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Theory of the Earth Don L. Anderson Chapter 11. Evolution of the Mantle Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publications, c1989 Copyright transferred to the author September 2, 1998. You are granted permission for individual, educational, research and noncommercial reproduction, distribution, display and performance of this work in any format. Recommended citation: Anderson, Don L. Theory of the Earth. Boston: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1989. http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechBOOK:1989.001 A scanned image of the entire book may be found at the following persistent URL: http://resolver.caltech.edu/CaltechBook:1989.001 Abstract: I have now discussed the various kinds of magmas and refractory rocks that are important in the mantle, or at least the upper mantle, and some isotopic and seismic properties of the mantle. The visible rocks are the end, or present, product of mantle evolution. If these were our only source of information, we could come up with a fairly simple scheme of magma genesis, perhaps involving single-stage melting of a homogeneous, even primitive, mantle. It now seems unlikely that we will find the "Rosetta Stone” -- a rock fragment that represents "original Earth" or even the parent or grandparent of other rocks. Rocks and magmas represent products of complex multistage processes, just as the crust and mantle do. As we delve deeper into the Earth and further back in time, we depend more and more on isotopes and on modeling of planetary accretion and mantle processes. Evolution of the Mantle Rocks, like everything else, are subject to change and so also are our views on them. -FRANZ Y. LOEWINSON-LESSING have now discussed the various kinds of magmas and for MORB and enriched or alkali-rich basalts are comple- I refractory rocks that are important in the mantle, or at mentary, and their ratios parallel the partition coefficient least the upper mantle, and some isotopic and seismic prop- trend of garnet. This suggests that neither reservoir is primi- erties of the mantle. The visible rocks are the end, or pres- tive and that they are complementary products of a more ent, product of mantle evolution. If these were our only primitive reservoir. The LIL-depleted reservoir appears to source of information, we could come up with a fairly sim- be garnet-rich, or fertile, relative to the enriched reservoir. ple scheme of magma genesis, perhaps involving single- The high density of garnet suggests that the depleted reser- stage melting of a homogeneous, even primitive, mantle. It voir is the deeper one, and that ancient depletionlenrich- now seems unlikely that we will find the "Rosetta StoneH- ment processes involved the upward transport of fluids that a rock fragment that represents "original Earth" or even the have been in equilibrium with garnet. The recycling of sed- parent or grandparent of other rocks. Rocks and magmas iments and hydrothermally altered oceanic crust, too, has represent products of complex multistage processes, just as probably been important throughout most of Earth history. the crust and mantle do. As we delve deeper into the Earth This material may contribute to the chemical and isotopic and further back in time, we depend more and more on heterogeneity of the enriched source region, or it may be isotopes and on modeling of planetary accretion and mantle preferentially concentrated in the shallow mantle and act as processes. a separate source. A variety of studies have lent support to the concept of From a geophysical and tectonic point of view the fol- a chemically inhomogeneous mantle. The mantle contains lowing possible sources can be identified. Some may be fer- at least two distinct reservoirs that differ in their large-ion- tile sources of basalts, while others may simply interact lithophile (LIL) contents and that have maintained their with magmas generated elsewhere. separate identities for at least lo9years. One reservoir, itself heterogeneous, has high values of Rb/Sr, Nd/Sm, U/Pb 1. The continental shield lithosphere and, possibly, 3HelU. A variety of LIL-enriched basalts 2. The shallow mantle, sometimes called the asthenosphere. ranging from basanites, nephelinites and alkali basalts to 3. The transition region. tholeiites either form or evolve in, or become contaminated by, this reservoir. There may be several enriched reservoirs 4. Subducted sediments. and several mechanisms of enrichment (subduction, trap- 5. Subducted oceanic crust. ping of melts or gas). The simplest hypothesis, however, is that there is one enriched reservoir that may be radially and In addition, magmas may interact with the continental laterally inhomogeneous, having been enriched at various crust, the oceanic crust, the oceanic lithosphere, seawater times and by various mechanisms. The other major reser- and the atmosphere. Until all of these sources are evaluated, voir provides fairly uniformly depleted tholeiites (MORW) it seems premature to invoke such remote sources as the to the midocean ridges. The incompatible-element patterns lower mantle and D". low and global enriched reservoir. Back-arc basin basalts (BABB) are closer to MORB in composition and, if the depth of the low-velocity zone and the depths of earth- quakes can be used as a guide, tap a source deeper than 150 Most models of petrogenesis assume that basic and ultra- km. Many BABBs are intermediate in chemistry to MORB basic magmas are formed by varying degrees of partial and OIB. This and other evidence indicates that the en- melting of fertile peridotite in the upper mantle. In these riched reservoir is shallow and the depleted MORB reser- models the degree of partial melting and crystal fraction- voir is deeper. ation and the depth of origin are the main variables in con- Since the seismic velocities and anisotropy of the shal- trolling the composition of the melt. Variations in volatile low mantle, above 220 km, are consistent with an olivine- content and mineralogy of the source region, and crustal rich aggregate, and since most mantle xenoliths are olivine- contamination are additional variables that have been used rich, it is natural to assume that the enriched reservoir is a to explain the full range of magma compositions. Tholeiites peridotite. This peridotite can be infertile (low in Al2O3)yet are generally regarded as representing large degrees of par- enriched in LIL. Since the depleted reservoir has already tial melting of a shallow source, and the more K20-rich lost a melt fraction, it should be depleted in garnet, unless magmas, such as alkali basalts and nephelinites, are re- it is an eclogite cumulate. Peridotites depleted in basalt garded as resulting from relatively small amounts of melting have less A120, and garnet than nondepleted or fertile at deeper levels. The incompatible-element-enriched mag- peridotites. mas with high LREE content, such as melilites, nephelin- The trace-element signatures of enriched magmas are ites, basanites and kimberlites, are assumed to result from consistent with derivation from a reservoir that has experi- extremely small degrees of partial melting from a deep enced eclogite fractionation or metasomatism by melts from garnet-rich source region. an eclogite-rich source. Magmas from this reservoir will Isotopic studies require at least two source regions in therefore be LREE-enriched, not because there is garnet in the mantle. The most voluminous magma type, MORB has the residue but because the reservoir itself had experienced low LIL contents and low 87Sr/86Sr,143Nd/144Nd and 207Pb/ a prior stage of garnet removal or secondary enrichment by 204Pbratios. The Rb/Sr, NdISm and UIPb ratios in this res- a fluid from a garnet-rich reservoir. This eliminates one of ervoir have been low for at least 2.5 Ga, and perhaps were the arguments for derivation of LIL- and LREE-enriched set by accretional differentiation. Since these ratios are high magmas, such as alkali olivine basalts, by small degrees of in melts and low in residual crystals, the implication is that partial melting from a deep garnet-rich peridotite layer. In the MORB reservoir is a cumulate or a crystalline residue general, diapirs from great depth will experience a greater remaining after the removal of a melt fraction. The enriched degree of partial melting than diapirs originating at shallow melt fraction is commonly assumed to efficiently enter the depths. This is another argument against a shallow source continental crust. The continental crust is therefore re- for tholeiites. Extensive melting probably requires adiabatic garded as the only complement to the depleted MORB ascent from a deep thermal boundary layer. source. Mass-balance calculations based on this premise in- Kimberlites are among the most enriched magmas. Al- dicate that most of the mantle is undepleted or primitive, though they are rare, the identification of a kimberlite-like and.the depleted reservoir is assumed to occupy most or all component in enriched magmas means that they may be of the upper mantle. Since the continental crust is the only volumetrically more important than generally appreciated. enriched reservoir in this model, magmas that have high The eclogite-fractionation, magma-mixing hypothesis LIL contents and 87Sr/86Srratios are assumed to be con- for the evolution of the mantle (Anderson, 1982a,b,c) dif- taminated by the continental crust, or to contain a recycled fers from conventional petrological assumptions in several ancient crustal component. ways: (1) The depleted source region is an eclogite-rich However, enriched magmas such as alkali-olivine ba- cumulate or a piclogite rather than a garnet peridotite; salts (AOB), oceanic-island basalts (OIB) and nephelinites (2) enriched magmas are blends or hybrids of a depleted also occur on oceanic islands and have similar LIL and iso- magma (MORB or picrite) and a melt from a shallow en- topic ratios to continental flood basalts (CFB) and continen- riched peridotite reservoir; (3) the LIL pattern of enriched tal alkali basalts.
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  • Trace Elements in Igneous Petrology

    Trace Elements in Igneous Petrology

    Trace Elements in igneous petrology •Abundances of trace elements are used to test petrogenetic hypotheses •No universal definition of TE: Concentration usually less than 100 ppm, often < 10 ppm •Useful trace elements: a)First transition series: Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ti and Fe are usually major elements, Cr, Mn, and Ni are minor elements Progressive filling of 3d orbitals Variable crystal field stabilization Commonly multivalent (Sc3, Ti4,3, V2,3,4,5, Cr2,3,6, Mn2,3, Fe2,3, Co2, Ni2 b) Lanthanides (REE): La Ce Pr Nd (Pm) Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Light REE and heavy REE (Y behaves like a HREE) normalization factors (chondrites) 1 Eu2+ REE Chondritic abundances Lanthanide Contraction odd vs. even abundances 1.2 .8 .6 1.1 .4 Eu3+ Ionic radius (Å) Ionic radius Abundance (ppm) .2 Based on 8-fold 1.0 coordination 0 La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu (c) Large Ion Lithophile Elements (LILE): may also be partitioned into fluid phase Alkalis: K Rb Cs (monovalent) Alkaline earths: Ba Sr (divalent) Actinides: U, Th, Ra, Pa (multiple valency) (d) High field strength elements (HFSE): small, highly-charged ions Zr, Hf (4 valent) Nb, Ta (4 and 5 valent) (e) Chalcophile elements: Cu, Zn, Pb, Ag, Hg, PGE, (Fe, Co, Ni) (f) Siderophile elements: Fe, Ni, Co, Ge, P, Ga, Au (PGE)… • Decoupled from major elements: lack of stoichiometric constraints (not strictly true) • Goldschmidt’s Rules • Generalities: Incompatible elements are elements that tend to be excluded from common minerals (olivines, pyroxenes, garnets, feldspars, oxides…) in equilibrium with a melt, i.e., they have low D values.