with the enemy in such num- Politics of Despair. Belfast, UK: Blackstaff, 1990; bers. Diverse sources of the national charac- White, William Lindsey. The Captives of Korea: terological malaise were identified, ranging An Unofficial White Paper on the Treatment of War from suffocating mothers to material afflu- Prisoners. New York: Scribner’s, 1957. ence, that had sapped the psychic and physi- cal vigor of a young generation of postwar Americans. Propaganda, Definitions of During and following the Vietnam War, What are the characteristic features of propa- U.S. prisoners again became a source of con- ganda? In his book on Communist propa- troversy. In the wake of Vietnam, however, ganda techniques, John Clews describes the issue of POWs and those missing in ac- propaganda as “the vogue word” of the twen- tion (MIA) has generally been framed around tieth century. While the word itself origi- government misconduct rather than prison- nated with the seventeenth-century Roman ers’ improprieties. Unlike their counterparts Catholic Commission of Cardinals set up by in Korea, U.S. prisoners in Vietnam have re- the pope for the propagation of the Catholic peatedly been depicted as victims of sadistic faith, in the course of the twentieth century it Communist mistreatment who were be- has come to have pejorative associations. trayed and abandoned by their government. Modern synonyms for propaganda include In line with Hollywood’s cinematic interven- “lies,” “deceit,” and “brainwashing.” The Pen- tions, at best the POW/MIA lobby has guin Political Dictionary (1957) has defined charged the U.S. government with making propaganda as “statements of policy or facts, insufficient requests to Hanoi to secure the usually of a political nature, the real purpose release of American soldiers in captivity; at of which is different from their apparent pur- worst with conniving with Hanoi in their dis- pose ...a statement by a government or po- appearance. Unleashing much emotion, the litical party which is believed to be insincere POW/MIA issue bedeviled Washington’s at- or untrue, and designed to impress the public tempts to restore diplomatic relations with at large rather than to reach the truth or to Vietnam in the 1980s and early 1990s. bring about a genuine understanding be- As controversy in Western Europe in 2002 tween opposing governments or parties.” over conditions at the U.S. military prison at More recently the Pocket Oxford Dictionary Guantanamo Bay again demonstrated, prison- (1984) provided a colloquial definition of ers can readily become the focus of political propaganda as “biased information.” disputes and popular sentiment. As both sub- Such definitions are not helpful, perpetu- jects and objects of propaganda, POWs in- ating the misleading belief that propaganda spire passions far beyond the scene of their has to do with “good or bad,” “right or captivity and long after it has ended. wrong.”As Harold Lasswell (1902–1978) has Susan Carruthers maintained, propaganda as a mere tool is no See also Australia; Brainwashing; Ireland; Korean more moral or immoral than a pump handle. War; Reeducation; Terrorism; Terrorism, War One of the problems confronting the student on;Vietnam War of propaganda is the veritable plethora of def- References: Biderman,Albert. March to Calumny: The Story of American POWs in the Korean War. initions. Some are distinguished by their New York: Macmillan, 1963; Franklin, H. brevity: Jacques Driencourt’s all-encompass- Bruce. MIA or Mythmaking in America.New York: ing assertion that “Toute est propagande” 318 Propaganda, Definitions of

(everything is propaganda) is not very help- cessful propaganda is true propaganda. How- ful. Equally unhelpful are those definitions ever, all these definitions fail precisely be- that attempt to encapsulate in a single sen- cause each of them excludes activities that tence larded with qualifiers all the distinctive should clearly be defined as propagandistic. and distinguishing features of propaganda. Where better to begin than with the pro- Most writers on the subject agree that propa- pagandist himself? How important to the ganda is concerned with influencing opinion. definition of propaganda is the purpose of Frederick Lumley (1880–1954) and William the propagandist or his sense of purpose? Albig, among others, regard secrecy or a Doob regards the question of purpose as ir- concealed source as an essential defining ele- relevant, arguing instead that the decisive ment in propaganda; as soon as the source is factor is the use of suggestion: “If individu- revealed, as in advertising, the activity ceases als are controlled through the use of sug- to be propaganda. Others stress the contro- gestion ...then the process may be called versial element in propaganda. Harold Lass- propaganda, regardless of whether or not well has argued that while the spread of con- the propagandist intends to exercise the troversial attitudes is propaganda, the spread control.” It is difficult to see how Doob can of accepted attitudes and skills is a form of maintain that propaganda can suggest some- education. Similarly, Leonard Doob (1909– thing that it was not intended to suggest. 2000) has suggested that propaganda is “the There is a degree of deliberation in the no- attempt to affect the personalities and to tion of suggestion that this writer does not control the behavior of individuals toward allow for. ends considered unscientific or of doubtful A similar objection can be raised to A. J. value in a society at a particular time.” Some Mackenzie’s definition, where the use of “at- writers stress the emotional as opposed to tempt” also implies a degree of deliberation. the intellectual appeal of propaganda. Lass- An attempt to disseminate propaganda must well has argued that propaganda is concerned be both conscious and deliberate. The “pur- with attitudes of love and hate, whereas edu- pose” of the propaganda is therefore the key. cation is concerned with the transmission of Without purpose propaganda can have no skills and is therefore not propaganda. Lass- aim and direction, and therefore no distinc- well has referred to propaganda as the “ma- tive function differentiating it from other nipulation of collective attitudes by the use of social and political activities. Propaganda is significant symbols (words, pictures, tunes).” an attempt at targeted communication with Writing in Mein Kampf, Adolf Hitler (1889– an objective that has been established a pri- 1945) claimed that the masses were influ- ori. Propaganda is best seen as the deliber- enced not by their brains but by their emo- ate attempt to influence public opinion tions: “In consequence, all effective propa- through the transmission of ideas and values ganda must be limited to a very few points for a specific purpose, not through violence and must harp on these in slogans until the or bribery.As Lindley Fraser has stated: “To last member of the public understands what affect a donkey’s behavior by whipping is you want him to understand by your slogan.” not propaganda, nor is plying it with car- Other writers have emphasized the impor- rots. But if the owner shouts at it in a threat- tance of the mechanisms of transmission in ening manner, or tries to coax it with win- their definitions of propaganda. Terence ning words, then the word begins to Qualter, for example, has defined propaganda become appropriate.” as the deliberate attempt to control or alter Modern political propaganda is con- opinions through the use of the instruments sciously designed to serve the interests, ei- of communication. French sociologist Jacques ther directly or indirectly, of the propagan- Ellul (1912–1994) has insisted that only suc- dists and their political masters. The aim of Propaganda, Definitions of 319 propaganda is to persuade its subject that slogans until the last member of the public there is only one valid point of view and to understands what you want him to under- eliminate all other options. What follows is a stand by your slogan” (p. 165). Adolf Hitler. brief chronological survey of the variety and Mein Kampf (1925), trans. Ralph Manheim. scope of definitions of propaganda over the Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1943. course of the twentieth century. “Propaganda is the management of collec- tive attitudes by the manipulation of signifi- Pre-1918 cant symbols... One propaganda group “A propagandist presents many ideas to one may flourish in secret and another may invite or a few persons; an agitator presents only publicity...Democracy has proclaimed the one or a few ideas, but he presents them to a dictatorship of palaver, and the technique of mass of people.” Georgi Plekhanov. “What Is dictating to the dictator is named propa- to Be Done?” (1902). Quoted in V. I. Lenin, ganda” (Harold D. Lasswell. “The Theory of Collected Works.Vol. 5. London: Lawrence and Political Propaganda.” American Political Sci- Wishart, 1961, p. 409. ence Review21 [1927]: 627). “Propaganda may be defined as a technique of social control, or 1920s as a species of social movement. As technique, “Our system of education turns young people it is the manipulation of collective attitudes out of the schools able to read, but for the by the use of significant symbols (words, pic- most part unable to weigh evidence or to tures, tunes) rather than violence, bribery or form an independent opinion” (p. 34). “Pro- boycott. Propaganda differs from the tech- paganda, conducted by the means which ad- nique of pedagogy in that propaganda is con- vertisers have found successful, is now one of cerned with attitudes of love and hate, while the recognized methods of government in all pedagogy is devoted to the transmission of advanced countries, and is especially the skill...The spread of controversial attitudes method by which democratic opinion is cre- is propaganda, the spread of accepted atti- ated...There are two quite different evils tudes and skills is education” (idem. “The about propaganda as now practiced. On the Person: Subject and Object of Propaganda.” one hand, its appeal is generally to irrational Annals of the American Academy of Political and causes of belief rather than to serious argu- Social Science 179 [1927]: 189). ment; on the other hand, it gives an unfair “Propaganda is the executive arm of the advantage to those who can obtain most pub- invisible government” (p. 20). “Propaganda licity, whether through wealth or through will never die out. Intelligent men must real- power” (p. 35). Bertrand Russell. “Free ize that propaganda is the modern instru- Thought and Official Propaganda” (1922 ment by which they can fight for productive Conway Memorial Lecture). In Let the People ends and help to bring order out of chaos” (p. Think: A Selection of Essays. London: Watts, 159). Edward L. Bernays. Propaganda. New 1941. York: Liveright, 1928. “The task of propaganda is to attract fol- lowers; the task of organization is to win 1930s members.A follower of the movement is one “Propaganda is not education, it strives for who finds himself in agreement with its aims; the closed mind rather than the open mind. It a member is one who fights for it” (p. 163). is not concerned about the development of “The receptivity of the great masses is very mature individuals. Its aim is immediate ac- limited, their intelligence is small, but their tion. The propagandist merely wishes you to power of forgetting is enormous. In conse- think as he does. The educator is more mod- quence, all effective propaganda must be lim- est, he is so delighted if you think at all that ited to a few points and must harp on these in he is willing to let you do so in your own 320 Propaganda, Definitions of

way.”Everett Dean Martin. The Conflict of the are two kinds of propaganda—rational prop- Individual and the Mass. New York: Henry aganda in favor of action that is consonant Holt, 1932, p. 29. with the enlightened self-interest of those “Propaganda is promotion which is veiled who make it and those to whom it is ad- in one way or another as to (1) its origin or dressed, and nonrational propaganda that is sources, (2) the interests involved, (3) the not consonant with anybody’s enlightened methods employed, (4) the content spread, self-interest, but is dictated by, and appeals to and (5) the results accruing to the victims— passion.” Idem. “Propaganda in a Democratic any one, any two, any three, any four, or all Society.” In Brave New World Revisited. London: five.” Frederick E. Lumley. The Propaganda Chatto & Windus, 1959. Menace.New York: Century, 1933, p. 44. “Propaganda is an attempt, either uncon- “May the bright flame of our enthusiasm sciously or as part of a systematic campaign never be extinguished. It alone gives light and by an individual or group holding certain be- warmth to the creative art of a modern polit- liefs or desiring certain ends, to influence ical propaganda...It may be a good thing to others to adopt identical attitudes.” A. J. possess power that rests on arms. But it is Mackenzie. Propaganda Boom. London: John better and more lasting to win the heart of a Gifford, 1938, p. 35. people and to keep it.” Joseph Goebbels “We shall here limit propaganda to inten- speaking at the 1934 Nuremberg rally. tional special pleading” (p. 285). “There is Quoted in David Welch, The Third Reich:Poli- deliberate distortion by selection... The tics and Propaganda. London: Routledge, objective of the propagandist is to achieve 2002, p. 25. public acceptance of conclusions, not to “If individuals are controlled through the stimulate the logical analysis of the merits of use of suggestion...then the process may the case” (p. 286). “Propaganda is a special be called propaganda, regardless of whether term referring to the intentional dissemina- or not the propagandist intends to exercise tion of conclusions from concealed sources the control. On the other hand if individuals by interested individuals and groups” (p. are affected in such a way that the same result 287). “Propaganda is essential to the devel- would be obtained with or without the aid of opment of tribes or simple folk pieces” (p. suggestion, then this process may be called 296). [On page 305 Albig maintains that ad- education, regardless of the intention of the vertising is not propaganda because its educator.” Leonard W. Doob. Propaganda: Its sources are revealed.] “Propaganda is perva- Psychology and Technique. New York: Henry sive in our time. There has always been Holt, 1935, p. 80. some propaganda, but in the modern age it “Propaganda refers to the conscious at- is organised, intentional and relatively more tempt to manage the minds of other and usu- effective. However, modern propaganda ally more numerous publics.” Harwood L. emphasises distortion and derationalises the Childs. Quoted in The American Political Scene. public opinion process. It usually does not Ed. Edward B. Logan. New York: Harper, help the individual to come to a rational un- 1936, p. 226. derstanding of public issues but rather at- “Propaganda gives force and direction to tempts to induce him to follow nonrational the successive movements of popular feeling emotional drives” (p. 309). “[Bertrand Rus- and desire; but it does not do much to create sell] maintains that successful propaganda those movements. The propagandist is a man essentially makes people hold more emo- who analyses an already existing stream. In a tionally to their opinions and beliefs, rather land where there is no water, he digs in vain.” than develop new opinions” (p. 317). Aldous Huxley. “Notes on Propaganda.” William Albig. Public Opinion. New York: Harper’s 174 (December 1936): 39. “There McGraw-Hill, 1939. Propaganda, Definitions of 321

1940s mutinies, which spread. I ought to remind “It is a part of the regular method of propa- those people who believe that it was on the ganda to use the symbol, which stirs the sen- home front among the wicked communists timent, always in an atmosphere of stress, and the Jews, as the Nazi story has it, that the strain or crisis. Thus the generalisations revolution in Germany started. The revolu- which fit the sentiments will be met by that tion did not start in any city. It was the Ger- enthusiastic sweeping away of criticism man Navy that was first to mutiny. We shall which fits the emotion.” Sir Frederic C. make full use of the weapon of propaganda Bartlett. Political Propaganda. Cambridge: and we must be busy in perfecting it during Cambridge University Press, 1940, p. 65. these months.” Alfred Duff Cooper (then “Propaganda in itself has no fundamental British minister of information) in a speech method. It has only purpose—the conquest to the House of Commons on 3 July 1941. of the masses.” Joseph Goebbels (then Nazi Hansard, 3 July 1941, col. 1622. German minister for propaganda). Quoted in Political Propaganda, by Frederic C. 1950s Bartlett. Cambridge: Cambridge University “Propaganda in the broadest sense is the tech- Press, p. 66. nique of influencing human action by the ma- “The power of propaganda, as of all other nipulation of representations. These repre- weapons, must depend very largely upon the sentations may take spoken, written, time when it is used. In the early stages of pictorial or musical form.” Harold D. Lass- war its weight is not so great as in the last well. “Propaganda.” In International Encyclope- stages, when it can prove decisive. There is dia of the Social Sciences. Vols. 11–12. New no dispute about the fact that propaganda York: Macmillan, 1950, pp. 521–522. against victory in arms is powerful, but when “Propaganda in the sense of diffusion of victory in arms is on your side, propaganda conclusion while discouraging the subjects can press the results of victory miles further. from examining the reasons for the positions Then propaganda can shorten the period re- which they are asked to accept, has existed quired for the achievement of victory by throughout the history of human society. months, possibly by years, and it is therefore Leaders and institutional representatives are in these early days that we should gradually always desirous of furthering their objectives perfect the machinery of propaganda, in without argument. They wish to win con- order that when the time comes we may be verts and to reproduce (Propagare) the con- ready to strike. We cannot tell yet how soon clusions, the essential statements and values that time may come. It has been said in this of their ideology.” William Albig. Modern Pub- Debate that it was propaganda which decided lic Opinion. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1956, the last war. That again, if I may say so, is the p. 293. result of the mistaken view that has grown up “Propaganda may be defined as the activ- in many people’s minds owing to German ity, or the art, of inducing others to behave in propaganda in the last few years. It was not a way in which they would not behave in its propaganda that won the last war; it was the absence” (p. 1). “The central element in pro- efforts of our soldiers and sailors. It was the pagandist inducements, as opposed to com- great attack on the Western front that finally pulsion on one side and payment, or bribery, smashed German resistance, and we can still on the other, is that they depend on ‘commu- see in our mind’s eye the German soldiers re- nication’ rather than concrete penalties or re- treating in their hundreds and throwing up wards. To affect a donkey’s behavior by whip- their hands. At the same time, taking full ad- ping is not propaganda, nor is plying it with vantage of these victories, our propaganda, carrots. But if its owner shouts at it in a busy in Germany, produced the revolts and threatening manner, or tries to coax it with 322 Propaganda, Definitions of

winning words or noises then the word be- through psychological manipulations and in- gins to become appropriate” (p. 3). “Perhaps corporated into an organization” (p. 61). a better metaphor is to call it a burning glass Jacques Ellul. Propaganda: The Formation of which collects and focuses the diffused Men’s Attitudes. New York: Knopf, 1965. warmth of popular emotions, concentrating “Propaganda is the relatively deliberate them upon a specific issue on which the manipulation, by means of symbols (words, warmth becomes heat and may reach the fir- gestures, flags, images, monuments, music, ing-point of revivals, risings, revolts, revolu- etc.), of other people’s thoughts or actions tions” (pp. 196–197). Lindley Fraser. Propa- with respect to beliefs, values, and behaviors ganda. Oxford: Oxford University Press, which these people (“reactors”) regard as 1957. controversial.” Bruce L. Smith. “Propaganda.” In International Encyclopedia of the Social Sci- 1960s ences. Vols. 11–12. New York: Macmillan, “Propaganda is thus defined as the deliberate 1968, p. 579. attempt by some individual or group to form, control, or alter the attitudes of other 1980s groups by the use of the instruments of com- “[Propaganda is] the systematic propagation munication, with the intention that in any of information or ideas by an interested given situation the reaction of those so influ- party, especially in a tendentious way in enced will be that desired by the propagan- order to encourage or instil a particular atti- dist. The propagandist is the individual or tude or response.” Terrence H. Qualter. group who makes any such attempt.” Ter- Opinion Control in the Democracies. London: rence H. Qualter. Propaganda and Psychologi- Macmillan, 1985, 124. cal Warfare. New York: Random House, 1965, p. 27. 1990s and After “Propaganda is made, first of all, because “The systematic propagation of a doctrine or of a will to action, for the purpose of effec- cause or of information reflecting the views tively arming policy and giving irresistible and interests of those people advocating such power to its decisions...Ineffective propa- a doctrine or cause.” American Heritage Dic- ganda is no propaganda” (p. x). (Quoting tionary of the English Language, 3d ed., s.v. Lasswell): “Propaganda is the expression of “propaganda.” opinions or actions carried out deliberately “Modern political propaganda can be de- by individuals or groups for predetermined fined as the deliberate attempt to influence ends and through psychological manipula- the opinions of an audience through the tions” (p. xii). “The propagandist uses a key- transmission of ideas and values for the spe- board and composes a symphony” (p. 10). cific purpose, consciously designed to serve “The aim of modern propaganda is no longer the interest of the propagandists and their to modify ideas but to provoke action. It is no political masters, either directly or indi- longer to change adherence to a doctrine, rectly.” David Welch. “Powers of Persuasion.” but to make the individual cling irrationally History Today 49 (August 1999): 24–26. to a process of action. It is no longer to lead “Propaganda is a deliberate attempt to to a choice but to loosen the reflexes. It is no persuade people to think and then behave in a longer to transform an opinion, but to arouse manner desired by the source; public rela- an active and mythical belief ” (p. 25). “Propa- tions, a branch of propaganda, is a related ganda is a set of methods employed by an or- process intended to enhance the relationship ganized group that wants to bring about the between the organization and the public. active or passive participation in its actions of Both in turn are related to advertising.” Bill a mass of individuals, psychologically unified Backer, in The Care and Feeding of Ideas (New Psychological Warfare 323

York: Crown, 1993), suggests that advertis- pogroms against the Jews of Russia. In the ing and propaganda are half brothers. An ad- aftermath of the Russian Revolution, the Pro- vertisement connects something with human tocols found a wider readership across Eu- desires; propaganda shapes the infinite into rope and the rest of the world. In May 1920 concrete images.” David Culbert. “Govern- the London Times presented a serious discus- ment, Propaganda and Public Relations.” In sion of its contents. In Germany the Protocols The Oxford Companion to American Military His- found an eager champion in Alfred Rosen- tory. Ed. John Whiteclay Chambers II. New berg (1893–1946), the Nazi “intellectual” York: Oxford, 1999, 571–572. whose book on the subject, “The Protocols of “The usually organised spreading of ideas, the Elders of Zion” and Jewish World Politics, ap- information, or rumors designed to promote peared in 1923 and became an instant best- or damage an institution, movement, etc.” seller. The Protocols became a mainstay of The New Penguin English Dictionary. London: Nazi propaganda underpinning the Holo- Penguin, 2000. caust. In the United States the Protocols in- David Welch spired a series of anti-Semitic articles in the See also The Big Lie; Black Propaganda; Dearborn Independent, a newspaper belonging Brainwashing; Goebbels, Joseph; Gray to industrialist Henry Ford (1863–1947), Propaganda; Hitler,Adolf; Lenin,Vladimir which were collected and published in book Ilyich; Psychological Warfare; Public Diplomacy; Reformation and Counter- form as The International Jew. After World Reformation; White Propaganda War II the Protocols were wholly discredited. Nevertheless, their slanderous arguments surfaced again in the rhetoric of Arab nation- alism and remain a perennial theme in Amer- Protocols of the Elders of Zion ican neofascist circles. (1903) Nicholas J.Cull This is both the most notorious use of a fake See also Anti-Semitism;Arab World; Fakes; for propaganda purposes and a central docu- Germany; Holocaust Denial; Neo-Militia ment in the history of anti-Semitism. First Groups; Okhrana; Russia References: Bernstein, Herman. The Truth about published in August–September 1903 in the “Protocols of Zion”:A Complete Exposure (1935). Saint Petersburg, Russia, in the anti-Semitic Reprint, New York: Ktav, 1972; Cohn, newspaper Znamya (The Banner), these writ- Norman. Warrant for Genocide:The Myth of the ings next appeared in book form in 1905 as Jewish World-Conspiracy and the “Protocols of the the appendix to the apocalyptic work of a re- Elders of Zion.” London: Eyre and Spottiswoode, ligious mystic named Serge Nilus. The Proto- 1967. cols purported to be a collection of lectures by and for Jewish leaders outlining methods for world domination. Highlights included Psychological Warfare the revelation that underground railways had This is the planned use of propaganda to in- been built to allow the Elders to dynamite fluence enemy audiences in times of war. In the great capitals of the world. In all proba- 1950 one official document defined psycho- bility, this document was requested by Pyotr logical warfare as consisting of “activities, Ivanovich Rachovsky, head of the overseas other than physical combat, which communi- branch of the Okhrana, the tsarist secret po- cate ideas and information intended to affect lice, who planned to use anti-Semitism as a the minds, emotions, and actions of the rallying point for a nationalist political party. enemy, for the purpose of disrupting his The document combined myths that had morale and his will to fight.” The British gov- been part of the Christian world since the ernment, which conceptually pioneered Middle Ages and soon was used to justify modern psychological warfare in World War 324 Psychological Warfare

German soldiers surrender in Brittany,France,in 1944,carrying the "safe conduct" passes dropped in an Allied psychological warfare campaign.(National Archives)

I, divided its Ministry of Information (MoI) in the Cold War. It has also played a role in into departments of home, allied, neutral, endemic smaller wars, including Korea,Viet- and enemy propaganda. Psychological war- nam, and the Gulf War, as well as counterin- fare can be distinguished from other forms of surgency conflicts in Kenya and Malaya. external propaganda in that it is directed at Sun Tzu (active ca. 500–350 B.C.E.), an an “enemy” rather than peoples of neutral or ancient Chinese thinker on the art of war, friendly nations. Sometimes known as com- wrote that “to subdue the enemy without bat propaganda, psychological warfare has fighting is the acme of skill.” Preliterate ages gradually come to have wider applications at used frightening sounds, scary images, and the strategic and political levels, no longer rumors spread by word of mouth to weaken being confined to formal war situations, the enemy’s morale. During the American which is why psychological operations (psy- Revolution, American forces encouraged ops) is now the preferred term. Like propa- British troops to desert by wrapping such ganda in general, psychological warfare can messages around stones and throwing them assume black, white, and gray forms. Psycho- behind the British lines. Printed leaflets logical warfare has become a characteristic of aimed at Hessian mercenaries proved partic- conflict in the twentieth century, figuring not ularly effective and may have accounted for only in both world wars but also in the ideo- the high level of desertion among these sol- logical “peacetime” warfare that culminated diers—by some estimates five or six thou- Psychological Warfare 325 sand of the thirty-thousand-strong force. The poison.” Both men claimed that psychologi- modern period can be said to have begun cal warfare was a principal factor contribut- with the dropping of millions of leaflets by ing to the final collapse of Germany in No- balloon and aircraft over enemy lines during vember 1918, a conclusion with which World War I. This “paper war” was designed Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) agreed in Mein to undermine the will of the enemy to con- Kampf (1925). Of course, they each had tinue the fight, to sow doubts about his gov- good reasons for blaming the defeat of Ger- ernment’s aims and honesty, sap his morale, many on causes other than either the mili- and ultimately to induce desertion, defec- tary conduct of the war or the fighting abili- tion, and even insurrection. Pioneered by the ties of German soldiers. British, who referred to it generically as po- In 1920 some military historians were pre- litical warfare, the U.S. Army used the term dicting that in the future physical combat “psychologic warfare” after joining the war in would be “replaced by a purely psychological 1917. Britain’s campaign was at first con- warfare, wherein weapons are not used or ducted by the War Office and its branch battlefields sought.” A new factor after 1918 MI 7, reaching its climax in 1918 when Lord was the emergence of Soviet Russia, followed Northcliffe (1865–1922) was appointed to by Fascist Italy and then Germany. The com- head the department of propaganda in enemy mencement of ideological warfare, which countries, with headquarters at Crewe lasted until 1989, made psychological war- House. The British and their allies principally fare a permanent feature of international re- used leaflets, pamphlets, and trench newspa- lations; it was often conducted by newly pers written in all the enemy languages to emerging secret intelligence services. The play up ethnic and political differences. After British called it “that aspect of intelligence in the Bolshevik takeover, the Russians concen- which information is used aggressively to trated on exploiting social discontent. The manipulate opinion or to create special con- principal psychological warfare campaigns ditions by purely intellectual means.” The during World War I included: Britain, Germans preferred the term “Geistige Kriegs- France, and Italy against Austria-Hungary, führung”(intellectual warfare). Germany, and Bulgaria; Germany and Aus- During World War II, the British govern- tria-Hungary against Italy; and Soviet Russia ment continued to use the term “political against both of the Central Powers. warfare”—based on its Political Warfare Ex- At the conclusion of the war both victors ecutive (PWE)—until the Americans joined and losers made extensive claims for the ef- in after 1941, when the term “psychological fectiveness of psychological warfare. In warfare” replaced it. Allied Psychological 1919 the Times of London concluded that Warfare branches were established in the var- “good propaganda probably saved a year of ious theaters of action. The largest of these war, and this meant the saving of thousands was set up in North Africa in November of millions in money and probably at least a 1942. As part of the preparations for the in- million lives.” General Erich von Ludendorff vasion of Europe, a Psychological Warfare (1865–1937), the German chief of staff, Division was established at Supreme Head- claimed that “we were hypnotized by the quarters Allied Expeditionary Forces (PWD/ enemy’s propaganda as a rabbit is by a SHAEF). Although this suggested greater snake.” General Hindenburg (1847–1934), inter-Allied cooperation than was, in fact, the German commander in chief, wrote that case, the British and Americans were united “besides bombs which kill the body, his [i.e., in their overall approach to psychological the enemy’s] airmen throw down leaflets warfare, which was based on a distinction be- which are intended to kill the soul...Un- tween “white” propaganda, which manifestly suspectingly many thousands consume the emanates from the government, and “black” 326 Psychological Warfare

propaganda, which appears to emanate from in the White House to coordinate the wider somewhere else. In white propaganda—best effort, both overt and covert. A bolstering of exemplified in the BBC’s broadcasts to occu- the white propaganda machinery occurred pied Europe as well as Germany and her al- first within the State Department in the form lies—the approach was “propaganda with of the International Information Administra- truth.” Hugh Carleton Greene (1910–1987) tion (IIA). In 1953 U.S. president Dwight of the BBC defined it as “to tell the truth Eisenhower (1890–1969), who had seen the within the limits of the information at our potency of psychological warfare on the bat- disposal and to tell it consistently and tlefields of Europe, established the au- frankly...It is a strategic weapon and must tonomous United States Information Agency not deviate from the truth for tactical rea- (USIA), with the Voice of America (VOA) as sons.” The emphasis on truth and credibility its white broadcasting arm. The CIA funded was shared by Richard Crossman (1907– Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty as gray 1974), the assistant chief of PWD/SHAEF, broadcasting organs. The degree to which the who gained the reputation of a “propaganda activities of these groups were effectively co- genius” thanks to his almost clairvoyant abil- ordinated is doubtful, with each branch going ity to transport himself into the mind of the its separate way until the Bay of Pigs disaster enemy. He later served as a Labour M.P.and of 1961 exposed the myth of a coordinated cabinet minister. psychological effort. A group of fictitious radio stations— Psychological warfare (psywar) was used which gave the impression in their broadcasts episodically in Vietnam, but with the defeat of conversations between underground cells of the United States it went into disrepute in of disaffected German soldiers but were, in western military thought. The Soviets re- fact, put out by a secret transmitter in Britain tained their faith in it, terming it “active whose code name was Aspidistra—consti- measures” and scoring some notable Cold tuted the principal black propaganda tech- War successes, in particular the campaign nique employed by the Allies, reinforced by surrounding the neutron bomb and later secret agents disseminating false rumors. campaigns accusing the United States of man- Since it was purportedly coming from within ufacturing the AIDS virus in a biological war- occupied Europe, black propaganda did not fare lab. President Ronald Reagan revived have to worry about lies or false promises. U.S. psychological warfare in the 1980s in For example, following the Casablanca Con- the form of the Department of Defense’s ference of 1943,Allied policy was one of un- “psyops Master Plan” of 1985 and its applica- conditional surrender, which implied that ne- tion since then in the form of psychological gotiation would not be possible even if the operations. Psyops played a role in U.S. in- German people rose up against their Nazi tervention in Panama, the Gulf War, Bosnia, rulers. Black propagandists, on the other Kosovo, and the War on Terrorism of 2001. hand, could suggest that if “we” get rid of Philip M.Taylor “Hitler’s gang,” then “our” situation might See also Austrian Empire; Black Propaganda; well improve. Britain; Cold War; Counterinsurgency; Most post-1945 studies of psychological Crossman, Richard; Disinformation; Germany; warfare assumed that it was both a necessary Gulf War; Italy; KGB; Korean War; Kosovo and legitimate response to the growing polit- Crisis and War; Northcliffe, Lord; PWE; Radio ical, military, and ideological threat posed by (International); United States;Vietnam War; international communism. Following North World War I; World War II (Britain); World War II (Germany); World War II (Japan); World Korea’s invasion of South Korea, in 1950 War II (Russia); World War II (United States) U.S. president Harry Truman (1884–1972) References: Cruickshank, Charles. The Fourth established the Psychological Strategy Board Arm. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981; Public Diplomacy 327

Daugherty, William E., and Morris Janowitz, which the objectives of international commu- eds. A Psychological Warfare Casebook. Baltimore, nication are best served by a targeted applica- MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1958; tion of the fruits of political and social science Lerner, Daniel. Psychological Warfare against Nazi Germany. New York: G. W.Stewart, 1949; research—usually by highly paid public rela- Roetter, Charles. Psychological Warfare.London: tions firms. The best known firm representing Batsford, 1974. foreign nations within the United States is Hill and Knowlton Public Affairs Worldwide, whose clients included the Kuwaiti govern- ment during the Gulf War. Manheim called Public Diplomacy their image management “the real smart This term has been used in the United States weapon of the Gulf Conflict.” In terms of tar- since 1965 to describe transnational cultural geted lobbying and public relations, top propaganda and press management activities. spenders within the United States include In 1997 a State Department planning team Japan and Israel. Individual success stories in- defined the term as follows: “Public Diplo- clude the promotion of Pakistan as a “partner macy seeks to promote the national interest in democracy” in the late 1980s and Mexico’s of the United States through understanding, lobbying for the passage of the North Ameri- informing and influencing foreign audiences.” can Free Trade Association (NAFTA) resolu- It is therefore distinguished from private tion. Such campaigns have prompted Man- diplomacy, which aims to cultivate only pro- heim’s preliminary conclusion that “when it fessional diplomats. The term itself is in comes to strategic public diplomacy the some ways propaganda, but the United States United States gives far less than it gets.” wished to avoid the negative connotations of Since 1999 and the dissolution of the “propaganda” to describe the activities of USIA, responsibility for public diplomacy agencies like the United States Information has passed to the undersecretary of state Agency (USIA) and the Voice of America public diplomacy and public affairs at the (VOA). A well-known example of U.S. pub- State Department. In the George W. Bush lic diplomacy is the Fulbright Program, es- administration the post was first held by tablished at the end of World War II by Sena- Charlotte Beers (1935– ), a former adver- tor William Fulbright (1905–1995) of tising executive. When asked about the in- Arkansas to promote international educa- congruity of this past experience, Colin tional exchanges. Powell (1937– ), the then secretary of state, The term is thought by some to have been replied: “She got me to buy Uncle Ben’s coined by the American diplomat Edmund rice.” Charlotte Beers resigned in early 2003 Gullion (1913–1998). Although Gullion de- after criticism of a high-profile campaign of nied this, he promoted its use as director of television advertisements in the Middle East the most significant professional school con- featuring Arab Americans. The cultural ap- nected with this type of work, namely, the proach to international relations associated Edward R. Murrow Center for Public Diplo- with public diplomacy is supported by the macy at the Fletcher School of Law and Public Diplomacy Foundation, which in- Diplomacy, Tufts University, which was es- cludes many USIA alumni. During the 2001 tablished in 1965. War on Terrorism public diplomacy in sup- Public diplomacy is not a one-way street. port of the war was overseen by a Coalition Jarol B. Manheim has charted the extensive Information Center established under the public diplomacy activities of other nations auspices of the White House, which later co- seeking to influence the U.S. government. In ordinated a wider public diplomacy cam- so doing he has developed the concept of paign against anti-Americanism worldwide. strategic public diplomacy, according to Nicholas J.Cull 328 PWE (Political Warfare Executive)

See also Cultural Propaganda; Gulf War; Israel; operating in occupied Europe and shaping Japan; Korea; Mexico; Milton, John; BBC broadcasts beamed into enemy and oc- Propaganda, Definitions of; Terrorism, War on; cupied Europe to battlefield loudspeaker op- USIA;VOA References: Becker, Elizabeth, and James Dao. erations to encourage desertion. The PWE’s “Bush Will Keep Wartime Office Promoting best-known operation was its bid to under- U.S.” New York Times, 20 February 2002; mine Nazi Germany through the use of black Hansen,Allen C. USIA:Public Diplomacy in the radio propaganda, specifically a PWE radio Computer Age. 2d ed. New York: Praeger, 1989; station called Gustav Siegfried Eins that Klein, Naomi. “Brand USA.” Los Angeles Times,10 claimed to be run by an anti-Nazi general but March 2002; Manheim, Jarol B. Strategic Public Diplomacy and American Foreign Policy:The in reality was manned by former Daily Express Evolution of Influence. New York: Oxford journalist Sefton Delmer (1904–1979). University Press, 1994; Tuch, Hans N. More troubling to Delmer was the PWE’s Communicating with the World:U.S.Public practice of sending food parcels via Switzer- Diplomacy Overseas.New York: St. Martins, land to the family of dead German soldiers 1990. with a note saying that their loved one, realiz- ing that the Nazi cause was lost, had deserted PWE (Political Warfare Executive) and wanted his family to have the food. Later Britain’s World War II propaganda and sub- Delmer would explain that although the hope version agency, the Political Warfare Execu- was false, the ham was genuine. tive (PWE) was established in 1941, with Nicholas J.Cull former journalist Robert Bruce Lockhart See also Britain; Black Propaganda; Crossman, (1887–1970) in charge as of 1942. The PWE Richard; Psychological Warfare; Radio (International); Rumor; World War II was the third attempt to organize British psy- (Britain) chological warfare against the enemy (its References: Cruickshank, Charles. The Fourth predecessors were a secret Foreign Office Arm:Psychological Warfare,1938–1945. Oxford: unit called Electra House, established in the Oxford University Press, 1981; Delmer, immediate prewar period, which in 1940 be- Sefton. Black Boomerang. London: Secker and came “SO1,” the propaganda branch of the Warburg, 1962; Garnett, David. The Secret History of PWE:The Political Warfare Executive, Special Operations Executive (SOE). PWE 1939–1945. London: St. Ermin’s Press, 2002; activities ranged from supplying staff and Howe, Ellic. The Black Game.London: Michael propaganda material to the clandestine press Joseph, 1980. Q

Quotations from Chairman Mao discussions, thereby increasing the reverence (translated 1966) in which Mao was held as China’s foremost This work consists of a selection of short po- ideologist. The book was read more widely litical aphorisms by Mao Zedong (1893– during the Cultural Revolution (1966– 1976), who was the chairman of the Chinese 1976), when student revolutionaries, known Communist Party and paramount Chinese as Red Guards, used it as ammunition during leader from 1949 to 1976. The collection, their attempts—which were endorsed by which was also known as the “Little Red Mao—to overthrow the existing social and Book,” exhorted readers to practice self-sac- political structures. First published in the rifice and exhibit devotion to the revolution- West in translation in 1966, the book also be- ary spirit. It was not compiled by Mao him- came popular among student radicals, who self but rather by Lin Biao (1908–1971), his felt that its iconoclasm echoed their attempts defense minister, who in the early 1960s as- to overthrow existing structures in capitalist sembled the quotations from Mao’s volumi- society. nous published writings and distributed them Rana Mitter in book form among the soldiers of the Peo- See also China; Mao Zedong ple’s Liberation Army, the armed forces of References: Quotations from Chairman Mao Tse- tung.Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1966; the People’s Republic of China. By 1963 mil- Schram, Stuart. The Thought of Mao Tse-tung. lions of soldiers were encouraged to memo- Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, rize the quotations and use them in political 1989.

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Radio (Domestic) the American Broadcasting Company (ABC) The standard format for modern radio in 1942. The Columbia Broadcasting System broadcasts—a blend of short, digestible mu- (CBS) began operations in 1927. In Britain sical selections, snippets of news, or half- radio broadcasting began in 1922 with the for- hour talk shows interrupted by advertise- mation of the British Broadcasting Company ments—is not how broadcasting evolved in (later Corporation) (BBC), which played a key the 1920s. Once considered a powerful tool role in bolstering the government case during of mass persuasion and social influence, radio the General Strike of 1926. today is largely devoted to providing enter- Radio was the primary medium of mass tainment and superficial information. communication in the 1930s, with radio sales In the early twentieth century, wireless booming during the Great Depression. Radio communication was primarily of interest to simultaneously emerged as a tool of mass the navies of the world. World War I saw the persuasion and propaganda. Adolf Hitler’s birth of radio as a medium for propaganda. In (1889–1945) rise to power was aided by his 1918 listeners around the world heard U.S. radio broadcasts, in which he promised to re- president Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) dis- store German power. Hitler preferred to cuss his plan for peace in his Fourteen Points speak before a live audience because he did radio address. Wilson used America’s govern- not like the sound of his voice on radio. In ment station (call sign NFF) to appeal directly 1933 Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945) to the German people, calling on them to gave the first of his “fireside chats,” which in- overthrow the kaiser. Radio news broadcasts volved a more informal style of speaking than in the United States began in November 1920 was common in the 1930s. Radio also with coverage of election returns. Network boosted the careers of such Roosevelt critics broadcasting began in 1926. By the end of as Huey Long (1893–1935) and Father 1928, the newly formed National Broadcast- Charles Coughlin (1891–1971), both of ing Company (NBC) estimated that there whom offered visions of a secure economic were 9.6 million radio sets—with more than future that appealed to millions of unem- 40 million listeners—in use in the United ployed workers. States. NBC had two networks, NBC-Red and Radio’s influence peaked during World NBC-Blue. The weaker Blue network became War II. The average American turned first to

331 332 Radio (International) radio for war news. Such popular commenta- tors as Edward R. Murrow (1908–1965), H.V. Kaltenborn (1878–1965), Elmer Davis (1890–1958), and Fulton Lewis Jr. (1903– 1966) gave listeners both the headlines plus their personal opinions—which were some- times rather simplistic. With the end of the war and the rise of television, 1945 marked the demise of radio’s central role in American life. In the 1950s radio network broadcasting seemed an endangered species. But radio found a new position in Ameri- can society, both through the FM frequencies (earlier network broadcasting had all been AM) and the growth of community-sup- ported Public Broadcasting System (PBS) sta- tions. Talk radio stations permitted those with strong conservative or religious views to reach millions of listeners. For example, Rush Limbaugh (1951– ) has a mostly male, mostly middle-aged listenership that relishes his denunciations of feminists (which he refers to as “femi-nazis”) or the evasions of the politically correct. Once counted out as a mass medium, radio has found an important niche—at least in the United States—as an outlet for political commentary. Brian Collins See also BBC; Murrow, Edward R.; Radio (International); Reith, Lord John References: Barnouw, Erik. A History of Broadcasting in the United States. Vol. 1, A A government-organized protest against Voice of America Tower in Babel; Vol. 2, The Golden Web. New (VOA) broadcasts in Hungary in 1949.VOA is mocked as a York: Oxford, 1966–1968; Culbert, David quacking duck.Such events were a sign of the effectiveness of H. News for Everyman: Radio and Foreign Affairs U.S. broadcasts and the fear they engendered in the in Thirties America. Westport, CT: Communist governments of Eastern Europe. (National Greenwood, 1976. Archives).

Radio (International) to Romania in 1926 and made a series of International radio propaganda began during propaganda broadcasts to celebrate the tenth the closing months of World War I as the anniversary of the Russian Revolution in United States and Soviet Russia both broad- 1927. Radio Moscow, which was founded in cast Morse code messages about peace 1929, was not the first regular international terms. For the Soviet Union radio offered radio station; that distinction belongs to both a means of communicating with the Radio Netherlands, which began a service to masses worldwide and a way of associating the Dutch Empire in 1927. Regular Soviet the Bolshevik cause with the technology of broadcasts caused a hurried response from the future. The USSR used radio to broadcast the West.The late 1920s and early 1930s saw Radio (International) 333 a host of broadcasters on the shortwave band ARD, the West German broadcasting federa- (which could bounce off the earth’s iono- tion, and soon diversified into foreign-lan- sphere and hence travel across vast dis- guage broadcasting. Since 1960 it has been tances). New stations included Radio Vatican operated by the federal government. (1931) and the BBC Empire Service (1932). International broadcasting has seen nu- Beginning in the mid-1920s the U.S. gov- merous black propaganda stations, that is, ernment began broadcasting to Latin Amer- radio stations purporting to represent one ica to promote the cause of Pan-American group but actually subsidized by another. The unity, but it was slow in developing this activ- most famous of these was the British station ity. Boston-based station WIXAL, the first Soldaten Sender Eins (Soldier’s Radio One), major U.S. commercial station aimed at which was beamed at Germany during World overseas listeners, began broadcasting in War II and pretended to be an anti-Nazi sta- 1933. Commercial broadcasts opposed all tion operated by dissidents in the German proposals for large-scale U.S. government army. Along similar lines, East Germany op- sponsorship of radio propaganda, such as the erated a number of clandestine Cold War 1937 plan devised by Rep. Emmanuel Celler radio stations, including: Deutsche Soldaten (1888–1981) to broadcast anti-Nazi mes- Sender (German Soldier’s Radio), aimed at sages to Latin America. The pressure sur- West Germany; the Voice of Greeks Abroad; rounding World War II led to the founding of “Our Radio,” intended for Turkish guest the Voice of America (VOA). The BBC acted workers in West Germany; and Radio as a midwife, providing advice and allowing Vlatava, which attempted to undermine the the VOA to use its transmission facilities. Czech uprising of 1968. Radio Swan (named The Cold War led to the creation of new after its base on Great Swan Island, off the propaganda stations, including the CIA- coast of Honduras) broadcast to Cuba from funded Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty 1960 to around 1967. Claiming to be spon- (RFE/RL). The United States also main- sored by the Gibraltar Steamship Line, it was tained a station called Radio in the American actually funded by the CIA and hence pro- Sector (RIAS) in West Berlin, which eventu- duced a fount of propaganda against the ally became part of the United States Infor- regime of Fidel Castro (1927– ). mation Agency (USIA). RIAS played an im- International radio played an important portant role in encouraging the East German part in the collapse of Communism. Radio rising of June 1953. The Cold War intro- gave ordinary citizens of the Soviet bloc the duced the phenomenon of jamming, whereby chance to hear uncensored news about their a high-powered signal containing just noise own country. In 1986 Eastern Europe was broadcast on the same frequency as the learned about the Chernobyl nuclear acci- foreign station. Stations affected often moved dent from Western radio stations, while the their frequency slightly so as to dodge the Soviet media attempted to suppress the story. jammers in a radio game of cat and mouse. Incidents like this severely undermined the English-language broadcasts to the USSR credibility of the Communist regimes.As the were not jammed and allegedly served as a latter began to crumble, Western radio welcome source of news for senior Commu- broadcasts kept the Eastern bloc informed of nist Party officials. developments. Subsequently radios were dis- Germany’s international radio station placed somewhat by satellite television Deutsche Welle (Voice of Germany; literally broadcasts and the World Wide Web. German [Air] Wave) was originally founded In 2001 international radio returned to in 1929. It began life broadcasting in German the fore during the War on Terrorism, if only to German-speaking populations around the because the Taliban regime had suppressed world. In 1953 the station was relaunched by the medium of television. In 2002 the United 334 Raemakers, Louis

States introduced a new radio station called was from a neutral country. In 1916 John Radio Sawa (Arabic for “Together”).Aimed at Buchan (1875–1940), director of Wellington young Arab listeners, its lively format in- House, Britain’s propaganda office with re- cluded plenty of music mixed in with Ameri- sponsibility for the United States, began to can propaganda. That same year a group of promote Raemakers’s work there. By the end Zimbabwean expatriates living in London or- of the year a significant number of American ganized SW Radio Africa. With the handle newspapers had begun to carry the cartoons. “the voice of independent Zimbabwe,” the Interest in Raemakers’s work increased con- station broadcast news over the shortwave siderably with the U.S. entry into the war. By frequency to a country dominated by the ex- November 1917 over two thousand newspa- tremist dictator Robert Mugabe (1924– ). pers carried his images. After the war Rae- The station took great pains to carry both the makers was attacked as an anti-German hate- Mugabe government’s line as well as the monger. In 1940 he moved to the United opinions of ordinary people, which it gath- States, a refugee as a result of the Nazi inva- ered by means of frequent phone-in pro- sion of Holland. grams, with callers often using mobile Nicholas J.Cull phones. See also Atrocity Propaganda; Britain; Cartoons; Nicholas J.Cull Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg; See also BBC; Black Propaganda; Canada; Castro, World War I Fidel; CIA; Cold War; Falklands/Malvinas References: Murray,Allison. J. Raemakers’Cartoon War; Germany; Lord Haw Haw; Netherlands, History of the War. London: Bodley Head, 1919; Belgium, and Luxembourg; Psychological Sanders, Michael, and Philip M. Taylor. British Warfare; Reith, Lord John; RFE/RL; Russia; Propaganda during the First World War London: Suez Crisis; Terrorism, War on; Tokyo Rose; Macmillan, 1982. United States;VOA; White Propaganda; World War II (Britain); World War II (Germany); World War II (Japan); World War II (Russia); Reagan, Ronald (1911– ) World War II (United States) Hollywood actor and president of the United References: Brown, Donald R. International Radio Broadcasting:The Limits of the Limitless States from 1981 to 1988, Reagan was ar- Medium. New York: Praeger, 1982; Nelson, guably the most able propagandist ever to oc- Michael. War of the Black Heavens:The Battles of cupy the White House. Born in Illinois in Western Broadcasting in the Cold War. London: 1911, Reagan formed his political views dur- Brassey’s, 1997. ing the Republican domination of American politics following World War I. He worked as a sports announcer at a local radio station, Raemakers, Louis (1869–1956) where he invented the play-by-play commen- A Dutch cartoonist whose anti-German im- tary to match the wire description of baseball ages became a staple of British propaganda in games in other cities. In 1937, while in Hol- the United States during World War I, Louis lywood on a baseball assignment, he took a Raemakers was already well established as a screen test at Warner Brothers and subse- cartoonist at the outbreak of war. His work quently became a leading man for that studio. frequently appeared in the Amsterdam news- Although a number of Reagan’s films fall into paper Telegraaf. His wartime images carica- the category of propaganda—for example, tured Germans as bloated, half-human mili- the pro-British International Squadron (1941) taristic monsters and dramatized their and wartime shorts and informational films alleged atrocities on the western front. The made for the U.S. military—far more signifi- value of these images to British propagandists cant than his film roles was his work as presi- lay not only in their inherent persuasive dent of the Screen Actors Guild beginning in power but also in the fact that their creator 1947. In this capacity Reagan became a Reagan, Ronald 335

Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979. One TV ad featured a sinister Soviet bear crashing through the woods, while another asked pointedly: “Do you think the Soviets would have invaded Afghanistan if Ronald Reagan had been President?” Reagan excelled in the televised debates with Carter, demolishing the president with the perfectly timed dis- missive line: “There you go again.” Once in office, Reagan invested heavily in U.S. propaganda overseas, appointing his trusted friend Charles Z. Wick (1917– ) to the directorship of the United States Infor- mation Agency (USIA) and endorsing such propaganda initiatives as Radio Martí broad- casts to Fidel Castro’s (1926– ) Cuba. Rea- gan’s multimillion-dollar Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI)—nicknamed “Star Wars” by the Democrats—had a strong propaganda component, functioning better as a psycho- Ronald Reagan,official presidential photograph.(Library of logical lever to force the Soviets back into Congress) arms talks than as a piece of technology. Rea- gan also used the U.S. military as an exten- sion of the national image, committing it to prominent anti-Communist voice, support- short but highly visible missions, such as the ing the investigations of the House Commit- liberation of the island of Grenada in 1983. tee on Un-American Activities (HUAC). He The Reagan administration also aided anti- also acted as corporate spokesman for the Communist regimes and guerrilla move- General Electric company. ments in Central America. This commitment Reagan’s marriage to actress Nancy Davis required a considerable White House propa- (1923– ) in 1952 linked him to one of the ganda effort to minimize the links between most powerful political families in Califor- America’s allies in the region and “death nia’s Republican Party. He first appeared na- squads.” One important conceptual break- tionally in 1964, rallying the party faithful to through in U.S. propaganda was due to Jeane endorse Senator Barry Goldwater’s (1909– Kirkpatrick (1926– ), a professor of interna- 1998) bid for president. In 1966 Reagan won tional relations and ambassador to the UN, the governorship of California (he served who argued that there was a difference be- until 1975) and achieved a national reputa- tween Communist totalitarians and the au- tion as a hard-line conservative by clamping thoritarian regimes sponsored by the adminis- down on student activism and the anti–Viet- tration, since the latter were capable of nam War movement. He became a perennial reform at a later date. contender for the Republic presidential nom- At home Reagan earned the nickname “the ination, which he finally won in 1980. Rea- Great Communicator.” Despite widening so- gan’s blend of down-home charm and Cold cial inequalities during this era, he achieved War saber-rattling fitted the mood of the broad popularity. He successfully dramatized times, especially since former president the doctrines of the “neoconservative” writers Jimmy Carter (1924– ) had appeared weak of the era, arguing that far from being the so- as a result of the Iranian hostage crisis and the lution to America’s problems, “Government is 336 Reeducation the problem.” He “played the president” with World War II, the major themes of which the confidence of a great actor and won the were the promotion of democracy and teach- 1984 presidential election by a substantial ing the message that “war doesn’t pay.” Reed- margin, insisting that America was once again ucation began before the end of the war in “standing tall.” Reagan had substantial input prisoner-of-war camps. German prisoners into scripting his television speeches, devel- were screened and divided into three groups: oping a powerful rhetorical style that owed black (diehard Nazis), gray (politically neu- much to both Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882– tral), and white (actively anti-Nazi). Al- 1945) (whom he greatly admired) and the though most reeducation of POWs took the Cold War rhetoric of Harry Truman (1884– form of optional group discussions, all pris- 1972). Although he appeared to be speaking oners were required to see a film depicting spontaneously, he was not at his best in im- German atrocities at Bergen-Belsen and provisational situations, on occasion requiring Buchenwald.As the Allies advanced into Ger- to be rescued by the first lady.Perhaps his best many, the Political Warfare Division (PWD) performance was his broadcast to the nation of the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expedi- following the explosion of the space shuttle tionary Force (SHAEF) set up an Information Challenger in 1986. Control Division (ICD) under General The later years of Reagan’s presidency Robert McClure (1897–1957) to oversee the witnessed a series of summits and a path- media in occupied Germany. The Allied mili- breaking disarmament treaty with Mikhail tary authorities issued newspapers and a Gorbachev (1931– ), the new Soviet leader. newsreel called Welt im Film (World in Film), Despite various challenges, such as the scan- which devoted an entire issue to evidence of dal surrounding the Iran-Contra affair (which the Holocaust. The newsreel series ran from made headlines in 1986), Reagan left office in 1945 to 1952. The United States also created January 1989 with his reputation intact. In and distributed a documentary called 1994 he announced publicly that he was suf- Todesmühlen (Death Mills), directed by Hanus fering from Alzheimer’s, hoping that the rev- Burger, on the concentration camps. Such ac- elation would increase public awareness of tivities limited any immediate attempts to this debilitating disease. deny the Holocaust. Nicholas J.Cull The administration of the U.S. zone was See also Caribbean; Civil Defense; Cold War; quick to license new publications, staffed Counterinsurgency; Drugs; Labor/Antilabor; mainly by refugees from Nazi Germany, Latin America; Opinion Polls; Paine, Thomas; along American lines, including the newspa- Psychological Warfare; Thatcher, Margaret; United States; USIA;VOA; Wick, Charles Z. per Neue Zeitung and the magazine Der Monat References: Cannon, Lou. President Reagan:The (The Month). Other U.S.-sponsored activi- Role of a Lifetime. New York: Simon and ties included the founding of Radio in the Schuster, 1991; Dallek, Robert. Ronald Reagan: American Sector (RIAS) in West Berlin. The The Politics of Symbolism. Cambridge, MA: United States opened a chain of libraries and Harvard University Press, 1999; Morris, information rooms known as Amerika Häuser Edmund. Dutch.New York: HarperCollins, 1999; Noonan, Peggy. What I Saw at the (American Houses). The British licensed the Revolution:A Political Life in the Reagan Era. New newspaper Die Welt as the voice of their occu- York: Random House, 1990. pation. The key figure in the British occupa- tion was Robert Birley (1903–1982), the for- mer head teacher of the prestigious school, Reeducation Charterhouse, while the prime mover in the This term was given to the information pol- American zone was Hungarian-born writer icy of the United States and Britain toward Hans Habe (1911–1977), who became the Germany and Japan, the defeated enemies of first editor of Neue Zeitung. Reformation and Counter-Reformation 337

In Japan reeducation was managed by the Tell Your Children and known by a variety of al- Civil Information and Education (CIE) Sec- ternative titles—including The Burning Ques- tion of Allied General Headquarters in tion and Love Madness—Reefer Madness was di- Tokyo. A CIE press code forbade criticism of rected by French-born Louis Gasnier (1875– the Allies. Film censors banned the patriotic 1963). The film shows how a group of young historical epics of prewar Japan and encour- Americans are lured into drug use, with mur- aged films based on new themes and featur- der, madness, and suicide the consequences. ing new social mores, such as public kissing. Another film in a similar vein was Marihuana: The occupation worked to discredit the repu- The Devil’s Weed (1935)—also known as Mari- tation of the wartime military regime and to huana, the Weed with Roots in Hell—whose tag put an end to the cult of the emperor. In line was: “Weird orgies! Wild Parties! Un- Japan, as in Germany, the occupation forces leashed Passions.” It showed how drugs led paid particular attention to school textbooks, youngsters to participate in fatal nude swim- dropping old ones and commissioning new ming sessions. Later examples of antidrug textbooks from writers sympathetic to the film propaganda include She Shoulda Said No democratic project. A committee of trusted (1947). By the 1960s such films had reached Japanese administrators screened teachers cult status among a new generation of young and removed some three thousand thought to Americans, who were able to compare their be too closely connected to the old regime. personal drug-related experiences with the One of the most beneficial legacies of reedu- hysterical fears of their parents’ generation. cation was the promotion of mass higher ed- Reefer Madness is still available on video and ucation in Japan. DVD in the United States, where it retains a In both West Germany and Japan reeduca- substantial following as an example of camp tion became increasingly politicized begin- filmmaking. ning in 1948 as democratic nations prepared Nicholas J.Cull for the Cold War.Although democratic prac- See also Drugs; Film (Feature); Health; United tices flourished in both countries, the role of States reeducation should not be overestimated. References: Starks, Michael. Cocaine Fiends and Reefer Madness:An Illustrated History of Drugs in Both countries had indigenous liberal tradi- the Movies. New York: Cornwall, 1982; tions, which moved to the fore during these Stevenson, Jack. Addicted:The Myth and Menace years. of Drugs in Film. London: Creation, 2000. Nicholas J.Cull See also Germany; Japan; Marshall Plan; Prisoners of War References: Pronay, Nicholas, and Keith Wilson, Reformation and eds. The Political Reeducation of Germany and Her Counter-Reformation Allies after World War II.London: Croom Helm, 1985; Tent,James F. Mission on the Rhine: The Reformation was a religious movement Reeducation and Denazification in American- of the sixteenth century that began as a bid to Occupied Germany.Chicago: University of reform the then universal Roman Catholic Chicago Press, 1982; Willett, Ralph. The Church but eventually led to the creation of Americanization of Germany,1945–1949. Protestant Christianity. The struggle be- London: Routledge, 1989. tween Protestant and Counter-Reformation forces—the attempt of the Catholic Church to regain its power—produced a stream of Reefer Madness (1936) propaganda that lasted well into the seven- This American public health information film teenth century. The word “propaganda” is was designed to warn of the evils of smoking derived from the title of a Vatican institution marijuana. Originally released under the title founded to reassert Catholicism, namely, the Reefer Madness, a 1936 film denouncing the addictive power of marijuana,was re-released in 1972 by the National Organization for Reform of Marijuana Laws with this ironic poster.(Bettmann/CORBIS) Reformation and Counter-Reformation 339

Sacra Congregatio de Propaganda Fide (Sa- of new educational institutions, which added cred Congregation for Propagation of the to the prestige of the new religious move- Faith) of 1622. ments. Some tried to stay within the Roman Although the Reformation began as a Catholic Church, hoping to reform it from movement calling for internal reform, when the inside, while others broke away from it. the Roman hierarchy condemned reformers In the first camp were men like the humanist like Martin Luther (1483–1586) in Germany scholars Erasmus of Rotterdam (c. 1466– and Hulderich Zwingli (1484–1531) and 1536) and Guillaume Budé (1467–1540), John Calvin (1509–1564) in Switzerland as neither of whom broke officially with Roman heretics, the resulting split led to the estab- Catholicism. Nevertheless Erasmus helped lishment of separate, so-called Protestant the cause of Protestantism by criticizing the churches. The turning point occurred in established church and the educational sys- 1521 at the German Diet of Worms, where tem; he also published an edition of the Bible Martin Luther declared that he would not in Greek. Provided with royal support, Budé yield to pressure by the pope or the emperor. founded the Collège de France in Paris as an The Protestants were greatly aided by alternative to the reactionary Catholic uni- their skillful oral and printed propaganda. versity at the Sorbonne. Both language and images were strong— The Roman Catholic Church remained in a even vulgar—with the pope portrayed as the defensive position spiritually until the appear- Whore of Babylon and Catholic priests ance of Ignatius Loyola (1491–1556), a shown kissing the rear ends of animals. Basque-Castilian nobleman and warrior who Catholic anti-Protestant propaganda demon- made himself general of a new religious order, ized the person of Martin Luther, a former the so-called Jesuits, a spiritual army that monk who had married a former nun, served the pope. Loyola supplemented his praised sexuality, and enjoyed eating and military background, which was influenced by drinking. The negative image of Martin the Spanish tradition relating to the Moorish Luther was fleshed out in a book by the wars, with humanistic studies in Paris. It was Catholic polemicist Johannes Cochlaeus there, in 1534, that Loyola and six followers (1497–1552) entitled Commentary on the Acts founded a clandestine society whose first pri- and Writings of Martin Luther (1549). ority was the conversion of Muslims in the Cochlaeus tried to explain Luther’s conflict Holy Land. It quickly changed course to fight with the Roman Catholic Church by pointing against a more immediate threat to Catholi- to defects in the reformer’s character. Ac- cism, namely, the Protestants. In this fight the cording to Cochlaeus, Luther was a self-cen- means justified the ends. Thus, Loyola devised tered man driven by pride and lust and lack- a secret manual for Jesuits in England, who ing in religious seriousness. A parallel to this tried to build up a conspiracy against King highly personal form of propaganda, which Henry VIII. In 1540 the Jesuit order obtained was used by the Roman Catholic Church as papal recognition and quickly became the late as the twentieth century, was the demon- heart and soul of the movement known as the ization of Luther by the English king Henry Counter-Reformation. VIII (r. 1509–1547). Henry broke with By the 1540s Protestantism dominated Rome and abolished the monasteries, instead Scandinavia and northern Germany, appar- founding a national Catholic English church ently being close to taking over the rest of with the king as its master, thereby distancing Germany and Poland, Bohemia-Moravia, and himself from Lutheranism. In Luther’s view, Hungary-Transylvania. It was dominant in education was a necessity since everyone was Switzerland, had a strong position in France, supposed to study the Bible. The Reforma- and was only under control in Spain and Por- tion was promoted through the establishment tugal, where the Inquisition had thus far 340 Reformation and Counter-Reformation managed to suppress it. The Jesuits used the Lutheranism. This led to a religious war be- first part of the Council of Trent (1545– tween Philip II (r. 1556–1598), the Spanish 1547), the leadership of which they in effect Catholic king and sovereign of the Nether- took over, to strengthen papal authority over lands, and William of Orange (William the the church and to formulate alternative Silent) (1533–1584), leader of the northern Catholic positions to the Protestant ones. provinces, which were fighting for religious These were spread by means of education and political freedom. Calvinist propaganda and propaganda. The Jesuits worked both se- was more politically outspoken than the cretly and openly to provide the Roman Lutheran version, John Calvin himself being Catholic Church with well-educated people a professed republican. who could act as agents for it in societies ap- Around 1600 most of the cities of the parently already “lost” to Protestantism. Habsburg Empire, like Vienna and Prague, They used laymen as well as clerics, princes were Protestant. But the Jesuits, supported as well as scholars. They were supported by by the Habsburg emperors, were very active most of the Habsburg emperors as well as and gradually managed to gain ground for the forces in society—particularly in Poland— Counter-Reformation. The Vatican in Rome that worried about the social revolutionary had begun to structure its holding action in potential of Protestantism. Europe by creating an organization consisting Protestant education and propaganda of three cardinals known as the Cardinals’ proved particularly attractive to the middle Commission for Propagation of the Faith (de classes and those ethnic groups eager to propaganda fide), established during the reign emancipate themselves by substituting their of Pope Gregory XIII (r. 1572–1585). In mother tongue for Latin as the language of 1622 Pope Gregory XV (r. 1621–1623) cre- church and school. The Jesuits, however, de- ated a new framework for this mission in the ployed a pincer movement, aiming at the form of the Sacred Congregation for the elite and at the uneducated masses in the propagation of the faith, composed of thir- countryside. Protestantism remained mostly teen cardinals, which he explicitly charged an urban phenomenon. The Jesuits used re- with the task of extending the faith in the fined learning to convince noble disciples to “new” lands of Asia and America and turning support the Roman Catholic Church, back the tide of Protestantism. The organiza- whereas it reverted to such populist means as tion prospered, especially when Maffeo Bar- processions and other mass events centered berini (1868–1644), one of the thirteen car- around saints and relics to influence the dinals, succeeded to the papacy as Urban VIII broader population. The Jesuit order spread (ruled 1623–1644). The organization effec- quickly. In 1544 there were only nine Jesuit tively gave the world the word “propaganda.” colleges and no provinces. By the time of During the Thirty Years’ War, which Loyola’s death in 1556, the order had a hun- began in 1618 in Prague, the Protestants dred colleges and twelve provinces, with made the Calvinist count Frederick (1596– members scattered all over the world, from 1632), Elector of the Palatinate, king of Bo- Japan to Latin America. They typically served hemia in 1619. Following the decisive battle as doctors and professors at universities, as at the White Mountain, outside Prague, in confessors of princes, and as secret agents 1620, Frederick was forced to flee the coun- proselytizing for the Catholic faith. try. The Counter-Reformation now pre- In the 1550s and 1560s Jesuit propaganda, vailed. Bohemia was totally purged of Protes- combined with state repression in the tantism by means of executions, confiscation Netherlands, led to a radicalization of Protes- of property, and the zealous missionary work tantism there. The more anti-Catholic of the Jesuits. The same fate later befell the Calvinist church essentially eradicated Protestants in Austria. In Hungary-Transylva- Reith, Lord John 341 nia the Protestants were saved by the Ot- remained a major factor in political life until toman occupation. Print propaganda on both the end of the century and beyond. sides emphasized the enemy’s atrocities and In the eighteenth century the Counter-Re- the religious virtue of the home side. formation was ultimately defeated by the En- One of the problems of the Protestants lightenment. Political pressure on the Vatican was the split between Lutherans and Calvin- from the leaders of Portugal and Spain led to ists, whereas the Catholics were now united the abolishment of the Jesuit order. The Je- under Pope Urban VIII and his spiritual suits and Counter-Reformation propaganda guards, the Jesuits. The Protestants were de- were revived in the nineteenth century in the nounced as heretics and unpatriotic for fail- form of Roman Catholic propaganda against ing to support the emperor in his fight political liberalism, and later against Com- against Christian and Muslim infidels. The Je- munism. Late-twentieth-century attempts to suit Wilhelm Lamormaini (1570–1638), ad- reconcile Lutherans and Catholics attempted viser to Habsburg emperor Ferdinand II to annul mutual accusations made back in the (1578–1637), described the attitude of his sixteenth century. This effort was only partly emperor as follows: “The false and corrupt successful. Despite ecumenical cooperation, policies, which are widespread in these the impact of the theological propaganda and times, he, in his wisdom, condemned from counterpropaganda of the past has not yet the start. He held that those who followed been eliminated. One reason is that propa- such policies could not be dealt with, since ganda helped form the identity of both they practice falsehood and misuse God and branches of Christianity. religion.” In the 1630s, after the defeat and Karsten Fledelius withdrawal from Germany of the Danish See also Atrocity Propaganda;Austrian Empire; Lutheran king Christian IV (r. 1596–1648) Britain; France; Germany; Ignatius of Loyola, and the death of Gustav II Adolf (r. 1611– Saint; Ireland; Latin America; Luther, Martin; Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg; 1632) of Sweden, his more successful neigh- Portugal; Religion; Scandinavia; Spain; bor and fellow Lutheran, the odds of Protes- Switzerland tantism dominating Germany were slight. References: Bireley, Robert. The Refashioning of Just when the emperor seemed about to Catholicism,1450–1700:A Reassessment of the restore both the Holy Roman Empire and Counter Reformation. Basingstoke, UK: the Roman Catholic Church in Germany, Macmillan, 1999; Edwards, Mark U. Printing, Propaganda,and Martin Luther.Berkeley: France intervened in the person of Catholic University of California Press, 1994; Garstein, Cardinal Richelieu (1585–1642). After hav- Oskar. Rome and the Counter-Reformation in ing marginalized the position of Protestants Scandinavia.2 vols. Oslo: Universitetsforlaget, in France, Richelieu used every means to sta- 1963–1980; Scribner, Robert W. For the Sake of bilize and strengthen them in Germany. He Simple Folk:Popular Propaganda for the German Reformation.Cambridge: Cambridge University was helped by the stubborn refusal of the Press, 1981. Habsburg emperor to compromise with the Protestants. In 1648 the Habsburgs were forced to compromise under the terms of the Treaty of Westphalia. The boundaries Reith, Lord John (1889–1971) between Protestantism and Catholicism John Reith was born in Scotland, trained as were fixed according to a political agree- an engineer, and served and was wounded in ment whereby Catholic France and Protes- World War I. In 1922 Reith became general tant Sweden were allied and emerged as manager of what was then called the British winners. The high tide of religious propa- Broadcasting Company. In 1926 Reith be- ganda in continental Europe was over, but came the first director-general of the British within the British Isles (especially Ireland) it Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). In deciding 342 Religion on programming, he was guided by the belief notion of the holiness of kingship goes back that broadcasting must be educational as well to prehistoric times. With respect to Chris- as entertaining. He allowed the BBC to be an tianity, it is linked to the notion of the instrument of propaganda for the British gov- anointed kings of Israel, specifically David ernment during the General Strike of 1926. (ca. 1000 B.C.E.) and his son, Solomon (ca. During the 1930s he oversaw the inaugura- 1015–977 B.C.E.). The divine act of anoint- tion of the BBC Empire Service, which trans- ing, later elaborated in a coronation cere- mitted British news and “values” to citizens mony, made the king untouchable and his overseas. In 1938 he assumed the chairman- murder an act of sacrilege. In Britain Oliver ship of Imperial Airways. Appointed in 1940 Cromwell (1599–1658) deliberately tried to as the second minister of information by break that link by having Charles I (1600– Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (1869– 1649) executed in 1649 and the regalia of the 1940), he helped to reinvigorate Britain’s crown annihilated. But both kingship and re- wartime propaganda effort. In May 1940 galia were recreated in 1660 with the Winston Churchill (1874–1965) transferred restoration of the British monarchy under Reith to the Ministry of Transport. He was Charles II (1630–1685). also made a peer. Churchill dropped Reith The particular holiness of emperorship from the cabinet in 1942. He felt painfully was established by the first century and given underused by the government and spent the a Christian basis in the fourth. It has been rest of his life waiting for a call to high office used by all later Christian rulers, most no- that simply never came. The “Reithian” tradi- tably the Habsburgs of Austria (1452–1806), tion lived on at the BBC long after his depar- emperors of the so-called Holy Roman Em- ture. His name remains synonymous with the pire. The Romanovs of Russia (1613–1917) idea of public-service broadcasting that is drew heavily on religious propaganda for both morally and intellectually uplifting their emperorship, which did not prevent rather than just entertaining. four of the eight Russian tsars from being as- Nicholas J.Cull sassinated. The use of religion as propaganda See also BBC; The Big Lie; Britain; Censorship; by the monarchy made antireligious propa- MoI; Radio (International); World War II ganda very important for revolutionaries (Britain) since the 1790s. Notable examples include References: Boyle,Andrew. Only the Wind Will Listen:Reith of the BBC. London: Hutchinson, Thomas Paine’s (1737–1809) Age of Reason 1972; McIntyre, Ian. The Expense of Glory:A Life (1794–1796) and critiques of religion ad- of John Reith. London: HarperCollins, 1993. vanced by Karl Marx (1818–1883). The Vatican in Rome is the most obvious example of an institution entirely based on Religion religious propaganda. The very word “propa- Religion can be defined as a belief in some- ganda” is derived from the sixteenth-century thing greater and more powerful than organization for religious propaganda, Sacra mankind. Religious movements have used congregatio de propaganda fide (Sacred Congre- propaganda techniques to spread their mes- gation for the Propagation of the Faith). Papal sage. Religion is often used in propaganda be- propaganda became particularly evident after cause, once established, it rules out all other Italy annexed the papal state in 1870. Popes arguments, such as human rights, vested in- have been fighting against democracy, politi- terests, political privileges, or property cal liberalism, left-wing parties, female re- rights. It is the ultimate instrument of politi- productive rights, and liberation theology— cal power. often supporting right-wing dictators like Royal authority has traditionally been sup- Francisco Franco (1892–1975) in Spain and ported by religiously based propaganda. The Augusto Pinochet (1915– ) in Chile. Pope Religion 343

John Paul II (1920– ) used modern mass The late twentieth century saw the emer- media to fight Communism, materialism, and gence of Islamic religious terrorism—espe- to promote conservative family and societal cially in the Arab world.An early example in- values. volved the assassination in October 1981 of Despite the constitutional separation of Egyptian president Anwar Sadat (1918– church and state in the United States, politi- 1981) by radical Muslims, with the terrorists cal speeches are frequently imbued with reli- subsequently exploiting media coverage of gious rhetoric. Outstanding examples in- their trials to bolster their cause. Unlike the clude the civil rights speeches of the 1950s clerical revolution in Iran, the new brand of and 1960s, which were influenced by South- militant Islam looked to laymen, with propa- ern Baptist preachers like Martin Luther ganda disseminated by organizations like al- King Jr. (1929–1968), or the speeches of Jamaa al-Islamiya in Egypt or the Al Qaeda radical black Muslim leader Malcolm X network targeted at the masses. Some oppo- (1925–1965). In the 1980s Republican sition to radical Islamism actually comes politicians like Ronald Reagan (1911– ) and from Muslim theologians who reject the mil- George Bush (1924– ) used much religious itant layman’s one-sided and politically biased rhetoric, while TV evangelists like Jerry Fal- interpretation of the Koran. The propaganda well (1953– ) lobbied on behalf of marital fi- of radical Arab Islamism is as much directed delity and against abortion, themes taken up against local Arab rulers as against the “unbe- by conservative political leaders. lievers” of the West. Not only secular Modern religious propaganda since the regimes like those of Egypt and Algeria have 1980s has witnessed a decline in traditionally suffered; so, too, have fundamentalist Muslim antireligious Marxist ideology. The same pe- rulers like King Fahd (1922– ) of Saudi Ara- riod has also witnessed a rise in nationalistic bia, who himself had financed Koran schools rhetoric, which is frequently combined with in Asia and Europe. Radical Islamist clerics religion. In 1992 the radical Serb leadership have achieved success among immigrant Arab in Bosnia used the defense of Orthodox circles in Western cities like New York, Lon- Christianity as the basis for breaking away don, Brussels, and Hamburg. Suicide terror- from the multireligious state of Bosnia and ism is the most notorious product of this reli- creating a separate state. The value of religion gious propaganda. Polite, well-educated as propaganda seems to have been enhanced young men from good families became in- during the 1990s, replacing political ideology struments of terror, fueled by the promise of as the most important source of propaganda. a life of pleasure in paradise attended by sev- This is also true in states whose constitution enty or seventy-two naked virgins. Docu- requires the separation of church and state. ments published following the attacks against In the Islamic world the interpretation of the United States on 11 September 2001 re- the Koran by right-wing Moslem clerics vealed the religio-political character of the brought religion into international politics. In propaganda used to prepare the attackers, si- 1979 the Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini lence their doubts, and nurture a feeling of (1900–1989) successfully engineered the being the instrument of God. By choosing overthrow of the shah of Iran by making use prominent targets and timing their attacks to of such simple means of mass communication ensure maximum global media coverage, the as audiocassettes of his sermons and political religiously motivated suicide pilots of 11 speeches, which were smuggled into the September united traditional martyrdom country. Religiously based propaganda has with modern communications technology. been used by both sides in the Israeli-Pales- Karsten Fledelius tine conflict, with both sides claiming a di- See also Arab World; Balkans; Ignatius of Loyola, vine right to the land. Saint; Iran; Ireland; Italy; Laden, Osama bin; 344 Revolution, American, and War of Independence

Luther, Martin; Marx, Karl; Netherlands, The propaganda campaign created an Belgium, and Luxembourg; Ottoman Empire; atmosphere of hostility and fear, the escala- Pacific/Oceania; Paine, Thomas; Philippines; tion of which drew the patriots reluctantly Poland; Reagan, Ronald; Reformation and Counter-Reformation; Revolution, French; into an anticolonial war. So convinced were Switzerland; Temperance;Terrorism; the colonists that the British government Terrorism, War on; United States intended to extinguish traditional English References: Bruce, Steve. The Rise and Fall of the liberty that even minor expressions of legal New Christian Right:Conservative Protestant Politics authority were resisted. In 1770, when in America,1978–1988.Oxford: Clarendon troops fired on a riotous crowd, killing five Press, 1988; Noll, Mark, ed. Religion and American Politics:From the Colonial Period to the men, the “Boston Massacre” was used as ev- 1980s.New York: Oxford University Press, idence of oppression. In 1775, when British 1990; Sahliyeh, Emile, ed. Religious Resurgence troops engaged with colonial militia in Lex- and Politics in the Contemporary World.Albany: ington and Concord, Massachusetts, the in- State University of New York Press, 1990; cident was widely regarded as a great injus- Sivan, Emmanuel, and Menachem Friedman, eds. Religious Radicalism and Politics in the Middle tice despite the context of resistance against East. Albany: State University of New York lawful authority. Thomas Paine’s (1737– Press, 1990. 1809) pamphlet Common Sense (1776) pro- posed American independence as the only feasible goal. During the War of Independence (1776– Revolution, American, and War of 1783), the focus turned to maintaining Independence (1764–1783) morale. For example, Paine’s sixteen pam- American independence was accomplished in phlets collectively known as The Crisis (1776– a war of ideas in which propaganda was the 1783) reinforced the rightness of the most important weapon. John Adams colonists’ cause and doubted the supremacy (1735–1826) claimed that a revolution in the of British forces. After the British surrender minds of the colonists took place before a at Yorktown in 1781, the debate on the fu- drop of blood was shed, as a result of the po- ture of the colonies continued in newspapers litical campaigns between 1764 and 1775. and pamphlets, particularly in relation to the The patriots opposed the authority of the terms of the Peace of Paris (1783), the juris- British Parliament to impose duty on goods diction over western frontier lands, and the and services in the colonies. The colonial elite Federal Constitutional Convention (1787– engaged in a systematic effort to gain public 1788). The Federalist, comprising a series of support, described by Philip G. Davidson as articles by Alexander Hamilton (1755– propaganda, demanding that the right to raise 1804), John Jay (1745–1829), and James taxes in the colonies would be determined Madison (1751–1836), sought popular sup- solely by American colonial assemblies. Their port for ratification but met with a vigorous intention was not to prepare the people for anti-Federalist campaign. independence, which was not considered Print was by far the most important until 1776. John Dickinson’s (1732–1808) medium in spreading political sentiments. “Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer” (1767– Such political debates took place in articles, 1768) rallied popular support against the letters, official documents, poems, sermons, Townshend Acts (1767), invoking an opposi- and speeches printed in newspapers, al- tional “country” ideology familiar to British manacs, and broadsides. By 1775 there were politics, championing the merits of the British thirty-eight newspapers, transformed by re- constitution and the rights of Englishmen, bellion from “newspapers without news” into while at the same time asserting the corrup- forums for political debate and centers of re- tion of the present court and house. sistance. The most useful tool for extended Revolution, American, and War of Independence 345

American revolutionary Paul Revere's famous engraving of the Boston Massacre,entitled The Bloody Massacre Perpetrated in King Street. (National Archives) political argument was the pamphlet. Rang- personal attacks, pamphlet literature gener- ing from short squibs to technical treatises, ally consisted of reasoned argument moti- between 1750 and 1776 over four thousand vated by a sense of injustice rather than hate. pamphlets were published bearing on the Despite their use of satire—a common de- colonial crisis. Pamphlets were cheap to pro- vice in British pamphleteering—these au- duce and provided a quick response to thors were amateurs, mostly lawyers, clergy, events, often resulting in protracted debates. merchants, and planters; with the exception While the latter often ended in vituperative of Paine and William Livingston (1723– 346 Revolution, American, and War of Independence

1790), they never attained the level of pro- Parades to liberty trees, public toasts to an- fessional English penmen. cient liberties, continental fasts and thanks- Official documents such as the Declara- giving days—which included civic feasts, gun tion of Rights and Grievances (1774) also salutes, and orations—marked significant appealed to public opinion. Although un- events and anniversaries. Campaigners also likely to effect a change in British policy, used “patriotic numbers” as symbols. Initially such documents were intended to justify the number 45 linked their cause to British concerted action to the public. The Declara- political rebel John Wilkes (1727–1797), tion of Independence, which informed the publisher of antigovernment The North Briton world that the colonists no longer consid- No. 45. In 1766 the colonists added the num- ered themselves subjects of the British ber 92, reflecting the majority opinion in the crown, has been seen as “performative” Massachusetts Assembly opposing British propaganda, for “only as men fought for it rule. Thus, a crowd in Charleston, South did they give meaning to it.” Carolina, lit their liberty tree with 45 lights, Speeches, sermons, and plays reached an followed by a celebration involving 45 bowls uneducated audience whose support for the of punch, 45 bottles of wine, and 92 glasses. revolution was vital. Preachers borrowed After the signing of the Declaration of Inde- from the religious enthusiasm and engage- pendence, the numbers 76 and 13 became ment of the “Great Awakening” (1734– the preferred symbols of liberty. 1760). “Mob orators” like Ebenezer Mackin- Loyalist propaganda was restricted to the tosh (1737–1816) of Boston made intense print medium, disparaging popular appeals. emotional appeals to the crowd. Oral persua- The Tory counterattack reached a fever pitch sion, though independently effective, was re- in 1774–1775, using personal exposé and inforced and disseminated in print. Songs and public accusation. Some loyalist pamphlets parodies set to popular tunes, such as John were well respected, such as Plain Truth Dickinson’s (1732–1808) “The Liberty Song” (1776), which went into several editions. (1768) were performed and printed in Tory opposition was tolerated less during broadsides. Printed engravings, such as Paul the war. Tories were publicly tarred and Revere’s (1734–1818) widely circulated il- feathered and marched out of town. Never- lustration of the Boston Massacre, provided theless, in 1778 loyalists appealed for peace visual news. Paper money bearing patriotic by manipulating anti-French and anti- emblems and slogans was printed and issued Catholic sentiments. by state legislatures and the Continental The interpretation of the American Revo- Congress to fund the war effort. Flags also lution as propaganda is associated with Pro- employed symbols, such as the liberty tree, gressive historians Charles Beard (1874– the rattlesnake (the latter bore the slogan 1948) and Arthur M. Schlesinger (1888– “Don’t tread on me”), and the thirteen stars 1965), who have argued that the revolution and stripes, which was adopted by Congress was motivated by class interests rather than in 1777. political ideas. Carl Becker (1873–1945) Street festivities, while often spontaneous, claimed that the colonists modified their po- can also be seen as a medium for the dissemi- litical theory to “suit their changing needs.” nation of propaganda, recreating written and Since the colonists did not suffer from oral rhetoric in terms of ritual. During the poverty or significant oppression, he argued, Stamp Act crisis of 1765, angry colonists per- the revolutionaries employed the rhetoric of formed a “funeral of liberty” procession in “slavery,” “corruption” and “massacre” as the street. The Declaration of Independence “mere propaganda.” By contrast, the ideolog- was greeted and endorsed by a ritual burial ical interpretation of the Revolution, which and destruction of royal statuary and arms. is associated with Bernard Bailyn and Gordon Revolution, French 347

S. Wood, sees political ideas as the determi- States on the Freedom Train as part of a pa- nant of the patriots’ interpretation of events. triotic propaganda initiative. Bailyn has argued that the colonists under- Karen M.Ford stood the terms “slavery” and “corruption” See also Britain (Eighteenth Century); Freedom within the paradigm of the commonwealth Train; Livingston, William; Paine, Thomas; tradition and genuinely felt their oppression. Psychological Warfare; United States References: Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Nevertheless, a descriptive conception of Origins of the American Revolution.Cambridge, propaganda recognizes that the revolutionary MA: Belknap Press of the Harvard University literature did amount to a partially orches- Press, 1967; Beard, Charles. An Economic trated campaign to effect mass persuasion. Interpretation of the Constitution of the United Several writers deliberately manipulated States. New York: Macmillan, 1913; Becker, readers emotionally in addition to utilizing Carl. The Declaration of Independence: A Study in the History of Political Ideas. New York: Harcourt rational argument. Philip G. Davidson has and Brace, 1922; Davidson, Philip G. “Whig demonstrated that pamphleteers intended to Propagandists of the American Revolution.” “hoodwink” the people. For example, Dickin- American Historical Review 39, no. 3 (1934): son pretended to react to reader’s questions 442–453; ———. Propaganda and the American despite the fact that entire series of letters Revolution,1763–1783. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1941; Maier, Pauline. had been completed before publication. In “John Wilkes and American Disillusionment response to the Peace Commission, William with Britain.” William and Mary Quarterly (3d Livingston sent several letters to the New Jer- ser.) 20, 3 (1963): 373–395; Schlesinger, sey Gazette under assumed names, including Arthur M. Prelude to Independence:The Newspaper “Belinda.” H. S. Stout has argued that manip- War on Britain,1764–1776. New York: Knopf, ulative propaganda could not flourish in the 1958; Stout, H. S. “Religion, Communications and the Ideological Origins of the American absence of mass society. The educated elite Revolution.” William and Mary Quarterly (3d numbered only three thousand college grad- ser.) 34, 4 (1977): 519–514; Waldstreicher, uates in 1776. However, Paine’s Common Sense David. “Rites of Rebellion, Rites of Assent: is estimated to have reached one sixth of the Celebrations, Print Culture and the Origins of population. The need to persuade the com- American Nationalism.” Journal of American History 82, 1 (1995): 37–61; Wood, G. S. The mon man, evidenced by the distinctly oral Creation of the American Republic,1776–1787. orientation of patriot propaganda, “psycho- Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina logically enfranchised” the masses in a society Press, 1969. characterized by an unusual degree of social equality. The unintended effect of the “decid- edly disingenuous” democratic rhetoric em- Revolution, French (1789–1799) ployed by the elite was an inevitable turn to- This period of political upheaval in France ward political equality. ended the monarchy but was itself subsumed The American Revolution assumed a cen- by the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769– tral position in the national mythology of the 1821). The French revolutionaries of 1789 United States and hence became a key refer- and after spoke of creating a new human ence point in U.S. home-front war propa- being to suit the new regime. To this end ganda. Icons of such campaigns included they mobilized all the available media— Tompkins Harrison Matteson’s (1813–1884) printed texts, visual images, theatrical pro- painting Spirit of ‘76 (1845) and sculptor ductions, popular songs, stately hymns, Daniel Chester French’s (1850–1931) Minute games, playing cards, and architecture—to Man (1875), which figured in U.S. war bond impress, accommodate, and serve the promotions in both world wars. In the early masses. At first much of this propaganda was years of the Cold War, documents from the created spontaneously, with prorevolution- Revolutionary period toured the United ary and royalist advocates engaged in a battle 348 Revolution, French to control people’s minds.As the Revolution tion, some authors had advocated turning the progressed, however, there was growing theater into a school for civic education. As pressure from the national government, mu- the royal monopoly of the theater disap- nicipal authorities, and political clubs to sup- peared, scores of new theaters were opened port the revolutionary cause. This pressure and hundreds of new plays were produced. intensified after the advent of the Terror in Again pressure was exerted on playwrights 1793, during which the revolutionary gov- by the central government, municipal au- ernment took on many of the features of a thorities, and patriotic clubs to produce plays totalitarian state. with revolutionary themes. During the Ter- The printed word was the principal ror the central government issued lists of ap- medium for spreading or opposing the revo- proved plays. At the same time, attempts lutionary gospel. It requires a thick volume were made to change the physical layout of just to list the myriad newspapers that ap- theaters. Auditoriums were redesigned with- peared once royal authorization was no out boxes and separate sections so that audi- longer required. Early in the Revolution ences could mingle. prorevolutionary and opposition newspapers Those who were not avid readers, did not were allowed to compete, but as the Revolu- care for art, or did not attend the theater tion intensified royalist newspapers were could be reached through music. Thousands suppressed and their editors arrested. During of revolutionary songs and hymns were writ- the Terror the revolutionary government su- ten during the decade-long Revolution, pervised and subsidized the press. Printed peaking during the Terror (1793–1794). propaganda, however, extended far beyond Songs were reproduced on single sheets, in newspapers to include caricatures, declara- newspapers, in civic manuals, and collected tions of rights, almanacs, catechisms, lists of in little songbooks. They were sung on street adages, revolutionary commandments, Re- corners, in homes, and in political clubs by publican calendars, songbooks, children’s soldiers and the general populace during primers, revolutionary board games, and state festivals. (The revolutionary govern- playing cards. ment selected the music for such festivals and Art was likewise mobilized to serve the their massed choirs.) At the peak of the Rev- revolutionary cause. Although many artists olution the government itself sponsored a continued to paint landscapes, portraits, and National Institute of Music that produced still lifes based on apolitical classical or reli- two musical publications, one containing gious themes, others attempted to immortal- popular songs and the other more elevated ize contemporary events—the Tennis Court compositions suitable for formal state occa- Oath, the storming of the Bastille, the over- sions. Architecture also served the revolu- throw of the monarchy—and such political tionary cause. From the very beginning of the martyrs as Louis-Michel Lepelletier (1760– Revolution, ambitious architects sought state 1793), Marie-Joseph Chalier (1747–1793), commissions to design towering columns, and Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793). At the triumphal arches, revolutionary temples, and peak of the Revolution, the Committee of other public buildings. Such structures were Public Safety sponsored an ambitious contest meant to impress the public through their that utilized state patronage as a means of in- monumental size, official inscriptions, sym- creasing the number of works of art depict- bols, and allegorical figures. Still other edi- ing revolutionary events, political heroes, fices were designed to accommodate citizens and allegorical compositions in praise of new in revolutionary meetings and festivities. revolutionary ideals. Civic leaders strove to demonstrate their Plays were also used to disseminate revo- concern for the masses by planning such pub- lutionary messages. Even before the Revolu- lic facilities as fountains, lavatories, public Revolution, Russian 349 baths, swimming pools, libraries, museums, References: Carlson, Marvin. The Theater of the and schools. The effort to impress, accom- French Revolution.Ithaca, NY: Cornell modate, and serve the masses reached a peak University Press, 1966; Kennedy, Emmet. A Cultural History of the French Revolution.New in the spring of 1794, when the Committee Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1989; Leith, of Public Safety called upon sculptors and ar- James A. “Music as an Ideological Weapon in chitects to create revolutionary monuments the French Revolution.” Canadian Historical of various kinds, Temples of Equality, Temples Association Annual Report,1966.Ottawa,1967, decadaires for worship on the tenth day (the 126–140; ———. Media and Revolution: Republican substitute for Sunday), Republi- Moulding a New Citizenry in France during the Ter ror. Toronto: Canadian Broadcasting can schools, and various urban amenities. Corporation, 1968; ———. The Idea of Art as The plans also called for a revolutionary pub- Propaganda:A Study in the History of Ideas. lic park in the heart of Paris. If successful, Toronto: Toronto University Press, 1965; these projects would have created a new ide- Ozouf, Mona. Festivals and the French Revolution. ological landscape to replace the former Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, Christian one. 1988. It was at the revolutionary festival, however, where all the media came together to serve the Revolution. In the great festivals celebrating Revolution, Russian (1917–1921) the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, The Russian Revolution, also known as the the overthrow of the monarchy, the inaugura- Great Revolution or the October Revolu- tion of the Republican constitution, revolu- tion, was the second revolution to occur in tionary victories, the “Cult of the Supreme 1917; it followed February’s successful at- Being,” or the commemoration of Republican tempt to overthrow the autocracy, which re- martyrs, there were always speeches, printed sulted in the abdication of the tsar. The Provi- programs, parades of officials marches by the sional Government—a coalition hastily common people, bands and choirs, ephemeral cobbled together by a state Duma (parlia- statues, triumphal arches, floats bearing alle- ment)—was not used to the exercise of gorical figures—all funneling into a large area power and was intended only as a temporary where the participants gathered around the measure until an election could be held. The Altar of the Fatherland. Provisional Government could not withdraw French revolutionary propaganda was not from World War I against Germany and an immediate success. The Revolution went found it impossible to organize the day-to- through a constitutional monarchy, a moder- day affairs of a vast nation at war—not least ate republic, a radical republic, and a conser- because it needed the support of the Petro- vative one, culminating in a coup by Napo- grad soviet, the organization of workers and leon Bonaparte. It wasn’t until a decade after soldiers who had taken control of that city the establishment of the Third Republic in following the February Revolution. 1870 that most of its major goals were The Bolsheviks, the most radical revolu- achieved. The French Revolution had been tionary party, seized on this inactivity. Once too unstable for Republican propaganda to their leader Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) ar- bear immediate fruit. It did, however, pro- rived in April and coopted Leon Trotsky vide a prototype for future regimes on the (1879–1940) to the cause, they scorned the left and right anxious to mold their citizens Provisional Government and claimed their in the image of a new order. right to act. They gained the support of the James A.Leith soviets through the slogan “Peace, Bread, and See also Architecture;Art; David, Jacques-Louis; Land!” The Provisional Government, led by France; “La Marseillaise”; Napoleon; Paine, Alexander Kerensky (1881–1970), became Thomas more and more unpopular. On the night of 350 Revolution, Russian

25 October 1917 the Bolsheviks seized control January 1918, it was dispersed and Lenin’s of the Winter Palace in Petrograd almost with- cabinet continued to rule. Much like their out firing a shot, proving that no one was will- tsarist predecessors, the Bolsheviks were en- ing to fight for the Provisional Government. ergetic in cutting off the publicity options of Lenin, the master of “agitation,” an- their opponents. Other political parties were nounced to the Revolutionary Military Com- banned, newspapers were censored, and a se- mittee of the Petrograd Soviet of Workers’ cret police force was set up. The Cheka, led and Soldiers’ Deputies: “The cause for which by Felix Dzherzhinsky (1877–1926), en- the people have fought, namely, the immedi- forced revolutionary discipline to the point ate offer of a democratic peace, the abolition of executing thousands of people. of landed proprietorship, workers’ control Britain, France, and the United States over production, and the establishment of landed troops in Russia in 1918. Ukrainians, Soviet power—this cause has been secured Cossacks, and other minorities seized their ...Long live the revolution of workers, sol- chance to gain independence. Russian coun- diers and peasants!” (“To the Citizens of Rus- terrevolutionary forces—the Whites—ob- sia!” Worker and Soldier 8, 1–2 [25 October tained foreign backing and organized armed 1917]). resistance against the new regime, but the The offer was attractive, the facts were Bolsheviks proved to be better equipped, simple, and the tone was one of absolute con- more highly organized, and better disci- fidence. There was to be nothing “provi- plined. In any event, since few Russians sional” about the Bolshevik’s approach. wanted to return to tsarist rule, they were Lenin’s rhetoric to the general populace was at least potentially receptive to Bolshevik even more direct: “Comrades—workers, sol- agitation. diers, peasants and all working people! The Lenin agreed wholeheartedly with Georgi workers’ and peasants’ revolution has defi- Plekhanov (1857–1918) both in terms of the nitely triumphed in Petrograd...The vic- necessity to spread ideas and to distinguish tory of the workers’ and peasants’ revolution between agitatsiia (agitation) and propaganda. is assured because the majority of the people In What Is to Be Done? (1902) Lenin took the have already sided with it... We shall go moderate Menshevik Yulii Martov (1873– forward firmly and unswervingly to the vic- 1923) to task for obscuring Plekhanov’s dis- tory of socialism—a victory that will be tinction: “The propagandist...must present sealed by the advanced workers of the most ‘many ideas.’ So many, indeed, that they will civilized countries, bring the people lasting only be understood as an integral whole only peace and liberate them from all oppression by a (comparatively) few persons. The agita- and exploitation” (“To the Populace.” Pravda 4 tor,however,... will direct his efforts to [19 November 1917]; this speech was writ- presenting a single idea to the ‘masses.’” ten before the uprising). Leaving aside the niceties of Marxist pro- As soon as he gained power, Lenin made pagandistic strategy, the new government of clear what he intended to do. The “Decree on Russia had to achieve cultural hegemony. The Land” nationalized the latter on behalf of the Bolsheviks were faced with the difficulties of people who farmed it. This was followed by having triumphed in a coup d’état without the “Decree on Peace” announcing that the having gained control of the country except war with Germany was over. Despite giving for a few major cities—and with no guaran- the people “Peace, Bread, and Land!” the Bol- tee of continued support by the industrial sheviks came in second after the Social Revo- workers or soldiers. The citadel had been lutionaries in the elections. Lenin’s response stormed but the trenches—in which coun- was simple. When the new Russian parlia- terrevolution could breed—were still intact. ment, the Constituent Assembly, met on 5 As Lenin put it in On Cooperation (1922): “In RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty) 351 our country the political and social revolu- See also Battleship Potemkin; Comintern; tion preceded the cultural revolution.” Eisenstein, Sergei; Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich; In view of the urgent need to spread the Marx, Karl; Pravda; Russia; Stalin, Joseph; Trotsky, Leon; Women’s Movement: European; Bolshevik ideology, justify the seizure of World War I power, and raise education levels—not to References: Figes, Orlando. The People’s Tragedy. mention increase economic efficiency—the London: Jonathan Cape, 1997; Hosking, Narkompros (People’s Commissariat) quickly Geoffrey. A History of the Soviet Union. London: set up an agitprop machine to spread “enlight- Fontana, 1992; Kenez, Peter. The Birth of the enment.” It is hardly surprising that right after Propaganda State.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1985; Pipes, Richard. Russia seizing power the Bolsheviks also took control under the Soviet Regime. London: HarperCollins, of the film industry. The importance given to 1994. film can be gauged by the fact that the first head of the Narkompros film subsection was Lenin’s wife, Nadezhda Krupskaia (1869– 1939). RFE/RL (Radio Free Europe/ The Bolsheviks had the twin advantages of Radio Liberty) controlling what was left of the transporta- These were the two American shortwave tion infrastructure (via the trade unions) and radio stations during the Cold War. Radio energetic cadres well versed in revolutionary Free Europe (RFE) was incorporated in agitation. The first “agit-train”—naturally 1949. Purportedly funded by public sub- named the V. I. Lenin—was dispatched to pro- scription through the National Committee vide ideological guidance to the troops fight- for a Free Europe, in reality it received secret ing to regain the Kazan area from the rampag- funding from the Central Intelligence Agency ing Czech Legion. The train contained a (CIA). It was beamed at the “captive nations” printing plant and a theater group. Eduard of Eastern Europe. Its sister station, Radio Tisse (1897–1961), who was later to work Liberty (RL), was originally known as Radio with filmmaker Sergei Eisenstein (1898– Liberation from Bolshevism. It began to 1948) on Battleship Potemkin (1926), was broadcast to the USSR in 1951 as a project of placed on board to lead a film crew. Soon this the National Committee for Freedom of the material was being shown in Moscow. It was Peoples of the USSR, Inc. Both stations then circulated to the growing network of sought to be regarded as surrogates for do- “agit-stations” and onto the trains and boats mestic radio stations. Instead of carrying the whose mission was to enlighten, educate, and sort of international news that could be motivate those areas still held by the Reds. heard on the Voice of America (VOA), they If agitation and/or propaganda failed to carried local news and features. Both were work, the Bolsheviks could always rely on heavily jammed. In 1956 RFE was criticized Lenin’s taste for the pragmatic New Eco- for having encouraged the Hungarian upris- nomic Program (NEP) or the draconian, as ing, which the U.S. government was unable exemplified in his brutal response to the to support. Another CIA-funded station growing opposition among the Red Army called Radio Free Asia broadcast to China in- rank and file at Kronstadt in March 1921. By termittently between 1951 and 1955. the spring of 1921 the White armies had all In 1967 the New York Times revealed the se- been defeated, internal dissent had been cret funding and political pressure mounted quelled, and the Bolsheviks controlled much for both radio stations to be shut down. In of the former Russian Empire. The Revolu- 1973 they were placed under the supervision tion had been effectively (and victoriously) of the new Board of International Broadcast- concluded. ing. The greatest triumph for both stations Graham Roberts occurred during the second Cold War of the 352 Riefenstahl, Leni

1980s. The role of RFE and RL in encourag- ing, gave her films an unusual flowing ing the political change was well argued on rhythm that was unattainable for other con- Capitol Hill by Sen. Joseph Biden (1942– ) temporary documentarians. in whose state (Delaware) the stations were Riefenstahl began her career as a solo incorporated. The Clinton administration dancer in 1923. After having suffered an in- preserved the stations within a revised Inter- jury, she became an actress in the specialized national Broadcasting Board, which also in- genre of mountain films directed by Arnold corporated the VOA. RFE/RL soon diversi- Fanck (1889–1974). She starred in five of fied, adding broadcasts aimed at Iraq and Fanck’s films, inevitably playing the female Radio Free Asia to their stable. In 2001 they lead role in an otherwise almost exclusively received unwelcome evidence of their effec- male cast. Her first picture, The Blue Light tiveness in the form of news of a terrorist (1932), resulted from her close cooperation plot—involving Iraqi intelligence and one of with writer Bela Balasz (1884–1949) and the September 11 hijackers—to attack RFE cameraman Hans Schneeberger (1895– headquarters in Prague. 1970). The film tells a romantic story, with Nicholas J.Cull Riefenstahl playing a young gypsy outcast. In See also CIA; Cold War; Poland; Radio 1932 Riefenstahl met Hitler. He appointed (International); Russia;VOA her artistic director for the party-rally film References: Brown, Donald R. International Victory of Faith (1933). Riefenstahl edited the Radio Broadcasting:The Limits of the Limitless Medium. New York: Praeger, 1982; Critchlow, film herself, first using the montage tech- James. Radio Hole-in-the-Head/Radio Liberty:An nique that signaled a new propaganda style. Insider’s Story of Cold War Broadcasting. As a result, the political meaning of the event Washington, DC:American University Press, was concentrated in a montage exclusively 1995; Mickelson, Sig. America’s Other Voice:The dedicated to illustrate the Führer’s power and Story of Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty.New charisma. York: Praeger, 1983; Nelson, Michael. War of the Black Heavens:The Battles of Western The next party-rally film, Tr iumph of the Broadcasting in the Cold War. London: Brassey’s, Will, was far better prepared. With a highly 1997; Puddington,Arch. Freedom Radios:How skilled large staff at her disposal, Riefenstahl Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty Broke the was able to create the ideal portrait of Nazi Soviet Information Blockade. Lexington: party rituals. Screenings in regular movie University of Kentucky Press, 2000. houses (with Ufa as distributor) plus numer- ous special showings for party organizations assured it the widest possible audience. Al- Riefenstahl, Leni (1902– ) though it was not distributed regularly in for- German dancer, actress, and filmmaker, Leni eign countries, it won the prize for best doc- Riefenstahl was responsible for some of the umentary at the 1935 Venice Film Festival most important and aesthetically striking and was awarded a gold medal at the 1937 propaganda films made under the Nazi World’s Fair in Paris. regime. Between 1933 and 1935 she di- Riefenstahl’s most ambitious project was rected three Nazi party rally films: Victory of Olympiade, a film about the 1936 Olympic Faith (1933), Tr iumph of the Will (1935), and Games held in Berlin, which premiered on Day of Freedom (1935). Her greatest interna- Hitler’s birthday and was subsequently shown tional success was Olympia (1938). The em- in most European capitals. In 1939 she began ployment of an ever-growing number of to prepare a large-scale film version of Hein- camera teams enabled Riefenstahl to arrange rich von Kleist’s (1777–1811) play Penthe- the footage of selected events in shot-re- silea. The outbreak of war brought an end to verse-shot patterns. This montage tech- this project. Riefenstahl at first joined the nique, usually associated with fiction writ- German troops along with her film crew but RMVP (Reichministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda) 353 quit further work in uniform after witnessing ate of Theodore Roosevelt. His son, Edward a massacre committed by German soldiers in Riis, directed U.S. propaganda in Denmark the Polish village of Konskie. She began work for the Committee on Public Information on Tiefland (The Lowlands), a film adaptation during World War I. of the opera by Eugen d’Albert (1864– Nicholas J.Cull 1932). Held back by various circumstances, See also Photography; Scandinavia; United States; the film was only finished in 1954. After the United States (Progressive Era) war Riefenstahl was interrogated by the U.S. References: Meyer, Edith Patterson.“Not Charity, but Justice”:The Story of Jacob A.Riis.New York: Army, appeared three times at denazification Vanguard, 1974; Riis, Jacob. How the Other Half hearings, and was finally released after being Lives.1890. Reprint, London: Penguin, 1997. branded as a “sympathizer.” She continued to undertake film projects but never finished any. In the 1960s she trav- eled to Africa four times. Her book The Nuba RMVP (Reichministerium für won her recognition as a photographer, but it Volksaufklärung und Propaganda) also raised questions as to whether her aes- The Nazi propaganda ministry, the Reich- thetic position had changed since her party- ministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propa- rally films. In the late 1970s she began to ganda (State Ministry for Popular Enlighten- publish a series of underwater photography ment and Propaganda), was established by a books. She celebrated her one-hundredth presidential decree, signed on 12 March birthday on August 22, 2002, to considerable 1933 and promulgated the following day, media attention. which defined the task of the new ministry as Rainer Rother the dissemination of “enlightenment and See also Film (Documentary); Film (Nazi propaganda within the population concern- Germany); Goebbels, Joseph; Hitler,Adolf; ing the policy of the Reich Government and Olympics; Tr iumph of the Will the national reconstruction of the German References: Hinton, David B. The Films of Leni Riefenstahl. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1991; Fatherland.” Loiperdinger, Martin. Rituale der Mobilmachung. Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945), who Opladen, Germany: Leske & Budrich, 1987; headed the new ministry, is said to have been Rother, Rainer. Leni Riefenstahl:The Seduction of initially unhappy with the use of the word Genius. London: Continuum, 2002; Salkeld, “propaganda” in the name on the grounds Audrey. A Portrait of Leni Riefenstahl. London: that it was psychologically counterproduc- Jonathan Cape, 1996; Welch, David. Propaganda and the German Cinema (1933–45). tive. Given his voluminous writings on the Rev. ed. Oxford I. B. Tauris, 2001. subject and the fact that he felt confident enough to form the Nazi Party Reich Propa- ganda Directorate in 1930, this claim, based Riis, Jacob (1849–1914) on little substantive evidence, seems totally A pioneer photojournalist and Progressive out of character. In June Adolf Hitler reformer active in New York City at the turn (1889–1945) was to define the scope of the of the century, Riis was born in Ribe, Den- RMVP in even more general terms, making mark. In 1870 he immigrated to the United Goebbels responsible for the “spiritual direc- States, where he made his name as a journal- tion of the nation.” Not only did this vague ist, working first at the New York Tribune and directive provide Goebbels with room to later for the New York Evening Sun. He pho- outmaneuver his critics within the party, it tographed the appalling living conditions in also gave the seal of approval to what was New York slums and published his observa- soon to result in the ministry’s wholesale ma- tions in a book called How the Other Half Lives nipulation of the mass media. Nevertheless, (1890). He was a friend and political associ- Goebbels was constantly involved in quarrels 354 RMVP (Reichministerium für Volksaufklärung und Propaganda) with ministerial colleagues who resented the into seven departments. (During the war encroachment of this new ministry on their even Goebbels’s antibureaucratic stance old domain. could not prevent the RMVP from escaping Analyzing the political function of propa- the process of expansion and bureaucratiza- ganda in the Third Reich is further compli- tion, with the number of departments actu- cated by the fact that it was simultaneously ally increasing to fourteen.) channeled through three different institu- tions: the RMVP, the Reichspropagandaamt Department 1: Legislation and Legal (Central Propaganda Office) of the party, and Problems; Budget, Finance, and the Reichskulturkammer (Reich Chamber of Accounting Culture). Moreover, the political structure of Department 2: Co-ordination of Popular the Third Reich was based on the twin pillars Enlightenment and Propaganda (“active of the party and the state. According to propaganda”); Regional Agencies of the Hitler in Mein Kampf, it was the task of the Ministry; German Academy of Politics; state to continue the “historical development Official Ceremonies and of the national administration within the Demonstrations; National Emblems; framework of the law,” while it was the func- Racial Questions; Treaty of Versailles; tion of the party to “build its internal organi- Opposing Ideologies; Youth zation and establish and develop a stable and Organizations; Public Health and self-perpetuating center of the National So- Sports; Eastern and Border Questions; cialist doctrine in order to transfer the indoc- National Travel Committee trinated to the state so that they may become Department 3: Radio; National its leaders as well as its disciples.” The cre- Broadcasting Company ation of the RMVP in March 1933 was a sig- (Reichsfunkgesellschaft) nificant step in merging the party and the Department 4: National and Foreign Press; state. Goebbels continued to be head of party Journalism; Press Archives; News propaganda, but he greatly strengthened both Service; National Association of his own position within the party and the German Press scope of propaganda by setting up this new Department 5: Film; Film Picture Industry; ministry—the first of its kind in Germany. Film Censorship; Newsreels With the creation of the RMVP, propa- Department 6: Theatre ganda primarily became the responsibility of Department 7: Music; Fine Arts; People’s the state, although its departments were to Culture be supported and reinforced by the party’s Central Propaganda Office, which remained The RMVP began with only 350 adminis- less conspicuous to the general public. In- trative and executive officials. Goebbels re- deed, the two institutions were often merged tained a notoriously low opinion of civil ser- into one unit: not only did their respective vants and once confided to his diary: “Just as organizations and responsibilities correspond you cannot expect a cow to lay eggs, so you closely, but many of the leading positions in cannot expect a bureaucrat to look after the the ministry and the Reichspropagan- interests of the state properly.” As a new or- daleitung (Reich Propaganda Directorate) ganization, the RMVP was at first staffed by were held by the same officials. Originally fanatical young Nazis, generally with better Goebbels had planned only five departments educational qualifications than the average for the new ministry to encompass radio, the Nazi activist. Goebbels had declared that his press, active propaganda, film, theater, and staff should never exceed 1,000. He also popular education, but by April 1933 it had agreed to offset the costs of running the acquired its basic structure and was divided RMVP by collecting radio-licensing fees. Roosevelt, Franklin D. 355

Fortunately for the new minister, the pur- like Freedom From Want are ubiquitous in our chase of radios increased dramatically in the culture: on calendars, wall-hangings, plates, Third Reich, and it has been estimated that mugs, statuettes, you name it. They have be- over 80 percent of the ministry’s expendi- come iconic. They’ve become an ethos, an tures were recovered from this source. intangible and in large part fantastical aspect Goebbels saw the RMVP as the main policy- of American life; that is, they symbolize the and decision-making body, providing direc- very essence of Americana, the perfect Nor- tion and delegating responsibility to the nu- man Rockwell world.” merous subordinate agencies that were under As a propagandist, Rockwell is best known its control. The most important of these was for four large paintings illustrating Four the Reich Chamber of Culture. The RMVP Freedoms, an attempt to define American set itself the task of reeducating the popula- war aims in 1941: Freedom of Speech,Freedom of tion for a new society based on National So- Religion, Freedom from Fear, and Freedom from cialist values. Much of prewar German prop- Want (1943). These Post covers were used to aganda was devoted to instilling a military sell bonds during World War II, served as of- spirit, while the main functions of propa- ficial Office of War Information (OWI) ganda during World War II were to mobilize poster propaganda, and were widely seen in the energy and commitment of the German Britain. Rockwell’s Rosie the Riveter (1943) is people for the war effort and to sustain its the personification of the emancipated Amer- morale. ican woman in wartime. Rosie has big mus- David Welch cular arms; her penny loafers are atop a copy See also Film (Nazi Germany); Germany; of Hitler’s Mein Kampf. The real Rosie, Mary Goebbels, Joseph; Hitler,Adolf; World War II Keefe, was a petite twenty-one-year-old tele- (Germany) phone operator when she posed for Rockwell References: Heiber, Helmut. Goebbels:A Biography.New York: Hawthorne, 1972; Reuth, in 1943. Ralf Georg. Goebbels:The Life of Joseph Goebbels. David Culbert New York: Harcourt Brace, 1993; Welch, See also OWI; World War II (United States) David. The Third Reich:Politics and Propaganda. References: Claridge, Laura. Norman Rockwell:A London: Routledge, 2002. Life.New York: Putnam’s, 1999; Rockwell, Norman. Saturday Evening Post,13 February 1960. Rockwell, Norman (1894–1978) Norman Rockwell is perhaps the best-known American artist of the twentieth century. He Romania was certainly the most beloved illustrator, See Balkans having created some 322 covers for the Satur- day Evening Post between 1916 and 1963. The latter had some two million weekly sub- Roosevelt, Franklin D. (1882–1945) scribers when Rockwell did his first cover for Franklin Delano Roosevelt (or FDR) was the the magazine. Rockwell has long troubled only president in American history to have more elitist viewers, who have traditionally been elected to a fourth full term. (A consti- dismissed his art as, according to one critic, tutional amendment now ensures that this “patriotic escapism” or “candied solace and cannot happen again.) Roosevelt was born to small-town nostalgia.” More recently, how- wealth and position in Hyde Park, New ever, Rockwell’s reputation among critics has York. He was an average student at Harvard, undergone a sea change, something noted by his major interest being the Harvard Crimson, Rockwell’s granddaughter in a November the student newspaper on which he served 2001 letter to the New York Times: “Paintings as editor. For the rest of his life he equated “Save Freedom of Speech,”a war bonds drive poster by Norman Rockwell,1943.This poster was one of Rockwell's depictions of Franklin Roosevelt’s Four Freedoms.(Corbis) Roosevelt, Franklin D. 357

Franklin D.Roosevelt campaigns for president with his daughter,Anna,and wife,Eleanor,in 1932.(Franklin D.Roosevelt Library) this experience with that of a professional president at a time when the Great Depres- journalist, a testament to his sense of self-es- sion had deprived millions of Americans of teem. The extroverted, handsome, athletic hope for the future. Roosevelt promised Roosevelt married his awkward, homely (in them economic aid in the form of the New her own eyes), humorless distant cousin Deal. He turned to radio as a medium of Eleanor (1884–1962) in 1905. The marriage mass communication. His splendid speaking was not a happy one. After serving as assis- voice—the finest of any American politician tant secretary of the Navy during World War in the twentieth century—gave his words a I, in 1920 Roosevelt ran for vice president special impact. Roosevelt spoke directly to on the Democratic ticket. Roosevelt con- the American public in a series of “fireside tracted polio in 1921, and for the remainder chats” in which he employed a more informal of his life he was confined to a wheelchair; style of delivery than was common for the since he regained only partial control over day; few in number, they attracted a large lis- his legs, he required heavy metal braces to tenership. His first inaugural address, deliv- walk even a few steps. Eleanor encouraged ered on 4 March 1933, is justly regarded as a Franklin to return to politics in spite of his classic example of presidential oratory, par- physical handicap. ticularly for one memorable sentence: “Let Roosevelt was elected governor of New me assert my firm belief that the only thing York State in 1928. In 1932 he was elected we have to fear is fear itself.” Roosevelt held 358 Rumor twice weekly press conferences for much of Rumor his presidency. He enjoyed engaging in a A propaganda device since time immemorial, game of wits with reporters, many of whom well-placed rumors—especially the titillating discovered that Roosevelt’s charm was often sort that people want to believe—have proved intended to disguise rather than inform. a highly effective way of puncturing an Roosevelt’s physical handicap was largely enemy’s image or inciting hatred. In The hidden from most Americans thanks to an Arthasastra (ca. 250 B.C.E.), an ancient Indian arrangement with newsreel and still photog- text on statecraft, Kautilya recommends send- raphers. No image of FDR was permitted ing agents into an enemy’s ranks to spread de- that showed his physical handicap. In practice moralizing stories. The creation of such ru- this meant no shots from the waist down. mors was turned into an art during World Those who broke the rule were denied en- War II by the British Political Warfare Execu- trance to the White House by the Secret Ser- tive (PWE), which referred to rumors as vice. In retrospect, it is difficult to under- “sibs” (from the Latin sibilare, to hiss). The stand this “conspiracy of silence” in the light PWE had a Rumour Committee that met of constitutional guarantees of freedom of every two weeks to devise fresh stories. These the press. Although Roosevelt was deathly ill rumors were then spread by British agents in when he was reelected to a fourth term of of- the bars of neutral cities like Lisbon, Zurich, fice in the fall of 1944, the severity of his Stockholm, and Istanbul in the hope that they medical condition was kept secret. would find their way back to Germany. They Roosevelt is remembered for his skills as a included various sexual fetishes attached to persuasive politician, his ability to attract and the Nazi hierarchy and stories of Hitler’s plans win over millions of enthusiastic supporters, to flee the country as Allied victories and for his national and international leader- mounted. Domestic rumors included a story ship during World War II. His legislative ac- of a miracle weapon that had set the sea aflame complishments stem mostly from the spring and torched a German invasion army. The of 1935 and include the Wealth Tax Act, So- Germans, for their part, spread rumors to cial Security, and the Wagner Act, which promote Anglo-American rivalry and to breed made possible industrial trade unionism in dissent against Franklin D. Roosevelt—includ- the United States. After FDR’s failed attempt ing a rumor that he was Winston Churchill’s in 1937 to pack the U.S. Supreme Court cousin.A macabre rumor used to promote ab- with extra New Deal appointees, he never senteeism from American munitions factories again saw the passage of significant domestic had it that an American woman had gone to reform legislation. Eleanor, a significant po- her hairdresser, unaware that there were traces litical figure in her own right, died in 1962. of explosive in her hair, and that her head had David Culbert exploded while under the dryer. During the See also Long, Huey; OWI; Radio (Domestic); Cold War the Soviet secret police, the KGB, Rockwell, Norman; United States (1930s); spread rumors, including the claim, circulated World War II (United States) in Africa, that the condoms being distributed References: Buhite, Russell D., and David W. Levy, eds. FDR’s Fireside Chats. New York: by Western aid organizations were actually Penguin, 1993; Burns, James MacGregor. spreading AIDS. The Central Intelligence Roosevelt:The Lion and the Fox. New York: Agency’s (CIA) use of rumor included a cam- Harcourt, 1956; ———. Roosevelt:The Soldier paign against Jean-Bertrand Aristide (1953– ), of Freedom.New York: Harcourt, 1970; Cohen, the exiled president of Haiti. Lizabeth. Making a New Deal:Industrial Workers Nicholas J.Cull in Chicago,1919–1939.New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990; Winfield, Betty See also The Big Lie; Black Propaganda; Houchin. FDR and the News Media. New York: Caribbean; Disinformation; Psychological Columbia University Press, 1994. Warfare; PWE Russia 359

References: Daugherty, William E., and Morris ligion (Russian Orthodox Church), heritage Janowitz, eds. A Psychological Warfare Casebook. (Byzantine), and recent Soviet experience. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Russia began as a constantly threatened, Press, 1958; Delmer, Sefton. Black Boomerang. London: Secker and Warburg, 1962; Taylor, heterogeneous, unstable state known as Philip M. British Propaganda in the Twentieth Kiev Rus, located at the edge of Europe. Century:Selling Democracy. Edinburgh: Russia gained its stability as an autocracy. Edinburgh University Press, 1999. The tsar (emperor)—a title adopted in 1472 by Tsar Ivan III (1440–1505) in a move that was to prove as propagandistic as Russia any in the centuries to come—was not just Whether considered as a single nation, an the head but the embodiment of govern- empire, or as the Union of Soviet Socialist ment. Propaganda was thus the exclusive ac- Republics (USSR), Russia has remained a tivity of the realm. Ivan IV, commonly major regional and global power for several known as Ivan the Terrible (1530–1584), hundred years; at the height of its power it who ruled Russia from 1533 to 1584, con- controlled one sixth of the earth’s land sur- solidated his central authority, orchestrated face. During this long history propaganda has a state-sponsored glorification of the tsar as been central to its life and politics. This Great Russia personified, and closely identified Power needs to be understood in terms of its himself with the Russian Orthodox Church. culture as defined by its language (Slavic), re- Ivan’s single political achievement was the

Soviet propaganda photograph purporting to show Lenin and Stalin in Gorki in 1922.In reality Lenin sits alone,and Stalin's image was pasted in at a later date to create the impression that he had been Lenin's confidante and hence was his natural successor.(Courtesy of Bernard O'Callaghan) 360 Russia

founding of the Oprichniki—forerunner of Radical groups responded with terrorist tac- the Okhrana (secret police)—which did tics. In 1881, following several unsuccessful much more than merely serve as his per- attempts, a member of an organization called sonal bodyguard. In effect, the Okhrana the People’s Will assassinated Alexander with generally harassed the (very small) ruling a hand-held bomb. The new tsar,Alexander III class. Its methods prefigured the terror of (ruled 1881–1894) was already primed for Stalin (1879–1953), the “Red Tsar” of the reaction by his tutor (who was later to be- twentieth century. After Ivan, a series of come chief minister), Constantin Petrovich weak tsars resulted in a “time of troubles.” Pobedonostev (1827–1907). The Okhrana’s In the following centuries a number of powers were extended and a new Statute of rulers took the initiative and relied on self- State Security of 1881 included a tightening propaganda rather than their “God-given” au- of press censorship. Lenin (1870–1924) de- thority alone. Peter the Great (1688–1725) scribed this all-consuming restriction as “the drove his people by appealing to their patri- de facto constitution of Russia.” The Univer- otism. (“Remember that you are fighting not sity Statute of 1887 closed in on the subver- for Peter but for the state.”) Peter took per- sive potential of education. Alexander III also sonal responsibility for making Russia a oversaw a campaign of “Russification,” with Western state and built the new capital city Russian declared the official language. Al- Saint Petersburg facing west. Peter’s though this move made it easier to monitor all grandiose plans were underpinned by a cam- forms of activity, it also undermined what lit- paign that encouraged his people to modern- tle cohesion there was between the national ize, including the symbolic shaving of beards; groups and the regime. noncompliance might result in death. Alexander III’s regime also supported a Catherine the Great, who reigned from policy of Pan-Slavism, which promoted in- 1762 to 1796, was an enlightened despot ternational solidarity among the numerous who utilized the propaganda techniques of Slavic peoples and nations of Eastern Europe such European stars of the Enlightenment as in the nineteenth century. Whatever the os- Voltaire (1694–1778) and Diderot (1713– tensibly cultural—even liberating—focus of 1784). Catherine’s Enlightenment was this movement in the revolutions of 1830 or largely for show, as were the model villages 1848, state-sponsored Pan-Slavism in the built by Grigori Potemkin (1739–1791), her years before World War I came to mean the chief minister, which have become proverbial domestic repression of non-Slavs and the examples in the twentieth century of a state’s sowing of dissent throughout southeastern attempt to impress by means of strategically Europe. Russia as the Slavic state could use deployed fanciful projects. the Pan-Slavic movement to mask its expan- After the innate conservatism of Nicholas I sionist designs. (ruled 1825–1855), whose slogan was “Or- At home Slavic purism could be brought thodoxy, Autocracy and Nationalism,” Russia to bear on the most easily identified outsider under Alexander II (“the Liberator”) (r. 1855– group—the Jews. Already legally forced to 1881) was initially marked by a campaign of reside in ghettos,Alexander III sanctioned six modernization and reform, the most impor- hundred new measures against the Jews. His tant being the emancipation of the serfs in regime gave official support to an anti-Se- 1861 (hence his nickname). Alexander’s re- mitic group called the Black Hundreds. This forms, while outraging many reactionaries, unleashing of violent racial prejudice as rec- were regarded as far too moderate by both ommended activity was supported by a prop- liberals and radicals. Radical activities in- aganda campaign utilizing myths promul- creased sharply among the intelligentsia, re- gated in The Protocols of the Elders of Zion sulting in a reassertion of repressive policies. (1903). Russia 361

The rule of Alexander III was also charac- War I was at least in part the result of the terized by rapid industrialization under Min- regime’s desire to appeal to carefully culti- ister of Finance Sergei Witte (1849–1915). vated patriotic sentiment. The February Rev- The resulting social tensions planted the olution of 1917 (March 1917 in the New seeds of the revolutions of the early twentieth Style calendar) was largely the result of spon- century. Opposition to the autocracy cen- taneous anger. The Bolsheviks came to power tered on the disillusioned (Westernized) in- based on a combination of Lenin’s organiza- telligentsia and particularly within such new tional abilities and such appealingly simplistic political groups as the (Marxist) Social De- slogans as “Peace, Bread, and Land” and “All mocrats and the Social Revolutionaries. Due power to the Soviets.” to the complete disempowerment of the po- The Bolsheviks—later known as the Com- litical system, these opponents could do little munist Party of the Soviet Union—were more than create propaganda, which was driven by one major aim: to stay in power. usually published in exile. Many of its leaders and the rank and file be- Georgi Plekhanov (1857–1918) founded lieved their survival would make the world a the Social Democrats in 1898.At the London better place; all believed (with Lenin) that conference of 1903, the movement split into politics without power was meaningless. Sur- two factions, instigated by Vladimir Ilyich vival could only be achieved by two intercon- Ulianov—better known as Lenin—who in nected processes: securing and increasing the What Is to Be Done? (1902) had called for a power of the Soviet state domestically party as the “Vanguard of the Revolution.” (through industrialization) and internation- This revolutionary elite would be rigorously ally (through the Third International, or disciplined through “democratic centralism.” Comintern) and consolidating the party’s Lenin’s group somewhat disingenuously— hold on the state (resulting in the Red terrors but essential in terms of propaganda— of the early and late 1920s). All of this activ- adopted the name Bolsheviks (majority), ity was justified and facilitated by means of a dubbing their opponents Mensheviks (minor- ubiquitous propaganda campaign. The main ity). The Bolsheviks followed Marx’s analysis thrust of all propaganda activity was that the contained in his German Ideology (1845– party was the fount of all wisdom. Later this 1846): “The ideas of the ruling class are in worldview would be modified so that Stalin every epoch the ruling ideas,” which became became the fount of all wisdom; this trick an article of faith. was initially achieved by claiming that he was In 1905 revolutionary activity—including the true heir of Lenin. naval mutinies depicted in the celebrated film In 1912 Joseph Stalin (1879–1953) joined Battleship Potemkin (1926)—reached as far as the Bolshevik Central Committee as the the capital when Father Georgii Apollonovich party’s general secretary. Thus, his power Gapon (1870–1906) led a demonstration to emanated from his control over the party ap- the very doors of the Winter Palace. Soviets paratus. In total control after 1929, he (workers’ councils) were set up in the major launched a new revolution that abandoned cities. Tsar Nicholas II (ruled 1894–1918) the relative economic liberalism of the 1920s responded with the “October Manifesto,” in favor of mass collectivization and industri- which established a Duma (parliament) and alization, both justified by his doctrine of “so- guaranteed some civil liberties. A steady re- cialism in one country.”As many as 10 million treat from limited liberalism was accompa- people died during the forced collectiviza- nied by a more strident sanctification of the tion. The rapid industrialization, which tsar (culminating in the massive—and highly began with the launch of the first Five Year publicized—celebration of the tercentenary Plan in 1928, wasted vast amounts of mate- of the Romanov dynasty in 1911). World rial and caused massive social dislocation. In 362 Russia line with these seismic changes, a cultural sion of 1941. In the postwar period control revolution was introduced that utilized all the over culture was reinvigorated rather than arts and the media of mass culture—espe- relaxed. This period became known as the cially film, which was an important tool in a Zhdanovshchina, or the time of Zhdanov, primarily illiterate country. Several of the named after Andrei Zhdanov (1896–1948), propaganda devices of the previous revolu- Stalin’s minister of culture and the founding tionary period, such as the “agit-train” rail- father of Socialist Realism. All the arts were way campaign, were resuscitated. held under the steady and suspicious gaze of Many of the problems faced even by loyal the Kremlin. An “Artistic Council” met workers within the Soviet arts and media weekly to oversee all film production. A sys- during this period resulted from the famous tem of serial censorship at the script, produc- distinction, devised by Georgy Plekhanov, tion, and postproduction levels was overlaid between agitatsiia (agitation) and propa- by an atmosphere of suspicion and uncer- ganda—agitation being the approach used tainty.Self-censorship made the normal func- to reach the masses and propaganda being tioning of the creative faculties highly un- the more rarefied ideological indoctrina- likely. Documentary film, newsreel, and later tion of the individual.An apparently power- TV programs presented a fantasy world ful mass medium, film and the other arts where all was well in the Soviet bloc and had to be treated as an ideological weapon where working classes in the rest of the for agitatsiia by the authorities. This led to world craved the same utopian lifestyle. Such outside pressure to achieve greater simplic- a fantasy left the Soviet Union vulnerable to ity and directness, which distorted creative news from outside through such foreign development—and quite possibly reduced media as the Voice of America, Radio Liberty the effectiveness of art as a propaganda or the BBC World Service radio. The Soviet weapon. government periodically jammed these sta- Much propaganda activity in the 1930s fo- tions, disseminating propaganda of its own cused on social, political, and even financial through broadcasts by Radio Moscow and an participation. Soviet men and women were extensive publication program, which fo- constantly urged to buy state bonds (yielding cused on the developing world. low interest). Regular subscriptions to these The Khrushchev (1894–1971) period loan offers became an index of loyalty. Indus- (1953–1964) saw the creation of energetic (if trial workers were asked to make “donations” vacuous) state schemes that led to reaction toward the construction of a tank, plane, or during the Brezhnev (1906–1982) period ship. The resultant piece of machinery would (1964–1982), which was also known as the then be “sponsored.” Thus, a postcard dating “period of stagnation.” Life for the average from the 1930s proclaimed: “Every factory, Soviet was less dangerous, but there was little every shop floor, every brigade—[Join] the left to propagandize. This period saw an ex- ranks of the builders of the dirigible Klim ponential rise in the use of the myth of the Voroshilov.” Individual workers were trans- Great Patriotic War—which is not to down- formed into national celebrities, or Stakhan- play the heroic deeds of the Soviet people— ovites—named after Aleksei Stakhanov immortalized in thousands of war memori- (1906–1977), the “hero coal miner” who als. The most famous one stands by the walls mined a hundred tons of coal in a single shift of the Kremlin gardens. The Tomb of the Un- in 1935. known Soldier bears the following inscrip- Despite all this well-publicized activity, tion: “Your Name Is Unknown, but Your Feat the Soviet people—not to mention the gov- Is Immortal.” It contains a corpse from a ernment’s military infrastructure—were common grave 41 kilometers (25 miles) woefully unprepared for the German inva- north of Moscow,as well as six urns of sacred Russia 363 earth from across the USSR. The monument Yeltsin utilized his support by the media to was unveiled on 6 May 1967 and remains a promulgate a classic scenario of impending pilgrimage site for wedding couples. Around crisis interspersed with calls for resilience. Ir- the outskirts of the capital stand the antitank ritated by a conservative parliament, Yeltsin “hedgehogs”—a memorial to Moscow’s de- suppressed it in September 1993, following a fenders. Naturally, there is also a most im- media onslaught of criticism against non-Rus- pressive memorial to Leningrad’s defenders sians and “Communists.” War with Chechnia, on Victory Square (erected 9 May 1975). a genuine economic crisis, and a loss of pa- Assuming power in 1985, Mikhail Gor- tience with their leader’s frequently reported bachev (1931– ), intent on restructuring erratic behavior brought increased pressure (perestroika) the ossifying Soviet Union, upon Yeltsin. He dismissed his entire govern- brought a new reality to the public sphere by ment twice in 1998. His opponents used their inaugurating a policy of openness (glasnost). own media outlets (including privately owned The media, including journalists and docu- television stations) to publicize these and mentary filmmakers, were welcome to join other scandals. By the end of 1998 Yeltsin was Gorbachev’s historic project as long as they facing an impeachment vote. Vladimir Putin played by his rules. The high-profile docu- (1952– ), the prime minister, became acting mentaries that were shown in movie theaters president. He succeeded Yeltsin following of- (with an officially sanctioned and sponsored ficial elections held on 26 March 2000. A publicity campaign) had to conform to the KGB operative, in 1996 Putin had been re- Gorbachev view of history (itself an out- cruited as a Kremlin aide from a position in growth of Nikita Khrushchev’s view) that the Leningrad’s city government. In 1998 Yeltsin Soviet Union had developed through the appointed Putin head of the Federal Security heroic efforts of “good” (Communist) lead- Service (the successor to the KGB) and in ers—Lenin, the increasingly venerated Niko- March 1999 he called on him to head Russia’s lay Bukharin (1888–1938), Khrushchev, and security council. Gorbachev himself—while its progress had As a political neophyte Putin has won been hampered by such “bad” leaders as Stalin tremendous popular support. Nonetheless and Leonid Brezhnev.However, the genie had he is an astute manipulator of, if unscrupu- escaped from the bottle. Gorbachev’s gamble lous panderer to, public opinion—for ex- regarding the independent media was already ample, in his heavy-handed campaign spinning out of control before the forces of against Chechens, which was turned into a reaction attempted to oust him in a 1991 crusade against Islamic citizens and resi- coup. dents of Russia. Putin’s supporters in the The failure of the coup led to the final Unity Party won major victories in the humiliation of the Communist Party and the 2001 parliamentary elections. His message demise of the Soviet Union. The new Russia of anticorruption and anti-Communism was to be led by Boris Yeltsin (1931– )— was certain to strike a responsive chord former Moscow party chief and an expert with Russians. He has also publicly wor- self-publicist, having made his reputation as shiped in the Russian Orthodox Church. In a vociferous critic of the slow pace of Gor- 2002 he vociferously protested the treat- bachev’s reforms. President Gorbachev’s ment of Russian athletes at the Winter December resignation sealed the USSR’s Olympics—playing on age-old Russian dissolution. Yeltsin, who became the first feelings of injustice. His ability to repack- popularly elected leader in Russian history, age the church–autocracy–unique Russian- insisted: “It is especially important to en- ness paradigm illustrates that little has courage unorthodox thinking when the situ- changed except the medium employed. ation is critical.” Graham Roberts 364 Russia

See also Art;Austrian Empire; Battleship Potemkin; Macmillan, 1995; Eben, Martin. The Soviet Castro, Fidel; Censorship; Cold War; Cold Propaganda Machine. New York: McGraw- War in the Middle East; Comintern; Crimean Hill, 1987; Hosking, Geoffrey. A History of War; Disinformation; Eisenstein, Sergei; Fakes; the Soviet Union. London: Fontana, 1992; Film (Documentary); International; “The Kenez, Peter. The Birth of the Propaganda Internationale”; KGB; Labor/Antilabor; Lenin, State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Vladimir Ilyich; Marx, Karl; Okhrana; Poland; Press, 1985; Pipes, Richard. Russia under the Portraiture; Postage Stamps; Posters; Protocols Old Regime. Harmondsworth, UK: Penguin, of the Elders of Zion;Radio (International); 1990; ———. Russia under the Soviet Regime. RFE/RL; Stalin, Joseph; Trotsky, Leon; London: Harper, 1994; Roberts, Graham. Women’s Movement: European; World War I; Stride Soviet! London: I. B. Tauris, 1999; Zinoviev Letter White, Stephen. Developments in Russian and References: Cooper, Julian, et al. Soviet Post-Soviet Politics. Basingstoke, UK: History, 1917–1953. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1994. S

Satellite Communications (INTERSPUTNIK) formed international Satellites entered the realm of international consortia to encourage the global expansion propaganda as technological symbols rather of satellite technologies. Despite this effort, than useful additions to international com- for the balance of the decade satellites were munications. The Soviet Union led the way few in number; given the cost needed to with the launch of Sputnik in October 1957 build them, they remained the province of a and thereby dealt a massive blow to U.S. few governments, multinational corpora- prestige. The latter’s Explorer I followed in tions, and wealthy research institutions. February 1958. In December 1958 the It was not until the 1970s that satellites United States launched its first satellite de- became a major method for the transmission signed to transmit an explicit propaganda of international news and telephone traffic. message. The U.S. army’s Score satellite car- The transition of the U.S. cable industry to ried a tape-recorded message, intermittently satellite distribution in the early 1970s dra- transmitted to ground stations for thirteen matically expanded the use of satellite tech- days, in which President Dwight Eisenhower nologies and consequently lowered the cost. (1890–1969) delivered a short Christmas During the Reagan administration the United goodwill message expressing “America’s de- States sought to develop the propaganda po- sire for peace on earth and goodwill toward tential of the medium. In 1982 the USIA men everywhere.” staged an international satellite hookup as Despite Explorer I and Score, polls taken by part of its television special “Let Poland Be the United States Information Agency (USIA) Poland,” launching Worldnet, a television consistently revealed the United States to be news and U.S. government information ser- behind in the space race until the mid-1960s. vice. Worldnet was swiftly outstripped by The United States recovered somewhat with commercial broadcasters, including the the launching of its first communications Cable News Network (CNN) and Sky News. satellite, Telstar, in 1962. The satellite Syncom News events carried round the world by III carried television pictures of the 1964 satellite included the 1989 demonstrations in Tokyo Olympics, demonstrating the capabili- Tien’anmen Square in China—staged in ties of the new medium. In the 1960s both part, to piggyback on media attention for the the United States (INTELSAT) and the USSR simultaneous visit of Soviet premier Mikhail

365 366 Saudi Arabia

Gorbachev (1931– )—and the fall of the See also BBC; CNN; Gulf War; Murdoch, Berlin Wall later that year. Rupert; Television (News); Terrorism, War on; The power of satellite reports from the USIA; Wick, Charles Z. References: Dickson, Paul. Sputnik.New York: battlefield was seen during the Gulf War. Walker, 2001; Hudson, Heather. Communication The technology gave the Western media the Satellites.New York: Collier Macmillan, 1990; sort of news monopoly not seen since the Taylor, Philip M. Global Communications and British cable ship Teleconia cut the German International Affairs and the Media since 1945. undersea cable to the United States at the London: Routledge, 1997. beginning of World War I. The power of this news monopoly was not lost on ob- servers of the Gulf War. The 1990s saw Saudi Arabia many nations developing their own launch See Arab World facilities, launching their satellites from ve- hicles belonging to other nations, and ex- panding their television systems to accept Scandinavia more satellite feeds. These new satellites The nations of Scandinavia—Denmark, Swe- carried news, propaganda, and entertain- den, Norway, Iceland, and Finland—have ex- ment; some were used for surveillance. In- perienced court and state propaganda under spired, in part, by the rapid privatization of the Swedish and Danish empires, and have the former Soviet satellite industry, the been major theaters of propaganda in World Clinton administration liberalized and pri- War II and the Cold War. In the nineteenth vatized the U.S. satellite industry. century Norway, Iceland, and Finland all wit- The War on Terrorism (2001) unfolded nessed a flowering of art and literature in the in a far more diverse satellite-broadcasting cause of nationalism. The region has played a environment than that of the Gulf War. Sta- key role in both the international environ- tions now included such non-Western mental and peace movements. broadcasters as the Qatar-based station Al The history of early modern Scandinavia Jazeera, which carried video releases from was dominated by the competition between Osama bin Laden (1957– ) and presented the kingdoms of Denmark and Sweden. In news from an Islamic point of view. Like the 1502 Sweden severed its ties to the Scandina- Internet, satellite technology inherently has vian (or Kalmar) Union (under which it had the power to transcend national boundaries been joined to Norway and Denmark in and hence threatens the censorship abilities 1397). In 1520 the Danish king attempted to of governments. In Singapore, for example, revive the union by force.A mass execution of the state has tightly controlled the spread of nobles that occurred during their campaign, the technology and satellite dishes cannot be known as the Stockholm Bloodbath, became a privately owned. A real concern for the fu- staple of anti-Danish propaganda in the hands ture of satellite communications is the ex- of Gustav Vasa (1496–1560), who led the ulti- traordinary power it bestows on media mate break with Denmark.Vasa ruled Sweden moguls such as Rupert Murdoch (1931– ). as King Gustav I beginning in 1523. Two cen- The ability of private news channels to turies of intermittent war produced no short- broadcast globally has undermined the posi- age of further atrocity stories on both sides. tion of such state-sponsored radio broad- Both the Swedish and Danish courts contin- casters as the Voice of America (VOA) and ued to use the three crowns and the enemy’s the BBC World Service. The BBC has re- coat of arms as part of their own, indicating, sponded by launching its own commercial at least, their claim to rule the full union. “BBC World” channel. Denmark and Sweden both accepted Nicholas J.Cull Lutheranism as the state religion with rela- Scandinavia 367 tively little disturbance. The Danish court ern War (1700–1721) in Norway. Playing up flourished, most notably during the reign of the king’s almost supernatural reputation, a Christian IV (r. 1596–1648). The court used widely circulated Swedish/Norwegian story the usual Renaissance tools of political propa- of the time claimed that the sniper used a ganda (architecture, portraiture, and so bullet fashioned from a silver button stolen forth). Denmark also claimed to have the from Charles’s uniform. The death also in- first national banner, Dannebrog (Denmark’s spired a generation of assassination conspir- Cloth), consisting of a red field with a white acy theories alleging that the shot had been cross.According to Danish legend, in 1219 it fired from behind Swedish lines. Subse- miraculously floated down from heaven into quently Sweden developed a lively parlia- the camp of the young king Valdemar II (r. mentary political culture in the eighteenth 1202–1241) on the eve of a battle against the century, with freedom of the press guaran- heathen Estonians. Its image immediately ap- teed by law beginning in 1844. peared on coins and was incorporated into In 1814, following an international propa- existing heraldry. The original banner was ganda duel, Denmark lost Norway to Sweden carried and lost in battle as late as 1500, but (as compensation for Sweden’s loss of Fin- full banners of the same design were already land to Russia during the Napoleonic Wars). in use. Other Scandinavian nations adopted In 1864, after the last of a string of wars and variations on the Dannebrog, the Swedish flag much German and Danish nationalistic prop- being Gustav Vasa’s deliberate counterpoint aganda, Denmark also lost the border to the Danish one: blue with a yellow cross. duchies of Schleswig, Holstein, and Lauen- In Denmark the flag remains a key symbol of burg to Prussia. Danish energy turned in- national identity, used not only for national ward with the motto: “What is outwardly holidays but also during Christmas and birth- lost is inwardly won.” Typical projects in- day celebrations. cluded educational reform. Bishop N. S. F. The seventeenth century saw the apogee Gruntvig (1783–1872) established a nation- of Swedish power in Scandinavia and beyond, wide system of folk high schools aimed at beginning with the reigns of Gustav Adolf popular adult education. The schools taught (1594–1632), who acceded to the throne in national history, literature, self-improvement 1611 and ruled as Gustav II with the assis- skills, and greatly enriched Danish rural life. tance of Axel Oxenstierna (1583–1684), a Although contributing to a sense of nation- chancellor of legendary ability. Gustav Adolf hood, the schools were not propaganda mills; led Sweden into the Thirty Years’ War after they served as a humanistic hedge against the the unsuccessful intervention of the Danish more extreme doctrines of the nineteenth king. His success on the battlefield was and twentieth centuries. Cooperatives estab- matched by the calculated manipulation of lished as a result of the movement brought his own (widely reproduced) image as the prosperity to the Danish countryside. paragon of Protestant kingship. To preserve For Iceland, Norway, and Finland the nine- this image of virtue, he imposed rigid disci- teenth century witnessed a growing national pline on his army, forbidding his soldiers awareness and sense of selfhood opposed to from participating in the looting and rapine Danish, Swedish, and Russian rule, respec- typical of the era. However, the Swedish tively.As in contemporaneous movements in army soon reverted to type following Gustav Eastern Europe and Ireland, art, literature Adolf’s death on the battlefield. Sweden’s ca- and language proved key vehicles of propa- reer as a great power came to an abrupt end ganda. In Iceland such literary pioneers as in 1718 with the death of its warrior king poets Bjarni Thorarensen (1786–1841) and Charles XII (r. 1697–1718), who perished at Jónas Hallgrímsson (1807–1845) carved out the hands of a sniper during the Great North- a national idiom. Jón Siguredhsson (1811– 368 Scandinavia

1879), an Icelandic historian and authority 1957). Political champions of the Finnish lan- on the ancient sagas, founded the nationalist guage included the philosopher Johan Vil- periodical Ny felagsrit (New Fellowship Writ- helm Snellman (1806–1881). The language ing; 1841) and campaigned for home rule, gained official recognition in 1863, although which was granted by Denmark in 1874. Ice- at the end of the nineteenth century Russia land gained full independence in 1944. A launched a determined “Russification” cam- similar event occurred on the Faroe Islands, a paign. The nationalistic art of the nineteenth Danish dependency, paving the way for home century became central to the identity of the rule in 1948. Finnish state following its independence from In Norway patriotic writers included Hen- Russia in 1917. rik Wergeland (1808–1845) and Bjørnstjerne The Scandinavian countries entered the Bjørnson (1823–1910). The latter also took twentieth century with a commitment to part in the international peace movement and neutrality, but, as elsewhere in Europe, the campaigned on behalf of such oppressed peo- turbulence of the interwar period produced ples as the Finns and the Slovaks. He won the political extremes. In Denmark a coalition of Nobel Prize in literature in 1903. The linguist right-wingers formed the Landbrugernes and poet Ivar Aasen (1813–1897) developed Sammenslutning (Agrarian Revival Move- landsmål, a written form of Norwegian that ment) and organized a huge march on drew on the dialects of the countryside and Copenhagen in 1931 to advance farmer’s the language to create a defiantly un-Danish concerns. A parallel group, the Lappo Move- medium. The composer Edvard Grieg ment, developed in Finland. The most noto- (1843–1907) wrote music based on folk rious, full-blown Fascist party in Scandinavia themes with a strong national thrust. Norway was the Norwegian Nasjonal Samlung (Na- dissolved its union with Sweden in 1905, tional Party), modeled after Hitler’s Nazi thereby gaining independence for the first Party, which was founded in 1933 by Vidkun time in five hundred years. There was an ele- Quisling (1887–1945), the former minister ment of national propaganda in the state’s of defense. Quisling proved a willing collabo- support for the polar explorations of Fridtjof rator following the German invasion of Nor- Nansen (1861–1930) and Roald Amundsen way in 1940, serving as the puppet prime (1872–1928). In 1933 a huge Norwegian minister beginning in 1942. He was executed propaganda campaign developed around the in 1945. His name, “quisling,” has become a country’s claim to the eastern coast of Green- synonym for traitor. land. In 1933 the International Court of Jus- The Germans employed propaganda to aid tice upheld Danish sovereignty over the entire their invasion of Norway and Denmark in island. In the same period the Norwegian April 1940. The advancing Luftwaffe dropped press supported the cause of independence leaflets to explain the necessity of its action, for Iceland. but the confusion of languages in the text In Finland central figures included the “na- (mixing Danish, Norwegian, and German) tional poet” Johan Ludvig Runeberg (1804– proved counterproductive. During the Nazi 1877), whose poems (written in Swedish) occupation, the Danish king, Christian X often dealt with historical subjects. The liter- (ruled 1912–1947) became the focus of na- ary scholar Elias Lönnrot (1802–1884) re- tional sentiment. The resistance movement constructed and published the ancient grew out of the unlikely coalition of the Con- Finnish epic called the Kalevala (1835 and servative People’s Party and Denmark’s Com- 1849), which became a wellspring of Finnish munists; propaganda tools included the use of nationalistic art, influencing not only litera- underground newspapers, such as Frit Dan- ture but also graphic design, as well as figur- mark (Free Denmark). Assisted by Britain’s ing in the music of Jean Sibelius (1865– Special Operations Executive (SOE), acts of Shakespeare, William 369 sabotage began in 1942 and had symbolic as politics, and also supports the peace move- well as strategic value. In May 1942 John ment with money from the defense budget. Christmas Møller (1898–1948), a leading The Scandinavian nations all developed state- conservative politician, made a dramatic es- owned broadcasting systems, which have acted cape by boat to England. There he became as a hedge against the cultural imperialism of chairman of the Free Danish Council and their more powerful neighbors. The legislative launched a series of patriotic radio broadcasts brief of the Icelandic National Broadcasting back home over the BBC, comparable in their Service explicitly includes a mandate to pro- impact to those of Churchill to the British tect the Icelandic language and culture. Gov- people. In addition to acts of sabotage, the re- ernment regulation has tended to be lax, lim- sistance coordinated a wave of strikes in Au- ited to matters of content, such as restrictions gust 1943 (which prompted German direct on violence in Norway and children’s pro- rule to replace the existing puppet govern- gramming in Sweden. The 1990s witnessed ment) and a general strike in June 1944. In the rapid adoption of both digital broadcasting postwar Scandinavia, Norway, Iceland, and media and the Internet. Major propaganda is- Denmark aligned with NATO, while Sweden sues within Scandinavia at the end of the twen- and Finland maintained their neutrality. Fin- tieth century included membership in the Eu- land’s location on the Soviet border created ropean Union (Sweden voted to join in the particular problems. The USSR conducted 1990s but Norway voted to stay out) and the propaganda in Finland through existing left- future of national currencies. In 2000 Den- wing groups and applied diplomatic pressure mark voted to retain the krone by a slim mar- on the Finnish government to restrain the gin of 6 percent. Only Finland adopted the country’s media. The government obliged Euro. Issues of race and immigration also fig- and, as Finnish historian Esko Salminen has ured across the region, with a revival of ex- documented, successfully browbeat the treme right-wing politics that utilized the In- Finnish press into accepting a culture of self- ternet as a propaganda medium. In Sweden censorship regarding the Soviet Union, which the far right revived the image of Charles XII became a key feature of the process known as an icon of Sweden’s past. elsewhere in Europe as “Finlandization.” In Nicholas J.Cull the mid-1970s the philosopher and artist See also Marshall Plan; Peace and Antiwar Carl-Gustaf Lilius (1928–1998) drew atten- Movements (1945– ); Reformation and tion to self-censorship, but the practice con- Counter-Reformation; Religion; Riis, Jacob; Temperance;Women’s Movement: European tinued until the collapse of the Soviet Union. References: Derry, T.K.A History of Scandinavia: All of the Scandinavian countries developed Norway,Sweden,Denmark,Finland and Iceland. strong peace and antinuclear movements, with London:Allen and Unwin, 1979; Lauring, protests against the Vietnam War and wide- Palle. A History of Denmark.Copenhagen: Høst spread participation in the “Nuclear Free” and Søn, 1981; Roberts, Michael. The Age of campaign. In 1985 Iceland declared itself a nu- Liberty:Sweden,1719–1772. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986; ———. clear-free zone. Scandinavian governments Gustavus Adolphus and the Rise of Sweden.London: have viewed their role in the media as one of Longman, 1992; Salminen, Esko. The Silenced protecting freedom of expression. Freedom of Media:The Propaganda War between Russia and the the press is guaranteed by the constitution of West in Northern Europe.Basingstoke, UK: Norway and Denmark and by law elsewhere in Macmillan, 1999. Scandinavia. In Finland there is also a legal right to reply, though such legal protections did not prevent the self-censorship of the Cold Shakespeare, William (1564–1616) War. In Sweden the government provides a An English playwright whose work served as subsidy to all newspapers, regardless of their dynastic propaganda for the Tudors and who 370 Silent Spring

became a staple of British propaganda in the ganda overseas, from the activities of the modern world, William Shakespeare was British Council and such trans-Atlantic cul- born in Stratford, located in the Midlands. tural groups as the English-Speaking Union He worked in London under state censorship to tours by the Royal Shakespeare Company and regularly performed at court, especially (RSC). after the accession of King James I (1566– Nicholas J.Cull 1625) in 1603, whereupon his company took See also Britain; Churchill, Winston; Cultural the name The King’s Men. Elements of dy- Propaganda; Poetry; Theater nastic propaganda are most easily discernable References: Cohen, Derek. The Politics of Shakespeare. New York: St. Martin’s, 1993; in Shakespeare’s history plays. His early play Leggatt,Alexander. Shakespeare’s Political Drama: Richard III (c. 1593) constitutes a slander on The History Plays and the Roman Plays. London: the last king of the Plantagenet line, who was Routledge, 1988; Wells, Robin Headlam. killed in a battle against Henry VIII, the Shakespeare,Politics and the State. London: founder of the Tudor line. The historical Macmillan, 1986. tragedy Macbeth (c. 1606) touches on the ori- gins of the Scottish royal house that produced King James. Other plays make political Silent Spring (1962) points on the nature of kingship and the dan- This book by biologist Rachel Carson ger of civil war. (1907–1964) drew public attention to the By the twentieth century Shakespeare had mounting problems of pollution in the assumed a centrality in English cultural his- United States. Carson warned of a bleak fu- tory. The three hundredth anniversary of ture in which the beauties of nature would Shakespeare’s death occurred in April 1916, be just memories—the silent spring of the providing a patriotic windfall for British do- title. Her particular target was the “miracle” mestic propaganda during World War I, as insecticide DDT, then being used in vast well as an opportunity for cultural propa- quantities to control agricultural pests. Car- ganda in the still neutral United States. son pointed out that such poisons “should Patriotic speeches extracted from his plays not be called insecticides but biocides” since became favorite morale boosters in both they not only killed insects but also animals, world wars, the favorite being John of and threatened humans. The book sold two Gaunt’s death speech in Richard II (c. hundred thousand copies within a month, 1594)—which is even quoted by Sherlock causing worldwide alarm and prompting Holmes at the climax of the Hollywood film U.S. president John F. Kennedy (1917– The Secret Weapon (1942). The most famous 1963) to launch an investigation of the issue. wartime use of Shakespeare was Henry V The pesticide industry fought a formidable (1944), produced, directed, and acted by rearguard action, but in 1970 the newly Laurence Olivier (1907–1989). Elements in formed Environmental Protection Agency his rhetoric clearly influenced Churchill. (EPA) successfully banned the use of DDT Other countries have adapted Shakespeare within the United States. Carson did not live to serve their own political ends. Verdi to see the impact of her work, but her book (1813–1901) used Macbeth as a veiled attack became for the environmental movement on Austria’s misrule of Italy. In Stalin’s Russia what Uncle Tom’s Cabin had been to nine- a bold company famously staged a production teenth-century abolitionism: a foundational of Hamlet (c. 1602) in which all the charac- text of mass persuasion. ters were drunk, intended as an attack on the Nicholas J.Cull decadent monarchical system. For all his in- See also Environmentalism; United States ternational resonance, Shakespeare still fig- References: Hays, Samuel P. Beauty,Health and ures prominently in British cultural propa- Permanence:Environmental Politics in the United Southeast Asia 371

States,1955–1985. Cambridge: Cambridge dent Army rebelled as the Anti-Fascist Peo- University Press, 1987; Lear, Linda. Rachel ple’s Freedom League. Carson:Witness for Nature. New York: Holt, 1997. In the postwar period the region saw bitter struggles between Communist insurgents and colonial or postcolonial regimes. Britain re- Songs sponded to the Communist rebellion in Malaya See Music in 1948–1960 by deploying both troops and propaganda. Britain’s strategies included deny- ing the crisis status of the war by dubbing it South Africa “the Malayan Emergency” and referring to the See Africa enemy as “bandits.” Field Marshal Sir Gerald Templer (1898–1979), who directed the coun- terinsurgency effort, coined the phrase “win- Southeast Asia ning hearts and minds” to describe his strategy. The nations of the Southeast Asian region— Tec hniques included the use of leaflets urging Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Singa- the enemy to surrender, mobile loudspeakers pore, Thailand, and Vietnam—have experi- (including those mounted on aircraft), and film enced the propaganda of missionary and propaganda. The British also printed newspa- imperial activity, national awakening, and pers in the vernacular and circulated a black revolution and reaction in the second half of propaganda newspaper called New Path News the twentieth century. The region has pro- that purported to be Communist. Britain’s duced both the most extreme propaganda— success (especially the “winning hearts and such as Pol Pot’s (1925–1998) regime in minds” rhetoric) became an influential model Cambodia, which lasted from 1975 to for the United States as it contemplated its 1979—and models of media control—such own counterinsurgency efforts in Thailand and as the military regime in Burma (Myanmar), the former French colonies of Laos, Cambo- the Communist government in Laos, and the dia, and Vietnam. authoritarian capitalist regimes in Singapore In the 1950s and 1960s the United States and Malaysia. Regional propaganda ploys deployed the resources of the Central Intelli- have included the renaming of countries to gence Agency (CIA) and the United States In- indicate a break with the past. formation Agency (USIA) to combat Com- Portuguese missionaries reached the re- munism in the region. In Thailand gion in the early 1500s, but large-scale colo- propaganda methods included the establish- nization was mainly a nineteenth-century ment of a television system with communal phenomenon, with French influence spread- sets in villages. While anti-Communist activi- ing out from Vietnam and British influence ties achieved a level of success in Thailand, emanating from India. Only Siam remained regional insurgencies continued, the most independent. In 1932 a military coup trans- damaging being that in South Vietnam, which formed Siam into a constitutional monarchy. precipitated the Vietnam War. The United Field Marshal Luang Pibul Songgram (1897– States dropped leaflets (and bombs) over 1964), one of the coup’s leaders, became those sections of Laos and Cambodia used by premier in 1938 and renamed the country their Vietnamese enemies to infiltrate South Thailand. The entire region was occupied by Vietnam. The United States also reputedly the Japanese during World War II and was dropped giant condoms over Laos in order to subjected to propaganda couched in a Pan- start rumors concerning the prodigious and Asian anti-imperialist rhetoric. Japanese rule intimidating nature of American manhood. was widely contested, as in Burma, where The Vietnam War placed extreme hard- Japan’s client anti-British Burmese Indepen- ship on neighboring countries, especially 372 Southeast Asia

Cambodia, which was bombed and invaded publicizing the country’s public antismoking by the United States in its campaign against policy to an education policy that promoted the Vietnamese guerrillas. In 1972 a coup the English language at the expense of Chi- led by Lon Nol (1913–1985) overthrew nese.Although a multiparty state, Lee’s Peo- King Norodom Sihanouk (1922– ), the ple’s Action Party enjoyed a monopoly on long-term head of state, and the country power and close links to Singapore Press was renamed the Khmer Republic. Propa- Holdings, the conglomerate that dominates ganda strategies included intensive anti- the newspaper industry. Beyond this, the Vietnamese campaigns. Sihanouk formed a state has established a rigid system of censor- coalition with the Communists, and in ship and controls the spread of the new 1975 the Communist Khmer Rouge move- media. Internet access is regulated and satel- ment, led by Pol Pot, seized power. Bor- lite dishes cannot be owned privately. rowing propaganda methods from the Chi- In Malaysia the government, headed by nese Cultural Revolution, Pol Pot sought to Mahathir Mohamad (1925– ), prime minis- refashion his country, declaring “year zero” ter since 1981, has also regulated the media, of a new era. Khmer Rouge forces renamed passing a Printing Presses and Publications the country Kampuchea and herded the Act in 1984 and a Broadcasting Act in 1988, population into the countryside to work on which imposed a system of renewable li- farms. Their propaganda made scapegoats censes. The state has been particularly keen of many groups—including all foreigners, to regulate Western images for Islamic reli- middle-class intellectuals, and people who gious reasons. Symbols of national economic wore glasses—who were executed in spe- prosperity have included the Petronas Twin cial camps. The Khmer Rouge conscripted Towers, the world’s tallest building, which the youth of the country and indoctrinated opened in Kuala Lumpur in 1997, on the eve them to turn against their “corrupt” elders. of a massive economic recession. As many as 1.7 million perished in the mass The region’s liveliest media culture devel- murder and famine that followed. In 1979 oped in Thailand. Despite government and Communist Vietnam ended Pol Pot’s reign army ownership of television channels, by of terror and established a client regime, the 1980s censorship was self-imposed rather but the civil war continued. Since 1985 the than administered by the state. Criticism of country has been ruled by Hun Sen (1952– ) the monarchy or army remains rare, but the of the Cambodian Peoples Party. His search press functions as an effective watchdog on for prosperity dictated his renunciation of such issues as corruption and human rights Communism and a succession of compro- abuses. Issues in domestic state propaganda mises, including renaming the country include public health messages concerning Cambodia in 1989, restoring Sihanouk as the spread of AIDS. king in 1993, and accepting a coalition with By the end of the twentieth century the the Funcinpec Party. The exact course of most extreme example of state propaganda in the genocide and the responsibility of vari- the region was to be found in Burma. The ous politicians in the events (including ex– military took control of the postcolonial state Khmer Rouge soldier Hun Sen) remain a in the early 1960s and perpetuated its rule staple of propaganda claim and counter- through a combination of force and holding a claim in the country. monopoly on all media outlets, thereby cen- Since gaining independence, Singapore soring all dissenting views. In 1988 a has been dominated by Lee Kuan Yew prodemocracy movement called the National (1923– ), its autocratic prime minister, in League for Democracy (NLD) gained world office from 1959 to 1990. State propaganda attention by staging a mass protest scheduled policies have ranged from poster campaigns on the symbolic date of 8 August (8–8–88). Spain 373

The military government, reconstituted as Culture in Singapore:A Theory of Controlled the State Law and Order Restoration Council Commodification.Cresskill, NJ: Hampton, 2000. (SLORC), responded violently. Propaganda gambits included playing the nationalistic card by renaming the country Myanmar (in 1989) Spain rather than use the Anglicized colonial name Spain as a political entity was created through Burma. Since 1988 NLD opposition has been the marriage of Ferdinand II of Aragón led by Aung San Suu Kyi (1945– ), the daugh- (1452–1516) to Isabella I of Castile (1451– ter of one of the architects (and martyrs) of 1504) in 1469. They ruled the joint king- Burmese independence, and has relied on doms beginning in 1479 and in 1494 were nonviolent protest. An able writer and given the appellation “Catholic Kings” by the speaker, Aung San Suu Kyi effectively mobi- pope, at that time a significant addition to lized world opinion against the military their propaganda armory. Like their medieval regime. In 1990 the military overturned a forebears, they continued the tradition of landslide election that favored the NLD. In the demonstrating their power through devo- 1990s the key figure in the military regime tional images and ceremonies. Examples of was Gen. Than Shwe (1933– ), a proponent the latter included formal entries into cities, of psychological warfare who made some at- the most famous being their entry in 1492 tempts to ease international criticism of his into Granada, the last Muslim kingdom in the regime by means of the token release of dissi- Iberian Peninsula to fall in the reconquest by dents. In 1991 Aung San Suu Kyi won the Christians, which spanned four centuries. Nobel Peace Prize. The NLD continues to The monarchs generally boosted their image protest against human rights abuses in Burma among nobles and other subjects in tradi- by supplying information to the Western tional ways, emphasizing their role as model media (BBC, VOA, and Radio Free Asia) and Christian kings ruling over a respublica chris- pressure groups such as Amnesty Interna- tiana by divine delegation and supported by tional. Public pressure successfully forced a the church as they demonstrated their devo- number of major multinational corpora- tion to it and its works. Religious unity be- tions—including Texaco, Levi-Strauss, and came the hallmark of the Spanish Catholic Pepsi Cola—to withdraw from Burma. monarchy as Judaism, Islam, and Christian Nicholas J.Cull heresies—which for their successors came to See also China; Counterinsurgency; Indonesia; include Protestantism—were rooted out in Japan; Philippines; Satellite Communications; what was presented as a divinely inspired Vietnam;Vietnam War mission. References: Aung San Suu Kyi. Freedom from Fear and Other Writings. London: Penguin, 1991; The use of portraiture as a propaganda Carruthers, Susan L. Winning Hearts and Minds: tool was in its infancy under the Catholic British Governments,the Media and Colonial kings, as evidenced by the need to import Counter-Insurgency,1944–1960.Leicester, UK: foreign talent. However, this medium of University of Leicester Press, 1995; Khoo Boo propaganda was fully utilized by their succes- Teik, Paradoxes of Mahathirism:An Intellectual Biography of Mahathir Mohamad.Kuala Lumpur, sors from the Habsburg house of Austria: Malaysia: Oxford University Press, 1995; Charles I (1500–1558; r. 1516–1556), who McCargo, Duncan. Politics and the Press in also reigned as Holy Roman Emperor Thailand:Media Machinations.London: Charles V (1519–1556); and Philip II (1527– Routledge, 2000; Shawcross, William. 1598; r. 1556–1598). Portraiture was for Sideshow:Kissinger,Nixon and the Destruction of them a means of demonstrating their Cambodia.New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979; Thant Myint-U. The Making of Modern grandeur; in the case of Charles V,it involved Burma. Cambridge: Cambridge University symbolic references to Hercules. Philip II Press, 2001; Wong, Kokkeong, Media and built on the dynastic tradition of elevating 374 Spain

family prestige through portraiture and ar- (1716–1788; r. 1759–1788) in the garb of a chitecture, collecting portraits and displaying huntsman. From a propaganda standpoint, his them in the Alcázar and Prado in Madrid and, unflattering portrayal of the family of Charles after its completion in 1584, the Royal IV (1748–1819; r. 1788–1808) was probably Monastery of St. Lawrence at El Escorial. counterproductive. The latter was built to demonstrate royal de- Ferdinand VII (1784–1833; r. 1808– votion, the remoteness and grandeur of royal 1833), who was restored to power in 1814 power, and dynastic continuity (being the after the expulsion of the invading French, repository of royal remains from Charles I was also painted by Goya, but it was Goya’s onward). Philip II maintained the providen- painting depicting the execution of alleged tialist image by continuing the process of Spanish resisters by a French firing squad on evangelization in the New World and com- 3 May 1808 that was to stir patriotic feelings bating Protestantism as the ostensible secular for decades to come. The revolution of 1820 arm of the Counter-Reformation. Outside not only precipitated the loss of Spain’s main- Spain these activities were bitterly carica- land empire but also ushered in a century of tured in the “black legend,” which portrayed liberalism and instability. There were two Philip as archetypally cruel and obscurantist. civil wars (1833–1840 and 1872–1876) as a In Protestant northern Europe and its over- result of attempts by other members of the seas extensions, this legend took hold and Bourbon family, whose followers were provided a powerful negative image of Spain known as Carlists, to gain control of the and Catholicism that began to fade only in the throne. Both were won by the proponents of late twentieth century. liberalism, who established political plural- Beginning in the 1630s, the art of royal ism, though with such a narrow base that the portraiture was continued and energized by army rather than elections determined gov- Diego Velázquez (1599–1660) as court ernments and regimes until 1874. The plu- painter to Philip IV (1605–1665; r. 1621– ralistic press was largely regulated by govern- 1665), whom he memorably portrayed as an ments, with the number of newspapers and equestrian figure. Philip’s sickly and childless pamphlets burgeoning during revolutionary successor, Carlos II (1661–1700; r. 1663– periods (1854–1856 and 1868–1874). De- 1700), was portrayed in a religious manner spite low levels of literacy in the nineteenth by court painter Claudio Coello (1642– century, the printed word—sometimes rein- 1693), who showed the king’s retinue ador- forced by cartoons—came into its own for ing the miraculous Host of Gorkum. In the propaganda purposes, promulgated by politi- eighteenth century court painting continued cal parties and radical groups in the cities. In to be an integral part of royal propaganda the rural north the spoken word of the clergy under the house of Bourbon, although the in- upheld traditional Catholic values, while in creasingly centralized administration, which Catalonia, Galicia, and (to a lesser extent) outlawed Catalan as an official language, and the Basque region literary activities reinvigo- intermittent warfare were the main means of rated regional culture, serving as the basis for demonstrating royal power at home and future waves of nationalism. Toward the end overseas. An imposing architectural symbol of the century the propaganda stereotypes of of the new dynasty’s prestige was the royal the Freemasons (conspiratorial enemies of palace in Madrid, the Palacio de Oriente, Catholicism) and the Jesuits (conspiratorial which was built between 1737 and 1764. enemies of progress) emerged, foreshadow- Rusticity and domesticity were in vogue, and ing the heated propaganda wars of the twen- Francisco José de Goya y Lucientes (1746– tieth century. 1828), court painter from 1786 to 1824, Among the literate, the late nineteenth obliged with a fine portrait of Charles III century saw a surge in patriotic feeling Spain 375 spurred by Spanish attempts to hold on to sion. The importance of periodicals for ideo- rebellious Cuba, if necessary by taking on logical indoctrination may be gauged by the the United States. Jingoistic press campaigns creation in 1931 of Acción Española, a review in Spain (matched by similar campaigns in whose purpose was to turn the elite toward the United States) contributed to the Span- traditional monarchy. ish-American War of 1898, in which a disas- The prosperity of the 1920s brought an in- trous defeat for Spain led to angry demands crease in advertising for personal products for national regeneration. These were spear- that continued into the 1930s. Radio pro- headed by the propaganda campaign of re- grams were first broadcast in 1924 in Madrid former Joaquín Costa (1846–1911), which and Barcelona. Though regulated by the left as its legacy an intellectual movement of state, stations were privately owned and car- criticism of the liberal parliamentary monar- ried commercial advertising. News bulletins chy of Alfonso XIII (1886–1941; r. 1886– arrived in 1930, but during the Republic it 1931), which often looked to France as its was decided not to broadcast parliamentary model. Others sought national regeneration debates for fear that they might provoke riot- through a return to traditional religious val- ing in the streets. Election speeches were ues, as advocated by the polymath and publi- first carried in 1933 (the use of airplanes was cist Marcelino Menéndez y Pelayo (1856– banned for campaign purposes), but in the 1912), as evidenced by missionary and other polarized election campaign of 1936 only the propaganda campaigns by the clergy. centrist premier was permitted to broadcast. During World War I the Spanish press re- The potential of radio’s use in politics was mained divided, with conservatives generally seen in the 1934 broadcast declaring a revolt campaigning for neutrality and liberals for a in Barcelona, which was answered by the pre- more pro-Allied stance. The belligerent mier in Madrid, and by some rightist conspir- powers offered clandestine financial support ators’ plans in 1936 to launch a coup by seiz- to newspapers and journalists as needed. In ing radio installations. 1923 the unstable parliamentary regime was The Spanish Civil War of 1936–1939 was overthrown by Gen. Miguel Primo de Rivera won by the Nationalists, who were led by (1870–1930), who ruled as dictator until Generalissimo Francisco Franco y Bahamonde 1930. The military had already persuaded the (1892–1975); the victors described the con- previous regime to avoid criticizing it. Primo flict variously as the Spanish Crusade (used in de Rivera censored the press and created his the regime’s official multivolume history) or own party, Unión Patriótica, and newspaper, the War of Liberation (from Communism). La Nación,to firm up support for his rule. Throughout the regime its single political or- The coming of the Second Republic ganization was known as the National Move- (1931–1936) saw political warfare carried on ment, although until 1958 it was properly mainly in the press.At the national level these called Falange Española Tradicionalista y de included the Alfonsine monarchist ABC, the las Juntas Ofensivas Nacional-Sindicalistas Carlist traditionalist El Siglo Futuro (The Fu- (FET y de las JONS; Spanish Traditionalist ture Century), the Catholic El Debate (The and National-Syndicalist Offensive Groups’ Debate), the liberal El Sol (The Sun), the So- Phalanx). Representing an amalgam of all the cialist El Socialista, the Anarchist Tierra y Lib- rightist forces supporting the military upris- ertad (Earth and Liberty) and the Communist ing of 18 July 1936, until 1958 its ideology Mundo Obrero (Workers’ World). In Catalonia was formally that of the Fascist party Falange La Veu de Catalunya (The Voice of Catalonia) Española, founded by the dictator’s son, José and L’Opinió (Opinion) represented the right Antonio Primo de Rivera (1903–1936) in and left wings of regionalism. Most provin- 1933, who was shot by Republicans in 1936. cial capitals published a daily of each persua- The Falange supplied the visual symbol of the 376 Spain regime—yoked arrows of the Catholic its ideology in 1958 as the installation of a kings—seen on war memorials and at the en- “Catholic, traditional, social and representa- trances to towns and villages. José Antonio’s tive monarchy” better reflected the ideals of execution on 20 November was observed as a the coalition. Following approval by a 1947 holiday, as was the date of the uprising on 18 referendum, Spain had again become a July, which featured a military parade in monarchy, but Franco in effect remained as Madrid with the Caudillo (Chief) taking the regent until his death, even though Alfonso salute. The main streets or squares of towns XIII’s grandson, Juan Carlos (1938– ), was and villages were renamed after José Antonio. designated as the future Spanish king in Well into the 1960s the main news broadcasts 1969. Francoist constitutionalism was com- of the day carried by all radio stations ended pleted in 1967, following the approval by ref- with a trumpet call and the words “Por los erendum of the Organic Law of the State, but gloriosos caídos por Dios y por España” (For by then the regime’s internal propaganda had the glorious ones, fallen for God and for begun to stress economic progress and peace Spain), followed by an amalgam of the as the achievements to be praised. The year Falange’s anthem “Cara al Sol” (Face to the 1964 saw celebrations (twenty-five years of Sun), the Carlist anthem “Oriamendi” (com- Spanish peace). In the 1960s Spain experi- memorating that Carlist victory over the enced the highest rate of economic growth in British Legion in 1837), and the Royal March the world, second only to Japan. These years of Charles III (the national anthem except also saw some relaxation of press censorship during the Republic, when it was the Hymn in the form of a 1966 law introduced by of Riego, named after the military leader of Manuel Fraga Iribarne (1922– ), minister of the coup of 1820). The national red and gold information and tourism, plus the brief polit- flag replaced the Republican red, gold, and ical ascendancy in the economics ministries purple one during the civil war. The idea, of members of Opus Dei. Despite the por- borrowed from Italy, of redesignating years trayal by others of this Catholic secular insti- from 1937 onward as Año Triunfal (Years of tute as a sort of sinister holy mafia, its mem- Triumph) was soon abandoned. The cult of bers followed no single political line, as could Franco was propagated by his appearance on be seen in the regime’s closure of the liberal coins, where he was proclaimed “Moderator newspaper Madrid, which had been run by Hispaniae” (Moderator of Spain), and postage two prominent members of Opus Dei. Prior stamps in the manner of past monarchs. He to this there had been a greater show of unity claimed he was accountable only to God and by its members in producing the cultural re- history. view Arbor and running Ediciones Rialp, Adopting the manner of Philip II, whom which published a series of neotraditionalist extreme ideologues claimed as the founder of works. the totalitarian state, architecturally the Censorship of the media was the responsi- regime commemorated its glory by con- bility of the Delegation of Press and Propa- structing a gigantic monument, inaugurated ganda, while in matters of morals Catholic in 1959, called Santa Cruz del Valle de los doctrine was the rigid norm, especially with Caídos (Holy Cross of the Valley of the regard to film, beachwear, and behavior in Fallen), a basilica and mausoleum for Franco, public. Nevertheless, gradations of political José Antonio, and the war dead located near interpretation were permitted, which by the El Escorial. Despite the apparent ideological 1960s had turned into incipient pluralism. ascendancy of the Falange’s creed in the early The Falangists had their national daily Arriba 1940s, the regime was in reality a coalition of (Come On!), the Catholics of the ACNP (Na- “families”—monarchist, Catholic, military, tional Catholic Association of Propagandists), and Falangist—and the formal redefinition of founded in 1910, had Ya, and the monarchists Spain 377 had ABC. There were Catholic provincial 1988. Media pluralism accompanied political dailies, but former left-wing and liberal pa- pluralism, with the techniques of advertising pers were taken over by the Falange. All being applied to politics, particularly at elec- newspapers were published in Castilian until tion time. the 1960s, when regional languages were Throughout the twentieth century Span- permitted. ish governments have encouraged cultural The transition to democracy after Franco’s and diplomatic links with former colonies, death in 1975 has brought a stable constitu- but resources have generally limited the in- tional monarchy into being that has rein- tensity of propaganda campaigns. In Spain stated freedom of the press. Nationally the 12 October is celebrated as a national holi- ideological balance was restored with the day, now called El Dia de Hispanidad (His- founding of the daily El País (The Country), a panity Day). Primo de Rivera’s Ibero- progressive organ sympathetic to the Social- American Exhibition, staged in Seville in ist Party, while ABC remains the chief conser- 1929, was a major event that promoted vative mouthpiece, Arriba having gone out of Pan-Hispanic ideals. In the 1930s and 1940s business in 1979 and Ya in 1988. There is a ideas were broached of a Hispanic cultural flourishing regional press. Avui (Today) is a or diplomatic bloc, but their successful popular Catalan-language daily, while Deia propagation was limited by Spanish re- (The Call) in Bilbao serves as the mouthpiece sources. Although Spanish-American elites of mainstream Basque nationalism. (outside Mexico) often shared the Catholic Surveys have shown that Spaniards get and authoritarian ideals of the Caudillo, their news mostly from radio and television there was still suspicion of the former colo- rather than newspapers. The Franco regime nial power and competition from Pan- created Radio Nacional de España (RNE; Americanism and Indo-Americanism. The Spanish National Radio) during the civil war external service of RNE only received ade- and it remains the major network, although it quate transmitters in 1945. Much of its is now run by the state holding company output consisted of anti-Communist propa- Radio, Televisión de España (RTVE; Spanish ganda intended for Europe, praising Franco Radio and Television) and adheres to the for his prescience in alerting the West to views of the government in power. In the danger by challenging this menace in Franco’s Spain there also existed private sta- the civil war. Otherwise the message was tions with low-power nationwide networks. one of Spanish exceptionalism, successfully Chief among these was the commercial Ca- marketed by Spanish tourist offices to a dena SER (Spanish Broadcasting Company mass international audience in the 1960s Chain), which in 2001 was bought by the with the slogan “Spain Is Different.” This group that owns El País. The Red de Emisoras stress on individuality declined with social del Movimiento (Network of the Move- and economic development and Spain’s ment’s Stations), a FET enterprise, was taken entry into the European Community (EC) over by RTVE in the 1970s and merged into in 1986. Another sign of change from the RNE in the 1980s. COPE (Spanish Popular Francoist past are regular news bulletins in Wavelengths Chain), a church-owned net- Catalan and Basque on Radio Exterior de work, came into being in the 1960s and re- España. Major events marketed to boost mains popular. Television started up in Spain tourism and national prestige included the in 1956, but its true impact dates from the Twenty-fifth Olympic Games, held in mid-1960s, when it overtook radio as a news Barcelona in 1992, which projected a Cata- source. RTVE’s Televisión Española (Spanish lan as much as it did a Spanish image. Per- Television), which was strictly controlled by haps more successful in drawing attention successive governments, lost its monopoly in to Spain’s contribution to world history on 378 Spanish-American War the five hundredth anniversary of Colum- commercial markets. Advocates of naval bus’s arrival in the Americas was the world strength and American Empire included Al- exhibition held in Seville in 1992, with its fred Thayer Mahan (1840–1914), Senator Al- resonance of the 1929 exhibition and the bert Beveridge (1862–1927), and the assis- links to Spanish America. tant secretary of the navy, Theodore R.A.H.Robinson Roosevelt (1858–1919). See also Austrian Empire; Civil War, Spanish; In New York City the press had become Goya; Guernica; Latin America; Mexico; locked into a circulation war between the New Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg; York World, owned by Joseph Pulitzer Philippines; Portraiture; Portugal; Posters; Spanish-American War (1847–1911), and the New York Journal of References: Callahan, William J. The Catholic William Randolph Hearst (1863–1951). Church in Spain,1875–1998. Washington, DC: These papers vied for circulation by champi- Catholic University Press, 2000; Carr, oning the cause of the Cubans with ever more Raymond. Spain,1808–1975. Oxford: extreme fervor. The papers attacked a partic- Clarendon Press, 1982; Checa Cremades, ularly aggressive Spanish general, Valeriano Fernando. “Monarchic Liturgies and the “Hidden King”: The Function and Meaning of “Butcher” Weyler (1838–1930), whose coun- Spanish Royal Portraiture in the Sixteenth and terinsurgency methods included the use of Seventeenth Centuries.” In Iconography, “Reconcentration” camps, in which thousands Propaganda,and Legitimation. Ed.Allan Ellenius. died of disease. Hearst also built up the case Pp. 89–104. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1998; an eighteen-year-old woman—Evangelina Garitaonaindia, Carmelo. La Radio en España, 1923–1939. Madrid: Siglo XXI Editores, 1988; Cosio y Cisneros—imprisoned for abetting Montes Fernández, Francisco José. Los Orígenes assassination of the island’s governor. Spicing de la Radiodifusión Exterior en España. Madrid: the story with sex, Hearst’s accounts por- Editorial Complutense, 1998; Nieto Soria, José trayed her as a child who slew her would-be Manuel. “Propaganda and Legitimation in ravisher. In October 1897 Hearst journalist Castile: Religion and Church, 1250–1500.” in Karl Decker rescued her from a Havana jail. Iconography,Propaganda,and Legitimation. Ed. Allan Ellenius. Pp. 105–119. Oxford: The Hearst papers also publicized the con- Clarendon Press, 1998; Payne, Stanley G. The tents of a letter by the former Spanish ambas- Franco Regime,1936–1975. Madison: University sador in Washington, D.C., Enrique Dupuy of Wisconsin Press, 1987; Pike, Frederick B. de Lôme (1851–1904), that spoke of the Hispanismo,1898–1936. Notre Dame, IN: weakness of U.S. President William McKin- University of Notre Dame Press, 1971. ley (1843–1901). Hearst’s circulation soon exceeded a million papers a day. With U.S. government protests mounting, Spanish-American War (1898) Spain attempted a compromise and granted The war between the United States and the the island autonomy. This angered a loyalist Spanish Empire, fought primarily in Cuba faction. In February 1898 the U.S. Navy sent and the Philippines, has become the arche- a battleship, the USS Maine, on a visit to Ha- type of a war fomented by domestic com- vana to deter violence. On the night of 15 mercial media pressure. The war grew from February the battleship exploded, killing two parallel crises. In Cuba a nationalist re- 266. Although the explosion may have been bellion against colonial Spanish rule began in the result of a boiler fault, the newspapers 1895 under the leadership of José Martí had no doubt of Spanish perfidy and clam- (1853–1895). In the United States an eco- ored for war. President McKinley, mindful of nomic depression combined with the na- the need to keep Republican Party support, tional malaise arising from the closing of the duly declared war—an act of propaganda by frontier to suggest the need for a more active deed for European audiences. McKinley had foreign policy with naval strength to secure grown concerned by German activity in Sport 379

China and wanted to show that the United first place. The irony of this did not escape a States was a force to be reckoned with. growing anti-imperial, isolationist lobby. While Theodore Roosevelt raised a volun- Nicholas J.Cull teer regiment of “Rough Riders” (symboli- See also Caribbean; Film (Feature); Philippines; cally beginning his recruitment campaign at Spain; United States the Alamo in San Antonio, Texas), the U.S. References: Brown, Charles H. The Correspondents’War:Journalism in the Spanish- Pacific Fleet set sail for the Philippines to en- American War.New York: Scribners, 1967; Fell, gage the Spanish at Manila. This battle on 1 John L., ed. Film before Griffith. Berkeley: May 1898 proved a stunning success; the University of California Press, 1983; United States was in effective control of the Linderman, Gerald F., ed. The Mirror of War:The islands. The campaign in Cuba was covered by Spanish-American War and American Society. Ann journalists, including Richard Harding Davis Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1974; Milton, Joyce. The Yellow Kids:Foreign (1865–1916) and the artist Frederick Rem- Correspondents in the Heyday of Yellow Journalism. ington (1861–1909), and in their hands be- New York: Harper & Row,1989; Musser, came a celebration of American valor. High- Charles. The Emergence of Cinema:The American lights included the Rough Riders’ charge up Screen to 1907. New York: Scribner’s, 1990; San Juan Hill (actually Kettle Hill). Paterson, Thomas G., ed. American Imperialism Film propaganda figured on the home and Anti-Imperialism. New York: Crowell, 1973. front. The Vitagraph Company produced a four-minute film that cut from the symbolic replacement of the Spanish flag with the Stars Sport and Stripes to footage of the burial of victims Sport has long been a propaganda medium. of the Maine in Arlington National Cemetery. The rise of the modern industrialized, urban- Both the Biograph and Edison motion picture ized state and its stricter delineation between companies sent cameras to Cuba. Thomas working hours and free time also gave sport a Edison (1847–1931) also made a short fic- higher profile. A corollary of these develop- tional film set in the conflict, Love and War ments was the standardizing and codification (1899), which was released with accompany- of the rules of many games and pastimes, ing patriotic songs. The public acclaim for thus making sport into an international lan- these films helped transform the fledgling guage with commonly defined laws. film industry from a sideshow attraction into Sport came to be regarded as an important a major business. medium of internal cohesion within states, The war reporting made a hero of often crossing class and rank divides, and be- Theodore Roosevelt and prepared the way tween states. Sports could therefore be har- for his progress first to the governorship of nessed to propaganda messages designed to New York, then the vice presidency and a promote patriotism and competition. The popular presidency, following the assassina- British proved themselves particularly adept tion of McKinley in 1901. The press and the at drawing up rules and codes for games. public mood that it created also influenced Most of the world’s modern sporting prac- the U.S. government to take control of Span- tices can be traced back to Britain. Associa- ish possessions at the war’s end. Although it tion football (soccer), rugby football, was required to give independence to Cuba, cricket, tennis, golf, track and field events, other portions of the Spanish Empire passed boxing, even many winter sports were origi- to U.S. control. In the Philippines the Ameri- nally given structures and rules by British cans found themselves fighting a guerrilla bodies. As the British Empire grew these war against their erstwhile allies and adopt- sports were exported and played both by ex- ing much the same counterinsurgency tactics patriates and indigenous peoples. Sport soon that had sparked the war with Spain in the became an important solvent of the empire 380 Sport and was promoted as a medium of coopera- International matches and competitions tion and friendly competition. The Empire soon flourished. Significantly, the British Games reflected this; they continue to this Home Associations, responsible for teams day as the Commonwealth Games. from England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern In the formal British Empire cricket was Ireland, boycotted the World Cup from 1930 the most successful sporting export.A cult of until 1950, ostensibly over differences con- cricket grew up, predicated on ideals the En- cerning the definitions of amateur players, but glish thought they truly represented—gentle- this policy contained a strong element of dis- manliness, good manners, and courage. A dain for such frivolous sideshows. Football strict amateur spirit ruled, dedicated to the therefore became a symbol of British aloofness idea that taking part was more important than from foreign entanglements and an expression winning. The modern definition of being a of national culture. However, the Home Na- “good sportsman” grew from this understand- tions did take part in international matches, a ing. Such ideals helped to promote the Anglo- few of which became notorious for their prop- Saxon race as a superior being, detached from aganda value. In 1934 the visiting Italian team petty jealousies and squabbles. But cricket be- was promised massive bonuses by Mussolini if came more inclusive as the nonwhite peoples they beat the English at their own game. The of the empire took to the game. As the impe- Italian team rose to the occasion in one of the rial game its spirit was often associated with most violent matches ever seen in England, the spirit of the empire itself. For the nations dubbed by the press “the Battle of Highbury.” of the empire, however, beating the English at Four years later the English team went to their own game quickly became an obsession. Berlin to play in the Olympic Stadium. The Cricket was then used to support nascent na- game provoked a furor in the British press, as tional identity, helping to give greater defini- the team gave the Nazi salute at the request of tion to Australia and New Zealand in the first the British ambassador; they also inflicted a instance. Since 1945 cricket has played its 6–3 drubbing on their opponents. Since 1945 part in emphasizing the separateness of India, England-Germany matches have maintained Pakistan, and Sri Lanka, while it has also been their importance, more particularly perhaps a vital source of propaganda and self-pride to for England as a nation in decline, feeling ever the people of the West Indies. more overshadowed by its powerful neighbor. The other great British export, football, Similarly, since the Falklands Conflict of 1982 took especial hold in the “informal” empire of England-Argentina clashes have been used by South America and other regions where Argentina especially as chances to strike a British technical expertise was called upon, propaganda blow. such as the mining areas of northern Spain Totalitarian regimes have attempted to use and the industrial regions of northern Italy. sport for overt propaganda purposes. For the Britain saw the development of the national Nazis the racial purity of their prize boxer associations—England, Wales, Scotland, and Max Schmeling (1905–2003) was to be the Ireland—and from these the first interna- prime asset in his bout with the black Ameri- tional matches. Followed by enormous num- can fighter Joe Louis (1914–1981). In 1936 bers of the working and lower middle class, Schmeling won, but Louis prevailed in the football soon became the world’s most im- 1938 rematch in an astonishing 2:04 min- portant sport. King George V (1865–1936), utes. The former Soviet Union and Eastern realizing the significance of this develop- bloc used sport to highlight the superiority of ment, insisted on attending and presenting their culture over the decadence of the West- the FA Challenge Cup to the winners. It was ern world. China still dedicates a phenome- a vital propaganda tool in maintaining his nal budget to maintaining its prestige in the image as a monarch in touch with his people. sporting arena. Stalin, Joseph 381

But there is little doubt that since 1945 the Stalin, meaning “man of steel,” in 1907. Western world has been equally keen to use Dzhugashvili attended the Gori church sport to promote national ends. During the school and earned a full scholarship to the Cold War the United States found itself in a Tbilisi Theological Seminary. While studying constant battle to maintain athletic and for the priesthood, Stalin read forbidden lit- sporting prowess over the Communist states. erature, including the writings of Karl Marx Sport highlights national aims in other ways. (1818–1883). He left the seminary to be- The Tour de France, for example, ensures come a full-time revolutionary. that the French countryside still ravishes the Stalin began his career in the Social Demo- eye, thus maintaining an image of France as a cratic Party in 1899 as a propagandist among highly civilized land of good living. The var- the Tbilisi rail workers. Between 1902 and sity boat race, Royal Ascot, and the Henley 1913 Stalin was arrested eight times; he was Regatta in England continue to be used as exiled seven times and escaped six times. symbols of the supposedly ancient and un- Stalin supported the Bolshevik faction of the changing culture of England. Sporting suc- party, making himself useful particularly in cess has also provided a platform for athletes raising funds by robbing banks. In 1912 with a political message, the most eloquent Vladimir Lenin (1870–1924) coopted him being the African American boxer Muham- into the Bolsheviks’ Central Committee. He mad Ali (1942– ), who became a prominent briefly edited the new party newspaper, advocate of civil rights and pointedly refused Pravda (Truth), and at Lenin’s urging wrote to serve in the Vietnam War. Probably the his first major work, Marxism and the National most extreme example of sport and politics Question (1913). mixing was the so-called Soccer War of July After the Revolution of March 1917, 1969 between Honduras and El Salvador, in Stalin returned to Petrograd where he re- which crowd violence following a series of sumed the editorship of Pravda. Together three soccer games brought an underlying with Lev Kamenev (1883–1936), Stalin led border dispute to a head. A full-scale Sal- the party policy of moderation until Lenin vadoran invasion and Honduran counterat- arrived in April. After the Revolution Stalin tack followed. distinguished himself by ruthless military Mark Connelly leadership and strengthened his position by See also British Empire; Olympics organizational work and devotion to adminis- References: Arnaud, Pierre, and James Riordan, trative tasks. In 1922 he became general sec- eds. Sport and International Politics. London: retary of the party: the source of political Spon, 1998; James, C. L. R. Cricket. London: Allison & Busby, 1989; Hargreaves, Jenny, ed. power. After Lenin’s death Stalin joined with Sport,Culture and Ideology.London: Routledge, Grigori Zinoviev (1883–1936) and Kamenev 1982; Hoberman, John M. Sport and Political to lead the country and eliminate Leon Trot- Ideology.Austin: University of Texas Press, sky (1879–1940); their attack included much 1984; Holt, Robert. Sport and the British. propaganda. Stalin then reversed course and Oxford: Clarendon, 1989; Houlihan, Barrie. aligned himself with Nikolai Bukharin Sport and International Politics. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1994. (1888–1938) and Aleksey Rykov (1881– 1938) to galvanize the party to destroy his old allies in the “left opposition.” He then used careful manipulation of the economic Stalin, Joseph (1879–1953) data available to the party cadres to destroy Revolutionary, political agitator and longest- the “right opposition.” By his fiftieth birthday serving Soviet leader, Iosif Vissarionovich (1929), he had cemented his position as Dzhugashvili, was born 21 December 1879 Lenin’s anointed successor and entrenched in Gori, Georgia. He adopted the pseudonym his power as sole leader of the Soviet Union. 382 Stalin, Joseph

A huge poster of Joseph Stalin adorns a building in Leningrad,1938.(Hulton-Deutsch Collection/CORBIS)

Stalin used the lack of progress in Soviet to thoroughgoing cultural revolution and a agriculture to launch a ruthless collectiviza- wholesale industrialization campaign that tion program that was in effect an offensive raised the Soviet Union to the front rank of against the peasantry. This process was linked the industrial powers able to prosecute a Suez Crisis 383 world war. In the mid-1930s Stalin launched See also Cold War; Comintern; International; a major campaign of political terror. The KGB; Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich; Portraiture; purges, arrests, and deportations to labor Pravda; Revolution, Russian; Russia; Trotsky, Leon; World War II (Russia) camps were orchestrated via an all-pervasive References: Nove,Alec, ed. The Stalin propaganda campaign to convince the popu- Phenomenon. London: Weidenfeld and lation (and particularly the party cadres) that Nicolson, 1993; Schapiro, Leonard. The the whole state was riddled with traitors. Communist Party of the Soviet Union. London: Even major figures like Zinoviev, Kamenev, Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1970; Tucker, Robert. and Bukharin admitted to crimes against the Stalin in Power. New York: Norton, 1990. state in show trials and were sentenced to death. Stalin was not a particularly subtle propagandist—and had little to add to the Suez Crisis (1956) theory of the practice—but his campaigns Suez marked a watershed in international af- were audacious, energetic, and total. Unlike fairs, teaching lessons about the importance his cultured rivals, he had learnt his lessons in of public opinion and “winning the propa- the seminary and on the hard stage of revolu- ganda war” that have resonated through the tionary agitation. The campaigns were un- Falklands/Malvinas Conflict and the Gulf doubtedly helped by the all-pervasive atmo- War to the present day. The crisis was initi- sphere of fear instilled by the State security ated in July 1956, when Egyptian president apparatus. Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–1970) national- The purges had stripped the Soviet Union ized the Suez Canal Company, thereby taking of its political and military leadership, and control of a strategic artery. Suez became the the regime’s triumphalist rhetoric had left focal point of an international propaganda the state unprepared for the Nazi assault. The contest the shape of which was defined not “Great Patriotic War” began disastrously. simply by Anglo-Egyptian or French-Egyp- Nonetheless Stalin showed his “steel” by per- tian antagonism, but by the broader Cold sonally directing the defense of the USSR. He War struggle, the Arab-Israeli dispute and the rallied the population in part by astute use of regional balance of power in the Middle East, nationalist (pan-Slavic) rhetoric. Stalin was and the forces of nationalism and anti-impe- also willing to make huge human sacrifices— rialism across the developing world. and make propaganda capital from the sacri- British plotting against Nasser was already fice—including through the sieges of Stalin- well advanced in July 1956. By March, con- grad and Leningrad. cerned at the negative impact of Cairo After the war his regime extended Com- Radio’s “Voice of the Arabs” broadcasts about munist domination over the countries liber- Western strategic interests, British and U.S. ated by the Soviet armies. This campaign— diplomats had authorized “Omega,” a covert and the single-minded determination to plan for a series of political warfare and prop- protect the Soviet Union—led to growth in aganda measures designed to undermine arms production and strident anticapitalist Nasser’s position in Egypt and the Arab propaganda, which contributed to the mutual world. For the British, the outbreak of the suspicions of the Cold War. Stalin died in Suez Crisis simply lent new urgency to exist- March 1953 but remained a Soviet icon, al- ing plans to “get Nasser down.” The redistrib- though his successor Nikita Khrushchev ution of propaganda resources away from (1894–1971) engineered a break with this by anti-Communist activities in favor of Middle denouncing Stalin and his cult of personality Eastern operations was hastened and a new in a secret speech to the Twentieth Commu- organization, the Information Co-ordination nist Party Congress in 1956. Executive, was created to oversee the anti- Graham Roberts Nasser campaign. Initially, this campaign 384 Suez Crisis

sought to present Nasser as an unprincipled tion services attempted to keep up the pre- treaty-breaker, undermining accepted stan- tence that the assault on Egypt was a “police dards of behavior and posing a threat to the action” intended to keep apart warring Israeli values and commercial interests of the inter- and Egyptian forces. national community. British ministers com- Despite deep U.S. involvement in the for- pared Nasser to Hitler and Mussolini while mulation of the Omega strategy, American clandestine French broadcasts denounced the propaganda during the crisis was not dictated Egyptian president as a Communist. These by the belief that Suez provided the opportu- measures were clearly intended to prepare nity to “bring Nasser to heel.” The State De- domestic public opinion for military opera- partment considered that the open use of tions against Egypt. force against Nasser would alienate Arab and Among Britain’s main objectives was the Muslim opinion completely and risk driving destruction of Nasser’s personal prestige and the states of the developing world into the his pretensions to pan-Arab leadership. Prime arms of the Soviet Union. Once the attack on Minister Anthony Eden (1897–1977) wanted Egypt occurred, therefore, United States In- Nasser exposed as a fool and a failure; British formation Agency (USIA) and Voice of Amer- propagandists therefore focused on themes ica (VOA) output was calculated to place as giving the lie to Nasser’s claim that Egyptian much distance as possible between the United control of the canal would bring economic States and its European allies. Reflecting benefits to the Egyptian people. British broad- Eisenhower’s anger at Anglo-French actions, casts floated ideas about alternative trade the USIA relentlessly proclaimed America’s routes, new oil pipelines, and declining canal commitment to the principles of peace, the revenues, while the intelligence services, rule of law,and support for the dignity and in- through a Cyprus-based radio station posing dependence of the postcolonial world. In as an Egyptian opposition group, suggested propaganda terms, the Anglo-American rela- that a vengeful British government might tionship proved to be of less value than the abuse its position of colonial rule in Uganda Cold War struggle for influence in Arab and to interfere with Egypt’s share of the Nile wa- Asian countries. Furious that Britain had pro- ters, bringing starvation upon the Egyptian vided a distraction from the Soviet Union’s people if they failed to rise up against Nasser. brutal repression of the Hungarian uprising, The beginning of military operations U.S. propagandists were not slow to take ad- against Egypt at the end of October ushered vantage of Eisenhower’s stand against “gun- in a new phase in the propaganda war. Un- boat diplomacy” in order to win new popular- happy with the performance of the BBC’s ity and prestige across the Middle East. Arabic Service, British officials in Cyprus Unquestionably, Nasser emerged as the commandeered the facilities of the Near East major victor in the Suez propaganda war. His Arab Broadcasting Station for the Foreign political and propaganda triumph massively Office’s “Voice of Britain” broadcasts. Along- overshadowed the reality of Egypt’s military side an incompetent army psychological war- defeat at the hands of the Israelis, and he fare unit and a number of clandestine radio emerged from the crisis as the undisputed stations, the “Voice of Britain” sought to un- leader of a resurgent Arab nationalist move- dermine Egyptian military and civilian ment. The broadcasts of Cairo Radio (which morale and create the psychological condi- the British Royal Air Force had signally failed tions for Nasser’s overthrow. A clandestine to bomb off the air), and iconic portraits of French station located near Tours was more Nasser himself came to serve as propagandis- extreme, calling for Nasser’s assassination on tic symbols of Nasser’s new-found status as an almost daily basis. Against this back- the hero of the Arab masses across North ground, the official Anglo-French informa- Africa and the Middle East. Switzerland 385

In contrast, Britain’s defeat was clear for Dutch in 1936. He returned in 1942 and co- all to see, and there was little the propagan- operated with the Japanese occupation of the dists could do to disguise it. The flawed poli- Dutch East Indies. In 1945 he established an cies of the Eden government effectively left independent state of Indonesia under his British propagandists with an impossible task. presidency. Picking up the pieces in the aftermath of a Sukarno ruled by building an elaborate humiliating political defeat, they concen- cult of personality. He played his country’s trated on damage limitation, attempting to Communists against the army and survived refute Egyptian claims of atrocities against in the center with a notoriously lavish civilians during the Anglo-French attack on lifestyle. In international politics, he spon- Port Said and, with an eye toward the sored the emergence of the nonaligned reestablishment of the Anglo-American al- movement of so-called Third World coun- liance, stressing the close links between tries at the Bandung Conference of 1955. By Nasser and his Communist arms suppliers (a the early 1960s the Western powers were task made somewhat easier by the vocal sup- actively engaged in destabilizing Sukarno’s port for Nasser expressed in Soviet propa- regime, seeing it as an open door for Com- ganda). Left to explain the disaster, one For- munism. Both the CIA and Britain’s IRD eign Office official summed up the conducted operations to undermine his rule difficulties of Britain’s propagandists with the and promote the “forces of order” in the In- observation that “the Archangel Gabriel donesian army. In 1965 public opinion began transmitting with Infinite Power on The Last to swing dramatically against Sukarno as a Trump could not, prior to an Arab-Israeli result of an attempted Communist coup. Of- settlement, sell British cooperation with ficially he left office in 1968, but real power France and Israel to the Arab world.” had passed to the leader of the army faction, James Vaughan General Suharto (1921– ), in 1966. See also Arab World; BBC; Cold War in the Nicholas J.Cull Middle East; Radio (International); USIA;VOA See also CIA; Indonesia; IRD References: Rawnsley, Garry. Radio Diplomacy References: Lashmar, Paul, and James Oliver. and Propaganda: The BBC and VOA in Britain’s Secret Propaganda War:1948–1977. International Politics. London: Macmillan, 1996; Stroud, UK: Sutton, 1998; Legge, J. D. ———. “Overt and Covert: The Voice of Sukarno:A Political Biography. London: Penguin, Britain and Black Radio Broadcasting in the 1972. Suez Crisis, 1956,” Intelligence and National Security 11, 3 (July 1996); Shaw, Tony. Eden, Suez and the Mass Media:Propaganda and Persuasion during the Suez Crisis.London: I. B. Sweden Tauris, 1996. See Scandinavia

Sukarno (1901–1970) Switzerland Sukarno, Indonesia’s president from 1945 to The landlocked, multilingual confederation 1968, was both a practitioner and casualty of in the mountainous heart of Europe played a propaganda. Born in the Dutch East Indian central role in the development of European colony of Java, Sukarno was educated at the propaganda as a locus of the Reformation and Bandung Technical Institute, graduating in a major center of early printing. As a neutral 1925 as a civil engineer. As a talented orator country Switzerland has provided a refuge to he soon emerged as a prominent figure in propagandists from other states, from John Java’s independence movement. He spent the Knox (c.1514–1572) to Vladimir Lenin years 1929–1931 in jail and was exiled by the (1870–1924). The city of Geneva has been 386 Switzerland

home for the League of Nations (1919– (1618–1648) and received international 1946), the International Red Cross (from recognition of their independence under the 1864), and other international organizations, Treaty of Westphalia, which brought that including the World Health Organization. conflict to an end. The projection of the Swiss national image Swiss neutrality was recognized interna- has been closely tied to its role as an interna- tionally in the Peace of Paris (1815) at the tional peacemaker. end of the French Revolutionary and Partly because of its mountainous loca- Napoleonic Wars, during which the French tion, medieval Switzerland developed with a had imposed on Switzerland the Helvetic tradition of independence and special privi- Republic (1798–1803). Nineteenth-cen- lege not seen elsewhere in Europe. In 1291 tury Swiss politics was characterized by the three cantons (regions) Uri, Unterwalden, clash between the centralizing Radicals and and Schwyz, combined to form the Everlast- the Catholic cantons, which wished to re- ing League of the Three Forest Cantons to tain regional power. The struggle involved defend themselves against Habsburg Austria. much sectarian propaganda, and key players Lucerne joined in 1332. These events are on the Catholic side included the Jesuits. In memorialized in the legendary campaign of the 1840s the Catholic cantons combined resistance led by the archer William Tell, re- into the Sonderbund (Separate League). told by eighteenth-century historian Jo- This was crushed in the largely bloodless hannes von Müller (1755–1809) in his His- civil war of 1847, and in 1848 Switzerland tory of Switzerland (1786). Tell became a agreed to a new federal constitution and a potent symbol of national awakening in ban on the Jesuits operating within the Switzerland and beyond during the Enlight- country. enment and the early nineteenth century. He In the twentieth century the Swiss con- was celebrated as a symbol of freedom in a ducted propaganda campaigns during the two play of 1804 by the German poet and drama- world wars to assert their neutrality. During tist Schiller (1759–1805) and as an allegory World War II Switzerland became a major of Italian nationalism in the opera of 1829 by theater of the propaganda war as Britain and the Italian composer Rossini (1792–1868). Germany vied for the sympathy of the Swiss From 1291 Swiss power grew through public, but neither side achieved much suc- successive military campaigns, more cantons cess. Allied anti-Nazi propaganda seeped joined the league each generation, and in across the Swiss border into Germany in the 1499 the Emperor Maximilian (1459–1519) form of mail, news, and rumors. formally recognized the virtual independ- In the postwar period issues in Swiss poli- ence of the league. But the growing power of tics included the struggle for language rights Switzerland was cut short in the sixteenth by the French speakers of the Jura region. In century, first by defeat at the hands of the the 1990s the far-right Peoples’ Party made French in 1515 but most significantly by the gains in Switzerland. The party, led by Reformation. Two leading figures of the Re- Christoph Blocher (1940– ), traded on anti- formation worked in Switzerland: the Swiss- immigrant feeling and resentment of the in- born Hulderich Zwingli (1484–1531) in ternational disapproval of the Swiss role as Zurich and Frenchman John Calvin (1509– bankers to Nazi Germany, the scale of which 1564), who was based in Geneva from 1536. had been revealed during that decade. It won The Reformation split the country as the nearly 25 percent of the votes in the election Four Forest Cantons fought to defend their of October 1999, becoming the nation’s sec- Catholicism. But both sides agreed with the ond most powerful grouping. Switzerland has need for neutrality. The Swiss profited from a record of frequent referenda on key issues, this neutrality in the Thirty Years War all of which have produced lively political Syria 387 campaigns. In 2002 Switzerland voted to join C. “William Tell and His Comrades:Association the United Nations. and Fraternity in the Propaganda of Fifteenth- Nicholas J.Cull and Sixteenth-Century Switzerland.” Journal of Modern History 67, 3 (September 1995): See also Herzl, Theodor; Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich; 527–557; Johnston, Pamela, and Bob Scribner, PWE, Reformation and Counter-Reformation; The Reformation in Germany and Switzerland. Women’s Movement: European; Zionism Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993. References: Butler, Michael, Malcolm Pender, and Joy Charnley, eds. The Making of Modern Switzerland,1848–1998. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 2000; Cole, Robert. Britain and the War of Words in Neutral Europe,1939–1945.New Syria York: St Martin’s Press, 1990; Head, Randolph See Arab World

T

Television some broadcasts continued in the United “Television,” the British critic Malcolm States, including a propaganda “special” in Muggeridge (1903–1990) once wrote, “was support of the United Nations. not invented to make human beings vacu- Television programming is a central ous, but is an Emanation of their vacuity.” source for the cultural propaganda of the Television is an electronic system of trans- producing country. It can be crucial to the mitting changing images, together with electoral process, but it also deserves to be sound, along a wire or through space by dismissed as a “vast wasteland,” as it was in converting the images and sounds into elec- 1962 by Newton Minow (1926– ), chairman trical signals and then reconverting the re- of the Federal Communications Commission ceived signals into images and sound. The (FCC). word first appeared in Scientific American From a practical point of view, television is magazine in 1907. The history of television a post-1945 phenomenon. In Germany tele- shares many similarities with feature and vision was reluctant to admit to its Nazi past; documentary film—with one basic differ- in Britain the BBC introduced noncommercial ence: film was intended as a group experi- television, where, as with radio, each owner ence in a public theater, whereas television paid a yearly license fee. In the United States was meant to be seen in one’s home. Tele- competing technologies led the FCC to issue vision can be traced back to a German in- an order limiting the total number of tele- vention in 1884, but television as we know vision stations for the entire country at just it uses a process dating back to 1930, and over 100 from 1948 until 1952, a ruling that even that is remote from television after saw New York City and Los Angeles with 1945. In the 1930s Germany, Britain, and seven stations apiece, while many other cities the United States all had television pro- had none. Thus, only after 1953 did television gramming, but it was available only to the become pervasive in American life, and it did privileged few, and generally as an experi- not truly come into its own until 1960. The mental competitor to radio or film, which year 1967 saw the arrival of color broadcasting were both well established in the 1930s. in the United States, though many viewers en- World War II effectively canceled television joyed black-and-white reception well into the programming in all three countries, though 1970s; of course, all earlier programming in

389 390 Television

black-and-white continues to be rebroadcast (Britain and most of Europe and Asia) and as originally produced, though recently some SECAM (France, the former Soviet Union, films have been colorized digitally. and a good bit of Africa). The development of In the United States television proved a these rival systems was not unrelated to is- bonanza for advertisers. The 1950s witnessed sues of national pride and technology as the collapse of network radio and the Holly- propaganda. wood system as millions of Americans bought Cable television, with such world broad- television sets and stayed home to enjoy a casters as CNN (Cable News Network), Fox new leisure-time activity. Television experi- News, and MSNBC, has changed the nature enced a brief moment during which produc- of viewing in more than just the United tions were aired live, but it soon settled into a States. Gone forever is the dominance of the pattern that continues to characterize the three commercial U.S. networks. The advent commercial broadcasts to this day: escapist of the VCR means that viewers are free to fare, endless advertisements that interrupt record programs on any channel and to view programs at moments when something inter- them at a time that seems convenient. In the esting is about to occur; some news pro- Arab world Al Jazeera, created by the emir of grams; some talk shows; and some local pro- Qatar in 1996, provides round-the-clock grams. In the 1950s the typical television Arabic programming that now reaches some station was only on the air for a few hours a 35 million people in twenty-two countries. day; nobody had yet thought of a round-the- The future of television is driven by tech- clock schedule. In the United States three nological changes. The Internet and the networks reigned supreme: NBC, CBS, and World Wide Web have affected leisure-time ABC. (Actually until the 1970s ABC re- schedules for millions of people. Indeed, the mained a rather feeble third network in latest technological innovation has advertis- terms of station strength, programming, ad- ers quite worried: digital video recorders vertising revenues, and numbers of viewers.) record programs and store them on hard In the 1960s commercial television was re- disks, making it easy to fast-forward past stricted to the UHF (ultra high frequency) commercials. This has led one anonymous in- channels; the VHF (very high frequency) dustry executive to issue a dire warning: channels were difficult to locate given the “There’s no Santa Claus. If you don’t watch primitive tuning devices on most sets, so that the commercials, someone’s going to have to VHF was left for educators—a sure indica- pay for television and it’s going to be you.” It tion of poor reception. seems unlikely that such hortatory appeals Cable television, satellite transmission, will move many viewers. and video totally changed a viewing world David Culbert controlled by the three commercial U.S. net- See also BBC; Blair, Tony; CNN; Elections; works or, in Britain, by the BBC. Britain suc- Elections (Britain); Elections (Israel); cumbed to the fare offered by commercial Elections (United States); Film (Newsreels); television. The United States broadcast a Ireland; Latin America; Mexico; Nixon, Richard; Television (News); Thatcher, myriad of offerings from literally hundreds of Margaret; USIA providers. With the arrival of satellite trans- References: Barnouw,Erik. Tube of Plenty. New mission, the entire world could theoretically York: Oxford University Press, 1975; Briggs, be linked through television—but only to Asa. The BBC:The First Fifty Years. New York: those with appropriate receivers. These days Oxford University Press, 1985; ———. television also entails the use of videocassette Sound and Vision.Vol. 4, The History of Broadcasting in the United Kingdom. Oxford: recorders (VCRs). The entire planet can be Oxford University Press, 1979; Surgeon divided into three basically incompatible General’s Scientific Advisory Committee on color systems: NTSC (United States); PAL Television and Social Behavior. Television and Television (News) 391

Growing Up:The Impact of Televised Violence. news” was a misnomer. Early television news Washington, DC: GPO, 1972. broadcasts had much to be modest about, consisting mainly of “talking heads” plus still pictures and maps. However, being able to Television (News) see news events appealed to viewers, who In July 1941 Columbia Broadcasting System forgave television news its poor production (CBS) network began regularly scheduled tele- values. It became a source of public informa- vision newscasts totaling fifteen hours a week, tion in 1954, when CBS broadcast a Murrow which, however, did not survive Pearl Harbor. “See It Now” episode that attacked Sen. In the United States television news—and tele- Joseph McCarthy (1909–1957). This broad- vision as a whole—had to wait until the end of cast, plus network coverage of the Army-Mc- World War II. In 1946 there were roughly Carthy Hearings in the spring and summer of 7,000 television sets, 3,000 of which were lo- 1954, helped bring an end to the phenome- cated in New York City alone. By 1949 there non of McCarthyism. In 1960 four televised were 10 million sets in operation across the hour-long presidential debates gave television country, in about 100 urban markets. news a certain degree of respectability, To radio reporters such as Edward R. though Richard Nixon’s obvious discomfort Murrow (1908–1965) the term “television before the TV cameras in the first debate

Wisconsin Republican Senator Joseph R.McCarthy,appearing on a television screen during his filmed reply to Columbia Broadcasting System newscaster Edward R.Murrow,tells a coast-to-coast audience on 6 April 1954 that Murrow "as far back as twenty years ago,was engaged in propaganda for Communist causes." McCarthy was answering Murrow's anti-McCarthy program of 9 March.(Bettmann/CORBIS) 392 Television (News) helped his less well-known opponent, John F. (1956– ), who was described in the ad as Kennedy, win popular support. Television being “provocative, super-smart...and just news also benefited from the presence of a little sexy.” Howard K. Smith (1914–2002), a respected Television news coverage of the U.S. war TV news reporter, who acted as moderator. on terrorism following the 11 September In 1963 television network news expanded 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and from fifteen to thirty minutes. Coverage of the Pentagon brought worldwide attention to the Vietnam War did not really bring live im- Al Jazeera, a twenty-four-hour news channel ages of violence into the homes of millions of that serves the Arab world. Formed in 1996 Americans, since the fighting usually took by the emir of Qatar, Al Jazeera has been place at night in remote jungle areas, where compared to CNN—favorably by those who the setting up of television camera lights like the idea of a pro-Arab television news, would have been impossible. Still, the most unfavorably by those who feel the program- discussed piece of newsfilm to come out of ming is overtly anti-Israeli and often anti- the Vietnam War was captured on 16mm American. Al Jazeera reaches thirty-five mil- color film by NBC: the execution in February lion people in some twenty-two countries. 1968 of a Viet Cong suspect by the chief of the The power of television to influence opin- South Vietnamese police at the beginning of ion throughout the world is well docu- the Tet Offensive, which marked a turning mented. What effect does television news point of the Vietnam War. Television coverage have on the shaping of opinions? Many recog- of rioting in the streets of Chicago during the nize the agenda-setting function of television 1968 Democratic National Convention news. By addressing certain topics and ne- helped define public perceptions of political glecting others, this medium places emphasis leaders for many years thereafter. on issues news managers deem significant and The proliferation of television news in- important. There is an obvious danger if the creased with the advent of cable. In 1979 the average viewer presumes that an unknown Cable Satellite Public Affairs Network (C- and unseen news manager is defining tele- SPAN) went on the air, offering unedited vision news, particularly in a time of downsiz- twenty-four-hour news coverage of national ing in television news bureaus. The rise in events, from political conventions to debates popularity of the Internet makes it possible in Congress. In 1980 millionaire Ted Turner for many people to receive news in an inter- (1938– ) launched the Cable News Network active fashion. It seems clear that major media (CNN), the first round-the-clock news net- empires and changing electronic technology work. The mid-1980s also saw the rise of will determine the future of television news pseudonews shows such as Hard Copy and A and may affect it in unforeseen ways. Current Affair, which consisted of not much Brian Collins news but plenty of glitz and entertainment. See also BBC; Civil Rights Movement; Gulf War; In the late 1990s, more twenty-four-hour McCarthy, Joseph R.; Murdoch, Rupert; news channels emerged, including Fox News Murrow,Edward R.; Nixon, Richard; Satellite Communications; Terrorism, War on;Vietnam and MSNBC, with regular news programs as War well as news talk-show formats. The hosts of References: Bliss, Edward, Jr. Now the News:The these shows are generally portrayed as ag- Story of Broadcast Journalism.New York: gressive and objective journalists, although Columbia University Press, 1991; Cloud, self-serving advertisements promote their Stanley, and Lynne Olson. The Murrow Boys: personalities and/or good looks. CNN was Pioneers on the Front Lines of Broadcast Journalism. New York: Houghton Mifflin, 1996; Iyengar, sharply criticized (by older male journalists) Shanto, and Richard Reeves. Do the Media in early 2002 for briefly running an adver- Govern? Politicians,Voters,and Reporters in America. tisement for anchorperson Paula Zahn London: Sage, 1997; Mickelson, Sig. The Decade Te rrorism 393

That Shaped Television News:CBS in the 1950s. tics included attacking saloons with a Westport, CT: Praeger, 1998. hatchet, was not supported by the main- stream of the movement. The identification between women and temperance meant that Temperance brewers actively opposed the enfranchise- This essentially religious movement cam- ment of women and funded propaganda to paigned against the drinking of alcohol in the this effect. The movement resulted first in United States, Britain, and northern Europe local and eventually nationwide prohibition in the nineteenth and early twentieth cen- of alcohol in the United States (1919–1933) turies. The “evils of drink” have long been a as well as in several Scandinavian countries. popular theme in art and written social com- In Britain the need for a sober workforce mentary. The excesses resulting from drunk- during World War I clinched the argument enness were memorably depicted by the for tighter licensing laws. Following the end painter Pieter Brueghel (ca. 1520–1569) in of prohibition in the United States, the Anti- the Netherlands and the satirist William Saloon League changed its name first to the Hogarth (1697–1764) in Britain. In the early National Temperance League and (since nineteenth century a religious awakening on 1964) the American Council on Alcohol both sides of the Atlantic sparked the temper- Problems. ance movement, which saw drink as the root Nicholas J.Cull cause of poverty and moral corruption. See also Drugs; Health Early advocates of temperance included References: Shiman, Lilian Lewis. Crusade against the Irish priest Father Theobald Matthew Drink in Victorian England. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1986; Tyrrell, Ian. Sobering Up:From (1790–1856). The American Temperance Temperance to Prohibition in Antebellum America, Society was founded in 1826, the British and 1800–1860.Westport, CT: Greenwood, Foreign Temperance Society in 1831,and the 1979;———. Woman’s World/Woman’s Empire: United Kingdom Alliance for the Legislative The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union in Suppression of the Sale of Intoxicating International Perspective,1880–1930. Chapel Liquors in 1853. In 1833 British adherents Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1991. accidentally acquired their popular sobriquet “teetotalers” when an advocate with a stam- mer, Richard Turner of Preston, called for Te rrorism “te-te-total” abstinence. Similar movements The practitioners of terrorism, defined as the developed in Sweden, Finland, and Germany. political use of violence—especially random The temperance movement’s methods in- violence—use conventional propaganda cluded marches, songs, badges (consisting of channels such as leaflets or newspapers to re- white ribbons and a “sacred heart” for cruit and promote their ideas. For example, Catholics), and the physical act of signing a Sinn Fein, the political party associated with pledge to abstain from alcohol. the Provisional Irish Republican Army, pub- In the United States in particular the lishes the newspaper An Phoblacht/Republican movement became closely identified with News. Terrorism is fundamentally connected women. Organizations such as the Woman’s to the mass media. Terrorist actions—kid- Christian Temperance Union (1874) and nappings, bombings, hijackings, the taking of Anti-Saloon League (1895) viewed temper- hostages—can be seen as media events staged ance not only as part of the moral mission of by those without access to the popular press womanhood but also as a way to prevent do- or television in order to raise awareness of a mestic violence and alcohol-related family particular cause in the public’s consciousness poverty. The activist Carry Moore Nation and/or to spread fear among a targeted pop- (1846–1911), whose attention-getting tac- ulation. The propaganda value of an act can 394 Terrorism

A wall in Falls Road,Belfast,Northern Ireland,is painted with republican slogans and images.It links the objectives of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) with that of the Irish Republican Army (IRA).(Paul Seheult;Eye Ubiquitous/CORBIS) be modified by the choice of target, claims military capacity.Atrocities were used for this (or denials) of responsibility, and the release purpose in sixteenth-century Europe during (or execution) of hostages. The connection the Wars of Religion and the Dutch Revolt; in between terrorism and the media was mem- seventeenth-century Europe during the orably acknowledged by British Prime Minis- Thirty Years’ War; and in the eighteenth cen- ter Margaret Thatcher (1925– ) when she tury, most famously during the French Revo- advocated media regulation in order to deny lution, when depictions and descriptions of terrorists the “oxygen of publicity.” Like the such events circulated as counterpropaganda. term “propaganda,” the word “terrorism” is The revolutionary movements of the nine- freighted with negative connotations, having teenth century recognized the power of sym- become a staple of contemporary political bolic violence to draw attention to a cause. rhetoric. However, one man’s terrorist/ban- The anarchist Mikhail Bakunin (1814–1876) dit/criminal can be another man’s urban spoke of “le propagande par le fait” (propa- guerrilla/freedom fighter/soldier. Antiter- ganda by means of action) and militant anar- rorist rhetoric has been used to justify re- chists put this into effect through assassina- pressive laws in democratic societies, as was tions and bombings. Notable examples the case in West Germany in the 1970s. include the assassination of Tsar Alexander II Regimes and their armies have long sought of Russia (1818–1881) and the Haymarket to utilize terror as a weapon of war in order bomb incident in Chicago in 1886. Terrorist to produce an emotional impact on their acts performed in the cause of Irish national- enemy (or subject population) beyond their ism included the Phoenix Park murders of Te rrorism 395

1882 and other acts committed by the Fenian Organization (PLO), founded in 1964, con- “Invincibles.” By the end of the century, sym- sisting of a number of organizations, the bolic direct action was well established in the largest being Fatah; Provisional IRA, founded terrorist’s political arsenal. in 1969; and the Basque-separatist organiza- In the twentieth century, attacks on civil- tion Euzkadi Ta Azkatasuna (ETA) (Basque ians became a regular feature of conventional Fatherland and Liberty), founded in 1959. warfare and revolutionary and anticolonial Anticapitalist terrorist organizations founded guerrilla struggles. The Anglo-Irish War in the 1970s include the Baader-Meinhof (1919–1921) saw the formation of the Irish gang in Germany, which developed into the Republican Army (IRA) and acts of terror on Red Army Faction; Brigatte Rossi in Italy, both sides. In China Mao Zedong (1893– founded in 1969; and Sendero Luminoso 1976) theorized the propaganda dimension (Shining Path) in Peru, founded in 1970. of guerrilla warfare and advocated what The Arab-Israeli Six-Day War of 1967 amounted to terrorist activities at the start of sparked a new wave of Palestinian terrorism, a campaign as a tactic by means of which a including the Popular Front for the Libera- small movement could build a reputation for tion of Palestine (PFLP), founded in 1969 by heroism among the wider population. His George Habash (1925– ). In September theory became dogma for the anticolonial 1970 the PFLP staged a spectacular series of and “urban guerrilla” movements later in the hijackings, flying three planes to Amman, century, though the latter do not establish the Jordan, and one to Cairo, Egypt, and then de- sort of territorial presence seen in Chinese stroying the planes on the ground—all of or Vietnamese guerrilla warfare. which the world watched on TV. The king- The political philosopher Michael Walzer dom of Jordan retaliated by expelling the (1935– ) has argued that the scale of civilian Palestinian militants in what became known involvement in World War II redefined the as “Black September.” This action gave its limits of political violence, placing ordinary name to the Black September organization people rather than just police, soldiers, or (operational 1970–1974), whose exact rela- leaders in the front lines of the new wave of tionship to the mainstream Fatah was kept terrorism that emerged in the postwar years. deliberately vague as a propaganda strategy. Part of the reason for this change was due to In 1972 the Black September organization the colonial dimensions of many postwar ter- kidnapped eleven members of the Israeli rorist campaigns, in which one ethnic group team at the Munich Olympics, five of whom sought to free itself from rule by another and died (along with four terrorists) in a botched considered all members of the enemy group rescue attempt. In 1974 the United Nations to be a legitimate target. Among the advo- recognized the PLO as the Palestinian gov- cates of violence as a means of recovering the ernment-in-exile, which improved the inter- self following colonial rule was the national standing both of its leader, Yasir Caribbean-born writer and psychologist Arafat (1929– ), and the Palestinian cause. Frantz Fanon (1925–1961). Examples of an- The later 1970s saw the emergence of the ticolonial violence against civilian popula- Palestinian Abu Nidal Organization (ANO), tions in the immediate postwar period in- which split violently from the PLO in 1974, clude both Jewish and Arab actions in and Hamas—whose name is the Arabic word Palestine and Algerian resistance to the for courage—an acronym for Harakat al- French. Muqawamah al-Islamiyya (Islamic Resistance Terrorism developed in tandem with the Movement). Other significant groups that globalization of world news. It moved into a emerged at this time included Hezbollah new era in the 1960s and early 1970s. Key (Party of God) in Lebanon, which was examples include: the Palestine Liberation founded with Iranian support in 1982. Pales- 396 Terrorism, War on tinian organizations have launched two con- Belgium, and Luxembourg; Olympics; certed uprisings (intifada), the first lasting RFE/RL; Terrorism, War on from December 1987 to September 1993 References: Nacos, Bridgette L. Ter rorism and the Media.New York: Columbia University Press, and the second, Al-Aqsa (named after the 1994; Walzer, Michael. Just and Unjust Wars. mosque in Jerusalem), in September 2000. New York: Basic Books, 2000; Weimann, Both were accompanied by international Gabriel, and Conrad Winn. The Theater of propaganda offensives. Distinguishing be- Ter ror:Mass Media and International Terrorism. tween acts of terrorism associated with the New York: Longman, 1994; Wright, Joanne. intifada and the violent responses of the State Terrorist Propaganda:The Red Army Faction and the Provisional IRA,1968–1986.New York: St. of Israel has been a major preoccupation of Martin’s, 1990. Israeli propaganda. The 1990s saw the emergence of a new wave of militant Islamic organizations linked by such umbrella organizations as the Inter- Te rrorism, War on (2001– ) national Muslim Brotherhood or Al Qaeda This U.S.-led campaign, launched in the (The Base). Groups affiliated with these or- wake of terrorist attacks against the United ganizations conducted spectacular raids States on 11 September 2001, included a against American and other targets chosen military campaign in Afghanistan. Propa- for their symbolic value, culminating in the ganda figured prominently in the War on Ter- 11 September 2001 attacks against New York rorism. The terrorist attacks were in and of and Washington, D.C. themselves a form of propaganda by direct The condemnation of terrorism has long action. The terrorists selected their targets been a central feature in U.S. propaganda and with an eye to their symbolic value and cul- became central to the War on Terrorism tural resonance. In the aftermath of the at- launched in the wake of 11 September. Ear- tacks, U.S. president George W. Bush lier in 2001 the State Department had re- (1946– ) set about the difficult task of build- leased a list of seven pariah states—Cuba, ing a coalition favoring retaliation against the North Korea, Iran, Iraq, Libya, Sudan, and Al Qaeda network, its leader, Osama bin Syria—that sponsor terrorism with arms Laden (1957– ), and the Taliban regime in and/or propaganda facilities. Domestic ter- Afghanistan that condoned their activities. rorist groups within the United States have The key to the U.S. propaganda strategy included the left-wing Weathermen (estab- was to stress that its response was aimed at lished in 1968) and radical right-wing “anti- terrorists rather than Islam in general. This government” terrorists such as those respon- aim was not helped by the early faux pas of sible for the attack against the federal President Bush in referring to the campaign as building in Oklahoma City in 1995. a “crusade”—a term with negative historical Although terrorism is frequently por- echoes in the Islamic world. A second gaffe trayed in state propaganda as both irre- was committed in dubbing the campaign deemably immoral and doomed to failure, by “Eternal Justice,” which implicitly laid claim the end of the century there was no shortage to two realms that Muslims believe to be the of leaders associated with terrorist move- monopoly of God alone. The United States ments who had made the transition to con- swiftly renamed its operation “Enduring Free- ventional political leadership, including Yasir dom.” As the campaign developed, the West Arafat, Nelson Mandela (1918– ), and Gerry made several more attempts to display cul- Adams (1948– ). tural sensitivity to the Islamic world. Bush Nicholas J.Cull and other world leaders visited mosques and See also Arab World; Atrocity Propaganda; speakers—including British prime minister Israel; Ireland; Laden, Osama bin; Netherlands, Tony Blair (1953– )—couched their argu- Te rrorism, War on 397 ments against terrorism in Islamic terms, Rendon Group, and reserved the right to stressing the heritage of Islamic tolerance and deal in black propaganda in neutral and allied the Koran’s prohibition against killing civil- media, which provoked a brief controversy ians. The West’s presentation of the Taliban when it was disclosed in early 2002. The stressed their involvement in the drug trade. wider effort to explain the war to the rest of The War on Terrorism witnessed the de- the world was entrusted to a White House ployment of all the mechanisms of propa- office called the Coalition Information Cen- ganda and psychological warfare. The British ter (also known as the War Room), organized announced a news initiative in cultural diplo- by presidential adviser Karen P. Hughes macy intended to project the moderate views (1956– ) in conjunction with Alistair Camp- of British Muslims to the rest of the Islamic bell (1957– ), the British prime minister’s world. Radio played a key role since eco- press secretary. Initiatives included a cam- nomic and religious conditions in Afghanistan paign to highlight Taliban mistreatment of ensured minimal TV viewership. The Taliban women that drew on the talents of first lady had used the radio station Radio Shariah as Laura Bush (1946– ) and Tony Blair’s wife, their principal propaganda weapon. In an ef- Cherie Blair (1954– ). fort to establish their supremacy, the allies Although lacking the technological re- made Radio Shariah an early bombing target. sources of the West, the Taliban/Al Qaeda The West also stepped up its broadcasts to network also mounted a considerable propa- the region. The BBC World Service, ganda campaign that utilized the popular Deutsche Welle, and the Voice of America all Qatar-based TV station Al Jazeera. Osama expanded programming. The RFE/RL re- bin Laden based his appeal to the Muslim vived their Reagan-era station Radio Free world on the notion of a religious war be- Afghanistan. The crisis sparked major debate tween “faith and unbelief,” arguing that all over the content of U.S. radio broadcasts. In Muslims had a duty to defend their fellow be- the wake of 11 September 2001, the State lievers against the United States. Like Sad- Department attempted to prevent the Voice dam Hussein during the Gulf War, the Tal- of America (VOA) from carrying an inter- iban made considerable capital by taking view with Taliban leader Mullah Mohammed Western journalists to the sites of civilian Omar (1962– ). VOA journalists insisted bombing casualties. As the anti-Taliban that their charter demanded evenhandedness Northern Alliance advanced, the Taliban fi- and proceeded with the broadcast. nally held their first press conference of the The United States also attempted to win war. In the United States television news sta- the “hearts and minds” of the inhabitants of tions acted as voluntary propagandists for the Afghanistan by dropping food parcels and war on the home front. The most extreme leaflets explaining that the war was being endorsements came from the Fox network, fought against the Taliban, not the Afghan founded by Rupert Murdoch (1931– ) and people, and criticizing the Taliban in terms of Roger Ailes (1940– ) in 1996. As the New Islamic law. The U.S. psychological warfare York Times reported on 3 December 2001, aircraft, Commando Solo, broadcast similar “Osama bin Laden, according to Fox News material from powerful on-board transmit- Channel anchors, analysts and correspon- ters to Afghan radio listeners. The Pentagon dents, is ‘a dirtbag,’‘a monster’ overseeing a established an Office of Strategic Influence ‘web of hate.’ His followers in Al Qaeda are (OSI), under Brig. Gen. Simon P.Worden, to ‘terror goons.’ Taliban fighters are ‘diaboli- coordinate its psychological warfare against cal’ and ‘henchmen.’” the Taliban the wider campaign against ter- The liberation of Kabul produced a final rorism. The OSI retained the services of an propaganda windfall for the United States in international public relations consultancy, the the form of a videotaped conversation in which 398 Thailand

Osama bin Laden acknowledged responsibility 1950s. In 1959 she entered Parliament as for the attack of 11 September. The United Conservative M.P. for Finchley, in north States released the tape as justification for the London. Her regard for the United States campaign, although nations believing in Osama was sharpened thanks to a visit in 1967 as bin Laden’s innocence contested its authentic- part of a U.S. government visitors’ pro- ity. The close of the campaign brought fresh gram—hence she may be considered a recip- propaganda challenges for the United States as ient of cultural propaganda. Between 1970 press coverage of its treatment of Al Qaeda and 1974 she served as secretary of state for prisoners provoked criticism from Europe. In education in Edward Heath’s (1916– ) cabi- January 2002 President Bush used his State of net, but she soon aligned herself with right- the Union address to argue for a wider cam- wing opposition to Heath’s brand of conser- paign against nations that sponsor terrorism. vatism and in 1975 was chosen as leader of He borrowed World War II rhetoric when he the Conservative Party. referred to “an Axis of Evil” consisting of North Thatcher possessed a keen understanding Korea, Iraq, and Iran. Bush also wished to re- of the importance of one’s image in politics. tain the OSI and to develop the Coalition In- She was the first British politician to hire an formation Center into a coordinating body for image consultant; based on his advice, she all U.S. public diplomacy. In 2003 President lowered her vocal register to avoid sounding Bush justified war against Iraq as part of the too strident. She also engaged the advertising war on terrorism. agency Saatchi and Saatchi to manage her Nicholas J.Cull propaganda campaign in preparation for the See also Blair, Tony; Cold War; Gray Propaganda; general election of 1979—with stunning re- Gulf War (2003); Laden, Osama bin; sults. The best-known image from this cam- Murdoch, Rupert; Prisoners of War; Public paign was a poster showing a looping line of Diplomacy; RFE/RL; Terrorism;VOA References: Ahrens, Frank. “Crackling Signals.” unemployed people, with the caption: Washington Post,10 November 2001; Becker, “Labour Isn’t Working.” Television broadcasts Elizabeth. “In the War on Terrorism, a Battle during the campaign used symbolic images; to Shape Opinion.” New York Times,11 one depicted athletic coaches labeled “Labour November 2001; Dao, James, and Eric Party” stopping a race to strap weights Schmitt. “Pentagon Readies Efforts to Sway marked “taxes” onto British athletes. The Sentiment Abroad.” New York Times,19 February 2002; Jaffe, Greg.“Spreading the Thatcher era had begun. Word:An Elite Army Team Opens a New Thatcher’s approach to politics privileged Front: The Afghan Mind.” Wall Street Journal,8 the leader. She declared that she was “not a November 2001; Rutenberg, Jim. “Fox consensus politician” and operated her own Portrays a War of Good and Evil, and Many system of press briefings through Sir Bernard Applaud.” New York Times,3 December 2001. Ingham (1932– ), her press secretary, a for- mer journalist. This was a new development in British politics. Personally, Thatcher rel- Thailand ished images of the nation and her rhetoric See Southeast Asia echoed that of Winston Churchill (1874– 1965). In 1982 she was in her element, lead- ing Britain’s bid to recapture the Falkland Is- Thatcher, Margaret (1925– ) lands from their Argentinean invaders. In A former British Conservative prime minis- 1983 she marshaled these images to win a ter, Margaret Thatcher (née Roberts) was substantial second general election victory. born in Grantham, Lincolnshire. She studied The Thatcher government was prepared to chemistry at Oxford University and later use censorship in its battle against Irish ter- switched to law, which she practiced in the rorism. Thatcher argued that terrorists Theater 399 would be defeated if they were denied the occurred in Greece in the fifth century B.C.E. “oxygen of publicity.” She was also vociferous Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the- in her opposition to closer British ties to the ater as an art form seems to have fallen into European Community. Her great ally was disuse, but since the Renaissance it has been her fellow conservative, U.S. President an important mainstay of many cultures. Ronald Reagan (1911– ). Like Reagan, she Shakespeare (1564–1616) in England, took a hard line in her approach to the Com- Goethe (1749–1832) and Schiller (1759– munist threat. Unlike Reagan, however, she 1805) in Germany, and Racine (1639–1699) did not pump money into international and Molière (1622–1673) in France are not broadcasting. The BBC World Service was only extraordinary playwrights but major in- cut back during the 1980s because of terpreters of their respective countries’ na- Thatcher’s desire to reduce public spending tional cultures. In this sense these classic au- and general skepticism about the broadcast thors are both sources of cultural propaganda media. as well as the creators of plays that them- By the late 1980s Thatcher had lost her selves make propagandistic statements. The- touch. Critics mocked her use of royal syn- ater has been a significant presence in Japan tax in announcing to waiting reporters: “We and China as well, though not in so central a have become a grandmother.” Key members fashion as in the West. The Renaissance also of her own party questioned her judgment, saw the development of commedia dell’arte, especially with regard to Europe. With an a popular form of often improvised comedy internal party leadership challenge under- involving stock characters, some of whom way, she resigned in 1990. After leaving of- wear masks. fice, Thatcher continued to promote her Theater is related to organized religion, conservative ideology. but it has historically been viewed as a rival. Nicholas J.Cull The early church fathers attacked the theater See also BBC; Blair, Tony; Britain; Churchill, as a source of pagan thought. The medieval Winston; Civil Defense; Elections; Elections church featured elaborate religious dramas (Britain); Falklands/Malvinas War; Ireland; divorced from the popular brand of theater, Labor/Antilabor; Murdoch, Rupert; Terrorism; World War II (Britain) where both the subject of the play and the ac- References: Ingham, Bernard. Kill the Messenger. tors themselves were considered enemies of London: HarperCollins, 1991; Young, Hugo. morality. Only in more recent times has the One of Us: A Biography of Margaret Thatcher. theater been openly embraced by many or- London: Macmillan, 1989. ganized religions as a method of bringing re- ligion into the lives of persons not accus- tomed to regular churchgoing. Theater Theater is traditionally an urban art. The Theater entails dramatic literature or its per- nineteenth century saw the rise of specialized formance. The Greek word for viewing is the types of theater for specific productions— root of “theater” and “theory.” Live theater re- often in a single large city. Opera or ballet, quires not only text and actors but also an au- light opera, revivals of the classics, new seri- dience present in the same space. This fact ous works, and such popular types of theater distinguishes theater from film and tele- as melodrama, farce, and vaudeville all had a vision, which have much in common with it. particular group concerned with its produc- The ancient Greeks and Romans loved the- tion. The system worked well until about ater; both civilizations built enormous out- 1900, when new types of plays threatened door amphitheaters, some of which survive the prevailing system. Soon thereafter film intact and are still used on a regular basis. would threaten the very survival of theater it- The first performances of preexisting texts self. Since 1900 regional theaters have pro- 400 Tokyo Rose vided a venue for experimental productions Pius XII in the killing of the Jews; when first often associated with artistic and bohemian shown, it occasioned protests by Roman culture. Catholics in many European cities. Ts’au Yu’s Theater is inevitably associated with (1911– ) Thunderstorm (1933), one of China’s drama, the Greek word for action. Actors most often-produced plays, combines ample represent human actions by impersonating melodrama with the depiction of an industri- characters on a stage. Plays and dramas are alist whose mind-set contributes to the con- nearly synonymous, starting with Greek tinuing tensions of the Chinese civil war. masterpieces such as Aeschylus’s (525–456 David Culbert B.C.E.) Agamemnon and Peace and Aristo- See also Britain; China; Peace and Antiwar phanes’ Lysistrata. Christopher Marlowe’s Movements (1500–1945); Peace and Antiwar (1564–1593) Tamburlaine (1587) depicts a Movements (1945– ); Shakespeare, William Reference: Brockett, Oscar G. History of the fourteenth-century Scythian shepherd, Theater.Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1982; Alexander the Great’s successor, whose im- Gassner, John, and Edward Quinn. The Reader’s pulse for absolute power leads him to con- Encyclopedia of World Drama. New York:Viking, quer most of the known world. In such dra- 1969; Girard, Rene. Violence and the Sacred. mas the topic of war leads to political Trans. Patrick Gregory. Baltimore, MD: Johns commentary on just and unjust rulers or the Hopkins University Press, 1977. ability of the weak to triumph over the strong thanks to God’s intervention. Many of the world’s greatest plays concern Tokyo Rose war, cynically defined by the American The case of Tokyo Rose figures twice in the satirist Ambrose Bierce (1842–ca.1914) in history of propaganda, first as an element in his A Devil’s Dictionary as a “by-product of the Japanese World War II radio propaganda arts of peace.” William Shakespeare wrote against the United States and then as an ex- history plays filled with battles, like Henry V ample of postwar anti-Japanese propaganda (1599), Richard III (c. 1593), and King John within the United States. Tokyo Rose was the (c. 1594). His play Othello (c. 1604) concerns name given to Iva Ikuko Toguri d’Aquino a great soldier undone by jealousy. In King (1916– ), a Japanese-American woman tried Lear (c. 1605) war is rarely from Lear’s mind. for treason in 1949. Throughout the 1930s In more recent times, one thinks of the sol- Japanese radio broadcast English-language dier in Georg Büchner’s (1813–1837) programs aimed at Western audiences. Fol- Woyzeck (published in 1879, though written lowing the attack on Pearl Harbor in Decem- in 1837). George Bernard Shaw’s (1856– ber 1941, the frequency of these broadcasts 1950) Arms and the Man (1894), concerns war escalated as the Japanese military deployed profiteers; his Heartbreak House (1919) ends radio to weaken the enemy’s resolve. The with a bombardment; and in Saint Joan most famous of these broadcasts supposedly (1923) war and religious faith are united in headlined a woman who was given the nick- the figure of Joan of Arc. name Tokyo Rose by G.I.s. The 1949 treason One of the most frequently produced of all trial singled out Iva Toguri as the main broad- twentieth-century plays is Bertolt Brecht’s caster, even though it became increasingly (1898–1956) Mother Courage and Her Children clear that supporting evidence remained (1938), which, though set during the Thirty scant. The plight of Tokyo Rose reflected the Years’ War (1618–1648), actually concerns awkward situation of the nisei, or Japanese- political courage under the Nazi regime. Some Americans, who had been stranded in war dramas address history, such as Rolf wartime Japan. Some, like Toguri, had Hochhuth’s (1931– ) play The Deputy (1963), worked for various Japanese English-lan- which concerns the alleged complicity of Pope guage news organizations in Japan during the Triumph of the Will (Triumph des Willens) 401 war. Ultimately the trial revealed that there formed soldiers assembling to hear their was no single Tokyo Rose, nor anyone who Führer speak; and a shot of Hitler and his en- referred to themselves as such, but for post- tourage marching through a human avenue war America the appellation became synony- on his way to deliver a speech.Although crit- mous with treasonous propaganda for the im- ics hailed the film as a masterpiece, there is perial Japanese. little evidence of its having captured the The U.S. courts convicted Toguri and sent imagination of Germans at the time. It was her to federal prison, where she remained not widely circulated overseas during the until paroled in 1956. As a result of her con- 1930s, although it won prizes at the Venice viction, the U.S. government stripped her of Film Festival (1935) and at the Paris World’s her American citizenship and initiated depor- Fair in 1937. In providing eloquent visual tes- tation proceedings. She successfully appealed timony to the regimentation and power of to remain in the United States as a stateless Hitler’s regime, the film proved an invaluable person. After long neglecting her case, the resource for Allied propagandists seeking to Japanese American Citizens’ League took ac- rally anti-Nazi feeling during World War II; tion and began to press Toguri to take redress clips of Riefenstahl’s film were used to good against the government. In 1976, on the day advantage in the U.S. army’s “Why We Fight” before he was to leave office, U.S. President series. Gerald Ford (1913– ) granted her a full Nicholas J.Cull presidential pardon, restoring her rights as an See also Exhibitions and World’s Fairs; Film American citizen. (Documentary); Germany; Goebbels, Joseph; Barak Kushner Hitler,Adolph; Riefenstahl, Leni; Why We Fight See also Australia; Japan; Radio (International); World War II (Japan) References: Chapman, Ivan. Tokyo Calling:The Charles Cousens Case. Sydney: Hale and Iremonger, 1990; Duus, Masayo. Tokyo Rose: Orphan of the Pacific. New York: Kodansha International, 1979; Fujita, Frank. Foo:A Japanese-American Prisoner of the Rising Sun. Denton: University of North Texas,1993; Meo, L. D. Japan’s Radio War on Australia. Melbourne: Melbourne University Press, 1968.

Triumph of the Will (Triumph des Willens) (1935) This documentary film directed by Leni Riefenstahl (1902– ) has become the most famous piece of propaganda associated with the Nazi regime (1889–1945). The film records the Nazi Party rally held at Nurem- berg in 1934. Highlights include the majestic descent of Hitler’s plane through the clouds and the aircraft’s shadow overspreading marching columns of party members on the Souvenir program of Leni Riefenstahl's Triumph des ground; the adoration of the crowd as Hitler Willens (Triumph of the Will),1935. The Prussian eagle drives by in his car; the vast spectacle of uni- and the Hakenkreuz.(Courtesy of David Culbert) 402 Trotsky, Leon

References: Barsum, Richard Meran. Filmguide (1879–1953), which ended with his expul- to Triumph of the Will. Bloomington: Indiana sion from the Politburo in 1926, from the University Press, 1975; Hinton, David B. The party in 1927, followed by exile to Central Films of Leni Riefenstahl. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1991; Salkeld,Audrey. A Portrait of Asia in 1928, and finally exile beyond Rus- Leni Riefenstahl. London: Jonathan Cape, sia’s borders in 1929. In his absence, Trotsky 1996; Welch, David. Propaganda and the became a key figure in Stalinist propaganda: German Cinema 1933–1945. London: I. B. the traitor behind numerous alleged conspir- Tauris, 2001. acies. His so-called confederates suffered in show trials (1936–1938), during which they delivered scripted confessions. Trotsky him- Trotsky, Leon (1879–1940) self was tried and sentenced to death in ab- The pseudonym of Russian revolutionary sentia in 1937. Lev Davidovich Bronstein, Trotsky was one Living in exile in Turkey, France, Norway, of the most brilliant propagandists of the and finally in Mexico, Trotsky continued to twentieth century. Born into a Jewish family argue against Stalin and produced a stream of in the Ukraine and educated in Odessa, he newspaper articles and books in support of became a Marxist in the 1890s. Arrested in his vision of a “perpetual revolution,” as op- 1898 and imprisoned in Siberia in 1900, he posed to Stalin’s drive for “socialism in one escaped to the West in 1902 by utilizing a country.” To this end he organized a so-called fake passport in the name of his jailer, Trot- Fourth International. His books include His- sky. In London he cooperated with Vladimir tory of the Russian Revolution (1932) and The Ilyich Lenin (1870–1924) on the revolution- Revolution Betrayed (1937). He was murdered ary journal Iskra (Spark). In 1903, when the in Mexico City in 1940 on Stalin’s orders. Social Democratic Party split into Bolshevik Trotsky’s commitment to a global revolution and Menshevik factions, Trotsky was a pro- and the wit and passion of his writing assured pagandist for the Mensheviks. He returned him a global audience for his ideas. Forty to Russia and chaired the Soviet in Saint Pe- years after his death, the three-way struggle tersburg during the revolution of 1905. between the Trotskyites and Stalinists, on Forced into exile again after the revolution, one side, and moderates, on the other, was he worked as a journalist and revolutionary still being fought out in internecine battles propagandist, arguing against World War I. within the left. One of his refuges was New York City, Nicholas J.Cull where he edited a journal entitled Novi Mir See also Capa, Robert; International; Lenin, (New World). In the spring of 1917 he re- Vladimir Ilyich; Revolution, Russian; Stalin, Joseph turned to Russia, joined the Bolshevik Party, References: Cliff, Tony. Trotsky.4 vols. London: and became a key planner of the Bolshevik- Bookmarks, 1989–1993; ———. Trotskyism led October Revolution. after Trotsky:The Origins of the International Trotsky served in the Bolshevik govern- Socialists.London: Bookmarks, 1999; ment as commissar for foreign affairs. Next, Volkogonov, Dmitri. Trotsky:The Eternal as commissar for war, he organized a 5-mil- Revolutionary.London: HarperCollins, 1997. lion-strong Red Army in the civil war against the anti-Bolshevik forces (1918–1921). Fol- lowing the death of Lenin in 1924, he was in- Turkey volved in a power struggle with Joseph Stalin See Ottoman Empire/Turkey U

Uncle Sam uniforms). The term swiftly came to signify A national figure symbolizing the United the entire U.S. government apparatus. States, Uncle Sam emerged during the nine- Uncle Sam’s costume, consisting of striped teenth century and became a staple of propa- trousers and top hat, first emerged in the ganda illustration both for and against the 1830s but were originally the attributes of a U.S. government in the twentieth century. completely different figure named Maj. Jack He is often thought of as the counterpart of Downing, a comic Yankee character created the rotund British archetype John Bull. by Maine journalist Seba Smith (1792– The earliest national symbols in America 1868). Jack Downing, the archetypal political (used in Revolutionary-era cartoons) were office seeker in Jacksonian Washington, the goddesslike Columbia (who later became D.C.,swiftly became a familiar archetype in overlaid with the allegorical figure of Lib- the cartoons of the era. By the time of the erty) and the self-confident American “every- Civil War, Uncle Sam frequently wore the man” figures like Yankee Doodle and Brother same costume. Celebrated users of the Uncle Jonathan. Uncle Sam emerged during the Sam character include the cartoonist Thomas Anglo-American War of 1812. There are two Nast (1840–1902) of Harper’s Weekly fame, stories concerning his origin. The name who gave Uncle Sam his characteristic goatee Uncle Sam was first attached to a genial meat and lean look, and World War I poster artist packer named “Uncle” Samuel Wilson James Montgomery Flagg (1877–1960). (1766–1854) of Troy, New York. Wilson Uncle Sam has also figured in satirical car- sold meat to the U.S. army through a mer- toons and anti-American cartoon propa- chant, Elbert Anderson, which duly arrived ganda, such as those published in the Soviet branded with the initials EAUS (Elbert An- magazine Krokodil (Crocodile). In 1961 the derson United States). The soldiers joked U.S. Congress formally acknowledged that the letters stood for Elbert Anderson Samuel Wilson as the original Uncle Sam. and Uncle Sam.At the same time, journalists Nicholas J.Cull opposed to the war began to use the term See also Cartoons; Flagg, James Montgomery; “Uncle Sam” in propaganda as a derisive nick- Nast, Thomas; Posters name for American soldiers and customs offi- References: Katchum,Alton, Uncle Sam:The Man cials (a reference to the letters U.S. on their and the Legend.New York: Hill and Wang, 1959;

403 World War I recruiting poster by James Montgomery Flagg,based on an earlier British poster,in which Uncle Sam takes the place of Secretary of War Kitchener.(Corbis) United Nations 405

King, Nancy. A Cartoon History of United States Beecher. Uncle Tom’s Cabin.1852. Reprint, Foreign Policy from 1945 to the Present. London: Penguin, 1981. Washington, DC: Foreign Policy Association, 1991. United Nations The key international organization, the UN Uncle Tom’s Cabin (1852) was founded in 1945 following over a cen- Serialized in 1851 in newspaper installments tury of worldwide campaigning and repre- and published as a book in 1852, this novel sented the central promise of Allied propa- represents the most famous example of abo- ganda during World War II. Subsequently the litionist propaganda. Three hundred thou- UN became a key forum for international de- sand copies were sold in the United States bates and attendant propaganda. UN organi- alone during its first year in print, making it zations have sponsored health, human rights, a key text of the abolitionist movement. and cultural campaigns. Harriet Beecher Stowe (1811–1896) used The idea of a parliament of nations first the techniques of sensational women’s fic- emerged when Quaker colonist William tion to highlight the multiple abuses of slav- Penn (1644–1718) wrote “An Essay towards ery in the South of the United States. The the Present and Future Peace of Europe, by novel helped set opinion in the North on a the establishment of an European Diet, Par- collision course with the South that could liament or Estates” (1693). The same idea of only be resolved by a civil war. Uncle Tom’s a league of states to underwrite peace sur- Cabin was based on authentic documents and faced in the work of Charles Irénée Castel, testimony about the slave system, which abbé de Saint-Pierre (1658–1743), who in Harriet Beecher Stowe later collected and 1713 wrote his Projet de la paix perpétuelle (A published, but it was her skill as a novelist Scheme for Perpetual Peace). The idea be- that gave the work its impact. Readers on came a staple of the international peace both sides of the Atlantic were captivated by movement of the nineteenth century and such dramatic moments as the slave girl Eliza began to take shape at the end of the cen- scrambling toward freedom across the ice tury, when the first International Peace floes of the Ohio River.Abraham Lincoln ac- Conference of 1899 was held at The Hague, knowledged the novel’s importance, reput- the Netherlands. U.S. president Theodore edly greeting Stowe with the words: “So Roosevelt (1858–1919) endorsed the no- you’re the little woman who wrote the book tion of a League of Peace in his Nobel Peace that made this great war.” The novel was fre- Prize acceptance speech of 1910, and Presi- quently abbreviated for stage performances dent Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) made known as “Tom Shows,” and it was here that his own vision of a League of Nations the the dignified character of the old slave Tom core of U.S. propaganda in World War I became the shuffling stereotype of the sub- (1914–1918). servient “Uncle Tom.” Ironically, a character The Versailles Conference (1919) not only invented to help free black Americans be- established the League of Nations but also came as synonymous with their cultural sparked the creation of a network of global degradation as a work of overt racism like international organizations. These organiza- The Birth of a Nation (1915). tions ranged from intellectual bodies, such as Nicholas J.Cull the United States Council on Foreign Rela- See also Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement; tions and the British Royal Institute of Inter- Civil War, United States; Novel References: Gossett, Thomas. Uncle Tom’s Cabin national Affairs (Chatham House) to mass- and American Culture.Dallas, TX: Southern membership organizations such as the British Methodist University, 1985; Stowe, Harriet League of Nations Union, led by Lord 406 United Nations

Robert Cecil (1864–1958). The league be- selected to represent peace; the shade was came a forum for international debate and named Stettinius blue in honor of U.S. secre- arbitration. Unfortunately, member states in- tary of state Edward Stettinius (1900–1949). voked the propaganda tool of resigning in The logo and color was applied more gener- protest and the league (which already lacked ally and later figured not only on UN flags U.S. membership) could do little to prevent and vehicles but on the berets and helmets of World War II. The key to future peace UN peacekeeping forces. resided in establishing a new organization and The UN Charter of 1945 established a winning American support for it. benchmark for the fundamental elements of The idea of a new organization for collec- international behavior and gave the UN a tive security was at the heart of the Atlantic mandate to promote human rights around Charter, which the still officially neutral U.S. the globe, culminating in the Universal Dec- president Franklin Roosevelt (1882–1945) laration of Human Rights of 1948. Early UN and the beleaguered British prime minister resolutions included number 59 (I) of 1945, Winston Churchill (1874–1964) signed in which declared: “Freedom of Information is a August 1941. The Atlantic Charter became fundamental human right,” and resolution the core of a joint United Nations declaration number 110 (II) of 1947, which condemned signed by all the Allied powers on 1 January propaganda against peace. Successive U.S. 1942. The British Inter-Allied Information secretary-generals have eloquently defended Committee, formed to feed Allied propa- the cause of peace, most notably Dag Ham- ganda to a neutral American audience, now marskjöld (1905–1961) of Sweden and Kofi became the United Nations Information Annan (1938– ) of Ghana. However, from its Committee (under a U.S. director), which inception the UN also became a central promoted internationalism and awareness of venue for international debate and propa- the Allied war effort by supplying material to ganda, and capturing the blue flag became a the U.S. press, promoting United Nations perennial propaganda tactic of the Cold War days, and even organizing a television pageant and after. in 1942. Advocates of internationalism Membership in the UN Security Council within the United States included lawyer and has been an issue in its own right, with the Republican presidential candidate Wendell United States spending decades defending Willkie (1892–1944) and film mogul Darryl the position of Taiwan on the council and ar- F. Zanuck (1902–1979), who produced Wil- guing for the exclusion of the Peoples Re- son (1944), a valentine to U.S. president public of China. In 1947 the NAACP at- Wilson and the lost opportunities of 1919. tempted to use the moral force of the UN in By the end of the war the U.S. public was American domestic politics, presenting an solidly behind membership in an interna- appeal to the United Nations protesting the tional organization. treatment of black Americans. In 1950 the As the powers prepared to meet in San United States also took full advantage of the Francisco in 1945 to lay down the founda- UN mandate to wage the Korean War. Lead- tions of the UN, a group of graphic designers ers such as Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971) (led by one Oliver Lundquist) from the U.S. of the USSR and Fidel Castro (1927– ) of Office of Strategic Services (OSS) designed Cuba used the General Assembly as a plat- its globe and laurel wreath logo, originally form for their personal agendas.A celebrated intended only for conference security passes. U.S. ambassador to the UN was Adlai Steven- Early drafts of the globe for the logo cut off son (1900–1965), who countered Commu- the bottom of South America because the de- nist propaganda during the Cuban Missile sign team resented Argentina’s support for Crisis, though not without distorting the Fascism. The sky-blue background color was truth. As decolonization swelled the ranks of United States 407 the General Assembly, its resolutions increas- in the Bosnian crisis of the 1990s was criti- ingly reflected the needs and views of the de- cized for partisanship. Some analysts have ar- veloping world. UN resolutions have con- gued that the UN should develop a capability demned the apartheid system in South Africa for conducting tactical psychological opera- and Israeli actions in the Middle East. The tions as part of its peacekeeping mission. British secured a UN mandate before launch- Nicholas J.Cull ing the Falklands/Malvinas War of 1982 and See also Bosnian Crisis and War; Grierson, John; the United States and its allies secured a UN Gulf War; Korean War; Peace and Antiwar mandate before launching the Gulf War of Movements (1500–1945) References: Cull, Nicholas J. “Selling Peace: The 1991. Within the United States the UN is a Origins, Promotion and Face of the Anglo- frequent rallying point in right-wing propa- American New Order during the Second ganda, from Senate Republicans who success- World War.” Diplomacy and Statecraft 7 (March fully blocked payment of UN dues in the 1996): 1–28; Finkelstein, Lawrence S., ed. 1990s to extreme “Militia” members who Politics in the United Nations System.Durham, warn against a UN conspiracy to conquer and NC: Duke University Press, 1988; Stoessinger, John. The UN and the Superpowers.New York: control the United States. Random House, 1977; Taylor, Philip M. Global The United Nations has become an active Communications,International Affairs and the Media player in the world of international commu- Since 1945.London: Routledge, 1997. nications through its commissions and agen- cies. The United Nations Educational, Scien- tific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) United States in Paris, founded in 1945 (and a UN agency The United States of America would not since 1946), has promoted education and in- have come into being without propaganda, tellectual exchange around the world. UN- nor would its society exist as currently con- ESCO attracted controversy in the 1970s stituted. Yet the average American continues when the Third World membership initiated to take comfort in the notion that propa- a drive for a so-called New World Interna- ganda is something one associates with Nazi tional Communications Order. The specifics Germany, neatly distinguishing between seemed to play into the hands of the Soviet propaganda and advertising by defining the Union and dictatorships in the developing latter as dealing with information or persua- world at the expense of Western commercial sion and the former as a form of deception. broadcasters. In the mid-1980s the United Collective amnesia is too strong a way to States and Britain resigned from UNESCO in characterize this curious state of affairs, but protest, though Britain rejoined in 1997. it takes some doing to live in a society that is Among the other UN agencies, the World the world’s greatest consumer of propaganda Health Organization (WHO), founded in while at the same time convincing oneself 1948 and based in Geneva, has deployed in- that this is not so. ternational propaganda in the cause of public The history of American governance is health. The office of the United Nations High largely based on English precedent. The Rev- Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), olution of 1776 turned on arguments over founded in 1951, and the United Nations In- the limits of royal authority, using not only a ternational Children’s Fund (UNICEF), common language but a common mode of founded in 1946, have both publicized the political propaganda: the broadside. Any suc- plight of people in their care; in the case of cessful revolution requires a method to mo- UNICEF, their welfare is dependent on main- bilize mass support, and the American Revo- taining the voluntary funding upon which the lution would have been inconceivable agency depends. UN news management dur- without Thomas Paine’s (1737–1809) Com- ing the peacekeeping and negotiation process mon Sense (1776), a tract that sold perhaps 408 United States

500,000 copies in a country with three mil- alist Party and inaugurated the first two-party lion inhabitants. American governance is also system in the United States. The broadside connected to the medium of the newspaper, showed Otis riding in a chamber pot, while the first of which, the Boston News-Letter, ap- asking his fellow secessionists: “Did you ever peared in 1704. Colonial newspapers turned know a ship like ours fill from the bottom?” increasingly to issues of governance. In 1735 Political oratory traded in deception and false Andrew Hamilton (1676?–1741) successfully promises—and not simply because much of defended the right of journalist John Peter the electorate was at best semiliterate. In Zenger (1697–1746) to attack the royal au- 1820 Rep. Felix Walker (1753–1828) inter- thorities, using the defense against seditious rupted a House of Representatives debate libel termed the “right of exposing and op- with a long, dull, irrelevant speech, explain- posing arbitrary power.” Political propaganda ing to his colleagues: “I’m talking for Bun- was crucial in selling Americans on the bene- combe” (the North Carolina county he repre- fits of the conservative Constitution of the sented). Shortened to “bunk,” the word United States. Alexander Hamilton (1755– continues to play an important role in Ameri- 1804), James Madison (1751–1836) and John can political life, where there is a ready mar- Jay (1745–1829) wrote The Federalist Papers ket for pretentious nonsense meant for home- (1787), a series of anonymous articles placed town consumption. Also playing a role in in newspapers to justify an entire series of po- early political propaganda was the “hatchet- litical compromises, part of the system of man,” whose function was to clear the way for checks and balances in place to this day. a military group advancing through the Early parliamentary debate in U.S. colo- woods; it was subsequently used to refer to nial society was often marked by a coarseness partisan attacks clearing the path for a leader of expression, especially from those no apol- who wished to appear “above politics.” ogist has ever tried to place on a marble Early American political discourse traded pedestal. When Congressman Matthew Lyon heavily in the possibility of self-advancement (1749–1822) took exception to the remarks and the presumptive openness of America to of a fellow legislator, he seized a fireplace those not well born. From 1840 onward it tool and tried to club his opponent, who had was a given that every presidential candidate grabbed a tool himself during the fracas in be born in a log cabin even if patently untrue. the legislative chamber. The act of persuasion In a frontier society “stump oratory” was a thus contributed the hammer-and-tongs as- way of life for candidates. The office seeker sault to American political discourse. British stood on a tree stump to address farmers, readers savored an oft-reproduced cartoon who had walked for miles to listen to him. depicting the scene, with the English artist Not surprisingly, the term became synony- making sure to do justice to the appearance mous with the stump speech, a type of bom- of such “refined” gentlemen. bastic, inflammatory oratory still current in Propaganda and persuasion found constant recent campaigns. Before the Civil War, it use in the election campaigns of the Repub- was difficult for candidates to reach a large lic’s early days. A broadside of 1815 mocked audience.Voices carried only a short distance the unhappy timing of Harrison Gray Otis in the open; newspapers were often pub- (1765–1848), leader of New England’s seces- lished weekly and distributed through a pre- sionist Hartford Convention of 1814. Otis set carious mail system; much of the potential sail for Washington, D.C., bringing news of electorate either did not or could not vote. It Andrew Jackson’s (1767–1845) victory over seemed that a democratic society admired the British in the Battle of New Orleans and the idea of democratic institutions while the end of the War of 1812. The Hartford lacking the ability to make such institutions Convention also marked the end of the Feder- function. United States 409

The Constitution’s Bill of Rights guaran- new technology, making possible the repro- teed a free press and freedom of speech. Yet duction of photographic images on paper, as early as 1798 Congress passed the Alien known as the carte de visite. The human cost and Sedition Acts, making it a crime to criti- of presidential leadership in the Civil War cize John Adams (1735–1826), Federalist can be seen by contrasting images of Lincoln president of the United States. Though this in 1860 and in the spring of 1865. His home- notorious legislation was soon permitted to liness added the word “Lincolnesque” to our expire, it left behind a legacy threatening to vocabulary to describe someone of surpass- those considering an open attack on any in- ing ugliness. His features, however, also re- cumbent administration. No propaganda had flect a sense of integrity and suffering; they greater impact than the Appeal published in are therefore part of his symbolic legacy as 1829 in Boston by David Walker (ca. 1796– America’s greatest president. 1830), a black man. His lengthy tract urged Propaganda and persuasion are bound up slaves to use violence to gain their freedom, with twentieth-century electronic communi- sending great waves of fear throughout the cation. Increased levels of literacy have re- slaveholding South. Indeed, the entire aboli- sulted in an educated citizenry that requires tionist struggle (1820–1860) represents a an underlying reason from those who seek defining moment in U.S. propaganda.A great support for specific policies. They are also moral wrong was debated in special-interest tied to advertising and its need to create and publications, but it was generally not talked maintain consumer demand for luxury about on the floor of Congress; on this sub- goods. Effective propaganda is linked to mo- ject America’s political institutions proved in- tion pictures. Thomas Edison’s (1847–1931) capable of nonviolent compromise. The one short political films were a hit during the piece of propaganda that did the most to Spanish-American War of 1898. The news- make the abolitionist case was Uncle Tom’s reel Pathé’s Weekly went into operation in Cabin (1852), by Harriet Beecher Stowe 1911, political broadcasting began on Pitts- (1811–1896); it sold 300,000 copies in its burgh’s radio station KDKA in 1920, and the first year of publication. It did not cause the first American TV station went on the air in Civil War, but it did make the moral case for 1941. Television was a curiosity for the rich outright abolition in a way no Southern apol- until after 1945; it was not used for political ogist could match. persuasion until the Federal Communications It should come as no surprise that in the Commission (FCC) lifted its so-called Freeze twentieth century many moral crusades have Order in April 1952. turned to visual symbolism. The first photo- The electronic media have greatly aided graph was made in 1839; that same year pho- the president’s ability to make what tographers had already opened for business in Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) called a New Orleans. The photographic likeness in- “bully pulpit” to persuade Americans of presi- creasingly became part and parcel of political dential programs. Franklin D. Roosevelt discourse. Early daguerreotypes could not be (1882–1945) adopted an intimate style in his reproduced, though likenesses could be so-called fireside chats, national radio ad- transferred to engravings on wood or steel dresses employing a conversational tone to (lithographs) for reproduction in newspapers allay public fears about the economic crisis, or broadsides. Abraham Lincoln (1809– particularly in 1933–1934. Richard Nixon 1865) was the first American political leader (1913–1994) saved his political career by ap- to embrace the photograph as a symbolic pearing on national television in 1952; he ex- means of communication. His singular looks plained away charges of campaign irregulari- were a ready subject for his self-deprecating ties by claiming he would keep his dog humor. Lincoln’s presidency coincided with a “Checkers”—an effective red herring for 410 United States

viewers in that bygone era. Presidential cam- as the average citizen. Propaganda and per- paigning has involved national radio ad- suasion are at the heart of a troubling rela- dresses and (since 1960) televised presiden- tionship very much a part of today’s world: tial debates, which have transferred the the conflict between a government’s eager- stump speech to another medium. ness to hide some or all of what it is doing War has tempted the government to seek and the citizen’s right to full disclosure. It is temporary ways of restricting the opposi- sometimes alleged that U.S. success often in- tional potential of the media. The Sedition volves a victory in terms of scale. This may Act of 1917 and the notorious Espionage Act very well be the case, as the United States is of 1918 enabled Woodrow Wilson (1856– the largest consumer and disseminator of 1924) to send to prison anyone criticizing the propaganda and persuasion in history. war effort; the Supreme Court upheld David Culbert wartime restrictions on freedom of speech See also Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement; and the press in Schenck v. United States ADL; Birth of a Nation;Capra, Frank; CIA; Civil (1919), where Justice Oliver Wendell Rights Movement; Civil War, United States; Holmes (1841–1933) famously declared that Clinton, William Jefferson; CNN; Cold War; “no citizen has the right to cry ‘fire’ falsely in CPI; Drugs; Environmentalism; Film (Documentary); Film (Feature); Film a crowded theater.” (Newsreels); Garvey, Marcus; Gulf War; Fears of oppositional propaganda mean Holocaust Denial; Internet; Kennedy, John F.; that the electronic media have not been given King, Martin Luther, Jr.; Labor/Antilabor; full citizenship when it comes to freedom of Latin America; Lincoln,Abraham; Malcolm X; speech. In the FCC’s 1941 Mayflower ruling, Marshall Plan; McCarthy, Joseph R.; Mexico; broadcasters were told they could not edito- Murrow,Edward R.; NAACP; Nast, Thomas; Nixon, Richard; OWI; Paine, Thomas; Peace rialize; this so-called Fairness Doctrine was and Antiwar Movements (1900–1945); Peace upheld in Red Lion Broadcasting v. FCC (1969), and Antiwar Movements (1945– ); The Plow where the courts ruled in favor of denying a that Broke the Plains;Psychological Warfare; broadcast license to someone “not serving Reagan, Ronald; Religion; Revolution, the public interest, convenience, and neces- American, and War of Independence; RFE/RL; Roosevelt, Franklin D.; Spanish-American War; sity.” The print media have never been so Television; Temperance;Terrorism, War on; rigidly controlled—though not because a Uncle Sam; Uncle Tom’s Cabin;United States journalist believes the federal government (1930s); United States (Progressive Era); USIA; cannot do him or her harm. Vietnam War;VOA; Why We Fight; Women’s The Vietnam War was free of official cen- Movement: First Wave/Suffrage; Women’s sorship, at least in theory; the result has Movement: Second Wave/Feminism; World War I; World War II (United States) seemingly given governments the world over References: Braestrup, Peter. Big Story:How the a lesson in how not to manage information. American Press and Television Reported and The Gulf War in 1991 saw a different ap- Interpreted the Crisis of Tet 1968 in Vietnam and proach, in which the U.S. military carefully Washington.2 vols. Boulder, CO: Westview, controlled the flow of information. It seems 1977; Davidson, Philip. Propaganda and the American Revolution,1763–1783.New York: likely this will continue. Cable television has Norton, 1973; Doherty, Thomas. Projections of dramatically altered the way Americans gain War:Hollywood,American Culture,and World War II. information about politicians, products, and New York: Columbia University Press, 1993; services. Today the Internet is already part of Donovan, Robert J., and Ray Scherer. Unsilent this information superhighway, but those Revolution:Television News and American Public Life. who imagine that this marks an end to gov- New York: Cambridge University Press, 1992; Vaughn, Stephen L. Holding Fast the Inner Lines: ernment news management must keep in Democracy,Nationalism,and the Committee on mind the potential of electronic eavesdrop- Public Information.Chapel Hill: University of ping, an acute danger for the lobbyist as well North Carolina Press, 1980; Winfield, Betty United States (1930s) 411

Houchin. FDR and the News Media. New York: cial openness to the media. In reality, FDR Columbia University Press, 1994. engaged in a game of wits with members of the press corps, often going out of his way to disguise what was going on. Roosevelt en- United States (1930s) joyed cordial relations with many re- U.S. propaganda in the 1930s relates di- porters—at least through 1940. Later, when rectly—but not exclusively—to President his health began to fail, he held press confer- Franklin Roosevelt’s (1882–1945) New Deal ences less frequently. program. Roosevelt himself was a masterful Other New Deal propaganda, very much public speaker. His voice had a certain aristo- second in importance to Roosevelt’s own ef- cratic quality that he made no attempt to dis- forts, is also worth noting. In the field of doc- guise. His sense of timing meant that he un- umentary film, Pare Lorentz (1905–1992) derstood how to give listeners—radio being made The Plow That Broke the Plains (1936) the primary mass medium in the United and The River (1937). The former explained States in the 1930s—enough time to savor a the causes of drought in the Midwest (the particular phrase. Roosevelt’s chief speech- dust bowl) as simple greed on the part of writer was his longtime friend Samuel farmers. New Deal conservation measures, Rosenman, but many of FDR’s memorable the narration insisted, would solve the prob- phrases were his own, as can be seen by not- lem. The River premiered in New Orleans, ing Roosevelt’s penciled emendations to Louisiana, which was appropriate for a film typescripts prepared by others. For example, about flood control through a series of New in his first reelection speech on 8 October Deal dams constructed by the Tennessee Val- 1940 in Philadelphia, the ironic suggestion ley Authority (TVA).Again the fault lay with that “Republican orators” were shedding the greed of the shortsighted individual— “tears—crocodile tears” at the prospect of this time the lumberjack was accused—and taking charge of New Deal programs was his the problem was to be remedied through fed- own idea—and his audience loved the eral conservation measures. Both films fea- humor. tured scores by Virgil Thomson Roosevelt felt he was his own best propa- (1896–1989), who used American folk tunes gandist, although he distrusted the ability of with great skill to underscore the destruction propaganda to cover up official shortcom- of natural resources by thoughtless business- ings. Roosevelt sold his New Deal policies in men. Much of New Deal propaganda was ei- a relatively few so-called fireside chats, in ther explicitly or implicitly antibusiness. which the president spoke to the nation in a Documentary photography played a signif- less formal style than was the custom for icant role as a tool for New Deal propaganda. presidents. Visitors to the White House saw The Farm Security Administration (FSA) the fireplace (with fake logs) where Roo- hired a handful of photographers to travel sevelt made his national radio addresses, car- around the United States photographing ried “as a public service” by the major net- rural life, especially the poor. Walker Evans works. Roosevelt also sold his programs in a (1903–1975) is the best-known photogra- series of newsreel appearances, in which he pher who worked for the FSA; his cool, beau- was almost always shown seated, a conven- tifully composed images reveal the neat, or- tion explained by the unwritten rule that the derly interiors of those poor folk who aspire president was not to be photographed from to the middle-class ideal of cleanliness. One the waist down in deference to his physical should not ignore the work of Russell Lee handicap. Finally, for much of his presidency (1903–1975) or Dorothea Lange (1895– Roosevelt met with the press corps twice a 1965); the latter’s “Migrant Mother” is an week, a rather extraordinary instance of offi- iconic representation of the suffering poor in 412 United States (Progressive Era)

Depression America. After Pearl Harbor the Society:The Roosevelt Administration and the remaining FSA photographers turned to im- Media,1933–1941. Westport, CT: Greenwood, ages of a bountiful, prosperous land. Federal 1985; Winfield, Betty Houchin. FDR and the News Media. New York: Columbia University Arts Projects also projected an image of a re- Press, 1994. vitalized America. Murals (intended for post offices and other public buildings) were commissioned as Works Progress Adminis- tration (WPA) relief work. They were United States (Progressive Era) painted in an American socialist realist style, This period of reform in the United States where workers tend to be muscular and re- in the late nineteenth and early twentieth gional culture is often ennobled. The Federal centuries coincided with the rise of the mass Theater Project adapted topics favorable to media and hence witnessed the widespread the New Deal in a series of “Living Newspa- use of propaganda in support of its aims. per” productions. For example, Power de- Dates vary, but the period 1900–1914 is fended the socialist content of the TVA and generally accepted. The election of 1912, in openly advocated public control of utilities. which Theodore Roosevelt (1858–1919) Harry Hopkins (1890–1946), head of the campaigned unsuccessfully for the presi- WPA, commented on the political content dency at the helm of the Progressive Party of the play: “People will say it’s propaganda. was probably the zenith of Progressive Well, I say what of it?” Other “Living News- propaganda. The reformists of the era both paper” topics focused on the value of labor drew on and inspired parallel movements in unions. Europe. Roosevelt even introduced television as a The foundation of Progressive thought new medium to mark the opening of the was contained in the book Progress and New York World’s Fair in April 1939. A Poverty (1880) by Henry George (1839– primitive television camera positioned next 1897), a printer and journalist from Califor- to conventional newsreel cameras captured nia. George reasoned that the cause of FDR’s opening remarks, which were sent by poverty lay in limited land ownership and wire to downtown New York City. Roosevelt proposed a “single tax” to redistribute appeared on television again in 1940 and was wealth. By the early years of the twentieth seen by a few hundred industry executives at century his book had sold over two million best, but otherwise television as a medium of copies worldwide. Also influential was the political communication had to wait until novel Looking Backward, 2000–1887 (1888) after 1945. by Edward Bellamy (1850–1898), in which David Culbert a Bostonian named Julian West falls asleep See also Labor/Antilabor; Long, Huey; The Plow in the 1880s and awakens in 2000 to find that Broke the Plains;Roosevelt, Franklin D.; that the United States has become a socialist United States utopia founded on economic equality. The References: Curtis, James. Mind’s Eye,Mind’s novel became a best-seller and sparked a na- Truth:FSA Photography Reconsidered.Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1989; Molella, tionwide chain of Bellamy Clubs dedicated Arthur P., and Elsa M. Bruton, eds. FDR—The to its economic principles. The novel also Intimate Presidency:Franklin Delano Roosevelt, prompted socialist reformer and designer Communication,and the Mass Media in the 1930s. William Morris (1834–1896) in Britain to Washington, DC: National Museum of write his own utopian novel entitled News American History, 1982; Park, Marlene, and from Nowhere (1890). Gerald E. Markowitz. Democratic Vistas:Post Offices and Public Art in the New Deal. By the 1890s Progressive ideas had been Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1984; taken up by a generation of (generally well- Steele, Richard W. Propaganda in an Open born and religiously motivated) Americans USIA (United States Information Agency) 413 who sought to reform U.S. cities. Prominent References: Bellamy, Edward. Looking Backward. Progressives included Theodore Roosevelt 1888. Reprint, New York: Dover, 1996; (1858–1919), who made his name as an inno- Chambers, John Whiteclay, II. The Tyranny of Change:America in the Progressive Era, vative police commissioner in New York City 1890–1920.New York: St. Martin’s, 1992; and pushed through reforms during his presi- Ekirch,Arthur A., Jr. Progressivism in America. dency (1901–1909).Also prominent was Jane New York: New Viewpoints, 1974; Frankel, Addams (1860–1935), who founded Hull Noralee, and Nancy S. Dye. Gender,Class,Race House in Chicago in 1899 to promote the and Reform in the Progressive Era.Lexington: welfare of immigrants. Investigative (“muck- University of Kentucky Press, 1991; Riis, Jacob. How the Other Half Lives.Reprint, raking”) journalists of the era included Ida London: Penguin, 1997. Tarbell (1857–1944) and Lincoln Steffens (1866–1936), who both contributed to Mc- Clure’s magazine, and the African-American antilynching campaigner Ida B. Wells-Barnett USIA (United States Information (1862 –1931). Danish-born photographer Agency) (1953–1999) Jacob Riis (1849–1914) photographed the ap- America’s integrated overt propaganda palling conditions in New York’s slums and agency was established by President Dwight published them in a book entitled How the D. Eisenhower (1890–1969) in August 1953 Other Half Lives (1890). Among the novelists and operated until its reabsorption into the whose work contributed to reform one State Department in 1999. The USIA pro- should mention Upton Sinclair (1878–1968), vided a home for the Voice of America and who exposed the filthy conditions in the Chicago meatpacking industry in his novel The Jungle (1906). The Progressive era succeeded in bringing the federal government into a more active role, regulating interstate commerce and other aspects of industry. It also led to the establishment of a number of important pressure groups, including peace organiza- tions, the National Association for the Ad- vancement of Colored People (NAACP), and the Anti-Defamation League of B’nai B’rith (ADL), which sought to combat anti- Semitism. The movement included impor- tant campaigns to extend the vote to women, and against alcohol. Although re- sponsible for transforming many aspects of American life and politics, the Progressive era has been viewed by some historians as partially responsible for blunting socialism in the United States and making America safe for big business. Nicholas J.Cull See also ADL; Hearst, William Randolph; The USIA (known overseas as USIS) took pains to reach NAACP; Peace and Antiwar Movements rural populations in the Third World during the Cold War. (1500–1945); Riis, Jacob; Temperance; Here Masai people in Kenya wait in line to view a USIA Women’s Movement: First Wave/Suffrage exhibit on agriculture in 1957.(National Archives) 414 USIA (United States Information Agency)

The USIA outreach techniques in rural areas included bookmobiles such as this one in Rangoon,Burma,1953.(National Archives) many other organs of U.S. propaganda, in- Security Council (NSC), some presidents— cluding the embassy-based United States In- such as Eisenhower and Ronald Reagan formation Service (USIS) offices (which (1911– )—made a point of allowing the gave their name to all USIA operations over- USIA director to sit in on these meetings seas). The USIA never had control of Radio and participate in its deliberations, while Free Europe/Radio Liberty (RFE/RL). others—such as Richard Nixon (1913– During the administration of President 1994)—kept the USIA director at arm’s Jimmy Carter (1924– ) the agency carried length. the alternative name United States Interna- The USIA facilitated the worldwide distri- tional Communications Agency (USICA). bution of magazines, books, films, radio pro- Owing to the legislative restrictions of the grams, press releases, and photographs that Smith-Mundt Act of 1948, the USIA was simply would not have been circulated based never able to conduct propaganda within on commercial demand alone. Activities in- the United States or even to show its films cluded touring exhibitions, World’s Fair without a special act of Congress; hence the pavilions, language teaching, and educational agency’s work was not well known by the exchanges. In the 1960s the agency produced American people. The fortunes of the USIA highly effective documentary films dealing were frequently linked to that of its director with such issues as civil rights (The March, and, in turn, that person’s relationship to 1964), the life of President Kennedy (John F. the president. Although the USIA director Kennedy:Years of Lightning,Day of Drums,1964) was not a statutory member of the National and the Soviet invasion of Czechoslovakia USIA (United States Information Agency) 415

(Czechoslovakia, 1968; made in 1969). Two lized the agency for the second Cold War, in- (including the latter) won Academy Awards troducing such new initiatives as the Worldnet in the “best documentary short” category. satellite TV channel and the Radio Martí radio The following have served as directors of station for Cuba. The USIA may have become the agency: Theodore Streibert (1953– a victim of its own success. Following the end 1956), Arthur Larson (1956–1957), George of the Cold War—hastened by the flow of V. Allen (1957–1960), Edward R. Murrow agency and other media material into the East- (1961–1964), Carl T. Rowan (1964–1965), ern bloc—the USIA seemed unnecessary. Leonard Marks (1965–1968), Frank Shake- Congress needed a “peace dividend,” and in speare (1969–1973), James Keogh (1973– 1999 its main functions returned to the State 1976), John Reinhardt (1977–1981), Charles Department under an undersecretary of state Z. Wick (1981–1989), Bruce Gelb (1989– for public diplomacy. 1991), Henry Catto (1991–1993), Joseph Nicholas J.Cull Duffey (1993–1999). Of these, Murrow See also Cold War; Cold War in the Middle East; brought with him considerable prestige as a Cultural Propaganda; Exhibitions and World’s well-known broadcaster and did much to raise Fairs; Kennedy, John F.; Latin America; the national profile of the agency. Carl Rowan Murrow, Edward R.; Public Diplomacy; Reagan, Ronald; Satellite Communications; and Leonard Marks found themselves strug- Suez Crisis; United States;Vietnam War;VOA; gling to explain U.S. policy in Vietnam to the Wick,Charles Z. world while also attempting to administer References: Hixson, Walter L. Parting the much of the media war on the ground. John Curtain:Propaganda,Culture and the Cold War, Reinhardt used the agency to revitalize Amer- 1945–1961.New York: St. Martin’s, 1997; ica’s image in the aftermath of Vietnam and Sorenson, Thomas C. The Word War:The Story of American Propaganda. New York: Harper and Watergate by promoting a new human rights Row, 1968; Tuch, Hans N. Communicating with agenda. Charles Z. Wick, who benefited from the World:U.S.Public Diplomacy Overseas. New being a close friend of Ronald Reagan, mobi- York: St. Martin’s, 1990.

V

Vietnam sent the Le dynasty scurrying to China for Vietnam has been both a target for and a aid. The link between the Le and China practitioner of propaganda during a long his- opened a rich vein for Tayson propaganda, for tory of conflict with foreign and domestic Vietnam had two thousand years’ worth of forces. The Vietnamese have repeatedly songs, poems, and stories dealing with resist- demonstrated the importance of a strong na- ance to China. The Tayson also mobilized the tional identity in times of foreign threat. In tradition of the chinh nghia (just cause) and of the twentieth century Vietnamese nationalist mass involvement in a common struggle. In feelings and Communism combined to pro- 1788 the Le dynasty fell and the rebel Nguyen duce a potent mixture. The Vietnamese Hue (1752–1792) took the throne as the em- proved masters of what they called “armed peror Quang-Trung (r. 1788–1792). propaganda” in their wars with the French At this point the Vietnamese received their and the Americans. first lesson in the power of the Western Vietnam entered the sixteenth century media. The child heir apparent to the throne under the Le dynasty, which ruled according of South Vietnam and a French priest named to Confucian ideology borrowed from China. Pierre Pigneau de Behaine (1741–1799) trav- In 1516 the first Portuguese traders arrived, eled to Paris and begged Louis XVI (1754– but it was not until 1615 and the coming of 1793) for aid. The exotic appeal of the child Jesuit missionaries that Western ideas began was immediately apparent and “Cochin to make significant inroads into Vietnam. In China” became a cause célèbre in the French 1627 the work of the missionaries was made press. French volunteers set sail for Vietnam, easier thanks to Jesuit priest Alexandre de and by 1802 they had assisted in establishing Rhodes (1591–1660), who invented quoc ngu the Nguyen dynasty, which lasted until 1945. (national language), a method of transcribing The new dynasty proceeded to resist—at the Vietnamese language into roman script.As times violently—any French influence. the Le dynasty declined, effective power The nineteenth century saw the creeping passed to two warring families, who divided advance of French military and economic Vietnam into North and South after a bitter power in the region. In 1887 France declared civil war. In 1771 the Tayson peasant rebellion the Indo-Chinese Union between present- challenged the domination of the families and day Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and the

417 418 Vietnam

Qinzhouwan region of China. Different parts aganda methods ranged from speeches and of Indo-China were ruled in various ways. pamphlets to a sustained intellectual move- French cultural power was strongest in South ment. The Know the New Group was Vietnam (Cochin China), which was officially founded in 1941 to rediscover the heroes of part of France under the policy of assimila- Vietnamese history. tion. France was given a central place in the Ho Chi Minh returned to Vietnam in 1941, educational system, as though Cochin China announcing his agenda to merge all non- were as French as Paris. Resistance to the Communist activists into a single resistance French was expressed in songs and poetry. By movement. Anti-French opposition groups the turn of the century propaganda included combined to form the League for the Inde- such intellectual arguments for nationalism pendence of Vietnam, or Viet Minh. The Viet as those advanced by Phan Boi Chau (1867– Minh aimed to defeat both the French admin- 1940). Phan was a founder of the Vietnam istration (now a branch of the pro-Nazi Vichy Quang Phuc Hoi (Vietnam Restoration Soci- government) and their Japanese allies, whose ety), which established links with nationalists forces occupied the country. Ho understood struggling elsewhere in the east Asian region. the importance of propaganda for the revolu- Although this effort marked a beginning, tionary struggle. He knew that the Viet Minh mass propaganda would only come with the would be judged both by their words and arrival of the Communists. deeds and hence brought education and Vietnamese Communism is inseparable famine relief with them into the areas they from the career of the man born Nguyen Tat “liberated.” In 1944 the Communist Party es- Thanh but better known by his nom de tablished its own Peoples Army of Vietnam guerre Ho Chi Minh (1890–1969), which (PAVN) under a former history teacher means bringer of enlightenment and can named Vo Nguyen Giap (1912– ). Giap held therefore be considered propaganda in its to the Communist Party’s concept of armed own right. Ho traveled to France during propaganda, with PAVN’s motto being: “Pro- World War I and became a founding member paganda is more important than fighting.” of the French Communist Party in 1920. He Giap saw political education as the “soul of the studied in Moscow at a Soviet university army” and the fighting as a means to the end called the University of the Toilers of the of indoctrination and a way of making com- East, which was dedicated to the propagation mitment to the cause tangible to the masses. of Communism. Moving to Canton, he By 1945 a sizable guerrilla insurrection with a founded the Vietnamese Revolutionary Youth revolutionary Communist propaganda cam- League in 1925 and the Vietnamese Commu- paign at its core had taken hold in Vietnam. nist Party in 1930. In his writings Ho devel- Ho Chi Minh hoped that at the end of oped an eloquent critique of French imperi- World War II the United States would cham- alism and understood the need for such ideas pion Vietnamese independence. As propa- to reach as many people as possible. In 1935 ganda to achieve this end, Ho borrowed lan- the Communist Party of Vietnam held its first guage from the U.S. Declaration of conference in Macao, China. It founded a Independence for Vietnam’s own declaration military wing called the Military Self-De- of independence. President Harry Truman fense Group. From the beginning propaganda (1884–1972) remained unmoved, with the was inherent in the Communist plan. The U.S. government preferring to sponsor the Communists conceptualized the soldier’s French claim to Vietnam. Between 1947 and role to be one of “armed propaganda,” mean- 1954 the French fought a bitter guerrilla war ing that they would carry ideas as well as to reestablish control over Vietnam. They guns. Meanwhile, other nationalistic move- failed, and in 1954 the country was divided ments sprang up across Vietnam. Their prop- between the Communist North and the pro- Vietnam 419

Western South, on the understanding that Saigon passed photographs of the war to elections would be held in due course to Western journalists to fuel the growing peace agree to a united government. In place of movement in the West. Damage resulting elections the United States sponsored South from American bombing campaigns proved Vietnam as a showcase for the American way particularly potent. But all sides in the Viet- in Asia and a bastion of anti-Communism. nam conflict attempted to manipulate im- North Vietnam became a part of the Com- ages. When the Buddhist monk Thich Quang munist bloc. In 1960 the North Vietnamese Duc (1897–1963) set fire to himself in 1963 oversaw the creation of the National Libera- to protest the U.S.-backed regime in the tion Front (NLF), representing a new coali- South, his colleagues called a Western pho- tion of South Vietnamese opposition groups tographer to record the event. South Viet- with Communist leadership. U.S. psycholog- namese propaganda, however, relied heavily ical warfare advisers contemptuously nick- on American advice, and soon the South Viet- named the enemy “Viet Cong” (roughly namese regime spoke only with an American equivalent to “Vietnamese Commies”) but accent. This undermined any claim to nation- later abandoned the name since its “Viet” alism that the rulers of South Vietnam might component emphasized the nationalistic have possessed in the immediate aftermath of claim of the movement. During the Kennedy the French withdrawal. and Johnson administrations the U.S. govern- The United States acknowledged the im- ment gradually increased its military aid to portance of propaganda in Vietnam, and it South Vietnam, with large numbers of com- became commonplace for the planners of the bat troops arriving in 1965. The Vietnam war to speak of the need to win the “hearts War had begun. and minds” of the Vietnamese peasants. This Propaganda lay at the heart of the North ubiquitous phrase was borrowed from British Vietnamese system and was an integral part counterinsurgency experts, who in turn had of life in the NLF. Each soldier kept a diary to appropriated it from St. Paul’s letter to the record his personal role in the war and to Philippians, chapter 4, verse 7, via the Book of stress that the individual had value in the col- Common Prayer (1664). Despite successes in lective struggle. Units included a political of- the “Chieu Hoi” (Open Arms) campaign to ficer with responsibility for the ideological encourage desertion, the presence of the well-being of the troops. Once infiltrated U.S. armed forces, their behavior, and the ef- into South Vietnam, NLF propaganda fol- fect of America’s economic power on the lowed the pattern of “armed propaganda” es- client state of South Vietnam carried its own tablished in World War II. Military force was message. seen as a means to gain access to the peasants In January 1968 the North Vietnamese and persuade them to support the Commu- launched a coordinated series of uprisings all nists and reject the South Vietnamese govern- over South Vietnam to coincide with the Tet ment. The infiltrators were usually originally festival. The Tet offensive proved a military from the region and were returning from disaster but a political victory for the North exile. But the concept of armed propaganda Vietnamese. Americans at home were shaken also required ruthless violence against the by the television images of its armed forces in Saigon government’s regional power struc- disarray during the early stages of the conflict ture. The NLF left a trail of assassinated may- and disturbed by the extreme violence of the ors, schoolteachers, and village chiefs in its U.S. counterattack. The NLF suffered heavy wake, which in turn figured in U.S. propa- losses during the uprising, and from this ganda about the conflict. point on the war was fought by the North The NLF also understood the importance Vietnamese PAVN rather than the returning of contact with the foreign media. Agents in southerners. With the war at a stalemate, in 420 Vietnam War

1973 the United States withdrew its armed forced from South Vietnam. In 1975 North Vietnam conquered South Vietnam. Propa- ganda figured prominently in the daily life of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV) as the Communist government extended the rigidly ideological educational system of the North and used the usual techniques of prop- aganda to promote the supremacy of the Propaganda leaflet distributed by the U.S.military as part of party. Dissenters found themselves interned a psychological warfare operation.The pamphlet urged the defection of Viet Cong and North Vietnamese to the side of in reeducation camps and fed on a diet of the Republic of Vietnam.(National Archives) party propaganda. In order to prevail in its war with the United States, the North Viet- namese regime had become exactly the sort of hard-line totalitarian dictatorship that the ing to which the powers involved agreed to a Americans had predicted. Economic devel- temporary division of the former French opment was hard-won. The DRV used forced colony of Indo-China into Communist North migration to move about 10 percent of its Vietnam and Nationalist South Vietnam—to citizens into New Economic Zones. 1975, when the southern regime finally col- Since 1988—and especially since the ap- lapsed under a northern invasion. This prop- pointment of Do Muoi (1917– ) as general aganda war can be divided into two phases: secretary of the party in 1991—the regime has pre-1965, when the United States used its permitted some economic liberalization and psychological-warfare capabilities to assist trading links with other nations in east Asia.Al- the South Vietnamese government, and post- though the Vietnamese resumed relations with 1965, when propaganda and psychological the United States in 1995, the memory of the warfare was an adjunct to the substantial U.S. struggle against the Americans remains a key military commitment to South Vietnam. For rallying cry for national cohesion and a fre- their part, the North Vietnamese and indige- quent theme in DRV propaganda, as it was in nous South Vietnamese revolutionaries used March 2000, when the party organized mas- propaganda to advance their campaign in the sive celebrations to mark the twenty-fifth an- villages of the South and to champion their niversary of the end of the war. cause internationally. In this latter task they Nicholas J.Cull were greatly assisted by the global media net- See also China; Counterinsurgency; France; work of the Communist bloc; Russian and Japan; Southeast Asia;Vietnam War Chinese support was more often of the prop- References: Karnow, Stanley. Vietnam:A History. aganda variety than material aid. In the 1970s New York:Viking; 1983; Lê, Huu Tri. Prisoner of the Word:A Memoir of the Vietnamese Re- the respective contributions to the North education Camps.Seattle: Black Heron, 2001; Vietnamese cause (or lack thereof) became a Page, Tim. Ten Years After:Vietnam Today. New major issue in the Sino-Soviet propaganda York: Knopf, 1987; Pike, Douglas. Viet Cong: duel. The U.S. government attempted to jus- The Organization and Techniques of the National tify its actions internationally through the re- Liberation Front of South Vietnam.Cambridge, sources of the United States Information MA: MIT Press, 1966. Agency (USIA) and domestically through the Pentagon and White House press apparatus. Despite the battlefield successes of psycho- Vietnam War (1954–1975) logical warfare, the chief legacy of Vietnam The U.S. propaganda war in Vietnam lasted remains the perceived failures of U.S. press from the Geneva Accords in 1954—accord- management and the way in which uncen- Vietnam War 421 sored journalistic—especially TV news— peals featuring sad songs and testimony from coverage undermined American public sup- defectors. Troops who rallied were used for port for the war. propaganda work and, later in the war, de- The early U.S. propaganda effort in Viet- ployed in special Kit Carson Scout units. Al- nam is inseparable from the career of one though the precise effectiveness of the “Chieu man: Col. Edward Lansdale (1908–1987), Hoi” program is hard to gauge since statistics who served as chief of covert action in the sometimes include refugees and professional U.S. Saigon Military Mission.As he had in the defectors seeking only the monetary bounties Philippines, Lansdale used psychological op- offered later in the war, it certainly worried erations (PSYOPS) to undermine the North. the North Vietnamese. His best-known campaign, “The Virgin Mary The United States also attempted to advise Has Gone South,” sought to encourage the the South Vietnamese on its news manage- migration of North Vietnamese Catholics ment, but, given the regime’s lack of interest into South Vietnam by alleging that the North in issues involving image projection, it ran planned to persecute Christians. The USIA into frequent difficulties. As guests in South also assisted in the process of nation-building Vietnam, the Americans themselves could in the South, and reputedly had a hand in de- not censor coverage of the growing struggle vising the name Viet Cong (a pejorative term and focused instead on “accentuating the pos- roughly translated as Vietnamese Commie) to itive” in briefings. describe the enemy. This name had limited In 1964, in a propagandistic sleight of propaganda value since it affirmed the hand, President Lyndon B. Johnson (1908– enemy’s nationalistic credentials, but no al- 1973) manipulated an alleged North Viet- ternative emerged. In 1960 the North Viet- namese attack on a U.S. destroyer in the Gulf namese launched the National Liberation of Tonkin to get the U.S. Congress to pass Front (NLF), a formal structure responsible the Tonkin Gulf resolution, which amounted for the insurgency in the South, whose major to legislative authority for the president to focus was political propaganda. wage undeclared war in Vietnam. Justifica- The decision by President John F.Kennedy tions for U.S. military escalation included a (1917–1963) to escalate the U.S. role in State Department white paper published in Vietnam was closely related to issues of prop- February 1965 that presented evidence of aganda. After the abortive Bay of Pigs inva- North Vietnamese aggression (rather than sion of 1961, the United States needed, in any indigenous South Vietnamese basis for Kennedy’s words to James Reston of the New the conflict). This remained a major feature York Times, “to prove the credibility of her of U.S. propaganda for the rest of the con- power.”Vietnam seemed the logical venue for flict. Other tactics included an emphasis on this display. The Kennedy administration Viet Cong atrocities. The Pentagon did its took an active role in supporting South Viet- best to sell the war at home through the ef- namese psychological operations. Major ini- forts of Arthur Sylvester (1901–1979), the tiatives included the “Chieu Hoi” (Open assistant secretary of defense for public af- Arms) program. Launched by South Viet- fairs and a former journalist. namese president Ngo Dinh Diem (1901– In the spring of 1965 President Johnson 1963) early in 1963 and conducted in coop- deployed U.S. regular troops in Vietnam. eration with the United States throughout This increased the degree to which U.S. the war, this campaign sought to persuade credibility was at stake in Vietnam and cre- NLF fighters to surrender. American planes ated a logical path for further deployments. dropped billions of safe conduct passes and The Johnson administration also centralized appeals over NLF territory. The “Chieu Hoi” all U.S. information and psychological oper- program also used airborne loudspeaker ap- ations under a single Joint United States 422 Vietnam War

Public Affairs Office (JUSPAO) at the em- struction of the village of Cam Ne by U.S. bassy, run by Barry Zorthian (1920– ), for- Marines in August 1966, which was filmed by merly of the USIA. This office linked the the CBS network. Coverage of the Commu- USIA, military PSYOPS, and civilian devel- nist’s Tet offensive in January 1968 proved opment initiatives, in addition to providing a particularly controversial, with senior offi- central location for press briefings. This cials in the U.S. military suggesting that the structure did not last long, and in 1967 key media effectively betrayed them by overem- functions fell under the jurisdiction of Civil- phasizing the scale of the defeat. Pictures and ian Operations and Revolutionary Develop- reportage from Vietnam in general and the ment Support (CORDS). U.S. operations in- Tet in particular certainly provided a check cluded all of the following: campaigns to on the generally upbeat “light at the end of support the 1967 elections in South Viet- the tunnel” predictions of the White House nam; humanitarian projects intended to “win and the Pentagon. The U.S. government hearts and minds”; the dropping of leaflets faced a credibility gap between its claims and containing peace appeals over North Viet- the evidence from the ground. nam (which often stressed the Chinese role Although much of the North Vietnamese in North Vietnam’s war); the dropping of propaganda effort was directed at its own miniature radios over the North (tuned to forces in the South, the North Vietnamese re- specific frequencies); the distribution of TV leased photographic evidence of the effect of sets to villages around South Vietnam; and U.S. bombing and atrocities, which fueled the creation of radio programs intended to the antiwar movement within the United demoralize the enemy and build up the States and Western Europe. The North Viet- image of the South Vietnamese government. namese also invited selected U.S. journalists Recurrent problems included the U.S. ten- to Hanoi to see for themselves, the most fa- dency to displace the indigenous South Viet- mous being Harrison Salisbury (1908–1993) namese information apparatus, thereby en- of the New York Times. Reports from Hanoi suring that the South Vietnamese regime disproved the U.S. claim that bombing was always spoke with an American accent. In- only targeting military installations. Mem- creased American propaganda hence often bers of the peace movement also visited became counterproductive. North Vietnam, including a celebrated visit The presence of the world press in South by actress Jane Fonda (1937– ). The Ameri- Vietnam played a crucial role in the propa- cans worked hard to dismiss North Viet- ganda surrounding the conflict. The NLF un- namese claims of atrocities. Radio Hanoi car- derstood the value of the Western media and ried news of the My Lai massacre within days infiltrated such bastions as Time magazine’s of its occurrence, but it took the investigative Saigon office. Opposition groups in South skills of reporter Seymour Hersh (1937– ) Vietnam made sure to invite the press and to break the story in the United States. Presi- photographers to their protests, the most fa- dent Richard Nixon (1913–1994) responded mous being the self-immolation of Buddhist to the growing criticism of the U.S. role in monk Thich Quang Duc (1897–1963) on 11 Vietnam with an aggressive campaign of his June 1963, which was captured by Malcolm own intended to demonize critics of the war Browne (1931– ) of the Associated Press. as dangerous radicals. He effectively reduced Since the press drew much of its information student opposition to the war by exempting from the U.S. servicemen themselves, their students from the draft. In the end he was increasing doubts about the conflict made able to transform the U.S. withdrawal in press coverage from Vietnam appear increas- 1973 into a “triumph for diplomacy” rather ingly negative. Stories that left an impact than victory resulting from North Viet- within the United States included the de- namese tenacity. VOA (Voice of America) 423

The Vietnam War has been used to gener- ate many propaganda lessons. Rightly or wrongly, it underscored the need on the part of Western nations to manage battlefield re- porting. It also pointed up the limits of what a propaganda campaign was capable of achieving. The USIA failed to convince West- ern Europe that the Vietnam War was either moral or ethical. In the final analysis, the United States was ultimately the victim of its own propaganda apparatus in Vietnam. The upbeat reports from the field and the inflated body counts of enemy dead eroded the basis in fact essential for sound policy making. Nicholas J.Cull See also Counterinsurgency; Falklands/ Malvinas War; The Green Berets; Gulf War; Kennedy, John F.; Nixon, Richard; Peace and Antiwar Movements (1945– ); Philippines; Prisoners of War; Psychological Warfare; Southeast Asia; Television; United States; USIA;Vietnam References: Braestrup, Peter. Big Story:How the American Press and Television Reported and Interpreted the Crisis of Tet 1968 in Vietnam and Willis Conover (seen here in 1978),legendary jazz disc Washington.Boulder, CO: Westview, 1978; jockey for Voice of America radio.Conover's jazz broadcasts Chandler, Robert W. War of Ideas:The U.S. won VOA a keen following in the the Eastern bloc during the Propaganda Campaign in Vietnam. Boulder, CO: Cold War.(National Archives) Westview, 1981; Hallin, Daniel C. “Uncensored War”:The Media and Vietnam.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986; Hammond, William M. Reporting Vietnam:Media and Military at War. Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1998. tion Agency (USIA). The VOA became a major element in the propaganda war with the Soviet Union. Although the USSR spent millions of rubles to jam the VOA for significant portions VOA (Voice of America) of the Cold War, much was still heard. Pro- The U.S. government’s short-wave radio sta- gramming included the sort of news that the tion, the Voice of America (VOA) began trans- Soviet government sought to suppress (includ- mitting on 24 February 1942, under the aus- ing news of the Chernobyl nuclear accident in pices of the Foreign Information Service (FIS) 1986), as well as examples of American cul- and later under the Office of War Information ture. One of the best known VOA broadcast- (OWI). It began by carrying news in German ers was jazz disc jockey Willis Conover and then in French to occupied Europe; by the (1920–1996), who believed that jazz had po- end of the war the radio station had expanded litical value as a metaphor for the democratic to cover many more languages. In 1953 the way of life. The VOA was also widely heard in VOA was the target of an inquiry by Sen. Joe the developing world, where its penetration McCarthy (1909–1957). In order to ensure was assisted thanks to the development of tighter political control, it moved from New “Special English,” an easily understood version York to Washington, D.C., becoming part of of English with a 1,200-word vocabulary read the newly established United States Informa- at just 90 words per minute. 424 VOA (Voice of America)

Graffiti painted on the Russian parliament building by a grateful listener in 1992 at the time of the attempted coup against the ailing government of Mikhail Gorbachev. It translates:"Thank you Voice of America for telling the truth." (Voice of America)

Life at the VOA was frequently turbulent. to unprecedented political influence from The journalists who provided news pro- the White House. gramming believed that it had a duty to re- At the time of its sixtieth anniversary in port the news to the world whether or not it 2002, the VOA was providing over 900 hours reflected favorably on the United States. of weekly radio, television, and Internet pro- Their political masters at the USIA wanted gramming in fifty-three languages, with an ideological content, and the State Depart- audience estimated at 91 million people. Se- ment tried to prevent the VOA from criticiz- rious political issues still remain. In the after- ing sympathetic regimes. As a result of pres- math of the attacks against the United States sure from its journalists, in 1960 the VOA on 11 September 2001, the VOA attracted acquired a charter requiring balance and ob- criticism for carrying an interview with the jectivity in news reportage. In 1976, follow- Taliban leader on its Pashto service. ing attempts to manipulate the VOA during Nicholas J.Cull the last days of the Vietnam War, this charter See also Cold War; Poland; Radio (International); became law. The Reagan administration in- RFE/RL; Suez Crisis; Terrorism, War on; USIA References: Alexandre, Laurien. The Voice of vested heavily in the VOA as part of its re- America:From Detente to the Reagan Doctrine. newed campaign against the USSR, but the Norwood, NJ:Ablex, 1988; Nelson, Michael. VOA was subject to cuts following the col- War of the Black Heavens:The Battles of Western lapse of Communism in 1989. In 1994 the Broadcasting in the Cold War. London: Brassey’s, VOA was subsumed under the International 1997; Rawnsley, Gary D. Radio Diplomacy and Bureau of Broadcasting (IBB). With the Propaganda:The BBC and VOA in International Politics,1956–64. New York: St. Martin’s, breakup of the USIA in 1999, the IBB be- 1996; Schulman, Holly Cowan. The Voice of came an independent home for both the America:Propaganda and Democracy,1941–1945. VOA and RFE/RL, albeit one now exposed Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1990. W

The War Game (1965) cluded a documentary about peace entitled This film is both a classic of antiwar propa- The Journey (1983–1986). ganda and an example of television censor- Nicholas J.Cull ship. In 1965 the British Broadcasting Corpo- See also BBC; Censorship; Cold War; Film ration (BBC) commissioned then rising star (Documentary); Peace and Antiwar Peter Watkins (1935– ) to create a film Movements (1945– ); Scandinavia References: Cook, John, and Patrick Murphy. showing the effects of an atomic bomb ex- Freethinker:The Life and Work of Peter Watkins. ploding over the southeast of England. Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, Watkins used amateur actors and his trade- 2003; Gomez, Joseph. Peter Watkins.Boston: mark documentary film techniques to show Twayne, 1979. its devastating aftermath in terms of disease, social anarchy, and the institution of martial law. The BBC decided that the end result was White Propaganda too violent and The War Game became a cele- A widely held belief claims that propaganda is brated case of BBC self-censorship. Watkins a process that camouflages its origin, its mo- next attempted to make a version of the film tive, or both, and that it is conducted for the in Germany, but the TV company changed its purpose of obtaining a specific objective by mind and pulled out of the project. The film manipulating its audience. Propaganda, how- won an Academy Award in the documentary ever, may also be open and aboveboard. For feature category in 1967 and was widely example, when the Nazis came to power in screened as propaganda by the Campaign for 1933, one of the first government depart- Nuclear Disarmament (CND). In 1983 an ments to be established was the Ministry for ABC-TV miniseries entitled The Day After Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda. The (dir. Nicholas Meyer) showed the effects of a National Socialists made no secret of the name nuclear explosion over Kansas. In 1985 the or, indeed, the task that this ministry was to BBC produced Threads (dir. Mick Jackson), perform. Joseph Goebbels (1897–1945), the an updated version of the same idea dealing minister for propaganda, openly declared in with a nuclear strike against Sheffield. one of his first speeches that the new ministry Watkins subsequently worked in Sweden and would be responsible for “the mobilization of in the Baltic region, where his films have in- mind and spirit in Germany.” The source here

425 426 Why We Fight is known, aims and intentions are identified, lywood director of the era. The objective of and the public knows that an attempt is being the series was to explain the issues of the war made to influence it. to conscripted soldiers who had grown up in The distinction between “white” and the era of the interwar peace movement. The “black” propaganda was well understood. By films combined brilliantly edited clips of the 1930s there was a growing recognition newsreel footage from around the world with that it was important to distinguish between dramatic music, animated maps, and a power- overt or information-based propaganda— ful commentary to tell the story of the rise of output that represents the official policy of Fascism and the coming of the war. Titles in the government and therefore needs to be the series included Prelude to War, The Nazis “truthful” (in the sense of being factually ac- Strike, Divide and Conquer (dealing with the fall curate) to maintain credibility—and covert of France), The Battle of Britain, The Battle of propaganda—which seeks to achieve imme- Russia, The Battle of China, and War Comes to diate results by any and all means and whose America (dealing with the events leading up to essential requirement (apart from effective- the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor). Among ness) is that it must not be traceable back to the highlights were animation by Walt Disney its source. (1901–1966) and the reappropriation of clips White propaganda is largely conducted by from Leni Riefenstahl’s documentary Tr iumph an identifiable government agency. The in- of the Will (1935) for Allied propaganda pur- formation in the message tends to be accu- poses. The impact of four of the films on their rate (although not necessarily verifiable) audience was studied systematically.Although since any suggestion that the message might results suggested that they did little to deepen be false would undermine the credibility of love of country, respect for allies, or hatred of the source. The message is intended to con- the enemy, at the very least soldiers had ab- vince an audience of the superiority and just- sorbed the factual information relating to the ness of a particular regime or ideology. origins of the war. Two films were thought Thus, while the message disseminated is worthy of a civilian release and became influ- largely truthful, it is slanted to favor the ential examples of compilation documentary value system of the propagandist. During the filmmaking technique. Cold War the Voice of America (VOA) and Nicholas J.Cull Radio Moscow employed this type of white See also Capra, Frank; Film (Documentary); propaganda in order to establish credibility Tr iumph of the Will;United States; World War II with an audience that might prove useful at (United States) References: Alpers, Benjamin L. Dictators, some point in the future. Democracy and American Popular Culture. David Welch Envisioning the Totalitarian Enemy,1920s–1950s. See also Black Propaganda; Goebbels, Joseph; Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Gray Propaganda; RMVP; Russia; United Press, 2003; Capra, Frank. The Name above the States;VOA Title.New York: Macmillan, 1971; Culbert, References: Ellul, Jacques. Propaganda:The David, editor-in-chief. Film and Propaganda in Formation of Men’s Attitudes. New York:Vintage, America:A Documentary History. 5 vols. 1973; Jowett, Garth, and Victoria O’Donnell. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1990–1993. Propaganda and Persuasion.London: Sage, 1992.

Why We Fight (1942–1945) Wick, Charles Z. (1917– ) A series of seven one-hour propaganda docu- Longest-serving director of the United mentary films produced for the U.S. Army States Information Agency (USIA) during Signal Corps during World War II by Frank the Reagan administration, Charles Wick Capra (1897–1991), the most successful Hol- was a Hollywood impresario and film pro- Wick, Charles Z. 427

Ronald Reagan celebrates the fortieth birthday of the Voice of America in 1982 with USIA director Charles Z.Wick (left).VOA broadcasts to Eastern Europe did much to win the Cold War for the United States.(National Archives) ducer who became closely associated with tential to revitalize the USIA. The agency Ronald Reagan’s (1911– ) 1980 presidential had not fared well under the Carter adminis- campaign. Wick distinguished himself as a tration, having been renamed the Interna- fund-raiser and successfully organized inau- tional Communications Agency (ICA). Now gural festivities. Reagan recognized his po- it became a hive of activity. Wick restored 428 Wilkes, John the old name and increased propaganda to a Wilkes, John (1727–1797) level recalling the heady days of the early A British M.P.and publisher, Wilkes used po- Eisenhower administration. He built up the litical propaganda in an innovative manner by Voice of America (VOA) and established associating his cause with the tradition of En- Radio Martí, a radio station aimed at Cuba. glish liberty, freedom of the press, and open He also moved into TV propaganda with a elections, thereby becoming a symbol of op- satellite network called WorldNet, which position propaganda in Britain and America. linked U.S. embassies around the world and Wilkes’s contribution to the history of propa- permitted interactive discussions between ganda as a radical innovator is considerable. policymakers in Washington, D.C., and for- Born into an urban dissenting family, eign journalists. In 1982 Wick organized a Wilkes was educated in Leyden, Holland. He spectacular TV event called “Let Poland Be enhanced his social position through mar- Poland” to support the Solidarity movement riage but gained a reputation, thanks to his in Poland. membership in the Hell Fire Club, as a bril- For some observers in the U.S. press, the liant conversationalist and London socialite, downside of Wick’s tenure at the USIA was “a rake on the make.” He was elected M.P.for his attitude toward the VOA. Believing that it Aylesbury in 1757 as a supporter of William should be an instrument of propaganda rather Pitt (1708–1778). Following the resignation than a source of news, he insisted on inserting of the Grenville-Pitt ministry (1757–1761), political editorials into the VOA’s output. The Wilkes became the leading parliamentary administration of the USIA became overtly critic of the Earl of Bute (1713–1793), political, resulting in a number of prominent George III’s favorite minister. In 1762 Wilkes resignations in protest during the early Wick established The North Briton, a pro-Pittite era. Wick also attracted criticism from the newspaper, taking his unrelenting vitupera- U.S. press for his practice of taping incoming tive attack on Bute “out of doors” by success- phone calls and alleged nepotism in hiring fully appealing to popular “Scottophobia” and practices. In the wider history of propaganda, anti-Catholicism. his tenure at the USIA, like Brendan Bracken’s Despite Bute’s resignation, The North Briton (1901–1958) war service as Winston Chur- No. 45 of April 1763 attacked both Bute and chill’s (1874–1965) minister of information, the new ministry of George Grenville shows the degree to which the fortunes of a (1712–1770) by ridiculing the king. Wilkes propaganda agency can be enhanced through was arrested under a general warrant charg- a closely cultivated relationship between its ing the publishers and printers of The North director and the president or prime minister. Briton with seditious libel. His release on a Many at the USIA believed that the key to writ of habeas corpus—on the grounds that their agency’s success during the 1980s was parliamentary privilege prevented the impris- the friendship between Wick and Reagan onment of M.P.s on charges other than trea- and—no less significant—Wick’s wife, Mary- son—was greeted by cheering crowds chant- Jane Wick, and First Lady Nancy Reagan. ing “Wilkes and liberty!” Parliament voted by Nicholas J.Cull a vote of 273 to 111 that the issue in question See also Bracken, Brendan; Castro, Fidel; Cold was “false, scandalous and seditious libel” and War; Reagan, Ronald; Satellite ordered a public burning for Wilkes. Al- Communications; United States; USIA;VOA though Parliament resolved that the press’s References: Snyder,Alvin. Warriors of privilege did not extend to publishing sedi- Disinformation:American Propaganda,Soviet Lies tious libel, Wilkes’s arrest under a general and the Winning of the Cold War.New York: Arcade, 1995; Tuch, Hans N. Communicating warrant was adjudged unconstitutional. with the World:U.S.Public Diplomacy Overseas. In 1764 Wilkes was charged with blas- New York: St. Martin’s, 1990. phemy as coauthor of the pornographic Essay Women’s Movement: European 429 on Woman. Expelled from the Commons and In 1771 Wilkes again became a champion subject to arrest, Wilkes fled to France. He of press freedom when he announced his sup- returned in 1768, but his appeal for port for printers who had been arrested for clemency was ignored by the authorities until reporting parliamentary debates.As an alder- his election as M.P.for Middlesex. Unable to man of London, Wilkes used the immunity take his seat as an outlaw,Wilkes surrendered granted by the City to shelter printer John himself at King’s Bench prison, where he re- Wheble from the jurisdiction of parliamen- mained incarcerated for twenty-two months. tary punishment. In 1774 Wilkes became Daily rioting in London to protest his impris- lord mayor of London and M.P. for Middle- onment was violently suppressed by a Scot- sex, but he failed to find support for parlia- tish regiment at St. George’s Field, leaving mentary reform. He became a reliable sup- seven dead and thereby boosting the popular porter of William Pitt (1759–1806) and appeal of Wilkes as a symbol of English lib- defended property during the Gordon Riots erty against Hanoverian despotism. Wilkes in 1780. succeeded in making his own struggles symp- Though motivated by opportunistic ca- tomatic of centuries of struggle for habeas reerism, in declaring himself “the personifi- corpus, trial by jury, and liberty of the press, cation of English liberty” Wilkes became a using a rhetoric tied to the principles of the symbol of patriotic opposition, achieving un- Glorious Revolution expounded in his popu- precedented popularity and being of great lar History of England (1768). service to reformers who might otherwise In 1769 Middlesex voters elected Wilkes have despised his personal morality and sex- three times, but each time he was expelled ual license. The North Briton’s populist satire from the Commons, which finally declared drew public opinion into the realm of politi- his opponent the winner despite fewer cal influence and generated popular support votes. Supporters, outraged by Parliament’s for liberty of the press. The relinquishing of presumption of the right to determine its general warrants (which were declared ille- membership, formed the Society for the gal in 1766) and the establishment of legal Supporters of the Bill of Rights, organizing parliamentary reporting contributed to the a nationwide petitioning campaign that was end of censorship. supported by nearly sixty thousand people. Karen M.Ford Wilkes himself inaugurated the commercial See also Britain (Eighteenth Century); production of campaign artifacts—includ- Revolution,American, and War of ing plates, teapots and mugs, snuffboxes, Independence References: Colley, Linda. Britons Forging the medals, buttons, ribbons, badges, and can- Nation,1707–1837.New Haven, CT: Yale dles—that featured such Wilkite symbols as University Press, 1992; Dickinson, H. T. The the number 45, which also appeared in fash- Politics of the People in Eighteenth-Century Britain. ions and as graffiti. Throughout England and London: Macmillan, 1994; Holmes, Geoffrey, the colonies, supporters sent gifts and and Daniel Szechi. The Age of Oligarchy: Pre- money to Wilkes in celebration of his re- Industrial Britain,1722–1783. London: Longman, 1993; Maier, Pauline. “John Wilkes lease in 1770. A pipe maker in Gateshead and American Disillusionment with Britain.” produced 45 pipes each measuring 45 William and Mary Quarterly, 3d ser., 20, 3 inches long for a supporters’ feast consisting (1963): 373–395. of 45 pounds of mutton, 45 potatoes, and 45 quarts of ale, while in Charleston, South Carolina, the crowd lit their liberty tree Women’s Movement: with 45 lights, followed by a celebration in- European (1860– ) volving 45 bowls of punch, 45 bottles of The mid to late nineteenth and early twenti- wine, and 92 glasses. eth century in Europe saw a flowering of 430 Women’s Movement: European

women’s activism and campaigning. Propa- wig Dohm (1813–1919), whose polemics ganda techniques included journalism and included Der Jesuitismus im Hausstande (Je- the publication of arguments in essay and suitism in the Household; 1873); and the so- novel form. Nationally constituted women’s cialist Lily Braun (1865–1916), author of movements have formed a succession of in- Die Frauenfrage (The Women Question, ternational alliances for mutual inspiration 1901). More conservative pioneers included and support. Auguste Schmidt (1833–1902), who argued Pioneers of nineteenth-century French for the value of marriage and women’s duty feminism included Jeanne Deroin (c.1810– of moral leadership. Anita Augspurg 1894), a journalist and first female candidate (1857–1943), Minna Cauer (1841–1922), for election to the National Assembly (1849); and Lida Gustava Heymann (1868–1943) Maria Deraismes (1828–1894), cofounder of cofounded a succession of suffrage organiza- the first French feminist organization, the So- tions, including the Deutscher Verband für ciété pour la Revendication des Droits de la Frauenstimmrecht (German Union for Femme (Society for Demanding Women’s Women’s Suffrage) in 1904, and also Rights) in 1866; and Humbertine Auclert worked internationally. (1849–1914), prolific and radical journalist Russia produced a “triumvirate” of social and campaigner for suffrage in France. Au- campaigners: Anna Filosofva (1837–1912), clert reached out to a mass audience through Mariya Trubnikova (1835–1897), and the organization Droit de la Femme (Rights Nadezhda Stasova (1822–1895). Their activi- of the Woman), later known as Société de ties included founding a Women’s Publishing Suffrage des Femmes (Society of Women’s Cooperative, which both published cam- Suffrage), and such books as Le Droit Politique paigning literature and provided employment des Femmes (Political Rights of Women, for destitute women. 1878). Eugénie Potonie-Pierre worked to co- Feminist Russian revolutionaries included ordinate French feminism, founding the Fed- Inessa Armand (1874–1920), the French- eration Française des Sociétés Feministes in born founder of the Russian revolutionary 1892. More militant French campaigners in- journal Rabotnista (Women Workers), who cluded Madeleine Pelletier (1874–1939), later became the first director of the postrev- whose tactics included appropriating items of olution Zhenotdel (Women’s Bureau), and male clothing such as the necktie and bowler Alexandra Kollontai (1872–1952), the only hat. Arguably the most significant modern woman to serve in the Bolshevik government women’s advocate in France was Simone de (as commissar for public welfare). Kollontai Beauvoir (1908–1986), the philosopher and wrote widely and developed radical notions journalist whose book Le Deuxième Sexe (The of alternative family life, attacking the ele- Second Sex) (1949) was a major inspiration ment of economic domination in marriage as to the women’s movement internationally. akin to the relation between a prostitute and Italian activists included Anna Maria Moz- her client. It seemed for a while that the zoni (1837–1920), who preached a “Risorgi- Russian revolution would present a new mento delle donne” (rebirth of women), and model of gender relations, but old inequali- Sibilla Aleramo (pseudonym of Rina Faccio) ties soon reemerged. (1876–1960), a journalist, poet, and writer, Arguably the most successful national best known for her autobiographical novel movements emerged in Scandinavia. Suffrage Una Donna (A Woman) of 1906. leaders included Gina Grog (1847–1916) in Pioneer feminists in Germany included Norway, Ellen Hagan (1873–1958) in Swe- Luise Otto-Peters (1819–1895), who de- den, Alexandra Van Grippenberg (1859– manded equal rights for women during the 1913) in Finland, and the husband-and-wife revolution of 1848; the prolific writer Hed- team Fredrik Bajer (1837–1922) and Matilde Women’s Movement: Precursors 431

Bajer (1840–1934) in Denmark. These and anne Hainisch (1839–1936) and novelist other campaigners succeeded in delivering Bertha Von Suttner (1843–1914), who in women’s suffrage somewhat in advance of 1905 became the first woman to win the their European counterparts. Of the Euro- Nobel Peace Prize; the German Helene pean nations Finland was the first to grant fe- Stöcker (1869–1943); and the Dutch cam- male suffrage, in 1906 (lagging behind New paigner Rosa Manus (1880–1942). Zealand [1893] and Australia [1902]), fol- Nicholas J.Cull lowed by Norway (1913), Denmark and Ice- See also Peace and Antiwar Movements land (1915), and Soviet Russia (1917); Aus- (1500–1945);Women’s Movement: tria, Germany, Netherlands, Poland, Sweden, Precursors; Women’s Movement: First Wave/Suffrage; Women’s Movement: Second Luxembourg, and Czechoslovakia followed in Wave/Feminism 1919. Women won the vote in the United References: Evans, Richard J. The Feminists: States in 1920 and Britain in 1928 but had to Women’s Emancipation Movements in Europe, wait until 1945 in France and Italy America and Australasia,1840–1920.London: International women’s organizations in- Croom Helm, 1984; Morgan, Robin, ed. cluded the International Association of Sisterhood Is Global.New York:Anchor Books, 1984; Tuttle, Lisa. Encyclopedia of Feminism. Women, founded in 1868 by the Swiss writer London: Longman, 1986. and higher-education campaigner Marie Goegg (c.1826–1904). The group held a congress in 1870 but was suppressed in 1871 by governments fearing the association of the Women’s Movement: word “International” with the Paris Com- Precursors (1404–1848) mune of that year. Subsequent attempts to Public advocacy for women’s liberation can unite the world women’s movement included be traced back to Christine de Pizan’s (ca. the International Council of Women, which 1364–ca. 1431) Book of the City of Ladies convened in Washington, D.C., in 1888. In (1404). Early-modern precursors of the 1904 Augspurg, Cauer, and Heymann led the women’s movement focused on persuading foundation of the International Woman Suf- men to allow women access to education. frage Alliance, renamed in 1918 the Interna- Among such prominent British writers was tional Alliance for Suffrage and Equal Citi- Margaret Fell (1614–1702), a Quaker organ- zenship; this organization became somewhat izer who defended a woman’s right to preach dominated by its U.S. members and marked and take an active role in religious affairs. In by divisions on fundamental questions such as her “Essay to Revive the Ancient Education of whether the vote should go to all women or Gentlewomen” (1673) Bathsua Makin just the educated class. The German socialist (1600–ca. 1674), governess to the children Clara Zetkin (1854–1933) created a Socialist of Charles I of England and well-known Women’s International (1907) and cam- mathematician, proposed serious academic paigned successfully for 8 March to be cele- study for girls. Philosopher Mary Astell brated as an international women’s day. In (1666–1731) advocated the establishment of 1938 the American suffrage campaigner Alice a higher-education retreat for unmarried Paul (1885–1977) founded the World women. In 1694 she published “A Serious Women’s Party in Geneva; its achievements Proposal to the Ladies for the Advancement include ensuring that the United Nations of their True and Great Interest by a lover of charter recognized the rights of women. her sex,” which argued that since spiritual un- Many European women’s rights activists be- derstanding was dependent on the thinking came involved in international peace cam- self, women must be encouraged to develop paigning. Prominent advocates included the their rational capacity. In “Some Reflections leading Austrian suffrage campaigner Mari- on Marriage” (1700) she presented the idea 432 Women’s Movement: First Wave/Suffrage of a rational, compassionate marriage based on Visible:Women in European History. 3d ed. friendship that required female education to Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1998; Landes, Joan create more rational wives and mothers. B. Women and the Public Sphere in the Age of the French Revolution. Ithaca, NY: Cornell Catherine Macauley (1731–1791), although University Press, 1988; Okin, Susan M. Women justly famous for her work as a historian, also in Western Political Thought.London:Virago, argued in “Letters on Education with Observa- 1980; Pinney, Thomas, ed. Essays of George Eliot. tions on Religious and Metaphysical Subjects” London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1963; (1770) that girls and boys should be exposed to Rendall, Jane. The Origins of Modern Feminism: the same physical sports and academic studies. Women in Britain,France and the United States. Basingstoke, UK: Macmillan, 1985; Sapiro, Mary Wollstonecraft’s (1759–1797) A Vin- Virginia. A Vindication of Political Virtue:The dication of the Rights of Woman (1792) also fo- Political Theory of Mary Wollstonecraft.Chicago: cused on the education of women and the re- University of Chicago Press, 1992; alization of their potential as useful mothers Wollstonecraft, Mary. A Vindication of the Rights and citizens. While Wollstonecraft’s book of Woman. 1792. Reprint, London: Penguin, garnered much attention, it was overshad- 1992. owed by her notoriety, having returned from revolutionary Paris as an unmarried mother. Her undeserved reputation as a wanton ef- Women’s Movement: First fectively discouraged the appropriation of Wave/Suffrage (1848–1928) her convincing rhetoric by such nineteenth- The women’s movement was a campaign for century women’s rights campaigners as the enfranchisement of women. Because suf- George Eliot (née Mary Ann Evans) (1819– frage activists in both the United States and 1880). Many other well-known women writ- Britain did not have the support of any of the ers of this period distanced themselves from main political parties, they experimented such claims. So-called bluestockings Anna with a range of new tactics for attracting at- Laetitia Barbauld (1743–1825) and Hannah tention and support to their cause, which More (1745–1833) were engaged in political gave their campaign a distinctly modern feel. and moral pamphleteering but nevertheless An organized women’s movement developed argued against the education of women. first in the United States and then in Britain A number of male Enlightenment thinkers in the mid-nineteenth century. In both coun- also backed the education of women, most tries woman suffrage increasingly came to be notably Condorcet (1743–1794), who pub- seen as the key to achieving further reform. lished a plan in his Lettres d’un Bourgeois de Woman suffrage supporters lectured, wrote, Newhaven (1787) demanding not only better lobbied, marched, and, in some cases, used education for women but also equal civil and more militant tactics, such as the destruction political rights. He viewed female suffrage as of property. Although American suffragists the logical extension of the call for universal were initially bolder in their approach, mili- suffrage. This was followed by his essay “Sur tancy developed first and was more prevalent l’admission des Femmes au droit de Cité” in Britain, where there was a strong, endur- (1790), in which he asserted: “Either no ing opposition to what many considered a member of the human race has real rights or radical change. In the United States female else all have the same.” suffrage finally became law in 1920 as the Karen M.Ford Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution. In Britain the vote was extended to some See alsoWomen’s Movement: European; women in 1918, but women as a class were Women’s Movement: First Wave/Suffrage; Women’s Movement: Second Wave/Feminism not fully enfranchised until 1928. There is an References: Bridenthal, Renate, Susan Mosher ongoing debate concerning the relative effec- Stuard, and Merry E. Wiesner, eds. Becoming tiveness of the two wings—the constitutional Women’s Movement: First Wave/Suffrage 433

Women at a women's suffrage booth in New York City,1914.(Bettmann/Corbis) and the radical—of the movement in achiev- can Women Suffrage Association (NAWSA). ing reform. Hoping to win support in the South, many of The women’s movement in the United NAWSA’s leaders denied their traditional as- States developed in the north and was linked sociation with the rights of blacks and used to other reform movements, such as the abo- increasingly racist techniques. Despite this, litionist movement. In 1848 the first of a se- an increasing number of black women ac- ries of women’s conventions were held at tively supported woman suffrage. States held Seneca Falls, New York,where a “Declaration a series of referenda on woman suffrage. The of Sentiments” was drafted that pointedly California campaign of 1896 was particularly made use of the framework of the Declara- significant in terms of propaganda.Alice Park tion of Independence. Leaders of the move- (1861–1961), one of the campaign’s leaders, ment—such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton was a major advocate of the use of modern (1815–1902), Susan B. Anthony (1820– advertising methods, promoting what she 1906), Lucy Stone (1818–1893), and So- called “personal advertising” in the form of journer Truth (ca. 1797–1883)—went on lapel buttons, suffrage stationery, and bag- speaking tours around the country. The de- gage stickers. The use of such clever and mand for women’s enfranchisement grew witty promotional techniques challenged the after the Civil War, when the vote was ex- assumption that suffragists were old-fash- tended to black men but not to women. The ioned and humorless. It may also have been two national suffrage organizations amalga- less disturbing to voters than more conven- mated in 1890 to form the National Ameri- tional political techniques. Subsequent state 434 Women’s Movement: First Wave/Suffrage

referenda campaigns became much more in- played an important role. In particular, links ventive and eye-catching in their propa- between the women’s movement and the ganda thanks to the success of the California temperance movement aroused much con- campaign. cern among brewers and distillers. They and Pioneers of woman suffrage in Britain in- others with vested interests largely operated cluded John Stuart Mill (1806–1873), no- behind the scenes, providing financial sup- tably in his work entitled The Subjugation of port to antisuffrage organizations. Although Women (1869). Most British suffragists did their activity was sporadic, antisuffragists in not use the mass propaganda techniques of both countries increasingly used political ac- their U.S. counterparts. They were reluctant tivism. They organized petitions, testified at to address mixed audiences publicly and hearings, cultivated legislators, and published there were no women’s conventions. Class various types of propaganda literature. They rather than race issues caused divisions. also assembled statistics to support their ar- There was disagreement over whether to gument that the majority of women did not campaign for woman suffrage with the prop- want the vote. Antisuffragist propaganda de- erty limitations then applied to men or to fined the context within which the suffragists support socialist campaigns for universal had to develop their arguments. In addition, adult suffrage. With the founding of the first the “antis” (as they were commonly known) feminist paper, The English Woman’s Journal, in questioned the femininity and sexuality of 1858, the tradition of great women writers the leaders of the suffrage movement, creat- was drawn upon. The first British woman ing a negative stereotype of feminists that has suffrage committee was formed in London in had a long-term impact. 1867, with other local societies and national In the United States a second generation organizations soon following. The two most of leaders provided new ideas and energy. important of these were the National Union Carrie Chapman Catt (1859–1947), who of Woman Suffrage Societies (NUWSS) and served as president of NAWSA from 1900 the Women’s Social and Political Union to 1904 and again from 1915 to 1920, was (WSPU). Established in 1897, from 1900 on- one of the most politically astute leaders. A ward the NUWSS was led by Millicent Gar- skillful organizer, she recruited large num- rett Fawcett (1847–1929). Its members used bers of socially prominent and politically in- moderate constitutional tactics. The WSPU, fluential women. Other leaders, such as established in 1903 and led by Emmeline Alice Paul (1885–1977) and Harriet E. Pankhurst (1857–1928), began to use more Blatch (1856–1940), appealed to young radical methods to attract publicity. In re- people, radicals, and working-class women. sponse to government inaction and police vi- Paul, as head of the National Women’s Party olence, in 1907 the WSPU shifted from non- (NWP), shifted it from an electoral strategy violent tactics to the destruction of property to civil disobedience. In January 1917 Paul and other militant behavior.According to the and her followers picketed outside the press, militant suffragists cut telegraph White House—a new tactic at the time. wires, broke windows, committed arson, When, four months later, Congress voted to burned mailboxes, refused to pay taxes, and enter the war, suffragists carried signs ques- carried out hunger strikes to protest their re- tioning whether the United States could peated imprisonment. truly lead a crusade for democracy if its From Seneca Falls onward, the women’s own women remained disenfranchised. movement faced media hostility, but it was They publicly burned President Woodrow woman suffrage that created the strongest Wilson’s (1856–1924) speeches and and most organized opposition. In the United chained themselves to the White House States special interests and machine politics fence. Crowds assaulted the protestors and Women’s Movement: Second Wave/Feminism 435 almost three hundred women were arrested Women’s Movement: Second for civil disobedience. These tactics did not Wave/Feminism (1963– ) become widespread in the United States. A new wave of feminist activism began in the While U.S. women organized for suffrage 1960s with the aim of increasing women’s during wartime, most of those involved in opportunities and freedoms not just through the British women’s movement suspended legislation but also by challenging the social their campaigns after Britain declared war on and cultural factors that combined to confine Germany in 1914. Emmeline and Christabel women to their traditional domestic role. Pankhurst (1880–1958) turned their ener- Liberal, socialist, and radical wings worked gies to supporting the war effort.Although it together and separately on a wide range of is- is generally agreed that World War I played a sues. In addition to numerous locally based decisive role in enabling women to finally get organizations and programs, including femi- the vote, the nature of its impact is still de- nist writing in a variety of formats, national bated. Despite the fact that militant tactics at- events such as debates, conferences, and tracted international publicity and gained marches were used to raise awareness. De- long-lasting renown, revisionist historians spite its undeniable success, ideological divi- have questioned their effectiveness. For ex- sions within the movement led to increased ample, even at its peak in 1914, the WSPU tension, leaving the feminist movement vul- only had around 2,000 members, whereas nerable to attack. A backlash of antifeminist the NUWSS had over 100,000. However, it propaganda from the media and right-wing has also been argued that the attention that politicians began in the 1980s, and was par- militant tactics attracted was important in ticularly effective in the United States.Atten- spurring the growth of the constitutional tion continues to be focused on issues such as movement. Many women who did not want pay inequalities, childcare provision, and to be associated with militancy nonetheless abortion rights, but liberal, individualistic became more aware of the issues and felt im- politics have increasingly replaced collective pelled to signify their support for woman activism and calls for radical change among suffrage by joining the more moderate move- feminists in Britain and the United States. ment. Despite the eventual success of the The feminist movement effectively began woman suffrage movement, the 1920s and in the United States with the publication of 1930s saw a renewed emphasis on female do- Betty Friedan’s (1921– ) book The Feminine mesticity, which ultimately led to the second Mystique (1963), which argued that the ideal wave of feminist activism beginning in the of the happy housewife and mother was a 1960s. damaging propaganda myth. Friedan became Elizabeth Tacey a figurehead for liberal feminism in the See also Abolitionism/Antislavery Movement; United States as the leader of the National Peace and Antiwar Movements (1500–1945); Organization for Women (NOW), which was Women’s Movement: European; Women’s formed in 1966 to lobby for women’s civil Movement: Second Wave/Feminism rights. Since NOW’s members were typically References: Bartley, Patricia. Votes for Women, 1860–1928. London: Hodder and Stoughton, middle-class, middle-aged, and financially 1998. Bolt, Christine. Feminist Ferment: The successful, an array of other mass-member- Woman Question in the U.S.A. and England, ship organizations geared to the needs of spe- 1870–1940. London: UCL, 1995; Camhi, cific groups of women not represented by Jane Jerome. Women against Women:American NOW were quickly formed. Although The Anti-Suffragism, 1880–1920. Brooklyn, NY: Feminine Mystique became an international Carlson, 1994; Marilley, Suzanne M. Woman Suffrage and the Origins of Liberal Feminism. best-seller and manifesto for the movement, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, liberal feminism remained weaker in Britain. 1996. Although the movement that emerged in 436 Women’s Movement: Second Wave/Feminism

Britain from 1968 to 1970 shared many of the dominant cultural signifier of feminism, the same issues, aims, and key texts with the perpetuating the representation of feminists feminist movement in the United States, it as “unfeminine” and unattractive and making was more closely linked to socialist and many women reluctant to call themselves Marxist groups of the New Left. However, feminists. There was selective picketing of both liberal and socialist feminists used the sex shops and movie theaters showing porno- same type of propaganda methods. Viewing graphic films, as well as strikes by female debates, conferences, marches, and articles workers in the United States. However, the in journals as the most effective way to edu- tactics involving civil disobedience used by cate the public and influence politicians, fem- militant Edwardian feminists in their cam- inists used these tactics to lobby for impor- paign for woman suffrage were far from typi- tant legislation. In particular, they focused on cal of second-wave feminism. Small con- employment and pay issues, childcare, and sciousness-raising groups, intentionally matters related to sex discrimination and designed to avoid the formal hierarchical childbearing. In the United States the cam- structures typical of male politics, became a paign for state ratification of the Equal Rights hallmark of women’s liberation. Sharing their Amendment (ERA) drew large numbers of experiences of sexism in these groups proved women into political activism. In Britain the an effective way of increasing individual Sex Discrimination Act (1975) was preceded women’s awareness of feminist issues.A vari- by much lobbying and pressure-group activ- ety of grassroots projects, such as establishing ity. Radical feminists’ suspicions of male- women’s safe houses and health centers, also dominated institutions inclined them to by- drew women into the movement. Radical pass the mainstream political system. Known feminists launched their own magazines for as “women’s liberation,” radical feminism first women, such as Spare Rib in Britain and Ms. in developed in the United States and Britain in the United States, as an alternative to the the 1960s among a group of young women male-dominated mainstream press. Women’s involved in a series of protest movements writing—including journalism, polemics, that challenged social norms and traditional fiction, and women’s history—was one of the values. Women began forming their own or- foremost vehicles for the women’s move- ganizations to address their role and status ment. Significant works included The Female both within these movements and in society Eunuch (1970) by the Australian-born Ger- in general, applying the same tactics of social maine Greer (1939– ). agitation. In the United States involvement in Feminism became almost fashionable dur- the civil rights movement was particularly ing the 1970s, with a number of govern- important in raising women’s awareness of ment-backed propaganda initiatives, such as individual rights. the International Woman’s Year in 1975. In Radical feminists viewed sexual relations 1977 the largest convention of women was as the main cause of inequality and advocated held in the United States in Houston, Texas, a broader rejection of conventional gender under government sponsorship. However, in- roles. In 1968 feminists in the United States creased links with mainstream politics inten- protested at the Miss World pageant in At- sified the movement’s ideological divisions lantic City, New Jersey, by “trashing” such ac- and internal disputes, with the result that it coutrements of femininity as girdles, bras, became increasingly diversified and ulti- and mascara, which they deposited in a bin. mately ceased to exist as a national move- The publicity this attracted gave women’s lib- ment. In the 1980s feminism was scape- eration immediate renown. However, the goated by the media, as well as by the media transformed the episode into a mythic right-wing political parties that had been re- “bra-burning” event that for years remained turned to power, as responsible for all kinds World War I 437 of negative social change and moral decay. mesticity. By the end of the 1990s it had be- The backlash was stronger and more effective come fashionable to portray the women’s in the United States, particularly in the anti- movement as confused and uncertain as to its abortion movement. At the same time, how- future direction. However, despite its decline ever, women adopted an increasingly positive as an organized national movement, individ- stance toward the political system and organ- ual women and specific campaigns continue ized to increase their representation. to address feminist issues. In the 1990s it was argued that we had en- Elizabeth Tacey tered a “postfeminist” age. Films and adver- See also Civil Rights Movement; Friedan, Betty; tisements increasingly portrayed women as Peace and Antiwar Movements (1945– ); assertive and empowered, and women’s stud- Women’s Movement: European; Women’s Movement: First Wave/Suffrage ies courses were replaced by gender studies, References: Bouchier, David. The Feminist encouraging a tendency to assume gender Challenge:The Movement for Women’s Liberation in equality.A men’s movement developed, with Britain and the USA.London: Macmillan, 1983; books by such male authors as Neil Lyndon’s Faludi, Susan. Backlash:The Undeclared War (1946– ) No More Sex War (1992). Lyndon against Women.London:Vintage, 1992; Friedan, questioned the historical assumptions under- Betty. The Feminine Mystique.London: Gollancz, 1963; Rosen, Ruth. The World Split Open. pinning feminism; however his argument was London: Penguin, 2000; Whelehan, Imelda. reduced by critics into a crude claim that Modern Feminist Thought. Edinburgh: Edinburgh men had now become the victims. A number University Press, 1995. of pressure groups were formed to address men’s lack of rights, especially in the area of child custody. Naomi Wolf’s (1962– ) book World War I (1914–1918) The Beauty Myth (1990) and Susan Faludi’s Also known as the Great War, World War I (1959– ) Backlash (1992) were particularly introduced a new definition as well as new influential in documenting how the legal and levels of propaganda to warfare. The war was social gains previously made by the women’s fought by two evenly matched alliances: the movement were now being eroded. Wolf ar- Entente Powers, or Allies (chiefly Great gued that beauty had replaced domesticity as Britain, France, Italy [after 1915], Russia patriarchy’s latest propaganda weapon against [until 1917], and the United States [as an “As- women. Feminism had successfully con- sociated Power” thereafter]) versus the Cen- vinced women that they were not obliged to tral Powers (chiefly Germany, Austria-Hun- adopt traditional roles, but women’s time, gary, and Ottoman Turkey). This was the first money, and emotional energy were now war in history where both the ideology and being consumed by attempts to conform to practical resources existed for governments the media ideals of beauty with which they to mobilize entire industrial societies for war- were surrounded. Faludi pointed to continu- fare.Propaganda was an essential part of this ing inequalities between the sexes, such as war effort, developing in all countries as the unequal pay and employment opportunities, war progressed. Propaganda was directed to- that were not being addressed as a result of ward the home population to support the “antifeminist” trendy media stories. In recent war, toward neutral countries as a means of years much of the discussion has moved be- influence, and toward the enemy as a weapon. yond the issue of equal rights and into terri- The entry for “Propaganda” in the 1911 tory that remains controversial even among edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica was feminists. Increased attention has been fo- based on its original religious meaning. As a cused on the dilemmas posed by women’s direct consequence of World War I, in 1921 entry into the labor market, in particular the German writer Edgar Stern-Rubarth re- how best to combine independence with do- defined propaganda as a political activity used The original sheet music cover for George M.Cohan's patriotic song "Over There," 1917,depicting sailor William J.Reilly of the USS Michigan. (Courtesy of David Culbert) World War I 439 by states at war, which remains the dominant ance from the military and naval authorities, usage. Since World War I organized propa- who took more than a year to be convinced ganda has been regarded as an essential part of the need for war reporters—and then of any war effort, increasing in importance only under the strictest controls. Resistance throughout the twentieth century. also came from established ministries, and a The rival alliances that began the war ex- centralized propaganda organization, the pected a violent but short war. Instead, the Ministry of Information, was not created approximate equality of the opposing forces until early 1918. The basic British approach, produced a stalemate and resulted in a pro- known as “the propaganda of facts,” was for tracted war. In 1915 the British introduced official propaganda to present events as accu- the concept of the “Home Front,” based on rately as possible, but with an interpretation government intervention on a massive scale favorable to British policy. Only on rare occa- in order to restructure the country’s econ- sions were stories of horrific enemy behavior omy and society for war, with correspon- released, usually over the objections of pro- ding sacrifices from the civilian population. fessional propagandists. Famous atrocity sto- The French equivalent was known as the ries of the war, such as the “crucified Cana- Union Sacré (sacred union), an alliance be- dian,” were frequently spontaneous or private tween government, industry, and civilians. initiatives. Upon entering the war in April The German version, introduced in late 1917, the United States copied this British 1916, was called the Hindenburg Program, policy stressing facts by establishing its own after General Paul von Hindenburg (1847– Committee on Public Information (CPI), 1934). Both control of the mass media and popularly known as the Creel Committee. propaganda were seen as essential in main- By comparison, the German approach to taining national support. Until almost the propaganda, which was largely controlled by end of the war, civilians in the most devel- the army, was unsophisticated and much less oped and cohesive societies—Great Britain, successful. German policy often played into France, and Germany—generally supported the hands of Entente propagandists, as with their respective countries’ war efforts virtu- their treatment of occupied Belgium, the ally independent of propaganda. Most bombing and shelling of British and French armies also were inclined to treat enemy cities, and the adoption of unrestricted sub- propaganda as a joke unless they were facing marine warfare. Important propaganda work imminent defeat. by the French and the Italians has been ob- At the start of the war most countries had scured by publicity given to British successes only embryonic propaganda organizations. after the war. Austria-Hungary and Russia Institutions developed piecemeal, beginning made little use of organized propaganda, in as local initiatives that were later centralized contrast to the Bolsheviks after 1917, who as the war progressed. Propaganda in the regarded it as an essential part of their war form of poster campaigns and slogans be- effort. came commonplace. The most successful of The chief neutral target of Entente propa- the war’s propagandists were the British, who ganda was the United States until its entry forged an alliance between newspaper own- into the war. The primarily British campaign ers, civilian intellectuals, and the govern- was almost invisible, deliberately targeting ment; their system became a model for oth- American elite opinion, in contrast to the ers. British propaganda was initially aimed strident and public German campaign. The chiefly at political and social elites, only de- British were able to exploit their common veloping populist traits by 1916 through the language and their control of the transatlantic use of such popular mass media as film. telegraph, having cut the German submarine British propaganda development met resist- cables at the war’s start. The British campaign 440 World War II (Britain)

Hungary), whereas Allied propaganda leaflet campaigns did play a part in the collapse of the German and Austro-Hungarian armies at war’s end. This war was the first to target systemati- cally produced government propaganda at the general public. It paved the way for devel- opments in advertising and other aspects of twentieth-century mass society. The war also marked an important advance in film through newsreels, documentaries, and fictional films in Britain, France, and above all in the United States, laying the foundations for Holly- wood’s rise to respectability in the 1920s. Fi- nally, the scale and success of mass propa- ganda led to intellectual disquiet about the consequences in terms of the relationship be- tween government and society. Stephen Badsey See also All Quiet on the Western Front;Atrocity Propaganda;Australia;Austrian Empire; Beaverbrook, Max; The Big Lie; Black Propaganda; Britain; Bryce Report; Canada; Censorship; CPI; Creel, George; Fakes; Flagg, James Montgomery; France; Germany; Gray Propaganda; Intelligence; Italy; Mein Kampf; Preparedness Day Parade in Baton Rouge,Louisiana,1916, Memorials and Monuments; Morale; featuring a 300-foot-long American flag. Note the rigidly- Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg; New segregated bystanders:whites on the left;blacks on the right. Zealand; Northcliffe, Lord; Ottoman (Courtesy of David Culbert) Empire/Turkey; Peace and Antiwar Movements (1500–1945); Posters; Psychological Warfare; Raemakers, Louis; Russia; United States; Zimmermann Telegram played a significant part in the decision by the References: Cornwall, Mark. The Undermining of United States to enter the war. Its scope and Austria-Hungary. London: Macmillan, 2000; Fussell, Paul. The Great War and Modern Memory. success caused a scandal among American London: Oxford University Press, 1975; isolationists when revealed after the war. Messenger, Gary. British Propaganda and the All sides targeted both enemy armies and State. Manchester, UK: Manchester University civilian populations with propaganda. After Press, 1992; Ross, Stewart Halsey. Propaganda the war, the British claimed considerable suc- for War. New York: McFarland, 1996; Taylor, cess in using propaganda against the German Philip M. Munitions of the Mind. London: Patrick Stephens, 1990; Welch, David. and Austro-Hungarian home fronts. This fit- Germany,Propaganda and Total War,1914–18. ted in with the postwar German claim that its New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, armies had not been defeated but “stabbed in 2000. the back.” The belief in propaganda as a weapon of war heavily influenced Adolf Hitler. Subsequent research has shown that World War II (Britain) no major British propaganda campaign was The British approached propaganda in World mounted in either country (although Italian- War II with some trepidation, owing to the led propaganda helped defeat Austria- reaction against the perceived excesses of World War II (Germany) 441

British activity in World War I. Prewar plan- tics, and allusions to Britain’s war experi- ning proved chaotic, and the “dress rehearsal” ence were part of the political campaigns of in the form of the Munich Pact of 1938 Margaret Thatcher (1925– ). showed that Britain had much to do to pre- Nicholas J.Cull pare for a full-scale war. Despite an accelera- See also BBC; Black Propaganda; Bracken, tion of planning in 1939, the British began Brendan; Britain; Censorship; Churchill, the war with an inefficient propaganda appa- Winston; Health; London Can Take It; Lord Haw-Haw; MoI; Morale; Netherlands, ratus both at home and abroad, specifically Belgium, and Luxembourg; Opinion Polls; the neutral nations. Britain adopted the strat- Orwell, George; Psychological Warfare; PWE; egy of conducting “propaganda with fact,” Rumor; Scandinavia; Thatcher, Margaret basing key campaigns, including its approach References: Aldgate,Anthony, and Jeffrey to the neutral United States, on facilitating Richards. Britain Can Take It:The British Cinema commercial news coverage of the war. This in the Second World War. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1994; Chapman, James. The worked well, especially during the London British at War:Cinema,State and Propaganda, Blitz. 1939–1945.London: I. B. Tauris, 1998; Britain’s principal propaganda structures Cruickshank, Charles. The Fourth Arm: were the Ministry of Information (MoI) for Psychological Warfare,1938–1945. Oxford: home, allied, and neutral territory, and the Oxford University Press, 1981; Cull, Nicholas J. Selling War:British Propaganda and American Political Warfare Executive (PWE) for “Neutrality”in World War Two.New York: Oxford enemy territory. The programs of the British University Press, 1995; McLaine, Ian. Ministry Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) earned of Morale:Home Front Morale and the Ministry of Britain a powerful reputation for credibility Information in World War II.London: Unwin, that proved an asset long after the war had 1979; Taylor, Philip M. British Propaganda in the ended. Britain also gained much from the Twentieth Century:Selling Democracy.Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1999. rhetorical abilities of Winston Churchill (1874–1965), who served as prime minister from 1940 to 1945, broadcasters like J. B. Priestley (1894–1984), and documentary World War II (Germany) filmmakers like Humphrey Jennings (1906– In September 1939 the Nazi regime faced the 1950). The British film industry supported challenge for which it had been preparing the war effort under the leadership of pro- since its takeover of power, namely, a major ducers like Michael Balcon (1896–1977) of war. Much of Adolf Hitler’s (1889– Ealing Studios. 1945) popularity after he came to power Britain was slow to specify its war aims rested on his achievements in foreign policy. and did so only when cornered by U.S. pres- A recurring theme in Nazi propaganda before ident Franklin Roosevelt (1882–1945). The 1939 was that Hitler was a man of peace, but result was the Atlantic Charter of August that he was determined to recover German 1941, which prepared the way for the post- territories “lost” as a result of the Treaty of war United Nations. The charter played its Versailles (1919). Providing foreign-policy part in convincing the American people that propaganda could highlight the achievements the war was a noble cause and not just a bid of revisionism without German bloodshed. It to save the British Empire. At home the was relatively easy then to build consensus propaganda apparatus during the war per- that favored overturning the humiliating petuated the notion of a “people’s war” and postwar peace settlements. Much of the re- emphasized the possibility of postwar social sponsibility for ensuring that this occurred change, which paved the way for the postwar lay with the Reichsministerium für Volk- Labour government. The war became a key saufklärung und Propaganda (Reich Ministry point of reference in postwar British poli- for Popular Enlightenment and Propaganda 442 World War II (Germany)

To achieve these goals the propaganda ma- chine was faced with two main tasks: to per- suade the nation that the war needed to be fought and to convince the German people that the war could and would be won. The exigencies of war demanded of Goebbels a more intense concern with the tactics of propaganda and greater flexibility to respond to changing military situations. His directive entitled “Guidelines for the Execution of NSDAP Propaganda,” issued at the outbreak of war, outlined the means he expected his staff to employ in disseminating propaganda. This included radio and newspapers, films, posters, mass meetings, illustrated lectures, and Mundpropaganda (“whisper” or word-of- mouth propaganda). During the course of the war four major propaganda campaigns emerged, all of which were dictated by changing military fortunes: (1) the Blitz- krieg, (2) the Russian campaign, (3) total war and the need for strengthening morale, Enormous vertical red banners,at the time of a Nazi Party rally,Nuremberg,September 1934,seen in Leni Riefenstahl's and (4) promises of retaliation or revenge propaganda film Triumph of the Will. (Courtesy of David (Vergeltung). Culbert) Goebbels’s immediate task, once war had been declared, was to counteract the nega- tive opinions held by the population at home. [RMVP]), whose minister was Joseph Goeb- From September 1939 to December 1941 bels (1897–1945). this proved relatively easy in the wake of a However, there was a basic contradiction succession of stunning German Blitzkrieg between propaganda that presented Hitler as victories. Propaganda was able to advertise a “man of peace” and an ideology that was in- military victories and to create the expecta- exorably linked to struggle and war. Ob- tion of new ones. Thus, during the period of sessed by territorial expansion in the east, in lightning strikes in Poland, Scandinavia, the November 1937 Hitler confided to his mili- Low Countries, and France, German belief in tary leaders at the Hossbach Conference that an early termination of the war was strength- “Germany’s problems could only be solved ened by a concerted propaganda campaign, by means of force” (Welch 2001, 62). Ac- which was able to persuade the population cordingly, the RMVP began preparing the na- that Germany’s actions were a preemptive tion for war by claiming that the latter was response to the aggressive intentions of her unavoidable and was being forced upon Ger- enemies. many.Anticipating Germany’s expansion as a Having decided to invade Russia on 22 major world power, the propaganda appara- June 1941, by the beginning of 1942 Hitler tus had to prepare the nation psychologically had begun to lose control of the military situ- and to mobilize it into a “fighting commu- ation. Between 1942 and 1945, with Ger- nity.” An ominous slogan of the period pro- many facing increasing setbacks, government claimed: “Today Germany, tomorrow the propaganda emphasized the threat posed by world.” the “subhuman” Bolshevik hordes from the World War II (Germany) 443

Nazi Party rally,Nuremberg,September 1934.(Courtesy of David Culbert)

East and presented the Reich as the defender Goebbels adopted a stance of frankness and of European civilization. A constant theme realism by proclaiming “total war,” demand- was “encirclement.” Propaganda claimed that ing the complete mobilization of Germany’s Germany was the victim of a conspiracy be- human resources for the war effort. During tween a Bolshevik Russia and a plutocratic the period 1943–1945, Nazi propaganda en- Britain, orchestrated by Jews who dominated couraged the population to believe that Ger- both states. As the situation deteriorated, many was developing secret weapons capable propaganda increasingly emphasized the ter- of transforming the military situation. rible fate that would await the German peo- In the final years of the war, the notion of ple if the Bolsheviks proved successful. retaliation or revenge by means of these “mir- Russian resistance proved tougher than the acle” weapons played a crucial role in sustain- Nazis had expected. From 1942 onward Nazi ing morale. The promise of revenge was propagandists were forced to shift their focus widely seen as a panacea for all of Germany’s from the initial euphoria of the Blitzkrieg vic- troubles. However, dejection set in once it tories to account for a rapidly deteriorating became apparent that the new weapons military situation. The impact of the Nazi de- would not bring the war to an end. The con- feat at Stalingrad on the morale of the Ger- cept of “total war” had attempted to mobilize man people cannot be overestimated. It af- the home front and elicit a fanaticism to fight fected their attitude toward the war and to the death against Bolshevism. The promise created a crisis of confidence in the regime of retaliation was the Nazis’ last-ditch effort among broad sections of the population. to guarantee future victory. It was a promise 444 World War II (Italy)

that could not be kept. Belief in retaliation Nazi Germany’s proper course of action, and other propaganda clichés had worn thin with a centralized Ministry of Propaganda, for quite some time. managed nonmilitary propaganda. However, In the final year of the war, Goebbels at- actual propaganda campaigns developed in a tempted to resurrect the Führer cult by de- variety of areas. Privately owned entertain- picting Hitler as a latter-day Frederick the ment companies such as film giants Toho and Great, ultimately triumphant in the face of Shochiku and the entertainment company adversity. In the face of the gathering Russian Yoshimoto sent platoons of entertainers to occupation of Germany, this absurd image China to amuse the imperial troops. These represented an alarming flight from reality brigades then returned to the home islands that no amount of propaganda could sustain. and publicized Japanese military success in The “Hitler myth” could not survive the mili- China. Government-sponsored programs tary reverses and was on the verge of extinc- urged writers to reorganize into “voluntary” tion—as was the Third Reich. blocs and write about the effort to educate David Welch the civilian population during wartime. See also Film (Nazi Germany); Germany; Semiprivate advertising companies, em- Goebbels, Joseph; Hitler,Adolf; Lord Haw- ployed as subcontractors for the Imperial Haw; Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg; General Headquarters, designed and pro- Radio (International); RMVP; Scandinavia References: Herzstein, Robert. The War That duced propaganda leaflets that blanketed vil- Hitler Won:The Most Infamous Propaganda lages and fields in China and Southeast Asia. Campaign in History.London: Hamish Hamilton, The Japanese military itself often distributed 1979; Welch, David. Hitler:Profile of a Dictator. these materials and kept records of how local London: Routledge, 2001;———. The Third areas responded. Reich:Politics and Propaganda.London: On the home front, the police and their Routledge, 2002. various special agencies maintained careful surveillance of the domestic population, tab- ulating rumor campaigns, arresting so-called World War II (Italy) spies, and censoring media deemed anti-im- See Fascism, Italian perial. The government and private business were also interested in boosting tourism as a means of instilling support for the war effort, World War II (Japan) as well as educating foreigners about Japan. The roots of Japanese war propaganda date Tourism campaigns were partially orches- back to the Meiji government’s programs to trated by the Ministry for Foreign Affairs, as nationalize the population while instilling the were later campaigns to encourage Asian stu- idea that Japan was simultaneously attempt- dents to travel to Japan to study. ing to modernize itself and protect Asia. In Following the “China Incident” of 7 July World War II Japanese propaganda operated 1937, which restarted war between Japan on three main fronts: domestically; China and China, the Japanese authorities increased and Southeast Asia; and the West. censorship and social pressure to support Massive propaganda programs went well Japanese military aims. As the war in China beyond mere military information cam- stagnated, newsreels became a prominent paigns. The government planned to popular- source of propaganda. The prime minister ize the notion that it was Japan’s manifest even called the heads of the newsreel compa- destiny to expand into Asia and bring Asia it- nies to his residence and asked them to sup- self into the modern era. Officially the Cabi- port the war effort. net Board of Information, the Japanese gov- After 1937 press controls were tightened ernment’s attempt to copy what it felt was even further by the passage of laws such as World War II (Russia) 445 the Newspaper and Publication Control Or- pation forces soon realized that they had nei- dinance in January 1941. Military press mat- ther the human resources nor the ability ters came under the direct supervision of the needed to “democratize” Japan single-hand- Daihonei Honbu, or Imperial General Head- edly. Ironically, American occupation forces quarters Press Department. This section employed many of the same high-level Japan- oversaw all press reports that dealt with any ese special police and military propagandists matter, however tangentially related to the who, only months earlier, had been fighting military. Even weather reports were banned against the West. following the attack on Pearl Harbor on the Barak Kushner assumption that such information could pro- See also Australia; China; Indonesia; Japan; vide vital information to the enemy. Japanese Korea; Philippines; Radio (International); newspapers continued to provide coverage— Southeast Asia; Tokyo Rose; World War II (United States) albeit biased—of the war. With few excep- References: Dower, John. War without Mercy:Race tions, a majority of writers and journalists and Power in the Pacific War. New York: avoided arrest even in the face of draconian Pantheon, 1986;———. Embracing Defeat: laws and censorship regulations. As Japanese Japan in the Wake of World War II. New York: military triumphs mounted, domestic excite- Norton, 1999; Friend, Theodore. The Blue-eyed ment created by the initial victories peaked. Enemy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988; Garon, Sheldon. Molding Japanese Editors and writers, along with the general Minds. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University population, believed in the justice of Japan’s Press, 1997; Ienaga, Saburo. The Pacific War, cause and its ability to defeat its enemies. 1931–1945. New York: Random House, 1978; With the attack on Pearl Harbor in De- Lebra, Joyce C. Jungle Alliance,Japan and the cember 1941, Japan was faced with the Indian National Army. Singapore:Asia Pacific Press, 1971; Meo, L. D. Japan’s Radio War on daunting military task of fighting on two Australia. Melbourne: Melbourne University fronts simultaneously—in China and the Pa- Press, 1968; Sato, Masaharu, and Barak, cific. The Japanese government asked its peo- Kushner.“Negro Propaganda Operations: ple, already under duress since the mid- Japan’s Short-wave Radio Broadcasts for World 1930s, to endure further economic War II Black Americans.” Historical Journal of restrictions, recycle scarce materials, do with Film,Radio and Television 19, 1 (1999): 5–26; Shillony, Ben-Ami. Politics and Culture in Wartime less, and live by wartime slogans such as “lux- Japan. New York: Oxford University Press, ury is the enemy.” During the many Pacific is- 1981; Young, Louise. Japan’s Total Empire, land battles, American troops found it diffi- Manchuria and the Culture of Wartime Imperialism. cult to take Japanese prisoners alive. A great Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998. number of both Japanese civilian and military personnel often chose suicide over capture. Intense domestic pressure and propaganda World War II (Russia) campaigns often left Japanese infantrymen Known in Russia as the “Great Patriotic War,” little choice. World War II propaganda played a central While Japanese propaganda generally role in rallying the Soviet population to resist failed in Asia, domestically the results were the Nazi invasion. The German attack on the different. By the summer of 1945 the United Soviet Union (Operation Barbarossa) found States had to acknowledge that Japanese rule, the regime of Joseph Stalin (1897–1953) ill with the emperor as head, must be left intact prepared for battle. The Nazi forces nearly or a viable peace would not be obtainable. succeeded in breaking the Soviet Union in Following the Japanese capitulation on 15 the months that followed. By November the August 1945, the U.S.-managed occupation German army had seized the Ukrainian Re- was quick to install its own pro-Western public, besieged Leningrad (present-day propaganda institutions. However, the occu- Saint Petersburg, the USSR’s second-largest 446 World War II (Russia) city), and threatened Moscow itself. By the rhetoric in official pronouncements and the end of 1941, however, the German forces mass media. had lost their momentum. German move- Cinema—that “most important of all the ments were increasingly hampered by harsh arts,” according to Lenin—was called to winter weather, attacks by partisans, and dif- arms. Esfir Shub (1894–1959) was able to ficulties in maintaining overextended supply make two full-length documentaries: Fascism lines.At the same time, the Red Army had re- Will Be Destroyed (1941) and Homeland covered from the initial blow and began to (1942). Both films were able to make disas- strike back. trous outcomes appear successful. The name After the initial shock, including a ru- of master filmmaker Dziga Vertov (1896– mored escape from the capital by Stalin him- 1954) was attached to three films during the self, the formidable Soviet propaganda ma- war years: Blood for Blood, Death for Death chine hit its stride almost immediately. (1941), In the High Zone (1941), and the five- Within two days of the invasion Vyacheslav reel To You,Front! (1942). Molotov (1890–1986), the commissar for The cities of Leningrad and Stalingrad be- foreign affairs, addressed the nation by radio came physical embodiments of—and thus in an angry and defiant tone. Newsreels cap- propaganda gifts to—the Soviet Union’s tured the grim-faced determination of So- moral right to victory.After several failed at- viet citizens while listening to his speech, tempts to take Leningrad by storm, Nazi images that were on Soviet screens within a forces settled in for a 900-day siege (August week. Stalin was able to launch his call to 1941 to January 1944), which was publicized arms at the start of July. He addressed his au- and eulogized as an example of unprece- dience as “brothers and sisters” (not com- dented courage and heroism. With rades) and called for a defense of the rodina Leningrad straining for victory—with no (motherland). electricity, heat, or running water, and very One famous poster reminded viewers: little food—how could a Soviet citizen falter “Higher vigilance in every unit—always re- in the struggle against Fascism? When news member the treachery and baseness of the of the utter heroism and sacrifice displayed enemy!” Another warned: “When on lookout during the siege of Stalingrad filled the news- duty, check the branches, too. Do not papers, death or victory became the only op- sleep—you are responsible for everyone.” Fi- tions. With the surrender of German com- nally, one poster showing fighters escorting mander Friedrich von Paulus (1890–1957) bombers in formation over Red Square pro- to the Soviet forces in January 1943, victory claimed “Long Live the Mighty Aviation of was a certainty. the Country of Socialism!” at a time when After Stalingrad, the Soviet Union held the there was no Soviet airforce to speak of. initiative for the rest of the war. By the end of In the spring of 1942 the German army 1943, the Red Army had broken through the renewed its offensive, including an attempt German siege of Leningrad and recaptured to crush the city of Stalingrad (present-day much of the Ukrainian Republic. By the end Volgograd). Here, as elsewhere, Soviet forces of 1944, the front had moved beyond the put up fierce resistance even after the Ger- 1939 Soviet frontiers into Eastern Europe. mans had reduced the city to rubble. In such Filmmaker Aleksander Dovzhenko (1894– desperate moments the Soviet government 1956) made The Battle for Our Soviet Ukraine had to rely on the support of the people. To (1943)—released in the United States as increase popular enthusiasm for the war, Ukraine in Flames (1944)—and Victory in the Stalin reshaped his domestic policies to Eastern Ukraine (1945). The political message heighten the patriotic spirit. Nationalistic of these films was that irrespective of the slogans replaced much of the Communist events of the recent past, the Ukraine was World War II (United States) 447 part of the Soviet Union. If the liberated See also Film (Documentary); International; Ukraine was “eastern,” then parts of Poland Lenin,Vladimir Ilyich; Russia; Stalin, Joseph would soon be part of the Ukraine too. References: Hosking, Geoffrey. A History of the Soviet Union. London: Fontana, 1992; Pipes, With a decisive superiority in troops and Richard. Russia under the Soviet Regime.London: weaponry, Soviet forces drove into eastern Harper, 1994; Taylor, Richard. Film Propaganda: Germany, capturing Berlin in May 1945. As Soviet Russia and Nazi Germany. London: I. B. victory seemed within reach, the need for a Tauris, 1998. celebration became paramount. Yelizaveta Svilova (1900–1975) directed the film Berlin, representing a compilation of the work of World War II (United States) army cameramen, which was released in June The story of U.S. propaganda during World 1945 as part of the victory celebrations. War II can be divided into two phases: a pe- The end of World War II saw the Soviet riod of neutrality from September 1939 to Union emerge as one of the world’s two December 1941, during which a great debate greatest military powers. Its battle-tested raged among the population at large, and the forces occupied most of Eastern Europe. period of U.S. involvement in the war, when These achievements came at a high cost, in- the government mobilized a major propa- cluding the deaths of an estimated 20 mil- ganda effort through the Office of War Infor- lion Soviet soldiers and civilians. The loss it- mation (OWI). Both phases witnessed a key self was fruitful propaganda material during role being played by the commercial media. the war and for decades thereafter. The dra- Although Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) was matic events of the war years left a deep im- never popular in the United States, the wide- pact on Soviet literature, which was soon spread feeling that the U.S. role in World utilized in a propagandizing capacity. A War I had been a mistake cooled American genre of patriotic essays blossomed, includ- reactions to the outbreak of war. President ing Volga-Stalingrad (1942) by Vassilii Gross- Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945) refused man (1905–1964), who declared: “Here it to ask his people to be “neutral in spirit” and is, the Russian character at large! A person called for the revision of U.S. neutrality laws might seem so ordinary, but as disaster to at least allow war materials to be sold to strikes, no matter whether big or small, out the Allies. The great neutrality debate began comes a great strength—personal beauty.” in earnest following the fall of France in June In A Man’s Life Story (1942) Mikhail Sholokov 1940. The pro-Allies lobby consisted of the (1905–1984) wrote: “I hope that this man, a moderate Committee to Defend America by Russian man of iron will, will survive and Aiding the Allies and an actively interven- raise a son strong enough to cope with any tionist Century Group (later known as the difficulties, overcome all kinds of hardship.” Fight for Freedom Committee). The pro- Soviet literature of the period, like all popu- neutrality position was represented by the lar culture, urged the population to take ac- America First Committee. The isolationist tion and stressed their moral superiority. camp included newspapers—especially those The horror stories unearthed by Soviet cam- owned by William Randolph Hearst (1863– era teams as the Red Army moved west only 1951), the influential Chicago Tribune, and underscored this moral certainty. The vic- such well-known individuals as Charles Lind- tory celebrations in Red Square in the sum- bergh (1902–1974). Both sides used rallies, mer of 1945 ushered in a new period of petitions, and demonstrations to advance conviction—repeated each year in the their causes. In Hollywood the independent poignant celebrations on “Victory Day” (8 producer Walter Wanger (1894–1968) and May). the Warner Bros. studio released a number of Graham Roberts films with a political message, including For- 448 World War II (United States)

the Atlantic Charter, calling for a postwar United Nations and a policy of unconditional surrender. By the time of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941, the de- bate over U.S. foreign policy had been all but settled. In the summer of 1942 the U.S. govern- ment regrouped it various propaganda agen- cies into a single Office of War Information (OWI), although some psychological opera- tions remained under the new Office of Strategic Services (OSS). OWI tactical cam- paigns included massive leaflet drops to sup- port the invasion of North Africa in 1942, and special air-dropped newspapers for occu- pied countries and eventually even enemy territory. Psychological warfare teams ad- vanced alongside U.S. military forces and had considerable success in appealing to the enemy to surrender.At home campaigns con- ceived in collaboration with the commercial World War II U.S.poster.Every combatant made similar appeals for discretion.(National Archives) media included an effort to engage women in heavy-duty war work. During this campaign Saturday Evening Post artist Norman Rockwell (1894–1978) created the character of Rosie eign Correspondent (1940) and Confessions of a the Riveter. Some of the most important ide- Nazi Spy (1939). Isolationists in the Senate de- ological initiatives came from outside the nounced such ventures as propaganda on be- OWI. In January 1941 Henry Luce (1898– half of Jewish and pro-British vested interests. 1967), the editor of Time, wrote an editorial President Roosevelt initially took a back- proclaiming the “American Century.” The seat in the debate because of the impending idea that the time had come for American presidential election. In December 1940 he global leadership gained wide acceptance demonstrated more active leadership by ad- during the war. Internationalism received a vancing his “Lend Lease” aid policy through a boost from lawyer and Republican presiden- “fireside chat” over the radio. The Lend-Lease tial candidate Wendell Willkie (1892–1944) Act, promising “all aid short of war,” passed and his book One World (1943). Roosevelt Congress on March 15, 1941. As part of its also contributed to the nation’s morale, es- policy of rearmament, the Roosevelt admin- pecially in his definition of Allied war aims. istration established a number of propaganda The notion of the Four Freedoms, dating and information organizations, including the from January 1941 (freedom of speech and Rockefeller Bureau to rally opinion in Latin of worship, freedom from fear and from America (1940); the Office of Government want) proved particularly potent both in the Reports (1939) and Office of Facts and Fig- United States and around the world. For a ures (1940) to present information at home; highly successful war bond drive Rockwell and the Office of the Coordinator of Infor- produced a series of paintings illustrating mation, a new covert intelligence agency that each of these freedoms. included a propaganda branch. In August The United States used propaganda to ori- 1941 Roosevelt persuaded Churchill to sign ent troops (most famously in the U.S. Army Recruiting poster for women during World War II.(National Archives) 450 World Wide Web

Signal Corps film series Why We Fight) and propaganda the apologies for Stalin were to motivate its civilian population. The ap- seen as evidence of left-wing domination of proach varied between the European and Pa- the Roosevelt administration, and the “loss” cific theaters. Whereas in Europe the United of China became evidence that Chiang had States depicted the enemy as an evil regime, been betrayed by an American enemy within. in Asia the enemy was depicted as an entire Such claims set the stage for McCarthyism. race. U.S. war bond posters variously pic- The apparatus of U.S. wartime propaganda, tured the Japanese as ratlike or simian mon- such as the Voice of America (VOA) radio sta- sters. U.S. newspaper cartoons took up the tion, survived the war to become the core of theme without official prompting, with the the U.S. propaganda effort in the Cold War. result that the fanatical Japanese soldier be- On the battlefield Gen. Dwight D. Eisen- came a familiar and enduring stereotype. Par- hower (1890–1969) became convinced of allel Japanese ideas about the West led to a the power of the “P” (psychological factor) in war of mutual extermination on the island warfare and championed the use of propa- battlefields of the Pacific. Propaganda laid the ganda during his presidency. foundation for U.S. use of the atomic bomb Nicholas J.Cull. against Japan in August 1945. See also Capra, Frank; Casablanca; Censorship; During the war the U.S. government care- Intelligence; OWI; Peace and Antiwar fully controlled its use of atrocity stories, a Movements (1500–1945); Psychological Warfare; Radio (International); Roosevelt, tactic that had been much discredited follow- Franklin D.; United States;VOA; Why We ing World War I. The American public Fight; World War II (Britain); World War II seemed reluctant to believe the first news of (Germany); World War II (Japan) Nazi genocide (which came from Jewish and References: Blum, John M. VWas for Victory: Polish sources), and the U.S. government Politics and American Culture during World War II. made little attempt to further publicize the New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1976; Casey, Steven. Cautious Crusade:Franklin D. story. The government often released news Roosevelt,American Public Opinion and the War of Japanese atrocities in a very controlled against Nazi Germany.New York: Oxford way—often several months after the events University Press, 2001; Dower, John. War became known—though not in the case of without Mercy:Race and Power in the Pacific War. the notorious Bataan Death March, in which New York: Pantheon, 1986; Roeder, George H. The Censored War:American Visual Experience thousands of Allied soldiers died on their way during World War Two. New Haven, CT: Yale to Japanese prisoner-of-war camps. University Press, 1993; Steele, Richard W. The extraordinary level of government Propaganda in an Open Society:The Roosevelt and commercial propaganda in the United Administration and the Media,1933–1941. States during the war created a number of Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1985; Winkler, myths that crumbled in the postwar period. Allan M. The Politics of Propaganda:The Office of War Information,1942–1945. New Haven, CT: Joseph Stalin proved to be something less Yale University Press, 1978. than the avuncular nationalist of U.S. wartime propaganda, nor did Chiang Kai- shek in China live up to his image as the dem- World Wide Web ocratic strongman of Asia. In Republican See Internet Y

Yugoslavia See Balkans

451

Z

Zimmermann Telegram (1917) See also Britain; Intelligence; Mexico; United This secret German telegram, which was States; World War I leaked to the U.S. press by British intelli- References: Beesley, Patrick. Room 40:British Naval Intelligence,1914–1918. Oxford: Oxford gence, did much to bring the United States University Press, 1984; Sanders, Michael, and into World War I. It stands as a perfect ex- Philip M. Taylor. British Propaganda during the ample of intelligence and propaganda work- First World War.London: Macmillan, 1982; ing hand in hand. In January 1917 British Tuchman, Barbara. The Zimmermann Telegram. naval intelligence intercepted and decoded New York: Simon and Schuster, 1956. a telegram from Arthur Zimmermann (1864–1940), head of the German foreign office, to his ambassador in Mexico City, in- Zinoviev Letter (1924) structing him to offer Mexico the states of Considered by some to be a fake used for Texas,Arizona, and New Mexico if it would propaganda purposes, this letter, like the join Germany in any future war against the Zimmerman telegram of 1917, is an example United States. The British, eager to draw of the role that intelligence services can play the United States into the war, passed the in the area of propaganda. The letter pur- telegram to the U.S. government, and on ported to come from Grigori Zinoviev 1 March its contents became public.Ameri- (1883–1940), chairman of the Comintern, a cans were outraged, including those living Soviet organization dedicated to extending in the traditionally isolationist regions of the revolution. In it Zinoviev urged the the West and Midwest. Coupled with unre- British Communist Party to ferment dissent stricted German submarine attacks against within the British army. The letter appeared U.S. vessels, the telegram suggested that in the conservative Daily Mail newspaper on Germany now directly threatened the 25 October 1924—a politically sensitive mo- United States. It helped to unite public ment—just a few days before Britain’s first opinion behind the decision of President Labour government faced a general election. Woodrow Wilson (1856–1924) to ask Con- Relations with the Soviet Union had been an gress for a declaration of war, which he ob- issue ever since Ramsey Macdonald (1866– tained on 6 April 1917. 1937), the Labour prime minister, had con- Nicholas J.Cull cluded a trade treaty with Russia. Now the

453 454 Zionism

Labour Party’s opponents hammered home nings of Zionism can be traced back to the the “Red Letter” story, smearing the entire nationalistic stirrings of nineteenth-century left by associating it with the Communist Europe, coupled with the rise of modern Party. On the eve of the election newsstands anti-Semitism, which resulted in increasing carried posters showing the Soviet and persecution of the Jews of Europe as the cen- British flags and the caption: “Under which tury progressed. Theodor Herzl (1860– flag?” By some accounts—especially those of 1904), the founder of political Zionism, was Labour politicians seeking to explain their a journalist, playwright, and essayist from an defeat—it helped the Conservative Party to assimilated Austrian Jewish family. The win by scaring Liberal voters into voting founding of the movement was heralded both Conservative. by the publication of his most famous work, The exact origin of the letter remains un- Der Judenstaat (The Jewish State), in 1896 and certain. If genuine, as some have claimed, its the convening of the First Zionist Congress capture represents a formidable intelligence in Basel, Switzerland, in 1897. coup. If fake, possible culprits include Polish Taking its cue from Herzl, who was intelligence agents and/or White Russian ex- keenly aware of the importance of public- iles eager to promote anti-Soviet feeling. The ity, the Zionist movement initiated a num- letter was originally passed along to the ber of political, cultural, and educational British government, where Prime Minister campaigns. Intent on regaining the ancestral Macdonald resolved to lodge a formal protest homeland of the Jews, Herzl sought to at the Soviet embassy, but before this could unify European Jewry through a distinct be done someone leaked the letter to the secular nationalistic vision, namely, that of a Daily Mail. Plausible candidates for the leak “New Jewish Man” returning to the soil as a include Joseph Ball (1885–1961), an officer farmer and bringing about the uplifting of in MI5 (British intelligence) who later joined Palestine through the revival of the Hebrew the Conservative Party’s Central Office language and Hebrew culture. Zionism where he worked as a propagandist and de- benefited from the communications revolu- ployed techniques that included espionage tion of the late nineteenth and early twenti- and black propaganda. eth century, which witnessed the prolifera- Nicholas J.Cull tion of inexpensive printing methods and, See also Elections (Britain); Fakes; Intelligence; later, the appearance of film and radio to Zimmermann Telegram convey its message to a worldwide Jewish References: Chester, Lewis, Stephen Fray, and audience. Ironically, Zionist propaganda— Hugo Young. The Zinoviev Letter. London: Heinemann, 1967; Ferris, John, and Uri Bar- which, prior to 1933, had emphasized an Joseph. “Getting Marlow to Hold His Tongue: agrarian future for the Jewish people—was The Conservative Party, the Intelligence directed at and achieved its greatest follow- Services and the Zinoviev Letter.” Intelligence ing among an urban, assimilated, middle- and National Security 8, 4 (October 1993): class Jewish audience. 100–137. Herzl himself was presented as the arche- type of the “New Jew” that Zionism sought to create through art and literature. Herzl and Zionism the Zionists were pioneers in the use of visual This political movement has as its goal the images. Indeed, Herzl believed that it was empowerment of the Jews through a return crucial for people to “think in images,” which of the Jewish people to their ancestral home- provided the primary motivation for action. land. The name of the movement is derived As a journalist Herzl recognized the powerful from the word “Zion,” which refers to a symbolic impact of music, as well as other mountain near Jerusalem. The official begin- cultural activities, on an educated middle Zionism 455 class. The earliest publicity material of Herzl- Zionist organizations were slow to de- ian Zionism consisted of a series of postcards velop film as a propaganda medium, in part and delegates’ cards produced in conjunction because of a shortage of funds. The most with the First Zionist Congress. Although prominent example of pre–World War II crude by later standards, these items helped Zionist film propaganda was Land of Promise, introduce the pantheon of Zionist heroes to a commissioned by the JNF and the Palestine wide audience, notably Herzl and Max Nor- Foundation Fund and premiered in Europe dau (1849–1923), who formed the mainstay and the United States in 1935. Although not of Zionist imagery through World War I. the first Zionist film, it was unique for its After 1918 a new set of iconic figures length (nearly an hour) and its imagery, emerged in the persons of Chaim Weizmann which presented Palestine not merely as an (1874–1952) and Albert Einstein (1879– agrarian center but a developing country 1955), among others. The latter, in particu- where industry and intellectual life flour- lar, became one of the most popular speakers ished. Shown in Nazi Germany the same year at Zionist rallies. the infamous Nuremberg Laws were promul- In addition to championing these heroes, gated, the film reflected the new image of Zionism promoted the development of the Palestine as a refuge for Jews facing the rising “Muscular Jew.” Taking its cue from the late- tide of Fascism. The film also reflected a rela- nineteenth-century mania for physical tively new campaign by Zionist organiza- prowess and its perceived link to moral fit- tions, namely, the promotion of tourism to ness, Zionist organizations promoted Jewish Palestine. Through posters, postcards, and gymnasiums. In the wake of the creation of other ready-made souvenirs, it was marketed the modern Olympics in 1896, the World as a “must see” destination for assimilated Zionist Organization (WZO) established the Western Jews who had little or no intention Maccabiah Games, named after the heroic of settling there. Although interrupted by figures of the biblical story of the Maccabees. World War II, the tourism industry became a These games were seen as a means of pro- mainstay of the emerging Israeli economy. moting physical development to meet the In the aftermath of World War II, Zionist challenges of rebuilding a Jewish homeland. propaganda continued to emphasize Pales- Maccabean organizations were established tine/Israel as a place of refuge for persecuted throughout Europe and the United States. Jews. Although following 1948 the most The Maccabiah Games are still held every prominent publicity has been that of the JNF, four years in Israel. in the 1960s and 1970s many Zionist and In 1901 Keren Kayemeth Leisrael (Jewish pro-Zionist organizations became involved in National Fund, or JNF) was established to fi- the Movement for Soviet Jewry. The message nance the purchase of land in Palestine and to “Never Again,” a reference to the Holocaust, sponsor the redevelopment of the area. The became a prominent part of the movement JNF sold shares, issued stamps, and created and appeared on posters, leaflets, and in a souvenirs (such as tin boxes to collect number of films. No longer emphasizing the money) using a variety of agrarian images as agrarian vision of a “New Jew,” the post-1945 backdrops. The most successful and enduring Zionist message focused on Israel as a place of these campaigns—which continues to this where Jews are empowered by statehood. day—is the reforestation of land through the Zionist publicity achieved remarkable success sale of trees as memorials.A poster campaign in the aftermath of the Six-Day War (June begun in the aftermath of World War I 1967), when immigration to Israel (known as showed the growth of Palestine (Israel after Aliyah in Hebrew) increased dramatically. 1948) by emphasizing the collective agricul- Frederic Krome tural movement known as the kibbutz. See also Herzl, Theodor; Israel 456 Zionism

References: Berkowitz, Michael. Zionist Culture 1914–1933.New York: Cambridge University and West European Jewry before the First World War. Press, 1997; Raider, Mark A. The Emergence of New York: Cambridge University Press, 1993; American Zionism.New York: New York ———. Western Jewry and the Zionist Project, University Press, 1998. INDEX

Page numbers in boldface denote Aguinaldo, Emilio, 295 American Institute of Public Opinion main entries. Ahmad, Muhammad, 8 Research, 278 AIDS epidemic, 11, 164, 372 American Peace Society, 290 Aasen, Ivar, 368 Ailes, Roger, 397 American Revolution, 231, 288–289, Abd al-Wahhab, Muhammad ibn, Air Raid Precautions (ARP), 81 324, 344–347, 407–408 15–16, 281 Al Jazeera, 161, 222, 366, 390, 392, Americanization and Australia, 28 Abduh, Mohammed, 15 397 Amery, John, 234 Abdul-Fath, 17 Al Qaeda, 15, 20, 47, 222, 315–316, Amery, Leo, 234 Abdülhamid II (Ottoman Empire), 343, 396–398 Amherst, Lord, 174 281, 282 Alba, Duke of, 264 Amin, Idi, 10 Abdülmecid (Ottoman Empire), 281 Albania, 33, 34, 35, 37, 155 Amundsen, Roald, 368 Abolitionism, 1–2, 143–144, Albert (Prince of England), 100, 118 Anderson, Maxwell, 10 261–262, 409 Albertini, Luigi, 196 Andrew,Christopher, 105 Abortion, 3–5 Albig, William, 318, 320, 321 Andropov,Yuri, 105 Abu Nidal Organization, 395 Aleramo, Sibilla, 430 Aung San Suu Kyi, 373 Abu Sayyaf, 296 Alexander II (Russia), 360, 394 Angell, Sir Norman, 291 Adams, Gerry, 396 Alexander III (Russia), 229, 276, 360, Anglo-Boer War, 8, 10, 12–13 Adams, John, 344, 409 361 Angola, 9 Addams, Jane, 290, 413 Alexander Nevsky (film), 109, 255 Animal Farm (Orwell), 280 Addison, Joseph, 52 Al-Fatah, 17 Annan, Kofi, 406 Adorno, Theodor, 255 Alfonso XIII (Spain), 375, 376 Anne (England), 52 Advertisement of the English Catholics to Algeria, 15, 16 Anslinger, Harry J., 106 the French Catholics (Dorléans), Ali, Muhammad, 381 Anstey, Edgar, 128 135 Alien and Sedition Acts, 409 Anthony, Susan B., 433 Advertising, 5–7, 21, 268, 313, 323, All Quiet on the Western Front (book and Anti-Communism 409 film), 11–12, 150, 272, 291 Britain and, 95, 97–98, 152, 187 Advertising Council, 6–7 All the King’s Men (Warren), 233 China and, 75 Afghanistan, 152, 153, 221, 222, 228, Allende, Salvador, 80, 224 CIA and, 80, 180, 333 396 All-India Muslim League, 175 Cold War, 48, 283 Africa, 7–11. See also individual countries Almon, John, 53 Eastern Europe and, 36, 304, 333 African Americans Al-Qaddafi, Muammar, 19 France and, 220 activism of, 82–84, 144–145, Amadu, Seku, 8 Greece and, 154 209–210, 235–236, 259, 277 American Anti-Slavery Society, 1–2, 144 Italy and, 80, 198, 220 film and, 40, 63, 89, 129 American Broadcasting Company Middle East and, 95–96 African National Congress (ANC), 10 (ABC), 331, 390 Philippines and, 296 The Age of Reason (Paine), 289, 342 American Civil Liberties Union Portugal and, 310 Agee, Philip, 105 (ACLU), 290–291 Russia and, 363 Agitprop (Agitational Propaganda), American Council on Alcohol Southeast Asia and, 371, 419 22, 60, 193, 351 Problems, 393 Spain and, 377

457 458 Index

U.S. and, 66–67, 80, 81, 98, 180, Flemish, 393 Baden-Powell, Robert, 55 215, 225, 238, 240, 241, French, 22, 136, 286, 306, 348 Baez, Joan, 293 242–243, 251, 284, 296, 304, German, 22, 305, 306–307 “Baghdad Betty,” 158, 253 333, 335, 371 Mexican, 23, 248 Baillie-Stewart, Norman, 234 Anti-Defamation League of B’nai Polish, 303 Bailyn, Bernard, 346, 347 B’rith (ADL), 5, 15, 263, 413 portraiture, 305–307, 373–374 Bajer, Fredrik, 430–431 Anti-drug message, 106, 337 religious, 306 Bajer, Matilde, 430–431 Antilabor, 219–224 Soviet, 22–23, 307 Bakunin, Mikhail, 180, 394 Antinuclear movement, 117, 204, Spanish, 22, 86, 120, 151, 156, Balasz, Bela, 352 215, 267, 286, 291, 292, 293, 290–291, 373–374 Balcon, Michael, 441 369, 425 U.S., 1, 23, 80, 88, 347, 355, 412 Baldwin, Stanley, 111 Anti-Saloon League, 393 See also Cartoons; Photography A Balinese Family (documentary), 179 Anti-Semitism, 13–15 Art Workers Coalition, 23 Balkans, xx, 33–37. See also individual in Balkans, 34 “Ascension Alice,” 42 countries in film, 14, 129, 130, 205 Askey,Arthur, 163 Ball, Joseph, 111, 454 in France, 14, 137, 201 Associated Gaelic League, 189 Barbauld,Anna Laetitia, 432 and Holocaust denial, 168–169 Astell, Mary, 431 Barberini, Maffeo, 340 literature and, 302 At the Edge of Union (documentary), 38 Barghoorn, Frederick C., 93 Nazi, 14, 31, 168, 220, 228, 233, Atatürk, Kemal, 26, 183, 280, 282 Barnes, Geoffrey, 27 255, 314, 323 Atlantic Charter, 60, 80, 406, 441, Barnouw, Erik, 128 organization against, 5, 14–15, 448 Barrington, Jonah, 233 165, 413, 454 Atrocity propaganda, 23–25 Bartlett, Frederic C., 321 Roman Catholic Church and, 400 British, 56–57 Batista y Zaldívar, Fulgencio, 64, 68, Russian, 14, 323, 360 Dutch Revolt and, 264 69 in Poland, 303 in Gulf War (1991), 158 Battle of Boyne of 1690, 188 in Protocols of the Elders of Zion,5, Ireland and, 188 Battleship Potemkin (film), 37, 351, 361 14, 16, 123, 323, 360 Korean War and, 215 Bay of Pigs, 69, 208 Antislavery movement, 1–2, 8, 230, against Nazis, 154, 303, 336 Bayar, Celâl, 283 409 in Poland, 303 BBC. See British Broadcasting Antiwar movements, 289–294, 422, Spanish Civil War, 151 Corporation 425. See also Peace movements in U.S. Civil War, 262 Beard, Charles, 346 Antonescu, Ion, 34 Vietnam War and, 422 The Beatles, 238 Apartheid, 10 World War I, 24–25, 56–57, 439 Beaumarchais, Pierre-Augustin Caron, Appeal (Walker), 409 World War II, 25, 154, 303, 336, 135 Aquino, Benigno, 296 450 The Beauty Myth (Wolf), 437 Aquino, Corazon, 296 Attlee, Clement, 80 Beauvoir, Simone de, 430 Arab world, 15–20. See also Middle Auclert, Humbertine, 430 Beaverbrook, Max (Lord), 38, 60, East Audubon, John James, 116 132, 133, 179 Arafat, Yassir, 17, 395, 396 Audubon Society, 116 Bebel,August, 181 Arbeiter-Illustrierte Zeitung (AIZ), 67 Augspurg,Anita, 430 Becker, Carl, 346 Arbuthnot, John, 204 Austen, Jane, 273 Beers, Charlotte, 327 Arc de Triomphe, 238, 245 Australia, 26–29, 178, 277, 286–287, Begin, Menachem, 18 Architecture, as propaganda, 20–21, 380, 431 Behaine, Pierre Pigneau de, 417 29, 126, 183, 232, 246, 280, Australian Broadcasting Corporation Belgium, 119, 264–267 348–349, 374, 376. See also (ABC), 28, 286–287 Bell, Philip, 28 Monuments Austria, 28, 32, 276, 303, 340, 342, Bell, Tim, 111 Areopagitica (Milton), 85, 250 439 Bellamy, Edward, 412 Argentina, 124–125, 139, 223, 224, Austrian Empire, 28–32 Benedict, Ruth, 284 294 Ávila Camacho, Manuel, 248, 249 Benelux Union, 267 Aristide, Jean-Bertrand, 65, 358 Aydid, Mohammed Farah, 222 Benn, Tony, 289 Armand, Inessa, 430 Azcárraga Milmo, Emilio, 249 Bennett, James Gordon, 88 Armenia, 281, 282 Bentinck, William, 174 Arnett, Peter, 91, 158, 161, 171, 254 Baarova, Lida, 150 Benton, William, 7 Arroyo, Gloria, 296 Bach,Alexander, 29 Beresford, William Carr, 309 Art, 21–23 Backer, Bill, 322 Berkenhead, Sir John, 85 British, 22, 306 Backlash (Faludi), 437 Berlusconi, Silvio, 198–199 Index 459

Bernays, Edward L., 319 Bonaparte, Joseph, 151 television in, 160, 389, 390 Beveridge,Albert, 378 Bonaparte, Louis, 265 terrorism and, 393–395, 397, Bevin, Ernest, 152, 186 Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I 398–399 Biden, Joseph, 352 Book of Martyrs (Foxe), 24, 54 women’s movement in, 431, 432, Biderman,Albert D., 47 Bosnia, crisis and war in, 36, 44–46, 434–436 Bierce,Ambrose, 400 294, 343 See also British Empire; English The Big Lie, 39–40 Boston Massacre, 244, 345 (illus.) Civil War Biko, Steve, 10 Bottomley, Horatio, 205 See also under Cold War; Bin Laden, Osama. See Laden, Osama Boulanger, George, 137 Colonialism; Imperialism; bin Boulting, Roy, 9 Intelligence; Literature; Press; Birley, Robert, 336 Bourbon family, 374 World War I; World War II Birth control, 3 Bracken, Brendan, 46, 78, 251, 428 British Board of Film Censorship, 51 The Birth of a Nation (film), 40, 89, Brady, Mathew, 88, 297 British Broadcasting Corporation 129, 259 Braganza, duke of, 308 (BBC), 37–38 Bishop, Maurice, 65 Bragg, Billy, 125, 182 in Africa, 11 Bismarck, Otto von, 70, 146 Brainwashing, 46–48, 315 Arabic Service, 37, 384 Bittmann, Ladislav, 104 Brainwashing in Red China (Hunter), 47 censorship of, 72, 280, 425 Bjørnson, Bjørnstjerne, 368 Brandt, Willy, 181 Empire Service, 37, 56, 333, 342 Black Hundreds, 360 Braun, Lily, 430 government control of, 38, 78, Black Panthers, 83 (illus.), 84 Brazil, 2, 223, 224, 225, 226 124, 331, 341–342 Black Power movement, 84, 210, 236, Brecht, Bertolt, 400 World War II monopoly of, 266 277 Brezhnev, Leonid, 362, 363 propaganda and, 31, 267, 326, 331 Black propaganda, 41–43 The Bridge on the River Kwai (film), 316 television, 390 British, 42, 60, 98, 266, 326, 328, Briggs, Raymond, 293 world, 366 333, 371 Britain, 48–54 World Service, 38, 41, 61, 124, Canadian, 61 antiwar movement in, 290, 291, 362, 366, 397, 399 Cold War, 105 292, 293 British Empire, 55–56 in Falkland/Malvinas War, 42 art in, 22, 306 Anglo-Boer War and, 12–13 in Middle East, 42–43, 158 cartoons, 66, 204–205, 306 art of, 22 Nazi, 41–42 censorship in, 38, 51, 52, 72, 99, BBC promotion of, 37, 56, 333, Soviet, 42–43, 104–106 124, 174–175, 190, 251, 280, 342 U.S., 42, 105–106, 397 370, 398, 425 Canada and, 59 World War II, 41, 60 civil war in, 84–86 Churchill on, 56, 80 Black September, 395 Conservative Party in, 111, exhibitions of, 118, 119 Blair, Cherie, 397 398–399 in India, 143, 175 Blair, Tony, 43–44, 111, 112, 140, cultural propaganda in, 101–102 in literature, 273, 300 159–160, 182, 396–397 in Cyprus, 154 memorials of, 245 Blatch, Harriet E., 434 eighteenth-century, 52–54 promotion of, 37, 56 Blocher, Christoph, 386 elections in, 110–112 sports in, 379–380 Block, Herbert, 66 exhibitions in, 118–119 Suez Crisis and, 383–385 Blum, Léon, 220 Falklands/Malvinas War of, British Information Services (BIS), 41 Boer War. See Anglo-Boer War 124–125 British Samoa, 286 Bohemia, 340 film in, 51, 56, 81, 115, 155–156 British Security Coordination (BSC), Bokassa, 10 Gulf War and, 159, 160, 232 60 Bolingbroke (Henry St. John), 53 labor issues in, 220, 272 Broadcast media Bolivar, Simon, 223 Labour Party in, 43, 111, 187, 398 empires in, 27–28, 91, 198, 226, Bolsheviks Licensing Act, 52, 53 253 Comintern and, 96, 181, 361 Middle East and, 95 government control of, xix, 31, German propaganda against, political monuments in, 245 38, 78, 124, 154–155, 213, 442–443 propaganda against, 92, 127, 236, 256, 266–267, 269, 270, Lenin and, 228–229 233–234, 346, 371, 428 331, 342, 377 Pravda and, 315 reeducation policy of, 102, 133, See also Radio; Television propaganda of, 325, 332, 439 315, 336–337 Bronislav, Geremek, 304 Revolution and, 349–350, 351 Shakespearean propaganda in, Brooks, Gwendolyn, 3 Stalin and, 381 369–370 Brooks, William Penny, 276 Trotsky and, 402 sports in, 380 Brown, Ernest, 163 460 Index

Brown, John, 2 Carlos II (Spain), 374 Pakistani, 176 Brown v.Board of Education, 259 Carlos, Juan, 376 religious, 35, 70, 134–135 Browne, Malcolm, 422 Caroline Island, 286 Russian/Soviet, 272–273, 360, Brueghel, Pieter, 393 Carr, E. H., xx 362, 369 Bryce, Lord James, 56–57 Carranza,Venustiano, 248 in Singapore, 372 Bryce Report, 25, 56–57, 123 Carson, Edward, 189 South African, 10, 13 Buchan, John, 334 Carson, Rachel, 116, 370 Spanish, 376 Büchner, Georg, 400 Carter, Jimmy, 18, 185, 293, 335 U.S., 72, 88, 133, 160, 161, 410, Buck, Tim, 60 Cartoons, 66–68 420–421 Budé, Guillaume, 339 Belgian, 266–267 Central African Republic, 10 Buisson, Ferdinand Edouard, 290 British, 66, 204–205, 306 Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), 80 Bukharin, Nikolai, 315, 363, 381, 383 Chinese, 75 anti-Communist propaganda of, Bulgaria, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 153, 276 Dutch, 334 80, 180, 187, 280, 371 Buljaic,Veljko, 35 French, 136 brainwashing and, 48 Bunyan, John, 54, 272 German, 67 disinformation and, 104–105 Burdick, Eugene, 272, 292 U.S., 66–67, 88, 242 Cold War and, 23, 180, 280, 326, Burger, Hanus, 336 Casablanca (film), 68, 189, 238 333, 351 Burgh, James, 54 Castel, Charles Irénée, 290, 405 in Latin America, 224 Burke, Edmund, 54, 289 Castorena Ursua y Goyeneche, Juan and Radio Free Europe/Radio Burma, 371, 372 Ignacio de, 247 Liberty, 80, 180, 326, 333, Burns, Ken, 128 Castro, Fidel, 64, 65, 68–70, 224, 351 Bush, George H. W., 90, 106, 157, 333, 406 use of rumors, 358 158, 279, 343 Catherine the Great (Russia), 360 in Southeast Asia, 371 Bush, George W., 115, 159, 396–397, Catholic Civil Rights Movement, 84 Central Office of Information (COI), 398 Catholicism. See Roman Catholic 81, 156, 251 Bush, Laura, 397 Church Cetewayo, 8 Bustamante,Alexander, 64 Cathy Come Home (docudrama), 38 Chamberlain, Joseph, 55 Bute, Earl of, 428 Cats, Jacob, 265 Chamberlain, Neville, 78, 266, 342 Byers, Stephen, 44 Catt, Carrie Chapman, 434 Chamorro, Pedro Joaquín, 225 Byron, Lord, 153, 300 Cauer, Minna, 430 Chamorro,Violeta Barrios de, 225 Cavour, Count, 196 The Character of Holland (Marvell), 265 Cabinet Board of Information (Japan), Ceausescu, Nicolae, 32, 35, 36 The Charge of the Light Brigade 203, 444 Cecil, Lord Robert, 406 (Tennyson), 100 Caetano, Marcelo, 311 Celler, Emmanuel, 333 Charles I (England), 49, 84, 85, 86, Calhoun, John C., 2 Censorship, 70–73 92, 188, 250, 342 Callender, James, 114 Austria and, 29 Charles II (England), 49, 86, 92, 139, Calling Australia (film), 27 British, 38, 50, 51, 52, 72, 99, 245, 250, 275, 308, 342 Calling Australia! Prisoners of Propaganda 124, 133, 174–175, 190, 251, Charles III (Spain), 374, 376 (documentary), 27 280, 370, 398, 425 Charles IV (Spain), 151, 374 Callot, Jacques, 289 Chinese, 77 Charles V (France), 139 Calvin, John, 339, 340, 386 Cuban, 69, 224 Charles V (Holy Roman Empire), 29, Cambodia, 371, 372 film, 51, 72, 130, 133, 189, 196, 280, 373 Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament 269, 425 Charles V (Spain), 264, 373 (CND), 292, 293, 425 Finnish, 369 Charles X (France), 136 Campbell,Alistair, 44, 397 French, 99, 260, 261, 287 Charles XII (Sweden), 367, 369 Campbell, Joseph, 165 German, 72, 130, 146, 147, 148 Chechnia, 363 Camus,Albert, 137, 273 Greek, 154 Cheka, 350 Canada, 59–62, 120, 156, 277, 311 Indian, 176, 177 Chenery, Thomas, 100 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Indonesian, 179 Chervenkov,Vulko, 35 (CBC), 61 Irish, 188, 189 Chiang Kai-shek, 74, 75, 236, 450 Canada Carries On (documentaries), 60 Italian, 195, 196 Childs, Harwood L., 320 Capa, Robert, 62–63, 86 Japanese, 202, 203, 337, 444, 445 Chile, 80, 224, 342 Capellen, Joan Derck van der, 265 Korean, 211 Chilembwe, John, 8 Capra, Frank, 9, 63, 128, 426 Latin American, 224, 247 China, 73–77 Cardenas, Lázaro, 249 in Middle East, 19, 158, 185, 186 brainwashing and, 47, 48, 315 Caribbean, 63–65 New Zealand, 268, 269 censorship in, 77 Index 461

communism in, 47, 75–77, 98, Cleveland, Harlan, 241 Spanish, 223, 246–247, 295, 374, 215, 236–237, 329 Clews, John, 317 379 Cultural Revolution in, 76, 237, Clinton, William Jefferson, 89–91 See also Imperialism 329, 372 CNN (Cable News Network), 91, 392 Columbia Broadcasting System (CBS), film in, 75 Coalition Information Center, 397, 331, 390, 391, 422 India and, 176 398 The Comedians (Greene), 64 Japanese occupation of, 75, 444 Cobbett, William, 289 Cominform (Communist Information Korea and, 211, 213, 215 Cochlaeus, Johannes, 339 Bureau), 181, 215 media in, 253 Cody, Iron Eyes, 117 Comintern, 96, 181, 361, 453 Pakistan and, 176 Coello, Claudio, 374 Committee for the Open Debate on press in, 73–74, 75 Cohan, George M., 438 (illus.) the Holocaust (CODOH), 169 propaganda against, 251 Coins, 91–92, 264, 376 Committee of Public Safety (France), propaganda in, 75–77, 324, Cold War, 92–96 348, 349 236–237, 312, 314 Africa and, 9 Committee of Vigilance (Italy), 126, sports in, 277, 380 anti-Communism in, 23, 48, 283 127 U.S. and, 215, 450 antinuclear movement in, 267, Committee on Public Information Vietnam and, 417 292 (CPI), 72, 99, 248, 439 Cho Kwang-jo, 211 art in, 23 Committee on War Information, 99, Ch’oe Che-u, 211 Asia and, 176 133 Chomsky, Noam, xix, 77 Britain and, 38, 80, 81, 82, 95, Common Sense (Paine), 287, 344, 347, Chopin, Frédéric, 302 101, 186, 286 407–408 Christian IV (Denmark), 341, 367 Canada and, 61, 156 Commonwealth Games, 380 Christian X (Denmark), 368 China and, 213 Communism Christianity, 33, 234, 337–341, France and, 286 in Canada, 60 342–343. See also Crusades, Italy and, 198 Chinese, 47, 75–77, 98, 215, Christian; Missionaries, Korean War and, 213–216, 240 236–237, 329 Christian; Roman Catholic Latin America and, 224, 225 Cold War and, 93, 215 Church; Russian Orthodox Middle East and, 94–96, 384 Cuban, 65 Church nuclear weapons in, 286, 326 founding of, 115–116, 241–242 Chun Doo-hwan, 212 Olympics in, 277 international, 180–181 Churchill, Winston, 78–80 Poland and, 304 Eastern Europe and, 34–35 Atlantic Charter and, 80, 406, 448 Soviet Union and, 93–94, 95, 101, in Philippines, 295, 296 cabinet of, 342 105, 120, 176, 181, 213, 215, Southeast Asia and, 98, 371–372, and Empire, 56, 80 216, 224, 277, 292, 326, 358, 418, 419 funeral of, 140 383, 423 Soviet, 96, 209, 215, 228–230, “Iron Curtain” speech of, 80, 94 Turkey and, 283 244, 315, 361–363, 381–383 on Labour party, 111 UN and, 406 See also Anti-Communism as radio broadcaster, 38, 78 U.S. and, 48, 80, 81–82, 93–94, Communist Malayan Races Liberation rhetorical style of, 398, 441 101, 105, 120, 138, 176, 213, Army (MRLA), 97, 98 rumors about, 46, 358 215, 216, 224, 225, 241, 254, The Communist Manifesto (Marx and “V” trademark of, 267 280, 286, 292, 351, 381, 426, Engels), 96, 115, 242 CIA. See Central Intelligence Agency 450 Comstock,Anthony, 3 Citizen Kane (film), 165 Colley, Linda, 54 Concordia Association, 75 Citizens for a Free Kuwait, 157 Collor, Fernando, 226 Condorcet, Marquis de, 432 Civil Defense, 81–82 Colonel Blimp, 66 Confucianism, 73, 74, 201, 202, 211, Civil Defence Corps (CDC), 81, 82 Colonialism 417 Civil rights movement, 5, 82–84, in Africa, 7, 8–9, 10, 182, 310, Confucius, 73 209–210, 259, 343 311 Congress for Cultural Freedom, 80, Civil Wars. See English Civil War; anticolonialism, 9, 10, 97, 182, 180 Spanish Civil War; U.S. Civil 371 Congress of Industrial Organizations War Belgian, 266 (CIO), 220 Clair, René, 137 British, 10, 12–13, 15, 97–98, Conover, Willis, 423 (illus.) The Clansman (Dixon), 40 173–175, 268, 286, 344–347 Conrad, Joseph, 266, 273 Clark, Tom,138 Caribbean, 63–64 Conway, Moncure, 289 Clarke, Edward, 144 French, 15, 16 Cook Islands, 286 Clarkson, Thomas, 1 Portuguese, 309, 310–311 Cook, James, 26, 285 462 Index

Copland,Aaron, 255 Daguerre, Louis, 297 Dickson, W.K. L., 13 Corradini, Enrico, 196 “Dane-Geld” (Kipling), 300 Diderot, Denis, 135, 360 Cortés, Hernán, 246 Daumier, Honoré, 66, 136 Diego, Juan, 246 Cosic, Dobrica, 35 David, Jacques-Louis, 22, 103, 136, Diem, Carl, 277 Cosio y Cisneros, Evangelina, 378 306 Dietrich,Arthur, 249 Costa, Joaquín, 375 Davidson, Philip G., 231, 344, 347 Direzione Generale per la Costa-Gavras, Constantin, 154 Davies, Joseph E., 130, 251 Cinematografia, 126 Coubertin, Baron Pierre de, 276 Davis, Elmer, 284, 332 The Disasters of War (Goya), 151 Coughlin, Father Charles, 14, 291, 331 Davis, Jefferson, 89 Disinformation, 104–106 Counterinsurgency, 97–98 Davis, Richard Harding, 379 Disney, Walt, 426 Counter-Reformation, xvi, 302, The Day After (film), 425 Disraeli, Benjamin, 55 337–341, 374 De Fontaine, Felix Gregory, 89 Dixon, Thomas, Jr., 40 Cousens, Charles Hughes, 27 De Gaulle, Charles, 137, 140 Djilas, Milovan, 35 Cousins, Norman, 292 De Klerk, F. W., 11 Dmowski, Roman, 303 Covert Action Information Bulletin, 105 De Rosas, Jean Manuel, 223 Do Muoi, 420 Cowles, Gardner, Jr., 284 De Sica,Vittorio, 198 Doctor Zhivago (Pasternak), 272 Creel Committee, 99, 133, 439 De Valera, Eamon, 189 Documentaries 127–128 Creel, George, 99, 133 Dead Birds (documentary), 179 Australian, 27, 178 Crewe House, xvi, 272, 325 The Dead Marat (David), 103 British, 9, 51, 56, 81, 128, Crimean War, 99–100, 297 Deane, Silas, 288 155–156, 163, 232, 251, 425 The Crisis (Paine), 288, 344 Debs, Eugene V., 290 German, 128, 132, 352, 401 Croatia, 36, 45 Decker, Karl, 378 Indian, 175 Cromer, Lord, 15 Declaration of Independence, 346 Indonesian, 178 Cromwell, Oliver, xvi, 84, 139, 188, Defence of the Realm Act (DORA), Italian, 126 301, 342 72 Soviet, 37, 87, 128, 363, 446 Crossman, Richard, 100, 326 DeFleur, Melvin, 110 Spanish Civil War, 87 Cruikshank, Isaac, 53 Defoe, Daniel, 52, 103–104 U.S, 63, 82, 128, 239, 243, Crusades, Christian, 23–24, 307–308 Degeyter,Adophe, 182 299–300, 336, 411, 414–415, Cry,the Beloved Country (Paton), 10 Degeyter, Pierre, 181–182 426 C-SPAN, 392 Degrelle, Léon, 266 World War II, 9, 27, 63, 128, Cuba Delacroix, Eugene, 22 426 in Angola, 9 Delmer, Sefton, 328 Dohm, Hedwig, 430 Bay of Pigs and, 208 Democratic Republic of the Congo, 10 Dominican Republic, 65 Castro in, 65, 68–70, 224 Democrazia Cristiana, 196, 197–198 Dona Marina, 246 censorship in, 69, 224 Deng Ziaoping, 76 Dönitz, Karl, 151 communism in, 95 Denmark, 293, 366–369, 431 Doob, Leonard, 318, 320 Cuban Missile Crisis and, 156, The Deputy (Hochhuth), 400 Dorléans, Louis, 135 208, 406 The Earth as Modified by Human Action Douglas, Clifford Hugh, 269 revolution in, 224 (Marsh), 116 Douglas, Stephen A., 114 Spain and, 378, 379 Deraismes, Maria, 430 Douglas, William O., 3 Spanish-American War and, Deroin, Jeanne, 430 Douglas-Home,Alec, 111 378–379 Derrick, John, 188 Douglass, Frederick, 1, 2, 144, U.S. propaganda against, 70, 225, Desert Victory (film), 9 261–262 333, 335, 428 Detroit Industry (Rivera), 23 Dovzhenko,Aleksander, 446 Culbert, David, 323 Detzer, Dorothy, 291 Dr.Strangelove (film), 292 Cultural propaganda, 101–102 Deutsche Welle, 149, 333, 397 Dreyfus,Alfred, 14, 137, 201 Culture and Imperialism (Said), 273 “Deutschland, Deutschland über Alles” Driencourt, Jacques, 317 Curtis, Katherine, 291 (anthem), 255 Drugs, 106–107, 337 Curtiz, Michael, 68, 251 Diana, Princess of Wales, 140 Du Bois, W.E. B., 9, 259 Czech Republic, 28, 32 Diaries of a Cabinet Minister (Crossman), Dubcek,Alexander, 31 Czechoslovakia, 29, 30, 31, 32, 431 100 Duck and Cover (documentary), 82 Díaz Ordaz, Gustavo, 249 Duff Cooper,Alfred, 46, 251, 321 D’Albert, Eugen, 353 Díaz, Porfirio, 247 Dulles,Allan, 80 D’Alembert, Jean Le Rond, 135 Dickens, Charles, 110, 272 Dumbrell, John, 41 D’Annunzio, Gabriele, 256 Dickinson, Harry T., 54 Dunov, Petar, 35 D’Istrias, Ionnes Capo, 153 Dickinson, John, 344, 346, 347 Duplessis, Maurice, 60 Index 463

Dupuy de Lôme, Enrique, 378 Ersay, Mehmet Akif, 282 Ferdinand VII (Spain), 374 Dürer,Albrecht, 28, 305, 306 Espionage Act of 1918, 410 Ferdonnet, Paul, 41–42 Duvalier, François “Papa Doc,” 64–65 Estrada, Joseph Marcelo “Erap,” 296 Feuchtwanger, Lion, 205 Duvalier, Jean-Claude “Baby Doc,” 65 Ethiopia, 7, 10 Fiji, 286, 287 Dylan, Bob, 255, 293 Ethnic cleansing, 25, 34, 216, 217 Fikret, Tevfik, 282 Dzherzhinsky, Felix, 350 European Recovery Program, 238 Film Evans, Walker, 299, 411 Australian, 26–27, 178 Earth Day, 116 Evergood, Phillip, 23 Balkans, 35, 36 Earth in Balance (Gore), 116 Evren, Kenan, 283 British, 13, 51, 56, 81, 115, 128, East and West (Patten), 253 Exhibitions, 7, 118–121, 138, 377, 132, 133, 441 Eastern Samoa, 286 378, 414 censorship of, 51, 72, 130, 133, Echeverría, Esteban, 223 189, 196, 269, 425 Economic Recovery Plan (ERC). See Fahd (Saudi Arabia), 343 Chinese, 75 Marshall Plan Fakes, 123–124, 323, 454–455 feature, 129–130 Eden,Anthony, 384 Falangist Party, 314, 375–376, 377 German, 11, 14, 128, 129, Edison, Thomas, 379, 409 Falklands/Malvinas War, 42, 56, 72, 130–132, 133, 166, 352 Edward R. Murrow Center for Public 124–125, 407 in India, 175 Diplomacy, 327 Falsehood in Wartime (Ponsonby), 39 Indonesian, 178–179 Egypt, 15, 16, 20, 95, 383–385 Faludi, Susan, 437 Italian, 126, 196, 239, 241 Eight Men Speak (play), 60 Falwell, Jerry, 343 Japanese, 203, 204 Eikon Basilike, 86 Fan Changjiang, 75 Latin American, 224 Eikonoklastes (Milton), 86 Fanck,Arnold, 352 Mexican, 247, 248 Einstein,Albert, 455 Fanon, Frantz, 9, 64, 182, 395 New Zealand, 269 Eisenhower, Dwight D., 120, 271, Farley, Jim, 114 pacifist, 290, 291 326, 365, 384, 413, 450 Farm Security Administration (FSA), Polish, 304 Eisenstein, Sergei, 37, 40, 109, 255, 297–299, 411–412 racism and, 14, 40, 63, 89, 129, 351 Farouk (Egypt), 15 130, 205, 259 Eisler, Hanns, 255 Fascism Russian/Soviet, 37, 87, 128, 351, El Salvador, 225 antifascism, 248, 371, 446 446, 447 Elections, 109–115 in Greece, 154 Spanish Civil War, 81, 87 Elgar, Edward, 55 Italian, 22, 125–126, 127, 195, U.S., 9, 11–12, 40, 63, 68, 115, Eliot, George, 432 197, 256–257, 314 128, 129–130, 132, 133, 198, Eliot, T.S., 302 Latin American, 224, 248 239, 250–251, 255–256, 284, Elizabeth I (England), 49, 115–116 Portuguese, 210 290, 334, 337, 379, 409, 425, Elizabeth II (England), 56, 140 Scandinavian, 368 440, 447–448 Elizabeth, the Queen Mother, Spanish, 375–376 Vietnam and, 155, 417–418 140–141 Fatah, 395 World War I, 11–12, 26, 133, 262, Ellis, William, 285 Faure, Félix, 201 291 Ellul, Jacques, xviii, 39, 318, 322 Fawcett, Millicent Garrett, 434 World War II, 9, 27, 63, 68, 115, Elton,Arthur, 128 February Revolution of 1917, 361 128, 129–130, 133, 232, Emerson, Ralph Waldo, 116 Federal Civil Defense Administration 250–251, 316, 440 Encounter (magazine), 80, 180 (FCDA), 82 Zionist, 455 Engels, Friedrich, 96, 115–116, 180, Federal Communications Commission See also Documentaries; 181, 242 (FCC), 389, 409, 410 Newsreels England. See Great Britain The Federalist Papers, 113, 344, 408 Filosofva,Anna, 430 English Civil War, 49, 50, 84–86 Fell, Margaret, 431 Finland, 366–369, 430, 431 Ente Italiana Audizioni Radiofoniche The Female Eunuch (Greer), 436 Fischer von Erlach, Johann Bernhard, (EIAR), 126–127 The Feminine Mystique (Friedan), 138, 29 Environmental Protection Agency 435 Flagg, James Montgomery, 134, 403 (EPA), 370 Feminism, 138–139, 435–437 Flags, 346, 367 Environmentalism, 116–118, 225, 370 Feng Zikai, 75 Flaherty, Robert, 128 Eotvos, Baron Jozsef, 29 Fenian movement, 188 Fodio, Usuman dan, 8 Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), 436 Fenton, Roger, 100, 297 Fonda, Jane, 422 Equiano, Olaudah, 1, 8 Feo, Luciano de, 126 Football (British), 381 Erasmus of Rotterdam, 289, 339 Ferdinand II (Habsburg), 341 Forcella, Enzo, 241 Erbakan, Necmettin, 283 Ferdinand II (Spain), 373 Ford, Gerald, 401 464 Index

Ford, Henry, 14, 23, 323 Funerals, 139–141 on war, 443 Foreign Office (FO), 179–180, 186, Goegg, Marie, 431 384 Gairy, Eric, 65 Goering, Hermann, 150 Foscolo, Ugo, 196 Galbraith, John Kenneth, 7 Goetz, Karl X., 123 Fox, Charles, 110, 306 Galczynski, Konstanty Ildefons, 304 Gökalp, Ziya, 282 Fox, Goerge, 290 Gallipoli (film), 26–27 Goldwater, Barry, 335 Fox network, 392, 397 Gallup, George, 278–279 Gomulka, Wladyslaw, 304 Foxe,John, 24, 54 Galtieri, Leopoldo, 124 Gonzalez, Elian, 70 Fraga Iribarne, Manuel, 376 Gance,Abel, 137 Gorbachev, Mikhail, 336, 363, France, 134–138 Gandhi, Indira, 176 365–366 anti-Semitism in, 14, 137, 201 Gandhi, Mohandas K. (Mahatma), 143, Gordon, Charles George, 55 antislavery movement in, 1 175, 176, 190, 210, 292 Gordon, Lord George, 54 art in, 22, 136 Gandhi, Rajiv, 176 Gordon, Thomas, 53 censorship in, 99, 260, 261, 287 Gapon, Georgii Apollonovich, 361 Gore,Al, 115, 116, 183 Cold War and, 286 Gardner,Alexander, 297 Gouzenko, Igor, 61 Colonialism of, 15, 16, 286, 287 Gardner, Robert, 179 Goya (Francisco de Goya y Lucientes), exhibitions in, 120 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 196 22, 151, 290, 374 film in, 132, 133, 137 Garrison, William Lloyd, 1, 143–144, Gramsci,Antonio, 197 music in, 136, 237–238 290 Grant, Ulyssess S., 262 press in, 135, 137, 260 Garvey, Marcus, 9, 64, 144–145 The Grapes of Wrath (Steinbeck), 272, 300 World War I and, 137 Gasnier, Louis, 337 Gray propaganda, 151–153, 187, 326 World War II and, 137, 439 Gauguin, Paul, 286 Great Britain. See Britain women’s movement in, 430, 431 Gay, John, 53 Greco-Turkish War of 1897, 153 See also French Revolution Geneva Convention, 315 Greece, 33, 153–155, 280, 282 Francis I (France), 49, 134 George, Henry, 412 Greeley, Horace, 88 Franco, Francisco, 86, 310, 314, 342, George III (England), 428 The Green Berets (film), 155 376, 377 George V (England), 118, 380 Greene, Graham, 65 Francogallia (Hotman), 135 Georges, Rémi, 266–267 Greene, Hugh Carleton, 326 Franco-Prussian War, 70, 136–137 Géricault, Théodore, 22 Greene, Nathanael, 288 Frankenheimer, John, 47 German Ideology (Marx), 361 Greenland, 368 Fraser, Lindley, 318, 322 Germany, 145–149 Greenpeace, 117, 286, 293 Fraser, Peter, 270 Austria and, 31 Greer, Germaine, 436 Frasheri, Naim, 33 Greece and, 154 Gregory XIII (Pope), xvi, 340 Frassati,Alfredo, 196 labor issues in, 219, 220 Gregory XV (Pope), xvi, 340 Freddi, Luigi, 126 Mexico and, 248, 249 Grenada, 65, 72, 335 Frederick, Count (Bohemia), 340 Olympics and, 276, 277 Grenville, George, 428 Frederick I (Germany), 145 press in, 147, 148–149 Grieg, Edvard, 368 Freedom Speaks (documentary film propaganda against, 266, 334 Grierson, John, 56, 60, 128, series), 61 Social Democratic party in, 181 155–156 Freedom Train, 7, 138 terrorism in, 395 Grieve, Christopher Murray, 301 Freemasons, 374 women’s movement in, 430, 431 Griffith, D. W., 40, 89, 129 French, Daniel Chester, 230, 347 See also Nazi regime Griffith, William E., 93 French Polynesia, 286, 287 See also under Censorship; Film; Grinnell, George Bird, 116 French Revolution, 347–349 World War I; World War II “Grito de Dolores” (Hidalgo), 247 architecture in, 21, 348 Gettysburg Address, 89, 230 Grivas, George, 154 art in, 103, 348 Giap,Vo Nguyen, 418 Grog, Gina, 430 cartoons in, 136 Gibson, Charles Dana, 134 Gros, Baron Antoine-Jean, 306 music, 237–238 Gillray, James, 22, 53, 66, 205, 306 Grossman,Vassilii, 447 posters in, 313 Gladstone, William, 111, 140, 281 Grosz, Karoly, 32 Napoleon and, 223, 260, 347 Glasnost, 363 Grotius, Hugo, 265 Netherlands and, 265 Goebbels, Joseph, 149–151 Gruntvig, N. S. F., 367 Switzerland and, 386 anti-Semitism and, 168, 205 Guam, 285, 286 Thomas Paine and, 289 censorship and, 11, 40 Guernica (Picasso), 22, 86, 120, 156, Friedan, Betty, 138–139, 435 films and, 130, 132, 133, 150, 205 157, 291 Fujimori,Alberto, 225 as propagandist, xv, xx, 39, Guevara, Ernesto “Che,” 68, 224 Fulbright Program, 327 147–148, 149–150, 167, 169, The Gulag Archipelago (Sozhenitsyn), Fulbright, William, 327 233, 353, 354, 425, 444 273 Index 465

Gulf War (1991), 157–159 Henty, G.A., 56 Holocaust, 128, 255, 299, 323, 336 ethnic cleansing and, 25 Herblock, 66, 242 denial, 167–169 leaflet drops in, 228 Hergé, 266–267 Holy Mecca Radio, 158 media and, 91, 158, 366, 407, Herman, Edward, 77 Holy Roman Empire, 145, 146, 342 410 Hermann,Alfred, 290 Home Guard, 81 peace movements and, 293–294 Hersh, Seymour, 422 Home in the Middle (documentary), 82 UN and, 407 Hertzog, J. B. M., 10 Homer, 300 Gulf War (2003), 159–162 Herzfeld, Helmut, 67 Homer, Winslow, 88 Gullion, Edmund, 327 Herzl, Theodor, 165–166, 454–455 Hooghe, Romeyn de, 265 Gulliver’s Travels (Swift), 272 Herzog, Chaim, 195 Hooks, Benjamin, 259 Gustav I (Sweden), 366 Heymann, Lida Gustava, 430 Hoover, J. Edgar, 106 Gustav II (Sweden), 341, 367 Hezbollah, 395 Hopkins, Harry, 412 Guterres,António, 181 Hicky, James Augustus, 173–174 Horst Wessel Lied, 169–170 Guzmán Reynoso,Abimael, 225 Hidalgo y Costilla, Miguel, 247 Horthy, Miklos, 30 Hideyoshi, Toyotomi, 201 Hotman, François, 135 Habash, George, 18, 395 Hill and Knowlton Public Affairs Houseman, John, 284 Habe, Hans, 336 Worldwide, 157–158, 327 How the Other Half Lives (Riis), 297, Habsburg dynasty, 29, 145, 341, 342, Himmler, Heinrich, 150 353, 413 373 Hindenburg, Paul von, 325, 439 How to Keep Well in Wartime (booklet), Hagan, Ellen, 430 Hindutva ideology, 177 163 Haggard, H. Rider, 8 Hine, Lewis, 297 Howe, Julia Ward, 88 Haider, Jörg, 32 Hirobumi, Ito, 202 Howlett, Robert, 297 Hainisch, Marianne, 431 Hiroshima-Nagaski,August 1945 Hoxha, Enver, 35 Haiti, 64–65, 358 (documentary), 128 Hoyt, E. Palmer, 284 Haley,Alex, 236 Hiss,Alger, 271 Hroch, Miroslav, 29 Hallgrímsson, Jónas, 367 History of England (Wilkes), 429 Hu Feng, 76 Hamas, 395 History of the Irish Rebellion (Temple), Huerta,Victoriano, 247 Hamilton,Alexander, 113, 344, 408 188 Hughes, Karen P., 397 Hamilton,Andrew, 408 Hitler,Adolf, 166–167 Hughes, Langston, 138 Hamilton, Ian, 27–28 antilabor sentiment of, 219 Hun Sen, 372 Hamlet (Shakespeare), 370 anti-Semitism and, 14, 168 Hungary, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 276, 277, Hammerskjöld, Dag, 406 cartoons of, 66, 67 301, 340, 384 Hanim, Fatma Aliye, 282 film interests of, 130 Hunt, G. W., 55 Harlan,Veit, 205 image consciousness of, 166, 306, Hunter, Edward, 47 Harley, Robert, 52, 104 307, 312, 442, 444 Hussein I (Jordan), 19 Harper’s Weekly, 66 military maneuvers of, 31, 303 Hussein, Saddam, 19, 157, 158, 159, Harrison, Tom,278 on morale, 252, 272, 318 161, 170–171, 185, 245, 279, Hastings, Lord, 174 and Mussolini, 257, 310, 312 397 Havel,Vaclav, 31–32 on propaganda, xvii, 6, 39, 147, Huxley,Aldous, xviii, 66, 320 Hawatmeh, Nayef, 18 166–167, 319, 353, 354, 440, Hyde, Douglas, 188–189 Haydn, Franz Joseph, 255 441–442 Hayes, Rutherford B., 114 on psychological warfare, 325 Ibero-American Exhibition, 377 Haykal, Muhammad Hassanai, 18 radio broadcasts of, 331 Ibn Saud, 281 Health, 163–164 writings in Mein Kampf, xvii, 14, Iceland, 366–369, 431 Hearst, William Randolph, 132, 39, 147, 166, 252, 318, 319, IFOR (Implementation Force), 45, 164–165, 378, 447 325, 354 46 Heart of Darkness (Conrad), 266, 273 Hitlerjunge Quex (film), 182 Ignatius of Loyola, Saint, 173 Heartfield, John, 22, 67 Ho Chi Minh, 418 Image of Ireland (Derrick), 188 Helper, Hinton Rowan, 2 Hoare, Samuel, 81 Imperialism Hemingway, Ernest, 86, 272, 291 Hobhouse, Emily, 12 anti-imperialism, 97, 371, 383 Henlein, Konrad, 31 Hochhuth, Rolf, 400 in Africa, 7, 8, 9, 12 Henry (Prince of Portugal), 308 Hoffmann, Paul, 238 Austrian, 28–32 Henry, Hubert Joseph, 201 Hogarth, William, 53, 66, 393 German, 145–146, 342 Henry IV (France), 135 Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 410 Japanese, 75, 178, 203, 204, 211, Henry V (film), 370 Hollywood productions, 129–130, 212, 295 Henry VIII (of England),49, 339, 132, 198, 250–251, 255–256, in Middle East, 15–17, 94 370 284, 290, 440, 447–448 Ottoman, 280–282 466 Index

Russian, 30, 342 “Iron Curtain” speech (Churchill), 80, U.S. and, 327, 445, 450 U.S., 295, 378, 379 94 in World War II, 80, 252–253, See also British Empire; Irving, David, 168, 169 286, 295, 316, 337, 371, Colonialism Isabella I (Spain), 373 400–401, 444–445 Ince, Thomas, 290 Islam Jaruzelski, Wojciech, 304 Index Librorum Prohibitorium, 70 in Africa, 7, 8 Jay, John, 344, 408 India, 173–177 in Ottoman Empire, 281, 282 Jefferson, Thomas, 114 Indian Press Act of 1810, 174 in Philippines, 294, 296 Jennings, Humphrey, 81, 232, 441 Indian subcontinent, 173–177 in Portugal, 307–308 Jesuit order, 173, 275, 295, 339, 340, Indonesia, 177–179, 266, 385 terrorism and, 221–222, 343, 341, 374, 386, 417 Indonesia Calling (documentary), 178 396–398 Jewish Agency, 193 Information Research Department Isolationists, U.S., 447, 448 Jewish Defense League (JDL), 105 (IRD), 152, 186–187 Israel, 191–195 Jewish Identity Project, 193–194 Ingham, Bernard, 398 elections in, 112–113 Jewish National Fund (JNF), 193, 455 Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, 306 peace accord and, 18–19 The Jewish State (Herzl), 165, 454 Inönü, Ismet, 283 propaganda against, 16, 17, 95, Jews. See Anti-Semitism; Israel; Inside the Company:CIA Diary (Agee), 169 Zionism 105 relations with U.S., 327 Jiang Zemin, 76 Institute for Historical Review,169 Six-Day War (1967) of, 193, 195, Jingoism, 55, 124, 205, 300, 375 Intelligence, 179–180 395, 455 Jinnah, Muhammad Ali, 175, 176 British, xvi, xvii, xviii, 72, 81, terrorism against, 395, 396 John Bull, 204–205 179–180, 186–187 and UN, 407 John Paul II (pope), 304, 343 Nazi, 180 Italy, 195–199 Johnny Got His Gun (Trumbo), 291 Soviet, 180 art of, 22 Johnson,Andrew, 262 U.S., 23, 48, 80, 104–105, 180, censorship in, 195, 196 Johnson, James Weldon, 259 187, 224, 280, 326, 333, 351, Fascism in, 125–126, 195, 197, Johnson, Lyndon B., 254, 421 358, 371 256–257, 314 Joint United States Public Affairs International (Communist and film in, 126, 198, 239, 241 Office (JUSPAO), 422 Socialist), 180–181 Marshall Plan in, 238–239, Jones, Paula Corbin, 90 First, 180, 242 240–241 Jordan, 17 Second, 265 media in, 256 Joseph II (Austria), 29 Third, 96, 181, 361 press in, 125–127, 256 The Journey (film), 425 International Broadcasting Board, 351, propaganda of, 125–127, 256 Joyce, William, 233–234 352 in Spanish Civil War, 87 Juárez, Benito, 247 International Bureau of Broadcasting terrorism in, 395 Juce, 212 (IBB), 424 World War I and, 30, 256 Jud Süss (film), 14, 129, 130, 205 The International Jew, 323 World War II and, 125–126, 197, Judaism. See Anti-Semitism; Israel; International Muslim Brotherhood, 15, 257 Zionism 222, 396 women’s movement in, 430, 431 Der Judenstaat (Herzl), 165, 454 International Olympic Committee Ivan III (Russia), 359 The Jungle (Sinclair), 413 (IOC), 276, 277 Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible; Russia), International Red Cross, 386 209, 275, 359–360 Kaltenborn, H.V., 332 International Socialist Bureau, 180, Ivens, Joris, 178 Kamenev, Lev, 381, 383 265 Kangxi emperor, 73 “The Internationale” (anthem), 180, “J’Accuse” (Zola), 201 Das Kapital (Marx), 242 181–182, 255 Jackson,Andrew, 4, 114, 408 Karadzic,Vuk, 33 Internet, 182–183 James, C. L. R., 64 Kardelj, Edvard, 35 Iqbal,Allama, 175, 176 James I (England), 370 Katyn Forest massacre, 25, 303 IRA (Irish Republican Army), 190, James II (of England), 49, 188 Keefe, Mary, 355 191, 316, 393–395 Jameson, Leander Starr “Dr. Jim,” 12 Kellogg, Ray, 155 Iran, 19, 183–186, 273, 314 January Revolution, 303 Kemal, Mustafa (Atatürk), 26, 183, Iraq, 15, 19–20, 157–162, 170–171, Japan, 201–204 280, 282 352 China and, 75, 211 Kemal, Namik, 281, 282 IRD. See Information Research imperialism of, 75, 178, 203, 204, Kennedy, John F., 207–209, 311, 370, Department 211, 212, 295 392, 421 Ireland, 187–191 Olympics in, 276, 277 on African colonialism, 311 Index 467

assassination of, 105, 140, 254 Kossuth, Lajos, 29 Lenin,Vladimir, 228–230, 359 (illus.) Cold War and, 94 Krasicki, Ignacy, 302 as Bolshevik leader, 228, 349, 350 counterinsurgency and, 97 Krasinski, Zygmunt, 302 image consciousness of, 307 on environmental issues, 370 Krishnamurti, 269 film industry and, 352, 446 peace corps and, 224 Krupskaia, Nadezhda, 351 international propaganda and, 181 presidential victory of, 115, 271 Ku Klux Klan, 129, 144 on propaganda, 39, 94, 182 television debates of, 115, 207, Kubrick, Stanley, 292 Social Democrats and, 361 271, 392 Kun, Bela, 30 Stalin and, 381 Vietnam and, 208, 421 Kurds, 283 in Switzerland, 385 Kent, Bruce, 293 Kusturica, Emir, 36 Trotsky and, 402 Kenyatta, Jomo, 9 Kuwait, 157–159, 171 Lennon, John, 106 Kerensky,Alexander, 349 Kwasniewski,Aleksander, 305 “Letters from a Pennsylvania Farmer” Kesey, Ken, 106 (Dickinson), 344 Key, Francis Scott, 255 Labor, 219–221 Let Poland Be Poland (television KFOR (Kosovo Force), 216, 218 Ladd, William, 290 program), 304, 365, 428 KGB, 42, 104–106, 180, 209, 276, Laden, Osama bin, 20, 153, 159, Leuchter, Fred, 168 358 221–222, 366, 396, 397, 398 Levant, Oscar, 132 Khaldei, Yevgeny, 299 Lamartine,Alphonse de, 64 Lewinsky, Monica, 90, 91 Khamenei, Sayid Ali, 184 (illus.), 186 Lambrakis, Grigoris, 154 Lewis, Fulton, Jr., 332 Khan, Liaquat Ali, 176 Lamormaini, Wilhelm, 341 Leyds, Willem, 12 Khan, Muhammad Ayub, 176 Landbrugernes Sammenslutning Liang Qichao, 74 Khatami, Mohammed, 186 (Agrarian Revival Movement), Liberia, 7 Khmer Rouge, 372 368 Liberty Leading the People (Delacroix), Khomeini,Ayatollah Ruhollah, 19, 184 Lange, Dorothea, 299, 300, 411 22 (illus.), 185, 186, 343 Lansdale, Edward, 295, 421 Libya, 15, 20 Khrushchev, Nikita, 94, 362, 363, 383, Lanzinger, Hubert, 307 Lilius, Carl-Gustaf, 369 406 Lanzmann, Claude, 128 Limbaugh, Rush, 332 Kim Dae-jung, 213 Laos, 371 Lin, Maya, 245 Kim Il Sung, 211, 212 Lappo Movement, 368 Lin Biao, 76, 329 Kim Jong Il, 212 Larkin, Philip, 301 Lincoln,Abraham, 2, 89, 114, 210, King Se-jong, 211 Lasswell, Harold, xviii, 317, 318, 319, 230–231, 262, 297, 405, 409 King, Mackenzie, 60, 156 321, 322 Lindbergh, Charles, 291, 447 King, Martin Luther, Jr., 83–84, Latin America, 223–226 Lindh, John, 47 209–211, 235, 293, 343 Laud, William, 85 Lippmann, Walter, xviii, 77, 93 Kinnock, Neil, 43, 111 Lawrence, Robert, 125 Lipstadt, Deborah, 169 Kipling, Rudyard, 55, 300 Lazarsfeld, Paul, 109 Lissitzky, El, 314 Kirkpatrick, Jeane, 335 Leaflets, 226–228 Literature Kitchener, Horatio Herbert, 8, 134 in Gulf War, 158, 162, 397 Austrian, 290 Kleist, Henrich von, 352 in Vietnam War, 228, 295, 371, British, 85, 86, 188, 204, 250, Klucis, Gustavs, 307 422 266, 273, 277, 280, 291, Knirr, Heinrich, 307 in World War I, 197, 226, 252, 300–301, 302, 412 Know Your Ally (documentary film 325 Finnish, 368 series), 63 in World War II, 226–228, 444, German, 11–12, 150 Know Your Enemy (documentary film 448 pacifist, 290, 291, 292 series), 63 League of Nations, 286, 291, 386, Russian, 272–273, 290, 301, 447 Knox, John, 385 405 Turkish, 282 Kollontai,Alexandra, 430 League of Sovereign States, 16 U.S., 1, 2, 233, 261, 272, 291, Korea, 211–213, 214 Lean, David, 316 300, 412 Korean War, 47, 156, 213–216, 240, Leary, Timothy, 106 See also Poetry 283, 315, 317, 406 Lebanon, 19 “Little Red Book” (Mao), 76, 329 Kosciuszkó, Tadeusz, 302 Lederer, William, 272 “Living Newspaper” (theater series), Kosovo, 34 Ledóchowski, Count Mieczislaw, 303 412 crisis and war, xix, 25, 36, 182, Lee Kuan Yew, 372 Livingston, Sigmund, 5 216–218 Lee, Russell, 411 Livingston, William, 231, 347 Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA), 216, Lee, Spike, 236 Livingstone, David, 8 217 Lei Feng, 76 Livni, Zippi, 195 468 Index

Local Defence Volunteers (LDV), 81 Mackintosh, James, 54 Marshall Plan, 198, 238–241 Lockhart, Robert Bruce, 328 Macmillan, Hugh, 251 Martí, José, 64, 68, 69, 378 Lockwood, Stuart, 158 Madero, Francisco, 247 Martin, Everett Dean, 320 Lon Nol, 372 Madge, Charles, 278 Martov, Menshevik Yulii, 350 London Can Take It (documentary), 232 Madison, James, 344, 408 Marvell,Andrew, 250, 265 London Missionary Society (MS), 285 Magellan, Ferdinand, 294 Marx, Karl, 96, 115–116, 180, 181, London Times, 99–100, 253, 323, 325 Magsaysay, Ramón, 295 229, 241–242, 342, 361 Long, Huey, 232–233, 331 Mahan,Alfred Thayer, 378 Marxism, 197–198, 212, 225, 229, Lönnrot, Elias, 368 Mahl, Thomas E., 278 343, 361, 381 Looking Backward (Bellamy), 412 Mahmid II (Ottoman Empire), 281 Masaryk, Thomas, 30 López de Santa Anna,Antonio, 247 USS Maine, 378 Mass Observation, 278 Lord Haw-Haw, 233–234 Maize prison protest, 190 Matteson, Tompkins Harrison, 347 Lorentz, Pare, 128, 299, 411 Major, John, 191 Matthew,Father Theobald, 393 Lothian, Lord, 41 Makarios,Archbishop, 154 Mauroy, Pierre, 181 Louis, Joe, 380 Makavejev, Dusan, 35 Maximilian (Austrian Empire), 28, 386 Louis XIV (France), 49 Makin, Bathsua, 431 Maximilian (Mexico), 247 Louis XVI (France), 135, 417 Malan, Daniel, 10 Mayan Indians, 225, 249–250 Louis-Philippe (France), 136 Malaya, 97–98 Mazzini, Giuseppe, 196 L’Ouverture, Toussaint,64 Malaysia, 371–372 Mbeki, Thabo, 11 Love,Alfred Henry, 290 Malcolm X, 84, 235–236, 343 McCarthy, Joseph, 66, 215, 242–243, Love and War (film), 379 Malla,Abdul-Amir, 170 251, 254, 391, 423 Lovejoy, Elijah, 2 Man and Nature (Marsh), 116 McCarthyism, 66, 242–243, 284, 391 Low, David, 66 Manchu Qing dynasty, 73 McClure, Robert, 336 Lowery, Shearon, 110 The Manchurian Candidate (film), 47 McCorvey, Norma, 3 Loyola, Ignatius, 339 Mandela, Nelson, 10, 11, 396 McDonald, Ian, 124 Lu Yi, 75 Mandelson, Peter, 43, 44, 111 McKinley, William, 165, 295, 378 Lublin Poles, 304 Manét, Edouard, 247 McVeigh, Timothy, 263 Luce, Henry, 448 Manheim, Jarol B., 327 Mead, Margaret, 178–179 Ludendorff, Erich von, 325 A Man’s Life Story (Sholokov), 447 Media. See Broadcasting; Press; Radio; Luiken, Jan, 265 Mansfield Park (Austen), 273 Television Lumière,Auguste, 127, 247 Manus, Rosa, 431 Mehmet II (Ottoman Empire), 280 Lumière, Louis, 127, 247 Mao Zedong, 75, 76, 215, 236–237, Meiji Restoration, 202, 444 Lumley, Frederick E., 318, 320 329, 395 Mein Kampf (Hitler), xvii, 14, 39, 147, Lundy, Benjamin, 1 Maoism, 9, 225 166, 243–244, 252, 318, 319, Lusitania (ship), 123 Maori, 268, 286, 287 325, 354, 355 Luther, Martin, 234, 254, 339 Mara, Ratu Sir Kamisese, 287 Melanesia, 285, 286 Lutheranism, 234, 254, 339, 341, Marconi, Guglielmo, 126, 196 Mellett, Lowell, 284 366–367 Marcos, Ferdinand, 295, 296 Memorials, 244–245 Lutyens, Sir Edwin, 120 Marcos, Imelda, 296 Menchú, Rigoberta, 225–226 Luxembourg, 264–267, 431 Marcuse, Herbert, 7 Mendelssohn, Felix, 255 Lyndon, Neil, 437 Marett, Robert H. K., 249 Menderes,Adnan, 283 Lyon, Matthew, 408 Marguerite of Navarre (France), 135 Menéndez y Pelayo, Marcelino, 375 Maria de Jesus, Carolina, 225 Mengistu Haile Mariam, 10 MacArthur, Douglas, 215 Marinho, Roberto, 226, 253 Mercouri, Melina, 154 Macauley, Catherine, 432 Marjanovic, Branko, 35 Metaxas, Iannis, 154 Macbeth (Shakespeare), 370 Marks, Leonard, 415 Methuen, John, 309 Maccabiah Games, 455 Marley, Bob, 65 Métis, uprisings, 59 Macdermot, Gilbert Hastings Farrell Marlowe, Christopher, 301, 400 Metternich, Prince (Austria), 29 “The Great,” 55 Marnix, Philips van, 264 Mexico, 23, 246–250, 277, 327 MacDiarmid, Hugh, 301 Marquesas, 286 Mfume, Kweisi, 259 Macdonald, Ramsey, 453 “La Marseillaise” (anthem), 136, Michalowski, Piotr, 303 MacDonald, David, 9 237–238, 255 Michnik,Adam, 304 Macedonia, 33, 34, 36, 153, 155 Marsh, George Perkins, 116 Mickiewicz,Adam, 302 Mackenzie,A. J., 318, 320 Marshall, George, 238 Micronesia, 285 MacKenzie, John, 55 Marshall Island, 286, 287 Middle East Mackintosh, Ebenezer, 346 Marshall, John, 4 anti-Israeli sentiment in, 16, 17, 169 Index 469

Cold War in, 94–96 Mor,Antonis, 306 Myanmar, 373, 374 imperialism in, 15–17, 94 Morale, 252–253 Palestinians in, 17–20, 99, 395, More, Hannah, 54, 432 NAACP. See National Association for 455 Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF), the Advancement of Colored radio in, 16–17, 19, 158, 296 People 159–160, 287, 334, 397 Morris, Robert, 288 Nabuco, Joaquim, 223 Six-Day War (1967), 193, 195, Morris, William, 412 Nachrichten für die Truppen, 152 395, 455 Mosley, Oswald, 233 Nanook of the North (film), 128 terrorism in, 18, 186, 222, 316, Mossadeq, Muhammad, 185 Nansen, Fridtjof, 368 343, 352, 395–398 Mother Courage and Her Children Napoleon I (Napoleon Bonaparte), 22, See also Gulf War (1991); Gulf War (Brecht), 400 103, 136, 226, 260–261, 278, (2003); individual countries Mowlam, Mo, 44 306, 347, 349 “Migrant Mother” (Lange), 299, 411 Mozzoni,Anna Maria, 430 Napoleon III, 136, 247, 261 Mihajlovic, Draza, 34 Mubarak, Hosni, 18 Napoleonic Wars, 22, 290, 302, 386 Milestone, Lewis, 11 Mugabe, Robert, 7, 334 Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, Mill, John Stuart, 434 Muggeridge, Malcolm, 389 an American Slave,Written by Milne,A.A., 291 Muhammad Ali (Ottoman Empire), Himself (Douglass), 261–262 Milner,Alfred, 12 281 Nasser, Gamal Abdel, 15, 16–17, 95, Milosevic, Slobodan, xix, 36, 45, 216, Muhammad, Elijah, 235 222, 383–384 217, 218 Muir, John, 116, 117 (illus.) Nast, Thomas, 66, 88, 262–263, 403 Milton, John, 85, 86, 250, 301 Muir, Thomas, 54 Nation, Carry Moore, 393 Ministry of Information (MoI), Müller, Johannes von, 386 Nation of Islam (NOI), 235 251–252 Murals, 23, 248, 412 National American Women Suffrage censorship and, 72 Murdoch, Keith, 27–28, 253 Association (NAWSA), 433, civil defense and, 81 Murdoch, Rupert, 27, 28, 43, 91, 253, 434 intelligence and, 179 366, 397 National anthems, 136, 169, 180, purpose of, 179, 324, 439, 441, Murray, Robert H., 248 181–182, 237–238, 255, 264, 251 Murray, Sir Ralph, 187 376 relationship with USIA, 254 Murrow, Edward R., 207, 232, 243, National Association for the truth in propaganda of, 284 253–254, 332, 391, 415 Advancement of Colored Ministry of Popular Culture (Italy), Music, 254–256 People (NAACP), 82, 83, 259, 127 British, 53, 55, 125 413 Ministry of Popular Enlightenment and film, 255–256 National Broadcasting Company Propaganda (Nazi), xv, xvii, Danish, 368 (NBC), 331, 390, 392 148, 166, 425, 441–442. See Dutch, 264 National Council for the Prevention of also RMVP French, 136, 237–238, 348 War, 291 Minow, Newton, 389 patriotic, 53, 88, 136, 169, 180, National Film Board (NFB), 60, 61 Mishima, Yukio, 204 181–182, 237–238, 255, 264, National League for Democracy “Miss Liberty, the Buenos Aires Belle,” 346, 368, 376 (NLD), 372, 373 125 Polish, 302, 376 National Liberation Front (NLF), 419, Mission to Moscow (film), 130, 250 protest, 255, 293 421, 422 Missionaries, Christian, 8, 55, 211, reggae, 65 National Organization for Women 285–286, 295, 371, 417 religious, 254–255 (NOW), 139, 435 Mitrokhin,Vasili, 105 Italian, 195–196 National Union of Woman Suffrage Mobutu, Joseph, 10 Nazi, 169 Societies (NUWSS), 434, 435 A Modest Proposal (Swift), 188 Norwegian, 368 Native Americans, 119, 144 Mohamad, Mahathir, 372 Socialist, 181–182 NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Møller, John Christmas, 369 Soviet, 182 Organization), xix–xx, 45, 46, Molotov,Vyacheslav, 446 Spanish, 376 216, 217, 240, 241, 267, 283, Molyneux, William, 188 U.S., 88, 255, 293, 346 305, 369 Money, commemorative, 91–92, 264, See also National anthems Nazi regime, 147–149 346, 376 Muslim Mosque, Inc., 235 anthems, 169, 255 Montenegro, 34, 217 Mussert,A.A., 266 anti-Semitism of, 14, 31, 168, 220, Montesinos,Vladimiro, 225 Mussolini, Benito, 6, 9, 87, 125, 197, 228, 233, 255, 314, 323 Monuments, 238, 244–245, 349 256–257, 312 atrocities by, 303, 450 Moore, Jo, 44 My Lai massacre, 422 atrocity propaganda of, 25 470 Index

black propaganda of, 41 The Newspapers (Incitement to The Northern Star (newspaper), 188 censorship and, 130, 147, 148 Offences) Act of 1908, 174 Norway, 293, 366–369, 430, 431 film, 130–132, 133, 150, 205, Newsreels, 132–134 Norwegian Nasjonal Samlung, 368 352, 401 British, 132, 133, 137 Novels, 40, 110, 272–273, 279–280, architecture of, 21 Canadian, 60 292 art of, 22, 306, 307 French, 81, 132, 133 Noyce, Phillip, 27 Mexico and, 249 German, 132, 133, 150, 156 The Nuba (Riefenstahl), 353 Ministry of Popular Enlightenment Italian, 126 Nuclear Freeze movement, 293 and Propaganda in, xv, xvii, Japanese, 444 Nye, Gerald P., 291 148, 166, 353–355, 425, Soviet, 362 Nyerere, Julius, 9 441–442 Spanish Civil War, 81 occupations by, 266–267, 368 U.S., 132, 133, 219, 224, 239, Oates, Titus, 243, 275 Olympics of, 277, 380 336, 409, 411, 446 Oceania, 285–287 press in, 147, 148–149 Newsweek, 84 O’Connell, Daniel, 188 propaganda against, 66, 67, 109, Newton, Huey, 83 (illus.), 236 “October Manifesto,” 361 137, 163–164, 167–169, 182, Ngo Dinh Diem, 421 Office of Strategic Influence (OSI), 42, 252, 300, 316, 325, 328, 386 Nguyen Hue, 417 397 interpretation of propaganda of, Nguyen Tat Thanh, 418 Office of Strategic Services (OSS), xv, xvii, xviii, 150–151, Nicaragua, 225, 279 180, 283, 406, 448 166–167, 243–244 Nicholaescu, Sergio, 35 Office of the Coordinator of Inter- racism of, 164, 255, 277, 314, 380 Nicholas I (Russia), 276, 360 American Affairs (CIAA), 224 radio, 41, 147, 148, 149, Nicholas II (Russia), 361 Office of War Information (OWI), 6, 233–234, 267, 331, 354–355 Nicolson, Harold, 251 283–284, 355, 423, 447, 448 reeducation policy toward, 102, Night and Fog (documentary), 128 “Official War Review” (newsreel), 133, 315, 336–337 Night Mail (documentary), 156 133 resistance to, 34, 267, 445–446 Nightingale, Florence, 100 Oh,My Albania (Pasha), 35 World War II and, 41, 148, 166, Nilus, Serge, 323 Okhrana, 275–276, 323, 360 266, 228, 441–444, 445–446 1984 (Orwell), 46, 280 Olivier, Laurence, 370 Nedham, Marchamont, 85 Nixon, Richard, 271–272 Olympia (film), 128, 132, 277, 352 The Negro Soldier (documentary), 63 anticommunism of, 24 Olympics, 128, 204, 213, 249, Negro Times, 144 cartoons of, 66–67 276–278, 377, 380, 395 Neguib, Muhammad, 15 “Checkers” speech, 409 Omaar, Rageh, 161 Nehru, Jawaharlal, 176 1960 defeat of, 115, 207, 271 Omar, Mullah Muhammad, 222, 397 Nelson, Horatio, 139, 245 resignation of, 271 On Cooperation (Lenin), 350–351 Neo-militia groups, 263 television and, 115, 207, 271, 391, Oopa, Pouvanaa A., 287 Netherlands, 22, 178, 264–267, 276, 409 Operation Control Board, 95, 398 277, 285, 334, 431 USIA and, 414 Operation Desert Shield, 157, 158 New Deal, 128, 297, 298 (illus.), 299, Vietnam War and, 293, 422 Operation Desert Storm, 157, 158 411–412 Nkrumah, Kwame, 9 Opinion polls, 113, 240, 278–279 New England Non-Resistance Society, No More Sex War (Lyndon), 437 Oprichniki, 360 290 Nobel Peace Prize, 290 Opus Dei, 376 New Guinea, 286 Nobunaga, Oda, 201 Orange Order, 189, 190 New Life Movement, 74 Noonan, Robert, 272 Orozco, José Clemente, 23, 248 New Path News, 371 Nordau, Max, 166, 455 Orthodox Christianity, 33 New People’s Army (NPA), 296 Noriega, Manuel, 107 Orwell, George, 46, 86, 279–280 New York Herald, 88 North American Free Trade Oswald, Lee Harvey, 105 New York Journal, 378 Agreement (NAFTA), 249, 327 Otis, Harrison Gray, 408 New York Times, 160, 351, 397 North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Ottoman Empire, 2, 33, 99, 153, New York Tribune, 88 See NATO 280–283 New York World,164, 378 The North Briton (newspaper), 346, Otto-Peters, Luise, 430 New Zealand, 267–271, 286, 287, 428, 429 Our Lady of Guadalupe, 246 380, 431 North Korea, 212, 213, 315, 326. See “Over There” (song), 438 ( illus.) Newbolt, Sir Henry, 56 also Korea Ovington, Mary White, 259 News from Nowhere (Morris), 412 Northcliffe, Lord, xvii, 252, 272, 325 Owen, David, 187 Newsbooks, 84, 85, 86 Northern Ireland, 84, 189–191, 316, Owens, Jesse, 277 Newspapers. See Press 393–395 Oxenstierna,Axel, 367 Index 471

Pacific Islands, 285–287 Perot, Ross, 90 Popular Front for the Liberation of Pacifism, 289–294, 369 Peru, 225, 395 Palestine, 18, 395 Paine, Thomas, 54, 287–289, 342, Pétain, Philippe, 137 Portraiture, 305–307, 373–374 344, 345, 347, 407 Peter the Great (Russia), 360 Portugal, 285, 307–311 Pakistan, 175–176, 327 Petofi, Sandor, 29, 301 Postage stamps, 311–313, 376 Palacky, Frantisek, 29 Phan Boi Chau, 418 Posters, 22, 23, 111–112, 134, 164, Palestine, 17–20, 99, 395, 455 Philip II (Castile), 308 313–315, 403, 450, 446 Palestinian Liberation Organization Philip II (Spain), 264, 265, 294, 306, Potemkin, Grigori, 360 (PLO), 17, 19, 395 340, 373–374, 376 Potonie-Pierre, Eugénie, 430 Palestinian National Liberation Front, Philip IV (Spain), 374 Potter, David M., 7 19 Philippines, 294–297, 379 Pottier, Eugéne, 181 Palmerston, Lord, 309 Philosophy of Revolution (Nasser), 16 Pound, Ezra, 300 Panama, 72 Photography, 297–299 Powell, Colin, 159, 327 Pan-Hellenic Socialist Movement Anglo-Boer War, 12 Pravda (Soviet Union), 315, 381 (PASOK), 154 Crimean War, 100 Praxis (journal), 35 Pankhurst, Christabel, 435 documentary still, 178–179, Prensa Latina, 69 Pankhurst, Emmeline, 434, 435 297–299, 355, 411–412, 413 Preseren, France, 300 Pan-Slavism, 29, 30, 31, 360, 383 Gulf War, 161 Press Paoli, Juan, 246 in Indonesia, 178–179 advertising and, 5, 6 Papandreou,Andreas, 154 New Deal, 297–299, 411–412, Australian, 28 Papandreou, George, 154 413 Boer War coverage in, 12–13, 75 Papua New Guinea, 287 Spanish Civil War, 62–63, 86–88 British, 12–13, 75, 86, 272, 290, Paradise Lost (Milton), 301 U.S. Civil War, 88, 297, 409 371, 428–429 Park,Alice, 433 Vietnam War, 419 censorship of, 19, 70, 72, 174, Park Chung-hee, 212 World War II, 299 369, 372, 376 Parker, Sir Gilbert, 151 See also Documentaries; Film; Chinese, 73–74, 75 Parks, Rosa, 83 Newsreels Cuban, 69 Partido Revolucionario Institucional Picasso, Pablo, 22, 86, 120, 156, Danish, 368 (PRI), 249, 250 291 French, 135, 137, 260, 348, 429 Pasa, Ziya, 281 The Pickwick Papers (Dickens), 110 German, 147, 148–149 Pasha, Enver, 282 Pilsudski, Józef, 303 government control of, 19, 51, Pasha,Vaso, 35 Pinochet,Augusto, 342 85–86, 148, 196, 197, 268, Pasternak, Boris, 272 Pitt, William, 289, 428, 429 269, 283 Pathe’s Weekly, 132, 409 Pius XII, 197, 400 in Gulf War, 160 Paton,Alan, 10 Pizan, Christine de, 431 in Indian subcontinent, 173–175, Patten, Chris, 253 Plato, 300 176–177 Paul,Alice, 431, 434 Plekhanov, Georgi, xvii, 181, 229, Indonesian, 179 Paulus, Friedrich von, 446 319, 350, 361, 362 Italian, 196, 197, 198–199 Pavelic,Ante, 34 The Plow That Broke the Plains Japanese, 203, 204, 445 Pavlov, I. P., 47 (documentary), 128, 299–300, in Latin America, 224 Peace Corps, 207, 224 411 Mexican, 248 Peace movements, 289–294, 369 Pobedonostev, Constantin Petrovich, in Middle East, 18, 19, 95, 160 Pearson, Drew,61 360 New Zealand, 267–269, 270 Pearson, Lester, 62 Poetry, 300–302 Polish, 303, 304, 305 Peletier, Madeleine, 430 Pogodin, Mikhail, 30 Scandinavian, 367, 369 Penn, William, 290, 405 Pol Pot, 371, 372 Southeast Asian, 372 People’s Army of Vietnam (PAVN), Poland, 302–305, 431 South Korean, 213 418, 419 Polish Home Army, 303 Spanish, 375, 376–377 People’s Capitalism exhibition, 7 Political Warfare Executive (PWE), Turkish, 283 People’s Republic of China, 75, 100, 152, 180, 187, 325, 328, U.S., 88–89, 114, 164–165, 207, 236, 253, 329, 406. See 358, 441 290, 336, 378, 408, 410, also China Polynesia, 285, 286, 287 420–421, 422 Peoples of Canada (documentary), 60 Polynesian Liberation Front, 287 Vietnam War and, 420–421, 422 Perestroika, 363 Pombal, Marquis of, 309 women’s movement and, 434, 436 Perón, Eva Duarte, 139, 224, 294 Ponsonby,Arthur, 39 Prezzolini, Giuseppe, 196 Perón, Juan Domingo, 224, 294 Pope,Alexander, 52, 53 Priestley, J. B., 38, 441 472 Index

Primo de Rivera, José Antonio, Quang-Trung, 417 Spanish, 375, 376, 377 375–376 Quebec sovereignty movement, 61–62 Vietnamese, 422 Primo de Rivera, Miguel, 375, 377 Quezon, Manuel, 295 Radio Free Europe (RFE), 31, 80, Prisoners of war, 315–317 Quisling,Vidkun, 368 180, 186, 304, 326, 333, Profiles in Courage (Kennedy), 207 Quotations from Chairman Mao (Mao), 351–352, 397, 414, 424 Progress and Poverty (George), 412 76, 237, 329 Radio Free Hungary, 42 Progressive Era, 412–413 Radio in the American Sector (RIAS), The Projection of England (Tallents), 56 Rabbit-Proof Fence (film), 27 333, 336 Prokofiev, Sergei, 255 Rachovsky, Pyotr Ivanovich, 323 Radio Liberty (RL), 80, 125, 180, Propaganda Racism 326, 333, 351–352, 362, 397, cultural, 101–102 in Africa, 310, 311 414, 424 definition of, xv–xx, 317–323, anti-Irish, 188 Radio Martí, 70, 335, 415, 428 339, 437–439 eugenics and, 164 Radio Moscow, 95, 152, 332, 362, 426 disinformation as, 104–106 film and, 40, 63, 89, 129 Radio Tokyo, 27 truth in, 39, 94, 150, 187, 426 in Mexico, 247 Radio Vatican, 333 See also Black propaganda; Gray against Native Americans, 118–119 Raemakers, Louis, 266, 334 propaganda; White propaganda Nazi, 164, 255, 277, 314, 380 Rafsanjani, Hashemi, 186 Propaganda and Empire (MacKenzie), 55 Soviet, 105 The Ragged Trousered Philanthropists Proposal for the Universal Use of Irish in U.S., 277, 405, 433 (Tressell), 272 Manufacture (Swift), 188 See also Anti-Semitism Raines, Howell, 161 Protestant Reformation. See Radio, 331–224 Rakowski, Mieczslaw,304 Reformation, Protestant advertising, 6 Raleigh, Walter, 223 Protestantism, 187, 189, 190, 234, Asian, 27, 177, 179, 212, 213, Ramos, Fidel, 296 337–341 351, 352 Rankovic,Aleksandar, 35 Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 5, 14, 16, Australian, 28, 286–287 Rauschenberg, Robert, 59 123, 323, 360 British, 38, 78, 111, 125, 190, Reagan, Nancy, 106, 335, 428 Psychological operations (psyops), 326, 328, 333. See also British Reagan, Ronald, 334–336, 427 (illus.) 228, 324, 326, 421, 422 Broadcasting Corporation air traffic controllers strike and, Psychological Strategy Board, 93, 326, Cuban, 333 220 398 Danish, 369 anticommunism of, 65, 335 Psychological warfare, 323–326 domestic, 331–332 conservatism of, 253, 289, 343, British, 98, 323–324, 325 Dutch, 266, 267, 332 399 Canadian, 61 in Eastern Europe, 333 defense policy of, 82, 97, 293, 326 in Cold War, 101 German, 41, 147, 148, 149, drug policy of, 196 in Gulf War (1991), 157, 159, 233–234, 267, 331, 333, Iranian hostage crisis and, 185 159, 228 354–355 public opinion of, 279 in Gulf War (2003), 162 Hungarian, 42 “second” Cold War and, 5, 94, 415 U.S., 101, 228, 324, 397 international, 332–334 USIA and, 414, 427 in Vietnam War, 228, 326, 419, Israeli, 195 Recalde, Iñigo Lopez de, 173 420 Italian, 126–127, 196, 197, 198 Rectification Movement, 76 in War on Terrorism, 397 Japanese, 27, 400–401 “Red Book,” 30 in World War I, 323–323, 325 Latin American, 223–224 Red Star over China (Snow), 236 in World War II, 325–326, 448 Luxembourg, 266, 267 Reeducation, 102, 133, 315, 336–337 Public Broadcasting System (PBS), Mexican, 249 Reefer Madness (film), 106, 337, 338 128, 332 Middle Eastern, 16–17, 19, 158, (illus.) Public diplomacy, 327–328 159–160, 287, 334, 383, 384, Reeves, Nicholas, 133 Public opinion, xvi, 77, 113, 240, 260, 397 Reflections on the Revolution in France 278–279, 363 New Zealand, 269–270 (Burke), 54, 289 Public Service Broadcasting, 50–51 in Pacific, 286–287 Reformation, Protestant, xvi, 146, Pulitzer, Joseph, 89, 164, 165, 378 Soviet, 42, 95, 152, 332, 362, 426 173, 234, 255, 264, 302, Putin,Vladimir, 363 U.S., 162, 233, 253–254, 337–341, 386 Puttnam, David, 43 331–332, 333–334, 351, 357, Reinhardt, John, 415 411. See also Radio Free Reith, Sir John, 37, 40, 51, 72, 251, Qaddafi. See Al-Qaddafi Europe; Radio in American 341–342 Quakers, 289–290 Sector; Radio Liberty; Radio Religion, 3–4, 21, 83, 263, 289–290, Qualter, Terrence H., 318, 322 Martí;Voice of America 342–344, 343. See also Anti- Index 473

Semitism; Christianity; in Latin America, 223, 224, 225, Runeberg, Johan Judvig, 368 Crusades, Christian; Islam; 246, 248 Rushdie, Salman, 186, 273 Missionaries, Christian; in Philippines, 295, 296 Russell, Bertrand, 290, 319 Protestantism; Reformation, in Poland, 304 Russell, William Howard, 99–100 Protestant; Roman Catholic politics and, 342–343 Russia, 359–364 Church in Portugal, 310 anti-Semitism in, 14, 323, 360 Remarque, Erich Maria, 11, 272, 291 Reformation and, xvi, 223, 264, imperialism of, 30, 99, 303, 368 Rembrandt van Rijn, 265 337–341, 386 psychological warfare of, 325 Remington, Frederic, 165, 379 sentiment against, 24, 29, 54, propaganda in, xvii, 325, 370, 439 “Rendezvous” (cartoon), 66 134–135, 223, 234, 245, 248, war with Japan, 203 Renoir, Jean, 137, 238 250, 263, 264, 275, 305, 310, war with Ottoman Empire, 281 The Republic (Plato), 300 337–341 Poland and, 303, 304 Resnais,Alain, 128 in Spain, 86, 87, 373, 374, 376 radio in, 42, 95, 152, 332, 362, Revere, Paul, 345 (illus.), 346 See also Jesuit order 426 Revolution. See American Revolution; Roman Empire, 91, 244 women’s movement in, 430, 431 French Revolution; Russian Romania, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37 See also Russian Revolution; Soviet Revolution Romanov dynasty, 342, 361 Union Reynolds, Quentin, 232 Romero,Archbishop Oscar, 225 See also under World War I; World Reza Shah Pahlavi (Reza Khan), 183, Rommel, Erwin, 9 War II 185 Roosevelt, Eleanor, 357, 358 Russian Orthodox Church, 359, 363 Reza Shah Pahlavi, Muhammad, 185 Roosevelt, Franklin D., 355–358 Russian Revolution, 30, 280, 314, Rhee, Syngman, 212 funeral of, 140 323, 332, 349–351, 361, 402 Rhodes,Alexandre de, 417 fireside chats of, 331, 357, 375, Rwanda, 11 Rhodes, Cecil, 8, 12 409, 411, 448 Rydz-Smigly, Edward, 303 Rich, Marc, 91 Huey Long and, 232, 233 Rykov,Aleksey, 381 Richard III (Shakespeare), 370 New Deal program of, 297, 299, Richelieu, Cardinal, 341 411 Sadat,Anwar, 18, 343 Riefenstahl, Leni, 120, 128, 131 radio and, 233, 266, 331, 357, Safire, William, 226 (illus.), 132, 166, 277, 409, 411, 448 Sagan, Carl, 293 352–353, 401, 426 rhetorical style of, 336, 348, 409 al-Sahaf, Mohammed Saeed, 161, 171 Riel, Louis, 59 World War II and, 78–80, 224, Said,Ahmed, 16 The Rights of Man (Paine), 289 251, 266, 303–304, 310, 441, Said, Edward, 273 Riis, Edward, 353 447, 448 Sakskoburggotski, Simeon Borisov, 37 Riis, Jacob, 297, 353, 413 UN and, 78–80, 406, 441, 448 Salazar,Antonio, 310, 311 The River (documentary), 128, 411 Roosevelt, Theodore, 116, 353, 378, Salinas de Gortari, Carlos, 250 Rivera, Diego, 23, 248 379, 405, 409, 412, 413 Salinger, Pierre, 207 Rizal, José, 295 Rosenberg,Alfred, 14, 150, 323 Salisbury, Harrison, 422 RMVP (Reichministerium für Rosenberg, Ethel, 243 Salisbury, Lord, 254, 309 Volksaufklärung und Rosenberg, Julius, 243 Salminen, Esko, 369 Propaganda), 166, 353–355. Rosenman, Samuel, 411 Samil demonstration, 212 See also Ministry for Popular Rosenthal, Joe, 299 San Francisco Examiner, 164 Enlightenment and Propaganda Rosie the Riveter (Rockwell), 355, 448 Sandinista guerrilla movement, 225 Roberts, Lord Frederick Sleigh, 13 Rossellini, Roberto, 198 Sandino,Augusto, 225 Robeson, Paul, 61 Rossini, Gioacchino, 386 Sands, Bobby, 190, 316 Robespierre, 103 Rotgans, Lucas, 265 SANE (National Committee for a Sane Rockefeller, Nelson D., 224 Rouch, Jean, 8 Nuclear Policy), 292 Rockwell, Norman, 355, 356 (illus.), Rouget de L’Isle, Claude-Joseph, 136, Sanford, Henry Shelton, 89 448 237–238, 255 Sanger, Margaret, 3 Roe v.Wade, 3, 4 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 1, 135 Santo Domingo, 64 Rogers, Pat, 104 Rowan, Carl, 415 Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino, 223 Roh Tae-woo, 213 Royal Canadian Mounted Police Sartre, Jean-Paul, 137 Roman Catholic Church (RCMP), 60, 61 The Satanic Verses (Rushdie), 186 abortion and, 4 Ruddock, Joan, 293 Satellite communications, 186, 365 censorship by, 70, 134 Rude, François, 238 Saudi Arabia, 15, 20, 157, 158, 221 in Ireland, 188, 189, 190 Rudolf II (Austrian Empire), 29 Scandinavia, 292, 366–369, 430 in Italy, 197–198 Rumor, 358–359 Schein, Edgar, 47 474 Index

Schell, Johathan, 293 Siqueiros, David Alfaro, 23, 248 propaganda against, 61, 66, 95, Schiller, Johann von, 386, 399 Six-Day War (1967), 193, 195, 395, 152, 233, 333, 335, 351 Schlesinger,Arthur M., 346 455 propaganda of, xii, 25, 152, 181, Schmeling, Max, 380 Skenderbeg, Gjergj Kastroiti, 35 215, 216, 312, 362–363, 369 Schmidt,Auguste, 430 Slavery, 1–3, 89, 230, 405, 409 repression in, 209, 381, 384 Schneeberger, Hans, 352 Slovakia, 28 satellites, 365–366 Schouten, Willem Cornelis, 285 Slovenia, 36, 45, 300 Social Democratic party in, 181, Schwarzenberg, Felix zu, 29 Sllowacki, Juliusz, 302 381 Schwarzkopf, Norman, 157 Smith, Bradley R., 169 Spanish Civil War and, 87 *The Sea around Us (Carson), 116 Smith, Bruce L., 322 sports in, 277, 380 Seale, Bobby, 236 Smith, Howard K., 392 occupation in World War II, 31, Sebastian (Portugal), 308 Smith, Ian, 10 212 Sedition Act of 1917, 410 Smith, John, 43 See also KGB “See It Now,” 243, 254, 391 Smith, John Stafford, 255 See also under Cold War; The Second Sex (Beauvoir), 430 Smith, Seba, 403 Communism; Intelligence; Seeger, Pete, 182 Smuts, Jan Christian, 10 Radio; World War II Selassie, Haile, 9, 64 Snellman, Johan Vilhelm, 368 Spain, 373–377 Selfridge, Gordon, 123 Snow, Edgar, 236 art in, 22, 151, 156, 290, 373–374 Selim I (Ottoman Empire), 280 So Chae-p’il, 211 colonialism of, 223, 246–247, 295, Sembene, Ousmane, 8 Soccer, 380, 381 374, 379 Sendero Luminoso movement, 225 Social Democratic parties, 181, 228, Franco in, 310, 314, 342 Serbia, 33, 34, 36, 37, 45, 153, 217 315, 361, 381 Olympics and, 277 Sex Discrimination Act, 436 Socialism. See Bolsheviks; sentiment against, 264, 265, 295 Shahn, Ben, 23 Communism; International; See also Spanish Civil War; Spanish- Shai, Nahman, 195 Marxism American War Shaka, 8 Society Islands, 286 Spanish Civil War, 62–63, 81, 86–88, Shakespeare, William, 369, 399, 400 Soldaten Sender Eins (Soldier’s Radio 156, 272, 280, 374, 375 Sharon,Ariel, 195 One), 333 Spanish-American War, 295, 378–379 Shaw, George Bernard, 269, 400 Solidarity movement, 304, 428 Special Operations Executive (SOE), Shea, Jamie, xix Solzhenitsyn,Alexander, 272–273 60, 180, 368 Shegal, Grigori, 307 Somalia, 11, 222 Speer,Albert, 120, 166 Sherriff, R. C., 291 Somare, Sir Michael, 287 Spencer, Lady Georgiana, 110 Sherwood, Robert, 284 Somoza regime, 225 Spencer, William Baldwin, 26 Shibao, 73–74 Songgram, Luang Pubul, 371 Spock, Benjamin, 293 Shintoism, 202 Sonnino, Sidney, 196 Sports, 379–381 Ship, Reuben, 61 Sontag, Susan, 161 Springer,Axel, 149, 253 Shoah (documentary), 128 South Africa, 8, 10, 11, 12–13, 276, Sputnik, 365 Sholokov, Mikhail, 447 407 Sreberny,Annabelle, 185 “The Shortest Way with the South Korea, 212–213, 277, 326. See Staikov, Lyudmil, 35 Dissenters” (Defoe), 104 also Korea Stakhanov,Aleksei, 362 Shub, Esfir, 446 South Manchuria Railway Company, Stalin, Joseph, 381–383, 359 (illus.) Shute, Nevil, 292 203 (illus.) cartoons of, 66 Sibelius, Jean, 368 Southeast Asia, 371–373 Cold War and, 94 Sierra Club, 116 Soviet Union Comintern and, 96, 181, 215, 361 Siguredhsson, Jón, 367 architecture in, 21 image consciousness of, 182, 306, Sihanouk, Norodom, 372 art, 22–23, 307 307 Sikorski, Wladyslaw, 303 censorship in, 272–273, 360, 362, Poland and, 303 Silent Spring (Carson), 116, 370–371 369 Pravda editorship of, 315 Simpson, John, 158 film in, 109 Trotsky and, 381, 402 Sin, Jaime Cardinal, 296 India and, 176 U.S. and, 450 Sinasi, Ibrahim, 281 intelligence in, 180 World War II and, 383, 445, 446 Sinclair, John, 106 labor issues in, 219, 382 Stambolov, Stefan, 34 Sinclair, Upton, 413 Middle East and, 94–95, 152, Stamp Act crisis, 346 Singapore, 366, 371, 372 221 La Stampa (Italy), 196, 197 Sinn Féin, 189, 190, 393, 395 monuments of, 245 Stanton, Edwin M., 88–89 Sino-Japanese War, 75, 202–203, 211 music in, 182, 255 Stanton, Elizabeth Cady, 433 Index 475

“Star Wars,” 82, 335 TASS news agency, 95 civil defense and, 82 Starr, Kenneth, 90 Tatlin,Vladimir, 22 conservatism of, 253, 398 “The Star-Spangled Banner,” 255 Taylor, Philip, 228 criticism of, 112 Startz, Edward, 266 Taylor, Stephen, 252 Falklands/Malvinas War policy of, Stasova, Nadezhda, 430 Tchaikovsky, Pyotr Ilich, 238 124, 125 State and Revolution (Lenin), 229 Television, 389–392 public relations of, 111 Steele, Richard, 52 Australian, 28 on terrorism, 394 Steffens, Lincoln, 413 British, 159, 160, 389, 390 World War II references of, 441 Steinbeck, John, 272, 300 documentaries, 128 Thayer, H. E., 88 Stephenson, William, 61 German, 148, 149 Theater, 50, 348, 399–400, 412 Stern-Rubarth, Edgar, 437 Gulf War coverage on, 159, 160, Theodorakis, Mikis, 154 Stettinius, Edward, 406 392 Thich Quang Duc, 419, 422 Stevenson,Adlai, 113 (illus.), 406 Indian, 177 Third Reich. See Nazi regime Stöcker, Helene, 431 Indonesian, 179 The Third of May (Goya), 22, 151 Stockholm Bloodbath, 366 Italian, 198 Third Way Ideology (Qaddafi), 19 Stockwell, John, 105 Latin American, 226 Thirty Years’ War, xvi, 308, 340, 367, Stolypin, Petr, 276 Mexican, 249 386 Stone, Lucy, 433 Middle Eastern, 19, 161, 185, 186, Thomas, Dylan, 30 Stout, H. S., 347 222, 366, 390, 392, 397 Thompson, E. P., 293 Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 1, 2, 261, news, 160, 365, 391–392 Thompson, Sir Robert, 98 272, 405, 409 and politics, 109–110, 115, 271 Thomson,Virgil, 300, 411 Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), 335 Spanish, 377 Thorarensen, Bjarni, 367 Straw,Jack, 160 U.S., 159, 160, 210, 234, 243, Thoreau, Henry David, 116 Stuart, Leslie, 55 254, 271, 389–390, 391–392, Threads (film), 425 Sudan, 8, 222 409, 412, 419, 422 Thunderstorm (Yu), 400 Suez crisis, 15, 16, 383–385 Vietnam War coverage on, 392, Tian’anmen Square, 77, 182, 365 Suffrage, 144, 431, 432–435 422, 419 Tilden, Samuel B., 114 Suharto, Mohamed, 178, 385 Tell, William, 386 Times (London), 99–100, 253, 323, Sukarno,Ahmed, 178, 385 Temperance, 393, 434 325 Sukarnoputri, Megawati, 178 Temple, Sir John, 188 Tisse, Eduard, 351 Suleyman I (Ottoman Empire), 280 Templer, Sir Gerald, 97, 98, 371 Titian, 29, 306 Sumatra, 285 Tennyson,Alfred, 100 Tito, Josip Broz, 34, 35 Sun Tzu, 324 Terrorism, 393–396 Tokyo Rose, 27, 400–401 Sun Yat-sen, 74 Irish, 190–191, 393–395 Tolstoy, Leo, 290 Supreme Headquarters Allied Middle Eastern, 18, 186, 222, 316, Tongatapu, 285 Expedition Force (SHAEF), 40, 343, 352, 395–398 Tonge, Israel, 275 100, 325, 336 in U.S., 263, 396 Tonghak, 211 Suttner, Bertha von, 290, 431 Terrorism, War on (2001), 396–398 Tour de France, 381 Svilova, Yelizaveta, 447 aid to Afghanistan, 152–153 Tourism, 6, 193, 444 Sweden, 292, 366–369, 430 Al Qaeda and, 397–398 Townshend Acts, 344 Swedish Action Group, 292 Britain and, 44 Toynbee,Arnold, 282 Swift, Jonathan, 52, 188, 204, 272 drug traffic and, 107 Treaty on Peace, Friendship, and Switzerland, 277, 385–387 Gulf War (2003) and, 159, 162 Cooperation, 176 The Sword and the Shield:The Mitrokhin Iran and, 186 Trenchard, John, 53 Archive (Mitrokhin), 105 media and, 333, 366, 392, 397 Tressell, Robert, 272 Sylvester,Arthur, 421 Osama bin Laden and, 222, Tr iumph of the Will (film), 120, 128, Syria, 17, 19, 20 397–398 132, 166, 352, 401–402, 426 Szechenyi, Istvan, 20 psychological warfare in, 42–43, Trotsky, Leon, 62, 181, 251, 349, 381, 397 402 Tahiti, 285, 286 public diplomacy in, 327 Trubnikova, Mariya, 430 Taliban, 315, 333, 396, 397 suicide terrorism and, 343 Trudeau, Pierre, 61 Tallents, Sir Stephen, 56 Tet offensive, 419, 422 “The True Born Englishman” (Defoe), Tappan,Arthur, 2 Thailand, 371, 372 104 Tappan, Lewis, 2 Than Shwe, 373 Trujillo, Rafael, 64 Tarbell, Ida, 413 Thatcher, Margaret, 398–399 Truman, Harry, 80, 94, 215, 243, 283, Tasman,Abel, 285 censorship and, 38, 398 326, 336, 418 476 Index

Trumbo, Dalton, 291 China and, 215, 450 Let Poland be Poland TV program of, Truth, Sojourner, 2, 433 civil defense of, 81–82 304, 365, 428 Ts’au Yu, 400 colonialism of, 286, 295 Middle East and, 95 Tudjman, Franjo, 36 communism and, 80, 81 polls by, 207 Tunisian Victory (film), 9 Cuba and, 69, 70, 180, 208 purpose of, 93, 326, 327, 413–414 Turkey, 153, 154, 155, 280–283 cultural propaganda of, 101 radio propaganda and, 333, 335, Turner, J.M.W.,1 elections in, 113–115 414 Turner, Nat, 2 exhibitions in, 7, 118–119 and Suez Crisis, 384 Turner, Richard, 393 film in, 63, 68, 72, 99, 106, 115 Vietnam and, 371, 420, 422, 423, Turner, Ted,91, 253, 392 Gulf Wars and, 157–162 424, 426–427 Tutu, Desmond, 10, 11 Imperialism, 295, 378, 379 war on drugs and, 106 Tweed, William “Boss,” 262 India and, 176 Universal Negro Improvement intervention in Caribbean, 65 Association (UNIA), 9, 64, 144 Uganda, 10 Iran and, 185, 186 Universal Peace Union, 290 The Ugly American (Burdick and Japan and, 203, 204 Urban II (Pope), 23–24 Lederer), 272 Kosovo crisis and, 216–217 Urban, Jerzy, 305 Ukraine, 446–447 labor issues in, 219, 220 Urban VIII (Pope), 340, 341 Ulster Unionist Parliamentary Party, Latin America and, 224, 225 U.S.Armed Forces Network (AFN), 189 Marshall Plan, 198, 238–241 287 Uncle Sam, 134, 262, 403–405 Mexico and, 247–248 U.S. Civil War, 2, 88–89, 230, 262, Uncle Tom’s Cabin (Stowe), 1, 2, 261, monuments in, 245 290, 297 272, 405, 409 Olympics and, 277 U.S. News and World Report, 84 Underground (film), 36 in Philippines, 295–296 USSR. See Soviet Union Unions, 220 polling in, 278–279 United Irishman’s Rebellion of 1798, Progressive era in, 412–413 Van Grippenberg,Alexandra, 430 188 propaganda against, 65, 69, 77, Van Veen, Otto, 265 United Nations (UN), 405–407 132, 154, 215, 224, 267, 300, Vandervelde, Émile, 180–181, 265 arms inspections, 162 400–401 Vanuatu, 287 Atlantic Charter and, 406, 441, 448 propaganda of, 92, 104–106, Vargas, Getulio, 224 Bosnian War and, 44, 45, 46 403 Vasa, Gustav, 366, 367 Education, Scientific, and Cultural public diplomacy in, 327–328 Vatican, 333, 342 Organization (UNESCO), 156, reeducation policy of, 102, 133, Velázquez, Diego, 374 224, 407 315, 336–337 Velestinlis, Rigas, 153 environment and, 117, 287 satellites, 365–366 Verdi, Giuseppe, 195–196, 370 Information Committee, 406 slavery and, 1–2 Ver nacular Press Act of 1878 (India), High Commissioner for Refugees Soviets and, 207, 208, 250–251 174 (UNHCR), 407 in Vietnam, 98, 155, 208, 212, Vertov, Dziga, 128, 446 human rights and, 2, 406, 407 228, 371–372, 419, 420–423 Vesembeeke, Jacob van, 264 International Children’s Fund war on drugs in, 106–107 Victoria (England), 55, 140, 306 (UNICEF), 407 terrorism and, 42, 44, 107, Victory of Faith (documentary), 352 Korean War and, 213, 216, 406 152–153, 159, 162, 186, 222, Vietnam Veterans against the War Kosovo War and, 217 227, 333, 343, 366, 392, (VVAW), 293 membership in, 9, 310, 387, 406 396–398 Vietnam, 371, 417–420 Protection Force (UNPROFOR), women’s movement in, 138–139, Vietnam War, 420–423 44, 45, 46 431, 432–437 censorship and, 410, 420–421 Security Council (UNSC), 217 See also American Revolution; in film, 155 See also World Health Organization Spanish-American War; U.S. memorial, 245 (WHO) Civil War press in, 420–421 United States, 407–413 See also under Cold War; television coverage of, 392, 419, Arab relations with, 18, 384 Intelligence; Press; World War 422 art in, 23 I; World War II protests, 255, 292–293, 369 anthem, 255 United States Information Agency POWs in, 316 (illus.), 317 antiwar movement in, 290–291, (USIA), 208 (illus.), 413–415 psychological warfare in, 228, 292–294 Cold War and, 304, 414–415 326, 419, 420 censorship in, 72, 88, 160, 161, directors of, 254, 415 U.S. strategy in, 97, 98, 208, 228, 410, 420–421 exhibitions of, 7, 101, 414–415 326, 371–372 Index 477

Villa, Pancho, 248 Wergeland, Henrik, 368 Woodfall, William, 53 The Village Notary (Eovos), 29 Wesley, Charles, 255 Woods, Donald, 10 Virgil, 300 Wesley, John, 255 Woods, Gordon S., 346–347 Vlademar II (Denmark), 367 West Germany, 277. See also Germany Worden, Simon P., 397 Vo Nguyen Giap, 418 Western Soma, 286 Wordsworth, William, 64 Vogel, Julius, 268 Die Welt, 149, 336 Worker’s Challenge Station, 41, 234 Voice and Vision of the Islamic Weyler,Valeriano “Butcher,” 378 Works Progress Administration (WPA) Republic (VVIR), 185, 186 What Is to Be Done? (Lenin), 229, 350, Federal Arts Projects, 23, 412 Voice of America (VOA), 423–424 361 Federal Theater Project, 412 AID education and, 11, 164 Wheble, John, 429 World Health Organization (WHO), Cold War and, 61, 101, 243, 254, Wheeler, Harvey, 292 11, 164, 386, 407 304, 326, 332 (illus.), 351, Whelan, Charlie, 44 The World in Action (documentary film 362, 426 When the Wind Blows (Briggs), 293 series), 60 Cuba and, 428 White propaganda, 61, 152, 158, World War I, 437–440 internet and, 183 325–326, 425–426 antiwar movement and, 290 Korean War and, 215 White, Walter, 259 art of, 156 in Middle East, 366, 384, 397 Why We Fight (documentary film atrocity propaganda and, 24–25, public diplomacy and, 327 series), 63, 128, 401, 426, 56, 313–314 World War II and, 284, 333, 450 450 Balkans in, 34 Volga-Stalingrad (Grossman), 447 Wiberforce, William, 1 Britain and, xvi–xix, 1, 25, 30, 56, Voltaire, 135, 360 Wick,Charles Z., 335, 415, 426–428 60, 81, 151, 163, 179, 204, Wick, Mary-Jane, 428 226, 272, 323–324, 325, 439, Wahhabism, 16, 221, 281, 282 Wilhelm II (Kaiser of Germany), 92, 440 Wajda,Andrzej, 304 147 Canada and, 60 Walesa, Lech, 304, 305 Wilkes, John, 53, 346, 428–429 censorship in, 70 Walker, David, 1, 409 William II (Holland), 265 films and, 11–12, 26, 133, 262, Walker, Felix, 408 Wilkins, Roy, 259 291 Walpole, Robert, 53 William of Orange (England), 188, France in, 137 Walsh, Raoul, 248 189 Germany in, 25, 39, 92, 439, 440 Walzer, Michael, 395 William the Silent, Prince of Orange, health campaigns in, 163 Wang Jingwei, 75 264, 265, 340 Italy in, 30, 256 Wanger, Walter, 447 Williams, John, 285–286 leaflet drops in, 197, 226, 252, 325 The War Game (film), 38, 293, 425 Willkie, Wendel, 406, 448 Mexico and, 248 War of Independence, U.S. See Wilson, Harold, 111 New Zealand and, 269 American Revolution Wilson, Woodrow, 30, 99, 248, 331, Poland and, 303 Warren, Robert Penn, 233 405, 406, 410, 434, 453 propaganda, xvi, 39, 205, 226, Washington, George, 113, 288 Winkler,Alan, 164 272 Watergate, 271 Winnipeg General Strike, 60 psychological warfare in, 323–323, Watkins, Peter, 425 Witte, Sergei, 361 325 Watt, Harry, 81, 156, 232 Wolf, Naomi, 437 Russia and, 30, 349–350, 361, 402 Wayne, John, 155 Wolff Telegraph Bureau (WTB), 72 Spain and, 375 Weathermen, 396 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 54, 432 Turkey in, 282 Weeks, N. C. F., 228 Women’s Christian Temperance Union U.S. and, 99, 106, 134, 405, 440 Weill, Kurt, 10 (WCTU), 393 World War II, 441–450 Weir, Peter, 26–27 Women’s International League for in Africa, 9 Weiss, Carl, 233 Peace and Freedom (WILPF), Balkans in, 34 Weizmann, Chaim, 455 290, 291 Britain and, 25, 38, 42, 46, 60, 72, Welch, David, 320, 322 Women’s movement 81, 100, 152, 175, 224, 233, Welch, Joseph, 243 Europe, 429–431 251, 254, 278–279, 325–326, Welles, Orson, 165 precursors to, 431–432 328, 333, 358, 440–441 Wellesley, Lord (Richard), 174 First Wave/Suffrage, 144, Canada and, 60–61 Wellington, Duke of, 140, 309 432–435 China in, 254 Wellington House, 151–152, 334 Second Wave/Feminism, 138–139, films on, 9, 27, 63, 68, 115, 128, Wellman, William A., 291 435–437 129–130, 133, 232, 250–251, Wells-Barnett, Ida B., 413 Women’s Social and Political Union 316, 440 “Welt im Film” (newsreel), 133, 336 (WSPU), 434, 435 France in, 137, 439 478 Index

Germany in, 41, 148, 166, 266, World Zionist Organization (WZO), Zaire, 10 228, 441–444, 445–446 455 Zanuck, Darryl F., 406 health campaigns in, 163 Worldnet, 365 Zapata, Emiliano, 248, 250 Italy in, 125–126, 197, 257 World’s Fairs, 118–121, 412, Zapotec Indians, 249 Japan in, 80, 252–253, 286, 295, Wren, Sir Christopher, 245 Zarthian, Barry, 422 316, 337, 371, 400–401, Wright, Basil, 156 Zenger, John Peter, 408 444–445 Wyspianski, Stanislaw, 303 Zeromski, Stefan, 303 Korea and, 212 Wyvill, Christopher, 54 Zetkin, Clara, 431 Latin America and, 224 Zhang Zuolin, 74 leaflet drops in, 226–228, 444, 448 Xavier, Francis, 173 Zhdanov,Andrei, 362 Mexico and, 249 Zilnik, Zelimir, 35 photography, 299 Yariv, Aharon, 195 Zimbabwe, 7, 334 Poland and, 303 Yeats, W.B., 301 Zimmermann,Arthur, 453 POWs, 315, 316 Yeltsin, Boris, 363 Zimmermann telegram, 179, 248, psychological warfare in, 448, 324 Yevtushenko, Yevgeny, 301 453 (illus.), 325–326 Yi dynasty, 211, 212 Zinoviev, Grigori, 381, 383, 453 Russia/Soviet Union in, 383, 442, Yi Ha-ung, 211 Zinoviev letter, 453–454 443, 445–447 Yongzheng emperor, 73 Zionism, 14, 95, 165–166, 169, 192, Switzerland and, 386 Young Turk movement, 282 193, 454–455 Turkey and, 283 Ypsilanti,Alexander, 153 Zog I (Albania), 34 U.S. and, 6, 134, 180, 312, Yugoslavia, 30, 31, 34, 35, 36, 44, Zola, Émile, 137, 201, 272 283–284, 312, 355, 439, 441, 182, 217 Zulu Nation, 8 445, 447–450 Zumárraga, Juan de, 246 See also under Film Zahn, Paula, 392 Zwingli, Hulderich, 339, 386 ABOUT THE EDITORS

David Culbert is professor of history, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, and editor of the Historical Journal of Film,Radio and Television. He is the coauthor of World War II,Film and His- tory (1996) and editor-in-chief of Film and Propaganda in America:A Documentary History, 5 vols. plus microfiche (1990–1993). Nicholas J. Cull is professor of American studies and director of the Centre for American Studies at the University of Leicester, UK. He has written widely on the history of propa- ganda, including his 1995 book Selling War:British Propaganda and American “Neutrality”in the Sec- ond World War. He is currently completing a history of U.S. propaganda overseas since 1945. David Welch is professor of modern history and director of the Centre for the Study of Pro- paganda at the University of Kent at Canterbury, UK. His books include The Third Reich:Politics and Propaganda, 2d edition (2002), Hitler:Profile of a Dictator (2001); Propaganda and the German Cinema 1933–45 (2001), and Germany, Propaganda and Total War, 1914–1918 (2001). He is cur- rently writing a history of propaganda in the twentieth century.

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