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Three--Dimensional Medical Imaging: Algorithms and Computer Systems Syracuse University SURFACE College of Engineering and Computer Science - Former Departments, Centers, Institutes and College of Engineering and Computer Science Projects 1991 Three--dimensional medical imaging: Algorithms and computer systems M. R. Stytz Air Force Institute of Technology, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Wright-Patterson AFB G. Frieder Syracuse University, School of Computer and Information Science O. Frieder George Mason University, Department of Computer Science Follow this and additional works at: https://surface.syr.edu/lcsmith_other Part of the Computer Sciences Commons Recommended Citation Stytz, M. R.; Frieder, G.; and Frieder, O., "Three--dimensional medical imaging: Algorithms and computer systems" (1991). College of Engineering and Computer Science - Former Departments, Centers, Institutes and Projects. 6. https://surface.syr.edu/lcsmith_other/6 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Engineering and Computer Science at SURFACE. It has been accepted for inclusion in College of Engineering and Computer Science - Former Departments, Centers, Institutes and Projects by an authorized administrator of SURFACE. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Three-Dimensional Medical Imaging: Algorithms and Computer Systems M. R. STYTZ Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, ALr Force Institute of Technology, Wrzght-Patterson AFB, Ohzo 45433 G. FRIEDER School of Computer and Information Science, Syracuse University, Syracuse, New York 13224 0. FRIEDER Department of Computer Science, George Mason Unwersity, Fairfax, Virgznia 22030 This paper presents an introduction to the field of three-dimensional medical imaging It presents medical imaging terms and concepts, summarizes the basic operations performed in three-dimensional medical imaging, and describes sample algorithms for accomplishing these operations. The paper contains a synopsis of the architectures and algorithms used in eight machines to render three-dimensional medical images, with particular emphasis paid to their distinctive contributions. It compares the performance of the machines along several dimensions, including image resolution, elapsed time to form an image, imaging algorithms used in the machine, and the degree of parallehsm used in the architecture. The paper concludes with general trends for future developments in this field and references on three-dimensional medical imaging. Categories and Subject Descriptors: A 1 [General Literature]: Introductory and Survey; C.0 [Computer Survey Organization]: General; C,5 [Computer Systems organization]: Computer System Implementation; 1,3.2 [Computer Graphics]: Graphics Systems; 1.3,7 [Computer Graphics]: Three-Dimensional Graphics and Realism; J.3 [Computer Applications]: Life and Medical Science General Terms: Algorithms, Design, Experimentation, Performance Addltlonal Key Words and Phrases: Computer graphics, medical imaging, surface rendering, three-dimensional imaging, volume rendering CASE STUDY ity. A three-dimensional (3D) model of the MRI study reveals flattening in the A patient with intractable seizure activ- gyri of the lower motor and sensory ity is admitted to a major hospital for strips, a condition that was not apparent treatment. As the first step in treatment, in the cross-sectional MRI views. The the treating physician collects a set of 63 physician orders a second study, using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) im- positron emission tomography (PET), to age slices of the patient’s head. These portray the metabolic activity of the two-dimensional (2D) slices of the pa- brain. Using the results of the PET study, tient’s head do not disclose an abnormal- the physician assembles a 3D model of Permission to copy without fee all or part of this material KSgranted provided that the copies are not made or distributed for direct commercial advantage, the ACM copyright notice and the title of the publication and its data appear, and notice is given that copying is by the permission of the Association for Computing Machinery To copy otherwise, or to republish, requires a fee and/or specific permission. @ 1991 ACM 0360-0300/91/1200-421 $0150 ACM Computing Surveys, Vol 23, No. 4, December 1991 422 * Stkytz et al. I CONTENTS the abnormality within the lower part of the motor and sensory strips. The physician uses a surgery rehearsal program to simulate surgery on the com- CASE STUDY bined brain model. To assist the physi- INTRODUCTION cian, the program displays the brain 1. UNIQUE ASPECTS OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL model and the overlying skin surfaces MEDICAL IMAGING side by side. Using a mouse-controlled 2 THREE-DIMENSIONAL IMAGING COORDINATE SYSTEMS, OBJECT SPACE cursor, the physician outlines the abnor- DEPICTION MODELS, AND TYPES OF mal area of the brain on the combined IMAGE RENDERING model. The rehearsal program uses this 3 THREE-DIMENSIONAL MEDICAL IMAGING tracing to perform a simulated cran- RENDERING OPERATIONS iotomy. Pictures of the simulated opera- 4 THREE-DIMENSIONAL MEDICAL IMAGING MACHINES tion are taken to surgery to guide the 41 Farrell’s Colored-Range Method actual procedure. An intraoperative elec- 42 Fuchs/Poultm Pixel-Planes Machine troencephalogram demonstrates seizure 43 Kaufman’s Cube Architecture activity at the site predicted by the medi- 4.4 The Mayo Clime True Tree-Dlmenslonal Machine and ANALYZE cal images. After resectioning of the 45 Medical Image Processing Group Machines abnormal area, the patient’s seizure 4.6 Pmar/Vlcom Image Computer activity ceased [Hu et al. 19891. and Pixar;Vicom II 47 Reynolds and C.oldwasser’s Voxel Processor INTRODUCTION Architecture SUMMARY The Case Study illustrates the three APPENDIX A: HIDDEN-SURFACE REMOVAL basic operations performed in 3D medical ALGORITHMS imaging: data collection, 3D data dis- ‘ APPENDIX B: RAY TRACING play, and data analysis. Three-dimen- APPENDIX C: IMAGE SEGMENTATION BY THRESHOLDING sional medical imaging, also called APPENDIX D: SURFACE TRACKING three-dimensional medical image render- ALGORITHMS ing or medical image volume visualiza- APPENDIX E: SHADING CONCEPTS tion, is the process of accurately and APPENDIX F: SHADING ALGORITHMS rapidly transforming a surface or volume ACKNOWLEDGMENTS description of medical imaging modality REFERENCES data into individual pixel colors for 3D data display, Three-dimensional medical imaging creates a depiction of a single structure, a select portion of an imaged the average cortical metabolic activity. volume, or the entire volume on a com- The model reveals a volume of hyperme- puter screen. Stereo display, motion tabolic activity. Because PET has rela- parallax using rotation, perspective, tively poor modality resolution, the hidden-surface removal, coordinate location of the abnormality cannot be transformation, compositing, trans- correlated with surface anatomical land- parency, surface shading, andlor marks. To correlate the results of the two shadowing3 can be used to provide depth studies, the physician combines the 3D MRI model of the patient’s brain with the 3D PET model using post-hoc image ‘Rendering is a general term for the creation of a depiction of a structure or volume on a computer registration techniques to align the two screen using a sequence of operations to transform sets of data. This combined model pro- the structure/volume information from object space vides the anatomical and metabolic in- (a data structure in memory) to screen space (the formation required for precise location of CRT) 3Coordinate transformation, which consists of translation, rotation, and scaling, orients the vol- lImage, or tissue, registration permits Images of ume to be displayed Hidden-surface removal en- volumes acquired at different times and with differ- sures that only the visible portions of the objects in ent modalities to be combined mto a single image the volume are displayed Shading provides depth for display cues and enhances image reahsm ACM Computing Surveys, Vol 23, No 4, December 1991 Three-Dimensional Medical Imaging 8 423 cues and make the rendered image closely These modalities can be used to acquire resemble a perceived or photographic im- data for accurate diagnosis of bony and age of the structure/volume. (We de- soft tissue diseases and to assess physio- scribe these operations and their use later logical activity without exploratory in this paper. ) Three-dimensional medi- surgery. Data archiving, using special- cal imaging presents the remotely sensed ized picture archiving and communica- morphological and physiological patient tion systems (PACS) [Flynn et al. 1983], data in such a way that the physician is is an acknowledged requirement for the relieved of the chore of mentally recon- modern radiology department and has led structing and orienting the volume and to the development of techniques for tis- instead can concentrate on the practice of sue /image registration. The effect of medicine. To achieve this capability, 3D these related advances is an ever- medical imaging techniques have been increasing need for higher display reso- developed to give the user the ability to lution, increased image rendering speed, view selected portions of the body from and additional main memory to render any angle with an appearance of depth to the image data rapidly and precisely. the image. The requirement for accurate images The Case Study also points out the arises from the need to formulate a diag- difference between 3D medical imag- nosis in the data analysis step. Accuracy ing and
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