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1 2 3 Cite this: DOI: 10.1039/c0xx00000x 4 5 www.rsc.org/xxxxxx ARTICLE TYPE 6 7 Are creative comparisons developed by prospective chemistry teachers’ 8 9 evidence of their conceptual understanding? The case of inter and 10 Manuscript 11 intramolecular forces 12 13 14 15 5 Gulten Sendur 16 17 The aim of this study is to determine prospective chemistry teachers’ creative comparisons about the 18 basic concepts of inter and intramolecular forces, and to uncover the relationship between these creative 19 comparisons and prospective teachers' conceptual understanding. Based on a phenomenological research Accepted 20 10 method, this study was conducted with 101 prospective chemistry teachers studying in the Chemistry 21 Education Department at a state university in Turkey in the academic year 2011-2012. The research made 22 use of two data collection instruments, a creative comparison questionnaire and semi-structured 23 interviews. The concepts of "non-polar covalent bond, dipole-dipole force, hydrogen bond, ionic bond, 24 covalent bond, polar covalent bond, and Van der Waals force" were set out in the creative comparison 25 15 questionnaire and the prospective teachers were asked to complete the sentences about these concepts 26 (Example: Ionic bond is like ...... because ...... ). Content analysis techniques were employed in the

27 Practice analysis of the creative comparisons set out in the questionnaire. The analysis of the data revealed that the 28 29 prospective teachers generally developed their creative comparisons based on the formation and strength 30 of the different bonds and that they also had alternative conceptions, particularly regarding the formation 20 of covalent bond, hydrogen bond, and the Van der Waals force. Semi-structured interviews were

31 and 32 conducted in order to learn more about this and obtain detailed information about the level of 33 understanding of the prospective teachers. Twelve prospective teachers were selected for the interviews 34 on the basis of the creative comparisons they had developed in the creative comparison questionnaire. 35 The analysis of the interviews showed that the level of conceptual understanding of the prospective 36 25 teachers was not tightly linked to the complexity of their creative comparisons. However, it was seen that 37 the creative comparisons submitted by the prospective teachers could be used to infer their conceptual 38 understanding. Also, these creative comparisons could be helpful in determining what the prospective 39 teachers’ alternative conceptions were. 40 41 Introduction understand and explain an abstract, complex fact at a high level Research 42 (Yob, 2003; Saban 2004; Aubusson et al, 2006) According to 30 The main aim of teaching chemistry is to help students Lakoff and Johnson (1980), our conceptual structures are built on 43 understand natural phenomena, scientific principles and theories 50 metaphors, which help us to understand the world in terms of 44 (Rompayom et al, 2011). Sometimes, this aim can be difficult to what is familiar. In this context, analyzing metaphors enables us 45 achieve in the learning process as many phenomena are difficult to discover how people think about something (Saban et al 2006; 46 to understand, and the scientific principles and concepts are 47 Zheng and Song, 2010). At the same time, Thomas (2006) stated 35 abstract and complex (Collette and Chiappetta, 1994).Thus, some that students might be able to express the essence of their 48 studies show that when students are faced with a difficult 55 understanding in science classrooms through the use of 49 concept, they try to understand it by relating ideas to existing metaphors. In another study, Amin (2009) argued that abstract 50 knowledge and their own world experiences (Unal, Calık, Ayas concepts like energy did not contain elements related to direct Education 51 and Coll, 2006). In this process, metaphors, analogies, and 52 experience, however, metaphors about these concepts based on 40 similes play an important role as they bridge the known to the experiential knowledge reveals understanding. He also claimed 53 unknown, and alter the conceptual system of existing knowledge 60 that developing an understanding of an abstract concept may rely 54 by modifying and strengthening its associations (Kanthan and extensively on metaphors pervasive in both everyday and 55 Mills, 2006). scientific language. As a result of this, Amin stated that 56 Metaphors are cognitive devices to conceptualize or think metaphorical representations of concepts can be accepted as 57 45 about the world (Erdoğan and Erdoğan, 2012). Also, metaphors additional sources of conceptual change. Furthermore, Amin 58 are considered the strongest device that an individual can use to 59 65 argued that metaphors could be used to identify potential 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] [journal], [year], [vol], 00–00 | 1 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 2 of 29

1 2 obstacles to conceptual change. evaluate how students are making the connection (Lancor, 2012; 3 At the same time, analogies are effective tools since they allow 60 2014). In this context, Lancor (2014) stated that allowing students students to relate their scientific ideas to ideas that students find to creatively express their ideas gives the teachers a different 4 familiar, and as a result of this, the unfamiliar is made familiar perspective than can be acquired from traditional assessment 5 5 (Coll, 2006). Analogies can serve as a conceptual bridge between techniques. In addition, Taber (in press) expressed that teachers 6 existing and targeted knowledge (Glynn, 1995). In this context, legitimize and value students’ creative ideas in science by 7 analogies are made up of two parts, a source (familiar to 65 considering student-generated comparisons. 8 someone) and a target (unknown to someone) (Justi and Gilbert, Although, the importance of student-generated creative 9 2006). Thus, analogy allows an explicit comparison between two comparisons has been accepted in the literature, the contributions Manuscript 10 10 systems that share some level of structural similarity (Taber, of these to scientific understanding are still being discussed. For 11 2013). In addition, the use of analogies evokes emotion, interest, example, Vosniadou (2009) stated that metaphors are accepted as 12 and creative insight (Duit, 1991; Gilbert, 1989). Apart from 70 structures of perceptual, experiential knowledge both as being 13 analogy, a comparison between two concepts can be expressed as embodied in and as having some degree of coherence at the same 14 a simile (Chiappe, Kennedy and Chiappe, 2003). Similes also time. On the other hand, the author has also stated that when 15 15 differ from analogies in that similes map attributes; while multiple metaphors are used to ground the understanding of 16 analogies map structural similarities; similes are intended as scientific concepts, a great deal of care should be exercised since 17 analogies in a narrower sense (Miller, 1993; Israel, Harding and 75 many students do not have the epistemological sophistication to 18 Tobin, 2004). A simile is defined as “a figure of speech in which interpret conceptual metaphors. As a result, she argued that 19 two essentially unlike things are compared, often in a phrase fragmentation and alternative conceptions could occur in the Accepted 20 20 introduced by ‘like’ or ‘as’ (Kanthan and Mills, 2006). learning process. In another study, Brookes and Etkina (2007) 21 There is much discussion in the science education literature investigated how physicists represent their ideas in language in 22 about the definition of “metaphor”,“analogy” and “simile” 80 the domain of quantum mechanics and how physics students 23 (Lancor, 2012; 2014). For example, Nakipoğlu and Taber (2013) interpret the language they read and hear. The researchers 24 stated that when using a metaphor, “A is said to be B”, however, documented how physicists use many metaphors in their 25 25 in an analogy, “A is said to be like B.” They said that the aim of language to speak about quantum mechanics; however, some 26 using metaphors and analogies is often the same, but the students over-extend and misapply the metaphors in physicists’

27 comparison in a metaphor is implicit. On the other hand, some 85 speech and writing. In the light of these results, Amin, Jeppsson, Practice 28 researchers have stated that in metaphors, “A is like B”, and they Haglund and Strömdahl (2012) suggested that more research 29 use metaphors to make connections between two domains like about the role of metaphors in the learning process could be 30 30 other researchers (Christidou, Koulaidis and Christidis, 1997; conducted. One of these studies was conducted by Jeppsson,

31 Gentner, 1988; Cameron, 2002; Saban; Kocbeker and Saban, Haglund, Amin, and Strömdahl (2013) to reveal the role of and 32 2006; Seung; Park and Narayan, 2011). Also, Genter and 90 metaphors in scientific problem-solving. The results of the 33 Jeziorski (1993) have explained that analogies map relational research showed that a range of metaphors are used in problem- 34 structures independently of object descriptions, but that solving enabling flexible, experiential construals of abstract 35 35 metaphors have a broad category, and they include analogies, scientific concepts. There is still a need, however, for studies 36 object descriptions and other kinds of matches. investigating whether or not a relationship between creative 37 In this study, the term “creative comparisons” was adopted as 95 comparisons and conceptual understanding exists. The present 38 an inclusive term for metaphors, analogies, and similes. On the study thus seeks to identify whether or not there is a relationship 39 other hand, because the prospective teachers in the study, though between creative comparisons and conceptual understanding 40 40 asked to generate comparisons in the format “A is like B”, about inter and intramolecular forces. 41 formed comparisons that fell into the categories of both analogy In the last two decades, many researchers have reported that Research 42 and simile, the term “creative comparisons” in our research 100 students have inadequate conceptual understanding of the basic 43 encompasses only analogies, and similes. In other words, some concepts related to inter and intramolecular forces and fail to 44 prospective teacher-generated comparisons based on structural integrate their mental models into a coherent conceptual 45 45 similarity between two systems, a type of comparison that is framework (Peterson and Treagust, 1989; Griffiths and Preston, 46 known as an analogy. However, some comparisons were simpler 1992; Herron, 1996; Bodner and Domin, 1998; Coll and Taylor, 47 than analogies, and based on common attributes between two 105 2001; Coll and Treagust, 2001a). These results were not 48 systems, such comparisons being known as similes. At the same surprising since these topics included concepts that are far from 49 time, one of the reasons the term “creative comparisons” was students’ daily experiences; e.g. students cannot see an atom, or 50 50 used in the study was that by asking students to generate molecule and its interactions (Birk and Kurtz, 1999; Gabel, 1999; 51 comparisons about science concepts, they were given the Tan and Treagust, 1999; Griffiths and Preston, 1999; Coll and Education 52 opportunity to express their ideas in a unique way, and as a result, 110 Taylor, 2002; Taber and Coll, 2002; Unal, Calik, Ayas, and Coll, 53 to be creative in the context of learning science (Taber, in press; 2006). In addition, one of the reasons for students’ difficulties in 54 Lancor, 2014). understanding these topics may be that these topics are associated 55 55 Student-generated creative comparisons are very important for with some mathematical and physical concepts such as orbitals, 56 both students and teachers. While student-generated creative electronegativity, and polarity (Levy Nahum, Mamlok-Naaman, 57 comparisons can help students to develop a deeper understanding 115 Hofstein and Krajcik, 2007). These factors affect the formation of 58 of the content, they also provide a tool that teachers can use to alternative conceptions about inter and intramolecular forces. 59 60 2 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 3 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 Previous studies revealed four main categories of students’ these creative comparisons and their conceptual understanding. 3 difficulties and alternative conceptions regarding these concepts. 60 Based on the purpose, three research questions are investigated: These are below: 1. Which creative comparisons were used to explain “the basic 4  Students confuse intra and intermolecular forces (Treagust, concepts of inter and intramolecular forces” by the prospective 5 5 1988; Peterson and Treagust, 1989; Peterson et al, 1989; Taber, chemistry teachers? 6 1998; Tan and Treagust, 1999; Barker and Millar, 2000; Ünal, 2. Under which categories are proposed creative comparisons by 7 2007). 65 prospective chemistry teachers about “the basic concepts of inter 8  Students could not discriminate ionic and covalent bonds from and intramolecular forces” classified in terms of their common 9 each other (Taber, 1997a; Boo, 1998; Coll and Treagust, 2001a; features? Manuscript 10 10 Ünal, Coştu and Ayas, 2010). 3. What is the relationship between prospective chemistry 11  Students have a poor understanding of the electrostatic nature teachers’ creative comparisons and conceptual understanding? 12 of chemical bonding (Taber, 1995; 1998; De Posada, 1997; 13 Boo, 1998, 2000, Taber, Tsaparlis and Nakipoğlu, 2012). 70 Method 14  Students are unaware of differences in the strength of inter and 15 The phenomenographic research method was used in the study. 15 intramolecular forces (Treagust, 1988; Peterson and Treagust, 16 1989; Boo 1998; Tan and Treagust, 1999). At the foundation of phenomenographic research is defining, 17 In such cases, the students can use creative comparision to analyzing and understanding how individuals conceptualize 18 facilitate their understanding Thus, Nicoll (2001) found that a phenomena occurring in the world around them (Marton, 1994; 75 Vanderstoep and Johnston, 2009). In this method, the Accepted 19 number of students who could not provide the scientific 20 phenomenon is defined through the perspective of the learner 20 explanation for bonding phenomena tried to link it to a related (Ashworth and Lucas, 1998). Since the objective of this study is 21 concept that was correct in, and of itself. Similarly, Harrison and to discover creative comparisons prospective chemistry teachers 22 Treagust (2000) stated that students use analogies consistently in used to explain the basic concepts of the subject of inter and 23 their explanations. In another study, Coll and Treagust (2001b) 80 intramolecular forces and to uncover the relationship between 24 reported that students at all academic levels, in secondary school these creative comparisons, and the prospective teachers' 25 25 as well as on undergraduate and graduate (Ph.D) levels, could use conceptual understanding, the phenomenographic method was 26 analogies to explain some concepts of chemical bonding. thought to be an appropriate method to use. 27 Practice However, Coll and Treagust did not extensively investigate in 28 their study the analogies used by students nor their conceptual 85 The Study Group 29 understanding or alternative conceptions. This was due to the fact The study group for the research was selected by the method of 30 30 that they only used a semi-structured interview protocol to typical case sampling, which is a version of the purposeful

31 identify students’ analogies. As a result, the students were not and sampling method. In this sampling method, the objective is to 32 able to make an extensive use of analogies to explain the basic learn enough about a typical situation in order to be able to 33 concepts of chemical bonding. 90 inform others who are not familiar with the situation (Patton, 34 Consequently, it is necessary to identify the creative 1987; Lodico, Spaulding and Voegtle, 2010). The study group for 35 35 comparisons learners use to explain basic concepts of inter and the research comprised of 101 prospective chemistry teachers (55 36 intramolecular forces and to investigate the relationship between women, 46 men) who were studying in the Chemistry Education 37 these creative comparison sand learners’ conceptual Department of a state university in Turkey during the 2011-2012 38 understanding. The present study investigates the creative 95 academic year. All of the prospective teachers volunteered to 39 comparisons prospective chemistry teachers used to explain some participate in the study. Each prospective teacher gave an 40 40 basic concepts of inter and intramolecular forces. At the same

informed consent form one week before the study commenced. Research time, the prospective chemistry teachers’ were stratified at a high, 41 The prospective teachers in the study group were made up of 21 middle, and low level according to their creative comparisons It 42 first-year students and 20 students in their 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th 43 was aimed to find out the level of their conceptual understanding 100 years. The ages of the teacher candidates were in the range of 18- related to concepts. The objective here was to determine whether 44 24 years and most came from middle-income families. The 45 or not the creative comparisons used by the prospective chemistry 45 prospective teachers in the study group had studied the topic of teachers at the different levels were evidence of their conceptual 46 inter and intramolecular forces in their chemistry classes in understanding. The findings of the present study may provide 47 middle school and in the General Chemistry-I course they had 48 evidence as to how learners’ creative comparisons meet their 105 taken in fall semester of their first year at the university. It was level of conceptual understanding. Additionally, this study will 49 thought that since this was the case, the prospective teachers in 50 help chemistry teachers, chemistry educators and curriculum 50 the study group would be able to readily use their previous developers to be aware of how learners try to understand some of Education 51 knowledge to answer the questions in the creative comparison the difficult chemistry concepts by relating ideas to existing 52 questionnaire and in the semi-structured interviews. 53 knowledge and their own world experiences. These creative 54 comparisons could also be used in pedagogical implications. 110 Data collection and instrument

55 55 Purpose and research questions The research made use of two data collection instruments, a 56 creative comparison questionnaire and semi-structured 57 The purpose of this research is to find out prospective chemistry interviews. All data was gathered in Turkish. The researcher teachers’ creative comparisons about “the basic concepts of inter 58 herself translated the material to English. Also, these translations 59 and intramolecular forces”, and to reveal the relationship between 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 3 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 4 of 29

1 2 were controlled by a faculty member in chemistry education and completed in 20-25 minutes. An audio recorder was used in the by a native English speaker. 60 interviews and the entire interview was recorded. In the 3 interview, each prospective teacher was asked four questions that 4 Creative comparison questionnaire had been developed by the researcher. Besides these main 5 5 In the data collection stage of the study, a questionnaire was questions, the prospective teachers were also asked some sub- 6 prepared that was designed to discover what creative comparisons questions about the responses they gave. The opinions of three 7 prospective teachers used to explain the subject of inter and 65 specialists in chemistry education were enlisted in developing the 8 intramolecular forces. Similar questionnaires were developed to questions for the interviews. The interview questions took their 9 examine students’ comparisons about some concepts such as final form after revisions and additions were made in line with Manuscript 10 10 school, computer teacher, knowledge, cell, and global warning the recommendations of the specialists. To facilitate a more 11 (Saban, 2008; Yener and Özkadif, 2010; Saban, 2011; Dogru and productive interview and establish which parts of the discussion 12 Sarac, 2013). To establish content validity for the creative 70 should be emphasized and which difficulties could be 13 comparison questionnaire, three experts in the field were encountered, a pilot run was carried out with 4 prospective 14 consulted to determine the concepts that would define the teachers outside of the study group. This pilot study provided the 15 15 foundation of the topic. At the same time, a pilot study was means to determine the time that was needed for the interview 16 conducted using the creative comparison questionnaire with 25 and the chance to test the proposed questions. At the end of the 17 prospective teachers outside of the sample; it was determined that 75 pilot application, the researchers were able to define which 18 allowing 15 minutes for each concept would be sufficient. Before questions would be comprehensible and suitable for the 19 the questionnaires were filled out, the teacher candidates were prospective teachers' level. The questions and their content are Accepted 20 20 given information about creative comparisons and then asked to presented in Table 1. 21 generate creative comparisons for the concepts of "non-polar 22 covalent bonds, dipole-dipole force, hydrogen bond, ionic bonds, Table 1 Content of Interview Questions 23 covalent bond, polar covalent bond, and the Van der Waals force" Question Number Content 24 and explain the reason they chose such a creative comparison by 1 Defining intramolecular bonds 25 25 completing the sentences in the questionnaire (Example: Ionic 2 Defining intermolecular forces bond is like...... because...... ). Thus in the implementation 3 Comparison of strength of intramolecular and 26 intermolecular forces.

27 of the study, the teacher candidates were asked to complete their 4 Impact of intermolecular forces on the physical Practice 28 sentence for each concept in 15 minutes. The researcher timed properties of molecules. 29 each question, telling the prospective teachers to go on to the next 80 During the course of the interviews, the prospective teachers 30 30 concept at the end of 15 minutes. were asked to write down the formulas of the molecules mentioned in the questions. The purpose of this was to find out 31 Semi-structured interview and 32 how the prospective teachers represented the concepts on a 33 Semi-structured interviews were conducted to learn the level of symbolic level. understanding of the prospective teachers about the basic 34 85 Data Analysis 35 concepts of inter and intramolecular forces. Through stratified 36 35 sampling, twelve prospective teachers were selected for the Content analysis techniques were employed in the analysis of the 37 interviews on the basis of the creative comparisons they had creative comparisons set out in the questionnaire. The analysis 38 developed in the creative comparison questionnaire. According to made use of the stages of analysis employed by other research, 39 the creative comparisons they created, the prospective teachers namely: (1) naming; (2) eliminating and refining; (3) compiling 40 were stratified on three levels--high, middle and low--and four 90 and developing categories; (4) establishing validity and 41 40 prospective teachers were randomly selected from each stratum. reliability; (5) calculating and interpreting percentages and Research 42 The criteria taken into consideration in forming the strata were frequencies for creative comparisons (Saban, Koçbeker and the following: 43 Saban, 2006; Saban, 2008, Özder, 2013).  High: This stratum comprised the prospective teachers who 44 1-Naming: In this stage, a review was made as to whether the were able to create and clearly and accurately explain creative 95 45 creative comparisons created by the prospective teachers were 45 comparisons for 6 or more concepts and did not contain any meaningful; a mark was placed on papers that contained 46 alternative conceptions. responses that were lacking creative comparisons or explanations. 47  Middle: This stratum comprised the prospective teachers who The meaningful creative comparisons created by the prospective 48 were able to create and clearly and accurately explain creative teachers were listed in alphabetical order. 49 comparisons for 3-5 concepts and did not contain any 100 2-Eliminating and refining: In this stage, after the creative 50 50 alternative conceptions. comparisons created for each concept by the prospective teachers Education 51  Low: This stratum comprised the prospective teachers who were reviewed again, the creative comparisons that had been 52 were able to create and clearly and accurately explain creative marked in some prospective teachers' papers in the naming stage 53 comparisons for 1-3 concepts and could contain alternative were dropped from the study. In total, 14 prospective teachers' 54 conceptions. 105 papers were eliminated, and 101 prospective teachers' papers 55 55 The stratification of the prospective teachers according to the were involved in this study. 56 creative comparisons they formed was carried out by a faculty 3-Compiling and developing categories: In this stage, the 57 member in chemistry education. The interviews were conducted common characteristics of the creative comparisons were 58 individually with each prospective teacher. Each interview was compiled to develop categories. These categories were developed 59 60 4 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 5 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 based on the prospective teachers written responses. The asked to match the creative comparisons drawn from the study to 3 researcher reviewed the prospective teachers’ sentences with the categories identified in Table 2. Similarly, the researcher particular consideration paid to the reasons why or how they 20 matched the prospective teachers’ creative comparisons to the 4 related the creative comparisons to the concept. The reason was categories. The percentage of agreement between the categories 5 5 generally placed in the sentence after the word “because.” The established by the specialist and the researcher was calculated as 6 researcher herself classified the creative comparisons according 0.92 using the formula of Miles and Huberman (1994). 7 to the characteristics of intra-and intermolecular forces. For According to Fleiss and Levin (1981), these values above 0.75 8 example, some prospective teachers created creative comparisons 25 are considered “excellent” 9 considering the formation of intra- and intermolecular forces. 5-Calculating and interpreting percentages and frequencies for Manuscript 10 10 Some of the creative comparisons were created by considering the creative comparisons: The percentages and frequency values 11 the strength of intra-and intermolecular forces. In Table 2, one of the creative comparisons were calculated under the various 12 sample statement in relating the category to each concept is categories. These values belong to the entire sample. At the same 13 presented. More detailed examples have been given in the Results 30 time, the creative comparisons established in the study were 14 section. interpreted and an attempt was made to uncover the missing 15 15 4-Testing validity and reliability: The opinion of a specialist was information or alternative conceptions about the concepts 16 enlisted to ensure the reliability of the study. To this end, a exhibited by the prospective teachers 17 faculty member in the department of chemistry education was 18

19 Table2 Developed categories for each concept and sample statement in these categories Accepted 20 Concept Category Sample Statement 21 35 "Ionic bond is like the teacher-student relationship because the teacher gives the student knowledge 22 Formation and the student takes in that knowledge. In ionic bonds, too, metals give electrons and non-metals 23 Ionic bond receive electrons."PT-5 Strength "Ionic bond is like concrete because concrete is strong and hard to destroy. Ionic bonds are stronger 24 than other bonds, than for instance covalent bonds." PT-20 25 Formation "Covalent bond is like public property because the electrons that make up the covalent bond are 26 shared. Public property is used in the same way by the public." PT-13 Covalent bonds “Covalent bond is like a chain because a chain won't break easily. Covalent bond won't break easily 27 Practice Strength since covalent bond is one of the intramolecular forces. Intramolecular forces are stronger than the 28 intermolecular forces.”PT-71 29 Formation "Polar covalent bond is like two siblings with different features because a polar covalent bond is 30 formed by different non-metal atoms." PT-10 Polar covalent bond "Polar covalent bond is like a scale with more weight on one side because one side is heavier. Non-

31 and Sharing electrons unequally metal atoms that form a polar covalent bond attract electrons with different forces so the electrons are 32 more concentrated on one side." PT-86 33 "Non-polar covalent bond is like an asocial person because non-social people are only happy with 34 Formation themselves. They prefer to be with themselves rather than with other people. Non-polar covalent bond is formed with the same kind of non-metal atoms." PT-84 35 Non-polar covalent Sharing electrons equally "Non-polar covalent bond is like equal rights because the atoms in non-polar covalent bond attract 36 bond the electrons they share between them with equal force." PT-23 37 "Hydrogen bond is like a family because a family is made of particular people such as a mother, a 38 Formation father and children. A hydrogen bond is like a family because this bond forms between hydrogen and Hydrogen bond Fluorine, Oxygen and Nitrogen." PT-25 39 Strength "Hydrogen bond is like thin people because since the hydrogen bond is between the molecules, it is 40 not as strong as the inside of the molecule; it is weak, like thin people." PT-59 41 Physical Properties “Hydrogen bond is like the brain because the brain can manage our body. Similarly, hydrogen bond Research 42 can change or manage the boiling point, the viscosity." PT-56 "Dipole-dipole force is like people who are diametrically opposite to each other because people with 43 Dipole-dipole Formation opposite personalities tend to attract each other. There is an attraction there. And this force appears 44 force between the opposite poles of polar molecules." PT-4 45 Strength “Dipole-dipole force is like a person of medium strength because this attraction is stronger than Van 46 der Waals force but weaker than a hydrogen bond." PT-49 “The Van der Waals force is like the feeling of liking someone momentarily because a woman and a 47 man may see each other and feel a sudden attraction between them. A similar situation exists in the 48 Formation Van der Waals force. As noble gas or molecules get close to each other, when electrons are more on 49 one side, momentary dipoles, in other words, + and - charges, will be produced. These momentary 50 charges will affect the other molecules as well. The attraction between momentary charges is the Van Van der Waals der Waals force." PT-81 Education 51 force "The Van der Waals force is like a family having weak relations with other relatives because if we 52 Strength think about a family and its relatives as molecules, the weak relation between them is the Van der 53 Waals force; the force is a weak attraction between molecules." PT-46 Molecules were affected by "The Van der Waals force is like a mobile phone because today, everyone has one. The Van der 54 Van der Waals force Waals force, too, is a force is present in polar as well as non-polar molecules." PT-84 55 "The Van der Waals force is like a flying balloon because among the molecules, only molecules like 56 Physical Properties F2, Cl2 that have this force are weaker than other molecules (H2O) at the boiling point. This is why 57 only molecules that have the Van der Waals force boil at a lower temperature." PT-49 58 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 5 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 6 of 29

1 2 The data obtained from the semi-structured interviews were other. Similarly, ionic bonds are formed. The atom gives up 3 analyzed in five categories. These categories were defined as electron or electrons to another atom. As a result, this atom is "sound understanding," "partial understanding," "partial loaded with (+) charge. Another atom receives electron or 4 understanding with an alternative conception", "alternative electrons, and is loaded with (-) charge. The ionic bond is formed 5 5 conceptions" and "no response." These types of categories are 50 as a result of the attraction these opposite charges." PT-81 6 widely used in studies in the literature (Abraham, Gryzybowski, "Ionic bond is like a magnet because opposite poles on a magnet 7 Renner and Marek, 1992; Çalık, 2005). The categories related to attract each other. In an ionic bond too, the electrostatic 8 the level of understanding and the content of these categories are attraction between the (+) and (-) poles causes the ions to attract 9 shown in Table 3. The records of the interviews were separately one another and form a bond." PT-85 Manuscript 10 10 coded by the two researchers and the percentage of agreement 55 Some prospective teachers explained the transfer of electrons 11 between the two series of code was calculated to be 0.88 (Miles and the existence of oppositely charged ions in an ionic bond by 12 and Huberman, 1994). using the creative comparisons of trading and magnet. The 13 statements that are an example of these creative comparisons are Table 3 The criteria for the classification of prospective teachers’ 14 as follows: 15 responses in the interview 60 "Ionic bond is like trading because in trading, money is 16 The Level of Understanding Criteria for the classification of prospective exchanged whereas in ionic bonds, there is a trade of electron 17 teachers’ responses Sound understanding (SU) Scientifically complete between metal and non-metal atoms." PT-83 18 responses and correct explanations "Ionic bond is like a magnet because it has opposite poles like N 19 Partial understanding (PU) Responses that included at least one of the and S like a magnet. Ionic bonds too have opposite poles that are Accepted 20 components of an acceptable response and - 65 cations (+) and anions (-). While an atom gives up an e and 21 explanation - Partial understanding with Scientifically complete responses and forms a (+) pole, an atom that receives an e forms a (-) pole.” 22 an alternative conception unacceptable explanations PT-2 23 (PUAC) It can be seen in Table 4 that a code for "Other" is listed under 24 Alternative conceptions Completely scientifically unacceptable the formation category. The "Other" code contains creative 25 (AC) responses and explanations No Response (NR) ‘No answer’; ‘I don’t know’; ‘I have no idea’ 70 comparisons with a frequency value of 1 that are scientifically 26 correct. One creative comparison in this category is "a friendship

27 between a miser and a generous person." Examples of statements Practice 15 Results 28 that are an example of this creative comparison are as follows: 29 This section describes the results obtained from the creative "Ionic bond is like a friendship between a miser and a generous 30 comparison questionnaire and the semi-structured interviews. 75 person because one of the electrons tends to give, displaying a

31 and Creative Comparison Questionnaire Results generous character, while the other electron only receives, 32 showing a miserly character." PT-49 33 The frequencies and percentages of the creative comparisons that The prospective teachers also created creative comparisons 34 20 the prospective teachers composed for the concepts of “ionic that included scientifically correct explanations about the concept 35 bond, covalent bond, polar covalent bond, and non-polar covalent 80 of ionic bond in the category of strength. This category contained 36 bond (intramolecular forces)” are presented in Table 4. Table 5 creative comparisons on "dumbbell weight" (0.9%), "concrete 37 shows frequencies and percentages of the creative comparisons (0.9%), "father of the family" (0.9%) and "love" (0.9%). Some 38 belonging to intermolecular forces (“hydrogen bond, Van der examples of the statements in this context are the following: 39 25 Waals force, and, dipole-dipole force"). For each concept, "Ionic bond is like love because love is a strong interaction; 40 creative comparisons formed by the prospective teachers have 85 ionic bonds also have a strong attraction between (+) and (-) 41 been presented according to this order: “creative comparisons ions." PT-25 Research 42 including scientifically correct explanations,” “creative 43 comparisons including some unclear points” and “creative Creative comparisons including some unclear points about the concept of ionic bond 44 30 comparisons including alternative conceptions." 90 In the formation category, some prospective teachers used the 45 creative comparisons of "financial aid" (8.9%), "teacher-student 46 Creative comparisons including scientifically correct explanations about the concept of ionic bond relationship" (8.9%), "the relationship between a customer and a 47 The prospective teachers were able to form creative comparisons supermarket attendant" (6.9%), "puzzle pieces" (6.9%) to explain 48 35 that included scientifically correct explanations about the concept the concept of the transfer of electrons between ions in the 49 of ionic bond and belonged in the formation and strength 95 formation of an ionic bond. Although these prospective teachers 50 categories. did not state clearly in their creative comparisons that ionic bonds Education 51 In the formation category, the prospective teachers used the occur as a result of the transfer of electrons, they tended to see 52 creative comparisons "men and women," "agreement between ionic bonds as the result of the transfer of electrons (PT-10 stated 53 40 two people with opposing ideas," and "magnet" to explain the this more clearly than the other prospective teachers). In other 54 attraction between oppositely charged ions in an ionic bond. 100 words, these prospective teachers did not take into consideration 55 Some of the statements where these creative comparisons were the fact that ionic bonds are formed from the electrostatic 56 used are the following: interaction of oppositely charged ions as a result of electron 57 "Ionic bond is like men and women because men and women transfers. These results are consistent with the findings of Taber, 58 45 attract each other even though they are the opposite of each 1997b. Some examples of the statements in this context are the 59 60 6 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 7 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 following: 60 explanations where these creative comparisons were used were 3 "Ionic bond is like the relationship between a customer and a the following: supermarket attendant because the customer and the supermarket "Covalent bond is like people because people can be both 4 attendant exchange money between them. Here, the electrons are compliant and argumentative. A covalent bond can be of two 5 5 like money. The supermarket attendant takes money and therefore types-a non-polar and a polar covalent bond. Non-polar covalent 6 is a non-metal (takes the electron) and the customer gives the 65 bonds are formed by compliant non-metals because they share 7 money and is therefore a metal (gives the electron)." PT-6 the electrons equally. Polar covalent bonds are formed by 8 "Ionic bond is like puzzle pieces because one puzzle has an extra argumentative non-metals. We can say that these quarrel among 9 piece and another has a missing piece. The extra piece is used to themselves because they all want more electrons." PT-23 Manuscript 10 10 take the place of the missing piece in the other puzzle and in the The other code set up for the formation of the covalent bond 11 end, they both become whole. In an ionic bond, too, the electrons 70 contained the creative comparisons of "tribe," "jury," "mutual 12 which are extra in a metal are given to the atom of a non-metal, a assistance," "a country and its people," "two people drinking from 13 trade is made and a bond is formed." PT-10 the same glass of orange juice," "people of the same race 14 supporting each other," "the friendship of two people from 15 15 Creative comparisons including alternative conceptions about different countries," "relationships based on self-interest," 16 the concept of ionic bond 75 "people of the same gender in a population eating the same food," 17 It was also found from the creative comparisons in the formation "two hungry people sharing food," "children," "a pencil being 18 category created by the prospective teachers that they had shared."Some of the statements where these creative comparisons 19 alternative conceptions as well. An example of one of these is the are used were the following: Accepted 20 20 following: "Covalent bond is like a country and its people because a 21 "Ionic bond is like two girls because ionic bonds are formed 80 covalent bond is made up of different or the same kinds of non- 22 between two non-metal groups; we can separate the sexes into metal atoms. The peoples who make up a country can also be 23 categories the same way, such as non-metal and metal. We can different or they can be of the same religion, language or race." 24 call girls as non-metals and boys as metals. This way, two girls PT-25 25 25 are like an ionic bond." PT-16 In the category of the strength of covalent bonds, the creative 26 As can be seen from this explanation, the prospective teacher 85 comparisons of "a friendship "(1.9%), "bond inside the family"

27 sees ionic bonds as bonds forming between non-metal atoms. (1.9%) and "a chain" (0.9) were formed by the prospective Practice 28 This finding has been discovered in various studies (Ünal, 2003). teachers to compare intra- and intermolecular forces. One of the 29 Another creative comparison worthy of note is the creative statements where these creative comparisons were used were the 30 30 comparison of "filling in the tiles on a game of Bingo." This following:

31 creative comparison is stated as follows: 90 “Covalent bond is like bond inside the family because this bond and 32 "Ionic bond is like filling in the tiles on a game of Bingo because is stronger than a neighbourly bond. Similarly, covalent bond as 33 the electrons on both sides are trying to complete the 8." PT-36. intramolecular forces is stronger than intermolecular forces.” 34 It may be gathered from the statement above that the PT-69. 35 35 prospective teacher believes that bonds can only be formed as the The creative comparison of “rope” (1.9%) was used by 36 result of the octet rule. Similar alternative conceptions have been 95 different prospective teachers to explain two different meanings. 37 reported in various other studies in the literature (Robinson, 1998, For example, PT 97 used this creative comparison to compare the 38 Eshach and Garik, 2001; Coll and Taylor, 2002; Coll and strength of intra and intermolecular forces. On the other hand, PT 39 Treagust, 2003). 20 used the same creative comparison to compare the strength of 40 40 ionic and covalent bonds. This creative comparison is the Research 41 Creative comparisons including scientifically correct 100 following: 42 explanations about the concept of covalent bond “Covalent bond is like rope because rope is not stronger than 43 The prospective teachers produced creative comparisons that steel cable. Similarly, covalent bond is not stronger than ionic 44 included scientifically correct explanations about the concept of bond.” PT-20 45 45 covalent bond in both categories of formation and strength. In these creative comparisons, the prospective teachers explained 46 105 Creative comparisons including some unclear points about 47 the formation and strength of covalent bonds from different the concept of covalent bond 48 perspectives. For example, the prospective teachers used the An examination of the creative comparisons shown in Table 4 49 creative comparison of “family relation"(4.9%) to express their show that the prospective teachers mostly used the creative 50 50 belief that a covalent bond was formed between non-metal atoms. comparisons of "sharing money" (13.9%), "brotherhood"

An example of this belief was the following: Education 51 110 (12.9%), "marriage" (11.9%), "a public transportation vehicle" 52 "Covalent bond is like family relations because it does not occur (8.9%), "a common eraser" (8.9%), "roommates" (6.9%), "public 53 between metal and non-metal atoms but between non-metal and property" (4.9%) and "a joint stock company" (3.9%) to explain 54 non-metal atoms." PT-70 formation of covalent bond. From these creative comparisons, it 55 55 The creative comparison of "people" (1.9%) was also used was found that the prospective teachers accepted a covalent bond regarding the formation of covalent bonds. An examination of 56 115 to be the sharing of electrons. However, it was not understood 57 this creative comparison reveals that the prospective teachers whether or not these prospective teachers accepted a covalent thought that the equal or unequal sharing of electrons in polar and 58 bond as the attraction of bonding electrons by the nuclei of non-polar covalent bonds resembled people. One of the 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 7 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Dynamic Article Links ► Page 8 of 29 Journal Name

1 2 3 Cite this: DOI: 10.1039/c0xx00000x 4 5 www.rsc.org/xxxxxx ARTICLE TYPE 6 Manuscript 7 8 Table 4 Creative comparisons formed by the prospective teachers about “ionic bond, covalent bond, polar covalent bond, non-polar covalent bond” (intramolecular forces) concepts

Ionic bond Covalent bond Polar Covalent Bond Non-polar Covalent Bond

9 s s s s e e e e i i i i

r 10 r r r o o o o g g Creative f % g Creative f % g Creative f % Creative f % e e e e t

11 t t t a a Comparisons a Comparisons a Comparisons Comparisons C 12 C C C 13 Trading 26 25.7 Sharing money 14 13.9 Marriage 20 19.8 Identical twins 27 26.7 Accepted 14 15 A magnet 24 23.8 Brotherhood 13 12.9 Lovers 4 3.9 Two friends of the same gender 11 10.9 sharing the same house 16 Financial aid 9 8.9 Marriage 12 11.9 Two siblings sharing a toy 2 1.9 A family company 5 4.9 17 Teacher-student relationship 9 8.9 A public transportation vehicle 9 8.9 A company partnership 2 1.9 Two students sitting on the same bench 5 4.9

The relationship between a 7 6.9 A common eraser 9 8.9 Two siblings with different features 6 5.9 A sacrificial animal bought together 5 4.9

18 n n o

i o

t customer and a supermarket n i a t

19 o a i

attendant t m Practice r n a m r 20 o Puzzle pieces 7 6.9 Roommates 7 6.9 o A class 2 1.9 A pair of shoes 3 2.9 i m o F t r

F a o Men and women 7 6.9 Public property 5 4.9 A Magnet 15 14.8 An object and its mirror image 3 2.9

21 F

m

r

Agreement between two 5 4.9 Family relations 5 4.9 The need of two people of opposite sexes 1 0.9 An asocial person 2 1.9 o

22

F

people with opposing ideas. for each other

and

23

Two girls 1 0.9 A joint stock company 4 3.9 Identical twins 1 0.9 People in the world 1 0.9

24

Filling in the tiles on a game of 1 0.9 People 2 1.9 The others 13 12.9 Two different people holding a rope on 1 0.9

Bingo both ends

25

The others 1 0.9 Combination of contrast colours 1 0.9 The others 10 9.9

26

People with the same opinions 1 0.9

27

28 The others 12 11.9

Dumbbell weight 1 0.9 Rope 2 1.9 People of the same gender but with 17 16.8 Two people with equal strength pulling 17 16.8 29 y l l

a different strengths pulling on a rope" a rope

30 u Research y q l

Concrete 1 0.9 A Friendship 2 1.9 A big and a small dog pulling on the 3 2.9 Two children of equal weight on a 3 2.9 l e h a t 31 n same bone u seesaw g u

q n . e

s e 32 Father of the family 1 0.9 Bond inside the family. 2 1.9 A big fish biting off a bigger piece" 1 1.9 Not being able to win an arm-wrestling 2 1.9 . r h n t s t o S n g contest" r

t

33 o n

c r

e t

Love 1 0.9 A chain 1 0.9 Arm-wrestling with different strengths 1 1.9 Equal rights 2 1.9 e r

l c t 34

e e S

l

Twins pulling at two ends of a rope 1 0.9 Civil servants at the same level getting 2 1.9

e g

n

35 g i the same salary

r

n

i a

r The others 12 11.9 A roly-poly doll 1 0.9

36 h

a

S h A match ending in a tie 1 0.9 37 S

38 Education 39 40 41 42 43 44 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] [journal], [year], [vol], 00–00 | 8 45

46 Chemistry 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 Page 9 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice Dynamic Article Links ► Journal Name

1 2 3 Cite this: DOI: 10.1039/c0xx00000x 4 5 www.rsc.org/xxxxxx ARTICLE TYPE 6 7 covalently bonded atoms in these creative comparisons. Thus, Another creative comparison in this category is “two siblings 8 Taber (1998) and Boo (2000) discovered that students accepted a 55 with different features" (5.9%) and "a class" (1.9%). These 9

covalent bond as a pair of electrons that were shared. Some of the creative comparisons were used to show that polar covalent Manuscript 10 sentences in this context are the following: bonds are formed between different non-metal atoms. One of the 11 5 "Covalent bond is like marriage because covalent bond is formed statements where these creative comparisons were used are the 12 by sharing of electrons just like in a marriage where couples following: 13 share the same house." PT-55 60 "Polar covalent bond is like two siblings with different features 14 “Covalent bond is like a common eraser because a covalent because a polar covalent bond is formed by different non-metal 15 bond is formed by sharing of electrons among non-metals. An atoms." PT-10 16 10 eraser that's the only one in a row of students is used by all. This The creative comparisons coded as "Other" in the formation 17 way, both sides make up for their deficiencies." PT-83 category are the following: "different flowers," "municipalities," 18 “Covalent bond is like a roommate because covalent bond occurs 65 "two students using the same substance in a laboratory," "a sister 19 by sharing electrons. Roommates share the same house." PT-22 and a brother sharing the same room," "people and animals Accepted 20 sharing the environment," "roommates at a dorm," "the blood 21 15 Creative comparisons including alternative conceptions about relation between two cousins," "the teacher-student relationship," 22 the concept of covalent bond "apartments," "the poles in mitosis," "two students sitting on the 23 Some of the creative comparisons in the category of formation 70 same bench," "a necklace made out of black and white pearls," 24 created by the prospective teachers contained alternative "the solidarity between a mother and father." Some of the 25 conceptions. One of the examples of this is the following statements where these creative comparisons are used are the 26 20 statement: following: "Covalent bond is like the combination of contrast colours 27 “Polar covalent bond is like a necklace made out of white and Practice 28 because a covalent bond is the force between metal and non- 75 black pearls because this necklace has different kinds of pearls 29 metal atoms. The color black, for instance, is the metal, and its but they are still connected to each other and they are in 30 contrast is white, the non-metal. The combination of these colors harmony. A polar covalent bond can also bond with different 25 we can say is the force between the atoms of metals and non-

31 non-metal atoms." PT-25 and 32 metals." PT-16 In the category of sharing electrons unequally, the creative These explanations clearly show that the prospective teacher 33 80 comparisons "people of the same gender but with different 34 has confused the concepts of ionic bond and covalent bond. This strengths pulling on a rope" (16.8%), "a big and a small dog 35 alternative conception was reported as well in studies by Taber, pulling on the same bone" (2.9%), "a big fish biting off a bigger 36 30 1997b; Boo, 1998, Tan and Treagust, 1999; Coll and Treagust, piece" (1.9%) and "arm-wrestling with different strengths" 37 2001a; Nicoll, 2001. Another interesting point is the following (1.9%) were statements the prospective teachers created to explanation: 38 85 explain bond polarity on the basis of atom electronegativity. 39 "Covalent bond is like people with the same opinions coming Some of the statements where these creative comparisons were together because a covalent bond is made up of anions of the used are the following: 40 -2 -2i 41 35 same charge. For example, S and O n SO2." PT-9 "Polar covalent bond is like people of the same gender but with Research 42 This explanation by this prospective teacher shows that the PT- different strengths pulling on a rope because the stronger person 9 not only did not understand how a covalent bond is formed but 43 90 will pull the rope harder. In a polar covalent bond, the 44 that an erroneous association has been formed about anion electronegativity of non-metal atoms is different from each other. charges. The atom with more electronegativity will pull the electrons more 45 40 toward itself and this way, the part where there are more 46 Creative comparisons including scientifically correct 47 explanations about the concept of polar covalent bond electrons is negatively charged and the other pole is positively 48 Similar to the covalent bond, the prospective teachers formed 95 charged." PT-23 49 creative comparisons including scientifically correct explanations Of the prospective teachers, 11.9% created creative comparisons that were coded as "Other" in the category of 50 45 about the formation of polar covalent bond. One of these creative 51 comparisons is the “magnet” creative comparison. Some sharing electrons unequally. These were the creative Education 52 prospective teachers used the “magnet” creative comparison to comparisons, "competition between the beautiful and the ugly," 53 correctly explain the polar structure of polar covalent bond. One 100 "the older sister and the younger sister," "shareholding," "the 54 of these explanations was the following: quarrel of a strong and a weak person," "inequality," "a scale with more weight on one side," "two different athletes," "students with 55 50 "Polar covalent bond is like a magnet because a magnet has a 56 (+) pole and a (-) pole. There is polarization in polar covalent different capacities," "slyness," "capitalism," "a plump and a thin 57 bond as well. One pole is partially charged (+) and the other is child on a seesaw," "civil servants of different levels being paid 58 partially charged (-)." PT-44 105 different salaries." Some of the statements where these creative comparisons were used were the following: 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] [journal], [year], [vol], 00–00 | 9 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 10 of 29

1 2 "Polar covalent bond is like civil servants of different levels 60 "Polar covalent bond is like twins pulling at two ends of a rope 3 being paid different salaries because civil servants are paid the because twins will pull and hold the rope in the same strength. In different salaries of their own levels. In this bond, too, because polar covalent bonds, too, atoms pull electrons in the same 4 the electronegativities of atoms are different, they will attract the strength.” PT-98 5 5 electrons they share with different forces." PT-37 As can be understood from this statement, the prospective 6 65 teacher has said that atoms will attract electrons with equal force 7 Creative comparisons including some unclear points about in polar covalent bond. This shows that the prospective teacher 8 the concept of polar covalent bond has confused the concepts of polar and non-polar covalent bonds. 9 Many prospective teachers emphasized the sharing of electrons in

Manuscript 10 10 the formation of a polar covalent bond as it was in the covalent Creative comparisons including scientifically correct 11 bond. With this aim, the creative comparisons of "marriage" 70 explanations about the concept of non-polar covalent bond 12 (19.8%), "lovers" (3.9%), "two siblings sharing a toy" (1.9%) and In the formation category, the creative comparisons of "identical 13 "a company partnership" (1.9%) were used. However, it was not twins" (26.7%), a pair of shoes" (2.9%), "an object and its mirror 14 understood that whether these prospective teachers considered image" (2.9%) and "an asocial person"(1.9%) are creative 15 15 nucleus–electron interactions in the formation of polar covalent comparisons that the prospective teachers used to explain that 16 bond. Some of the statements were the following: 75 non-polar covalent bond was formed by the same kind of non- 17 "Polar covalent bond is like lovers because couples as metal atoms. One of the statements where these creative 18 individuals have different characters but they share a lot of comparisons were used are the following:

19 things. A polar covalent bond is formed when non-metal atoms "Non-polar covalent bond is like a pair of shoes because shoes Accepted 20 20 share electrons." PT-22 are identically the same. In non- polar covalent bond too, there 21 "Polar covalent bond is like a company partnership because 80 are the same non-metal atoms." PT-31 22 different people come together and make use of a common capital Besides the creative comparisons above, the prospective 23 stock to establish a company. In other words, they are partners in teachers formed creative comparisons that fell into the "Other" 24 the company. In this bond, too, different non-metals share code. These were the creative comparisons "two poor students 25 25 electrons in partnership and form a polar covalent bond in this with no money buying a book together," "two women of the same way." PT-85 85 character hanging out together," "a herd of animals," "a pearl 26 necklace," "a building made completely out of brick," "a political 27 Practice Creative comparisons including alternative conceptions about party," "school," "public property," "ants helping each other," 28 the concept of polar covalent bond "two neighbors on the same floor using the a common corridor 29 30 Although prospective teachers composed some meaningful light." One of the statements where these creative comparisons 30 creative comparisons in the formation category, some of the 90 were used is the following: 31 creative comparisons also carried alternative conceptions. For and "Non-polar covalent bond is like a herd of animals because the 32 instance: same type of animals come together to form a herd. A similar 33 "Polar covalent bond is like a magnet because a magnet has two situation exists with non-polar covalent bond. It forms in the 34 35 opposite poles. One is (+) and the other is (-). Covalent bonds same type of non-metal atoms." PT-29 35 also form between metal and non-metal atoms. Metals are (+), 95 The creative comparisons in the category of sharing electrons 36 non-metals are (-).” PT-16 equally, when compared with the category of formation, show 37 From this statement, it can clearly be understood that the that the prospective teachers have interpreted the concept in the 38 prospective teacher has explained the polar covalent bond as if it light of electronegativity and have produced more scientific 39 40 were an ionic bond. The creative comparison in this category of explanations The creative comparisons in this category are the 40 "the need of two people of opposite sexes for each other" (0.9%) 100 following: "two people with equal strength pulling a rope" Research 41 is one of the creative comparisons which show that the (16.8%), "two children of equal weight on a seesaw" (2.9%), "not 42 prospective teachers were confusing ionic and covalent bonds. being able to win an arm-wrestling contest" (1.9%), equal rights 43 The explanation for this creative comparison is as follows: (1.9%), "civil servants at the same level getting the same salary" 44 45 "Polar covalent bond is like the need of two people of opposite (1.9%), "a roly-poly doll" (0.9%), and "a match ending in a tie" 45 sexes for each other because each gender can fulfill the other's 105 (0.9%). The creative comparison that stands out the most in this 46 need. The same holds true for metals and non-metals. Non- category has a 16.8% ratio and refers to "two people with equal 47 metals fulfill their electron needs from metals and form polar strength pulling a rope." Creative comparisons resembling this 48 covalent bonds. PT-3 one, in particular, are also found in high school textbooks. It may 49 50 Another creative comparison, "identical twins" (0.9%) reveals be for this reason that prospective teachers have been able to 50 how polar and non-polar covalent bond concepts have been 110 create this creative comparison more easily. The statements the Education 51 mixed up. This statement follows: prospective teachers to explain the creative comparisons in this 52 "Polar covalent bond is like identical twins because all the category were the following: 53 features of identical twins are alike. The non-metal atoms Non-polar covalent bond is like two people with equal strength 55 forming the polar covalent bonds have exactly the same features 54 pulling a rope because even though both sides will be pulling the 55 because this occurs between non-metal atoms.” PT-87 115 rope, the rope won't budge to either side; both sides will be Also, one alternative conception was revealed in the category 56 pulling with the same amount of force. In non-polar covalent of sharing electrons unequally. This creative comparison is stated 57 bond, because there are the same kinds of non-metal atoms, both as follows: 58 of the atoms will attract the shared electrons with the same 59 60 10 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 11 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 amount of force; their electronegativities are the same. PT-42 60 building to be strong, the beams and columns have to be built on 2 3 a solid structure. In the same way, hydrogen bond causes the Creative comparisons including some unclear points about increasing in the surface tension. As a result, needles and similar 4 the concept of non-polar covalent bond objects remain on the surface of liquids and don't sink. Just like 5 5 The creative comparisons, "two friends of the same gender the durability of a building. The beams and columns in this 6 sharing the same house" (10.9%) and "a family company" (4.9%) 65 example are like a hydrogen bond." PT-100 7 were used by the prospective teachers to explain that non-polar Also, creative comparisons including scientifically correct 8 covalent bonds were formed when the same kind of non-metal explanations coded as "Other" exist in the category of strength. 9 atoms shared electrons. Some the prospective teachers used the These creative comparisons: "a sailor's knot," "handcuffs," Manuscript 10 10 creative comparisons, "two students sitting on the same bench" "love," "ropes," "articulated lorry", "boxers," "thin people," 11 (4.9%) and "a sacrificial animal bought together" (4.9%), 70 "weak human relations." One of the explanations given by the 12 however, these prospective teachers mention only that non-polar prospective teachers was the following: covalent bonds are formed when atoms share electrons. In other 13 "Hydrogen bond is like a sailor's knot because sailor's knots are words, it was determined that the prospective teachers exhibited 14 stronger than other knots; a hydrogen bond is the strongest of the 15 no knowledge about nucleus–electron interactions in the 15 intermolecular forces." PT-71 16 formation of non-polar covalent bonds. Some of the statements 75 Some important scientific explanations about hydrogen bonds where these creative comparisons were used were the following: 17 fit into the physical properties category. A review of the creative "Non-polar covalent bond is like a family company because in 18 comparisons in this category reveal that the prospective teachers

non-polar covalent bond, the same types of non-metal atoms Accepted 19 chose these types of creative comparisons to explain the effect of 20 form the bond by sharing electrons The same thing holds true in a 20 hydrogen bond on boiling points, viscosity and other properties. 21 family company because members of the same family pool their 80 One of creative comparisons is the following: resources and form the organization." PT-22 22 “Hydrogen bond is like a person who's patient because a patient "Non-polar covalent bond is like two students sitting on the same 23 person has more strength to cope with problems. The boiling bench because the two students use the bench together. This bond 24 points of molecules that contain a hydrogen bond are also higher 25 too is about sharing electrons together." PT-4 25 than those without a hydrogen bond." PT-85 26 Creative comparisons including alternative conceptions about 85 27 the concept of non-polar covalent bond Creative comparisons including some unclear points about Practice 28 It was also found from these creative comparisons that the the concept of hydrogen bond 29 30 prospective teachers had alternative conceptions as well. Some From the prospective teachers’ creative comparisons, it was 30 examples of the statements in this context were the following: determined that there were some unclear points about the

31 "Non-polar covalent bond is like the people in the world because 90 formation and strength of hydrogen bonds. Particularly, the and 32 all the people in the world have different characteristics but yet creative comparisons in the formation category of "the selective 33 they stay together. The non-metal atoms forming this bond also person" (11.9%), "the family" (7.9%), "the selective permeant" 34 35 have very different characteristics but they still form the bond." (6.9%), "an obsessed person" (5.9%) the enzyme-substrate 35 PT-13 relationship" (3.9%) and the "cell membrane"(3.9%) did not 36 "Non-polar covalent bond is like two different people holding a 95 clearly define whether the prospective teachers accepted 37 rope on both ends because the non-metal atoms forming the bond hydrogen bond as an intramolecular or as an intermolecular 38 are different."PT-98 interaction. Some of the statements where these creative 39 40 From these explanations it can be seen that the prospective comparisons were used were the following: 40 teachers have confused non-polar covalent bonds with polar “Hydrogen bond is like a selective person because the hydrogen Research 41 covalent bonds. Similar results have been reported in the 100 bond can't be with just any atom; the elements that it bonds with 42 literature in various studies (Nicoll, 2001; Ünal, 2007). The fact are limited. It occurs H between F, O, N atoms. A selective 43 that the words polar and non-polar derive from English or person doesn't become friends with everyone." PT-49 44 45 perhaps the inability to fully understand the concept of "Hydrogen bond is like an obsessed person because people with 45 electronegativity may have caused these alternative conceptions obsessions think of only one thing, they concentrate on that; for 46 (Ünal, 2007). 105 hydrogen bond to occur, the hydrogen atom can only bond with 47 an atom in the F, O or N group. In other words, it has become 48 Creative comparisons including scientifically correct obsessed with F, O or N." PT-4 49 50 explanations about the concept of hydrogen bond "Hydrogen bond is like a selective permeant because hydrogen 50 The prospective teachers produced creative comparisons that bond occurs when hydrogen bonds with F, O or N atoms." PT-25 51 included scientifically correct explanations about the hydrogen 110 "A hydrogen bond is like a cell membrane because it won't work Education 52 bond in the categories of strength and physical properties. with any atom; it's a kind of selective permeant because the cell 53 One of the scientifically correct explanations given by the membrane has the property of selectivity." PT-81 54 55 prospective teachers was the one offered by PT-100. This It can be seen from the explanations above that the prospective 55 prospective teacher mentions the strength of the hydrogen bond teachers stated the conditions under which a hydrogen bond 56 and then goes on to talk of surface tension. This prospective 115 occurred, but it was not clearly understood that the prospective 57 teacher’s explanation was the following: teachers accepted the hydrogen bond as an intermolecular 58 “Hydrogen bond is like a beam or column because in order for a interaction. In particular, the explanations like hydrogen bond 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 11 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Dynamic Article Links ► Page 12 of 29 Journal Name

1 2 3 Cite this: DOI: 10.1039/c0xx00000x 4 5 www.rsc.org/xxxxxx ARTICLE TYPE 6 Manuscript 7 8 Table 5 Creative comparisons formed by the prospective teachers about “hydrogen bond”, “Van der Waals force”, “dipole-dipole force” (intermolecular forces) concepts

9

s s

Hydrogen bond s Van der Waals force Dipole-dipole force 10

e e e

i i i

r r r

o o o 11

Creative f % Creative f % Creative f % g g g

e e e

t t t

Comparisons Comparisons Comparisons

12 a a a

C C

C

13 Accepted

A selective person 12 11.9 A feather 16 15.8 A magnet 24 23.8

14

A family 8 7.9 A Rotten rope 10 9.9 People who are diametrically opposite to each 11 10.9

15

other

16

A selective permeant 7 6.9 Cotton 9 8.9 Lightning 3 2.9

17

An obsessed person 6 5.9 A house of cards 7 6.9 People with different strengths pulling on a rope 7 6.9

n Enzyme-substrate relationship 4 3.9 A rotten piece of wood 6 5.9 Two similar people attracting each other 3 2.9 18

h o

t i

t

A cell membrane 4 3.9 g A rotten building 5 4.9 A bag of lentils 1 0.9

a 19 n e

m Bond between twins 4 3.9 The bones of an elderly person 2 1.9 A married couple sharing a blanket 1 0.9 Practice r r t 20 n o S Some kind of article that people 1 0.9 Two casual classmates 2 1.9 o One nation becoming another nation's dominion 1 0.9 i F t

a 21 share

m

r

A social person 1 0.9 Magnet 3 2.9 Two balls of the same kind sticking to each other 1 0.9 o 22

F

The others 13 12.9 Handcuffs 3 2.9 Gravity 1 0.9 and

23

The others 19 18.8 The bond between people of the same city 1 0.9

24

The others 10

25

d 26 Friendship 7 6.9 e Blood vessels 2 1.9 Medium-sweet turkish coffee 7 6.9 e c t r

Hercules 5 4.9 c Energy 2 1.9 A person of medium strength 7 6.9 o e 27 f f

f A rope 5 4.9 s Jealousy 1 0.9 Strong person 4 3.9 l a

28 a e

Steel 3 2.9 a The ability to talk 1 0.9 A vacuum cleaner’s picking up dust 3 2.9 r

e

W

29 A beam or column 3 2.9 Mobile phones 1 0.9 The largest root of a tree 1 0.9 w r

h t e s g A thick branch 1 0.9 e d Gravity 1 0.9 A hurricane 1 0.9

30 l Research n n u e a The strongest individual in a society 1 0.9 c A party that identical twins come to 2 1.9 r A stone 1 0.9 t

31 e V l S

o

The roots of a tree digging into the 1 0.9 Two similar people agreeing with 2 1.9 Love between romeo and juliet" 1 0.9 y

32 b

M

h ground each other

t

g

33

n The father in a family 1 0.9 The others 12 11.9

e r

34 t A mother's love for a baby 1 0.9 S

Feeling of liking someone

A wall 1 0.9 4 3.9

35

n

momentarily o

Wrestlers 1 0.9 i

36 t

a

The weakest link in a chain 1 0.9

m

37 r

o

The others 8 7.9

F

38 Education

39 B rain 1 0.9 A flying balloon 1 0.9 s s

l l e e i i a a t t c c

40 Ar knot 1 0.9 r Imagination 1 0.9 i i

e e s s p p y y

41 o o h h

Ar person who's patient 1 0.9 r A fat person's taking up more space 1 0.9 P P P P 42 than a thin person 43 44 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] [journal], [year], [vol], 00–00 | 12 45

46 Chemistry 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 Page 13 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice Dynamic Article Links ► Journal Name

1 2 3 Cite this: DOI: 10.1039/c0xx00000x 4 5 www.rsc.org/xxxxxx ARTICLE TYPE 6 7 occurs when the H atom binds to F, O or N atoms may stem from explain these forces 8 the fact that the prospective teachers have accepted that hydrogen 55 9 Creative comparisons including alternative conceptions about bond is an intramolecular bond. To clarify this, the prospective Manuscript 10 teachers were asked during the semi-structured interviews to the concept of hydrogen bond The prospective teachers’ creative comparisons indicated that 11 5 point out the molecules that bind together in the hydrogen bond. 12 Indeed, various studies in the literature have reported that a they had some alternative conceptions about hydrogen bonds. For 13 hydrogen bond is perceived as an intramolecular bond (Peterson 60 example, the creative comparisons of "the bond between twins" 14 et al., 1989; Peterson and Treagust, 1989; Nicoll, 2001; Ünal et (3.9%), "some kind of article that people share" (0.9%), and "a 15 al., 2002; Ünal, 2003). Possible reasons for this alternative social person" (0.9%) in the formation categories were significant 16 10 conception in the students’ minds may be that they were unable in that they uncovered the alternative conceptions that the 17 to differentiate between intramolecular and intermolecular forces, prospective teachers had. One of the statements where these 18 that their textbooks categorized intermolecular forces under the 65 creative comparisons were used was the following: 19 heading "Other Types of Bonds" and that students may have "Hydrogen bond is like the bond between twins because each Accepted 20 gotten the concepts of atom and molecule confused. wears similar things, they are the same. A hydrogen bond, as in (H ), can only occur between two identical atoms." PT-31 21 15 Similar to the creative comparisons above, there are some 2 22 unclear points in the creative comparison in the category of As can be seen from the explanation above, the prospective 23 formation that belong in the "Other" code (12.9%). These are the 70 teachers used creative comparison of the bond between twins to 24 following creative comparisons : "finding your mother from express their perception of hydrogen bond as a bond occurring 25 among the crowd," "inmates in a prison," "a child who's a picky between hydrogen atoms inside a molecule. One of the most 26 20 eater," "inventions," "chatting," "relations with friends," "an important reasons for this may have been the way the concept of hydrogen bond is expressed. Many students accept hydrogen 27 adolescent hanging out with certain people," "relations between a Practice 28 mother and her three children," "a person with a monotonous 75 bond as chemical bond because the expression contains the word 29 life," "group work with close friends," "gangs," "babies and baby- "hydrogen;" they think it is some kind of a chemical bond 30 food," "the person with the most powers in a company." One of between the atoms of hydrogen. This finding is consistent with 25 similar results obtained in the study in the literature (Ünal, 2003). 31 the statements where these creative comparisons were used was and 32 the following: Other explanations include: 33 "Hydrogen bond is like inmates in a prison because these people 80 "Hydrogen bond is like some kind of article that people share 34 communicate with a limited number of people. A hydrogen bond because a hydrogen bond is a covalent bond, and it occurs as a 35 can occur among hydrogen, F, O and N atoms, in other words, result of sharing of electrons."PT-12 The explanation of PT-12 above indicates that the prospective 36 30 among a limited number of atoms." PT-82 37 The other important findings were revealed in the strength teacher has completely misunderstood the concept of hydrogen 38 category. Particularly, the creative comparisons of "friendship" 85 bond and has qualified the hydrogen bond as a covalent bond. 39 (6.9%), "Hercules" (4.9%), "a rope" (4.9%), "steel (2.9%), and "a The findings of Unal (2003) are similar. 40 beam or column "(2.9%) stand out in the strength category. Some Besides, some prospective teachers had alternative conceptions

about strength of hydrogen bond. Examples of these explanations Research 41 35 of the expressions in which these creative comparisons were used are the following: 42 were the following: 90 "Hydrogen bond is like a thick branch because it is hard to break. 43 "Hydrogen bond is like Hercules because Hercules is a very A hydrogen bond is just like that. Hydrogen bond is stronger than 44 strong hero figure. A hydrogen bond is also much stronger than ionic and covalent bonds." PT-2 45 others.” PT-84 "Hydrogen bond is like the strongest individual in a society 46 40 "Hydrogen bond is like a rope because a rope is very strong and because the hydrogen bond is the strongest of all bonds." PT-52 47 won't break easily. A hydrogen bond is strong too and it can't be 95 "Hydrogen bond is like the roots of a tree digging into the ground 48 broken up easily." PT-55 because tree roots hang on very strongly to the earth and are 49 "Hydrogen bond is like steel because steel is very strong. very difficult to pull up. A hydrogen bond is the strongest of all 50 Hydrogen bonds are also very strong." PT-83

45 It can be clearly seen from a review of these creative bonds." PT-77 Education 51 "Hydrogen bond is like wrestlers because wrestlers are stronger 52 comparisons and explanations that the prospective teachers perceived a hydrogen bond as strong. However, while qualifying 100 than athletes in other branches of sports. A hydrogen bond too is 53 the strongest of the all bonds. PT-22 54 a hydrogen bond as strong, it is not clear how they came to this conclusion whether they believe that a hydrogen bond is the As can be seen from these explanations, the prospective 55 teachers interpreted the concept as "the hydrogen bond is the 50 strongest of the intermolecular forces or that there is a strong 56 strongest of the intermolecular forces" and qualified the hydrogen 57 intramolecular as well as intermolecular force. To clear this up, 105 bond as being even stronger that intramolecular bonds. Similar 58 the prospective teachers were asked in the interview to give examples of intra- and intermolecular forces and compare and findings have been reported in different studies in the literature 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] [journal], [year], [vol], 00–00 | 13 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 14 of 29

1 2 (Nicoll, 2001; Ünal, 2003, 2009). 60 the Van der Waals force." PT-81 3 In the category of “molecules were affected by Van der Creative comparisons including scientifically correct Waals force”, the prospective teachers explained that the Van der 4 explanations about the concept of Van der Waals force Waals force has an effect on all kinds of molecules, both polar 5 5 The prospective teachers gave scientifically correct explanations and non-polar, were the following: "blood vessels" (1.9%), 6 about Van der Waals force in four categories: "strength”, 65 "energy" (1.9%), "jealousy" (0.9%), "the ability to talk" (0.9%), 7 “formation”, “molecules were affected by Van der Waals force”, and mobile phones (0.9%). Some of the statements where these 8 and “physical properties". In the strength category, the creative creative comparisons were used were the following: 9 comparisons of "a feather" (15.8%), "a rotten rope" (9.9%), "The Van der Waals force is like blood vessels because even Manuscript 10 10 "cotton" (8.9%), " a house of cards" (6.9%), " a rotten piece of though people are very different from each other (in the context 11 wood " (5.9%), "a rotten building " (4.9%), " bones of an elderly 70 of weight, height and other factors), everybody has blood vessels. 12 person " (1.9%), and "two casual classmates" (1.9%) showed that Polar and non-polar molecules have Van der Waals force PT-4 13 the prospective teachers were able to make a correct and "The Van der Waals force is like the ability to talk because 14 scientific comparison of the Van der Waals force and other everybody has it but some don't have anything else. Some 15 15 forces. Some statements that exhibited examples of these creative decorate it with intelligence and creativity, that is, they have 16 comparisons were the following: 75 other capabilities. A similar situation exists in molecules. There 17 "The Van der Waals force is like a rotten rope because a rotten is only Van der Waals force between non-polar molecules. Polar 18 rope is very weak and can break easily. m o l e c u l e s , h o w e v e r , h a ve dipole-dipole force beside the Van der 19 The Van der Waals force is weaker compared to the other Waals force. Depending on the condition, they may also have Accepted 20 20 intermolecular forces and it is easier to break." PT-55 hydrogen bonds." PT-18 21 "The Van der Waals force is like cotton because cotton can easily 80 There are some striking creative comparisons about the Van 22 break by using only slight force. The Van der Waals force is also der Waals force that fit into the creative comparison category of 23 very easily broken because it's weak." PT-83 "physical qualities." These creative comparisons are the 24 "The Van der Waals force is like the bones of an elderly person following: "a flying balloon" (0.9%), "imagination” (0.9%), and 25 25 because the bones of an elderly person can very easily break. The "a fat person's taking up more space than a thin person" (0.9%). Van der Waals force isn't strong either, it will easily break." PT- 26 85 These creative comparisons of the prospective teachers in

27 12 particular were found to explain the effect of molecule masses on Practice 28 In addition, it was determined scientifically correct the Van der Waals force, and the effect of the Van der Waals 29 explanations in the "Other" code assigned in the strength category force on the boiling point. One of the creative comparisons in this 30 30 These creative comparisons: "travel companion," "the weakest category is the following: member of the household," "newborn babies," "pencil tip," "a 31 90 "Van der Waals forces are like the imagination because as the and 32 weak person," "a mobile phone line," "music turned down low," imagination develops, a person's brain power also grows. As the 33 "nationalism," "two friends who haven't seen each other for many Van der Waals forces increase, the boiling point of molecules will 34 years," "dough," "a distant relative," "a strand of hair," "the fans rise." PT-85 35 35 of some football teams," "schoolmates," "two rods tied together 36 with a weak string," "a family having weak relations with other 95 Creative comparisons including some unclear points about 37 relatives," "a little child who is surrounded by only adults," the concept of Van der Waals force 38 "people who are weak in their personal relations," "breaking a In the category of “molecules were affected by Van der Waals 39 piece of chalk." One of the statements where these creative force,” PT-13 used the creative comparison of "gravity." This 40 40 comparisons were used is the following: creative comparison and its explanation are presented as follows: 41 “The Van der Waals force is like the weakest member of the 100 "The Van der Waals force is like gravity because gravity is a Research 42 household because this, meaning the hydrogen bond and dipole- force affecting all objects. The Van der Waals force similarly 43 dipole force, is the weakest of the intermolecular forces.” PT-25 affects all atoms." PT-13 44 The prospective teachers explained the formation of the Van From the explanation above, it can be seen that the prospective 45 45 der Waals force in detail by using creative comparison of "the teachers perceive the Van der Waals force as a force that affects 46 feeling of liking someone momentarily" (3.9%). In this creative 105 atoms. This explanation, however, does not clearly indicate 47 comparison, it was stated that the Van der Waals force came whether what is meant is the force of attraction that holds inert 48 about when molecules or noble gases got close to each other and atoms together in a solid or liquid or the attraction between atoms 49 the symmetry of the electron cloud is distorted and momentary in non-polar and polar molecules. Indeed, various studies in the 50 50 dipoles are produced. An example of the statements related to this literature report the alternative conception that the Van der Waals 51 was the following: 110 force exists between atoms in non- polar molecules (Ünal, 2003, Education 52 “The Van der Waals force is like the feeling of liking someone 2007). To clarify this situation, the prospective teachers were 53 momentarily because a woman and a man may see each other asked about the Van der Waals force in their interviews. 54 and feel a sudden attraction between them. A similar situation 55 exists in the Van der Waals force. As molecules or noble gases Creative comparisons including alternative conceptions about 55 get close to each other, when electrons are more on one side, 115 the concept of Van der Waals force 56 momentary dipoles, in other words, + and - charges, will be The creative comparison created by the prospective teachers, and 57 produced. These momentary charges will affect the other the explanations given, showed that there were some alternative 58 molecules as well. The attraction between momentary charges is conceptions about the strength of the Van der Waals force. Some 59 60 14 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 15 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 of the examples of these explanations are the following: 60 negatively charged and the other atoms are charged positively. 3 "The Van der Waals force is like handcuffs because handcuffs The attraction between the negative side of the polar molecule can break only with difficulty. Similarly, it's very difficult to break and the positively charged part of the other molecule constitutes 4 this force." PT-22 the dipole-dipole force. Dipole-dipole force is between 5 5 "The Van der Waals force is like a magnet because force of molecules." PT-46 6 magnet is very powerful. Van der Waals is a very powerful 65 Similar to other concepts, some of the creative comparisons in 7 force." PT-31 the formation category were coded as "Other" (9.9%). The 8 As can be seen from the explanations above, the prospective creative comparisons contained in this code are the following: 9 teachers described the Van der Waals force as very powerful. The "selective force," "grounding," "tractors trying to pull each Manuscript 10 10 reason the prospective teachers had this alternative conception other," "relations between two people," "the cement between two 11 was perhaps because they had not fully understood the concept of 70 bricks," "two lovers hugging each other," "two stubborn goats 12 intermolecular attraction. In many studies in the literature, it is quarrelling," "two people who have missed each other very much 13 reported that students have a weak understanding of running to each other," "love between people of the same 14 intermolecular attraction (Treagust, 1988; Peterson et al., 1989; gender," "a charged glass rod picking up pieces of paper." One of 15 15 Peterson and Treagust, 1989; Tan and Treagust, 1999, Ünal, 2003 the statements where these creative comparisons were used was 16 2007). 75 the following: 17 Also, the prospective teachers had alternative conceptions in "Dipole-dipole force is like two stubborn goats quarrelling 18 the category of “molecules were affected by Van der Waals because goats will oppose each other but they'll still attract each 19 force.” Creative comparisons in the category of “two similar other. Dipole-dipole force too occurs between the positive and Accepted 20 20 people agreeing with each other” (1.9%), "a party that identical negative poles of neighboring polar molecules." PT-24 21 twins come to" (1.9%), are significant in that they show the 80 At the same time, some creative comparisons were used 22 alternative conceptions that the prospective teachers seem to correctly to compare the other intermolecular forces and dipole- 23 have. These statements are the following: dipole forces. These creative comparisons were: "medium-sweet 24 "The Van der Waals force is like two similar people agreeing Turkish coffee" (6.9%) and "a person of medium strength" 25 25 with each other because people who are similar attract each (6.9%). Some of the statements where these creative comparisons 26 other and agree. The Van der Waals force is the force that is 85 were used were the following:

27 created between two non-metal atoms." PT-79 "Dipole-dipole force is like medium-sweet Turkish coffee because Practice 28 This statement shows that the prospective teacher believe that medium-sweet coffee is neither sweet nor unsweetened. It's in- 29 the Van der Waals force is a force between atoms. This between. Dipole-dipole force is the same way; it's a medium- 30 30 alternative conception, as mentioned before, may derive from the strong attraction. In other words, it's weaker than a hydrogen

31 fact that the prospective teachers have not fully understood 90 bond but stronger than Van der Waals force." PT-100 and 32 intramolecular and intermolecular forces. This finding has also As in the formation category, the strength category too has 33 been reported in various studies in the literature (Ünal, 2003, creative comparisons coded as "Other." These creative 34 2007). comparisons are the following: "hairs on the body," "a sick 35 35 person," "wavy hair," "neighborly bond," "plastic," "a laundry 36 Creative comparisons including scientifically correct 95 rope," "a two-year-old child," " being second in the class," "a 37 explanations about the concept of dipole-dipole force middle-level civil servant," "being cousins," "an adolescent," 38 The creative comparisons formed by the prospective teachers, "10th wedding anniversary." Some of the statements where these 39 with respect to dipole-dipole force, fall into two categories: creative comparisons were used were the following: 40 40 “formation” and “force”. The prospective teachers produced "Dipole-dipole force is like being second in class because it's a creative comparisons including scientifically correct explanations Research 41 100 position that's between first and third. The dipole-dipole force is 42 in these categories. The creative comparisons of "a magnet" a force that is weaker than the hydrogen bond in intermolecular 43 (23.8%) in the formation category, as well as "people who are forces and it's stronger than Van der Waals force. In other words, 44 diametrically opposite to each other" (10.9%) and "lightning" it’s second in terms of force." PT-25 45 45 (2.9%) are creative comparisons that were used to describe the "Dipole-dipole force is like a neighborly bond because neighbors dipole-dipole force occurs between opposite poles of polar 46 105 form bonds too but it's not as strong as the bonds inside the 47 molecules. Some of the statements where these creative family. Because dipole-dipole force is an intermolecular bond, 48 comparisons were used were the following: it's not as strong as inside the molecule." PT-85 49 "Dipole-dipole force is like a magnet because the (+) and (-) 50 50 poles of a magnet attract each other when they are brought near Creative comparisons including some unclear points about 51 to each other. A similar situation is seen between polar 110 the concept of dipole-dipole force Education 52 molecules. Because the attraction occurs between the partial In the strength category, creative comparisons of "strong person" 53 positive side of polar molecules and partial negative side of (3.9%) and "a vacuum cleaner’s picking up dust"(2.9%) were 54 another polar molecules. This attraction is called as dipole- striking. Although the explanations for the creative comparisons 55 dipole force." PT-55 "strong person" and "a vacuum cleaner’s picking up dust" are 55 "Dipole-dipole force is like people with different strengths pulling 115 correct, the creative comparisons themselves may lead to 56 on a rope because the people on the ends of the rope with misunderstandings. For instance: 57 different strengths represent the molecules’ (+) and (-) poles. In "Dipole-dipole force is like a strong person because dipole- 58 polar molecules, the atoms that have more electronegativity are dipole force is strong force. And it is stronger than Van der 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 15 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 16 of 29

1 2 Waals force." PT-59 60 and Juliet" (0.9%) The statements containing the creative 3 "Dipole-dipole force is like a vacuum cleaner’s picking up dust comparisons were as follows: because just like the vacuum cleaner, this force is a strong force. "Dipole-dipole force is like the largest root of a tree because it is 4 When compared with Van der Waals force, dipole-dipole force is the more enduring bond compared to ionic and covalent bonds." 5 5 strong too." PT-65 PT-70 6 In both statements above, dipole-dipole force has been 65 "Dipole-dipole force is like a hurricane because it's very strong. 7 correctly expressed as being stronger than the Van der Waals This force of attraction is stronger than all the other bonds." PT- 8 force. However, when the creative comparisons are carefully 93 9 read, it can be seen that the prospective teachers have Manuscript 10 10 characterized dipole-dipole attraction as a strong force. This may 11 Results from semi-structured interviews be an indication that the prospective teachers perceived dipole- 12 dipole attraction to be a force that is stronger than intramolecular 70 Prospective chemistry teachers’ responses in each category for 13 bonds. the first interview question are shown in Table 6 14 Question 1. 15 15 Creative comparisons including alternative conceptions about I. CH3OCH3 16 the concept of dipole-dipole force II. KNO3 17 In the formation category, the creative comparison of "people of 75 III. MgCl2 18 different strengths pulling a rope" was striking since some 19 prospective teachers explained the formation of dipole-dipole What type of intramolecular forces is formed in the given Accepted 20 20 force scientifically by using this creative comparison; however, compounds? Please explain how intramolecular forces are 21 some of them interpreted it differently. For instance: formed in the compounds? 22 "Dipole-dipole force is like people with different strengths pulling 80 23 on a rope because somebody who is weak can't pull on the rope Table 6 Prospective teachers’ responses to the first interview question in 24 very much while those who are strong can pull it toward regard to level of understanding. 25 25 themselves. Similarly, dipole-dipole force occurs between atoms 26 with different electronegativity, and the atom with more

High Level Middle Level Low Level y Practice 27 electronegativity pulls electrons toward itself." PT-83 r o g

PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT

From the statements above, it can be seen that the prospective e

28 t

a

49 55 81 85 4 18 25 84 12 22 31 83

29 teachers accepted dipole-dipole force as a force between atoms. C 30 30 This belief of the prospective teachers may stem from the fact I. that they had not completely understood the concept of polar 31 SU and 32 covalent bonds. At the same time, the following creative II.

comparisons in the formation category show that the prospective 33 III √ √ 34 teachers’ conceptions are not consistent with scientific I. √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 35 35 knowledge: "two similar people attracting each other" (2.9%), "a PU 36 bag of lentils" (0.9%), "a married couple sharing a blanket" (0.9), II. √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √

37 "one nation becoming another nation's dominion" (0.9%), "two √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ balls of the same kind sticking to each other" (0.9%), "gravity" III. 38 I. √ 39 (0.9%) and "the bond between people of the same city." Some of PUAC

40 40 the statements where these creative comparisons were used were II 41 the following: Research "Dipole-dipole force is like two similar people attracting each III. 42 I. √ 43 other because people who are similar are affected by each other AC

44 and there is interaction between them. This leads to their being II. √ 45 45 together. Dipole-dipole force too occurs between non-polar √ molecules." PT-31 III. 46 I. 47 "Dipole-dipole force is like two balls of the same kind sticking to NR

48 each other because dipole-dipole force occurs between atoms and II. √ these attract each other." PT-76 49 III. 50 From the statement of prospective teacher 31, it can be seen 50 Question 1 aims to determine whether or not prospective that the prospective teacher explained dipole-dipole forces as Education 51 teachers could predict the type of intramolecular forces within 52 intermolecular forces; however, they believed that this force is 85 these compounds. In addition, this question investigates 53 effective between non-polar molecules. Another prospective teacher (PT-76) stated that dipole-dipole force is an interaction prospective teachers’ ideas about how covalent and ionic bonds 54 are formed. 55 between the atoms in a molecule. 55 At the same time, it was determined creative comparisons As can be seen Table 6, none of prospective teachers’ 56 including alternative conceptions in the strength category. These responses about intramolecular forces in dimethyl ether were 57 creative comparisons: "the largest root of a tree" (0.9%), "a 90 classified in the category of sound understanding. Mostly, 58 hurricane" (0.9%), "a stone" (0.9%), "the love between Romeo prospective teachers explained that covalent bond is formed by 59 60 16 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 17 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 sharing of pairs of electrons between the atoms (C-H, C-O) examine atoms one by one, bonds between carbon and hydrogen 3 within dimethyl ether, however, they couldn’t explain that 60 atoms are covalent bonds. Similarly, bonds between carbon and covalent bond is the attraction of bonding electrons by the nuclei oxygen atoms are covalent bonds. 4 of covalently bonded atoms. As a result of this, most of the Researcher: How is a covalent bond formed between the carbon- 5 5 prospective teachers’ answers were classified in the category of in hydrogen and carbon-oxygen in dimethyl ether? 6 partial understanding. This result was not surprising because PT 22: Carbon, and Oxygen atoms want to complete their octet 7 prospective teachers’ creative comparisons about covalent bond 65 Also, hydrogen wants to complete its doublet. For this reason, 8 did not state that a covalent bond was the attraction of the they share electrons to complete their octet and doublet. Thus, a 9 bonding electrons by the nuclei of atoms. For example, PT 55 as covalent bond is formed. A covalent bond is a pair of shared Manuscript 10 10 a high level prospective teacher just explained sharing of electrons. 11 electrons in covalent bond in her “marriage” creative comparison. Researcher: Could you show me the covalent bonds in dimethyl 12 A similar result was observed in the interview with her. A sample 70 ether? And could you explain in more detail the formation of 13 quotation of the prospective teacher’s responses in the interview covalent bonds? 14 is as follows: PT 22: Yes. Carbon-hydrogen and carbon-oxygen bonds are 15 15 covalent bonds because these bonds are single bonds. For 16 PT 55: Covalent bonds are formed between carbon-hydrogen and example, carbon-hydrogen atoms share a pair of electrons to 17 carbon-oxygen. 75 complete their octet. So, a pair of shared electrons forms a single 18 Researcher: How is a covalent bond formed between the carbon- bond. This single bond is covalent bond. 19 hydrogen and carbon-oxygen in dimethyl ether? From the prospective teacher’s explanations, it was seen that Accepted 20 20 PT 55: Carbon and hydrogen atoms share their single electrons to prospective teacher could not understand exactly the nature of 21 have more stable configuration. As a result, they have full outer covalent bond and was not aware of nucleus–electron 22 shell and obtain octet and doublet structures. Carbon obtains octet 80 interactions. One of the reasons for this may be the line-bond 23 structure, hydrogen obtains doublet structures. structures of the compounds. In the line-bond structures, a single 24 Researcher: Okay. When carbon-hydrogen and carbon-oxygen covalent bond is where one pair of shared electrons is represented 25 25 atoms share their single electrons, how is a covalent bond by a line drawn between atoms. In addition, Boo (2000) stated 26 formed? Could you explain your answer? that some statements found in textbooks such as “one pair of

27 PT 55: These atoms are non-metals. They want to have a more 85 shared electrons constitute a single covalent,” and “two pairs of Practice 28 stable configuration. For this reason, they share their single shared electrons constitute a double bond” may cause students to 29 electrons with each other. Consequently, these atoms bond consider the sharing of electrons as the ‘force’ instead of 30 30 together with covalent bond. nucleus–electron interactions

31 Researcher: Okay. Is there any force to hold atoms together? A different result was revealed from PT 83’s creative and 32 PT 55: I do not know. 90 comparison and interview as a low level prospective teacher. The 33 These responses showed that the prospective teachers preferred prospective teacher emphasized sharing of electrons in the 34 to explain the formation of covalent bonds using octet rule. covalent bond by using “a common eraser” as a creative 35 35 Interestingly, the prospective teacher could not associate covalent comparison. On the other hand, the same prospective teacher 36 bond with the electrostatic force between the nucleus and shared confused inter- and intramolecular forces in the interview. This 37 electrons of the two atoms. At the same time, some studies 95 result indicated that the prospective teachers knew the meaning of 38 indicated that students tended to retain and use the octet rule even covalent bond but was not able to apply this knowledge on the 39 after they had studied bond energies and thermodynamic compounds. Her responses to the interview are as follows: 40 40 considerations on more advanced courses (Taber 2002). Wang PT 83: Firstly, there is Van der Waals force in the molecule. 41 and Barrow (2013) stated that once the octet rule is perceived by Hydrogen bond does not occur in this molecule because this Research 42 a student as the main explanation for why atoms share or transfer 100 compound does not have Hydrogen atom attached to Oxygen 43 electrons to form chemical bonds, it is difficult for students atom. For this reason, only Van der Waals force occurs. 44 reconcile it with later learned scientific explanations. Researcher: Do you mean that Van der Waals force is 45 45 Another important finding belongs to PT 22 as a low level intramolecular force? 46 prospective teacher. The prospective teacher produced PT 83: Yes. 47 “roommate” creative comparison to explain the formation of 105 Researcher: Okay. How is Van der Waals force formed in 48 covalent bond. In this creative comparison, the prospective dimethyl ether? 49 teacher accepted that a covalent bond resulted from the sharing of PT 83: This molecule is non-polar. In other words, Dipole 50 50 electrons. In addition, findings from the interview indicated that moment is zero for this molecule. As a result, only Van der Waals 51 the prospective teacher could not explain covalent bond by the force is formed. Education 52 nucleus–electron interactions and he described the covalent bond 110 Researcher: How do you understand that dipole moment is zero 53 as a pair of shared electrons. For this reason, the prospective for this molecule? Could you show this? 54 teacher’s answers were classified in the category of partial PT 83: Two methyl groups are attached to Oxygen atom in the 55 55 understanding with an alternative conception. A sample quotation molecule. So, direction of dipole moment points toward a carbon 56 of the prospective teacher’s responses in the interview is as atom and the net dipole moment is zero. For this reason, dimethyl 57 follows: 115 ether is non-polar. 58 PT 22: All atoms in the dimethyl ether are non-metals. If we 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 17 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 18 of 29

1 2 occur. These ions are oppositely charged. So, electrostatic 3 60 attraction was formed between these oppositely charged ions. This attraction is ionic bond. 4 Researcher: Is there only ionic bond in potassium nitrate? 5 5 PT85: No. Covalent bond is formed between Nitrogen and 6 Oxygen atoms in Nitrate ion. 7 Fig. 1 PT 83’s drawing of dimethyl ether 65 Researcher: How is covalent bond formed in Nitrate ion? 8 These answers indicated that PT 83 had difficulties in PT85: Nitrogen and Oxygen atoms share their electrons with 9 determining the polarity of the molecule. Thus, she did not each other to complete their octets. Consequently, covalent bond Manuscript 10 10 consider electronegativity of atoms, and drew incorrectly the is formed. 11 direction of dipole moment. As a result, she accepted dimethyl As another example, PT 25, who was one of the middle level 12 ether as a non-polar molecule. Also, she held an alternative 70 prospective teachers, produced “love” and “a country and its 13 conception, thinking that Van der Waals force is an people” creative comparisonsfor ionic and covalent bonds. The 14 intramolecular force. Linguistic similarity of the terms prospective teacher’s creative comparisons revealed that she 15 15 (intermolecular and intramolecular forces) may be cause this could not understand exactly electrostatic nature of ionic and 16 alternative conception (Ünal, et al, 2006) covalent bonds, which was consistent with her expressions during 17 Similar to dimethyl ether, the prospective teachers did not give 75 the interviews. A sample quotation of the PT25’s responses in the 18 responses that fell within the “sound understanding category” to interview is as follows: 19 explain intramolecular forces in potassium nitrate. The PT 25: Ionic bond. Accepted 20 20 prospective teachers’ responses usually fell into the partial Researcher: How is ionic bond formed in potassium nitrate? 21 understanding. In this category, a larger proportion of the PT 25: Potassium and nitrate ions are oppositely charged. 22 prospective teachers only emphasized that an ionic bond was 80 Potassium ion is positive, nitrate ion is negative. Ionic bond is 23 formed as a result of electron transfer in potassium nitrate. While formed between potassium and nitrate ions. 24 the prospective teachers stated that potassium and nitrate ions Researcher: You said that ionic bond is formed between 25 25 occurred through electron transfer, they did not mention an potassium and nitrate ions. So, how are potassium and nitrate ions 26 electrostatic attraction between these positively charged and formed?

27 negatively charged ions. In addition, the prospective teachers 85 PT 25: With the electron transfer. One electron is transferred Practice 28 could not explain covalent bonds in nitrate ion. Only, two from the potassium to the nitrate group. As a result, potassium 29 prospective teachers (PT 81 and PT 85) explained that both ionic cation and nitrate anion occurs. This causes the formation of ionic 30 30 and covalent bonds occurred in potassium nitrate. Also, these bond.

31 prospective teachers expressed that electrostatic attraction existed Researcher: Is there another intramolecular force in potassium and 32 between potassium and nitrate ions. On the other hand, they could 90 nitrate? 33 not give satisfactory explanations about the formation of covalent PT 25: No. 34 bonds in nitrate ion. This result showed that the prospective As seen in Table 6, one prospective teacher’s (PT 83) 35 35 teachers believed that ionic bonds were electrostatic in nature not responded in the category of alternative conceptions for this 36 the covalent bond. Boo (2000) reported that the textbooks merely interview question. PT 83 used “trading” as a creative 37 mentioned that covalent bond is electrostatic in nature, as a result 95 comparison to explain electron transfer in ionic bond. But, she 38 of this, many students believed that only an ionic bond is explained the bond between potassium and nitrate ions as dipole- 39 electrostatic in nature. Besides, when the prospective teachers’ dipole attractions in the interview. Her responses to the interview 40 40 creative comparisons were analyzed, it was seen clearly that the are as follows: 41 prospective teachers did not produce any creative comparisons to PT 83: Dipole- dipole attractions. Research 42 explain nucleus–electron interactions in the formation of covalent 100 Researcher: How are dipole–dipole attractions formed in 43 bonds. However, they produced creative comparisons such as potassium nitrate? 44 “magnet” and “women-men” to explain electrostatic attraction in PT 83: Nitrate ion is negative, potassium ion is positive. As a 45 45 the formation of ionic bonds. For example, PT 85, as a high level result of attraction between the oppositely charged ions, dipole – 46 prospective teacher, explained an electrostatic attraction between dipole attractions occurs. 47 the oppositely charged ions in ionic bonds by using “magnet” 105 Researcher: Could you draw the dipole – dipole attractions in 48 creative comparison. The same prospective teacher only potassium nitrate? 49 mentioned sharing of electrons for covalent bonds through “joint PT 83: It should be like this. 50 50 stock company” creative comparison. A sample quotation of the 51 PT85’s responses in the interview is as follows: Education 52 Researcher: What type of intramolecular forces is formed in 110 53 potassium nitrate? Fig. 2 PT 83’s drawing of potassium nitrate 54 PT 85: Ionic bond is formed between Potassium and Nitrate 55 55 ions. Table 6 shows that most of the prospective teacher gave 56 Researcher: How is ionic bond formed between Potassium and responses in the category of partial understanding to explain 57 Nitrate ions? 115 intramolecular forces in Magnesium chloride. Similar to 58 PT 85: As a result of electron transfer, Potassium and Nitrate ions potassium nitrate, only two prospective teachers (PT 81 and PT 59 60 18 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 19 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 85) stated that ionic bond in Magnesium chloride was formed by compounds? Please explain how intermolecular forces are 3 the means of the attraction due to the opposite charge. This result 60 formed in the compounds? was identified in their creative comparisons about ionic bonds. 4 Table 7 Prospective teachers’ responses to the second interview question Similar to PT 85, PT 81 explained electrostatic attraction between 5 in regard to level of understanding. 5 oppositely charged ions in the formation of ionic bond by using 6

“men and women” creative comparison. Thus, the findings from y High Level Middle Level Low Level r

7 o

the interview supported this creative comparison. PT 81’s g

e PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT 8 t explanations in the interview are as follows: a 49 55 81 85 4 18 25 84 12 22 31 83 9 C Researcher: What type of intramolecular forces is formed in Manuscript 10 I. √ 10 Magnesium chloride? 11 SU II. √ PT 81: It is ionic bond. 12 Researcher: Could you explain this in more detail? III. √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 13 PT 81: Ionic bond is formed between the magnesium and I. √ √ √ √ √ √ 14 chloride ions in MgCl2. Magnesium atom transfers two electrons PU II. √ √ √ √ √ √ √ 15 15 to chlorine atoms. Consequently, oppositely charged ions occur. III. 16 As a result of the electrostatic force of attraction between the I. 17 oppositely charged ions, ionic bond occurs. √ 18 PUAC From Table 6, it was understood that prospective teachers II 19 from high level to low level mostly gave responses into partial √ √ Accepted 20 III. 20 understanding. In these responses, the prospective teachers I. √ √ √ 21 AC explained ionic bond based on transfer of electrons, however, √ √ 22 II. they did not mention the attractions of the ions. For instance, PT √ 23 49, who is one of the high level prospective teachers, produced “a III. 24 friendship between a miser and a generous person” creative I. √ NR 25 25 comparison for an ionic bond. From this creative comparison, it √ √ II. 26 was understood that this prospective teacher explained the √ III. 27 formation of ionic bond by considering the transfer of electrons. Practice

28 A similar result was identified in the interview. His responses to Question 2 was prepared to reveal prospective teachers’ 29 the interview are as follows 65 understanding regarding intermolecular forces. It was seen from 30 30 PT 49: Ionic bond occurs. Table 7 that the more prospective teachers in high and middle 31 Researcher: How do you understand the formation of ionic bond? and level gave responses into the category of sound understanding 32 PT 49: I understand because magnesium is a metal, chloride is a comparing question 1. On the other hand, only one prospective 33 non-metal. This means that magnesium loses two electrons as a teacher’s (PT 81) responses about 1,2-ethanediol were classified 34 result, cation occurs. Chlorine atoms each gain an electron. In this 70 in the category of sound understanding. PT 81 explained 35 35 way, anions occur. This causes the formation of ionic bond. hydrogen bonds in the compound considering nonbonding 36 One prospective teacher (PT 83) gave responses with an electron pairs. She stated that hydrogen bond is an attraction 37 alternative conception in this question. This prospective teacher between a hydrogen atom bonded to strong electronegative atoms 38 explained dipole–dipole attractions between magnesium and such as F, O, and N and nonbonding electron pairs on other 39 chlorine atoms like potassium nitrate. Her responses are as 75 electronegative atom. Actually, when her creative comparison 40 40 follows:

about hydrogen bond (a cell membrane) was analyzed, it was Research 41 PT 83: Dipole- dipole attractions occurs. revealed that she understood that some conditions were necessary 42 Researcher: How are dipole–dipole attractions formed in for hydrogen bond to occur. However, it was not clear which 43 magnesium chloride? conditions were necessary in this creative comparison. This 44 PT 83: Magnesium ion is positive, chlorine ion is negative. 80 uncertainty was removed with the interview. A sample quotation 45 45 Attraction between the oppositely charged ions causes dipole – of the PT 81’s responses in the interview is as follows: 46 dipole. PT 81: Firstly, I should write another molecule next to this 47 molecule to show intermolecular forces between them. This 48 molecule is a polar molecule. Indeed, there are dipole-dipole and 49 85 van der Waals forces between molecules. However, hydrogen 50 50

bonds are more effective than the others. Education 51 Fig. 3 PT 83’s drawing of magnesium chloride Researcher: Could you show hydrogen bonds in these molecules. 52 PT 81: OK. Hydrogen bond occurs between Oxygen atom and Question 2. 53 Hydrogen atom in the other molecules. 54 I. C2H4 (OH)2 90 Researcher: Well, Could you explain the formation of hydrogen 55 II. CH4 55 bonds in more detail? III. HCl 56 PT 81: Well, Hydrogen bonds do not occur with every atom.

57 Some atoms are able to form Hydrogen bonds, such as Fluorine, What types of intermolecular forces are formed in the given 58 Oxygen and Nitrogen, since these atoms have high 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 19 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 20 of 29

1 2 electronegative and nonbonding electron pairs. Firstly, in the could occur between partial positively hydrogen atom and partial 3 compound, a hydrogen atom should bond to these electronegative 60 negatively oxygen atom. However, he accepted hydrogen bonds atoms such as Fluorine, Oxygen and Nitrogen. As a result of this, as intramolecular forces. This situation is not surprising since 4 Hydrogen is positively polarized. The attraction occurs between similar an alternative conception was identified in some studies 5 5 nonbonding electron pairs of electronegative atom and positively (Peterson et all, 1989; Peterson and Treagust, 1989; Tan and 6 polarized hydrogen atom of the other molecule. This is a Treagust, 1999; Nicoll, 2001). Thus, Taber (2011) stated that the 7 hydrogen bond. 65 students commonly supposed hydrogen bonds as intramolecular 8 When another high level prospective teacher’s (PT 49) creative forces since the attraction between a partial positively hydrogen 9 comparison about hydrogen bonds (selective person) were atom and partial negatively atom on another molecule does not fit Manuscript 10 10 analyzed, there was some uncertainty in this creative comparison, their notion of a bond. Besides, it was not concluded whether PT 11 like PT81. In this creative comparison, he explained clearly 84 could understand the formation of hydrogen bond or not, since 12 which atoms could form hydrogen bond, but it was not clear 70 his creative comparison (Hercules) was related to strength of 13 whether he accepted hydrogen bond as intermolecular forces. The hydrogen bond. A sample quotation of the PT 84’s responses in 14 findings from the interview removed this uncertainty. In the the interview is as follows: 15 15 interview, he showed correctly hydrogen bonds as intermolecular PT 84: In this compound, hydrogen bonds occur between 16 forces, but he did not mention the effects of nonbonding electron hydrogen and oxygen. 17 pairs of an electronegative atom. For this reason, his answers 75 Researcher: Could you show hydrogen bonds in the compounds 18 were classified as partial understanding. Also, some studies PT 84: Okay. This 19 reveal that students rely on rote memorization to tell them which Accepted 20 20 elements could be involved in a hydrogen bond. As a result of 21 this, they are not able to fully reason through it, such as 22 nonbonding electron pairs of electronegative atom (Henderleiter, 80 23 Smart, Anderson and Elian, 2001). PT 49’s explanation in the 24 interview is below: 25 25 Fig. 4 PT 84’s drawing of 1,2-ethanediol 26 PT 49: This compound is polar. Therefore, there are dipole- Researcher: How does hydrogen bond form in this compound?

27 dipole forces in this compound. Also, Van der Waals forces 85 PT 84: Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen. While, Practice 28 occur in the compound since all compounds have Van der Waals oxygen is partial negatively charged, hydrogen is partial 29 forces. At the same time, a hydrogen atom bonded to oxygen. positively charged. This causes the formation of hydrogen bonds. 30 30 For this reason, this hydrogen atom forms a hydrogen bond with Particularly, when low level prospective teachers’ creative

31 an oxygen atom of the other compound. comparisons related to hydrogen bonds were analyzed, it was and 32 Researcher: Could you show hydrogen bond in the compound? 90 understood that they had difficulties in understanding the 33 And could you explain how hydrogen bond is formed in more formation or strength of hydrogen bonds. For example, PT12 34 detail? explained hydrogen bond as a covalent bond in her creative 35 35 PT 49: Yes. This attraction between hydrogen and oxygen is comparison (some kind of article that people share). Another 36 called hydrogen bond; because, a hydrogen atom bonded to prospective teacher (PT31) stated hydrogen bond as non-polar 37 oxygen. Oxygen is more electronegative than hydrogen. So, 95 covalent bond by using “the bond between twins” creative 38 hydrogen is positively polarized. Similarly, there is an oxygen comparison. Thus, similar results were identified in the interview. 39 atom on the neighbour compound. Therefore, this oxygen atom is For PT 22 and PT83, it could not be decided their level of 40 40 negatively polarized. This situation causes an attraction between understanding about formation of hydrogen bond, as they formed 41 oxygen and hydrogen atoms. This is hydrogen bond. creative comparisons about the strength of hydrogen bond Research 42 Table 7 indicates that most of the middle level prospective 100 (respectively, wrestlers and steel). PT 12’s explanations in the 43 teachers (PT4, 18, and 25) gave responses of partial interview are below: 44 understanding regarding intermolecular forces in 1, 2-ethanediol. PT 12: I think there are a lot of hydrogen bonds in this 45 45 Similar to high level prospective teachers, these prospective compound. 46 teachers did not consider nonbonding electron pairs of Researcher: How do you understand hydrogen bonds in this 47 electronegative atom in the formation of hydrogen bond. At the 105 compound? 48 same time, all of these prospective teachers formed creative PT 12: The bond between Carbon and Hydrogen is hydrogen 49 comparisons related to hydrogen bond in the category of bond. 50 50 formation (respectively, an obsessed person, enzyme-substrate Researcher: Could you explain the formation of hydrogen bond 51 relationship, and a family). Although, in these creative in detail? Education 52 comparisons, it was determined that these prospective teachers 110 PT 12: The hydrogen bond occurs a result of sharing electrons 53 were aware of some conditions needed for formation of hydrogen because hydrogen bond is also covalent bond. 54 bond, they did not give any explanations about nonbonding Researcher: Do you mean that carbon and hydrogen share 55 55 electron pairs of electronegative atom. The similar result was electrons with each other to form hydrogen bond? 56 identified in the interview. PT 12: Yes. 57 Another middle level prospective teacher’s (PT 84) responses 115 Researcher: Could you show hydrogen bonds in the compound? 58 in the interview showed that he understood that hydrogen bonds PT 12: Yes. 59 60 20 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 21 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 partial understanding. Similar to high level prospective teachers, 3 60 they stated correctly that methane is a non-polar compound, but they did not mention the formation of Van der Waals forces. This 4 situation was not surprising since they did not form creative 5 5 comparisonsin to category of formation of Van der Waals forces. 6 PT 4, 18 and 84 stated that Van der Waals forces were effective 7 Fig. 5 PT 12’s drawing of 1,2-ethanediol 65 in all compound through “blood vessels, “ability to talk” and 8 Researcher: Does hydrogen bond occur only between carbon and “mobile phone” creative comparisons. PT 25 compared correctly 9 hydrogen atoms? the strength of Van der Waals, dipole-dipole and hydrogen bond Manuscript 10 10 PT 12: Yes with “weakest member of the household” creative comparison. 11 PT 25’s explanations in the interview are below: 12 From Table 7, it was seen that only one prospective teacher 70 PT 25: When I see methane, I can say that methane has 13 (PT 81) gave responses regarding second compound (methane) a tetrahedral shape, As a result of this, methane is non-polar. In 14 into sound understanding category. Also, this prospective teacher this compound, hydrogen bond does not occur because of the 15 15 stated clearly the formation of Van der Waals force with “the non-polar compound. Similarly, dipole-dipole force does not 16 feeling of liking someone momentarily” creative comparison. form. Only, Van der Waals forces are effective in this compound. 17 The results of interview were similar to her explanation in this 75 Researcher: Why? 18 creative comparison. A sample quotation of the PT 81’s PT 25: Because all compounds have Van der Waals forces. 19 responses in the interview is as follows: Researcher: How do Van der Waals forces form in the Accepted 20 20 PT 81: Methane is non-polar molecule. For this reason, only, Van compound? 21 der Waals force is effective. PT 25: I know that when the compounds get close to each other, 22 Researcher: Okay. How do Van der Waals forces form in the 80 this force occurs. But I do not know in detail. 23 compound? 24 PT 81: This compound is non-polar, but momentary dipoles An important result identified in this question belonged to PT 25 25 occur. When two non-polar molecules get close to each other, 12 as one of the low level prospective teachers. PT 12 stated the 26 electron clouds repulse each other. As a result of this, momentary strength of Van der Waals forces with “bones of an elderly

27 dipoles form. Namely, one side of molecule is positive, other side 85 person” creative comparison, but she described the bond between Practice 28 is negative. These momentary dipoles affect the other molecule, carbon and hydrogen as a hydrogen bond like 1, 2-ethanediol in 29 and the attraction forms between the molecules. the interview. She did not express the existence of Van der Waals 30 30 Although other high level prospective teachers stated that forces in this compound. Similarly, PT 83 explained correctly the

31 methane was non-polar molecule, and Van der Waals forces were strength of Van der Waals forces by using “cotton” creative and 32 effective in this compound, they did not explain how Van der 90 comparison. On the other hand, she did not express the existence 33 Waals force formed. Primarily, these prospective teachers did not of intermolecular forces in this compound in the interview. As for 34 form any creative comparisons to explain the formation of Van the other low level prospective teachers (PT 22, and PT 31), it 35 35 der Waals. They produced creative comparisons considering the was revealed that they had alternative conceptions about the 36 strength of Van der Waals, and physical properties. For example, strength of Van der Waals forces in their creative comparisons 37 PT 49 and PT 85 explained the effects of Van der Waals forces 95 (respectively, “handcuffs”, “magnet”). At the same time, results 38 on the boiling points by using “flying balloon” and “imagination” of interview pointed out that they had difficulties in 39 creative comparisons. PT 55 formed “rotten rope” creative understanding the identification and formation of intermolecular 40 40 comparisonto compare the strength of Van der Waals forces. One forces. In the light of these results, it can be seen that these 41 of these prospective teachers’ (PT 85) explanations in the prospective teachers’ levels of understanding about the strength Research 42 interview is below: 100 of Van der Waals forces were particularly good, but their levels 43 PT 85: If we examine this compound, we can say that the bond of understanding about formation and identification of 44 between carbon and hydrogen is polar covalent, but the intermolecular forces were not satisfactory. One of these 45 45 compound is a non-polar molecule. Therefore, we do not mention prospective teachers’ (PT 31) explanations in the interview are 46 that dipole-dipole force is effective in this compound. There are below: 47 only Van der Waals forces. 105 PT 31: Covalent bonds. 48 Researcher: How do Van der Waals forces form in the Researcher: Do you mean that covalent bonds are intermolecular 49 compound? forces? 50 50 PT 85: The attractions occur between non-polar molecules. Also, PT 31: Yes. That’s what I mean. 51 polar molecules have Van der Waals forces. In other words, Van Researcher: How do covalent bonds form between the Education 52 der Waals forces form in all molecules. 110 compounds? 53 Researcher: Okay. Could you explain the formation of Van der PT 31: These bonds occur as a result of sharing electrons. 54 Waals forces? Namely, C and H atoms share electrons and covalent bond 55 55 PT 85: I think positive and negative charges cause this attraction. occurs. 56 But I am not sure. Researcher: Could you show these bonds in the compound? 57 Table 7 showed that all of the middle level prospective 115 PT 31: Okay. 58 teachers’ responses about second compound were classified into 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 21 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 22 of 29

1 2 alternative conceptions. These results were similar to their 3 60 creative comparison about dipole-dipole forces. PT 83 formed “people with different strengths pulling on a rope” creative 4 comparisonto explain dipole-dipole forces, but she stated dipole- 5 5 Fig.6 PT 31’s drawing of methane dipole forces as intramolecular forces. At the same time, the same 6 prospective teacher explained ionic bond as dipole-dipole forces 7 As can be seen from Table7, all of the high level prospective 65 in the interview. These results indicated that PT 83 had 8 teachers’ responses regarding the third compound fell into the difficulties in understanding intra and intermolecular forces. A 9 sound understanding category. Similar results were identified in sample quotation of PT 83’s responses in the interview is as Manuscript 10 10 their creative comparisons about dipole-dipole attractions. follows: 11 Particularly, PT 55, and PT 81 clarified the formation of dipole- PT 83: In this compound, while hydrogen has a positive charge, 12 dipole attractions by producing the same creative comparison 70 chlorine has a negative charge. So, attraction between the 13 (“magnet”). A sample quotation of the PT 55’s responses in the oppositely charged ions causes dipole – dipole forces. 14 interview is as follows: Researcher: Could you show dipole – dipole forces in the 15 15 PT 55: Firstly, this compound is a polar compound. In other compound? 16 words, the chlorine atom attains partial negative charge character; PT 83: I can show it like this. 17 hydrogen atom attains partial positive charge. Similarly, another 75 18 compound has partial positive and negative charge characters. As 19 a result, the attractions occur between these compounds. These Accepted 20 20 attractions are called as dipole-dipole. Fig.7 PT 83’s drawing of hydrogen chloride 21 The other high level prospective teachers (PT 49, and PT85) Similar to PT 83, PT 12 explained dipole–dipole forces as 22 formed creative comparisons about the strength of dipole-dipole 80 intramolecular forces. Thus, her creative comparisonabout 23 attraction (respectively, a person of medium strength, neighborly dipole–dipole forces (people with different strengths pulling on a 24 bond) however, they could explain exactly the formation of rope) revealed that she accepted dipole-dipole force as a force 25 25 dipole-dipole attractions in the interview. One of these between atoms. Also, she was trying to explain bond polarity as 26 prospective teachers (PT 49) explanations from the interview are dipole-dipole force.

27 below: 85 Practice 28 PT 49: In this compound, dipole-dipole attractions are effective. Question 3. 29 Researcher: How do you understand that dipole-dipole Could you compare the strength of ionic bond, covalent bond, 30 30 attractions are effective in the compound? Van der Waals forces, dipole- dipole forces and hydrogen bond?

31 PT 49: Because it is a polar compound. A chlorine atom is more Please explain your answer. and 32 electronegative than a hydrogen atom. So, a chlorine atom has a 90 Question 3 was designed to reveal whether the prospective 33 negative charge and a hydrogen atom has positive charge. When teachers compared correctly the strength of inter- and 34 two compounds get closer to each other, the attraction occurs intramolecular forces or not. 35 35 between negative and positive charges. Also, Van der Waals Table 8 Prospective teachers’ responses to the third interview question in 36 forces occur between these compounds. regard to level of understanding.

37 All of the middle level prospective teachers were able to give y

r High Level Middle Level Low Level

38 responses into sound understanding only in this question. Indeed, o g e 39 their creative comparisons about dipole-dipole forces revealed t PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT a

C 49 55 81 85 4 18 25 84 12 22 31 83

40 40 that most of them could explain exactly the formation of dipole-

41 dipole forces. Only PT 25 formed a creative comparison (being SU √ √ √ Research 42 second in class) about the strength of dipole-dipole force. The PU √ √ √ 43 other prospective teachers’ (PT4, PT 18, and PT 84) creative PUAC √ √ √ 44 comparisons were related to the formation of dipole-dipole forces AC 45 45 (respectively, people who are diametrically opposite to each √ √ √ 46 other, magnet). The findings from interview supported their NR 47 creative comparisons. One of these prospective teachers’ (PT 25) 95 Table 8 indicated that most of the responses grouped under the explanations in the interview is below: 48 sound understanding belonged to high level prospective teachers. PT 25: In this compound, the side of hydrogen is positive; the 49 In this category, the prospective teachers determined the inter- 50 side of chloride is negative since chloride is more electronegative 50 and intramolecular forces and also, compared correctly the than hydrogen. Namely, there is polarization in this compound. Education 51 strength of them. In addition, when these prospective teachers’ 52 Similar polarization occurs in other molecules. In this way, two 100 creative comparisons were analyzed, it was shown that the compounds attract each other. The name of this attraction is 53 creative comparisons used included correct explanations about dipole-dipole. 54 the strength of inter- and intramolecular forces. For example, PT 55 From Table 7, it was seen that none of the low level 55 49 compared correctly the dipole-dipole and Van der Waals prospective teachers’ responses fell within the sound 56 forces by using “a person of medium strength” creative understanding category. Only two prospective teachers (PT 83, 57 105 comparison. Moreover, his responses in the interview supported and PT12) could give responses with partial understanding with 58 this conclusion. A sample quotation of PT 49’s responses in the 59 60 22 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 23 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 interview is as follows: ionic bond, “the weakest member of the household” creative 3 PT 49: Among the intermolecular forces, hydrogen bonds are the 60 comparison for Van der Waals force, and “being second in class” strongest. In other words, hydrogen bond is stronger than dipole- for dipole-dipole force. Particularly, from “the weakest member 4 dipole. Also, Van der Waals forces are weak compared to dipole- of the household” and “being second in class” creative 5 5 dipole forces because Van der Waals forces occur as a result of comparisons, it was understood that PT 25 compared correctly 6 temporary fluctuating dipoles. When ionic and covalent bonds as the strength of intermolecular forces. In addition, she stated ionic 7 intramolecular forces were compared, an ionic bond is stronger 65 bonds as a strong attraction in the “love” creative comparison, 8 than a covalent bond. This is because electrostatic attraction but, she could not compare the strength of ionic bond with the 9 between opposite charges in ionic bonds is more effective than other forces. Similar result was determined in the interview of PT Manuscript 10 10 the covalent bond. 25. Her responses to the interview are as follows: 11 Researcher: If you compare all of them, how do you put them in PT 25: Ionic and covalent bonds are generally stronger than the 12 order in the context of strength? 70 others since they are intramolecular forces. Among the 13 PT 49: Ionic bond is the strongest. The second is covalent bond. intermolecular forces, Van der Waals forces are the weakest. 14 Ionic and covalent bonds are intramolecular forces. Dipole-dipole is stronger than Van der Waals, however, hydrogen 15 15 Intramolecular forces are stronger than the intermolecular forces. bond is the strongest of intermolecular forces. On the other hand, 16 Third is hydrogen bond since it is intermolecular force. I do not know the differences of strength of ionic and covalent 17 Afterwards, dipole- dipole and Van der Waals forces. 75 bonds. I am confused about this topic. 18 An important result was determined from the interview Another important finding belongs to PT 84. The prospective 19 conducted with PT 55. PT 55 used “rope” creative comparisonto teacher usually produced creative comparisons taking the Accepted 20 20 explain the strength of hydrogen bond. It was not understood formation of intra-and intermolecular forces into consideration. 21 clearly, however, how the prospective teacher compared the For example, “magnet” for ionic bond, “sharing money” for 22 strength of hydrogen bond in this explanation. The same 80 covalent bond, “an asocial person” for non-polar covalent bond, 23 prospective teacher compared correctly the strength of Van de and “magnet” for dipole-dipole are creative comparisons 24 Waals force and the other intermolecular forces by using “rotten produced by PT 84 in the category of formation. The same 25 25 rope” creative comparisonThe result of the interview indicated prospective teacher produced “mobile phone” creative 26 that the prospective teacher identified correctly intra- and comparison about Van der Waals forces. In this creative

27 intermolecular forces, compared correctly the strength of Van de 85 comparison, he explained that the molecules were affected by Practice 28 Waals force and the other intermolecular forces, but believed that Van der Waals forces. For hydrogen bond, he produced 29 hydrogen bond was stronger than intramolecular forces. Some "Hercules” creative comparison, and he accepted a hydrogen 30 30 studies stated that over-emphasis of the strength of hydrogen bond as a strong bond. On the other hand, it was not clear how he

31 bond was one of the reasons for this alternative conception compared the strength of hydrogen bond. Thus, the findings from and 32 (Peterson and Treagust, 1989; Tan and Treagust, 1999). A similar 90 the interview showed that the PT 84 believed that a hydrogen 33 finding was revealed in the interview of PT 55. A sample bond is the strongest of the intra-and intermolecular forces. His 34 quotation of PT 55’s responses in the interview is as follows: responses to the interview are given below: 35 35 PT 55: The strongest are hydrogen bonds. PT 84: Hydrogen bonds are the strongest. After hydrogen bonds, 36 Researcher: Could you explain this in more detail? ionic bonds and dipole-dipole forces are the next strongest. After 37 PT 55: Hydrogen bonds are stronger than others. As a result of 95 the dipole-dipole forces, covalent bonds and Van der Waals 38 this, a substance with hydrogen bonds will have higher boiling forces. 39 point. Researcher: Why? Could you explain this? 40 40 Researcher: What do you think about the others? PT 84: Ionic bonds and dipole-dipole forces are based on 41 PT 55: Ionic bonds are stronger than covalent bonds because attraction between opposite poles. For this reason, ionic bonds Research 42 electrostatic attraction is more effective in the formation of ionic 100 and dipole-dipole forces are stronger than covalent bonds and 43 bonds. Van der Waals forces and dipole- dipole forces are weaker Van der Waals forces. On the other hand, this attraction between 44 than ionic and covalent since these forces are intermolecular opposite poles in ionic bond is more effective than dipole-dipole 45 45 forces. If we compare the strength of Van der Waals and dipole- forces. If we examine hydrogen bonds, hydrogen bonds are the 46 dipole forces, Van der Waals is weaker than the and dipole-dipole strongest of all them because it is very difficult to break hydrogen 47 forces. 105 bond. Van der Waals forces are very weak. As a result of this, 48 Researcher: Consequently, how do you put them in order in the Van der Waals forces break very easily. 49 context of strength? When Table 8 was examined, it can be seen that none of the 50 50 PT 55: From strongest to weakest: Hydrogen bond, ionic bond, low level prospective teachers’ responses were classified into 51 covalent bond, dipole-dipole and Van der Waals. sound understanding or partial understanding. These results were Education 52 As can be seen in Table 8 three middle level prospective 110 not surprising since these prospective teachers produced creative 53 teachers’ (PT4, PT 18 and PT25) responses were classified in the comparisons that included alternative conceptions about the 54 category of partial understanding. Also, these prospective strength of intermolecular forces. For example, in regards to the 55 55 teachers’ creative comparisons mostly related to the formation of strength of hydrogen bond, PT 22 formed “wrestlers” creative 56 intra- and intermolecular forces. Only PT 25 formed a creative comparison, and emphasised that hydrogen bonds are the 57 comparison about formation and strength of inter and 115 strongest of the bonds. Besides, PT 22 formed “handcuffs” 58 intramolecular forces. She used “love” creative comparisonfor creative comparison, and she stated that Van der Waals forces 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 23 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 24 of 29

1 Table 9 Prospective teachers’ responses to the fourth interview question 2 were hard to break. Similarly, PT 31 explained that Van der Waals forces are powerful forces by using “magnet” creative 60 in regards to level of understanding

3 y

comparison. The other prospective teacher (PT83) produced r High Level Middle Level Low Level

4 o g PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT PT

“steel” creative comparison to explain hydrogen bond. In this e t

5 a 49 55 81 85 4 18 25 84 12 22 31 83

5 creative comparison, it was not understood clearly if she believed C 6 that a hydrogen bond is the strongest of the intermolecular forces SU √ √ √ √ 7 or that there is a strong intramolecular as well as intermolecular PU √ √ 8 force. This uncertainty was removed with the interview.Sample PUAC √ √ √ 9 quotations of the prospective teachers’ responses in the interview AC √ √ Manuscript 10 NR 10 are as follows: √ 11 PT 83: The strongest are ionic bonds because it depends on a 12 In addition, it was revealed that PT 49 and PT 85 produced transfer of an electron. Second are hydrogen bonds. Hydrogen creative comparisons about Van der Waals forces and hydrogen 13 bonds are strong bonds. For example, water. Third are dipole- 14 bonds that belonged in the physical properties category. For dipole forces, because dipole-dipole forces are polar. At the same 15 65 example, PT 49 produced the “flying balloon” creative 15 time, there are covalent bonds and Van der Waals forces. If we 16 compare these, we can say that covalent bonds are stronger than comparison about Van der Waals force, and he emphasized that 17 Van der Waals forces. Van der Waals forces are the weakest. compounds only had Van der Waals forces as an intermolecular 18 As can been seen in this explanation, PT83 compared the force, leading to a low boiling point. Similarly, PT 85’s creative 19 strength of ionic bond correctly, but that could not be said for comparisons about Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds Accepted 20 70 (respectively, imagination, a person who's patient) indicated he 20 covalent bonds and dipole-dipole forces. In addition, she stated 21 that hydrogen bonds are a strong bond, as in her creative could relate intermolecular forces to the boiling point of 22 comparison. For this reason, PT83’ explanation was grouped molecules. Thus, this situation was supported by the findings 23 under the PUAC. Another prospective teacher’s explanation is from the interview. Sample quotations of PT 85’s responses in the interview are as follows: 24 below: 75 PT 85: The strongest one is fourth, because this compound 25 25 PT 22: Hydrogen bonds are the strongest because the compounds included hydrogen bonds as intermolecular forces. For the 26 that include the hydrogen bond are stronger than others. Covalent compounds that included chlorine and bromine, I think the 27 bonds are second since covalent bonds occur as a result of Practice 28 sharing electrons. Dipole-dipole forces, Van der Waals forces, compound that included bromine’s boiling point was higher than 29 and ionic bonds are all strong. Also, polar molecules are the other. This is because the atomic mass of bromine is higher 80 than Chlorine 30 30 important for dipole-dipole forces. Namely, the ranking is as Researcher: Well, how does atomic mass of bromine effect the 31 follows: hydrogen bond, covalent bond, Van der Waals force, and 32 dipole-dipole forces, and ionic bond. boiling point? 33 It can be understood from this explanation that PT 22 accepted PT 85: Because if atomic mass increases, the number of electrons 34 hydrogen bonds as the strongest. This result was coherent with increases. As a result of this, Van der Waals forces between the 85 molecules are strong strongly. 35 35 PT 22’s creative comparison (wrestlers). In addition, PT 22 Researcher: Consequently, how do you order these compounds 36 accepted that Van der Waals force was stronger than dipole- in the context of boiling points? 37 dipole forces and ionic bonds. Thus, PT 22’s responses were in PT 85: From highest to lowest: Fourth, third, second and first. 38 the category of AC. Similarly, PT 22 explained with the Researcher: Why is first compound the lowest? 39 “handcuffs” creative comparison that Van der Waals forces are 90 PT 85: Because it has only Van der Waals forces between the 40 40 hard to break. 41 molecules. The other molecules have both Van der Waals and Research 42 Question 4. dipole-dipole forces. 43 From Table 9, it can be seen that none of middle level 44 I. C6H6 95 prospective teacher’ responses lie in the SU category. Thus, it 45 45 II. C H Cl 6 5 was not clearly understood whether these prospective teachers 46 III. C H Br 6 5 could relate between intermolecular forces with physical 47 IV. C H OH 6 5 properties of the compound or not according to their creative 48 Could you compare the boiling points of the compounds above? comparisons. These prospective teachers mostly formed creative 49 Please explain your answer. 100 comparisons about formation and strength of intermolecular 50 50

forces. In these creative comparisons the prospective teachers did Education 51 Question 4 aims to determine how intermolecular forces affect not mention the physical properties of the compound such as 52 the boiling point of compounds. Table 9 shows that all of the boiling point. These unclear points about understanding of 53 high level prospective teachers gave responses in the category of prospective teachers were clarified with the interviews. Sample 54 SU. According to these results, it can be said that these 105 quotations of the prospective teachers’ responses in the interview 55 prospective teachers can discriminate intermolecular forces from 55 are as follows: each other and compare their effects on the boiling point of 56 PT84: The fourth compound has the highest boiling points since compounds. Thus, these prospective teachers mostly produced 57 it includes hydrogen bond. Hydrogen bonds are the strongest. It is creative comparisons about the strength of intermolecular forces. 58 very difficult to break these bonds. 59 60 24 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 25 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 Researcher: What about the other compounds? hydrogen bonds? 3 PT84: The smallest is benzene. 60 PT12: Yes. Researcher: Why? Researcher: What about the boiling points of the other 4 PT 84: Benzene does not include other kinds of atoms, groups compounds? 5 5 such as Bromine and Hydroxyl. This group may affect the boiling PT12: In my opinion, the boiling points of other compounds are 6 points of compounds. But, I am not sure. I cannot say anything the same 7 about the boiling points of other compounds. 65 Researcher: Why? 8 These explanations above indicated that PT 84 first gave PT12: These compounds include the same number of hydrogen 9 correct explanations based on the strength of hydrogen bond, but bonds Manuscript 10 10 he did not present any explanation about the other compounds 11 considering dipole-dipole and Van der Waals forces. In the light Conclusions and implications 12 of this result, it can be said that PT 84 could not understand the The present study aims to identify prospective chemistry 13 effects of intermolecular forces on the boiling points of 70 teachers’ creative comparisons towards “the basic concepts of 14 compounds. The other prospective teacher (PT 18)’s responses to 15 inter and intramolecular forces and to reveal the relationship 15 the interview are given below: 16 PT 18: I think boiling points of the fourth compound is higher between these creative comparisons and their conceptual 17 than the others, because the fourth compound includes Hydroxyl understanding. In this context, firstly, a creative comparison 18 group. As a result of this, hydrogen bonds occur, and, hydrogen questionnaire was applied to reveal prospective teachers’ creative 75 comparisons used to explain the basic concepts of inter and Accepted 19 bonds leads to increasing boiling point. When the second and 20 intramolecular forces. 20 third compounds were compared, dipole-dipole forces are The findings from creative comparison analysis drew attention 21 effective in these compounds. Electronegativity of chlorine is to several important points. For example, when the prospective 22 higher than Bromine. As a result of this, polarity, and dipole- teachers’ creative comparisons about ionic bonds were 23 dipole forces are more effective in the second compound. The 80 investigated (see Table 4), it was understood that, for the most 24 boiling points of the second compound are higher than the third part, ionic bonds are created as a result of transfer of electron. 25 25 compound’s. Only, in the “magnet”, “the agreement between two people with 26 Researcher: Well. What do you think about the first compound? opposing ideas” and “men and women” creative comparisons, the 27 PT 18: I think the boiling point of first compound is the smallest Practice 28 since it does not include different atoms such as Chlorine and formation of ionic bonds were explained as the electrostatic 29 Bromine. 85 interaction of opposite charge ions. One possible reason for this is due to the representation of ionic bonds in the textbooks. In 30 30 Similarly PT84, PT18 identified correctly that fourth particular, secondary school chemistry textbooks published 31 compound has the highest boiling point since it include hydrogen and before 2008 in Turkey explained ionic bonds as a result of 32 bonds. On the other hand, she did not explain the effects of Van electron transfer. However, secondary school chemistry 33 der Waals force on the boiling points of the other compounds. 90 curriculum in Turkey was modified in the 2008-2009 academic 34 Thus, the “the ability to talk” creative comparison about the Van year. New chemistry curriculum and chemistry textbooks were 35 35 der Waals force formed by PT18 indicated that she was unaware implemented for all of ninth grade beginning in the 2008-2009 36 of the effects of Van der Waals force. At the same time, PT18 academic year. In the new curriculum and textbooks, emphasis is 37 could not compare correctly the boiling points of the other on the electrostatic interaction in the formation of ionic bond 38 compounds since she did not consider Van der Waals force. 95 However, most of the prospective teachers in this study graduated 39 In this interview question, it was learned that low level from secondary school before the 2009 year. For this reason, 40 40 prospective teachers’ creative comparisons provided evidence 41 about their conceptual understanding. Findings from creative many of them may explain the formation of an ionic bond as a Research 42 comparison analysis showed that these prospective teachers had result of transfer of an electron. Thus, some studies have indicated that prior knowledge is highly resistant to change 43 alternative conceptions about formation or strength of 100 (Driver, 1989; Özdemir and Clark, 2007). In addition, similar 44 intermolecular forces. For example, PT12 explained hydrogen results were determined in some studies that examined the 45 45 bond as covalent bond by using “some kind of article that people representation of ionic bonds in the textbooks. For example, 46 share” creative comparison. A similar finding was identified in Bergqvist, Drechsler, Jong and Rundgren (2013), determined that 47 the interview. Her responses to the interview are as follows: all typical examples used in the section concerning ionic bonding, 48 PT12: The first compound has the highest boiling point since it 105 in all textbooks which were analyzed by them, represent ionic 49 includes hydrogen bond. The second, third and fourth compounds bonding as the result of electron transfer. 50 50 include hydrogen bonds. However, these compounds do not

Another important finding revealed from creative comparisons Education 51 contain as many hydrogen bonds as the first compound. about covalent, non-polar covalent and polar bonds. None of the 52 Researcher: Why? Can you explain this? prospective teachers stated the electrostatic force between the 53 PT12: Because, the first one includes more bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms than the fourth one. In the fourth compound, 110 nucleus and shared electrons in the formation of covalent bond 54 (See Table 4). The prospective teachers consider the sharing of 55 one carbon and hydrogen bond broke, as a result of this carbon- 55 electrons as the ‘force’ instead of nucleus–electron interactions. hydroxyl, carbon- bromine, and carbon-chlorine bonds occurred. 56 One possible reason for this is that the line-bond structures of the Thus, the number of hydrogen bonds decreased. 57 compounds which were used commonly by chemistry teachers in 58 Researcher: Do you mean that carbon and hydrogen bonds are 115 Turkey. In the line-bond structures, a single covalent bond is 59 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 25 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 26 of 29

1 2 where one pair of shared electrons is represented by a line drawn comparisons such as “thick branch”, “ the strongest individual in 3 between atoms. This model could lead to conception that the 60 a society”, “the roots of a tree digging into the ground”. Some shared electron pair in itself is the bond. Another reason may be studies pointed out that over-emphasis of the strength of 4 related to representation of covalent bonds in the textbooks. hydrogen bond could lead the learners to accept hydrogen bonds 5 5 Thus, Boo (2000) stated that some statements in textbooks like as the strongest (Peterson and Treagust, 1989; Tan and Treagust, 6 one pair of shared electrons constitute a single covalent, may 1999). At the same time, some creative comparisons such as 7 cause students to accept the shared electron pair in itself as the 65 “brain”, “knot”, and “person who's patient” indicated that the 8 bond. Also, many textbooks do not use the term electrostatic prospective teachers could explain the effects of hydrogen bonds 9 force or even attraction force to explain covalent bonds on the physical properties of compounds. Manuscript 10 10 (Bergqvist, Drechsler, Jong and Rundgren, 2013). Similar results Opposite of the other concepts, minimum creative comparisons 11 th were observed in the secondary school chemistry textbooks (9 in the category of formation was determined the Van der Waals 12 grades) in Turkey. In addition, some of the creative comparisons 70 force concept (See Table 5). Only, one kind of creative 13 indicated that the prospective teachers had some alternative comparison (“feeling of liking someone momentarily”) was 14 conceptions. For example, “combination of contrast colours” formed by the prospective teachers. From this result, it can be 15 15 creative comparison for covalent bond, “magnet” and “the need understood that very few prospective teachers could explain 16 of two people of opposite sexes for each other” creative scientifically the formation of Van der Waals force. The 17 comparisons for polar covalent bond revealed that the prospective 75 prospective teachers mostly produced creative comparisons 18 teachers confused ionic and covalent bonds. Similarly, “identical regarding the strength of Van der Waals force. While the 19 twins”, and “twins pulling at two ends of a rope” creative prospective teachers made scientific comparisons of Van der Accepted 20 20 comparisons for polar covalent bond, “the people in the world” Waals force and other forces in many creative comparisons such 21 and “two different people holding a rope on both ends” creative as “feather”, “rotten rope”, “house of cards”, and “the bones of an 22 comparisons for non-polar covalent bond showed that prospective 80 elderly person”, some alternative conceptions about the strength 23 teachers had difficulties in discrimination of polar and non-polar of Van der Waals force in some creative comparisons were 24 covalent bonds. revealed (“handcuffs”, and “magnet”). Different from the other 25 25 Findings from creative comparisons about intermolecular concepts, a category about molecules in Van der Waals force was 26 forces are important to detect what clear points and what identified. In this category, the prospective teachers were able to

27 alternative conceptions exist in the minds of the prospective 85 clarify that Van der Waals forces had effects on both polar and Practice 28 teachers. For instance, some creative comparisons about the non-polar molecules by using “blood vessels”, “energy”, 29 formation of hydrogen bond such as “selective person”, “jealousy”, and “the ability to talk” creative comparisons. Even, 30 30 “obsessed person”, “selective permeant”, and “cell membrane” with the “jealousy”, and “the ability to talk” creative

31 revealed that these prospective teachers stated the conditions comparisons, the prospective teachers could explain that the other and 32 under which hydrogen bonds occurred. However, from these 90 intermolecular forces were more effective than Van der Waals 33 explanations, it was not understood clearly whether the force in polar molecules. Similar to hydrogen bonds, in the 34 prospective teachers accepted hydrogen bonds as intramolecular category of physical properties, the prospective teachers could 35 35 or intermolecular forces. For this reason, semi-structured explain the effects of Van der Waals forces on the boiling point 36 interviews were conducted with the prospective teachers. In of compounds by using “flying balloon”, “imagination”, and “a 37 addition, “some kind of article that people share”, and “the bond 95 fat person taking up more space than a thin person” creative 38 between twins” creative comparisons are important because these comparisons 39 creative comparisons showed that the prospective teachers From the creative comparison analysis of dipole-dipole forces, 40 40 identified hydrogen bonds as covalent bonds or, they believed striking points were determined. One of them is “people with 41 that hydrogen bonds occur between atoms. Thus, some different strengths pulling on a rope” creative comparison. This Research 42 researchers stated that the concept of “bond” could cause the 100 creative comparison contained different meanings. For example, 43 learners to accept hydrogen bonds as intramolecular forces (Ünal, PT 46 presented scientifically acceptable explanations by using 44 2003; Taber 2011). When the creative comparisons about this creative comparison r. On the other hand, PT 12, and PT 83 45 45 strength of hydrogen bonds were investigated, it was seen that explained dipole-dipole forces as a force between atoms, and they 46 these creative comparisons could be classified under three tried to clarify bond polarity. This situation was not surprising 47 categories. In the first category, the prospective teachers 105 since a similar pictorial creative comparison was used in a 48 compared correctly the strength of hydrogen bond with other Turkish high school Chemistry textbook (10th grade) to explain 49 intermolecular forces or intramolecular forces. For example, “a bond polarity. At the same time, the prospective teachers could 50 50 sailor's knot”, and “thin people” creative comparisons were scientifically explain the formation of dipole-dipole forces 51 included in the first category. In the second category, the through creative comparisons such as “people who are Education 52 prospective teachers stated hydrogen bonds are a strong bond by 110 diametrically opposite to each other”, “magnet”, “two stubborn 53 using “friendship”, “Hercules”, “rope”, and “steel” creative goats quarrelling” and “charged glass rod picking up pieces of 54 comparisons. But, from these creative comparisons, it was not paper”. In addition to these scientific explanations, “two similar 55 55 clearly understood how prospective teachers compared the people attracting each other”, and “a bag of lentils” creative 56 hydrogen bond. In last category, it was determined that the comparisons revealed the prospective teachers believed that 57 prospective teachers had alternative conceptions about the 115 dipole-dipole forces occurs between the non-polar molecules. 58 strength of hydrogen bonds according to their creative Also, it was determined that the prospective teachers accepted 59 60 26 | Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Chemistry Page 27 of 29 Chemistry Education Research and Practice

1 2 dipole-dipole forces as a force between the atoms through “a interview. It was determined that she, in fact, believed that 3 married couple sharing a blanket”, “two balls of the same kind 60 hydrogen bonds were stronger than intramolecular forces in the sticking to each other”, “the bond between people of the same interview. When the levels of prospective teachers’ understanding 4 city” creative comparisons. In the strength category, from some were examined, it was found that the prospective teachers’ 5 5 creative comparisons such as “medium-sweet Turkish coffee”, “a conceptual understanding was not tightly linked to the complexity 6 person of medium strength”, and “being second in class”, it was of their creative comparisons. However, it was seen that the 7 understood that these prospective teachers could compare 65 creative comparisons submitted by the prospective teachers could 8 correctly the strength of dipole-dipole forces and other be used to infer their conceptual understanding. For example, 9 intermolecular forces. Besides, some creative comparisons such none of the prospective teachers from high level to low level in Manuscript 10 10 as “the largest root of a tree”, “hurricane”, and “the love between the interview could explain the formation of covalent bonds 11 Romeo and Juliet” pointed out that the prospective teachers based on nucleus-electron attraction. Similar results were seen in 12 accepted dipole-dipole forces as very strong. 70 their creative comparisons. For ionic bond, only two prospective 13 In the light of creative comparison analysis, it can be said that teachers’ creative comparisons s (PT 81, PT 85) were related to 14 creative comparisons can help instructors to identify learners’ electrostatic attraction. Thus, the same prospective teachers were 15 15 alternative conceptions. On this point, instructors should be able to explain ionic bond according to electrostatic attraction in 16 careful to acknowledge which creative comparisons used by the interview. Similarly, if any alternative conceptions were 17 learners contained the alternative conceptions. Acknowledging 75 identified in the prospective teachers’ creative comparisons, the 18 which creative comparisons lead to alternative conceptions will same result was found in the interview. For example, PT 12 19 hinder the use of similar creative comparisons in courses or identified hydrogen bonds as covalent bond in “some kind of Accepted 20 20 textbooks. On the other hand, the prospective teachers could article that people share” creative comparison. The same 21 scientifically explain many concepts with creative comparisons in statements were identified in the interview. Another prospective 22 this study. For this reason, instructors can use creative 80 teacher (PT 22) used “wrestlers”, “handcuffs” creative 23 comparisons identified in this study to present the basic concepts comparisons for hydrogen bond and Van der Waals forces, and 24 of intra and intermolecular forces to their students. However, they it was determined that she has alternative conceptions about the 25 25 should not use the same creative comparison to explain different strength of hydrogen bonds and Van der Waals forces. The 26 concepts in the same topic. Also, student-generated creative results of the interview supported these alternative conceptions.

27 comparisons / could be used for formative assessments to help 85 On the other hand, all prospective teachers’ creative comparisons Practice 28 instructors become aware of students’ ideas when they come into were not coherent their conceptual understanding. For instance, 29 the classroom (Lancor, 2014). Although the using of creative PT 83 used the “trading” creative comparison for ionic bonds, 30 30 comparisons can be useful to determine learners’ alternative and “a common eraser” creative comparison for covalent bonds.

31 conceptions and scientific explanations, some creative In these creative comparisons, an alternative conception was not and 32 comparisons used by the prospective teachers in the study 90 determined. However, PT 83 confused intra and intermolecular 33 contained points of uncertainty. The possible reason for this forces in the interview, and she explained ionic bond as dipole- 34 uncertainty may be that some prospective teachers were not sure dipole forces, covalent bond as Van der Waals forces. This result 35 35 how to articulate his or her ideas using a creative comparison. In suggests that the creative comparison analysis should be 36 this context, asking learners about the limits of their creative combined with some techniques like the semi-structured 37 comparisons can be helpful in removing this uncertainty. At the 95 interview. Even the use of think-aloud activity might be helpful 38 same time, when some uncertainty is revealed in learners’ in identifying how learners generate creative comparisons. 39 creative comparisons, a technique such as drawing and/or Moreover, this study did not examine prospective teachers’ 40 40 interviews should be used to remove uncertainty. creative comparisons concerning metallic bonds. For this reason, 41 In this study, semi-structured interviews were used for two future studies may be carried out to investigate learners’ creative Research 42 aims. The first aim is to remove uncertainty points in prospective 100 comparisons about metallic bonds and their conceptual 43 teachers’ creative comparisons. Second aim is to determine understanding. 44 whether there is a relationship between prospective teachers’ 45 45 creative comparisons and conceptual understanding or not. Based References 46 on these aims, the prospective teachers were classified into three Abraham M. R., Grzybowski E. B., Renner J. W. and Marek E. A., categories according to their creative comparisons, and four 47 105 (1992), Understandings and misunderstandings of eight grades of five 48 prospective teachers in each category were selected randomly for chemistry concepts found in textbooks, J. Res. Sci. Teach., 29 (2), 49 an interview. With the interview results, points of uncertainty 105-120 Amin T. G., (2009), Conceptual metaphor meets conceptual change, 50 50 were removed. For example, it was not understood clearly from

Human Development., 52, 165–197. Education 51 the creative comparisons belonging to PT 49 and PT 81 that they 110 Amin T. G., Jeppsson F., Haglund J. and Strömdahl H., (2012), Arrow 52 accepted hydrogen bonds as intermolecular forces. However, the of time: metaphorical construals of entropy and the second law of 53 result of interview indicated that they described hydrogen bonds thermodynamics, Sci. Educ., 96(5), 818-848. 54 as intermolecular forces. As another example, PT 55 could be Ashworth P. D. and Lucas U., (1998), What is the world of phenomenography?, Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research., 55 55 given. PT 55 explained the strength of hydrogen bond by using the “rope” creative comparison; however, it was not understood 115 42 (4), 415-431. 56 Aubusson P. J., Harrison A. G. and Ritchie S. M., (2006), Metaphor and 57 clearly how she compared the strength of hydrogen from this analogy in science education, Dordrecht: Springer. 58 creative comparison. This uncertainty was removed with the Barker, V. and Millar, R., (2000), Students’ reasoning about basic 59 chemical thermodynamics and chemical bonding: What changes 60 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry [year] Journal Name, [year], [vol], 00–00 | 27 Chemistry Chemistry Education Research and Practice Page 28 of 29

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