Dayle Green' and Libby Connors 2

EXPLORING THE BASIN Rich Pastures and Five years later Surveyor General The Darling Basin had been Promised Lands set offwith Evans to occupied by Aborigines for 30 000 became the first known determine where the western flowing years before the new white colonists European to look upon the and might lead. But the pushed their way over the mountains plains ofthe Darling Basin. In river would not give up it's secret and into the . For the clans November 1813 Evans descended easily-Oxley was defeated by the that inhabited the Basin, the Darling from the Blue Mountains into the flooded reedbeds and endless was mapped out in stories and songs .valley ofthe , and explored channels ofthe . that described the rivers and the the upper reaches ofthe Macquarie Unable to find their way through the """'.;l countryside. For the Europeans, the Valley. He returned with a diary full marshes, Oxley and Evans turned east ~...... , ~24 geography ofthe Basin was a ofglowing descriptions-a promised and discovered the , perplexing jigsaw puzzle that took land ofJush pastures, rich soils and another fertile area with great over fifty years to complete. The park-like woodlands. The promise of agricultural promise. framework of the river system that such rich rewards ensured that within By 1824, British colonisation to made up this vast inland Basin was a year of Evans' return the first road the south of had reached the mapped out by the government over the mountains had been southern coastline ofthe continent appointed explorers who set off constructed. and was extending west along the across the Divide in search of new Lachlan and Macquarie Rivers. Much pastures, imaginary rivers and ofthe country to the north remained dreams of an inland sea. The intrepid unknown to them. However, one pastoralists who followed in their thousand kilometres north of Sydney footsteps filled in the finer details of was the newly established and remote the landscape. penal settlement of . It A Noble River Governor Darling was so pleased Fifteen years after crossing the Great with Sturt's achievement that he Divide, Evans, Oxley and immediately requested him to lead a Cunningham had contributed second expedition along the significantly to the picture ofthe to determine Darling Basin by 'discovering' most whether it joined the Darling. Sturt ofits eastern tributaries. But the and his party attracted considerable ultimate course ofthese rivers attention from the local clans as they remained a mystery to the colonists. travelled along the lower Speculation about their destiny Murrumbidgee and Murray Rivers in optimistically suggested that they their whaling boat. flowed into a large inland sea. Oxley Sturt bid farewell to around ISO had come across impenetrable Aborigines when breaking camp one had been established by sea and the marshes on both the Lachlan and morning but was soon met by a governor's office was eager for Macquarie Rivers, adding fuel to this hostile war party ofaround 600 information on the territorial claims fanciful theory. was people on a large sandspit further in its interior. appointed as the man who would down the river. Just when Sturt was In April 1827 the botanist, Alan attempt to solve the puzzle. Sturt forced to raise his rifle in defence, a Cunningham, headed north from himselfwas a strong believer in the warrior who had been following Sturt Sydney with a party ofsix convicts idea ofan inland sea-it was to be a for several days threw himselfinto and eleven pack animals to relentless quest that would almost the river and crossed to the sandspit a::til UJ investigate the commercial potential cost him his life. to confront the crowd. Sturt described ..J ~ ofthe northern interior and Sturt and his party set out from in his diary how the Aboriginal man til CJ determine ifan overland route to Wellington in November 1828. In trod its margin with a vehemence Z.. a::til Moreton Bay could be established. preparation for their encounter with and an agitation that were UJ a:: The party travelled north from the inland waters they carried with them exceedingly striking. At one moment g "­>< UJ Hunter River, traversing the Namoi a boat, nautical almanac, boat pointing to the boat, at another z i::l and Gwydir Rivers, before reaching compass, signal flares and shaking his clenched hand in the "­o a:: ::> the river now known as the provisions for five months. faces ofthe most forward, and UJ UJ :r Macintyre. From there Cunningham Travelling through the Macquarie stamping with passion on the sand. .... turned north-easterly exploring the Valley, the drought stricken country Sturt's brave warrior friend various creeks and luxuriant they encountered made a mockery of convinced the group that Sturt should floodplains ofthe Condamine Valley their hopes. Even the Macquarie go unharmed and the party dispersed. which drain the rich uplands less Marshes, which had defeated Oxley, Only when the tensions had subsided than 160 kilometres west of Moreton were parched and lifeless. When did Sturt notice that the sandspit Bay. He had mapped one ofthe most Sturt's party finally stumbled down marked the entry ofa large new river fertile ofthe Darling's headwaters­ the banks ofthe Darling near from the north-the Darling. well-watered grasslands, which Bourke they found only salty water Europeans would covet for pasture coming from springs in the riverbed. and the proximity to a seaport. Nonetheless Sturt sensed the Cunningham named this rich area importance ofthe river and he later the . named it in honour of Governor Darling, who had appointed him to lead the expedition. Charting the Darling Sturt had taken the honour of 'discovering' the , but the colonisers wanted more detailed In Search of the Kindur information and the task ofexploring The exploits ofa runaway convict, I could not believe at first that this its cour~e was assigned to Mitchell. George Clarke, alias 'lbe Barber', was the Kindur---as it neither With the largest and most aggressive were responsible for the next phase of answered the idea I had formed of expedition yet seen in , European exploration of the Darling that river from Barber's Mitchell tra'velled by way ofthe Basin. Clarke escaped from his description-nor did it appear to me , reaching the Darling posting near Singleton and spent five sufficiently far to the northward for in May 1832. years living on the with the centre ofthe basin formed by the His previous travels had already the Kamilaroi clan. When re-captured, Coast mountain. made him familiar with the his amazing adventures stirred the Mitchell followed the Gwydir traditional landholders' assertions of interest ofthe government and the downstream hoping in vain that it their rights ofownership and their newly appointed Surveyor General, might lead to greater waters. But the reluctance to allow Europeans to Major Thomas Mitchell. Clarke told of channels ofthe Gwydir grew smaller penetrate their lands. On the banks a mighty river flowing from the and less significant and it appeared ofthe River, Mitchell built a depot, Liverpool Plains to the north or north­ that it too would lead to the Darling which he named Fort Bourke. It took west. To this, Mitchell added his own River. Travelling northwards again, the form ofa stockade to defend the vision-that such a stream, which he Mitchell encountered the largest river stores while the main party explored called the Kindur, might flow right the expedition had yet seen-the the river by boat. However if Mitchell across the continent, forming a direct Barwon. But after following this river had spent more time studying the line ofcommunication to India and downstream Mitchell became river and less time erecting a . convinced that this river and the stockade, he would have realised that Mitchell's expedition departed Darling were one and the same. A the river was very shallow. After one from the Hunter Valley in November tragic tum ofevents laid rest to any day ofdragging the boats over rocks 1831. Along the Namoi River the party further plans for exploration. An and sandbars, the party were forced found remnants ofClarke's escapade attack on the depot left two members to abandon the boat trip and return in the form ofstockyards and ofthe party dead and the remaining to Fort Bourke. After a short Aboriginal shelters on the banks ofa stores in short supply. Mitchell reconnaissance the stockade was lagoon, which is now called Barbers turned his back on 'the Kindur' and abandoned and the expedition Lagoon. As they continued down the returned to Sydney. continued on land. valley, Mitchell began to suspect that the Namoi would lead to Sturt's previously discovered Darling River. It was presumed that this river flowed to the south-west. From Narrabri, Mitchell turned northwards, crossing waterless plains and dry creekbeds in search ofhis great river. In January 1832, he stood upon the banks ofthe , perplexed and somewhat disappointed: ------

A month after leaving Fort Bourke Mitchell turned inland near Mitchell's party arrived at Laidley's Dareton and reached the Darling Ponds, now known as Menindee River 30 kilometres north ofthe Lakes. Although his orders had been Murray junction. Not wishing to to trace the course ofthe Darling waste any more ofhis time with the Our Brightest Hopes Destroyed River to its ultimate end, the frequent 'survey ofdeserts' Mitchell turned the During this time, Charles Sturt, appearance ofthe fearsome Barkindji expedition squth instead ofnorth having already contributed people daubed in war paint made towards Laidley's Ponds. It was significantly to inland exploration, Mitchell extremely nervous about the Mitchell's opinion that a survey ofthe had been serving in the honourable safety ofthe party. While camped at lower part ofthe Darling River was a position of Registrar General of the lakes the war party began lighting fruitless task that would exhaust the . But the lure ofthe fires around the camp, and Mitchell's resources ofhis party for little bush was strong and Sturt was still men added to the strained personal gain. Crossing the Murray tantalised by the thought of relationship by harassing one ofthe River he proceeded to explore new discovering an inland sea. In letters aboriginal women. During a country in western , and it to his friend and former patron Ralph retaliatory fight over the possession of was these discoveries ofverdant Darling, Sturt wrote of his desire to a tea kettle, Mitchell's men opened green plains and beautiful streams perform 'one more important service' fire and a woman and child were that ultimately brought him the and ofhis dream that he 'shall unfold killed. Mitchell hurriedly conceded recognition he was looking for. the interior to the world'. that the river was likely to be the While Mitchell had been Sturt left Adelaide with much same one that Sturt had seen exploring the Darling, much attention pomp and ceremony in August 1844. a::Vl entering the Murray, and wasted no had been focussed on developing a The country around the Darling River gw w time in turning northwards, retracing stock route for the overlanding of was green and luxuriant and Sturt's Vl o his steps to Fort Bourke and the sheep and cattle to supply the party were cheered by the beautiful ~ a::Vl Bogan River. growing European presence in South scenery and security that the river w ga:: While his achievement in tracing Australia. By 1840, the overlanders provided. The expedition reached Q. t;j a large part ofthe Darling River was and their stock were severely testing Laid,ley's Ponds in October. The key Z ;;) Q. commendable, Governor Bourke was the patience and hospitality ofthe to Sturt's plans had been a stream, the o a:: ::l somewhat disgruntled at Mitchell's local clans, and settlers called for a Williorara that was thought to enter UJ UJ :I: failure to complete the full course of police presence in the area ofthe Laidley's Ponds from the north-west. I- the expedition. With new instructions Murray-Darling junction. In October But the Williorara was a big to join the river at Laidley's Ponds 1841 Edward John Eyre was appointed disappointment-it was merely a flood and follow it to its conclusion, as Resident Magistrate and Protector channel that fed the river's floodwaters Mitchell set offalong the Lachlan ofAborigines for the Murray District. into the lakes ofLaidley's Ponds. River in 1836. On reaching the Eyre travelled extensively from his Thus in a moment were all our western end ofthe valley Mitchell station near Blanchetown in South brightest hopes destroyed. Instead of became apprehensive about the Australia into the remote areas having afine stream to follow to the impending 320 kilometres journey around Lake Victoria and the Darling westward we had to commence across waterless country. Deviating junction. In December 1843 he forcing our way across barren plains. from his instructions once again, became the first white man to travel John Browne, Expedition Doctor Mitchell continued along the Lachlan the lower reaches ofthe Darling River to the Murrumbidgee River and then to Laidley's Ponds, thus filling in the the Murray. longstanding gap in exploration of the Darling River. A Northern Journey While Cunningham had been Mitchell led a final expedition to the disappointed that he had only met Darling Basin in December 1845, just Aborigines on five occasions, one month after the retum of Sturt. Mitchell's party could not avoid the An Aboriginal guide, who Mitchell evidence ofIndigenous settlement: knew as Yuliyally, escorted the party ... the natives seen yesterday had north to the Barwon from the disappeared, having set fire to the Macquarie Valley. From there they grass. We camped on the Narran were guided by another two two miles beyond their fires. A small Aboriginal people north to the Narran path along the river margin, marks River. They followed the Narran into on trees where portions ofbark had what would later become known as been taken olf, some ancient, some . Mitchell spent almost all recent, huts ofwithered boughs and of1846 in the field following the dry grass, freshwater mussels besides Sir Thomas Mitchell Balonne north to its junction with the the ashes ofsmall fires and a heap of The Picturesque Atlas ofAustralasia. Maranoa, then on to the Coogoon pulled grass, such were the slight but Edited by Andrew Garran River until he reached the source of constant indications ofthe (1825-19°1). Originally published, the in the Carnarvon subsistence ofman on the Narran. Sydney: Picturesque Atlas Ranges. He went on to explore the March 1846 Publishing Co., 1886-88 headwaters ofthe Channel streams in He reported on the variety ofnets the west and the Burdekin River about their huts and noted the high system to the north. population ofAboriginal people along Fourteen months later Sturt and his Two features are striking about the river system, evident by a number party finally returned to the Darling Mitchell's journey through the oflarge mussel,shell middens. exhausted from the rigours oftheir northern part ofthe Basin. His Mitchell came upon children desert journey and the gruelling journal records his delight in the swimming, saw people fishing and at retreat from the putrid waters of scenery and detailed descriptions of night he heard singing from their Depot Glen. While Mitchell had the River, its flora and fauna. The camps. Everywhere he went Mitchell considered the Darling a hostile place Balonne, Mitchell declared, was sought contact with the local clans for unworthy ofhis time, Sturt developed as fine a looking river as I have seen evidence ofthe nature ofthe river a clear fondness and respect for the in the colony, excepting only the systems and names oflocal features. River. The El Dorado ofvast inland Murray. The success ofthe expedition was waters had proved a fantasy and now Elsewhere he noted the luxuriant largely attributable to the assistance of the value ofthe humble Darling was grasses ofits lagoons and wetlands, the Aboriginal people who directed all the greater. On leaving the Darling its large fish, ducks, black swans and him to the main channels where for their final return to Adelaide, pelicans. tributaries branched, prevented him Sturt wrote in his journal: Mitchell's earlier journeys had from getting bogged in wetlands and On turning my back on myoId instilled in him an ambivalent respect from dying ofthirst in arid country. friend it is not likely I shall ever see for the local Aboriginal clans in the They advised him in what direction to it again. It has however treated us lands he traversed. His account ofhis head, and named rivers, mountains well. We have found an abundance last journey is an unmistakable and other identifYing features for him. offeed on its banks, and have passed record ofa journey through a in peace among its inhabitants. foreigner's land rather than an exploration ofunconquered territory. First impressions Perhaps this could be forgiven in the The diaries and journals ofthe eastern part ofthe Basin, but the explorers are filled with poetic explorers and early squatters were well descriptions ofthe rivers and aware ofthe incidence ofdrought in countryside they encountered. George the semi arid regions ofthe Darling Evans and Charles Sturt, in River. However, there prevailed an particular, were as gifted with words unfailing beliefthat 'improving' the as they were in navigation, and their land could perform pastoral miracles. accounts oftheir expeditions make That the early explorers, surveyors and fascinating reading. In hindsight, it is settlers formed too optimistic an easy to scorn the inevitable opinion ofthe Basin's capabilities was comparisons ofAustralian woodlands a point that was sadly recognised in to England's parklands and eucalypts the outcomes ofthe 1901 Royal to weeping willows. The Australian Commission into the Western countryside proved to be so radically Division. different that at times it was beyond description, and the landscapes of their mother country were the explorers only reference. First impressions ofthe value of the Darling Basin for European Vl pastoralism and habitation depended '"w ~ w very much on the seasonal conditions Vl o z encountered at the time ofeach « Vl expedition. Oxley and Evans saw the '"W '"9 countryside ofthe Macquarie and 0- ~ Liverpool Plains at their best, while z l:l 0­ Mitchell and Shirt travelled further a ::::> afield over numerous expeditions and '"w w :c saw the countryside in both good and >- bad seasons. Mitchell was also able to view some ofthe Darling's eastern tributaries before and after European pastoral occupation. The fragility of the minor waterways and billabongs was apparent to him as he retraced his steps on his last expedition and found formerly clear and secluded waterholes destroyed by stock. People rushed to take advantage of the more temperate parts ofthe Basin assuming that the lush conditions so enthusiastically reported were the norm, rather than the exception. TABLE 1: EXPLORERS' JOURNAL ENTRIES

George Evans 10 Dec 1813 Macquarie Valley near Bathurst The extent of the plain following the river is 11 miles and about 2 wide on each side, the whole excellent good land, and the best grass I have seen in any part of ; the hills are also covered with fine pasture; the trees being so far apart mwst be an acquisition to its growth; it is in general the sweetest of an open country.

John Oxley June 1818

Macquarie River downstream The river expanded into beautiful reaches, having great depth of water, of Wellington and from two to three hundred feet broad, literally covered with waterfowl of different kinds. The richest flats bordered the river. Liverpool Plains 1818 The view vvhich was on all sides presented to our delighted eyes was of the most varied and exhilarating kind. Hills, dales and plains of the richest qescription lay before us, bounded to the east by fine hills, beyond which were seen elevated mountains.

Charles Sturt 1st Feb 1828 Darling River near Bourk~ The paths of the natives on either side of it were like well trodden roads; and the trees that overhung it were of beautiful and gigantic growth. Its banks were too precipitous to allow of our watering the cattle, but the men eagerly descended to quench their thirst, which a powerful sun had contributed to increase; nor shall I ever forget the cry of amazement that followed their doing so, or the looks of terror and disappointment with which they called out to inform me that the water was so salt as to be unfit to drink! This was, indeed, too true: on tasting it I found it extremely nauseous, and strongly impregnated with salt, being apparently a mixture of sea and fresh water. Entering the Darling River 1830 from the Murray The river preserved a breadth of one hundred yards and a depth of rather more than twelve feet. Its banks were sloping and grassy, and were overhung by trees of magnificent size. Indeed its appearance was so different from the water-worn banks of the sister stream that the men exclaimed, on entering it, that we had got into an English river. Its appearance almost certainly justified the expression; for the greeness of its banks was as new to us as the size of its timber. Its waters, though sweet, were turbid and had a taste of vegetable decay, as well as a slight tinge of green. Thomas Mitchell 9 Jan 1832 Gwydir River ... the living stream and umbraceous foliage, gave us a grateful sense of abundance, coolness and shade. Trees of great magnitude give a grandness of character to any landscape, but especially to river scenery....Such trees overhung the water of the Gwydir, forming dense masses of shade, in which white cockatoos IPlyctolophus galeritus) sported like spirits of light....The bed of the river was flat, and consisted of small pebbles, not much worn by attrition, and mixed with sand. Many dead trees lay in parts of the channel. The average breadth of the water was forty-five yards; the breadth from bank to bank seventy-two yards; and the perpendicular height of the banks above the water, twenty-seven feet. Barwon River downstream 23 Jan 1832 of Mungundi At eight miles, our course was intercepted by a deep and rapid river, the largest that we had yet seen. I had approached within a few yards of the brink; and I was not aware of its being near, until I saw the opposite water-worn shore, and the living waters hurrying along westward. They were white and turbid, and the banks consisting of clay, were nearly perpendicular at this point. and about twenty feet higher than the surface of the stream. On further examination I found the course was very tortuous ~ and the water deep ....We were all delighted, however, to meet such an UJ obstruction. and I chose a favourable spot for our camp, within a bend of S VJ C Z the river. lowest part of the basin of this river. The bed is composed of ferruginous UJ UJ sandstone-exactly similar to that on the coast near Sydney ... :I:....

Edward Eyre Letter to Colonial Secretary 20 Jan 1844 Darling River below Pooncarie ... its waters tho' muddy were fast receding nor did there appear to have been a greater rise than three feet this season-in many places the river was shallow and easily fordable... In many places however the actual width of the water could not be fifteen yards and fallen trees frequently obstructed the channel nearly quite across-To compensate however for this the river banks were lined with the most beautiful gum trees gracefully overhanging and with a wide spreading dense foliage to the very ground. I have nowhere seen in Australia so pleasing or picturesque an effect produced by the Eucalypti as was the case along the whole course of the Darling. Charles Sturt 24 Sep 1844 Darling River near Wentworth Our first encampment on the Darling is on a bend of the stream. Magnificent trees droop like willows to the waters edge with evening's mildest radiance in their foliage, throwing a soft haze over the distance, but deeper shadows on the nearer ground forming a scene that we may sel.dom hope to witness. Darling River near Burtundy 28 Sep 1844 We have stopped about two miles from the camp of the Natives on an extensive and verdant flat. Today for the first time we have noticed rocks in the bed of the Darling, and observed sandstone extending along and protruding from the sandhills bounding the flats ... As far as we have traced it up, the Darling certainly has richer and larger flats than the Murray, although the whole line of the river is not equal in fertility to the latter but is on the contrary sandy in many places. The left bank as far as I can judge is similar to that on which we are travelling, and if the river has to boast its rich flats, the country beyond them is an absolute desert.

Thomas Mitchell April 1846 ... gigantic blue gums overhung the banks and the Mimosa grew near the bed of the current. April 1846 ... soon saw the majestic trees of the river in a line circling round to the northward. We encamped on a beautiful spot. The river was magnificent, presenting a body of water of such breadth as I had only seen in one other river of Australia and the banks were grassy to the water's edge . . Lagoon of the Balonne River April 1846 ... we continued the same course over open forest land and at length saw an immense sheet of water before us with islands in it. This was also a lagoon supplied by floods in the Balonne. It was covered with ducks, pelicans, etc. I called it Lake Parachute, no natives being near to give me their name for it. -

EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT IN THE BASIN The pattern ofdevelopment across the Darling Basin arose from the same major influences that affected the rest ofrural Australia-the failure of government attempts to control squatting, and the dream ofa white society based on family farms. A culture ofnoble and contradictory ( values developed around these two principles that dominated Australian history for more than a century. These principles invested the pastoralists and farmers ofthe west with a certain moral authority as the stories oftheir

lives became incorporated into a:V1 w dominant national culture. The S V1 independence and heroism ofthe first C Z w the bushrangers, the anti­ w :I:.... authoritarianism ofthe bush workers and the righteousness ofthe farmers-all ofthese themes feature in the rich folk, literary and historical traditions ofthe Darling River system. These values and images still resonate with Australians even though agribusiness and the quest for global markets have become the dominant agricultural features ofthe Basin. From an environmental and social perspective, the history ofwhite settlement in the Basin has been one of rejection ofcentralised authority and a top: Bullock teams at , 1886. fierce assertion ofproperty rights. middle: Homestead, Dunlop Station, Darling River, 1886. bottom: Kinchega Station woolshed, Kinchega National Parle The Northern Frontier It didn't take long for pastoralists The floodplains ofthe northern and their stock to move into the Darling system were a magnet for adjacent valleys ofthe Castlereagh and the sheep and cattle graziers ofthe Bogan Rivers. The first cattle station 1840S. Europeans had successfully in the Castlereagh Valley was occupied the frontages ofthe established near Coonamble in 1840 Macintyre by r837 and, from there, and the valley was fully occupied over Patrick Leslie followed the following ten years. However, next Cunningham's track north-east in door along the Bogan River, relations early 1840 to the Condamine. By with the Indigenous Kamilaroi people rune ofthat year he had claimed the were hostile. A number ofpastoralists qest ofits floodplain for himselfand died during territorial conflicts, his brothers. Arthur Hodgson forcing the government to cancel all confirmed the quality ofthe Upper leases along the River until 1858 when Condamine pasture by taking up a a second attempt at settlement pastoral lease in September and over occurred. Severe drought in the 1860s the next two years the most well­ took its toll on the enthusiasm of watered sections ofthe Condamine many white settlers and it wasn't until catchment were occupied by small Early Settlement in the the mid 1870S that river frontage of groups of European men and their Eastern Tributaries the Bogan River was fully occupied by vast herds ofsheep and cattle. Following the discoveries of George white settlers. Pastoralists moved northwards as Evans, and the opening ofa road over Squatters were already occupying the Darling Downs became fully the Blue Mountains, Governor land in the Peel Valley when Major claimed, while others followed the Macquarie took it upon himselfto Mitchell travelled through it in 1831. Condamine to the north-west and on inspect first-hand the valley that bore The following year a large parcel of to the Maranoa. Stations were taken his name. He was suitably impressed, land in the Tamworth area was up and relinquished on the western and in 1817 he'selected the site for granted to the Australian Agricultural Downs between 1846 and 1849 as the town of Bathurst, the first ofthe Company and the company's local clans fiercely reasserted their inland towns. Until 1837 Wellington stockyards and boarding houses ownership. The Barunggam, was the official limit ofsettlement. became the first consolidated Bigambul and Mandanji, traditional However, a few intrepid squatters development in the valley. By 1832 owners ofthe Macintyre, Moonie, were unofficially occupying land pastoral runs had been claimed on Condamine-Balonne watersheds, around in as early as 1828, the Namoi River as far downstream were pressed on all sides by European and stock enjoyed the virgin pastures as Narrabri and by 1836 attention had occupation. In less than five years, all ofthe lower Macquarie near Mount turned to the Gwydir Valley. Most pastoral lands along the Macintyre Harris in the early 1830s. Faced with settlers came from the Hunter Valley, and Barwon Rivers were taken up by the impossibility ofcontrolling the where even at this early stage, the white settlers. The north-eastern spread ofpeople, the government in countryside was showing signs of Queensland rivers were appropriated Sydney settled for a system ofannual overstocking and degradation. By in the 1840S, and even parts ofthe licensing ofstockholders. With the 1848 the Gwydir Pastoral District was Warrego were claimed in the 1850s, opening ofthe lower valley to home to almost 100 squatters, with although occupation ofthe entire licenced squatters in 1837, there was a about 60 ofthese being in the area Warrego and Paroo was not complete rush to take up runs along the River. around Moree. until the 1860s. Wombo were forbidden, while Maranoa Waterhole and Bootha Waterhole were the initiation sites for Kunja men and women respectively. The pastoralists valued the fresh drinking water but its primary function was water for their sheep, cattle and horses that grazed on the floodplains. Consequently their stock were provided free access to eat the herbage ofstream banks, to trample riverbeds and muddy waterholes. Prior to shearing, European landholders dammed rivers and waterholes to provide washpools to clean the fleece ofthousands ofsheep. The riches ofthe floodplains were to be converted into personal fortunes for young British men by grazing exotic herds for fibre to export to Racial Conflict British cloth mills. They did not Administering this vast territory, Racial tensions ran high in the early intend to allow the government to more than 1 000 kilometres from period ofsettlement as Aborigines stand in the way oftheir fortune even Sydney by land and 160 kilometres responded to the violation oftheir land ifit meant resorting to, or at least from the seaport of , was and resources. In return, the new concealing, murder and assault. extremely difficult. Officials in European occupiers overtly and The Darling Basin was the site of Sydney divided the areas into pastoral covertly waged war and asserted Australia's most infamous massacre districts and appointed themselves over the traditional owners. in 1838. When some stockmen on Commissioners ofCrown Lands who Racial conflict was inevitable Myall Creek, part ofthe Gwydir were responsible for ensuring that given the opposing uses ofwater catchment in northern New South licence conditions were being resources by Aborigines and the Wales, ruthlessly murdered a group ..."-.'i'.".'\"".,." . fulfilled. They were also in charge of invading Europeans. Riverine flora ofabout thirty men, women and ~35 settling disputes and maintaining law and fauna were rich food sources that children ofthe Kamilaroi, the and order. A local representative of sustained high Aboriginal population authorities in Sydney were the Crown was now present but densities, but the riverine products determined to make a stand against pastoralists were disdainful of were rarely acknowledged by the violence ofthe pastoralists. government decrees issued from so Europeans. The Indigenous people Eleven whites were prosecuted for far away and with such limited prized its vegetable, grass and murder and despite numerous legal powers ofenforcement. waterfowl resources as well as its obstacles, seven ofthem were finally water. For the people ofthe found guilty and hanged. Yet the Condamine, some stretches ofthe legal system brought only a stream were spiritual places and the temporary reprieve for the northern site of male initiation ceremonies. On and western clans. the Warrego River, the waters of Lake The Commissioner ofCrown the frontier but a war of retribution. Lands for the Darling Downs was The initial resistance to state shocked at the way in which the white intervention on race relations had community closed ranks against him been replaced by demands for state when he investigated the murder of assistance once white landholders some Aboriginal women and were confident that they could children. On the Macintyre River one subvert and control racial policy. white family reported the murder of Racial conflicts were not confined their Aboriginal servant and other to the north ofthe Basin. War was local Bigambul, while other whites waged by the Europeans in the denied the murders and provided one Bathurst region where martial law another with alibis. On the one hand, was declared in 1824. Around the settlers demanded the protection of Murray-Darling junction there were British law for themselves, wrote cries for intervention and protection angry letters to Sydney demanding by 1840 as Aborigines began helping Along the Darling courts, lock ups and scourgers to themselves to the numerous sheep While white settlement was punish their free, bonded and convict and cattle that were continually advancing in the eastern tributaries, servants, but rebelled when the traversing their river banks. Here the Darling River itself remained a government attempted to offer that racial antagonism was exacerbated by remote and uninhabited curiosity to same legal protection to the the presence ofoverlanders travelling the Europeans. It was not until Eyre Indigenous people ofthe region. to the Victorian goldfields. Many and Sturt paved the way in their In r846 the government overlanders employed Aborigines as separate expeditions in the period converted the annual squatting leases guides or porters, and had a low 1844-45 that intrepid settlers began to r4 years, and the border police, the moral character with a propensity for to move their flocks up the lower part subject ofmuch contempt, were horse and cattle stealing. ofthe Darling River. White abolished. Within a year landholders When white settlement extended settlement on the Darling River was on the lower Condamine, Maranoa up the arm ofthe Lower Darling within 70 kilometres ofthe Menindee l!l Z :; and Macintyre were complaining there were serious clashes occurring Lakes by 1848 and just one year later « c'" about the lack of police protection w by 1851 with murders of both squatters were setting up makeshift ...:I: and intimidation from Aborigines. Indigenous people and whites. Here, stations up to 130 kilometres north of The New South Wales government as with the Kamileroi on the Bogan the lakes. responded in 1848 by forming a River, temporary victories were made Early white settlement on the river mounted Native Police Force with by the Barkindji reclaiming their was a primitive affair of simple huts headquarters at Callandoon on the traditional lands, forcing Europeans and temporary yards. These early Macintyre River. Yet even this did not to retreat to other areas, and the stations were held mainly by young placate local whites who continued to government to cancel leases in areas adventurous men with properties complain about the lack of where conflicts were frequent. already established in the . (' government concern for their safety. The Darling runs were usually only In r856 when self-government was supplements to their primary income, achieved and colonists had less to and once established the owner fear from objections from London to returned to the main station leaving the treatment ofAborigines, their shepherds or stockmen to endure the rhetoric became even more frank-it elements, loneliness and frequent was not policing that they wanted on attacks by Aborigines. The goldrushes ofVictoria and With regular passing trade on the Into the Outback New South Wales during the 1850S Murray, a new interest in the Darling Major Mitchell had explored the drew many people away from the River stations emerged: Narran, Culgoa-Balonne, and western stations. Drought conditions ... the value ofthe stations is raised Warrego, and Charles Sturt had noted prevailed and the wandering stock three orfour hundred per cent the Bulloo River during his made easy meals for hungry within the last four orfive months. explorations. However much ofthe dispossessed Aborigines. Attacks on The reason for the rise is the benefit exploration and settlement ofthe poorly protected stations and to be derived from the steamers country no~ and west ofthe Darling travelling drays became an plying on the Murray. resulted from the purposeful increasingly frequent occurrence. South Australian Register, wanderings ofa few hardy bushmen Outnumbered and afraid, many August 25, 1856 who went in search of pastoral riches settlers were forced to abandon their By 1858 settlers along the Darling beyond the river. stations and retreat south. By the end knew that their own dreams ofriver The existing Darling River stations of1852 there was virtually no white navigation were not far away and provided the training ground for some settlement remaining on the Darling there was a rush to take out new ofthese men while others like River north of Polia near Pooncarie. leases on the grassy plains that Vincent Dowling of Fort Bourke were Surveys ofthe southern Darling stretched between the river and the established river squatters. These were undertaken over the ensuing Barrier Ranges. Only one year later pastoral explorers usually travelled in years and portions were adjusted the commencement of river small parties oftwo or three, where necessary so that each squatter navigation had a significant effect on sometimes with an Aboriginal guide. held an adequate water frontage. By settlement ofthe Darling River Many were freelance land seekers who

banks and finance companies. Like possible to bring a wool clip I 600 their neighbours south ofthe border, kilometres from Wilcannia to Echuca Queensland graziers and company for only one pound per ton, a fraction investors demanded further rent and ofthe price charged by teamsters. content to rely on contractors. On the security relief and in 1902 their Freed from high transport costs, the Lower Darling, Tolarno station owned leases were extended until 1949­ stations were able to expand with the largest private fleet ofsteamers more than trebling their lease tenure. bigger and better shearing sheds. The on the inland rivers. As wool prices rose in the years 1880 Land Act in New South Wales Samuel McCaughey was one of before World War I there were again also resulted in a tendency towards the most successful ofthe Darling attempts at establishing family larger holdings managed by pastoral River pastoralists. He began his career grazing farms based on a larger companies and syndicates with access in the Riverina and later moved to the perpetual-lease holding, capable of to the large amounts ofcapital Darling River where he bought the providing a family with a reasonable required to improve the stations. Both properties ofToorale and Dunlop, living. By World War I government ofthese influences were reflected in covering an area of2.5 million acres. intervention had finally achieved its the scale ofoperations and amenities Dunlop shearing shed had 40 stands

,... ' aim ofa framework offamily farms that were a feature ofthe great and was the first shed to carry out a .. ".' ~42 across the Queensland part ofthe Darling River stations. complete shearing using mechanical Darling Basin, it had reduced rents In 1889 the station ofMomba shears in 1888. Dunlop employed for large and small pastoralists and near White Cliffs was over two 100 men and shore sheep at four provided support for rabbit-proofing million acres in area while Cuthero, outstations as well as the main and artesian wells. There were Corona, Kinchega, Lake Victoria and station. Toorale shearing shed was detrimental consequences for this Moorara all exceeded one million built in 1869 and was the first shed in achievement, and by the turn ofthe acres. The equipment ofsome of Australia to have electric lighting. In century, the environmental these large holdings was on a grand good years up to 500 000 sheep were deterioration ofthe Darling's scale. The property of Henly had its shorn between the two holdings. northern tributaries required even own tramway connecting its At various times McCaughey was greater state support and co-operation woolshed with the river steamers. owner or part owner oftwelve among landholders. Dunlop station owned its own boring properties in New South Wales and equipment, while most stations were three in Queensland. In 1905 he acquired Fort Bourke Station and The EnvironmentaL Consequences Balonne River catchments. Western added Nocoleche Station on the Paroo of Settlement regions were worst affected with to his holdings in 1909. Together When drought gripped the western pastoral properties such as Bulloo with Dunlop and Toorale, the four sections ofthe Darling Basin in the Downs and Thargomindah eaten out adjoining holdings had a total area of 1890S the widespread environmental by rabbits by 1895. The heavy black 3025 million acres, frontage to the degradation that ensued triggered soils ofthe Darling Downs and the Darling River for 200 kilometres, and apprehension among some ofthe eastern rivers were difficult for frontage to the Wanaaring Road for Basin's white settlers that European rabbits but the scrubby sandhills on 200 kilometres. grazing practices may in fact have both sides ofthe Darling River On the Lower Darling a similarly caused these droughts. Europeans did provided ideal habitat for their impressive empire was built up by not cause droughts but neither did breeding grounds, as did the lignum Ross Reid and his brother William, droughts cause land degradation. covered channels ofthe Paroo and who secured the abandoned run of Europeans not only unleashed their Warrego Rivers. Tolarno in 1862. The brothers exotic flocks and herds upon the Numerous mechanisms were gradually acquired other selections landscape, they also destroyed native employed to try and halt the until they had a property extending plants and animals, unwittingly advancing armies, although none over 72 kilometres of Darling River brought pests and weeds, cleared vast proved particularly effective. In New frontage and 96 kilometres east to areas ofland in the beliefthey were South Wales, the Rabbit Nuisan.ce Act Boolaboolka Lake. The station 'improving' it, and polluted and 188] (NSW) imposed a levy on every boasted two hotels, its own school, disrupted natural watercourses. landholder to create a fund for the and its own private fleet ofsteamers. Local wildlife was often seen as a payment ofbonuses in return for VI Queensland pastoralists in the threat to increasing production and scalps. Momba Station near White '"w Warrego country had similar landholders complained bitterly of Cliffs spent 10 789 pounds on rabbit S VI C Z grandiose visions. The legendary 'plagues' oflocal fauna, which destruction in 1887, employing up to <0: VI James Tyson bought Tinnenburra competed for pasture and grain. In 20 men for the task. Weinteriga '"W '"9 station in 1867. It became one ofthe Queensland the war against nature Station spent 12 000 pounds in 1886, a. 1j largest holdings in the Basin with a was carried out relentlessly and with with over I million rabbits being z ~ a. shearing shed said to be the largest in government support under the caught. Despite the large numbers of o ::> the world with stands for 100 shearers. Marsupial Destruction. Act 1877 (Qld), scalps netted, the system was flawed '"w w By the early 1880s extravagant and later the Marsupial Board Act of by the fact that rabbiters were often :I:.... spending combined with the ravages of 1897. On one station, between tempted to allow the female rabbits to drought and rabbit plagues began to Goondiwindi and Mungindi, in the run free so as to maintain their take their toll on many ofthe large 1880s over 6 000 kangaroos and lucrative income. stations and they went into wallabies were killed in twelve unrecoverable decline. Worsening months. The real environmental commodity prices signalled the coming crises, however, were caused not by ofthe 1890S depression and in 1891 indigenous flora or fauna but by an and 1894, workers united across the introduced mammal and plant. Basin in the great Shearers Strikes for The first rabbits entered the a greater portion ofpastoral profits. By Darling Basin in 1880 travelling 1895 more than halfthe properties of overland from the Riverina. By 1881 the Western Division had changed they had reached Bourke and, by the hands, most falling by foreclosure to late 1880s, rabbits were recorded in banks and pastoral companies. the Bulloo, Paroo, Warrego and Prickly pear was declared a noxious weed in 1910 and the following year the Queensland government established a Board of Advice on prickly Pear Destruction. Despite the offer oflarge rewards a viable method ofcontrolling the cactus remained elusive and, in 1912, the Queensland government funded a Prickly Pear Travelling Commission to investigate natural control factors in countries where the pear is native. Between 1885 and 1887 the By 1896 the country west ofthe Meanwhile the pear continued to construction ofan ambitious rabbit­ Darling River had suffered a fifty spread and by 1920 it was estimated prooffenceline had cut the Darling percent decline in carrying capacity. As that 65 million acres ofland in Basin in half. running all the way rabbits grazed the paddocks bare, Queensland was infested. In 1920 the from Corowa on the Murray River to pasture species were replaced by less Commonwealth Prickly Pear Board Barringun on the Queensland Border. nourishing varieties, and pastoralists pursued research on biological In 1888 the Queensland government were forced to lop young trees to feed control and introduced the moth attempted to rabbit-proof the south­ their starving flocks. In the red soil larvae, cactoblastis cactorum, which ate west ofthe state by extending the country rabbits ring-barked the mulga into the prickly pear flesh with New South Wales and South and took over the sand hill country, the spectacular results. In the mid-1920S. Australian border fences at a cost of graziers' supplementary feed in time a concerted government campaign to n6 820 pounds. But damage by ofdrought. Fleece quality declined as distribute the larvae via the post floods, fires, sand drift and livestock the soils became more mobile. successfully spread the cactoblastis all weakened the defence line, while While rabbits invaded the throughout the catchment. Prickly in other areas rabbits simply catchment from the south-west, pear was eradicated within ten years z :J'" tunnelled under the fence. By the another exotic pest was over-running and the government was re-Ieasing 0: a the catchment from the north-east. '"w 1920S and 1930S the Australian abandoned pear selections. :I:.... Pastoral Company's large Queensland Prickly pear was introduced to the Disease and pests were short and runs including Cubbie, Narine, Darling Downs in the 1850S to sharp experiences ofenvironmental Bullamon, Gnoolama, Noondoo, and provide fruit for pastoral workers, as disturbance. Land clearing and soil Doondi stations on the Balonne were well as for its properties as a hedge erosion were slower and more heavily infested. plant, a stockfeed and a garden plant. insidious in their effect. In as early as Concurrent with the development By the 1880s it had become a the 1860s, pastoral stations on the of rabbit-proof fencing came nuisance. The pear thrived in the Murrumbidgee and Lachlan Rivers widespread attempts at the brigalow and belah woodlands of the were already beginning to show the destruction ofrabbits by poisoning. eastern and central sections ofthe impacts ofoverstocking, and the The poisoning ofwatering holes and Basin. People cut, burnt and Darling settlers who came from these tanks was a common practise. Many poisoned it but could not match the areas should have been more aware native mammals, birds and livestock rate ofpear infestation. Properties ofthe dangers. Some were obsessed also fell prey to the deadly waterholes, were rendered useless and being by the lure of quick returns and an while other animals that ate the baits, abandoned by 1900 because ofthe early retirement, while others had an or dead rabbits were also at risk. density ofprickly pear. overwhelming faith in the potential of I

the country and their ability to turn it into a pastoral paradise. However, the settlers cannot be apportioned all ofthe blame. The New South Wales Land Act ofr86r encouraged their excesses with lease conditions requiring them to show an improvement in the carrying capacity ofthe land ofat least 50 percent. The advocated pathway to these increased stocking rates was by clearing scrub, putting down watering points and firming the soil. In r880, the New deposits were all too common. On a valuable resource offresh water and South Wales government put further Outer Netallie one witness stated that abundant plant and animal life pressure on squatters to increase their ro or II miles (r6 kilometres) of became an obstacle to transport, an production by raising the minimum fences on the property had been eyesore and a serious health hazard. rent from 10 pounds to roo pounds. rendered useless, while another As well as polluting water sources Extended tenures were offered as witness stated that r2 feet graziers and farmers altered the incentives to water the unimproved (3-6 metres) ofsand had been natural hydrology ofthe Basin's rivers lands. In r883 the commission deposited in one ofthe station tanks and creeks. Temporary banks and appointed to inquire into the problems in a period ofthree months. weirs were built by settlers across Vla: ofthe crown lands continued to In the northern part ofthe Basin, many streams including the Darling UJ ~ UJ propagate the myth that 'judicious the development ofmajor towns Anabranch, Paroo, Warrego and Vl o Z stocking undoubtedly increases the marked the most extreme disturbance Bogan Rivers, while diversion value ofthe land continued. Dalby, Warwick and , over a wider area. Wetlands were UJ UJ ::c In New South Wales, some ofthe which grew up around favourable drained for cropping, levies built to I- most dramatic descriptions of water supplies. At Toowoomba, protect townships built on natural environmental degradation in the European settlement had an floodplains, and creeks were Basin come from the Royal immediately degrading impact on dammed to create washpools for Commission into the Western Gowrie Creek and its wetlands. sheep. The consequences ofthis Division held in r901. On the Orchards were established around the engineering for the Basin's natural Talywalka Anabrahch, 'the manager of edges, tree clearance elevated the ecology are far reaching and only Teryaweynia Station stated that ofhis water table, stock destroyed native recently understood. 460 000 acres ofleasehold land, an reeds and other vegetation, and area- ofroo 000 acres was 'as bare as discharge from local industries and a floor', while on Tarella Station backyard septics ended up in the north ofWilcannia soil had been wetlands. Public health in the 'carried away to a depth ofone foot'. township was consequently poor and Reports offences, sheepyards, tanks triggered several epidemics in the and drains being buried under sand r870s and r880s. What had once been TRADE AND TRANSPORT The race to conquer the inland rivers was driven by two men ofvision who each saw the potential ofthe inland rivers as major trade routes. Captain Frances Cadell, a sailor, and William Randell, the son ofa wealthy landowner, both began operating steamers on the Murray. Randell launched the steamer Mary Ann at Mannum in February 1853 becoming the first person to operate a Lady Augusta and Eureka, Capt. Cadell's first vessels on the Murray [picture] paddlesteamer on the Murray River. Adamson, J. H. (James Hazel), 1829-1902. Later that year Randell and Cadell 1854 raced each other to become the first to travel upstream to Swan Hill. Cadell surveyed the River and Randell followed up the river in Cadell led the race into Swan Hill in decided that it required thorough de­ February, travelling as far as Fort his boat the Lady Augusta, with the snagging and the erection ofa system Bourke station where the terrified Mary Ann arriving shortly afterwards. oflocks before it could be used as a men mistook the sound ofthe Within 10 years ofthe voyage of reliable shipping lane. He devised a Gemini's engines for Aboriginal war Lady Augusta and Mary Ann, the system of eight or ten locks and cries and loaded their guns in self infectious enthusiasm of Randell and added the design ofa self-adjusting defence. Randell pushed his boat right Cadell had motivated people all along waterwheel suitable for use on up to Brewarrina before returning the length ofthe Murray River. Boat Australian rivers. Armed with these downstream with the remainder of building reached fever pitch as grand plans, and evidence ofthe the Mount Murchison wool clip. everyone attempted to be part ofthe enormous advantages ofopening up By 1865 there were 27 steamers new era of river trade. Boat designs the Darling to trade, Cadell presented plying the Murray and its tributaries. z :J'" improved rapidly with experience. his findings to a Select Committee on As people realised the full scope ofthe 0:: C3 Shallow draught steamers with a river navigation in 1858. The river trade, the varieties ofcargo w :I:.... broad beam for stability and a length Committee accepted his proposals increased. Copper ore was brought ofno greater than 33 metres were but did not act on them. The New down the Darling from Louth, after required to negotiate the sharp bends South Wales government were being carted overland from Cobar. ofthe River with safety. reluctant to spend money on an Many ofthe headstones in cemeteries After opening river trade up the enterprise which would only serve to along the Darling were carved by Murray as far as Albury, both Cadell enhance the trade of South Australia. Adelaide stonemasons and transported and Randell turned their attention to Despite this disappointing up the river by paddlesteamer. the Darling. However, the Darling outcome, Cadell set offon his first However the wool industry was the River presented more ofa challenge trading run up the Darling in January mainstay ofthe river trade. New and for navigation than the Murray. 1859 in his steamer the Albury. In more powerful steamers and longer Settlement was sporadic, the river was just eight days the Albury reached and wider barges were built to carry it. particularly tortuous, its flow was Mount Murchison, delivering a cargo With better organisation, improved erratic, and it contained numerous offlour and stores and returning with boat design and experienced skippers, navigational hazards such as sandbars, 100 bales ofthe station's wool clip. the volume ofwool transported by submerged bedrock and timber snags. Not to be outdone, Cadell's old rival river increased rapidly. Floods, Droughts channel. To illustrate the rivers An early tragedy in the Darling's and Mishaps contrary nature, the Jane Eliza also navigational history was the River trade on the Darling was a holds the record for the longest time a destruction of Randell's steamer, the boom and bust affair even more so boat was stranded in the Darling Bunyip, in 1863. The steamer and two than on the Murray. By the beginning River-a period ofthree years. barges were carrying 500 bales of of1860, just one year after the Pastoralists had no choice but to wool to Adelaide when a fire swept commencement oftrading, the river learn to live with the natural rhythms through them, killing a mother and was too low for steamers and the of the river, making the most ofhigh her baby. However the most dramatic frontages were once again in drought. water periods to consign their wool incident on the river occurred in 1872 The succesifUl navigation ofthe river and have stores sent up, and when the paddlesteamer Providence last year induced many persons to tightening their belts when it was exploded at Kinchega killing all five take up or purchase stations on it, low. The shipping companies and people on board. Fragments ofthe under the impression that boats riverboat captains also were well vessel were scattered over 400 would be able to ascend annually. aware that the profit they made metres, with some embedded in trees This was however a mistake, as they during a high river would have to on the bank. now find to their cost; bullock teams carry them over many months of The journey ofthe Jane Eliza is and horses cannot take up stores on inactivity when the steamers could one ofthe most famous riverboat account ofthe utter want of not operate. stories of the Darling. It illustrates pasturage; nor does the state ofthe Life on the rivers was not without the enormous risks and frustrations river admit even a small steamboat its dangers. The sinking ofsteamers that were part ofthe river trade. In going up. and barges was an all too common May 1883, under the command of Vl W Sydney Morning Herald, occurrence. Refloating the sunken Captain William Porter, the Jane '"..J S 10 March 1860 vessels and drying and scouring the Eliza left Morgan in South Australia Vl Clz In contrast, when the River was in sodden cargo ofwool was a laborious for Bourke. The steamer was towing « Vl flood the paddlesteamers could go process. Captain Charles Payne two barges heavily laden with timber '"W 9'" almost anywhere. Narrow channels operated,a steamer service between for a new hotel to be built in Bourke

Z Station in 1865 and the first land River to Hungerford and into many ofthe Darling stations. <'" til IX sales held in August 1866. Soon a Queensland and they later serviced Queensland's rail system finally w IXg hotel and a bank were added to the the Mount Browne gold diggings reached Charleville and Cunnamulla 0.. ~ settlement. The first newspaper, the from Bourke and Wi1cannia. Burtons in the 1890S and the New South Z ;:;\ Wilcannia Times, was published in was a similar company operating from Wales steamers lost the Queensland 0..o 1873- With help from profits Wilcannia, with a weekly service down trade from the Channel country and w'" '"W generated from the Cobar mines and the river to Sandhurst in Victoria and upper Warrego. ...J: Mount Browne diggings in the 1880s, another to Sydney via . The paddlesteamers were to play many ofthe original weatherboard All the river ports-Bourke, Louth, one more important role in the buildings were replaced by handsome Tilpa, Wilcannia, Menindee and narrative ofAustralia's history. In stone houses and public edifices. Pooncarie-owed their vitality to their 1891 the steamer Rodney; loaded with There was continual activity at the function as business centres for the wool shorn by non-union shearers, waterfront with steamer~ loading and outback country being taken up on was set on fire in the midst of unloading at the woolstores and either side ofthe Darling from the Australia's worst industrial conflict. warehouses, while coaches brought mid 1860s. Bourke supplied the But by the turn ofthe century the weary travellers to rest at the hotels. Warrego country and vast areas of spasmodic and unreliable riverboat The port of Bourke developed , new settlement beyond the trade had been brutally affected by some distance upstreamfrom the site Queensland border. From Wilcannia, the loss ofbusiness to the railways of Mitchell's old Fort Bourke. The bullock and camel teams travelled up and was in terminal decline. town was surveyed in 1862 and the the Paroo, out to Tibooburra and as first land sales were held in far as Coopers Creek. Meanwhile around the railheads at Bourke and the 1891 shearer's strike when the Broken Hill and at commercial bullock drivers, members ofthe centres such as Wilcannia. By 1900 Teamsters Union supported the there were around 500 camels used in shearers and refused to carry loads to this way in western New South Wales. the sheep stations. A major drought in Wilcannia and Bourke formed the r894 saw 18 tonnes offlour left on main centres for camel trading on the the roads between Barringun and Darling River. In as early as 1883, Charleville because the bullock teams some stations 1000 kilometres north were without feed along the roadsides, in Queensland were ordering stores and unable to carry the supplies in to Camel Trade from Wilcannia, but the high cost of waiting stations. Once again camels Bullock teams provided the main bullock teams, lack ofcommunications saved the day. form oftransport for early settlers and and problems ofwater significantly Although the term 'Afghan' has pastoral stations throughout the Basin hampered outback trade until the historically been used to collectively up until the 1880s. Bullocks were introduction ofthe camel teams. label the camel drivers, their hardier and more reliable than horses From Wilcannia, camel trains countries oforigin included India, but they were terribly slow. Wool from travelled over unmade roads to Pakistan and Afghanistan. The Narrabri in the Namoi Valley was sent Menindee and Pooncarie in the camels were imported from the by bullock teams to Morpeth on the south, Umberumberka, Mount Gipps northern parts ofBritish India (which Hunter River. Even in a good season a and Thackaringa gold diggings to the at that time included Pakistan) and team could take up to two months to west, and up to Milparinka and most ofthe drivers were citizens of make this journey. Similarly, on the Tibooburra in the north. Because no British India who travelled to Lower Darling th~ journey from railhead was built at Wilcannia, Australia as subjects ofthe British Menindee by dray to Adelaide took camel teams continued to provide Empire. Although Afghanistan never eight or nine weeks. an important trade function long after came under British rule, its people Camels made their debut along their importance began to decline were nomads who passed along the the Darling River with Burke and in other areas. northern trade routes, and some are Wi11s in 1860, but these apparently One ofthe earliest records of likely to have settled in India. cumbersome animals were slow to camels in the Bourke area depicts a In their new homeland, the camel capture the imagination ofthe Darling team contracted to take a wool load drivers sometimes worked as free River pastoralists. In 1869 a caravan from Bourke to Broken Hill in r886 agents, but many were employees of of90 camels with 16 drivers made its while the Darling River was low. By camel owning proprietors, sometimes way up the River carrying stores for 1890 the Bourke camel trains had oftheir own nationality. Most ofthe Mount Murchison and some ofthe become essential to the survival and drivers were practising Moslems who other northern stations. However, it continuing prosperity ofpastoral kept themselves and their religion was the recurrent drought conditions stations as far away as Thargomindah away from the white community. that occurred during the flurry of and Charleville. Camel trains carted Most pastoralists favoured camels goldmining activity in the Corner supplies from Bourke along the over bullocks as outback carriers. They Country that finally sparked a real Wanaaring Road, north to Hungerford could go for several days without water interest in camel transport in outback and over the Queensland border. and could eat poorer quality pastures. New South Wales. In 1882 Cobb and At one stage even the mail coaches to Their padded feet were suited to long Co. hitched a team ofcamels to their Wanaaring were operated by camels. sandy stretches and they could travel fortnightly coach to the gold diggings. The importance ofthe camel trains to over sandhills, creekbeds and stony Camel camps began to be established the district was emphasised during plains as easily as a road. However, what appealed most to the pastoralists was their speed. A trip that would take a bullock team five weeks to complete could be undertaken by a camel train in twelve days. Animosity towards the Mghan camel drivers emanated from the horse and bullock teamsters but whether these feelings arose more from the economic impact of competition or from racism has been CONCLUSION disputed by historians. In droughts the The European history ofthe Darling Government attempts to regulate camel teams were the only ones able to River system has been driven by an landholding and racial interactions, take to the roads and, therefore, took eagerness to turn the system's water, were faced with constant opposition much ofthe teamster's trade during grasslands and soils into products for from pastoralists. In the north ofthe those times. During the good seasons sale in an international market place. Basin opposition was so extreme that the Mghans would often operate at The early Colonial government it resulted in the creation ofa reduced rates for short hauls that facilitated the process by supporting separate colony where their political could normally be undertaken by European exploration ventures and by influence would be assured. The bullocks. Their expectations and failing to recognise the rights ofthe administration ofthe Darling Basin standard ofliving were not so high, tribal clans who occupied the Basin. was consequently fractured along an VI 0: and their power to demand Early explorations focussed upon the arbitrary line, and this political ~ comparable rates was weak compared discovery ofcountry that would division was compounded by VI C to the bullock teamsters who had a provide rich pastoral and agricultural unrealistic aSf;>essments ofthe ~ VI 0: very powerful union for support. returns. An expedition that returned system's productive capabilities. UJ g0: By the 1920S the camel trains had having found fertile lands was The current environmental state 0. 1;5 almost entirely taken over bullock and deemed a success, while those that ofthe Basin is the result ofa complex Z j';'j horse teams as the main form of found waterless country and deserts web ofsocial and ecological forces o0. 0: ::> transport in the outback. However, were seen to contribute little to the that have acted together. In isolation IJJ IJJ :I: their sovereignty was short lived and economic future ofthe new colony. the introduction ofan exotic species I- in the 1930S road transport began to Part ofthis obsession stemmed may not upset the balance, but when push its way into the Darling region from necessity. Permanent settlement combined with overgrazing, the replacing the camel teams and their could only be maintained if influences ofland administration, a Afghan drivers. For almost 50 years, supported by permanent sources of poor understanding ofclimatic the Mghan teams made a significant food and water. While this may have variability, and the desire for fast contribution to the viability and been the overall aim ofthe financial gain, the result is far more prosperity ofthe northern part ofthe government, many ofthe Basin's dramatic. It has taken over one Darling Basin. early settlers were driven by the hundred years ofland management desire to make their own personal within the Basin to dispel the fanciful fortunes. As an encouragement for theories ofthe explorers and early economic development, the pastoralists and to begin to government offered cheap land and understand the fragile environment low rents as reward for higher levels of the Darling Basin. ofexploitation.