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Encyclopedia of Newfoundland and Labrador

Editor in Chief Joseph R. S111llllwood P.C. , D.C .L. , LL.D., D . Litt.

Managing Editor Robert D. W Pitt H.A.,M.A.

Volume One

NEWFOUNDLAND BOOK PUBLISHERS (1967) LIMITED @Newfoundland Book Publishers (I 967) Limited First Edition 1981

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Encyclopedia of Newfoundland and Labrador

Contents: v.l. A-E.

ISBN 0-920508-13-8 (set). -ISBN 0-920508-14-6 (v.1)

1. Newfoundland- Dictionaries and encyclopedias. 2. Labrador- Dictionaries and encyclopedias. I. Smallwood, Joseph R., 1900- II. Pitt, Robert D.W. 1953-

FC2154.E52 971.8'003'21 C81-095040-5 F1121.4.E52

Front Endpapers: Giacamo GastaJdi Map, originally engraved from a single wood block that was destroyed by fire in 1557. The map shown was later re-engraved on copper with minor changes from the woodcut.

Back Endpapers: J.N. Bellin Map, originally published in 1745, was the official French version of the outline of Newfoundland at that time.

Published by Newfoundland Book Publishers (1967) Limited St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada

Cover and Text design by Vivant Studio Limited (Sheila Cotton) Rose Bay, Nova Scotia, Canada

The Economy design by Wayne C. Stockwood and David Tuck St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada

Production co-ordination by B. Dale Russell FitzPatrick St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada

Typesetting by General Printers Division of Consolidated Graphics Limited Oshawa, Ontario, Canada

Typesetting (The Economy) by Collins Graphics Services Limited St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada

Printed and bound by John Deyell Company Lindsay, Ontario, Canada

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.

Every reasonable effort has been made to trace ownership of copyright material. Information will be welcomed which will enable the publisher to correct any reference in future printings. Research /Writers

Christine M. Bown, B.A., B.Ed. Diane P. Janes, B.A. T. Valdine Ciwko, B.A. Eugene P. Kennedy, B.A., M.A. J. Ralph Dale, B.A., B.A.(Ed.), M.A., M.L.S. Genevieve Lehr Ellen M. Dinn, B.A. Dermod C. Madden, B.A., B.Ed. Ettie L. Gordon Murray, B.A., B.Ed. Linda A. Parsons, B.A. Patricia A. Greene Janet E. Miller Pitt, B.A.(Hons.) Josephine C. Harvey Bertram G. Riggs, B.A.(Hons.), B.Ed. Pamela M. Hodgson, B.A. Malcolm H. Rowe, B.A., B.Sc., LL.B. Catherine F. Horan, B.A. Wayne C. Stockwood, B.A.

Contributors

Rev. J.S.S. Armour Dr. Harold Paddock, B.A.(Ed.), B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Lois Brown, B.A., B.Ed. John Parsons, B.A.(Ed.), B.A., Grad. Dip. Ed., Dip. Rel. Ed. Jeff Budden Boyd G. Penney, B.Sc., M.Sc. Dr. J.E. Carscadden, B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D. Rae Perlin Gordon A. Francis, B.A., B.Ed. Dr. David G. Pitt, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Dr. Michael C. Hampson, Dip.Ed., B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D. Marion Pitt, B.A. Dr. John Hewson, B.A., MesA., D. de L'U. Ray Simmons James L. Miller, B.A., M.A. Dr. Gerald Thomas, B.A., M.A., Ph.D. Ray Morris, B.S.A., M.Sc. Dr. James A. Tuck, A.B., Ph.D. Hon. Fabian O'Dea, Q.C. Bride Whiffen

v Consultants

Beaton J. Abbott Percy Barrett W .C. Brown Hubert Chambers Carl Abbott Leo D . Barry John Browne Marilyn Chambers Edward Carl Abbott Donald C. Barter Norah Browne H.W.R . Chancey Patricia Abbott Ted Bartlett Peter Browne Margaret Chang C.A.S. Abernathy Rowena Bartlett W.J. Browne E. Channing Angus Adams Rupert Bartlett G.M . Brownrigg James G . Channing C.J. Abraham Mrs. M.G. Basha Pat Brownrigg Sadie Channing William G . Adams Lois Batement Clara Buckle Larry Cheeseman Earl Aker H.M. Batten Mary Buckley Muriel Chislett Alcoholics Anonymous David Bazeley Len Bungay Rodney Chubbs Frederick A . Aldrich Donald Belbin Jack Burghardt Baxter Clarke Ward Allen Charles R . Bell Mrs. C. Burke Mike Clarke Wanda Allix Peter Bell Mrs. M.J. Burke Raymond Clarke Bernice Anderson Randolph Bell Grant F. Burnell Ralph Clemens Gerald Anderson M.F. Bellamy Stella Burry A . V. Clouston O.E.A. Anderson Trevor Bennett Fred Bursell Ian Clouston O.H. Anderson Vera Bennett Ray Bursell Frank Cluett Olga Anderson W .S. Bennett A.A. Bursey Francis A . Coady D.W. Andrews Daphne Benson C.W . Bursey Larry Coady Harold Andreas David L. Benson Jim Bursey Joyce lone Coldwell Ralph Andrews Gerald E. Benson Ray Bursey Thomas Collington Phylis Angel Roy Benson David Burton Henry Collingwood Edgar Anstey T. Berman Derek Bussey John F. Collins Sheila Anstey A.F. Berry Edward Butler Lawrence Collins Rex Anthony C.M. Blackwood Gordon Butler Brendon Condon Jose Arambarri Emerson Blackwood Joseph V . Butler R .J. Condon Harold Arbo William Bolt Mark Butler W .J. Connors Lloyd Archibald Sister Bonaventure Michael Butler R. Conrad Edmund Amott Edsell Bonnell Neville Butler C.H. Conroy Ernest Ash Lillian Bouzane A.B. Butt D.F. Cook Kenneth Ash Paul Boundridge D.R. Butt Don Cook Mabel Atwill Bruce Bowden Derek Butt Lloyd Cook Ralph Atwill Addison Bown George Butt Mrs. D.L. Cooper Ruby Atwill Charles G. Bown John W. Butt R. Corbett James Austin David Bown W. John Butt John Courage William L. Aylward Joan Bown Clara Byrne David Courtney Anthony Green Ayre Mary Perpetua Bown James Byrne Robert Cousins J Blaikie R. Ayre Allan Boyd William Cabot Mona Cram Carlotta Ayre Eric Boyd M. Caddigan Bessie Crewe J.H.M. Ayre Samuel Brace Tom Cahill Ronda Crocker Randell R. Babb Bill Bradley Eric Callahan M . Loretto Croke Ida Babstock W.H. Brake William R. Callahan A.H. Crosbie Eric Baggs Robert Brannan Alvin Campbell George Crosbie Yashdip Bains Agustus Brennan Nigel Campbell Gertrude Crosbie David Baird Brewers Association Canadian National Marine John C. Crosbie George Baker of Newfoundland Patrick J. Canning Kenneth Cumew William J. Baker C. Brinston A.M. Cantwell Emma Curtis George Ball Jr. Helen Brothers Angela Cantwell Elizabeth Dalton Clyde Banfield Chris Brookes Anne Carew Allison Dancey Cyril Banikhin L. P. Brookes Stan Carew William S. Darrigan Job K. Barbour A. Brown W.J. Carew Baxter Davis Wilfred Barbour Archibald Brown Geoffrey C. Carnell D.J. Davis Christopher Barlow Baxter Brown William J. Carroll David Davis Jacqueline Barlow Cassie Brown Jim Carscadden Gerald Davis Charles Barnes Fred Brown Laurie Cashin Jennifer Davis John C. Barnes Gertude Brown Richard Cashin Murray B . Davis A. W. Barrettt Harry Brown Barbara Chalker Josephine Davis C .P. Barrett Jean Brown Susan M. Chalker Walter Davis

vi William Davis Ann Fagan ;;4! Joan Harnett Catherine Kelly Bob Dawe Betty Fellon Elmer Harris Charles Kelly C.E. Dawe A . Feltham Roy Hart Joseph Kelly D .W. Dawe R. Fifield Otto Harvey Michael Kelly Eric N. Dawe Jim Finch Dan Harwook Joe Kennedy H .M . Dawe B.R. FitzGerald A . Hawco Mark Kennedy Mrs. H.M. Dawe Brenda FitzGerald M. Paula Hayes P .J. Kennedy Harold A. Dawe Joe FitzPatrick Haynes Gail Kenny Marilyn Dawe Leinus FitzPatrick Roy Hayward Pat Kenny R .G . Dawe Helena Fizzard Eric Healey Theresa Kereran Randy Dawe John Fleming Michael Healey Kenneth Kerr Tom Dawe J.D. Folinsbee Jim Hearn A.E. Kewley W. Gordon Dawe Frank Follett A.B. Hefferton A.G. Kiekland WilfDawe Judy Foote Paul Hendrickson E.G. King Lloyd Decker Robert Freeman Jo Heringa Harold C. King Jerome Delaney Woodrow French John Hewson Miriam King Brian Dempoon Wallace Furlong Laura Hickey Rita King Randy Devine J.I. Gale E .L. Hickman Stanley King Sheliegh Devine Frank Galgay C.M. Hicks Judy Knee H. Dewey Dennis Galway Jr. Geri Hill Valerie Kolonel Clarence Dewling Ian Gaul J.K. Hiller Ursula Kroll Victoria Dickenson Robin Gedalof Bert Hines Shirley Laite Mrs. Stanley Dicks Mark Genge Philip Hiscock H .A. Lake Vera Dicks L.F. Gettle Calvin Hobbs Linda Lane Pauline Dillon Rex Gibbons Walter Hobbs Maxine Lane Molly Dingle Burnham Gill Brother Holden Norman Lane Fran Dinn Hazel Gillespie Donald Hollett Pius Lavers Jerome Dinn Richard W. Gillespie Mrs. Vernon Hollett M .F. Lawlor William C. Doody Ester Gillingham William Holwell George Lawrence Robert Dooling Kayla Glynn Kim Hong Joseph Lawrence Claude Doucet Gauis Goff Miriam Hong Leonard Lee W.A.D. Douglas Edyth Goodridge D. Hopkins Kevin Legrow Marie Dowden Peter Goodridge Edgar House Syliva LeGrow Thomas M. Doyle Roy Goodwin D.E. Howley Tasker Legrow WilfDoyle Cyril Goodyear Anthony Hunt Wilson Legrow George Draskoy Wilma M.J. Goodyear E. Hunt Robert LeMessurier Clement Drover Harold Gosse Fred Hunt F. Lester Lenzie Drover Hilda Gould Edwin Hussey Peter Lester Mrs. Gordon Duff Maude Goulding John Hutton D. Lidstone Shannie Duff Donald Graham Bill Hynd Jon Lien Hollis Duffett Frank Graham Beulah J. Inkpen Fran Locke Lois Duffy John Green Douglas Inkster Dorothy Louis Albert Dunphy Deridre Greene Gail Innes Donald S. Luther Elizabeth Dunphy Pat Greene Institute of Chartered Shirley Lynch Raymond Dunphy R.J. Greene Accountants Mrs. W .A. MacCallam Allan Dyson G.M. Greenslade Barry Isaacs Jim MacDonald Alton Arthur Salter Earle John Greer Stirling James Doug MacKay George H. Earle John K. Greer Alice Janes Roger MacKay Frederick Earle David Grenville Jack Janes Robert F. MacLeod H.R.V. Earle Jerry Gulliver Jack Jardin Gary MacPhearson Ena Edwards Clyde Guy David Jeans Olan Macpherson Stephanie Edwards Dawn Haines Brian Johnson Walter MacPherson Walter Elliott Robert Halfyard Helen Jones Sadie Mahoney Daisy Elms Robert M. Hall Jack Jones John Malpas Gertrude Elton Margaret Hamilton J.A. Joyce Karen Mann Bruce English Margit Hammerstrom John Joyce J. Massey Gerald Ennis Carl Hampton John Kavanagh Allan Masters Lewis Eveleigh Earle Hampton Sam Kean Mrs. J. Mathieson Raymond Eveleigh Graham Hancock Curtis. Keeping H.R. Matthews Edgar Ewing Milton Hancock Ethel Keeping Ignatius Matthews Margaret Ewtushik Theresa Hann Newman Kelland Keith Matthews

vii Arthur Mauger Michael Newhook David Peters Mrs. A. Rowsell Dave Maunder Anne Nicholle H.R. Peters Ivan Rowsell Dolph Mavin G.E. Noble Debbie Petite Donna Rowsell Gilbert McArthur Mrs. G.E. Noble R.J. Petrie E.R. Rowsell Martha McArthur Stanley Drover Noble Denise Pickett Royal Newfoundland Daniel McCann Cyril Noseworthy Dave Pike Constabulary Bonaventure McCarthy F. Noseworthy Eugene Pike Mrs. A. Russell Ray McCarthy Edward Nugent Roger Pike D.B. Russell Linda McFadden Wendy Nurse Ruby Pike J .E. Russell Karen McGrath Mrs. E.E. O'Brien Charles Pope Morris Russell Martha Mcisaac Felicity O'Brien Clarence Powell Rosemary Russell Richard Mcisaac John O'Brien Anne Power Roy Russell Eleanor McKim Joseph O'Brien Carol Power Hari Saray Mabel McKinley Agnes O'Dea Cyril Power Jocelyn Saulnier James McLoughlin John O'Dea Frank Power Doris Saunders Marvin McNault Shane O'Dea John Power William Sceviour W.S. Meadus Jim Offrey Joseph Prim Peter Scott Pierre Meager Vandy O'Grady Francis Puddister Rocky Schulstad John Meany Lillabelle V. Oke Puddister Trading Co. Ltd. E.R. Seary Levi Mahaney Keelin O'Leary Ronald Pumphrey L.M. Sebert Joe Mercer Dorothy O'Neil Elizabeth Purchas Anthony Semeraro John Mercer Hugh J. O'Neill Frank Pyke Gilles Sequin Ken Mercer Paul 0' Neill Terry Quinn David Severs Norman L. Mercer Keith Osbourne Roy Stewart Ralph Phillis Seymore Jean Messeurvey R.E. Osmond Mrs. E.M. Randell James Seymour Mrs. Morgan Messeurvey Gerald R. Ottenheimer Murray Randell William Shallow A.C. Metcalfe Jim Overton Jane Rattray David T. Sharpe Bruce Metcalfe G.E. Panting Francis Reardon G. Sharpe Aquila Miller Steven Parker Joseph Reddigan Hubert Sharpe Fred Miller Daphne Parsons D. Reddin Elizabeth Shenton David Mills G. Parsons Freeman Reid A. Sheppard Merlin Mills Hector Parsons Helen Reid Frank Sheppard Dennis Minty John Parsons Ian Reid Helen Parsons Sheppard E.E. Molloy N.E. Parsons Wallace Reid Fannie Sidel James Money W.E. Parsons Woodrow Reid D.B. Simmons Frank Moore Warren Parsons H.T. Renouf Don Simmons John Moores Cecil Patey Lester Rich Kevin Simmons Heather Morgan G.E. Patey Alcida Richard Gus Sinnott Donald Morris Melvin Patey Norma Jean Richards Louis Skanes G.W. Morris G.E. Patey J. Richardson Dora Skinner Ray Morris Melvin Patey Ford V. Rideout George Skinner D. Mowat Harry Payne Hugh Ridler Gordon Slade Marcel Muise Henry Payne Dave Riggler J .A.F. Slade Dee Murphy Jean Payne Douglas Riggler Cecil Smith Jack Murphy F. W. Peacock William Roach Enid Smith John Murphy W. R. Peacock Ronald Robbins Hayward Smith Judy Murphy Baker L. Pebbles Dr. K. B. Roberts Hilda Smith Kay Murphy Donald Peckham A. W. Robertson James Smith Doreen Murray Heddie Peddle Bobbie Robertson Donald Snowden Jean M. Murray Walter Peddle Marjorie Roblins Herbert Sooley Myles Murray Howard Pelley Elizabeth Rochester Jackie Souliers Vick Murrin R.M. Pelley Edgar Rockwood Lucy Spain Ann Narvaez Alfred A. Penney Clyde Rose Lloyd Sparkes D. Nash Catherine Penney Mrs. J .A. Rose P. Sparkes Bernard Nathanson Lorraine Penney Don Ross S. Spurrell G.N. Neary Major Penney C.F. Rowe Fronie Squibb Stephen Neary J. Penny Frank Rowe Elizabeth Lee Thomas F. Nemec Mrs. Wandsworth Penny Lionel Rowe Eileen Stanbury Newfoundland Liquor Robert Perchard Malcolm H. Rowe Lewis Stanley Licensing Board John C. Perlin Penelope Rowe Michael Stanley Hazel Newhook Ted Perry Ted Rowe Michael Stapleton

viii R.G. Thomas Jack Wall Rosyland Whiteway Walter Steel ~L- Mrs. Stevens Henry Thorne John F. Wallis James Withers H.W. Stone Roy Tibbo Brian Walsh Harold Williams George Story Bill Tilford Josephine Walsh Megan Williams George Straighten E.L. Tilley Mary Walsh Steven Williams Mrs. James Strickland Eugene Toope Pamela Walsh Paul J. Williams D.A. Strong Gloria Toope Sharron Walsh E. Willis Melvin Strong Stewart Toope Bruce Wareham Newman Willis Dale Sudom John Trainer Henry Watson Andrew Wilson Nancy Sullivan Stephen Trask Ron Watts Derek Wilton Valerie Summers James Troke Don Wells Jacob Winsor T .J. Hardy Company Odysseus Tsagarakis Doyle Wells R.T. Woodford Bill Tanner Otto Tucker Herb Wells Lloyd Thompson F. Woolridge Doris Taylor Paul Underlay Francis Whalen Betty Wyatt Helen Taylor Eugene Vaters Lucy Wheeler Herbert K. Wyatt Joseph Taylor Donald Yen turi Gerald White J. Yetman V.R. Taylor Kevin Voissez Roderick T. White John Young Gerald Tessier E.H. Vokey William White W.M. Third K.J. Walker W .H. Whiteley

Sources

Because the ENCYCLOPEDIA is being published in a series, a full bibliography of the sources referred to at the end of the entries will not be available until the last volume is published. Until that time, to facilitate the use of the sources cited, a key to the abbreviations used and a description of some of the common sources follows:

Agnes Marion Ayre Herbarium at Memorial University of New­ EC Encyclopedia Canadiana (1957-58): volume Herbarium foundland, St. John's. number is given after the title. Archives The Provincial Archives of Newfoundland and EofC Encyclopedia of Canada (1948): volume number Labrador, Colonial Building, St. John's. Letter is given after the title. and number sequences following this reference EofC:N Encyclopedia of Canada Newfoundland Supple­ are the cataloguing codes used by the Archives ment (1949). for the documents cited. ET The St. John's Evening Telegram. Census Census Returns for Newfoundland 1836-1945, JHA Journal of the House of Assembly: year is given and Dominion Bureau of Statistics and Statistics after the title. Canada Newfoundland census information 1951 JLC Journal of the Legislative Council: year is given to date. after the title. Centre for Centre for Newfoundland Studies at Memorial Newfoundland Historical The Newfoundland Historical Society at the Co­ Newfoundland Studies University of Newfoundland, St. John's: the Society lonial Building, St. John's: the name following name following this reference is the name of a this reference is the name of the file at the Society. file at the Centre. NQ Newfoundland Quarterly: the issue is given after C.O. Colonial Office papers (microfilms at Ar­ the title. chives). OED Oxford English Dictionary. DA The periodical Decks A wash. PHA Proceedings of the House of Assembly: year is DCB Dictionary of Canadian Biography: volume given after the title. number is given after the title. PLC Proceedings of the Legislative Council DN The St. John's Daily News. ws The Comer Brook Western Star. DNB The Dictionary of National Biography: volume Yearbook This series begins as theNewfoundland Almanac number or supplement years are given after the in 1840 but changes to Year Book and Almanac title. of Newfoundland in later issues.

Many published sources cited by the author's name, or by title, and by year, may be found (from that information alone) at libraries, though articles from collections or periodicals cited by the author's name may not be thus found. Unpublished material, cited by au­ thor's name, may come from the Centre of Newfoundland Studies, the Department of Anthropology and/or Sociology, the Maritime History Group, and the Memorial University of Newfoundland Folklore and Language Archive (MUNFLA), all at Memorial-Univer­ sity of Newfoundland, St. John's. If a source cannot be otherwise located source inquiries enclosing a self-addressed envelope will be answered by the ENCYCLOPEDIA staff. Mail inquiries to the publisher.

ix

:;" Foreword

The three or possibly four volumes of the ENCYCLOPEDIA (of which this is the first) are produced to accomplish more carefully and completely, and in more enduring form, what my "Barrelman" radio broadcasts were trying to do forty years ago. For fifteen min­ utes of each weekday night for six years my radio programme was broadcast in Newfouodland, and each night I was introduced to the air audience as one who was striving to make ''Newfoundland better known to Newfoundlanders.'' We Newfoundlanders first began to live on this Island and in Labrador probably more than 10,000 years ago, and we have lived here ever since. Sixteen years hence Newfoundlanders who are of European derivation will have been here for all of 500 years: 1497- 1997; and that is longer than any other Europe-descended people have lived continuously anywhere else in the New World. Newfoundland and Labrador is one part of Canada that needs, and is justified in having, its own Encyclopedia. The production of each volume of the ENCYCLOPEDIA can be accomplished only by the co-ordinated efforts of many persons: the editorial staff of full-time editors, researchers and writers; a number of part-time voluntary writers; an important number of university and school faculty members; librarians, archivists, historians; and a very large number of men and women of specialized experience or knowledge to provide information to the researchers. The work requires thousands of personal interviews or telephone conversa­ tions, many hundreds of letters and telegrams; a very large number of visits to the University, the Public Library, the Newfoundland Archives, the remarkable collection of Newfoundland facts put together by Bobby Robertson; to Government Departments and agen­ cies, Federal, Provincial and Municipal; and almost unending reference to the books, periodicals, reports and documents described in the impressive new bibliography that will be seen toward the end of the final volume, the most complete compilation of its kind, per­ haps, ever made for Newfoundland and Labrador. I am fortunate to have Robert Pitt as my chief editorial associate in the ENCYCLOPEDIA enterprise. In him time, place, need and capacity are admirably met. His was the judgement that mainly selected the staff of full-time and other researchers from among the many scholars available for the work, his the judgement that assigned the topics to each, his the preliminary editing of the writings. The staff researchers and writers have won confidence and respect for themselves and for the ENCYCLOPEDIA. They follow a pro­ gramme of organized scholarly research that has rarely before been equalled in Newfoundland and, I suspect, never surpassed in scope, comprehensiveness, thoroughness, and care for accuracy and truth. Our debt to Marion Pitt, Assistant Professor at Memorial University, is considerable. The book is the better for her help. The enterprise is fortunate to have Dale Russell FitzPatrick, my grand-daughter, as its energetic office manager. She is a valued part-time participant in the editorial department as well. I am grateful to my two secretaries, Wilma Goodyear and Linda Wiseman, whose faithful work has smoothed the way. Carol Lockwood made a useful contribution. Candour and a strong sense of appreciation require me to declare that even all the scholarship, research and writing would have failed to get this book before the larger public if we had not received the practical help of the business people. They, in the honourable tradition that inspired earlier men to be patrons of literature, are the patrons of this Newfoundland enterprise. Without that patronage this book could be offered only at a price that would put it out of reasonable reach of many who would wish to have it. Mr. Joseph D. Ashley, Mr. Andrew Crosbie and Mr. Geoffrey W. Stirling provided the initial bank credit without which the enterprise could not have started. The ENCYCLOPEDIA is an old and oft-felt dream come true. For well over quarter of a century- over two quarters, indeed- I have been collecting and storing information and ideas for it. That I am now able to present to my fellow Newfoundlanders, and fel­ low Canadians, Volume One of the concentrated and refined product of so many minds is pleasant indeed. Volume Two and beyond should be even more satisfying. Joseph R. Smallwood

xi Editorial Note

The selection of topics for this Encyclopedia has not always been easy, especially as some topics coincide with the present, and obscure with their familiarity the context of the past. Yet we have learned from our research for this work that unless the present be recorded in print now it has less chance of being known in the future. In addition to the thousands of topics compiled by the Editor in Chief, Mr. Smallwood, the topics presented here have been selected from those suggested by many people and from nearly one hundred and fifty source books of Newfoundland society and history. Sometimes the work of choosing the best and most accurate sources has been as difficult as choosing the topics; history is an account of what has been recorded to have happened. This being so, we have attempted to corroborate and otherwise verify such records, and, where this is impossible, to present and identify conflicting statements.

Organization The entries in the ENCYCLOPEDIA are arranged alphabetically; where more than one word constitutes the title of any entry (with the exception of people, places, publications, schools, ships, etc.) the entry will be found under the word in the title which best represents the topic (the "key word"). For example, the entry on the Atlantic cable will be found as CABLE, ATLANTIC and the Permanent Marine Disasters Fund will be found as DISASTERS FUND, PERMANENT MARINE. Where more than one word might be consid­ ered "key," a cross listing will refer the reader to the appropriate heading: eg MARINE DISASTERS FUND, PERMANENT. See DISASTERS FUND, PERMANENT MARINE. In all cases, however, the title in usual order will be found with a cross listing to the appropriate heading: eg PERMANENT MARINE DISASTERS FUND. See DISASTERS FUND, PERMANENT MARINE. Where a topic is mentioned in the entry and is pertinent to that entry "qv" (for quod vide, "which see," or, if after a series, qqv) will follow the first mention of that topic to indicate that it can be found in the ENCYCLOPEDIA. Where there is the possibility of some doubt about the word with which the heading will begin, an asterisk (*) immediately precedes that word: eg "Pierre *Le Moyne d'Iberville qv'' will be found as LEMOYNE D'IBERVILLE, PIERRE; and ''Society for the Propagation of the *Gospel qv'' will be found as GOSPEL, SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE. References to other topics which come at the end of an entry (immediately before the sources) will be found in the ENCYCLOPEDIA as they appear there: eg See GOSPEL, SOCIETY FOR THE PROPAGATION OF THE. Because of the "key word" organization, and because the ENCYCLOPEDIA is "self-indexing," there are many cross references within the alphabetical listings. (Self-indexing means that different ways of listing a topic are included in the body of the ENCYCLOPEDIA with a cross reference to the heading used for the entry: eg AUTOMOBILES. See MOTOR VEHICLES; and CARS. See MOTOR VEHICLES.) Many subjects are organized under large, or widely inclusive, headings but in these instances cross references from the smaller components are included in the alphabetical listings: eg CHURCHILL FALLS HYDRO DEVEL­ OPMENT. See ELECTRICITY; or TRANS-ATLANTIC FLIGHTS. See AVIATION. Communities which have a reference to a map (eg Map H) preceding the author's initials (or name) can be found on the map re­ ferred to by letter in the series of maps which begins on page XVI.

Documentation As well as being a collection of information this ENCYCLOPEDIA may also be used as a starting point for further reading about a topic. At the end of nearly every entry (and in several cases throughout the entry) are recorded sources (books, Act, documents, etc.) used in the writing of the entry, works which often contain much more information on the topic than an encyclopedia can customarily present. An abbreviated method of recording these sources has been used. For sources where the author is known the author's name is given, followed by the year of publication (if known). If the year of publication is not known "n.d." (for "no date") stands in place of the year; a "?" following a year indicates that the year given is the likely date of publication but that the title page of the work does not bear a date. The same form is given for a work where no author is known, except that the title of the work is given in place of the author's name. If a source has more than two authors "et al" ("and others") follows the first author's name. Where an author has published more than one source in one year the second source to be cited in the ENCYCLOPEDIA will have "a" following the year of publication, the third "b," and so on: eg J.P. Howley (1917a; l917c). (The sources are so designated in the bibliography at the end of the ENCYCLOPEDIA.) The sources at the end of an entry are arranged alphabetically in the order (1) sources cited by author's name (2) sources cited by other than author's name (3) archival sources. Where page numbers are not given for a source the index of that source may be consulted for specific references. In addition to the written sources hundreds of people with special knowledge of the topics have been interviewed or have written letters to us; these sources are so designated in the entries. A bibliography giving complete bibliographical information for the written sources will be found, alphabetically by author's name or by title, at the end of the last volume of this ENCYCLOPEDIA. Exceptions to this are sources (usually where the author's name is not known) published in periodicals (newspapers, magazines) where full serial information is given at the end of the entry: eg Atlantic Advocate (Dec. 1980); and Acts of the Legislature where a full citation is given: eg Culling of Cod-fish Act (50 Vic., c. 22); or Public Service Act (1945, no. 18). Robert D. W. Pitt

xii Table~fJJ Contents

A...... 1 B ...... 105 c ····································································· 307 D ...... 581 E ...... 661 The Economy ...... 80 1

Authors' Abbreviations

BGR Bertram G. Riggs EPK Euguene P. Kennedy MHR Malcolm H . Rowe CMB Christine M. Bown GL Genevieve Lehr PAG Patricia A. Greene CFH Catherine F. Horan JCH Josephine C. Harvey PMH Pamela M. Hodgson DCM Dermod C. Madden JEMP Janet E . Miller Pitt RDP Robert D. Pitt DPJ Diane P. Janes JRD J. Ralph Dale TVC T. Valdine Ciwko ELGM Ettie L. Gordon Murray JRS Joseph R. Smallwood wcs Wayne C. Stockwood EMD Ellen M. Dinn LAP Linda A. Parsons Key

Adm. Admiral ha hectares MLC Member of the Legislative * see Editorial Note page XII Hon. Honourable Council B.A. Bachelor of Arts hp horse power M .L.S. Master of Library Science B.A. (Ed.) Bachelor of Arts (Education) ie id est ("that is"): specifi­ M.P. Member of Parliament B.Ed. Bachelor of Education cally M.Sc. Master of Science B.Sc Bachelor of Science in inches Msgr. Monsignor c. circa ("about") indicates an in2 square inches MV mega volts approximate date (c .1815); in3 cubic inches MW megawatts caput ("heading") precedes inc. incorporated n.d. no date heading number of Act (3 Jr. Junior O.B.E. Officer of the Order of the Vic.,c.9) K.B.E. Knight Commander, Order of British Empire c Celsius the British Empire oz ounces Capt. Captain K.C. King's Counsel p.; pp. page; pages C.B.E. Commander of the Order of K.C.B . Knight Commander of the passim throughout the work (or The British Empire Bath works) cited ch.; chapt. chapter K.C.M.G. Knight Commander of the P .C. Privy Councillor em centimetres Order of St. Michael and St. Ph. D Doctor of Philosophy cm2 square centimetres George pop. population cm3 cubic centimetres K.C.S.G. Knight Commander of the Pte. Private C.M.G. Companion of the Order of Order of St. Gregory Q.C. Queen's Counsel St. Michael and St. George kg kilograms qtl quintal Col. Colonel km kilometres qv;qqv quod vide ("which see") in­ cwt. hundredweight km2 square kilometres dicates that there is an entry D.D. Doctor of Divinity L litres in the ENCYCLOPEDIA on this Dr. Doctor lb pounds subject (or subjects) (see Edi­ eg exempli gratia ("for exam­ LL.B Bachelor of Laws torial Note: Organization) ple'') LL.D. Doctor of Laws Rev. Reverend F Fahrenheit Lt. Lieutenant Rt. Rev. Right Reverend fbm foot board measure Lt.-Col. Lieutenant-Colonel Sgt. Sergeant fl . jloruit ("flourished") indi­ m metres sic " thus'': inserted in a quota­ cates a period of activity m2 square metres tion this indicates an error oc­ where precise dates are not m3 cubic metres curring in the original known ifl. 1810-1820) M.A. Master of Arts Sr. Senior fm fathoms Maj. Major ST short tons ft feet M.B .E. Member of the Order of the t tonnes ft2 square feet British Empire T Tons ft3 cubic feet M.C. Military Cross Yen. Venerable (of a Dean) g grams mg milligrams vol. volume gal gallons M.H.A. Member of the House of As­ VS versus ("against") G .C.M.G. Knight Grand Cross of the sembly yd yards Order of St. Michael and St. mi miles yd2 square yards George mi2 square miles yd3 cubic yards Gen. General ml millilitres other see Sources page 1 X

xiii xiv XV A

B ay

xvi

ATLANTIC CEAN

r'/Belle" r,.raste

xviii D

& ,::,. ~llr ~ xix E

XX F

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A FOR APPLE, ABBOTT

A FOR APPLE. See WAR MEASURES. ganda missions over southern Italy, dropping tons of leaflets ABANDONED SETTLEMENTS. See RESETTLEMENT. designed to encourage Italian soldiers to desert and join the ABATTOIRS. In 1979 there were fifty-one abattoirs in the allies. During a bombing mission over Naples his plane was Province. The largest two of these, both licensed by the Cana­ shot down and Abbott spent eight hours in a dinghy before dian Department of Agriculture, Health of Animals Branch, rescue. were owned and operated by Newfoundland *Farm Products In 1944 he was transferred back to the Northern European Corporation qv . The first of them to be opened was located in theatre. While navigating a Halifax bomber he was shot down St. John's and began operations in 1964. In 1979 this abattoir over German occupied France. He bailed out on the edge of a slaughtered 21 ,672 hogs, 1,000,051 chickens, approximately German airfield in broad daylight and hid in a wooded area 700 beef cattle and 1500 sheep. The second Newfoundland until late at night to avoid capture. After walking through Farm Products abattoir to be opened was located in Corner rural occupied France, living off the land for six days and Brook and began slaughtering in 1974. In 1979 it processed nights, he finally met up with the French underground and 648 hogs, 1,000,354 chickens and approximately 200 beef was hidden by them for seventy days in a number of small vil­ cattle. In total these two slaughter-houses employed 192 peo­ lages. When the allies broke through he was sent back to Eng­ ple in 1979. In addition, in 1979, there were forty-nine other land. From there he was transferred to Dorval, Montreal, then abattoirs in the Province, known in the industry as " domestic posted to the Azores and subsequently to Gander, where he abattoirs," all licensed by the Newfoundland Government's remained until the end of the war. Department of Health and each handling an average of one After discharge Abbott entered the business community. In . animal a week. Hubert Sharpe (interview, Mar. 1980), D.A. 1949, with Confederation, he became the first Assistant Re­ Strong (interview, Feb. 1979). CFH gional Director of Family Allowances for Health and Welfare ABBOTT, BEATON J. (1903- ). Canada in Newfoundland. He was promoted to Regional Born Musgrave Harbour. Educated Director in 1956 and retired from the civil service in 1976. Musgrave Harbour High School, St. He was awarded the Croix de Guerre with Gold Star by the John's Methodist College, La Salle. French government in 1945 in recognition of distinguished Having worked as a school teacher service in flying fifty bombing missions over France. Carl for thirteen years and as a magistrate Abbott (interview, Nov. 1980). BGR for twenty-one years, serving at ABBOTT, DOUGLAS CHARLES. (1899- ). Judge of the Twillingate, Grand Bank and Grand Supreme Court of Canada from 1954 to 1973. Born Lennox­ Falls, he was elected to the House of ville, Quebec. Abbott was a Member of the Canadian Parlia­ Assembly as Liberal Member for ment and served as Minister of Finance (1946-1954) in the Beaton J . Abbott the district of Gander in 1956 and Mackenzie King and Louis St. Laurent Cabinets. Soon after for the district of Bonavista North in 1966. Between 1956 and the coming of Confederation to Newfoundland he was one of 1968 he held the following portfolios: Minister of Public Wel­ three Canadian Ministers to visit the Province to campaign in fare, Minister of Municipal Affairs and Supply, Minister of the first Federal General Election. Who' s Who in Canada Supply, and Minister of Municipal Affairs and Housing. He (1960). JRS was also a member of the United Church General Council ABBOTT, DR. EDWARD CARL (1936- ). Physician. from 1952 to 1956 and President of the Bible Society from Born Wesleyville, Newfoundland. Abbott received his M.D. 1959 to 1968. B.J. Abbott (interview, Feb. 1979) , Newfound­ from Dalhousie University in 1959 and was Assistant Medical land and Labrador Who's Who Centennial Edition (1968). Officer for the Botwood Cottage Hospital at Botwood, New­ CFH foundland, from 1959 to 1961. From 1967 to 1970 he was ABBOTT, CARL (1913- ). Sol- Physician for the General Hospital, St. John's, and held con­ dier; civil servant. Born Musgrave sulting appointments at the Janeway Hospital , the Grace Gen­ Harbour. Educated Musgrave Har­ eral Hospital and St. Clare's Mercy Hospital. In 1970 he was bour; Prince of Wales College, St. appointed Assistant Professor of Medicine at Dalhousie Medi­ John's. Abbott enlisted in the Royal cal School and became an Associate Professor at the School in Air Force in 1940 and trained with 1977. He was appointed Director of the Hypertension Unit at the Commonwealth Air Training Camp Hill Hospital, Halifax at its opening in 1979. He has Scheme in Canada and in England. written numerous articles including ' ' An Epidemiologic As a member of 150th Squadron he Study of Hypertension in Newfoundland" with J.G. Fodor flew seventeen bombing missions and I.E. Rusted. E.C. Abbott (letter, May 1981), Canadian Carl Abbott over Germany before being trans­ Medical Directory (1980), Karen Mann (interview, Apr. ferred to Algeria to fly bombing and reconnaissance missions 1981). DPJ for Mediterranean convoys supplying Montgomery' s troops ABBOTT, DR. ERIC (1929- ). in North Africa. He also flew bombing missions to soften up Musician; educator. Born St. Sicily and southern Italy in preparation for the Allied inva­ John' s. Educated Salvation Army sion . College; Salvation Army Mundy In 1943 Abbott was the navigator of the Wellington aircraft Pond School; Prince of Wales Col­ which was the first allied plane to fly over Rome to test Mus­ lege; Memorial University; Trinity solini's declaration that the city was undefended. Upon being College of Music, London, Eng­ shot at they changed course and bombed the Lida di Roma land; Acadia University, Wolfville, sea-plane base since they were under direct orders from Nova Scotia; Boston University, Churchill not to bomb Rome. His squadron also flew propa- Massachusetts. Dr. Eric Abbott 2 ABBOTT, ABRAHAM'S COVE

Abbott has been a teacher for thirty-one years, including ABERNETHY, CHRISTINA A.S. (1902- ). Nurse. Born four years as Registrar and Assistant to the Dean at the Boston Christina Smith, South Midlothian, Scotland. Educated in Conservatory of Music. In 1980 he was involved in training Scotland as nurse and midwife, Abernethy came to New­ twelve brass bands in four schools operated by the A val on foundland in 1939. Between then and 1965 she served as Dis­ Consolidated School Board and was also in private practice. trict Nurse for Harbour Breton, Burin, the entire west side of He was Songster Leader, Concert Master of the Band and Or­ Placentia Bay, Isle aux Morts and Trepassey. She also estab­ ganist at the St. John's Citadel Corps of the Salvation Army. lished a Nursing Station in Trepassey in the 1950s, and in Abbott has composed several works in the choral and in­ 1978 the medical centre in Trepassey was named The Nurse strumental fields and has published in Canada, the United Abernethy Clinic in her honour. Abernethy was given a trib­ States and Great Britain. In 1980 he was commissioned to ute by the St. John Ambulance Association of Canada in 1957 write a concert piece for the Salvation Army in Australia and was named Woman of the Year in 1976 by the Royal which was first performed there in January 1981. He was also Canadian Legion. C.A.S. Abernethy (letters, Jan. 1979), DN commissioned by the Newfoundland Government to arrange (June 23, 1978). CFH fourteen folksongs for classroom presentation. His composi­ ABITIBI-PRICE LIMITED. See PULP AND PAPER MAK­ tion St. John's March has been performed world-wide. E.O. ING. Abbott (letter, Dec. 1980). BGR ABRAHAM, BISHOP PIDLIP ABBOTT, JOHN (1874- ?). Politician. Born Bonavista. SELWYN (1897-1955). Cler­ Educated Methodist School, Bonavista. After he left school gyman. Born Lichfield, Eng­ Abbott went fishing with his father and when William F. land. Educated Eton; Oxford; Coaker qv started the *Fishermen's Protective Union qv Clergy Training School, We­ (F. P. U.) in 1908 Abbott joined and in 1913 he became man­ scott Hall, Cambridge. Follow­ ager of the F.P.U. Trading Company's Branch Store in Bon­ ing his ordination as priest in avista, a position he held for five years. When Coaker allied 1923 Abraham served as curate the F. P. U. with Sir Robert Bond and the Liberal Party in the of St. Paul's Church in Day­ election of 1913, Abbott was elected to the House of Assem­ brook and as Priest-in-Charge bly for the District of Bonavista on the Liberal Unionist of the Church of Transfigura­ ticket. He was re-elected in 1919 and again in 1923. In that tion in Sherwood, both in Not­ year he went to Labrador on behalf of the Government and tingham, England. In 1929 he Bishop Abraham brought back a report on conditions there. He retired from was appointed assistant priest politics later that year and was appointed a Collector of Her and preacher at the Cathedral of the Holy Trinity in Quebec Majesty's Customs. In 1930 he was made a Justice of the City and in 1931 he became Vicar of the Parish of St. Edward Peace. M.W. Graesser (1977), Who's Who in and from New­ the Confessor in Romford, Essex. Six years later Abraham foundland (1930?). BGR was appointed Co-adjutor Bishop of Newfoundland and in ABERDEEN, GEORGE HAMILTON GORDON, 1944 he became the Anglican Bishop of Newfoundland. Dur­ FOURTH EARL OF (1784-1860). Born Edinburgh, Scot­ ing his episcopacy the Church of England Diocese of New­ land. Educated Cambridge. Elected Scottish representative foundland, which had been under the control of the Arch­ peer for the Tory side of the House in 1806, and again in bishop of Canterbury since 1839, was transferred to the care 1812; he was appointed Colonial Secretary in 1834 and main­ of the Archbishop of Quebec. Bishop Abraham remained tained this position until 1835. In 1836 Lord Aberdeen re­ Bishop of Newfoundland until 1955, when he died in St. fused to condone the Quadrennial Act qv permitting the New­ John's. A number of schools in Newfoundland have been foundland House of Assembly to continue until 1840 without named after him. ET (Dec. 24, 1955), Newfoundland Who's elections. In 1839 he presented a petition on behalf of the Who 1952 (1952?). CFH Newfoundland Chamber of Commerce to the House of Lords ABRAHAM'S COVE (pop. 1976, 103). Situated on the south in London for the abolition of the Newfoundland Legislature. side of the Port au Port Peninsula, Abraham's Cove is approx­ This petition stated that the Legislative Council was com­ imately 24 km (15 mi) west of Stephenville. According to posed of capitalist merchants who were unqualified members local tradition Abraham's Cove was first settled in the second of the Assembly and had illegally arrested Judge George Lilly half of the Nineteenth Century by a family known as the qv of the Supreme Court, used public funds for personal use Duffeys, who were French Canadians, probably Acadians. and communicated with William Lyon Mackenzie's rebels in These first settlers, who were first recorded (anonymously) in Canada. The petitioners called for the suspension of the the Census of 1884, depended upon their small farm and the Legislature as an immediate remedy to the financially and po­ inshore fishery for their livelihood. The family of Duffeys litically unstable condition of the Colony "under the present were joined soon after by a family of Bruces, who, according government.'' Although Aberdeen did not support the aboli­ to family history, arrived in Abraham's Cove from St. Pierre tion, he thought there were reasonable and sufficient grounds by way of Codroy Island, Isle aux Morts and Campbell's for an inquiry. With the resignation of Lord Derby from the Creek. By 1891 the population of the small community was British House of Commons in 1852, Lord Aberdeen formed a fifteen. These early settlers tended their fields, raised cattle, new administration and became First Lord of the Treasury. In sheep and small flocks of poultry, and fished for cod. 1855, with the defeat of the government under Lord John Around the turn of the century the fishermen in the commu­ Russell, Aberdeen resigned, but occasionally took part in the nity also began lobster fishing, and by 1902 there was a small House of Lords debates after his resignation. He died in Lon­ lobster factory in Abraham's Cove which employed three don in his 77th yearand was buried at Middlesex. G.E. Gunn people. As well, the inhabitants fished for cod, farmed and (1966), DNB (VITI). GL operated a small sawmill. After the turn of the century the ABRAHAM'S COVE, ACROSTIC 3 community grew slowly. Its principal produce has been-..f~­ Chartered Accountants. They then automatically become ster, cod and herring. The most important species caught members of the Canadian institute. Members working in pub­ throughout the 1970s was herring; in the early 1980s, how­ lic accounting firms and responsible for attesting to financial ever, this fish became scarce, in the waters around Abraham's statements are required to be licensed by the Public Account­ Cove and in 1981 very few were caught. Besides herring, lob­ ing Licensing Board. In Newfoundland only chartered ac­ ster and cod are important species as well. Flounder and wolf­ countants may perform this function of auditing, and those fish are also commercially exploited. A total of fourteen fish­ who are licensed are Registered Public Accountants. ermen carried out the inshore fishery there in that year in eight PUBLIC ACCOUNTANTS. There are few public accountants small vessels. Markets for their produce were fish plants in now practising in the Province who are not Chartered Ac­ Piccadilly. Other employment for people residing in Abra­ countants. The Public Accountancy Act of 1966-67 estab­ ham's Cove was provided by the Department of Highways lished a board to grant licences to eligible practising Public depot, which was established in 1960, and service industries Accountants who were not members of the Institute of Char­ in Stephenville. Rev. Joseph Kelly (interview, Apr. 1981), tered Accountants. No application was to be accepted 180 Henry Watson (interview, Apr. 1981), W.C. Wonders days after the board was established. Persons licensed under (1951), Census (1884-1976),JHA (5, 19, 1904; 3, 22, 1911). the Act were permitted to study the course leading to admis­ Map K. CFH sion to the Institute, and those who were licensed under the ABSENTEE ENTERPRISES. The waterfront area of St. Act and had practised public accountancy for a period of at John's, originally used exclusively by the " Western Adven­ least ten years were permitted to write the final examinations turers'' qv from England to promote their own interests in the leading to admission to the Institute. Newfoundland fishery, eventually passed from public to pri­ REGISTERED INDUSTRIAL ACCOUNTANTS. The Society of vate ownership. From these transactions sprang the system of Management Accountants of Newfoundland (formerly the So­ absentee ownership. These absentee landlords lived abroad, ciety oflndustrial Accountants) was incorporated in 1951 and usually in Great Britain, and they would grant only short-term affiliated with similar provincial societies to form the Society building leases on their waterfront property to merchants liv­ oflndustrial Accountants of Canada. The national body offers ing in Newfoundland. Thus only the cheapest kind of building a uniform five-year course of study designed to provide quali­ was constructed, since the establishment would not be a per­ fied accounting personnel for commerce, industry, and gov­ manent one. In addition to the restrictive property laws en­ ernment, but not for public auditing practice. Upon successful forced by the British Government, the influence of absentee completion of the prescribed curriculum and required exam­ landlords, through their agents in Newfoundland, stunted the inations, and after four years of practical experience, students growth of the town's business life and delayed the establish­ obtain the nationally recognized R.I.A. A survey conducted ment of local government. These flimsy structures also contri­ in March 1979 showed the Newfoundland Society of Manage­ buted to the early fires that destroyed much of St. John's. GL. ment Accountants to have sixty-seven registered members, ABSTINENCE AND BENEFIT SOCIETY, TOTAL. See and 123 student members. PAG TEMPERANCE. ACOUTSINA. The name given to the young Inuit woman who ACADEMIES. See SCHOOLS. taught Franr;:ois *Martel de Brouague qv the language of her ACADEMY OF ART, NEWFOUNDLAND. See ART. people. The word seems to be a French or English derivation ACCENTS IN NEWFOUNDLAND SPEECH.See DIALECTS. of an Inuit term, akutsiarq, meaning "the beautiful apron." ACCIPITERS. See HAWKS. DCB (II) . LAP. ACCOUNT ANTS. There are three associations of professional ACROSTIC, CELEBRATED. Sir Gordon MacDonald qv, accountants in Newfoundland: the Institute of Chartered Ac­ Governor of Newfoundland, was disliked by some New­ countants of Newfoundland, whose members are designated fmindlanders. He was an ardent advocate of temperance, al­ C.A.; the Society of Management Accountants, whose lowing no alcoholic beverages at Government House recep­ members are designated R.I.A. (Registered Industrial Ac­ tions. He sometimes accepted invitations to preach in countant) and the Certified General Accountants Association churches in St. John's, where he once referred to "the wine­ of Newfoundland, whose members are designated C.G.A . bibbers of the East End and the beer-guzzlers of the West CERTIFIED GENERAL ACCOUNTANTS. The Certified Gen­ End." He was also suspected by anti-Confederates of trying eral Accountants Association of Newfoundland is not incor­ to push Newfoundland into Confederation with Canada. He porated but is a branch of the national body, the General Ac­ continued in office as Governor of Newfoundland until 1949 countants Association of Canada, which was incorporated by and two days after he left the Island for the last time this the Canadian Parliament in 1913. It has existed in the Prov­ acrostic appeared in the Evening Telegram (Mar. 8, 1949), ince since the late 1950s, and in 1979 had 332 members and signed E .A .: students who become qualified through correspondence A Farewell! studies supplemented by lecture programmes. The association The prayers of countless thousands sent primarily provides professional accounting services in gov­ Heavenwards to speed thy safe return, ernment and commercial industry. Ennobled as thou art with duty well performed, CHARTERED ACCOUNTANTS . There were sixteen founding Bringing peace, security and joy Among the peoples of this New Found Land. members of the Institute of Chartered Accountants of New­ So saddened and depressed until your presence foundland, which was incorporated March 31, 1949, and to Taught us discern and help decide what's best for which all chartered accountants in the Province belong. Each All on whom fortune had not smiled. Remember if you will the kindness and the love year in Newfoundland an average of twelve persons is admit­ Devotion and the respect that we the people have for ted to the membership of the provincial institute after passing Thee- Farewell! the uniform final examinations of the Canadian Institute of (italics added). JRS 4 ACT AND BILL, ADDISON ACT AND BILL. When a piece of legislation is introduced to ACUPUNCTURE SOCIETY, NEWFOUNDLAND. See the Legislature it is called a Bill. The Bill passes through five ACUPUNCTURE. stages in the Legislature after the notice of intention to intro­ ADAM'S COVE. See SMALL POINT-BROAD C"VE­ duce it has been given. The Bill is read for the first time, BLACKHEAD-ADAM'S COVE. sometimes on the following day, and is given second reading ADAMS, LT.-COL. CHARLES (1875-1964). Soldier. Born by the House after it has been debated in principle. Next, the St. John's. Educated Newfoundland Methodist College; Bill is considered line by line and often word by word by the Bishop's College, Montreal. Besides rising to the rank of Committee of the Whole House and amendments may be Lieutenent Colonel in the Canadian Army Service Corps he made provided that no amendment contradicts the main prin­ was founder, president and managing director of Adams ciples of the original Bill. If, after a third and final reading, Chemical Company Limited of Montreal. CFH the Bill is passed by the House, the Lieutenant Governor ADAMS, REV. FREDERICK J. (1939- ). Clergyman. comes in person to the House and announces: "In Her Ma­ Born Burin. Educated United Church School, Sheen's Hill jesty's name I assent to this Bill." Thereupon it ceases to be a School, Burin; Mount Allison University, Sackville, N.B.; Bill and becomes an Act and the law. JRS Pine Hill Divinity Hall, Halifax, N.S. Frederick Adams ACUPUNCTURE. An ancient Chinese method of inserting worked as a diesel engineer, I955-57, and as a student-lay needles into various points on the body for the treatment of minister, 1957-65. He was ordained in I965 and has served a pain of diverse origins. number of charges around Newfoundland. He was General­ Prior to the formation of the Newfoundland Acupuncture Secretary of the Newfoundland Conference of the United Society, Dr. Cos mas V. Ho treated patients (who were re­ Church of Canada, 1970-72, and served as Conference Presi­ quired to sign an official form of consent) in his office. In dent for I973-I974. Who's Who Newfoundland Silver Anni­ April 1973 Dr. Ho, who is also a member of the Acupuncture versary Edition (1975). BGR Foundation of Canada, received a diploma in the science of ADAMS, SIR THOMAS if/.1765). Judge. Sir Thomas Adams acupuncture from the Chinese Acupuncture. Institute and in was the commander of H.M.S. Niger, 1764-1766, which pa­ July he treated his first patients. As a consequence of Dr. trolled the fisheries on the northern and southern coast of Ho's early acupuncture treatments and through the initiative Newfoundland and southern coast of Labrador. He was one of of one of his patients, Anne Nicholl, the Newfoundland Acu­ the first surrogate judges appointed by Newfoundland Gover­ puncture Society was founded in January 1975 with the Rev. nor Sir Hugh Palliser in I 765. His area of jurisdiction reached A. Morris Russell as its first president. from Davis Strait to York Harbour on the Labrador coast. Membership in the Society comprises patients, former pa­ DCB (III), W.G. Gosling (1910). CMB tients and other interested persons. As of February 1979 there ADAMS, WILLIAM G. (1923- were approximately 100 members. Because of lack of funds ). Lawyer; politician; judge. the Society is not incorporated and it depends on membership Born St. John's. Educated Bishop fees to attain its goals. Feild College; Dalhousie Law When the society was founded its objectives were (1) rec­ School. Having practised law in St. ognition of acupuncture treatments by the Newfoundland John's for almost ten years, W.G. Medical Association as an acceptable medical practice; Adams was elected to the St. John's (2) administration of such treatments by registered medical Municipal Council and held the po­ practitioners only; (3) inclusion of the costs of acupuncture sition of Deputy Mayor from Jan­ treatments under the government medical care programme; uary 1962 to December 1965. Dur­ William G. Adams (4) education and research in the practice of acupuncture as a ing his tenure at City Hall he also form of medical care. became involved in provincial politics and in November, In June I976 an amendment was made to the Medical Act 1962 was elected to the House of Assembly where he sat as which legitimized the use of acupuncture as a medical prac­ the Liberal Member for St. John's West until 1965, when he tice in Newfoundland, thereby making it illegal for unregis­ resigned to run for the office of Mayor of St. John's. Having tered medical practitioners to administer acupuncture treat­ been successful in the mayoral election, Adams assumed the ments. However, the Newfoundland Medical Care office of Mayor of St. John's on January I, I966 and here­ Commission does not recognize acupuncture treatments as a mained in that office until 1973. In June 1971 he was ap­ form of medical care which comes within its scope, and recip­ pointed Minister without portfolio in the Provincial Govern­ ients of such treatments must pay. ment and in October 1971 was elected to represent the district As of June 1979 there were no other branches of the New­ of Twilling ate in the House of Assembly. Following the dis­ foundland Acupuncture Society elsewhere in the Province and solution of the House of Assembly on March I, I972 he re­ persons who wished to receive treatments travelled to St. tired from provincial politics. In November 1978 he was ap­ John's, where several clinics were in operation. Dr. Ho's pointed a District Court Judge of the Judicial Centre of St. Clinic, the largest in the Province, treats about forty-five pa­ John's. Adams received the honorary title of Queen's Council tients a week. Another clinic in the city is operated by Dr. in 1963. W.G. Adams (interview, Mar. I979) , Newfoundland Anthony Tsy. The Society plans to establish branches in other and Labrador Who's Who Centennial Edition ( I968). CFH areas of the Province in the near future. A.D.B. See ATLANTIC DEVELOPMENT BOARD. The Newfoundland Acupuncture Society corresponds with, A.D.C. See ATLANTIC DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL. but is not affiliated with, the Acupuncture Foundation of Can­ ADDISON, RT. HON. CHRISTOPHER (1869-1951). Politi- ada, an organization which derives its membership from the cian. Born Hogsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England. Educated medical profession. ELGM Trinity College, Harrogate and medical schools in Sheffield ADDISON, ADMIRAL'S COVE 5 and at St. Bartholomew's Hospital. Addison held a nu~~;(of until the 1950s when the original mill, which had ceased pro­ offices in the Government of Britain after he was first elected duction c. 1945, was tom down to make way for construction to the British Parliament in 1910. In 1945 Clement Attlee, the of the Trans Canada Highway. In the 1920s and 1930s some British Prime Minister, appointed him the Leader of the fishing, both Labrador and Newfoundland shore, was re­ House of Lords. He remained in government until 1951, serv­ ported; however, the commercial fishery was never a major ing as Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs from 1945 to occupation in the community. In 1981 a sawmill which pro­ 1947, Paymaster-General from 1948 to 1949 and Lord Presi­ duced 75,000 to 100,000 f.b.m. per year was operating. The dent of the Council in 1951. As Secretary of State for Domin­ remaining work force was employed as skilled and semi­ ion Affairs, part of Addison's responsibilities was dealing skilled workers in the Clarenville area. with Newfoundland's National Convention. In 1947 he held The first school (Methodist) in Lee Bight was reported in talks with a delegation from this body in London and con­ 1882 with sixteen people taught by Miss Mary Mayo (JHA: veyed to them the information that in the case that Newfound­ 1883), and for some years the school teacher divided the year, land voted for and had reinstituted Responsible Government, teaching some months at the Lee Bight school and the re­ the British Government would cease financial aid to New­ mainder at the Deep Bight school. In the early 1900s Adeyton foundland. He also made it known that in the office of Secre­ shared a school with Caplin Cove qv. By 1911 Adeyton sup­ tary of State for Dominion Affairs, was the power to act on or ported a Methodist church as well as the school. By 1970 the ignore any of the National Convention's recommendations. Adeyton school was closed and students attended elementary One year later when the National Convention recommended school in Deep Bight and high school in Clarenville qv. Kevin there be two choices on the national constitutional referendum Barrett (1976), J.K. Hiller (1981) , Alexander Robertson (Responsible Government and Commission of Government) (1979), Census (1869-1976), JHA (1884). Map H. JEMP the then Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs, P.J. Noel­ ADMINISTRATION, THE. See GOVERNMENT. Baker made true Addison's claims by adding a third choice to ADMINISTRATOR, THE. He is the Chief Justice of the Su­ the referendum- that of Confederation with Canada. R.L. preme Court of Newfoundland, and becomes, in effect, acting Clark (1951), DNB (1951-1960), ET (May 20, 1947), Who Lieutenant Governor qv in the absence of the person holding Was Who (Vol. V). CFH that office. See GOVERNMENT. JRS ADDRESS IN REPLY, THE. See HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY. ADMIRAL'S BEACH (inc. 1968; pop. 1976, 370). A commu­ ADELPHIAN,THE. First published in 1904 by the students of nity in St. Mary's Bay on the point of land nearest Great Co­ St. Bonaventure's College qv as an informational and literary linet Island. Admiral's Beach was first settled in the early quarterly, it exists today as the year-book of St. Bonaven­ Nineteenth Century (about 1805), traditionally by a French ture's School. CFH Admiral. Later Gregorys, Hearns, Comerfords and (still later) ADEYTON (pop. 1976, 63). A small community located be­ Barrons settled there. After these early settlers few new tween Hillview and Deep Bight qqv in the northwest arm of settlers came into the community until 1956, when through Trinity Bay, south of Clarenville qv. Adeyton (formerly the resettlement programme, families from Colinet Island re­ called Lee Bight), like Deep Bight, Piston Mere, Maggoty settled there. Cove and Forster's Point qqv, was founded in the 1850s and Good fishing grounds and a sheltered cove attracted the 1860s as a small logging operation and, with the building of first settlers to the area. In 1981 members of the commt:nity the trans-Newfoundland railway at the close of the Nineteenth found work in the inshore fishery and the first plant operated Century, it grew as the demand for lumber was at a peak (J .K. by Newfoundland Quick Freeze. Admiral's Beach also had Hiller: 1981). Edward and Pasco Adey came to Lee Bight two ship-building yards where fishing boats and longliners c.1865 from Hants Harbour qv with the intention of logging. were built with supplies from local, privately (family)-owned Lee Bight, like nearby Deep Bight, had the indispensable re­ sawmills. The community was incorporated in January 1968. quirements of a logging operation: a nearby stand of timber In 1981 approximately 400 persons lived there. Mrs. Len sufficient to support a water-powered sawmill (which relied Bungay (interview, 1981), Mrs. Elizabeth Dalton (interview, on the water from a fast-flowing brook) and clear access to the 1981). Map H. ELGM sea to ship the sawn timber. In 1883 it was reported that the ADMIRAL'S COVE, FERMEUSE HARBOUR. See PORT " Lee Bight river is occupied by a sawmill" (JHA: 1884). KIRWAN By 1870 a water-powered sawmill had been built, one of ADMIRAL'S COVE (pop. 1976, 109). A fishing settlement in several in the Northwest Arm of Trinity Bay at that time, and Cape Broyle Harbour on the Southern Shore of the Avalon by the tum of the century it was one of an estimated 150 Peninsula. Although Admiral's Cove was not listed in the water-wheel sawmills in Newfoundland. The sawmill was Census of Newfoundland and Labrador until 1901, the com­ housed in a 3.7 by 3.7 m (12 by 12ft) wooden enclosure with munity was mentioned by name in the Journal of the House of a shingle roof and it was connected to a water-wheel made of Assembly of 1855 and it was stated at that time to have had a wood with the brickets, or slats which formed the small water population of approximately ninety. In a later reference to the spillways, made of slate; the lumber was taken to St. John' s community in the Journal (JHA: 1, 11, 1874) it was noted by schooner. By 1911 two sawmills were operating in Adey­ that by 1873 a small Roman Catholic school was being ton, which had grown to thirty people: the mills produced operated in the community by a Mrs. Pendergast. 12 ,000 sawn logs, mainly birch and fir, and 111,000 staves. By 1901 the settlement of Admiral's Cove had a population Sawmilling was the major industry of the community, by then of 156. The people there were engaged in small-scale farming called Adeytown (after the community's first settlers) and in and the inshore cod fishery. In the Twentieth Century these 1921 seven sawmills were reported in the community. Saw­ two endeavours have continued to be the main occupations of milling continued to support the settlement almost exclusively the inhabitants there. In 1981 there were approximately ten 6 ADMIRAL'S COVE. AERIAL SURVEY

fishermen working from Admiral's Cove. A small number of rangement. By 1729 it is apparent that the Government was people commuted daily to St. John's to work. There was one convinced of the inadequacy of the system, for in that year church in Admiral's Cove in 1981. Jean Payne (interview, they appointed Newfoundland's first governor with civil au­ Feb. 1981), Census (1901-1976), JHA (2, 6, 1855; 1, 11, thority and gave him the power to appoint magistrates who 1874). Map H. CFH would winter on the Island. Although the Fishing Admirals ADMIRALS, FISHING. Except during the brief periods when system was not formally abolished in 1729, within a few "the six colonies" and the government of Placentia qv exer­ years of the appointment of the governor the system had died cised control over certain parts of the Newfoundland coast, away and been replaced by the use of magistrates in summer there was no resident year-long governor in Newfoundland and winter. See PRUD'HOMMES. G.T. Cell (1969), H.A. before 1729. Beginning in the first half of the Sixteenth Cen­ Innis (1940), Keith Matthews (1968; 1973; 1975), D.W. tury the coasts of Newfoundland were controlled by migratory Prowse (1895). CFH fishermen from several European countries who visited the ADMIRAL'S POINT. See FORT POINT. shores each summer to fish and dry their catches. In answer to ADMIRAL'S ROOM. In the time of the migratory fishery in the need for law and order on the coasts the Fishing Admirals Newfoundland, the master of the first ship to arrive became system was devised and slowly established. By the 1580s, ''Admiral'' of the harbour for that summer. He had first when the English had become dominant on Newfoundland's choice of Ship's Rooms qv and naturally chose the favoured shores, the system was in wide use. piece of shore, which would then be the ''Admiral's room.'' Under this informal system the first ship to enter a harbour The ideal room was the most sheltered, nearest the fishing in the spring of the year enjoyed the privilege of having the grounds, and had a good beach which allowed at least some first choice of fishing rooms in the harbour, and its master im­ curing of fish without the use of flakes. The many localities mediately became the ''Admiral'' of that harbour for the rest around the Island named ''Admiral'' or ''Admiral's'' are re­ of the fishing season. Similarly, the second ship to enter har­ miniscent of this practice. For example, King's Beach, lo­ bour had second pick of the fishing rooms and its master be­ cated on the north slope of St. John's Harbour, was once came "Vice Admiral;" the third ship to arrive chose its room called Admiral's Ship's Room, and extended from St. John's from what was left and its master became the "Rear Admi­ Lane almost to Cochrane Street. See ADMIRALS, FISHING. ral" of the harbour. Under this arrangement the Admiral was PAG responsible for the administration of justice in his Harbour ADMIRALTY COURT. See JUDICATURE. and the Vice and Rear Admirals were his assistants. ADMIRALTY HYDROGRAPIDC SERVICES. See HY­ Although the right of the Admiral to choose the best fishing DROGRAPHIC SERVICES, ADMIRALTY. room in the harbour was officially recognized in the Western ADMIRALTY WIRELESS STATION. See TELEGRAPH Charter of 1634 it was not until 1671 that the Vice and Rear AND TELEPHONE COMPANIES. Admirals and the method of enforcing the law through the ADOPTIONS. See CHILD WELFARE. Admirals were given the sanction of the British Government. ADULT EDUCATION. See SCHOOLS. In this year an order was issued which specifically obliged the ADULT EDUCATION ASSOCIATION. See EDUCATION Admirals to ensure that all the King's orders and rules con­ ASSOCIATION, ADULT. cerning the fishery were followed, that peace and order were AD VALOREM CUSTOMS AND EXCISE DUTIES. See maintained, and that all criminal offenders were arrested and TARIFFS. transported to England to be tried in the fall. ADVENTIST MESSENGER. Charles Henry Keslake, a Sev­ Despite the fact that the Government in Britain relied on the enth Day Adventist minister acting on behalf of the Canadian Fishing Admirals system to maintain the law, it is highly un­ Union Conference of Seventh Day Adventists, started this likely that the system ever fully accomplished this. Basically newspaper on February 10, 1909. The paper was printed at 91 the enforcement of law depended on the personal strength of Cabot Street in St. John's and remained a local production the Admiral and on his willingness to spend time on judicial until July 1911, when the publication moved to Oshawa, On­ matters. Since the Admiral was also the captain of a fishing tario, where it has remained. Over the years the paper ship, with orders to make his voyage as profitable and as short changed its name from theAdventist Messenger to the Eastern as possible, he probably did not set aside much time to settle Canadian Messenger to the Canadian Union Messenger, and disputes and seek out criminals. Certainly criminal actions back again to its original name in July 1977. The Adve"ltist often went unpunished and fishermen's disputes were often Messenger was still being published in 1980. R. Fifield (inter­ left unsettled. This is not to say, however, that the Admiral view, Apr. 1980), Archives GN 32/22. DCM never attempted to settle judicial matters. It is highly likely ADVERTISERS GAZETTE. This newspaper was founded or. that in all cases where an Admiral or his own ship were in­ September 10, 1883 by William J. Herder qv, the founder of volved in a dispute he made judgements quite readily. More­ the Evening Telegram. Herder was the paper's sole propri­ over, it is known that from time to time Admirals tried to etor, printer and publisher as well as proprietor of the types remedy problems stemming from settlers' claims -often to ~press. The Advertisers Gazette was issued from the office the migratory fishermen's advantage. Nevertheless, lawless­ of the Evening Telegram in Gregory's Lane, St. John's. The ness remained the rule on Newfoundland's coasts. duration of the circulation is not known. Archives GN 32/22. During the early 1700s frequent complaints (from residents DCM of the Island and British convoy commanders) about smug­ ADVOCATE MINES LIMITED. See MINING. gling, violence and the general state of anarchy on the coasts AERATED WATERS. See SOFT DRINKS. during the summer, and in the small settlements during the AERIAL SURVEY COMPANY (NEWFOUNDLAND) winter, alerted the government to the shortcomings of the ar- LIMITED. See AIR SERVICES. AFFORESTATION, AGRICULTURAL PESTS 7

2-3 million m3 (70-1 06 million ft 3 ) of wood at maturity, is still considered an important potential resource for forestry in Newfoundland. Following the initial six trials the necessary peatland-classification data were collected and guidelines were established for training-scale and pilot-scale pro­ grammes which would accurately identify costs and technical and biological problems associated with the development of this resource. W.A. Dickson (1972), Paivanen and Wells (1978), James Richardson (1977), D.T. Sharpe (1972). PAG AFFRAY, HARBOUR GRACE. See HARBOUR GRACE. AGAMEMNON, H.M.S. See CABLE, ATLANTIC. AGATE. Agate (Si02) is a variegated waxy quartz in which the colours are usually in bands. Carnelian agates are found near Fox Island River, Port au Port and are used extensively in cos­ tume jewelry. F.J. Warren (n.d.). BGR Preparing for aerial fertilization spraying. AGE, AVERAGE. See POPULATION. "AGE OF GOVERNORS." See GOVERNMENT. AFFORESTATION. The practice of planting tree seedlings on AGED, HOMES FOR. See SENIOR CITIZENS' HOMES. previously unforested land was carried out extensively by the AGING, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR ASSOCI- Newfoundland Government between 1938 and 1952 on ATION FOR THE. This organization was founded in I 967 upland heath. Price Company was also involved in this early as a result of a conference on aging convened in Ottawa, work. Most of the plantations failed and a long period of inac­ which was attended by representatives of such federal depart­ tivity in afforestation followed. Work was resumed between ments as the Department of National Health and Welfare, and 1966 and 1970, however, when a newly-developed method of the Dominion Bureau of Statistics (now Statistics Canada), by rating wind-exposure made it easier to determine suitable representatives of such provincial departments as Welfare, areas for planting. Fifty hectares (125 acres) of plantation was Education and Health, representatives of the Provincial Li­ established following preparation of the site by ploughing. braries Board, and by some directors of Senior Citizens insti­ Frost-heaving on heathland soil caused unsatisfactory survival tutions. In 1980 the main branch office of the association was and growth rates, except on selected sheltered sites, so the located on Golf Avenue in St. John's. The first president was heathland afforestation programme was abandoned as imprac­ Ralph Andrews, then deputy minister of Public Welfare for ticable. Newfoundland. From the beginning the organization was In the mid-1960s government and industry became inter­ funded by provincial grants of $2,000 a year. Otherwise the ested in peatland afforestation. This involves draining and association is strictly a voluntary one. There are approxi­ preparing bogs and fens for planting, using a specialized mately 100 members including both senior citizens and plough and tractors modified to keep from sinking below the younger adults who subscribe to the aims and purposes of the bog surface. Six drainage and afforestation sites were estab­ association. There are committees of the association in every lished on peatlands throughout Newfoundland within dif­ Social Service District in Newfoundland and Labrador. Some ferent forest types of eastern, central and western Newfound­ of the aims and activities of the association include: conduct­ land. They were ditch spacing trials, tree species trials and ing seminars on the needs of the aged; encouraging communi­ planting position trials. Four of the trials, however, ingluding ties to create activities and facilities for the aged; building ali­ the two carried out by Bowater Newfoundland Limited, were brary service for the association; public education of the needs established on exposed, nutrient-poor bogs. The remaining of the aged; maintaining constant contact with the Provincial two trials were on more nutrient-rich fens, but drainage sys­ Government. Ralph Andrews (interview, Oct. 1980), Stella tems on these, as well as on the other four, were not ade­ Burry (interview, Oct. 1980), Barbara Doran (1978). CMB quately designed. Adequate comparisons could not be made AGRAMONTE, JUAN DE. See DE AGRAMONTE, JUAN. because the fen which had the highest afforestation potential AGRICULTURAL AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT AD­ had been planted by an inexperienced planting crew. In most MINISTRATION. See REGIONAL ECONOMIC EXPAN­ cases growth has been poor, but satisfactory establishment SION, DEPARTMENT OF. and growth of several larch species and of lodgepole pine may AGRICULTURAL LIMESTONE. See LIMESTONE. be possible. AGRICULTURAL PESTS. There are three major groups of There is potential to grow a crop of larch on reclaimed peat­ agricultural pests: insects, weeds and diseases. land in twenty to twenty-five years, and since the otherwise INSECfS. I. Vegetables. The cabbage root maggot, Hyle­ economically useless larch is excellent for Iinerboard paper, mya brassicae (Bouche), is Newfoundland's most important some interest was aroused in its cultivation during the exis­ agricultural pest; it attacks cabbage, swede turnips, cauli­ tence of the Newfoundland and Labrador Linerboard Mill. flower, broccoli, brussels sprouts and radishes. Resulting After the linerboard mill ceased operation very little govern­ crop losses may vary from 1% to 100%. The eggs of this spe­ ment money was spent on afforestation research. Bowater cies, from which the maggots emerge, are deposited by the fe­ also decided against diverting further money from their refor­ male fly on the surface of the soil around the stems of suscep­ estation funds for afforestation trials. tible plants. The larvae, once hatched, migrate down through The estimated 1.4 million ha (3.46 million acres) of re­ the soil and feed on the roots. claimable peatland which, if drained and planted, could yield Leaf eating caterpillars, the imported cabbage worm, Pieris 8 AGRICULTURAL PESTS

rapae (L.); the purplebacked cabbage worm, Evergestis palli­ served in Newfoundland at Hare Bay, Bonavista Bay in 1975 data Hufnagel; and the diamondback moth, Plutella xylostella and was probably introduced to Newfoundland in used blue­ (L.), deposit their eggs on the foliage of cabbage, cauli­ berry containers from Nova Scotia. flower, swede turnips and Chinese cabbage. Once the larva 3. Forage grasses, legumes and lawns. The larva of the hatches, it feeds on the foliage of these susceptible plants. antler moth, Cerapterix graminis (L.) feeds on all plants be­ The severity of attack varies widely, and controls are fre­ longing to the grass family. The antler moth was first discov­ quently required. ered in Newfoundland in 1966 and by 1979 was a pest of hay The larva of the carrot rust fly, Psila rosae (Fab.), attacks and pasture fields in and around St. John's. In some instances the roots of carrot, parsnip and parsley. It is a serious periodic the larvae have severely damaged hay and pasture crops. pest in home gardens but is less frequent on commercial farms The Chinch bug, Blissus leucopterus leucopterus (Say), since crop rotation, which is an effective control measure of causes extensive damage to lawns throughout eastern and cen­ this pest, is practised. Crop rotation, however, is not usually tral Newfoundland each year. Both the nymphs and adults of practised in home gardens. this insect destroy grass plants by sucking their juice. Without Several species of wireworms, particularly the lined chick­ adequate controls lawns and turfs may be completely de­ beetle, Agriotes lineatus (L.), are serious pests of potatoes in stroyed. eastern Newfoundland. The larvae feed on both potato seeds The European marsh cranefly, Tipula paludosa Mg., can at when planted and new developing tubers. They also eat the times cause extensive damage to hay and pasture fields. The roots of cereals and grasses. Crop rotation and the use of in­ larva feeds on the roots and crowns of grasses. In North secticides provide adequate control of these pests. America this insect is only found in Newfoundland, Cape Many species of cutworms, particularly the black cutworm, Breton Island, and at Vancouver. Agrotis ipsilon (Hufn.), and the variegated cutworm, Peri­ The white grub, Phyllophaga anxia (LeC.), causes consid­ drama saucia (Hubn.), attack a wide variety of vegetable erable damage to lawns, hay fields and pastures in western seedlings. The larvae feed on the stems and foliage of plants. and central Newfoundland. This insect was probably intro­ Many just cut the plants off at ground level, hence the name duced into western Newfoundland from Nova Scotia and by cutworms. An outbreak of a species of cutworm, the 1979 had spread as far east as New World Island. The larva of armyworm, Pseudaletia unipuncta (Haw.), caused extensive this insect feeds on the roots of grasses and legumes and damage in grain, hay and pasture fields in central and eastern sometimes potatoes. Newfoundland in 1979. Outbreaks of these pests are sporadic 4. Animals. The sheep blowfly, Phaenicia serricata and adequate control of them is difficult to establish. (Meig.), is a serious pest of sheep throughout the entire Prov­ The potato stem borer, Hydroecia micacea (Esper), fre­ ince. This pest occurs sporadically, but in a severe attack it quently attacks potato plants in eastern Newfoundland. The may cause death. Eggs of this insect are deposited on the wool young larvae feed on grasses in early spring and migrate to near the skin of the animal and hatch into tiny larvae within potatoes when the plants are 7.6 em to 12.7 em (3 to 5 in) three to six days. The larva feeds by rasping the surface of the high. They enter the potato stem at ground level and bore up­ skin, exuding a liquifying saliva and then withdrawing this wards, causing the stem to wilt and die. Infestations are fluid into its body. Satisfactory control measures are avail­ usually light, as often only one stem of a hill of three to four able. stems is infested. The larvae are uncontrollable once they Cattle grubs, which are the larval stage of warble flies, have entered the stem. Hypoderma lineatum (de Viii.), periodically attack cattle Slugs, particularly grey and brown garden types, and snails throughout Newfoundland but they are more prevalent in frequently damage vegetable crops throughout the Province. western regions of the Island. The small maggots tunnel into Commercially prepared baits are available to fanners and gar­ the skin and migrate through the body for about six months deners. before lodging in the back, causing inflammation and suffer­ 2. Bush Fruits. In central Newfoundland the raspberry ing. Satisfactory controls are available. crown borer, Bembecia marginata (Harris), is a serious pest Various species of cattle lice are at times common on both of cultivated raspberries. The larva of this insect bores into dairy and beef animals. Unthrifty animals are quite suscepti­ the crowns of these plants at ground level, killing the canes. ble. Adequate controls are available. At times, controls are necessary to protect the canes. 5. Ornamentals. The spruce bud worm, Choristoneura The imported currant worm, Nematus ribesii (Scopoli), fumierana (Clemens), seriously damages ornamental spruce attacks currants, particularly gooseberries, wherever they are trees throughout the Province. The larvae feed as well on the grown in Newfoundland. The larvae feed on the foliage and in needles of Canada balsam and all species of spruce and ta­ some instances devour all the leaves on a bush. Adequate con­ marack. trols are available but correct timing for spray application is Satin moth larvae, Stilpnotia salicis (L.), seriously defo­ essential. liate poplar trees throughout Newfoundland. The leaf tier, Cnephasia virgaureana Treit, a pest which Elderberry borers, Desmocerus palliatus (L.), severely feeds on many plants is at times a serious pest of strawberries. damage cultivated elderberry shrubs, throughout the greater The larva attacks the plant by webbing the leaves together and St. John's area. The larvae bore into the stems and eventually feeding within the webbing. Injury is most apparent in late cause the shrubs to die. Insecticide treatments are avrulable. June and early July and controls are frequently required. The pear slug, Caliroa cerasi (L.), infests cultivated cherry The blueberry leaf tier, Argyrotoza curvalana Kft., a newly and pear trees throughout Newfoundland. The larvae feed by established pest, causes extensive damage to native blueberry rasping the upper surface of the leaves causing them to turn stands in eastern Newfoundland. This insect was first ob- brown and wither. -]}-;,. AGRICULTURAL PESTS 9 The European pine sawfly, Neodiprion sertifer (Geoffroy), smartweed, Polygonum scabrum Moench; quack-grass, Agro­ a recently introduced pest of pine trees, severely defoliates pyron repens (L.) Beauv.; com spurry, Spergula arvensis L.; pine trees in the St. John's area. It was fust observed in New­ hemp-nettle, Galeopsis tetrahit L.; Iady's-thumb, Polygonum foundland in 1976. persicaria L.; pineappleweed, Matricaria matricarioides The birch leaf miner, Fenusa pusilla (Lepeletier); the birch (Less.); shepherd's-purse, Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) case bearer, Coleophora jus cedi nella Zeller; the birch leaf Medic.; sheep sorrel, Rumex acetosella L.; common ground­ roller, Epinotia solandriana (L.), damage ornamental birch sel, Senecio vulgaris L.; wild mustard, Sinapis arvensis L.; trees tluoughout the Province. The larvae of all three species wild buckwheat, Polygonum convolvulus L.; stinkweed, feed on the foliage and in many instances completely defoliate Thlaspi arvense L.; wormseed mustard, Erysimum cheiranth­ trees. oides L. Leaf rollers (many species of which are undetermined) A large number of weeds adversely affect the Iowbush damage fruit trees, hedges, rose bushes, shrubs and flowers blueberry (yaccinium angustifolium Ait.) as well: sheep throughout the Province each year. The larvae roll together laurel, Kalmia angustifolia L.; bunch berry, Comus cana­ the leaves of susceptible plants and feed within the rolled densis L.; fireweed, Epilobium angustifolium L; pearly ever­ leaves. Controls are frequently required. lasting,Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth & Hook.; golden­ The lilac leaf miner, Gracillaria syringella (Fab.), attacks rod, Solidago spp.; Labrador tea, Ledum groenlandicum lilac shrubs tluoughout the Province. The tiny larva feeds be­ Oeder; aster, Aster adscendens Lind!.; three-toothed cinque­ tween the upper and lower epidermal layers of the leaf caus­ foil, Potentilla tridentata Ait.; sheep sorrel, Rumex acetosella ing much drying and withering of the foliage. Shrubs become L.; broad-leaved meadowsweet, Spiraea latifolia (Ait.) unsightly during late summer. Borkh.; speedwell, Veronica spp.; snowberry, Symphori­ 6. Greenhouse crops. The whitefly, Trialeurodes va­ carpos spp.; fall hawkbit, Leontodon autumnolis L.; mouse­ porariorum (Westwood), is common in Newfoundland and eared hawkweed, Hieracium pilosella L.; Canadian rhodo­ attacks all greenhouse vegetables, ornamentals and flowers. dendron or rhodora, Rhododendron canadense (L.) Torr.; After hatching from the eggs young nymphs immediately set­ chokeberry, Aronia prunifolia (Marsh) Rehd.; hair fescue, tle on the foliage and start sucking the sap from the leaves. Festuca capillata Lam.; Rhode Island bentgrass, Agrostis They feed on plant juices for about four weeks. tenuis Sibth; common hairgrass, Deschampsia flexuosa (L.) The two-spotted spider mite, Tetranychus urticae Koch, is Trin.; reed bentgrass, Calamagrostis inexpansa Gray; the most obnoxious pest of greenhouse plants in Newfound­ bulrush, Scirpus atrocinctus Fern. land. It is very difficult to control, and has developed resis­ Problem weeds in pasturelands include dandelions, Tarax­ tance to many insecticides. acum officinale Weber; tall buttercup, Ranunculus acris L.; Aphids, also known as plant lice, at times seriously damage ox-eye daisy, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L.; St. John's greenhouse plants both by sucking sap from them and exuding wort, Hypericum perforatum L.; tansy rag wort, Senecio jaco­ honey dew which favours the development of a fungus known baea L.; soft rush, Juncus effusus L.; Canada thistle, Circium as sooty mould. arvense (L.) Scop.; orange hawkweed, Hieracium aurantia­ Mealy bugs periodically cause problems in greenhouses. cum L.; mouse-eared chickweed, Cerastium vulgatum L.; They are easily identifiable as they are covered with white yarrow, Achillea millefolium L. fluff. Lawns have their share of weeds as well and may be in­ Scale insects frequently infest greenhouse plants. They vaded by the common dandelion, Taraxacum officinale look like small brown or black flecks on the veins of leaves Weber; chickweed, Stellaria media (L.) Viii.; mouse-eared and stems. The immature insects live within the scales and chickweed, Cerastium vulgatum L.; yarrow, Achillea mille­ damage plants by sucking their sap. folium L.; broad-leaved plantain, Plantago major L.; pros­ 7. Insect control. The control of insects may be accom­ trate knotweed, Polygonum aviculare L.; orange hawkweed, plished in many ways: chemically (through the use of insecti­ Hieracium aurantiacum L. cides, repellants and attractants); physically and mechani­ In general, weeds may be controlled by a variety of mea­ cally; culturally; biologically; naturally and legally. sures: hand-pulling, hoeing, cultivation, crop rotation and In 1981 entomoligists are using combinations of the above herbicides. The most efficient method of controlling weeds methods to control insect outbreaks, rather than depending depends upon the size of the field to be weeded, the type of upon insecticides only. This method is referred to as "Pest crop with which the weeds are competing and the weed spe­ Management" and is used to ensure that the environment is cies to be controlled. In general, hand-pulling and hoeing are not adversely affected tluough the continued use of pesti­ satisfactory for home gardens, but for large, commercially­ cides. Ray F. Morris operated farms, such methods of weeding are uneconomical. Weeds. A weed may be defmed as any plant which grows Large farms control weeds through cultivation, herbicides and where it is not wanted. Weeds compete with crop plants for crop rotation. B. G. Penney water, light and soil nutrients, and losses can vary from a DISEASES. Economically important plant diseases, endemic slight yield reduction to complete crop failure, depending in Newfoundland are, in general, soil-borne diseases. All upon the severity of the infestation. In Newfoundland weeds classes of micro-organisms contribute to the catalogue of cause problems in the raising of vegetable and fruit crops. plant diseases. The most common weeds which compete with vegetables The two most important potato diseases are the potato wart and fruit bushes, such as raspberries, strawberries, currants disease (or canker) and potato sickness, caused by, respec­ and gooseberries include chickweed, Stellaria media (L.) tively, the Chytridiaceous parasite Synchytrium endobioticum Vill.; Iamb's-quarters, Chenopodium album L.; green (Schilb.) Perc. and the Golden Nematode, Globodera rosto- lO AGRICULTURAL PESTS, AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL

chiensis (Woll.). Synchytrium endobioticum is a fungus, exposure to air. Early blight is caused by Alternaria solani which after entering a growing point on the potato plant (eye, (Ell. & Mart) L.R. Jones & Grout of the Fungi Imperfecti. stolen or sprout), stimulates the surrounding tissue to grow to The leaf symptoms of this disease, which is common on both many times its original size. The growth of the tissue is rapid tomato and potato plants, are lesions which resemble small and often replaces the organ of the plant attacked. The result targets, hence the alternative name of Target Spot Disease. is a cankerous growth or tumor. Tumors may be found on the The spots or lesions become green and shiny as the fungus eyes, stems, leaves and flowers, but never on the potato roots. fruits. The collar may be girdled. The areas of the plant af­ The larvae of the Golden Nematode, Globodera rostochiensis fected by the disease weaken. Late blight, a disease prevalent (Woll.), enter the root tissues of potato, tomato and other in the fall, is caused by Phytophthora infestans (Mont.) DBy. plants to feed. Having developed into adults within the roots, This is the disease which caused the famous "Irish Famine" the females are fertilized; they then swell and die as the eggs in the 1840s. Spreading by wind-blown spores, the fungus literally take over the body of the female. The resultant cyst in enters the plant through the leaf. Spores germinate on the sur­ the root, which is golden brown (hence the name Golden Ne­ face, enter the leaf, and new crops of spores appear on the un­ matode) causes the plants to dry out and appear droughty, and derside of the leaf. The leaf becomes a black, water-soaked tuber yield is drastically reduced. The cysts usually mature in mess. The disease may then spread to the stems, killing the September or October, when the larvae hatch and leave the plant. Tubers may also be infected by soil-borne spores which cyst. Both of these diseases are subject to extreme quarantine have dropped to the ground in rain. The diseased tubers then measures, which prohibit the export of potatoes and soil prod­ develop a hard and dry rot. Tubers may not begin to rot until ucts from Newfoundland, and require vehicle-washing at they have been stored. ports of exit. Silver scurf is caused by a member of the Fungi Imperfecti, Soil-borne bacteria are responsible for three other impor­ Helminthosporium (Spondylocladium) atrovirens Harz. The tant diseases in Newfoundland: ring-rot, blackleg and com­ first symptoms of this disease are silvery lesions or spots mon scab. Ring-rot is caused by the bacterium Corynebac­ which appear on the skin of the potato tubers. Eventually the terium sepedonicum (Spiek. & Kotth.) Skapt. & Burk. which fungus causes the outer skin of the tuber to flake. The appear­ enters the plant through cuts, bruises and natural openings. It ance of such a tuber reduces its market value. Fusariosis is a makes its way to the conducting (vascular) system of the fungal disease caused by species of Fusarium. In potatoes it plant, causing a breakdown of this tissue. The foliage then may result in tuber rot or in wilting. In other plants it causes turns yellow, the leaf margins die and the vascular system be­ the lower leaves to yellow and the stalk to wilt. Some species comes filled with a foul-smelling, cheesy mass. Blackleg is cause a dry rot of the stems and roots. Powdery scab is a dis­ caused by the bacterium Erwinia caratovora (L.R. Jones) ease resulting from an infestation of Spongospora subter­ Holland which enters through wounds of the plant and breaks ranea (Wallr.) Lagerheim. On potato tubers, this fungus down the plant's tissue. In potatoes the bacterial infection moves, as a plasmodium, through and between the cells. usually starts in the seed and moves upwards through the Resting spores on the skin of the tuber form balls or clusters stem, causing a breakdown of the vascular system and turning which eventually dry up, becoming dry, brown, powder-filled the stem black (hence the name blackleg). In lettuce and other skin cankers. leafy vegetables, which it also attacks, the first symptoms are Soil-borne diseases also affect the other principal vegetable leaves which appear water-soaked; as the disease progresses, products in the Province, turnip and cabbage. One of the most the leaves turn dark brown and slimy. A lettuce head may be important diseases of these plants is club root, which is reduced to a foul, smelly mess in twenty-four hours. Common caused by Plasmodiophora brassicae Wor., a common scab is a bacterial disease caused by the organism Strepto­ fungus in many Newfoundland soils. The fungus enters the myces scabies (Thaxt.). Besides potatoes, it attacks turnips, plant through root hairs. Once inside, it stimulates the sur­ beets and radishes, causing dark, corky, raised spots on the rounding tissue to grow, resulting in anything from a small vegetables. They may completely cover the skin and this re­ swelling in the roots to misshapen, knotty and clubbed roots. duces the vegetables' market value. The stems and leaves may be stunted or wilted as a result. Potato diseases caused by fungal organisms are numerous For all these and other soil-borne diseases, some resistant in Newfoundland: rhizoctoniosis, pink rot, early blight, late varieties of potato, turnip and cabbage are known and are blight, silver scurf, fusariosis and powdery scab. Several used in the control of the disease wherever possible. virus-incited disorders also attack potatoes. These are air­ Of lesser importance are diseases which attack lettuce, or soil-borne diseases which also affect potatoes in storage. tomatoes, onions, carrots and beans, since these crops are Rhizoctoniosis, caused by Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn, a Basi­ grown on a relatively small scale. Fruit diseases are of even diomycete, attacks the potatoes' roots, stolons and sprouts, less importance, although apple scab, caused by Venturia in­ causing dark brown cankers. The plant is usually weakened, aequalis (Cke.) Wint., which results in blisters on the fruit stunted, discoloured and stimulated to form aerial tubers. The and leaves of the apple; and black knot, caused by Dibotryon tuber skin becomes dotted with tiny black storage bodies of morbusum (Schw.) Theissen and Sydow, which causes black, the fungus. Young potato sprouts may be killed by an infesta­ knotty growths on cherry and plum branches and trunks; are tion. It is pathogenetic on a wide number of hosts. Pink rot, frequently found. M.C. Hampson another fungal disease, is caused by the organism Phytoph­ AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL. Established in 1936 by the thora erythroseptica Pethyb, a Phycomycete. Following an Commission of Government in conjunction with the Demon­ attack by this fungus, the stem of the potato plant may decay stration Farm, the Agricultural School offered a free annual or rot and wilt. The affected tuber has dull brown skin with one-year programme of practical and academic courses de­ dark lenticels and tissue which is rubbery and turns pink upon signed to train selected men for the complicated work of mod- -_:;L AGRICULTURAL SCHOOL, AGRICULTURE 11 ern farming. Subjects included poultry management, hog derived from glacial material. Most of these soils are not fully breeding, general dairy work, crop production and the use of developed because (a) the length of time since glaciation has farm machinery. By 1949 approximately 200 students had been relatively short, (b) most of the glacial debris, from graduated from the school, about half of them ex-servicemen which most of the Island's soil is derived, is relatively resis­ who had registered in the school's programme after World tent, by its nature, to weathering, and (c) the climate of New­ War II. In 1949 the Agricultural School was closed, along foundland, being relatively mild and Jacking extremes, is not with the Demonstration Farm. See AGRICULTURE. A.B. conducive to weathering of rock and creation of soils. Banks (1937), Lloyd Sparkes (interview, Mar. 1979), The Of the mineral soils, there are five major categories: (1) Government Demonstration Farm, Mount Pearl (1944). ground moraine and (2) end moraine, which are derived from CFH glacial till, (3) soil derived from glacial outwash (small rocks, AGRICULTURAL SOCIETY. See AGRICULTURE. gravels, clays, sands and silts), (4) soils formed from deposits AGRICULTURE. Agriculture in Newfoundland and Labrador made by rivers, alluvial soils, and (5) soil formed from has always played a secondary role to the fishery. Indeed in marine sediments. Labrador, where so much has been written of the fisheries, a Ground moraine, derived from glacial till, is the most pre­ history of agriculture cannot be written because so little of it valent type of mineral soil in Newfoundland. It usually con­ has been documented. According to the Census Returns no tains a large amount of rocks and stones, and is not well more than 27.5 ha (68 acres) have been cleared at any one drained; of it, less than 4% may be considered for agricultural time in Labrador. In 1901, for instance, there were only use. The second group, end ,moraine, is similar to ground 5.3 ha (13 acres) cleared acres and in 1979 only 10 ha (25 moraine, derived from glacial till and quite rocky; generally it acres) cleared there. In 1979 there were a total of five farms in is also hilly and for the most part unsuitable for agricultural Labrador. This state of agriculture is in no small part due to pursuits. According to the Royal Commission on Agriculture the lack of good, deep soil and a sufficiently long summer 1955 Report (1956) the amount of cultivatable land composed 2 2 season to warrant agricultural pursuits. of this type of soil totals only about 184 km (71 mi ). The third group is derived from glacial outwash and is usually composed of clays, sands, silts and varying proportions of rocks and gravel. This type of soil occurs in scattered areas throughout the Island. Good examples of this type are found in the Bay Roberts-Clarke's Beach area and the Humber, Ex­ ploits, Harry's River and Indian Brook regions. Alluvial de­ posits of many of the rivers of Newfoundland form the fourth group of soils. By and large they are a good soil for agricul­ tural purposes, but the individual areas of such soils are usually quite small. Examples of this type are found in the Robinson's area, the Gander River area, the Codroy Valley and the Harry's River area. They also exist in numerous smaller river valleys throughout the Island. The final group is made up of soil of marine sediments, principally composed of clays and sands and varying proportions of stones. Some re­ gions with this soil are very good for agriculture. They are West Coast Farm found in small pockets along the coast of the Island. In general the soils of the Province are shallow, gravelly, AGRICULTURAL SOILS. The soils of Newfoundland are for acid, Jacking in humus and therefore largely infertile. Added the most part of geologically recent origin, having been devel­ to these incumbrances is the relative lack of levelland suitable oped in most areas since the retreat of the ice cap of the for tilling, especially when automotive equipment is used. Wisconsin glacial period, which ended approximately 10,000 Level land does exist, however, in Newfoundland in a years ago. During the retreat of the ice most of the land sur­ number of locations, principally in the St. George's-Codroy face was scoured clean of its soil, a high proportion of which, Valley region, the Deer Lake-White Bay area and in a few it is conjected, being subsequently deposited beyond the cur­ areas in Bona vista Bay and Notre Dame Bay. rent coastlines of the Island. While the ice retreated, however, The principal areas of good agricultural land in Newfound­ it did deposit various types of debris: in the valleys this mate­ land include the Codroy Valley, the Bay St. George area, the rial tended to be composed of gravels, sand and silt which Cormack-Deer Lake region, the Springdale region, the King's were stratified, while on higher ground it consisted of unstra­ Point, Point Leamington, Brown's Arm, Comfort Cove, East­ tified till of rocks and gravel; in some areas of high land noth­ port and the Musgrave town areas, certain localities in Con­ ing was deposited, leaving bare scrubbed bedrock. ception Bay, the St. John's region and Bay d 'Espoir region. Generally (excluding those areas covered in water) the land In these areas a total of approximately 67,500 ha ( 166,700 surface of the Island may be divided into three groups: areas acres) is deemed to be suitable for agriculture. In spite of this, which are devoid of soil or almost completely so, totalling however, farming has. been carried out in virtually all fishing about one-third of the land surface; organic soils, a small pro­ settlements, as well as in the areas with good agricultural soil. portion of which appears to be suitable for farming, which to­ (Report of the Royal Commission on Agriculture 1955: 1956) gether with the first comprise fully four-fifths of the land on CLIMATE. In general the climate of the Island is mild and the Island; and mineral soils, which for the most part are humid. The summer season is considered cool and short. The 12 AGRICULTURE

growing season, that period during which the daily mean tem­ kept in Newfoundland. Improved lands and herds of livestock peratures are 5.5°C (42°F) or greater, varies from about 108 to increased very slowly during the 1700s, probably because the 160 days, which is adequate for the growth of much agricul­ interest of the settlers and the larger group of migratory fisher­ tural produce. Nevertheless, the daily average temperatures men was fl1lllly fixed on the fishery. The beginning of the are cool, approximately 14°C (57°F) for most of the Island American Revolution, however, brought about an accelera­ and 16°C (61°F) on the southern portion of the west coast in tion in the expansion of agriculture, because the curtailment July. Generally this hinders the production of cereals. On the of imports which ensued forced the inhabitants to increase other hand, temperatures are suitable for the production of local production of food. During this period, as a result, the root crops, grasses and other crops for livestock. These crops rate of clearing the land increased substantially, and by 1789 are therefore the ones most commonly grown in Newfound­ approximately 2430 ha (6,000 acres) had been cleared, most land. Although precipitation is adequate, the soil does not re­ of which was in St. John's and on the west side of Conception tain water well and therefore if there are dry spells during the Bay. In St. John's much of the cultivated land was apparently summer crops suffer through lack of moisture, which reduces cleared by the garrison's officers for military use, but in time yields. some of the military plots were sold to civilians in the town. PRODUCTS. Most common From then until the end of the century agriculture in the crops grown in Newfoundland Colony progressed slowly. By the end of the Eighteenth Cen­ and Labrador have been pota­ tury the need for a market place in St. John's was pointed out. toes, cabbage, turnips, hay of According to the Governor of the time, William Waldegrave various types and oats (which qv, many of "the poor" were having difficulty selling their have been raised on a relatively produce in the town because there were no facilities they large scale), carrots, beets, could use for this purpose; at the same time there was a con­ onions and other root crops, siderable demand in the town for fresh goods. Despite this, and small fruits such as cur­ local agriculture during the late 1700s did not develop very rants, plums, strawberries, much. In 1793 it was remarked that the majority of those who raspberries, and rhubarb. Nev­ did farm did so on small plots the produce of which was al­ ertheless, many commentators most always potatoes. in the early Nineteenth Century In the early 1800s, while Britain waged war with France Cabbage in Labrador noted the existence of what they and the United States, produce again became scarce. In re­ termed flourishing crops of wheat, barley and com on the Is­ sponse to this the increasing number of settlers on the Island, land. along with many merchants and officers of the garrison at St. Livestock commonly raised have included various breeds John's, began to in­ of sheep, cattle for beef, dairy cattle, hens, other fowl, pigs crease their efforts to and, until the mid-1900s, goats. cultivate the land. In HISTORY. The first recorded instances of farming on the Is­ 1812 one commentator land occurred in the first thirty years of the 1600s, when the noted the predomi­ English embarked upon their small colonizing schemes on the nance of small garden Avalon Peninsula, John Guy's qv plantation at Cupids and Sir farming. Vegetables, George Calvert qv, Lord Baltimore's at Ferry land being the particularly potatoes best-known. At Baltimore's colony vegetables, barley, oats and red and green cab- and wheat were reportedly planted and "Horses, Kowes and bage, were "the most Potatoes other bestial" were raised (C.O. 1:2, no. 23, quoted in Cell: valuable productions 1969). At Ferryland, from what can be gleaned from the of the island, growing in plots more or less extensive attached settlers' reports, their endeavours in cultivating the soil were to most houses and fishermen's huts." (L.A. Anspach: 1827, successful. According to the settlers wheat, oats, beans and a p. 359). Apparently, despite the predominance of potato cul­ variety of other vegetables did quite well, as did their live­ tivation, enough for a full year's consumption was never stock. At Cupids, however, reports revealed that the settlers planted and the inhabitants continued to rely on imports to were somewhat discouraged by the results of their farming. supplement their own supplies. As well as the potato, other Their livestock did very poorly, because of a lack of feed; and root crops, peas, beans, lettuce and "hot-house" crops were their experiments in raising barley and cereal crops failed. No cultivated. Of the livestock there were ''black cattle,'' a great doubt the location of the settlement and very poor weather, number of goats, which supplied much milk, many swine and combined with a lack of experience in farming under New­ sheep. Rather than being penned, they were allowed to roam foundland conditions, were reasons for their failure. about, searching for fodder. Hens were also raised. Following the disbanding of these colonies, the Island con­ During the early years ?f the Nineteenth Century the popu­ tinued to be visited yearly by migratory fishermen from Bri­ lation of the Island increased substantially, and by 1836 it tain. Over the years, despite official restrictions on settle­ stood at 75,000. By far the greatest number of people came to ment, small numbers of fishermen began to establish Newfoundland to fish. Nevertheless, they soon learned, as themselves year-round in the coves around the coast. Some of had others before them, that small-scale subsistence agricul­ these, particularly in Conception Bay, began cultivating small ture was well worth their trouble. As a result, along with the plots of vegetables, and raising a few cattle, hogs and sheep. erection of fishing stages and stores went the clearing of land. By 1741 there were reported 200 ha (500 acres) of cleared Consequently in 1836 there were over 4540 ha (11 ,200 acres) cultivated land and about 300 cattle, 200 sheep and 300 swine cultivated on the Island, not a substantial amount when com- AGRICULTURE 13 -~:, pared to the population, but an increase, nevertheless, over by 1857 there were 17 260 ha (42,617 acres) which had been the 2430 ha reported forty years before. improved on the Island. Although it is impossible to calculate As well as the fishermen-farmers around the Island, there how much of this increase was due to increased activity on the developed a small group of people who depended on agricul­ part of the commercial farms (which were in the minority), ture for most if not all of their livelihood. This was the case some indication of growth in this sector may be determined by particularly in the area around St. John's, where farms dotted the number of farmers who were enumerated in the Census the outlying regions of the town. The Waterford Valley, the Returns. Between 1845 and 1857 the number of farmers on Old Placentia Road, Topsail Road, the area through which the Island increased from just over 600 to 1697, or by over present-day New Cove Road passes, the Freshwater Valley 180%. By far the majority of farmers were located in the St. and the area around Quidi Vidi Lake were some of the areas John's area, where 768 were reported in 1857. In Harbour which supported small farming settlements. North of St. Main District, on the southern shore of Conception Bay 488 John's were other farming settlements, notably at Outer farmers were operating in the same year. In that year a total of 118 farmers were also reported from Port de Grave to Harbour Grace and 145 were farming on the west coast of the Island. What determined the well-being of commercial agriculture was access to relatively large local markets. Complaints by members of farming districts in those years almost always concerned the state of roads between these areas and their markets. On Bell Island, where a small farming settlement had been established, the need for a regular ferry service to take cattle, sheep and other produce to St. John's was voiced in the 1850s. In the matter of transportation the local Legislature obliged the farming communities, beginning a road building scheme in the 1830s to areas all around the Avalon Peninsula. In other respects, however, the Government did little to encourage the growth of agriculture, either subsistence or commercial, in this period. Though the Island's first Agricultural Society was Hay Market, St. John's begun in 1842 with the support of Governor Harvey, and though its members worked energetically, the realization of Cove, Middle Cove and Logy Bay. The agricultural emphasis its aims was hampered by a lack of funds. Grants were given of the settlers at Broad Cove (now St. Phillip's), Conception by the Legislature but they amounted to only£ 150 annually. Bay was also noted in the 1830s, as was that of the settlers at With this amount the Society attempted to distribute seeds, in­ Holyrood, Chapel Cove, Harbour Main, Gaskiers, Colliers, troduce better breeds of livestock and publish pamphlets on Turk's Gut and Brigus, who claimed in 1837 that the produc­ improved methods. No doubt farmers near St. John's bene­ tion of farm produce was their main means of support. Farm­ fited from the Society, but probably few others did. ers in all of these areas seem to have depended largely on the That the job of establishing a farm without government St. John's market. Those near the large centres of Harbour assistance in those days was not an easy one is evidenced in Grace and Carbonear were also operating in the 1830s, and the examination of William Ruby of the Goulds by a select the St. Mary's Bay region developed into a small agricultural committee of the House of Assembly on Agriculture in 1866. area in the 1830s. Later, in 1846, a petition from the inhabi­ Ruby had started farming in 1850 near what is known today as tants of the latter area requested the erection of bridges over the Ruby Line, in the Goulds. In order to begin farming he Salmonier and Little Harbour rivers to facilitate driving cattle was required to pay for his grant of land and borrow £50. to St. John's. Perhaps more interesting was the development With this, and money he earned working on other farms, of a farming community on the Cape Shore, south of Placen­ working in St. John's and selling his home-made brooms, he tia. For much of the first part of the century the inhabitants of supported himself while clearing his land and building a this area sold cattle to Placentia, where they were butchered. home. In three years he had managed to clear just a little more The beef was then sold to settlements across Placentia Bay for than a half hectare (1.5 acres). This process of working on cash or fish products. Cattle from the Cape Shore were also and off the farm continued for nine years, by which time driven to St. John's and dairy products sold as well. By 1850, Ruby had a well-established farm. Like most farmers around coincident with the departure of the Waterford, Ireland firm St. John's he maintained himself thereafter through the sale of of Sweetman' s, full-time farming on the Cape Shore began to vegetables and dairy products to the market in St. John's. give way to part-time fishing and part-time farming. Never­ As well as the areas of St. John's and Conception Bay, theless, sales of produce from the area continued. farming was also expanding at the same time in a far-removed Expansion in farming continued steadily throughout the area of the Island, in the Codroy Valley and Bay St. George first sixty years of the century, particularly in the areas men­ area. People from Cape Breton Island and other areas of the tioned above, as well as on the French Shore, where Cape Gulf of St. Lawrence had been immigrating to that part of Bretoners were arriving to settle the Codroy Valley and the Newfoundland in great numbers since the early 1840s, bring­ southern shore of Bay St. George. Overall, the increase in ing with them their livestock and agricultural implements. By land cultivated amounted to 163% between 1836 and 1845 1857 the 422 inhabitants had cleared some 223 ha (550 acres) and between 1845 and 1857 to just under 70%. In real terms, of land. Although the emphasis of the area was clearly on 14 AGRICULTURE farming, other pursuits were also followed, particularly fish­ there had been two farmers reported in 1891 , there were ing and sealing. In the Nineteenth Century they established twenty-one in 1911; similar increases were recorded in the markets on the southwest coast, where little tillable soil and a Twillingate district, Notre Dame Bay, where the farmers less favourable climate hampered subsistence agriculture and increased from approximately twenty farmers in 1891 to where the products of the west coast farmers apparently en­ seventy-six in 1911. No doubt the existence of a large market tered the truck system through merchants at Channel. in Grand Falls, connected by the railway to these areas, also In the 1860s government policy toward agriculture was be­ helped to stimulate farming. Commercial agriculture in these ginning to change. During this decade a number of bad areas concentrated on the production of vegetables. In the fisheries created a large number of unemployed and destitute Brooklyn-Princeton area vegetables were sold, along with people. The Government, in an effort to find alternative sup­ eggs, some mutton, live sheep and live cattle. So, too, on the plementary employment for these people, tried to create an in­ Eastport Peninsula vegetables, beef and a small number of terest in agriculture amongst them. To this end the Govern­ eggs were marketed. In Notre Dame Bay, the Norris Arm area ment began in 1862 to grant Crown Lands without charging a in the Bay of Exploits seems to have profited from the mar­ fee, and to help the settlers financially to build on and culti­ kets in Grand Falls as well. Farmers there sold vegetables, vate the land. In 1866 an Act to further encourage agriculture beef, butter, mutton, pork and live pigs. The long-settled area was passed, whereby $8 was granted to a farmer for the first around the bottom and east side of Conception Bay also pro­ acre ( .4 ha) of land cleared and $6 for each subsequent .4 ha fited somewhat by the railway, the continued existence of the (1 acre) cleared, up to a maximum of 2 ha (5 acres). Despite St. John's market, and the creation of the Grand Falls urban the generosity of this aid, it had only a small effect on agricul­ market. Shipments of vegetables, beef, pork and eggs were tural growth, and it was not until the 1880s that agriculture on made from that area during this period. On the west coast, m the Island began to expand through government measures. In Bay St. George and Codroy Valley, substantial shipments by that decade, bills were passed to provide for the surveying of rail were also made in the early 1900s. Potatoes, and lesser agricultural lands, to create townships and to establish super­ amounts of other vegetables, along with butter, beef, mutton vised agricultural districts, where land would be cleared by and wool were sold. Even in the areas south of St. John's rail the settlers while they were employed in road building in shipments were made. Vegetables and substantial amounts of these districts. This was an important part of government pol­ beef and pork were shipped from the Goulds area around this icy, for while providing access to markets right from the cre­ time. ation of the settlements, it also gave the settlers money to sup­ Commercial farmers, however, continued to be a very port themselves while clearing land. As well, government small percentage of the total number of people cultivating the made provision for giving such settlers financial assistance in land in 1911. By this time there were 2,915 "farmers" on the their move to the agricultural districts and gave them rather substantial land-clearing bonuses of $20 per .4 ha (I acre) for the first 2 ha (5 acres) cleared by a settler and $10 per .4 ha (1 acre) for the next 2 ha (5 acres). Land-clearing bonuses of lesser amounts were also instituted in non-designated agricul­ tural districts. Acts providing for the protection of sheep and cattle against the ravages of dogs were enacted. In 1889, for the first time in Newfoundland's history, a division of Gov­ ernment was instituted to supervise agricultural activities. The Agricultural Board thus established was to create agricultural societies throughout the Island and to provide them with the necessary agricultural supplies and information. The Govern­ ment' s new agricultural policy did not, by and large, appear to have benefited the commercial farmers during the 1880s. Although in the early years of that decade their numbers in­ creased (from a low of 1,004 in 1874) to 1,685 in 1884, there was in the later years of the 1880s an eight percent decline in their numbers, and this after the introduction of large land­ clearing bonuses. At the same time, however, improved land for the country as a whole increased by 70% during the late 1870s and early 1880s, and by 23% from 1884 to 1891. By 1891 there were 23 590 ha (58,250 acres) of land cleared and being used on the Island by both professional and non-profes­ sional farmers. Substantial increases in the numbers of cattle, sheep, goats and pigs were recorded. The Government encouragement of agriculture continued through the 1890s and early 1900s, and with the completion of the main railway in the late 1890s, and of branch lines later in the 1900s, agriculture did expand. Some agricultural areas in Bonavista Bay and Notre Dame Bay were opened up and developed. In the Musgravetown-Charlottetown area, where Cows grazing on eel grass. :;L AGRICULTURE 15 Island, while there were 40,880 fishermen-farmers. For the nusswn also instituted marketing schemes to regulate the most part the latter group engaged in enough agriculture sim­ quality of commercial produce. Although the marketing ply to keep their own families fed, although some also sold schemes were not effective in introducing standardized pro­ part of their yield. Of the former group it is impossible to cal­ duce, and the land settlement schemes (largely because of culate how many were full-time. No doubt many of them en­ mismanagement) did not flourish, the Commission's other en­ gaged in other pursuits, at least during the winter. deavours seemed to be working by 1938. In that year under its According to census returns the period about 1911 repre­ land clearing scheme, 128 ha (316 acres) were cleared on the sented the high-point of Newfoundland's collective agricul­ Avalon, 65 ha (160 acres) in the Corner Brook area, 245 ha tural endeavours. In that year 38 611.5 ha (95,337 acres) of (604 acres) in the St. George's-Codroy Valley area and cleared land was being used, 18% of which was located in the 14.5 ha (36 acres) on the Burin Peninsula. A total of 825 peo­ St. John's area, 11% in the bottom and east side of Concep­ ple had taken part in the scheme, clearing on an average tion Bay, and 16% in the Humber Arm-Bay St. George­ .55 ha (1.35 acres) each. Codroy Valley region. Significant amounts were also culti­ Whatever gains were made in the 1930s they were soon lost vated around Bona vista, Trinity, Notre Dame and Placentia in the years of World War II. With the war came the establish­ Bays. Some 18, 196 cows and 13,786 other homed cattle, ment of United States, Canadian and English military bases in 75,439 sheep, 19,319 swine and 304,732 poultry were kept in the country. The employment created there, along with the the Colony in that year. enlistment of many Newfoundland men in the Armed Forces, If 1911 represented a high-point in agricultural history, the had a considerable impact on agriculture. By 1945 there were 1920s were its nadir. While a model farm had been estab­ a total of 2,809 farmers on the Island, a decrease of 34% in lished in 1919 for the distribution of imported breeds of live­ ten years. Agricultural production overall declined as well as stock to areas around the Island, and while agricultural poli­ did the numbers of fishermen-farmers. The only area which cies for increasing production were maintained, money voted seems to have been able to take advantage of the increased by the Legislature for the Model Farm and general agricul­ markets created by the military bases and the growing number tural policies was quite small during the early 1920s (amount­ of civilian workers near them was the West Coast region from ing to $55,000 annually). In 1924 the model farm was aban­ Corner Brook south to the Codroy Valley, where the amount doned and with it most of the agricultural policies of former of improved and used land maintained its level of the 1930s. administrations. Dairy farmers in St. John's also benefited from the existence With the onslaught of the depression of the 1930s many in of Fort Pepperrell. Despite the decreased attention to agricul­ Newfoundland began to experience dire poverty. Returns ture among the general populace, land clearing programmes, from fish exports decreased and the number of unemployed limestone subsidies, the encouragement of livestock raising increased substantially. Many began looking to agriculture as and marketing assistance to commercial farmers continued, a principal means of support and by 1935 there were 4,226 and the implementation of a Post-War Settlement Programme farmers on the Island. A small increase in the numbers of was begun. This programme consisted of finding possible ag­ fishermen-farmers also occurred. Because of these factors the ricultural areas, surveying those with potential, training ex­ Commission of Government began, as had governments in Servicemen in agriculture and helping them relocate to the the late 1800s, to try to assist agricultural development. surveyed farming areas where they would be assisted in build­ Among their achievements were the establishment of a Dem­ ing on, and clearing, the land. The settlement programme onstration Farm in 1935, and an Agricultural School in con­ went ahead in the mid-1940s on the Upper Humber, with junction with it in 1936. Agricultural field men were ap­ much enthusiasm, and by 1947 there were between thirty and pointed and sent out to various areas to advise farmers on thirty-five farmers with between seven and ten acres cleared improved methods, and the formation of agricultural societies and cultivated each. was encouraged. The Government also began the establish­ With Confederation in 1949 came a number of changes. ment of farming communities in various locations: at Mark­ The Demonstration Farm and Agricultural School were land, Brown's Arm, Lourdes, Midland and Haricot qqv. The passed over to the Federal Government, whereupon the Agri­ cost of maintaining these settlements, however, became too cultural School was abandoned and the Demonstration Farm high in the estimation of the Commissioners and in the late became an Agricultural Research station of the Federal De­ 1930s they began to turn their attention towards stimulating partment of Agriculture. The greatest change which occurred, part-time agriculture in areas which had already been settled however, was the removal of tariff restrictions on Canadian by fishermen, and encouraging full-time farming in the best Mainland agricultural produce. By and large, the Newfound­ agricultural areas of the country, such as the Codroy Valley land farmer's costs of production were higher than those of and the Deer Lake to Green Bay area. The Commission also the rest of Canada. This was because Newfoundland farms surveyed farms in the Island and found that animal husbandry were smaller and therefore not as efficient to run; and land was in a retarded state of development. For many years the used for fodder crops, despite the Commission's earlier poli­ quality of the herds had been deteriorating, and the numbers cies, was not sufficient to winter livestock (therefore the cost of livestock were not nearly enough for self-sufficiency. They of importing feeds, including hay and oats, was added to their found that the principal reasons for this condition were poor operations). The result was that Newfoundland produce prices quality breeds and lack of pasture and winter feed. To remedy were higher than those of Mainland produce, which also en­ this and achieve self-sufficiency the Commissioners intro­ joyed the benefit of freight subsidies to the Island. The effect duced new land and pasture clearing schemes and encouraged was a decrease in the 1950s in the number of commercial the establishment of livestock clubs through which pure-bred farms in Newfoundland. By 1956 there were 1,324 farms re­ livestock could be distributed by the Government. The Com- corded by the Census (these farms were defined as holdings 16 AGRICULTURE on which agricultural operations were carried out and which sources and that the lack of cleared land devoted to livestock were 1.2 ha, 3 acres, or more in size, or from .4 to 1.2 ha, 1 feed production was keeping the cost of livestock husbandry to 3 acres, in size and with agricultural production in 1955 too high. To alleviate these problems, the Commission rec­ valued at $250 or more). These 1,324 farms represented a de­ ommended that individual farms be made larger and that peat crease of fifty-three per cent during the eleven years after lands be cleared if possible, for the production of livestock 1945. The only sectors which managed to weather the change feeds. It felt that mineral lands, being expensive to clear, were the egg and fresh-milk producers, who were exempt, or should be left to vegetable farming, where returns per hectare nearly so, from mainland competition owing to the freshness of land were higher. It also recommended that blueberry of the products demanded in the market place. Moreover, the lands, then primarily Crown Lands, be placed under the con­ Federal freight assistance for feed grains came into effect with trol of private operators, who would be able to increase pro­ Confederation, helping these two groups of producers sub­ duction. Expansion in poultry and mink farms was also rec­ stantially. However the dairy farmers in the St. John's area ommended, since their development did not depend on were adversely affected in 1949, since a large butterine manu­ expensive land clearing. Dairy, sheep and beef cattle farming, facturer in the city, which had provided a large market for it was recommended, would have to be made more efficient about 1820 L (400 gal) of fresh milk daily, stopped buying by using more pasture, particularly on barrens, through as fresh milk in that year. much of the year as possible; and by clearing more fodder­ By the early 1950s subsistence agriculture also began to de­ crop land. Mixed farming was also recommended. It recom­ cline though not as a result of increased competition. Rather, mended that the possibility of g~owing fodder crops on it seems likely that the decline of this sector was simply part of a trend which had started in the 1940s with increases in wage-earning employment and purchasing power. This devel­ opment accelerated in the 1950s and 1960s. The Government of Newfoundland had realized from the beginning that Confederation would have these effects on Newfoundland farmers, so various forms of assistance, ini­ tiated by the Commission of Government, were maintained by the Provincial Government, including land clearing schemes designed to increase pasture and fodder lands, and limestone freight subsidies. Other forms of assistance were also started. Since it was believed that sheep were probably the most economical animals to raise under Newfoundland conditions, large numbers of various breeds of sheep were im­ ported from Great Britain and trials done on their hardiness. A Farm Development Loan Board was also estab­ lished to give loans for the improvement and extension of ex­ Farming, Conception Bay isting farms and the purchase of equipment, agricultural land and livestock. boglands be investigated by the Federal and Provincial Gov­ In 1955 the Government commissioned A.M. Shaw, W.M. ernments. Finally, it recommended that subsistence agricul­ Drummond and P.J. Murray to head a Royal Commission to ture be left to develop or fail on its own; that no assistance be study the ''Agricultural resources of the Province of New­ given to it. foundland with a view to their fullest development," market­ Since the time of the Commission's report many agricul­ ing, land tenure and title, and the economics of farm produc­ tural policies have been based on it. Experiments in raising tion, and to examine "the relative importance and place in the sheep and cattle on barren lands during the summer and as general economy of the Province of Newfoundland of com­ much of the winter as possible were tried, but failed. Experi­ mercial agriculture and of part-time supplementary farming," ments on the use of boglands have also been initiated, but up and to recommend ''what measures should be taken to permit until 1981 have produced no results which can be applied to discriminating utilization of all land resources; what measures coriunercial farming on a large-scale. Subsistence agriculture should be taken to increase the utilization of agricultural re­ has not been supported by Government, and Government sources through methods of farming, marketing, and organi­ policies over the twenty-five years since the tabling of the zation based on sound, scientific, economic and social con­ Commission's reports have favoured the growth in size of siderations; and a long term agricultural program capable of Newfoundland farms and the introduction of mechanized implementation by the people and Government of the Prov­ equipment on them. In addition, abattoirs have been built in ince of Newfoundland'' (The Report of the Royal Commission St. John's and Comer Brook to ensure a steady market for on Agriculture 1955: 1956). Following two years of meat products and to regulate meat quality. One policy which study the Commission tabled its report, which included as was introduced, though not recommended by the Commis­ well the results of a land survey of most areas of Newfound­ sion, has been one to improve and expand hog production. land. It had found that agriculture on the Island, despite its Since the mid-1960s much of Government policy concern­ shortcomings and even if it required assistance from Govern­ ing agriculture has been formulated in consultation with the ment, was an important part of the economy and should be Federal Government, and funding for the implementation of maintained. It found, however, that the smallness of individ­ these policies has been provided through joint Federal-Provin­ ual farms was hampering efficient production of the land re- cial Agreements. In 1981 Provincial and Federal Government AGRICULTURE 17

assistance to the industry was provided through the Can-:;" LIVESTOCK AND POULTRY LIVE SALES AND ada/Newfoundland Agriculture Development Subsidiary SLAUGHTERINGS 1979 Agreement, signed in 1978. Hogs (slaughtered) 31,100 In 1979 there were 428 farms on the island of Newfound­ Sheep and Lambs land and in Labrador which produced at least $2000 worth of (sold live) 1,400 agricultural products each. Two hundred and seventeen were (slaughtered) 2,700 located in the eastern part of the Province, from St. John's Chickens westward to the Musgravetown region; sixty-six were located (slaughtered) 2,882,200 in the area from Gander to Green Bay; one hundred and forty were located in the Cormack, Codroy Valley, Robinson's, Based on Newfoundland and Labrador Agricultural Statistics Port au Port and Northern Peninsula areas; and five were Volume I (1979-80) located in Labrador. Of these farms, the largest number were classified as vegetable farms (147 in total). There were fifty beef farms, forty-nine dairy farms, forty-six mixed farms , PRODUCTION OF EGGS, 1979 thirty-three egg producers, twenty-six hog farms, twenty­ 7,200,000 doz. three sheep farms, eighteen poultry (chicken) farms and lesser numbers of other types of farms, including dairy replacement, Based on Newfoundland and Labrador Agricultural Statistics greenhouse produce, livestock feed and savory producers. Volume I (1979-80) Together these farms had a total of 7295 ha (78,013 acres) cleared, 107 ha (264 acres) of which was peatland. There were 3684 ha (9,097 acres) under crops and 2049 ha (5,060 WHOLE MILK PRODUCTION, 1979 acres) were being used as pasture. Eighty-three farms had 8 482 320 kg 18,700,000 lb more than 28 ha (70 acres) cleared and of these twenty-four had more than 52 ha (130 acres) cleared. Based on Newfoundland and Labrador Agricultural Statistics Volume I (1979-80)

CROP PRODUCTION ON FARMS IN 1979 PERCENTAGE OF CONSUMED AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS IN THE PROVINCE PRODUCED IN kg lb NEWFOUNDLAND: 1979 Turnips 6 662 023 14,687,000 Potatoes 4 911 127 10,827,000 Pork 14.4% Cabbages 2 975 616 6,560,000 Beef 2.1% Carrots 328 406 724,000 Veal 16.5% Beets 242 222 534,000 Mutton and Lamb 17.8% Lettuce 45 814 101,000 Chicken and Fowl 46.1% Greens 92 081 203,000 Turkey 1 % Other Vegetables 32 200 71,000 Eggs 93.8% Hay and Clover 9 616 320 21,200,000 Milk (whole) 52 % Oats 907 200 2,000,000 Silage 907 200 2,000,000 Based on Newfoundland and Labrador Agricultural Statistics Blueberries Exported 1 049 721 2,314,200 Volume I (1979-80) Partridgeberries Produced 102 514 226,000 Cauliflower heads 21,000 Strawberries litres 27 300 NUMBER OF SURVEY FARMS BY FARM SALES IN NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR Based on Newfoundland and Labrador Agricultural Statistics 1979 Volume I ( 1979-80) $ 2,000- $ 2,500 68 2,501- 3,500 30 3,501- 5,000 40 NUMBER OF LIVESTOCK ON FARMS (SPRING 1980): 5,001- 10,000 73 10,001- 15,000 38 Dairy Cattle 3,526 15,001- 25,000 37 Beef Cattle 2,689 25,001- 35,000 18 Pigs 19,750 35,001- 50,000 19 Sheep 4,298 50,001- 75,000 15 Poultry 75,001- 100,000 25 Layers 479,397 100,000 or over 63 Broilers 763,750 not known 2

Based on Newfoundland and Labrador Agricultural Statistics Source: Newfoundland and Labrador Agricultural Statistics Volume I (1979-80) Volume I (1979-80) 18 AGRICULTURE CONCLUSIONS. The history of agriculture in Newfoundland anywhere close is the story of an industry which has never been able to de­ to 79 380 ha been velop to the point where its production has met Newfound­ cleared for agricultural land's own food requirements. Newfoundland has continued, reasons and until the rather, since the first days of settlement, to import most of its time arrives when this food. Likewise, Newfoundland has never exported appreci­ is so land resources able amounts of agricultural produce, with the exception of cannot be deemed to blueberries qv and other small fruits, and occasionally eggs. be restrictive. Weather A number of popular but erroneous ideas regarding the lack conditions, as men­ of agricultural development exist. One view, for instance, tioned above, do not Turnips maintains that agriculture has not developed to any substantial allow for the growth of degree because Newfoundlanders are inherently not farmers. cereal crops on a commercial scale but in general conditions It is true that most Newfoundlanders in history have devoted are suitable for the growth of many vegetables and grasses. most of their time to fishing, but these same people have also What development of agriculture there has been has re­ farmed, producing by their efforts dairy products, meats and sulted from a number of factors. In the first days of settle­ vegetables for their own use. Since the early 1800s there has ment, land was chosen by most people for its proximity to also been a smaller number of commercial farmers, both part­ good fishing grounds. In most areas where the people settled, time and full-time, who have operated in Newfoundland as good land was available in pockets around the settlement. well. Another oft-repeated view maintains that the existence These lands, although hard to clear, were easily accessible. In of the *French Shore qv on the west coast of Newfoundland, most areas subsistence farming resulted; in others, commer­ where much of Newfoundland's good agricultural lands are cial farming developed. In most places, as the settlement found, has held back the expansion of agriculture, since gov­ grew, these finite pockets of good land gradually became in­ ernment land grants could not be issued for this area. Census adequate to meet the needs of the people. For expansion to returns and other government reports, however, for the years occur, in both subsistence and commercial agriculture, other before the resolution of the French Shore problem in 1904, unused areas had to be found. During periods when govern­ show this assertion to be incorrect. From about the 1840s on­ ment policy did not allow for assistance in land clearing, ex­ wards the areas of the Codroy Valley and St. George's Bay pansion would have to occur on land near settlements, so that were farmed by a group of Cape Breton emigrants and their while clearing progressed at intervals some form of remunera­ descendants, who produced a substantial portion of New­ tive employment could be engaged in. Whether government foundland's agricultural production. Other farmers were also assistance was given or not, a good network of roads or roads located in the Deer Lake area before 1904. Moreover, good and railways was also necessary for the growth of agriculture. land on the rest of the Island was available for farming expan­ Until the mid-1900s, however, such a system did not exist in sion before 1904. The third myth concerning agricultural de­ most areas of the Island. On the Avalon Peninsula a pro­ velopment (or lack of it) maintains that women were often the gramme of road building was begun in the early 1820s which only ones involved in farming, and because of this, farming substantially encouraged the settlement of agricultural lands, did not develop. If women had been the only ones to look and following the construction of the railway in the 1890s a after the farms it is highly unlikely that any farming would certain amount of expansion in agriculture occurred in good have been done, since children and household chores took up agricultural areas most of their time. It is true that the women did a large share through which the rail- of the work involved, but it was the men who joined commu­ way passed. Neverthe- nity agricultural societies and livestock clubs and who did the less, the construction seeding and harvesting, assisted by the women. Two other of a good network of reasons which have been given for the lack of development in roads connecting the agriculture are the scarcity of good land on the Island and ad­ railway with agricul­ verse weather conditions. Newfoundland's agricultural soil tural lands in many resources are not extensive. Based on numerous soil surveys, areas of the Province the Provincial Government estimated in 1981 that 79 380 ha did not occur until the Oats drying ( 196,000 acres) of land on the Island was suitable for,,agricul­ mid-1900s. Govern- tural purposes. (This area, however, does not include a good ment assistance at various times in Newfoundland's history proportion of the land which has been used for agricultural has also affected agriculture. Land clearing bonuses, the dis­ purposes in the past; tribution of good breeds of livestock, and attempts at begin­ these excluded lands ning agricultural research have been notable examples of this include small pockets assistance, and during most periods in which this aid was of tillable soil situated given, growth in agriculture resulted. Subsistence, part-time around the coast, agriculture was fast to respond to these government pro­ which today are con­ grammes; commercial agriculture benefited as well, but only sidered to be too small to a limited degree. That this was so may be explained by the to warrant commercial lack of markets. In the St. John's area during the 1800s agri­ exploitation.) At no culture did expand, and it expanded because of the urban mar­ time in Newfound­ ket, which it usually served without middlemen. In most other land's history has Forage crop. areas, however, agriculture could not develop much beyond :;_, AGRICULTURE, AGRICULTURE, NEWFOUNDLAND FEDERATION OF 19 the subsistence level, even in areas where large, accessible May 29, 1980), ET ( 1937-1965 passim as cited in Agriculture tracts of good land occurred, unless farmers could find a mar­ Terre-Neuve/Farming Newfoundland: 1970; Nov. 22, 1952; ket within the truck system. The mercantile establishment in May 9, 1977; Feb. 28, 1979; Mar. 1, 1979), Experimental Placentia provided such a market in the early 1800s for farm­ Farm Highlights in the Atlantic Provinces 1957 (n.d.), Finan­ ers on the Cape Shore, and apparently that in Channel pro­ cial Post (1946-1965 passim as cited in Agriculture Terre­ vided another outlet for farm produce from the west coast in Neuve/Farming Newfoundland: 1970), The Government the 1800s. Elsewhere, however, merchants seem to have Demonstration Farm-Mount Pearl (1944), JHA (1833-1930), shown little interest in local commercial agriculture, prefer­ JLC (1866), Lovell's Newfoundland Directory (1871), New­ ring to deal with export establishments based elsewhere. In­ foundland and Labrador Agricultural Statistics Volume I deed, during the first half of the 1800s most of the mercantile 1979-80 (n.d.), Newfoundland Directory (1928?; 1936), class of Newfoundland voiced strong opposition to agricul­ Newfoundland Historical Society (Agriculture), Newfound­ tural development in the Colony. The expansion of market land Soil Survey and Land Use Program (1981), Practical farming, therefore, had to wait for the establishment of mar­ Suggestions to the Farmer (1853), Remarks upon the Capa­ kets in Grand Falls, Bell Island, Corner Brook and later at Ar­ bilities of the Soil and Climate of Newfoundland (1850), Re­ gentia, Gander, Fort Pepperrell and Stephenville. Paradoxi­ port of the Agricultural Commissioners (1899), Report of the cally, the establishment of industrial development at the first Minister of Agriculture and Mines (1921; 1922; 1930), Report three of these areas and construction and service jobs at the of the Newfoundland Agricultural Board for the Year Ended last four sites tended at the same time to draw people away December 31st, 1915 (1916), Report of the Royal Commis­ from the primary industries. According to some, this was par­ sion on Agriculture 1955 (1956), Research Branch Report ticularly true in farming areas (See for instance, The Report of ( 1971-1975), Research Report ( 1967-1970), Research Report Newfoundland Royal Commission on Agriculture 1955: 1956) ... Experimental Farm (1956-1963), Research Report ... As a net result, up to the 1950s most agricultural holdings on Research Station (1964-1966), The Rounder (Special Issue, the Island were small, subsistence farms which did not de­ 1976; July 1978; May 1979; Nov. 1979). Archives: C.O. 194 pend on markets. series. CFH Perhaps the biggest factor to affect agriculture on the Island AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF. See GOVERN­ has been Confederation. Since 1949 subsistence agriculture MENT. has declined as the need to be self-sufficient disappeared, and AGRICULTURE, NEWFOUNDLAND FEDERATION OF. commercial farmers have been faced with great competition In September 1949 a number of farmers in Newfoundland, in the market place from large mainland Canadian farms. anxious about the effects of Confederation qv on Newfound­ Confederation occurred at a time when commercial farms land agriculture, joined together to form an organization of were quite small and costly to operate. Since that time, meet­ farmers, known as the Newfoundland Federation of Agricul­ ing the competition, while at the same time, trying to expand ture. Their primary aim was to ensure that commercial agri­ to decrease costs, has been very difficult. Government assis­ cultural products on the Island would continue to be competi­ tance to farmers wishing to expand has been made available, tive with Canadian mainland agricultural products which, but it is in general given to those farms and prospective farm­ starting in April 1949, were being shipped into Newfoundland ers which have the most promise. Small, struggling farms are free of former tariffs. The Federation established a marketing often left out as government cost-benefit analyses deem these board to regulate the sale of Newfoundland produce on the Is­ to be less important in the long run. As a result, the number of land and began a publicity campaign to promote Newfound­ farms in the Province has steadily decreased, while the land farm products in the marketplace. The Federation, how­ average size has increased. The increase in size has occurred ever, for reasons which are not apparent, was not successful slowly, however, and as a result, in 1981, the produce of the and in two years its activities had ceased. Island's farms still did not come close to providing for the Is­ In 1974, through the efforts of a number of farmers around land's needs. the Island, a second Newfoundland Federation of Agriculture See DAIRY AND BEEF CATTLE FARMING; HOG was formed and the first board of directors of the organiza­ FARMING; POULTRY FARMING; SHEEP FARMING; tion, including farmers from the West Coast, Conception FRUIT AND VEGETABLE FARMING. David Alexander Bay, Central Newfoundland and St. John's, held their first (1974), L.A. Anspach (1827), Kenneth Ash (letter, July meeting in May of that year. The aim of the organization was 1980), A.C. Badcock (1967), W.W. Baird (1934), A.B. to create, through the Federation, a united voice for the farm­ Banks (1937; 1937a; 1937b), T.W. Boone (1957), G.T. Cell ers of the Province, to become a liaison between farmers on (1969), Peter Crabb (1969), Albert Dunphy (interview, July the one hand and Government, retailers and wholesalers on 1981), Dennis Galway, Jr. (interview, July 1981), F.E. Gat­ the other. It intended to carry out promotional campaigns for ringer (1965), G.E. Gunn (1966), C.G. Head (1976), J.P. Newfoundland agricultural products, to affiliate with, and by Howley (1917k; 19171), H.A. Innis (1940), W.J. Keough so doing have input into, the Canadian Federation of Agricul­ (1966), T. Lodge (1939), P.T. McGrath (1911), J.J. Mannion ture and to insure that Newfoundland agriculture would con­ (1974), Gerard O'Reilly (1967), John Parker (1950), F.W. tinue to develop and would be able to supply the Newfound­ Rowe (1980), A.H. Seymour (1910), Dale Sudom (interview, land market with fresh products. Aug. 1981), Agriculture in Newfoundland (n.d.), Can­ The organization became the liaison between the Govern­ ada/Newfoundland Agriculture Development Subsidiary ment and the farmers and was consulted by Government on Agreement (July, 1978) (n.d.), Census (1836-1976), Customs agricultural policies from its inception. Largely through the (1913/14-1948/49), Daily Colonist (Nov. 27, 1886), DN efforts of the Federation the community pasture system was (May 7, 1973; Nov. 8, 1977; May 5, 1980; May 22, 1980; re-organized and was, in 1981, being managed by farmers 20 AGRiCULTURE, NEWFOUNDLAND FEDERATION OF, AIR SERVICES

who leased the pastures from the Government and operated AIR ARMADA, ITALIAN. See BALBO, GENERAL them under Government regulations. The Federation suc­ ITALO. ceeded in having one of its members appointed to an advisory AIR BASES. See AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS; MILITARY committee to the Canadian Livestock Feed Board and through HISTORY. the members' work, changes were made in the Federal Gov­ AIR CADETS. The Air Cadet League of Canada was formed in ernment's freight assistance for livestock feed, which meant, April 1941 as a civilian organization whose original purpose in the end, a saving of about $500,000 a year for Newfound­ was to build a reserve of trained airmen for the Royal Cana­ land livestock farmers. (Hollis Duffett: interview, Aug . dian Air Force. After the war the movement was reorganized 1981). As well, the Federation worked with the Provincial to provide training in aviation and citizenship, and to promote Government in establishing a land freeze in most of the agri­ a high standard of physical and mental discipline for boys of cultural areas of the Province. high school age. The Air Cadets carne to Newfoundland with In 1981 eighty to a hundred farmers in the Province were Confederation and the fust squadron, 508 Caribou, was paying-members of the Federation, representing about 20% of formed at St. John' s in 1949. In 1981 there were twenty-two the total number of farmers in the Province. Annually the Air Cadet squadrons in operation and an estimated twenty­ membership elected a seven-man Board of Directors to man­ five to thirty thousand young people have participated in Air age the affairs of the Federation. Work by the Board was done Cadet training in Newfoundland and Labrador. Official par­ voluntarily. Hollis Duffett (interview, Aug. 1981). Dennis ticipation by girls was authorized by Parliament in July 1975. Galway, Jr. (interview, Aug. 1981), DN (May 29, 1979; May GL 22, 1980), ET (June 8, 1949; Sept. 10, 1949; Oct. 16, 1950). AIR CANADA. See AIR SERVICES . CFH AIR FORCE, ROYAL. See MILITARY; MILITARY HIS­ AGUATHUNA. See PORT AU PORT WEST-AGUATHUNA­ TORY. FELIX COVE. AIR FORCE, ROYAL CANADIAN. See MILITARY; MILI­ AID, GOVERNMENT. See GOVERNMENT AID. TARY HISTORY. AILIK. Summer fishing village on the Labrador coast, approxi­ AIR FORCE TRANSPORT COMMAND, ROYAL. See mately 15 km (9 rni) north of Makkovik. Because of its prox­ MILITARY HISTORY. imity to good fishing grounds and the occurrence of seals AIR RAID PRECAUTIONS. See WAR MEASURES. close by, Ailik has long been a summer fishing settlement. AIR SERVICES. Newfoundland and Labrador, because of its The discovery of an Inuit cairn near the site of Ailik indicates location and isolation, has a wide variety of air services. The that the area was probably seasonally occupied by a relatively first planes to come to the Island were those of the aviators large number of Inuit as early as the period between approxi­ participating in the Great Air Race in March and April 1919, mately AD 1500 and AD 1850. using Newfoundland's proximity to Europe in their attempt to From approximately the 1860s to at least 1907 the Hud­ be the first aircraft to cross the Atlantic Ocean. The first air­ son' s Bay Company maintained a trading post at the small vil­ craft company to operate in Newfoundland was the Aerial lage and during the summer months the people of nearby Kai­ pokok Bay established themselves there, trading cod and seals with the company. In 1921 , the first year for which Ailik is .··.. ? listed as a community in the Census Returns, Ailik had are­ c::} corded population of fifteen, the majority of whom were di­ rectly involved in the cod and seal fisheries. One sailing ves­ :~~~t sel of fifty tons and seven fishing boats operated from there in t•./ that year. One trading establishment was reported in Ailik in that year as well. (It is not known, however, whether it was a ~~· Hudson's Bay Company post or an independent establish­ ,)' ment.) ~- By the 1930s Ailik had assumed a certain degree of impor­ T' r' tance in the Kaipokok Bay region and a clergyman, Pastor ' \ f',,I \ ~.. ~;) ·..., \.) ... \ ~ --· Gillette, built a church there in 1938. He found the weather i __ , ,_, ·---,,_r too inclement, however, and soon after moved to Postville, \ but returned every summer with the residents of Kaipokok ',(_; Bay who prosecuted the cod fishery there. By the 1930s the ' .! Hudson's Bay Company had abandoned its post and a family '1.,-, \j t"~ .,., of independent traders, the Chards , had moved into the settle­ 1 r,:-~:; ment to take its place. After 1949 a trading post in Postville 'tn ('~ ... --....1 ""...-, \/ 2. ------10 served the area but Ailik continued to be used by fishermen v \ 11' and their families from Kaipokok Bay as a summer fishing Airports and airstrips in Labrador: ' station. Randy Ames (1977), A.P. Dyke (1969) , W.W. Fitz­ I . Wabush 10. Red Bay hugh (1977), R.J. Fletcher (1975), W.O. Gosling (1910), 2. Churchill Fails II. F orteau 3 . Saglek Bay Census (1921-1945) The Newfoundland and Labrador Pilot 4. Nain (1878; 1887; 1907; 1953). CFH 5 . Makkovik AIR AMBULANCE. See AIR SERVICES: GOVERNMENT OF 6 . Northwest River 7. Goose Bay NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR AIR SERVICES; AIR SER­ 8 . Cartwright VICES: INTERNATIONAL GRENFELL ASSOCIATION . 9. Mary's Harbour AIR SERVICES 21

May I, 1942. Passengers arriving at St. John's Airport on the first trip in the new service from Canada to Newfoundland.

/

Airports and airstrips on Newfoundland Island: Ii. St. George's 22. Bonavista 13. Stephenville 23. Harbour Grace 14. Deer Lake 24. Bell island 15. Portland Creek 25. St. John's /6. Port aux Choix 26. Argentia 17. St. Amhony 27. Winter/and 18. Conche 28. Frenchman's Cove 19. Springdale 29. Bay d' Espoir 20. Botwood 30. Buchans 21. Gander

Survey Company (Newfoundland) Limited which was started by Major Sydney Cotton qv in 1922 and offered aerial survey­ ing services. It was 1930 before the first commercial airline company, Newfoundland Airways, started to operate in New­ Passengers ready to board the first passenger flight from Newfoundland, foundland. Since then Newfoundland and Labrador have be­ May I, 1942. come the major stopover points between Europe and North America and have developed extensive internal and external air service systems. Air Canada provides a national and inter­ national service; Eastern Provincial Airways provides a re­ gional service to Atlantic Canada, Montreal and Toronto; sev­ eral local companies provide selected regional services within the Province; helicopter companies and some of the smaller airlines provide charter services; the Government of New­ foundland and Labrador provides such services as air ambu­ lance, forest fire surveillance, water-bombers and aerial sur­ veying. Newfoundland and Labrador is also served by most international airlines at the International Airport at Gander. AERIAL SURVEY COMPANY (NEWFOUNDLAND) LIMITED. The Aerial Survey Co. (Newfoundland) Ltd. was formed in Newfoundland on November 28, 1922 by Sydney Cotton qv, Samuel Butler and Sydney Bennett. The fleet consisted of one Martinsyde and two Westland aircraft which could accommo­ Douglas DC-3 being loaded at Torbay Airport. date a total of twelve passengers. The company's head­ quarters was located at St. John's, but the operating head­ 10, 1937. In 1942 TCA began a daily service from Moncton quarters was from the large aerodromes at Botwood. The to Stephenville, Gander and St. John's using a fourteen pas­ company mainly did survey work for mineral companies, senger Lockheed 10-A. In 1965 TCA changed its name to Air especially in interior Labrador. The company was dissolved Canada. in February 1930. (It is believed that this was the first time Since Confederation in 1949 Air Canada has become the aircraft were used for this type of work.) main trunk carrier providing national and international ser­ AIR CANADA. Trans-Canada Airlines (TCA), now Air Can­ vices from St. John's, Gander and Stephenville with continu­ ada, was formed by an Act of the Canadian Parliament, April ous jet flights to Sydney, Halifax, Montreal, Toronto, Ed- 22 AIR SERVICES monton and Van­ night flying were installed with power coming from a private couver. Prior to 1972 generator. Refueling facilities were also planned for installa­ Air Canada operated tion in 1981. the intra-island air EASTERN PROVINCIAL AIRWAYS. Eastern Provincial Air­ routes but these be­ ways (EPA) was formed in 1949 by Eric Blackwood qv and came the responsibil­ Cheslie A. Crosbie qv. In 1951 Blackwood sold out and Cros­ ity of Eastern Provin­ bie appointed Marsh Jones and Bill Harris to run the com­ cial Airways. pany. In the early years the company conducted geological In 1981 Air Canada and geodetic surveys for the federal government. It also owned and operated Installing blackout curtains operated an air ambulance service for the outports and carried five 737 (all passenger on Newfoundland service. mail into northern Labrador. When the Pine Tree Radar Line flights) aircraft, one 747 (combination cargo-passenger), ten was being installed EPA moved equipment and supplies into LlOll, twenty-seven DC8 (six of which are freighters), remote interior Labrador. twenty-five 727 and forty-five DC9. Newfoundland and Lab­ In 1954 the headquarters of EPA was moved to Gander rador was served by approximately 2,500 Air Canada flights from St. John's. In the next two years there was a major ex­ each year. pansion of the fleet with larger aircraft being purchased. A AIR TRANSIT LIMITED. Air Transit Ltd. was a Newfound­ regular passenger service from St. John's to Gander to Deer land company founded in 1943. It provided a small plane Lake was instituted, and later a summer service was added charter service in and around the Province. The company from St. Pierre et Miquelon to the mainland of Newfound­ went out of business in 1975 but in 1981 still owned a hangar land. At the same time EPA was providing Newfoundland at St. John's Airport. with a regular air ambulance service and with Canso water ALLIED AVIATION SERVICE COMPANY OF NEWFOUNDLAND bombers for the forestry service. In 1958 the company was LIMITED. Allied Aviation Service Company of Newfoundland chartered by the Government of Denmark to do air survey Ltd. is a subsidiary of Allied Maintenance Ltd. It began in work along the coast of Greenland, including ice reconnais­ Newfoundland in 1948, operating out of Gander. It does not sance, aerial photography and other specialized work. offer flight service but provides full ground service mainte­ nance for aircraft. It is also the official representative at Gander International Airport for British Airways, Cubana Airlines, Czechoslovak Airlines, Seaboard World Airlines, El-A Israel Airlines, Icelandic Airlines, Pan American World Airlines, Royal Air Force, Scandanavian Airlines System, Trans-World Airlines Inc., Aeroflot (U.S.S.R.), Interflug (East Germany) and Lot (Poland). ASHUANIPI AVIATION. Ashuanipi Aviation is a Labrador based company owned and operated in 1981 by James Troke out of Labrador City. It was started in 1974 and in 1981 of­ fered a charter aircraft service to all points in Labrador, using two Cessna 185 aircraft. AZTEC AVIATION. Aztec Aviation is a Newfoundland com­ pany founded in 1975 at St. John's. It provides a charter air­ craft service operating flights to all points within Canada and the United States. It also provides commercial charters in­ cluding to the Newfoundland Government as an air ambu­ lance and to offshore oil drilling companies for iceberg sur­ veillance. The company operates a flight school to train pilots for private, commercial and multi-engined planes. The school Air Mail service to northern Labrador. also provides instrument training and flotation endorsements. Eastern Provincial Airways purchased Maritime Central The company's fleet has increased from two single-engine Airways from C.F. Burke in 1963, and the consolidation of aircraft in 1976 to nine single- and multi-engine aircraft in the two companies increased the fleet to thirty-six aircraft. In 1981. 1972 EPA took over the intra-island route in Newfoundland COASTAL AIR SERVICES. Coastal Air Services, a New­ from Air Canada. In 1980 the company became a wholly foundland company owned by Joseph Hickey, Marystown, owned subsidiary of the Newfoundland Capital Corporation. began in May 1981 as a private charter air service based in In 1981 EPA provided a daily service from Montreal and Winterland. In that year the company operated a Piper Chero­ Toronto to St. John's with stops at Charlottetown, Halifax, kee 6 aircraft with accommodation for five passengers, and Sydney, Stephenville, Deer Lake and Gander. There was also flew to most serviced points in Newfoundland and Labrador a service between Montreal, Wabush, Churchill Falls, Goose and to St. Pierre et Miquelon. There were plans for more air­ Bay, Deer Lake, Stephenville, Gander and St. John's, and craft and a regular service between Winterland and St. John's one from Moncton to St. John's with stops at Saint John, if demands warranted it. The company installed facilities at Halifax, Sydney, Deer Lake and Gander. In 1981 the Eastern the Winterland airstrip, including hanger facilities, passenger Provincial Airways fleet consisted of six Boeing 737 and waiting room, radio and telephone communication. Lights for three Hawker Sidley 748 turbo prop aircraft. AIR SERVICES 23

Boeing 737s at boarding bridges at Halifax Airport.

GANDER AVIATION. Gander Aviati m is a Newfoundland King Air is used for the transportation of Government person­ company formed in 1959. In 1981 it was owned and operated nel and is also on permanent stand-by as a provincial air am­ by W .J. Bennett and had its head office in Gander, with a bulance. The Cessna is used primarily by the Department of branch office in St. John's. The company had seven aircraft: Forestry Resources and Lands for forest surveillance, for two Beaver six-passenger planes, two Cessna 180, one Otter mapping and for co-ordinating activities in the fighting of ten-passenger, one Twin Engine Queen Air and one Turbo forest fires. The PBY 5-A are used exclusively for fighting Prop Beaver. The Turbo Prop Beaver was on yearly rental to forest fires. the Newfoundland Government and was stationed at St. Anth­ The Government ony, where it was operated by the IGA as an air ambulance. contracts annually for The Twin Engine Beaver was stationed at St. John's, where it eight helicopters flew the regularly scheduled route between St. John's and St. which are used by all Pierre four times a week in the summer and three times a Government Depart­ week in winter. It also doubles as an emergency air ambu­ ments. These are sta­ lance. The other planes in the fleet are used for charter work tioned in Gander, Deer to sports fisherman, hunters, woods exploration teams and to Lake, Goose Bay and individuals, many of whom want access to remote areas of the St. John's, and are Southwest coast of Newfoundland, and the coast of Labrador. often used as air am- The Government Air Ambulance service They are also used in the government subsidized scheduled bulances to places 1950s. service from Gander to Fogo Island, Change1slands and St. which cannot accommodate the landing of larger aircraft. It Brendan's, which operates between January 1 and April 15 also charters two Beaver Turbo Prop aircraft, one from Labra­ each year. The Company also operates two sports-fishing dor Airways and one from Gander Aviation. These are sta­ lodges at Sandhill River and St. Michael's River in Labrador tioned at St. Anthony and North West River and are operated each summer. by the International Grenfell Association as air ambulances. GOVERNMENT OF NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR AIR The Government is further involved in air services by sub­ SERVICES. In 1981 the Government of Newfoundland and sidizing local commercial airlines to provide regular mail and Labrador owned and operated one King Air AlOO, one passenger services to isolated communities in the various Cessna 337 and seven PBY 5-A Canso water-bombers. The parts of the Province. 24 AIR SERVICES GRACEFIELD AVIATION. Gracefield Aviation is a Piper Club, Super Piper, Tiger Moth, Norseman, Mark V Stephenville-based company owned by George Banfield. It Ansons and Sea-bee Amphibian aircraft and was involved in was started in 1979 and offered charter service to all po:nts in mail delivery under government contract, bush flying, mercy Newfoundland and Labrador. In 1981 the company owned flights, and survey work for the seal hunt. The company was and operated two aircraft, a Cessna 180 and a Cessna 185. sold to Maritime Central Airways in early 1949. INTERNATIONAL GRENFELL ASSOCIATION. The Interna­ NEWFOUNDLAND AlRWA YS. Newfoundland Airways was tional Grenfell Association (IGA) has provided an air ambu­ the first commercial airline company east of Montreal when it lance service for the coastal communities ·of northern New­ was organized by Arthur Sullivan qv in 1930. He purchased a foundland and Labrador since the early 1950s. In 1981 the Gypsy Moth aircraft in Toronto and brought it to Newfound­ IGA operated two Turbo Beaver Aircraft which the New­ land with Douglas Fraser qv as pilot. After Fraser left his em­ foundland Government chartered as air ambulances from ploy Sullivan began to fly the plane himself. He operated a Gander Aviation Ltd. and Labrador Airways Ltd. One was charter and mail service especially to remote northern New­ stationed at St. Anthony and the other at North West River. foundland. After Sullivan's death in a plane crash in 1932 the The Association also owned a twin-engine Navaho Chieftain, company disbanded, and was officially dissolved in 1934. an all-weather aircraft with seating capacity for ten passen­ NEWFOUNDLAND LABRADOR AIR TRANSPORT LIMITED. In gers. It is used for transporting medical personnel to the re­ 1959 Newfoundland Air Transport Ltd. was established by mote, isolated parts of the Province which the IGA serves and Gene Manion and Rick Richards who started operations at Pa­ also doubles as an air ambulance when the need arises. sadena, Newfoundland. In 1970 the company expanded and Gander Aviation provides a helicopter when the Turbo Beaver changed its name to Newfoundland and Labrador Air Trans­ requires servicing. port Ltd. In 1975 Labrador Airways Ltd. purchased this com­ LABRADOR AIRWAYS LIMITED. Established in 1970, Labra­ pany. dor Airways Ltd. in 1981 operated from a main base at Goose In 1977 Pierre Meagher, a director of Newfoundland and Bay, Labrador with aircraft also based year round at St. Anth­ Labrador Air Transport Ltd., formed Nalair Ltd. to purchase ony and Deer Lake. The company owned and operated seven­ the bush line operations of Labrador Airways Ltd. This com­ teen Beechcraft and Dehavilland aircraft, the largest of which pany, called in 1981 Newfoundland Labrador Air Transport has seating capacity for eighteen. Labrador Airways Ltd. Ltd., operates charter and specialty commercial air services within the Province from bases at South Brook-Deer Lake and Goose Bay. The company has thirty aircraft, including Cessna, Beaver Float, Wheel-ski, and twin-engine amphibian Widgeon and eight helicopters. It also owns and operates Wentzell's Flying Services at Pinchgut Lake. NORTH WEST LEAS- ING LIMITED. North West Leasing Limited is a Newfoundland based company situ­ ated in Stephenville. It was started in 1979 by Roger Pike, who is the President and General Manager. The Com­ The last DC3 in Atlantic Canada. Twin Otter flying over Mealey Mountains in Labrador. pany offers charter service (passenger and cargo) to all points in Newfoundland operates domestic and international charter flights as well as a and Labrador. In 1980 an advanced training service for pilots scheduled service to all coastal Labrador communities and was instituted by the company. In 1981 the company owned a Goose Bay. There is also a regularly scheduled service con­ DC3, a Piper Navaho Chieftain and three Cessna aircraft. The necting Goose Bay, St. Anthony, Deer Lake and Gander. The DC3, the only one of its kind in Atlantic Canada, can accom­ single engine aircraft which service coastal Labrador can be modate large bulk cargo. The company also offers services outfitted with floats for summer flights, skis for winter and for exploration and aerial photography. amphibia for spring and fall. OCEAN AIR SERVICES INC. Ocean Air Services Inc. is a NEWFOUNDLAND AERO SALES AND SERVICES INC. New­ Newfoundland based company founded in January 1979 by foundland Aero Sales Douglas Hogan, the owner and principal shareholder. In 1980 and Services Inc. was the company operated out of St. John's with a fleet of four a Newfoundland based helicopters, all Bell-206 models. A minority shareholder in company founded by the company is Shirley Helicopters of Edmonton through James McLoughlin, which OAS can obtain most models required by its custom­ Eric Blackwood and ers. The company provides a rental and charter service pri­ Ren Goobie in 1945, marily, but not exclusively, with the onshore and offshore oil with its base of opera­ industry. Ocean Air Service Inc. also operates a flying school tions in St. John's. from St. John's Airport at which helicopter pilots are The company operated trained. AIR SERVICES 25 OLD COLONY AIRWAYS . Old Colony Airways was for?e~ air charter company operating out of Springdale and nearby in 1931 by Douglas Fraser qv. As well as a charter and mail Davies Pond. It used Beaver and Cessna aircraft. service, the company did search and rescue work. In 1934 it UNIVERSAL HELICOPTERS was purchased by the Commission of Government, which INC. Universal Helicopters, wanted a government-owned air service in Newfoundland. originally an Ontario based They in turn leased the company to Imperial Airways of Great company, was founded in Britain who operated the service until the company was dis­ 1962. After 1963-64 it worked solved in 1938. exclusively in Newfoundland, QUEBEC AIR. Quebec Air is a Canadian company which in and in 1970 moved its head of­ 1981 operated a regularly scheduled service from Montreal to fice from Ottawa to Gander. In Churchill Falls, with stops at Quebec City, Rimouski, Mont­ 1981 the company had a fleet of joli, Baie Comeau, Sept-lies in Quebec and Wabush in Labra­ 15-20 helicopters consisting dor. mainly of the Bell-206 model SEALAND HELICOPTERS LIMITED. Sealand Helicopters but it can obtain other types Ltd., a Newfoundland based company, was founded in 1977 upon request. The main hangar Forest fire protection. by Craig Dobbin. It operates from St. John' s Airport where, is located at Gander but rentals in 1981, its fleet consisted of twenty-six aircraft, including can also be obtained through offices in St. John's, Milltown, four IFR Helicopters specifically designed for the offshore oil Pasadena and Goose Bay. The helicopters are rented or char­ industry, and three French A stars. There are also rental bases tered to private, business and government concerns, espe­ in Gander, Goose Bay and Deer Lake. The helicopters are of­ cially in the forest, construction and oil industries. The heli­ fered for rental or charter to private, business and government copters can also be fitted with a tank for service as water interests, and provide such services as aerial surveying, slide bombers. loading, and aerial photography. Sealand Helicopters Ltd. VERSATILE AIR SERVICES. Versatile Air Services is a Nova also operates its own flying school for training helicopter Scotia based company owned by H.B. Nickerson Ltd. In pilots. 1981 the company had one helicopter based at Deer Lake STRAITS AIR LIMITED. Straits Air Limited was, in 1981, an which was involved generally in corporate work.

Be/1 206L and two Forest Service water-bombers at St. John's Airport. 26 AIR SERVICES, AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS

VIKING HELICOPTERS LIMITED. Viking Helicopters Ltd. is Department of Transportation and the Government of Can­ an Ottawa based company which started operations in New­ ada's Federal Financial Airport Assistance Program. New­ foundland in 1972. Its base of operation is Pasadena on the foundland and Labrador also has a multitude of natural land­ Province's west coast. The company's fleet ranges from five ing strips; during the winter hundreds of lakes and ponds can to nine helicopters, all Hughes 500D models. These are char­ be used by ski-equipped planes and during the other seasons tered mainly to companies involved in mining exploration and by pontoon-equipped aircraft. to the Government of Canada Department of Fisheries and Several of the airports in Newfoundland and Labrador have Oceans when they are used to monitor the annual seal hunt. an historical significance beyond their importance in the There are also private charters to individuals for inland fishing transportation field. Harbour Grace airport was the first civil and hunting trips. The helicopters can also be equipped with a airport in North America. When it was built in 1941 the air­ bucket apparatus for use as a water bomber for forest fire out­ port at Goose Bay was the largest in the world. The first trans­ breaks. atlantic commercial flight took off from Botwood seaplane WEST COAST AERO. West Coast Aero is a Newfoundland base. The International airport at Gander is known world wide company owned by John Burham. Begun in the mid-1970s it as the crossroads of the Atlantic route. was, in 1980, a maintenance company which operated on a ARGENTIA AIRPORT . The airport at Argentia was built dur­ freelance basis. The work included rebuilding and salvage, ing World War II by the United States Government. It was and aircraft inspections. part of the Fort McAndrew American Naval Base and was W.J. Bennett (interview, Jan. 1981), Marilyn Chambers operated by the U.S. Navy under a military licence until (interview, Jan. 1981), Rodney Chubbs (interview, Aug. 1974, when it was closed as part of the U.S. Government's 1981), Thomas Collingwood (interview, Jan. 1981), scaling down of their operations at the Argentia base. During R. Comad (interview, Jan. 1981), Dalwick and Harmer the period when it was under American jurisdiction it was (1953), Robert Freeman (interview, Jan. 1981), L.F. Gettel (interview, Jan. 1981), Joseph Lawrence (interview, Jan. 1981), Gary MacPherson (interview, Jan. 1981), James McLoughlin (interview, Aug. 1981), Jack Murphy (inter­ view, Jan. 1981), Paul O'Neill (1975), Roger Pike (inter­ view, Aug. 1981), James Troke (interview, Aug. 1981), Donald Venturi (interview, Jan. 1981), Newfoundland Infor­ mation Book (1978), Atlantic Advocate (June 1964), NQ (July 1923),Rotorand Wing (Nov. 30, 1979), Newfoundland Reg­ ister of Companies (No. 1063; No. 1115; No. 1752). BGR AIR TRANSIT LIMITED. See AIR SERVICES. AIR TRAVEL. See AIR SERVICES; AVIATION. AIRLINES. See AIR SERVICES. AIRMAIL. See POST OFFICE. AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS. Newfoundland became an early pioneer in aviation primarily because of its geographical location as the closest North American landmass (excluding Argentia Air Base 1941 Greenland) to Europe. As a result of this ideal position, and closed to civilian traffic except for emergencies or for those because of the continuous use of Newfoundland as a starting with special authorization. In 1981 there were three runways point for transatlantic flights during the 1920s and 1930s, it at the Argentia airport, with lengths of 2271 m (7450 ft), was only a matter of time before it was necessary to install fa­ 1768 m (5800 ft), and 1555 m (5100 ft) and each with a cilities at various locations around the Island for refueling and width of 91 m (300 ft). The runways were surfaced with as­ servicing aircraft on these flights. This became a necessity phalt. There were tactical air-navigation aids and a non-direc­ when regular passenger flights were introduced between tional beacon in place as well as storage and fuel facilities. Europe and North America. With the onset of World War II, Since the closedown in 1974 the airport has lain dormant. In Newfoundland and Labrador were in a strategic position for 1981, however, there was renewed interest in the facility as the defense of the North American continent. Canada and the an alternative to St. John's during foggy weather. (See AR­ United States built large air bases at Goose Bay, St. John's, GENTIA BASE.) Stephenville, Gander and Argentia qvv. After the end of the BAY D'ESPOIR AIRSTRIP. The airstrip at Bay d'Espoir was war other airports were constructed, as well as a number of constructed in 1%5 and operated by the Newfoundland and airstrips in areas which needed air service but did not need full Labrador Power Commission. During the 1970s the airstrip scale airport facilities. Several of these were built by private was turned over to the Province of Newfoundland and Labra­ companies, while the others were built with government dor for operational and maintenance services. It is located funds. south of the town of St. Alban's and in 1981 was unlicenced. In 1981 practically all areas of Newfoundland and Labrador There is one asphalt-surfaced runway 914 m (3000 ft) long could be serviced by some type of aircraft. There were thirty and 23 m (75 ft) wide; it is 227 m (745 ft) above sea level. In airports and airstrips as well as a number of heliports and sea­ 1981 no fixed base facilities such as refueling or aircraft plane bases. Several were abandoned but could be used in storage were available but there was a paved parking ramp. emergency situations; more were scheduled for construction There were no regularly scheduled flights. both by the Govermnent of Newfoundland and Labrador's BELL ISLAND (W ABANA) AIRSTRIP. Wabana Iron Ore -·· AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS 27 Company constructed the airstrip on Bell Island in the ef.:f; flying boat, under the command of Captain A.S. Wilcockson, 1950s. The original runway was an 823 m (2700 ft) gravel­ left Foynes for Botwood. It landed July 6, 1937 at 7:36a.m. surfaced strip. The facility was turned over to the Government This marked the beginning of transatlantic commercial of Newfoundland and Labrador in the mid-1970s. In 1978 the flights. runway was paved to a length of 762 m (2500 ft) and a width With the construction of the land-based airport at Gander of 23 m (75ft). It is located 137m (450ft) above sea level. ( 1936-39) Botwood lost its prominent role in the transatlantic In 1981 there were no facilities provided for refueling, servic­ corridor. During World War II the facility was outfitted as a ing or storage of aircraft, and there were no regularly sche­ Royal Canadian Air Force base accommodating the coastal duled flights. defence anti-submarine patrol squadron using PBY-5A Canso BONA VISTA AIRSTRIP. Located south of the town of Bona­ amphibians. A large concrete slipway was constructed and an vista, this unlicensed airstrip was in 1981 operated by the ammunition depot was built on Killick Island. After the war Government of Newfoundland and Labrador. There was one the facility was closed and the equipment removed. On July runway, surfaced with asphalt, 610 m (2000 ft) long, 23m 12, 1969 a plaque was unveiled in Botwood commemorating (75 ft) wide and 46 m (150ft) above sea level. In that year the inauguration of commercial air service across the Atlantic there were no refueling or storage facilities but lighting could Ocean. be provided upon request. The airstrip was constructed in BUCHANS AIRSTRIP. In 1942 the Canadian Government 1972. built an airstrip 5 km (3 mi) east of Buchans as an emergency BOTWOOD SEA- landing strip. At the end of World War II the facilities came PLANE BASE. Major under the jurisdiction of the Canadian Department of Trans­ Sydney Cotton qv es­ port. The field was not used frequently by aircraft but there tablished the flrst fa­ were radio range towers which served in directing aircraft and cilities for aircraft at keeping them on course. The Canadian Government phased Botwood during 1921- out the operation in 1965 and the facilities have not been 1922 as headquarters maintained. There were two runways, each approximately for his Aerial Survey 1219 m (4000 ft) long and 30.5 m (100ft) wide; the surface (Newfoundland) Com- was crushed rock. The field was 283 m (927 ft) above sea pany. There he con- Cotton'shangerarBotwood,/921. level and was unlicensed. The Buchans Task Force (1976) structed hangars for recommended upgrading and reactivation of the airstrip to his planes, a de Havilland 9, a Rolls-Royce powered Martyn­ serve the people of the Buchans area. side and a Westland Napier. The planes were equipped with CARTWRIGHT AIRSTRIP. The construction of the airstrip at locally made skis for winter flying and used the frozen Ex­ Cartwright was originally planned during 1977-1978 as a joint ploits River as a runway. In other seasons the planes were project to be financed by the Government of Canada's Federal equipped with pontoons. Cotton remained at Botwood for Financial Airport Assistance Program and by oil companies only two to three years and after he left his facilities fell into drilling near Cartwright off the Labrador coast. This proposal disuse. collapsed when the oil companies suspended drilling opera­ In 1935 the United States and British Governments chose tions and moved elsewhere. Some federal money material­ Botwood as a landing base for their trans-Atlantic flying ized, but the major cost of the construction of the airstrip was boats. They reactivated Cotton's hangars, added facilities for borne by the Government of Newfoundland and Labrador, refuelling, communications, weather observations and air­ which had invested over one million dollars in the project by craft maintenance. On July 5, 1937 the fust transatlantic ex­ 1978. The runway is 899 m (2950 ft) long and 23 m (75 ft) perimental commercial flight, the Pan American Clipper Ill, wide. It is situated 12 m (39 ft) above sea level and has a gravel surface. In 1981 there were no fixed base facilities. CHURCHILL FALLS AIRPORT. In 1958 a small airstrip was constructed at Twin Falls, 37 km (23 mi) from the site of the Churchill Falls development. Originally used to bring people and supplies to the hydro-electric project under construction there, it soon became evident that the location was inconve­ nient and the facility inadequate to meet the growing needs of the project. The Churchill Falls Labrador Corporation began work on a new airport for the area in the spring and summer of 1968, located across from Mount Hyde Lake, 8 km (5 mi) west of the Churchill Falls site. It was ready for use by the fall of that year. The single runway was 1676 m (5500 ft) long and 46 m (150ft) wide. It was built up from a .9 m (3 ft) deep excavation which was then filled with 61 em (24 in) of crushed rock, 23 em (9 in) of finer crushed rock and 9 em CaJendonia docking at Botwood Seaplane Base, 1937. (3.5 in) of asphalt. A makeshift terminal building was con­ landed at Botwood from New York via Shediac, New Bruns­ structed of plywood and two trailers. A new terminal was wick. The next day the Clipper III, a Sikorsky 42 aircraft opened in April 1969. It contained a waiting area and offices piloted by Captain Harold Gray, left Botwood for Foynes, for Eastern Provincial Airways. On March 31, 1969 the Cana­ Ireland. The same day the Caledonia, a Short Empire Class dian Department of Transport began operating a weather of- 28 AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS flee at the airport. It also had VFR and IFR installations and craft. The airport regularly handles about 15% of Newfound­ two non-directional beacons as landing and navigational aids. land's air traffic each year. In 1981 the airport was owned and operated by the Churchill FORTEAU AIRSTRIP. In March 1978 a committee was Falls Labrador Corporation with a subsidy from Transport formed in Forteau to raise money to build an airstrip. It was Canada and there were regularly scheduled flights. called the Airstrip Action Committee and was chaired by CONCHE AIRSTRIP. The airstrip at Conche on Newfound­ Graham Hancock, who spearheaded the financial drive. With land's Great Northern Peninsula was built in 1960. It was the help of the community councils of Forteau, L'Anse-au­ used for winter mail delivery but since 1974 it has been out of Loup, West St. Modeste and later L'Anse-au-Claire, and of regular use. There is a gravel-surfaced runway which is local businessmen, $5000 was raised. Construction was 305 m (1000 ft) long. begun in November 1979. There was one gravel-surfaced run­ DEER LAKE AIRPORT. Situated 5 km (3 mi) from the town way 701 m (2300 ft) long but an extension was planned dur­ of Deer Lake, in 1981 it was a regional airport serving Corner ing 1981-1982. In 1981 there was a terminal building with a Brook, Bay oflslands, Humber Valley, Baie Verte Peninsula, passenger waiting area and telephone services. Snow clearing Great Northern Peninsula and Labrador, an area with a com­ facilities were provided by the Newfoundland and Labrador bined population of approximately 200,000 people. The air­ Department of Transportation which also provided operating port is ideally located on flat, rolling land in the broad ex­ grants for 1979 and 1980. The airstrip was used by New­ panse of the Humber Valley and, being inland, it is relatively foundland Labrador Air Transport on a regular basis. fog-free, with very few flights having to be diverted or can­ FRENCHMAN'S COVE AIRSTRIP. The airstrip at Frenchman's celled because of weather. Cove on the Burin Peninsula was built in the mid-1950s and The airport was built during the early 1950s and opened in was operated by the Government of Newfoundland and Lab­ 1955. It was equipped with one gravel-surfaced runway rador. It has one gravel-surfaced runway 914 m (3000 ft) 1219 m (4000 ft) long and 46 m (150ft) wide. In 1959 it was long and 61 m (200 ft) wide which was constructed along a lengthened to 1524 m (5000 ft). The runway was paved in beach. It is located 5 km (3 mi) southwest of the community 1963 and further extended to 1829 m (6000 ft) in 1973; it was of Frenchman's Cove and in 1981 was unlicenced. During the also widened to 61 m (200ft). In 1981 the airport operated late 1950s and early 1960s there was a regularly scheduled under a public licence and had landing and radio navigational service between Frenchman's Cove, St. John's and Gander aids including a non-directional beacon and instrument land­ operated by E.P.A. After the construction of a paved airstrip ing system. Refueling facilities were also available. at Winterland 16 km (10 mi) away, the airstrip was aban­ In that year the airport was operated by International Tele­ doned and used only in cases of emergency. phone and Telegraph under contract to the Canadian Depart­ GANDER AIRPORT. The airport at Gander was, in 1981, the ment of Transport and was served by scheduled regional and only international airport in Newfoundland. In 1935 the Brit­ third level carriers including Eastern Provincial Airways and ish and Canadian Governments realized the need for perma­ Newfoundland Labrador Air Transport. There was a terminal nent terminal facilities in Newfoundland for transatlantic building with a passenger waiting area, secure departure land-based flights. A site was chosen on the route of the New­ lounge, coffee shop and rent-a-car facilities. There was also a foundland Railway near Gander Lake (then an uninhabited limousine service operating from the airport to Corner Brook area) because of the wide, level plateau which was an ideal and the Baie Verte Peninsula. The terminal was built in 1963 site for the construction of an airport. In June 1936 work was and expanded in 1970 and 1975 to meet the growing demands begun on clearing the area for installation of the necessary fa­ of the steadily increasing flow of passengers. cilities. Construction went slowly at first as it was no easy The first flights from Deer Lake Airport were begun in task to build an airport in the middle of a wilderness. By the 1956 by Eastern Provincial Airways, using a Lockheed 10 A end of 1938, however, the runways were practically complete Aircraft. In 1969 E.P.A. began a regular jet air service to and control, radio and meteorological equipment was moved Labrador and other mainland points using Boeing 737 air- to the site from Botwood. A Lorenz blind landing system was

Gander Airport 1946 AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS 29 also installed. On November 30, 1938 all systems were r!aaY long and each 61 m (200 ft) wide. The airport was equipped and the land base took over operations from Botwood. Upon with a new Instrument Landing System (ILS) in 1980, and completion it was one of the world's largest airports and with with Precision Approach Radar and Visual Approach Slope the increasing movement to land-based aircraft away from the Indicator systems. In 1981 there were extensive radio naviga­ sea-based flying boats, Gander soon replaced Botwood as the tion aids· including VOR Receiver Test Facility, non-direc­ Newfoundland terminus for transatlantic flights. tional beacon and VHF Omnidirectional Range Tactical Air The first plane to land at the installation, which became Navigation. Refueling and minor repairs to aircraft could be known as the Newfoundland Airport, was piloted by Captain provided and storage facilities were also available. The air Douglas Fraser qv. He landed his single-engine Fox Moth on traffic control centre (opened in 1981) provided transatlantic January 11, 1938, some months before the airport went into air traffic control; the weather station has been in continuous formal operation. During the next year the airport received operation from 1937. An air traffic controller training school periodic use but it was not until the outbreak of World War II opened in 1981. that the facility came into prominence as a major link in the In that year the terminal building had large domestic and in­ chain of Northern American defence. The Royal Canadian ternational passenger waiting lounges and secure departure Air Force established a base there and in February 1940 the lounges, a cafeteria, a dining room, a bar, and various shops first military aircraft, an R.C.A.F. Digby, touched down. It including a duty free shop for international travellers. E.P.A. also became an auxiliary base of the Atlantic Ferry Operation, and Air Canada had ticket counters and car rental outlets had which was later part of the Royal Air Force Ferry Command. agents stationed there and there was also an aviation museum. After their entry into the war the United States Air Force also E.P.A. has its head offices at the airport and in 1978 the com­ placed personnel at the base. In 1942 control of the airport pany opened a new three and one half million dollar complex was given to the Government of Canada but only for the dura­ including extensions to its hangars and maintenance division. tion of the war. R.C.A.F. Gander's contribution to the war ef­ By 1981 the renovations to the terminal building had passed fort was an enormous one, impossible to measure. the four million dollar mark in an attempt to provide maxi­ Control of the airport was returned to the Newfoundland mum service to both aircraft and passengers. Further renova­ Government following the end of World War II. Soon the fa­ tions were planned. cility was being visited regularly by Pan American, Trans Atop the terminal building is a large sign spelling out the World and B.O.A.C. Airlines; other international airlines fol­ letters TOPS which stands for Trans-Oceanic Plane Stop, a lowed suit. By the time control of the airport reverted to Can­ programme which was instituted in 1970 in an effort to boost ada at Confederation in 1949, the rapid increase in air travel declining international traffic at the airport. The programme and the increased use of Gander's facilities demonstrated the offered reduced landing rates for international flights and the

Gander lmernationa/ Airport c./958 necessity for expansion and upgrading of the services offered. main runway was lengthened in order to facilitate the landing It was necessary to integrate advances in air traffic control and of jumbo jets. The opening of the duty free shop was also part air-ground-air radio with existing facilities. More people were of this programme. needed for maintenance and support staff. In 1950 there were On the road leading to the airport is the Atlantic Ferry Pilot three thousand people living at the airport in the former bar­ Memorial which was unveiled on October 25, 1967. It is a racks buildings constructed by the R.C.A.F. during the war Lockheed Hudson Bomber mounted on a granite block pedes­ and the number of employees was steadily growing. The need tal and painted in wartime camouflage. It is a memorial to the arose for a more permanent structure for the people and the pilots who flew from Gander as part of the Atlantic Ferry town of Gander was built adjacent to the airport. Operation. In 1981 Gander International Airport operated under a pub­ Gander Airport, because of its international status, is a lic international licence and was under the jurisdiction of major refueling point for flights from Eastern Europe to Cuba. Transport Canada. There were three asphalt-surfaced runways Consequently twenty per cent of defections into Canada occur 3200 m (10,500 ft), 2713 m (8,900 ft) and 1884 m (6,180 ft) at Gander. Canada is bound as a signatory of the 1951 United 30 AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS In order to build the airport it was first necessary to clear the sand bar. Then a road had to be cut through muskeg from the jetty to the base of the plateau. Dredging was required and the swamp had to be filled in. With over 3,000 skilled and unskilled labourers working day and night three temporary gravel-surfaced runways each 2134 m (7000 ft) long were ready for use on November 16, 1941. By June 1942 there were two permanent runways each 1829 m (6000 ft) long with a depth of 15.24 em (6 in) of cement. One of the run­ ways was 335 m ( 1, 100 ft) wide; the other was 488 m (1600 ft) wide. Canadian troops were flown in to guard against a surprise German attack which, however, did not come. After the end of World War II contingents of both the Canadian and United States Air Forces remained at Goose Bay. The Americans operated their Strategic Air Command from the base until June 30, 1976. In 1981 the Canadian De­ Nations Convention Relating to the Status of Refugees to pro­ partment of National Defense (Air Command) maintained a vide temporary asylum to anyone who requests it. In 1980 permanent air base at Goose Bay Airport. In that year the twenty-nine people, two Soviets, three Bulgarians and Royal Air Force (U.K.), the United States Air Force and the twenty-four Cubans, defected at Gander and received political West German Air Force all operated commands out of the asylum. Goose Bay facilities as well. The Airport serves a catchment population of approxi­ In July 1976 the civilian portion of the airport came under mately 100,000 people in northeast and central Newfound­ the jurisdiction of Transport Canada. It operated the terminal, land. E.P.A., Transport Canada and the Canadian Depart­ control tower, maintenance and service divisions of the air­ ment of National Defence maintain large contingents of port. The facility is equipped with navigational and landing personnel; there are also support staff for other airlines and for aids and a snow clearing team which is in constant demand the terminal building itself. Since Douglas Fraser first landed during winter. The terminal building has a passenger waiting in 1938, hundreds of thousands of aircraft carrying millions of area and a small restaurant. Of the two runways, one was people have landed and taken off from the facility. In 1981 lengthened to 3505 m ( 11 ,500 ft) but the other is still the E.P.A. and Air Canada operated daily scheduled flights into 1829 m (6000 ft) length built in 1942. They are both asphalt and out of the airport and it was also serviced by local, re­ covered to a width of 61 m (200ft). gional and national carriers, as well as by international flights In April 1981 it was announced that an agreement had been from the United States, Central and South America, Europe signed between the Government of Canada and the Govern­ and to a lesser degree Africa, the Middle East and Asia. In ment of the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) 197 5 the Concorde landed there. During 1980 aircraft repre­ for use of the airport facilities for low-level flight training senting over 550 local, regional, national, international and operations. A three-year agreement called for two hundred commercial carriers and private individuals landed at Gander German personnel and sixteen aircraft to participate in the International Airport. See MILITARY HISTORY. programme over the three years. The airport, originally built GOOSE BAY AlRPORT. In 1941 the Government of Canada to protect North America from German attack during World realized the need for an airbase in Labrador to protect north­ War II, became a training area for the West German Air Force eastern North America from a German air attack via Green­ forty years later. land, which came under Germany's control after the capitula­ HARBOUR GRACE AlRPORT. Before the first civilian airport tion of Denmark. Eric Fry of the Canadian Department of in North America was built there in 1927 there were no air fa- Mines and Resources, on loan to the Royal Canadian Air Force, was sent on an aerial survey mission to find a suitable location for building an airbase in Labrador. He discovered a large, sandy plateau covered with trees at the mouth of Goose River, in Goose Bay, Labrador. The area was free of coastal fog which was in favour of its selection. After the necessary agreements were signed with the Newfoundland and British Governments, the Canadian Air Ministry at Ottawa con­ tracted for the building of two hangars and three concrete run­ ways at the site, which from August 29, 1941 to March 31, 1942 they referred to as Canada Bay. The name was officially changed to RCAF Station Goose Bay on April 1, 1942. The United States Government wanted to install facilities at the base as well, so the plans were enlarged to include five more hangars, two 150 bed hospitals and buildings to accommodate 5,000 officers and men of the R.C.A.F., U.S.A.F. and Cana­ dian Army. By June 1943 it was the world's largest airport. Harbour Grace Airstrip, 1930. AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS 31 . -:;.., cilities at Harbour Grace even though unsuccessful attempts convoys in the North Atlantic. by aviators in quest of the first transatlantic non-stop flight At least one German submarine had originated from the community. In 1927, Fred Koehler of was destroyed as a result of in­ the Stimson Aircraft Corporation of Detroit came to New­ formation acquired from this foundland to find a stop-over point for a flight around the source. After the war the run­ world. At Harbour Grace he met John L. Oke who recom­ way was allowed to deterio­ mended a piece of land in the northwest of the town between rate. Lady Lake and the harbour. At a meeting held on July 25, In 1977 the Harbour Grace 1927 at Harbour Grace town hall the townspeople agreed to Historical Society restored the the setting up of the ''Harbour Grace Airport Trust Com­ runway to usable condition. A pany," -composed of twenty-one members. They each contri­ monument was unveiled to the buted money on a non-profit, no-interest bearing basis; memory of Pioneer Transatlan­ Koehler also invested money. The Newfoundland Govern­ tic Flyers and in honour of Pioneer Trans Atlantic Flyers ment provided a grant of $14,500 to defray the cost of con­ Newfoundland's first aircraft Monume/11, Harbour Grace. structing the runway, and also provided machinery and tech­ facility and the first civil airport in North America. nical advice. MAKKOVIK AIRSTRIP. Construction of the airstrip at Mak­ The actual building of the runway was done by the citizens kovik began in 1978 under a contract awarded by Transport of Harbour Grace using the materials that were available to Canada. Completed in 1980, at a cost of over one million dol­ them. It was built on a long flat plateau on the land Oke had lars, the gravel-surfaced runway is 762 m (2500 ft) long, suggested. It was in an east-west direction unobscured except 23 m (75 ft) wide and is 42 m (137 ft) above sea level. In for a low bluff at the eastern end which became a landmark 1981 there were no fixed base facilities such as refueling, for pilots. The gravel-surfaced runway was completed in Au­ lighting or aircraft storage available but there was a small sup­ gust 1927 and measured 1219 m (4000 ft) by 61 m (200ft). port building which housed snow-clearing equipment and a Its quality was considered to be exceptional and the airport re­ passenger waiting room. ceived worldwide attention and praise. MARY'S HARBOUR AIRSTRIP. Begun in 1979 as part of The first flight from Harbour Grace Airport was made by phase two of Transport Canada's Labrador Airstrip Program, Edward F. Schlee and William S. Brock in the monoplane the airstrip at Mary's Harbour was completed in 1980. Lo­ Pride of Detroit on August 27, 1927. They were on a flight cated 12 m (39ft) above sea level, there is one gravel­ surfaced runway which is 762 m (2500 ft) long and 23 m (75 ft) wide. In 1981 there were no facilities for refueling air­ craft or any hangar facilities; support building housed a pas­ senger waiting area and snow clearing equipment. NAIN AIRSTRIP. The airstrip at Nain was constructed in 1978 under a contract awarded by Transport Canada. The cost exceeded one million dollars and the strip was ready for use in 1980 and has one gravel-surfaced runway which is 610 m (2000 ft) long, 23 m (75 ft) wide and 7 m (22 ft) above sea level. A passenger waiting room was constructed in the sup­ port building and refueling was provided for propellor and turbo prop aircraft. In 1981 there were no other facilities available except for snow clearing equipment necessary to make the runway usable during the long northern winters. NORTHWEST RIVER AIRSTRIP. Labrador Transport Limited began the construction of an airstrip at Northwest River in 1961. It was completed in 1963 with one gravel­ surfaced runway 762 m (2500 ft) long and 30.5 m (100ft) wide. In 1981 it was used by Labrador Airways, Newfound­ land Labrador Air Transport and by the International Grenfell Association as a base for their aircraft and was operated by the Harbour Grace Airstrip Northwest River Community Council. There were no termi­ around the world, which began in Maine on August 26 and nal or support facilities; those using the facility must provide was aborted on September 11 because of engine defects. The their own maintenance. airport operated for nine years; twenty flights originated there PORT AUX CHOIX AIRSTRIP. The airstrip at Port aux Choix but not all were successful. Quite possibly the most famous was in 1981 an unlicenced facility operated by the Govern­ flight to originate from Harbour Grace occurred on May 20, ment of Newfoundland and Labrador. It has one 1932 when Amelia Earhart qv taxied down the runway in a asphalt-surfaced runway 823 m (2700 ft) long, 23 m (75 ft) Lockheed Vega to begin her historic flight across the Atlantic wide, and 27 rn (90 ft) above sea level. When the airstrip was Ocean. The last flight took place on October 29, 1936. first built in 1972 the runway was 723 m (2400 ft) long. Fuel The facility was reactivated during World War II by the is available at Port Saunders, 11 km (7 mi) to the southeast. Royal Canadian Navy to track and intercept from enemy sub­ Lighting could be provided upon request, but in 1981 there marines information which was instrumental in protecting were no other fixed base or terminal facilities. 32 AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS

operations off Labrador. The runway has an asphalt surface and is 1451 m (4760 ft) long. In 1981 there was a mess hall, base camp and fuel facilities at the site but use was restricted to Petro-Canada's business activities. ST. ANTHONY AIRPORT. Situated 18 km (11 mi) northwest of the town of St. Anthony, the airport was operated, in 1981 , by Transport Canada under a public licence and was served by regularly scheduled third level carriers including Labrador Airways Limited and Newfoundland Labrador Air Transport Limited. Refueling and minor repair work could be done at the airport. The airport was built in 1957 and for some years was nicknamed McCormack's Field after Father McCormack, a Roman Catholic priest from the area whose intense lobbying was instrumental in having the facility built. There is one asphalt-surfaced runway 914 m (3000 ft) long and 30.5 m (100ft) wide. In 1981 it had approach lighting, a non­ directional beacon, VHF Omni-directional Range radio and distance measuring equipment; the terminal building had a passenger waiting area and office facilities for Labrador Air­ ways Limited and Shell Oil. An extension was planned during 1981. The International Grenfell Association's Air Ambu­ lance is stationed at the airport at St. Anthony and it is also used by the R.C.M.P., Canada Coast Guard and the mili­ tary. ST. GEORGE'S AIRSTRIP. The airstrip at this southwest coast community was privately built by Western Construction Company of St. George's during 1961-62 in order to enable it to fly in supplies. At that time the nearest airport the company could use was situated at Deer Lake, approximately 153 km (95 mi) away (Stephenville was then a restricted United Port aux Choix Airstrip. States Air Force military base.) The asphalt-surfaced runway is 1067 m (3500 ft) long and 18 m (60 ft) wide. It is used by PORTLAND CREEK AIRSTRIP. In the mid-1940s the Sperry the R.C.M.P. and the Stephenville Flying School in addition Gyroscope Company of Great Neck, New York built an air­ to the company. Private flyers may land there but they do so strip at Portland Creek on the Great Northern Peninsula as a at their own risk. In 1981 there were no fixed base facilities landing base for the company's planes which flew executives available. to the "sportsman's paradise" of hunting and fishing (the ST. JOHN'S AIRPORT. Concern was expressed as early as area was abundant in fish and game). The runway was ap­ September 1939 in the Canadian Parliament for the security of proximately 853 m (2800 ft) long and had a sandstone sur­ Newfoundland in the event of a German raid or attack. It was face. Small quantities of fuel could be obtained there but any­ one using the facility had to have prior permission from the company. As of 1981 the airstrip was abandoned and used rarely, usually in cases of emergency only. RED BAY AIRSTRIP. The airstrip at Red Bay was built under the auspices of the Rev. Albert Joyce of the religious group *Christians Gathered in the Name of the Lord Jesus Christ qv during the early 1960s. It had a small gravel-surfaced run­ way which was subsequently upgraded by the Newfoundland Government Department of Highways to a length of 274 m (900ft) and a width of 18 m (60ft). In the late 1970s the community council of Red Bay decided improvements were needed to the facility and by the fall of 1980 the strip had been lengthened to 366 m (1200 ft) and widened to 30.5 m (1 00 ft). In 1981 it was used on a regular basis by Labrador Airways for mail and passenger services. SAGLEK BAY AIRSTRIP. Saglek Bay is an uninhabited bay St. John's Airport in northern Labrador. The airstrip was built by the United felt that a permanent airfield defence facility was needed and States Air Force after World War II as a trans-shipment base. discussions to this end were carried out amongst Canada, The· f.mericans left in the 1960s and ownership of the facility Newfoundland and the United Kingdom during 1940. Early in passed through a number of hands until it was purchased by 1941 the R.C.A.F. sent a man to St. John's to choose the Petro-Canada in 1975 as a transfer point for their drilling location for a proposed airfield. Against the advice of local -;;:r AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS 33 experts who preferred Cochrane Pond he chose a site near Torbay. On April 28, 1941 construction began on R.C.A.F. Station Torbay. The cost of building and operating the facility was the responsibility of the Government of Canada. At a cost of ap­ proximately 1.5 million dollars two runways, taxiways, aprons, hangars and other facilities were built and in opera­ tion by the end of 1941. The first landing at R.C.A.F. Station Torbay was the un­ authorized landing of three U.S.A.F. B-17 bombers on October 18, 1941. The runways were still under construction and concern was expressed about the possible hazards to both civilian and military personnel from such unauthorized land­ ings. The first official landing was somewhat more hazard­ ous. On October 31, 1941 a B.O.A.C. Liberator AM 262 was returning to Montreal from Prestwick, Scotland with a sche­ St. John's Terminal duled stop at Gander. On board were five crew-members and fifteen passengers, among them Canadian Defence Minister brick building in 1958. In 1981 the terminal building housed Ralston and Chief of the General Staff Crearer. A snowstorm the offices of the airport manager and staff. There were ticket which prevented the landing at Gander also closed down air­ offices for Eastern Provincial Airways, Air Canada, Gander ports from New York to Montreal. As fuel was running low it Aviation and Labrador Airways, a large waiting area, a secure was decided that one of the runways at Torbay could be used departure lounge, a self-serve restaurant, a licenced lounge, a even though work on it was not completed. No landing aids number of food concessions and rent-a-car facilities. In 1981 were available but with the assistance of radio station VONF a small museum was being prepared to house the story of avi­ as a homing beacon the plane landed successfully with only ation in Newfoundland and related memorabilia. slight damage. The control tower originally constructed during the war Air Force personnel moved into Torbay base in November burned down in an extensive fire at the airport on March 17, 1941. During the course of the war thousands of men were 1946 which caused one and one-half million dollars worth of stationed at the facility. Their duties included providing pro­ damage. Construction was not begun on a new tower until tection for shipping into St. John's Harbour, air cover for 1951; it was opened in June 1952. A new Tower/Communica­ North Atlantic convoys and air reconnaissance work in anti­ tions Building replaced that structure in March 1976. The submarine operations. A Hudson bomber of 145 Squadron out tower was equipped with radio navigation and landing aids in­ of Torbay sank a German submarine off Newfoundland on cluding precision approach radar, non-directional beacon and October 30, 1942. VHF omni-directional range. Instrument Landing System The United States Air Force also had personnel at Torbay, (ILS) is available for both approaches on runway 17-35. The mainly in the fields of communication and transportation, in airport is equipped with a number of hangars, some of which addition to, and support of, their base at Fort Pepperell. On are privately owned; others are owned by Transport Canada April 1, 1946 the airport became a civilian operation under and are available for aircraft storage. Refuelling and servicing the jurisdiction of the Canadian Department of Transport. for minor repairs to aircraft can also be provided. Confusion was caused by the presence of American military The first commercial air service at the facility went into personnel at a civilian airport and consequently on April 1, operation on May 1, 1942 with the arrival at Torbay of a 1953 control was turned back to the Department of National Trans-Canada Airlines (T.C.A.) Lockheed Lodestar aircraft Defence. The Transport Department maintained control over with five passengers and a three-member crew on board. the terminal building. The facility remained R.C.A.F. Station T.C.A. had not wanted to provide the service to St. John's be­ Torbay until April 1, 1964 when it was returned to the juris­ cause they thought it would not be economically viable. It diction of the Transport Department under the name St. was only after a United States company showed interest in John's Airport. operating the service that T.C.A. agreed to do it. Air Canada, In 1981 there were four runways in operation at the airport. the successor of T.C.A., and Eastern Provincial Airways The original two, under headings 08-26 and 17-35, were each were the major airlines operating out of St. John's Airport in constructed to a length of 1219 m (4000 ft) and a width of 1981. They provided daily service to other parts of New­ 46 m (150 ft) and were ready for use by December 1941. In foundland and Labrador and to mainland Canada. 1942 runway 08-26 was lengthened to 1524 m (5000 ft); run­ The airport operates under a public service licence. It is lo­ way 17-35 was widened to 61 m (200 ft) that year and was cated 10 km (6 mi) north of St. John's and is 141 m (461 ft) subsequently lengthened to 2134 m (7000 ft) in 1958. Two above sea level. It serves a catchment area including St. other runways were built at the airport: 02-20 in 1942, John's, the Avalon, Burin and part of the Bonavista Penin­ 1219 m (4000 ft) long and 46 m (150ft) wide; 11-29 in sula, with a combined population of approximately 300,000 1943, 1494 m (4900 ft) long and 61 m (200 ft) wide. Run­ people. Classified as a National Primary Airport, it handles way 11-29 was lengthened twice, in 1954 and 1968; in 1981 it domestic, military, government and charter aircraft. Since measured 2591 m (8500 ft). They are all asphalt coated. 1970 it has also handled international charter aircraft. The first terminal building at the site was constructed in SPRINGDALE AIRSTRIP. An airstrip was constructed 11 km 1943. A small wooden structure, it was replaced by a larger (7 mi) west of the town of Springdale in 1972. It is approxi- 34 AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS

mately 6 m (20 ft) above sea level and there is one gravel­ across the border in Quebec. There is one asphalt-surfaced surfaced runway. It was originally 610 m (2000 ft) but subse­ runway which is 1829 m (6000 ft) long. Navigational and quently lengthened to 762 m (2500 ft); it is 23 m (75 ft) landing aids are available. Major expansion was planned for wide. In 1981 lighting was available upon request. The unli­ 1981-1982, including a new terminal building and operations censed airstrip is operated by the Government of Newfound­ facility situated at the north end of the existing runway. land and Labrador. WINTERLAND AIRSTRIP. In 1981 the unlicenced Winterland STEPHENVILLE AIRPORT. The airport at Stephenville was airstrip was operated by the Government of Newfoundland originally the United States Air Force Base Harmon, one of and Labrador. It is located at Winterland, a community 8 km the four American bases constructed in Newfoundland during (5 mi) west of Marystown on the Burin Peninsula. There is an April-June 1941 for North American defence during World asphalt-surfaced runway 914 m (3000 ft) long and 23 m War ll. It was operated as an Air Force Base until June 29, (75 ft) wide situated 29 m (96 ft) above sea level. In 1981 a 1966, when the Americans pulled out. The airport and termi­ passenger waiting room, hangar and radio-telephone com­ nal were turned over to the Canadian Department of Transport munication facility were installed by Coastal Air Services, while the rest of the base passed to the Government of New­ which operated charter services from the airstrip. Lighting for foundland. Control of the base was later exercised through the the runways was also available and plans were made to pro­ *Harmon Corporation qv. vide refueling facilities. The airport is situated 2.4 km (1.5 mi) southeast of HELICOPTER PADS. With the increase in the number of heli­ Stephenville and is operated under a public licence. There is copter companies and the increased use of helicopters by both one asphalt-surfaced runway 3048 m (10,000 ft) long and government and private industry, the Government of New­ 61 m (200 ft) wide. The airport had landing aids and exten­ foundland and Labrador realized the need for the construction sive radio navigation devices, and there were also facilities of helicopter pads around the Province. Pads were built at for refueling, aircraft servicing and storage. Burgeo (1976), Gaultois (1976), Grand Falls (1977), Harbour At the terminal building in 1981 there was a passenger Breton (1977), McCallum (1976), and Springdale (1979); one waiting lounge, a secure departure lounge, some restaurant had been built at Paddy's Pond, outside St. John's, in 1968. service and car rental facilities. Air Canada and Eastern Pro­ Under the jurisdiction of the Provincial Department of Trans­ vincial Airways had ticket offices located in the building and portation these pads are mainly used as landing bases for air there was also a ticket desk for the Canadian National Road­ ambulance helicopters. In 1981 Burgeo, Gaultois and McCal­ cruiser Service. lum each had an 11 m (35 ft) square wooden frame and land­ Stephenville Airport serves a catchment area of approxi­ ing platform; Harbour Breton, Springdale and Paddy's Pond mately 40,000 people in western and southwestern New­ each had a 12 m (40ft) diameter concrete circle landing pad; foundland. In 1981 there were regularly scheduled domestic Grand Falls had four pads measuring 49 m (160 ft) by 33.5 m and regional flights to various points in Newfoundland and (110 ft) in total and they were asphalt-surfaced. There were Labrador, the Atlantic Provinces, Montreal and Toronto pro­ also helicopter pads at the Charles A. Janeway Children's vided by Air Canada, E.P.A. and Newfoundland Labrador Hospital and at the St. John's General Hospital (Health Air Transport. Sciences Complex), both at St. John's, operated by the Hos­ W ABUSH AIRPORT. In 1957 a gravel-surfaced airstrip was pital Administration and used for the air ambulance service. built at Ross Bay Junction, 64 km (40 mi) northeast of Wa­ Helicopters may also land at any airport or airstrip in New­ bush to serve the Labrador City-Wabush area. It had one run­ foundland and Labrador, and any helicopter outfitted with way approximately 1200 m (3900 ft) long which was used by proper landing gear can land on practically any water surface aircraft which brought in workers and construction material or flat surfaces throughout the Province. for building the Quebec North Shore and Labrador Railway. SEAPLANE BASES. Any pond, lake or harbour in New­ This strip was abandoned in 1959 for a site at Duley Lake foundland and Labrador that is big enough to allow for take­ 14 km (8.5 mi) southwest of Wabush, which was closer to off and landing of aircraft can be used by seaplanes. How­ the mine site. The runway was 1219 m (4000 ft) long but the ever, there are some lakes, specially outfitted with mooring facility was only used for one year. buoys and other docking facilities, and with refueling facili­ Wabush Airport was constructed in 1961 as a joint venture ties, which have been designated as seaplane bases. Gander of Wabush Mines, the Iron Ore Company of Canada Aviation in 1981 had their base of operation at the seaplane (I.O.C.C.) and Quebec Cartier Mining. In 1973 Transport facility at Deadman's Pond, near Gander. One of the largest Canada assumed control of the airport from Northern Airport of these bases is located at Goose Bay and there are others at Limited, a company owned jointly by Wabush Mines and Paddy's Pond, Springdale, Pasadena, St. Anthony, Baie I. 0. C. C. Transport Canada had been providing money for Verte, Catalina, Fogo Island, Millertown Junction, Port improvements in airport facilities befme the takeover, includ­ Saunders, Roddickton, Stephenville, Hopedale, Makkovik, ing lengthening and paving the runway and installing a light­ Pistolet and Three Rapids. ing and an instrument landing system. In 1975 there were See AIR SERVICES; AVIATION. Vera Ayling (1964), major renovations and expansion to the Air Terminal Building Eric Boyd (interview, July 1981), W.C. Brown (letter, July and a hangar was converted to a maintenance garage and ftre 1980; interview, Apr. 1981), D.R. Butt (letter, Mar. 1975), hall. The terminal had a passenger waiting area and ticket fa­ Calvin Coish (1981), W.A.B. Douglas (letter, Apr. 1981) cilities for Eastern Provincial Airways and Quebecair. Carl Fisher (195-), R. B. Goff (1960), Graham Hancock (in­ The airport serves a catchment area with a population of terview, Apr. 1981), A. Hawco (letter, Apr. 1979), H.B. 22,000 people. Other than rail, air transportation is the only Hefferton (letter, Mar. 1981), C.M. Hicks (letter, Mar. means of access to the outside world for the semi-isolated area 1979), Jack Jones (interview, Apr. 1981), Shirley Joy (1970), of Wabush, Labrador City, and Fermont (Mount Wright) M.F. Lawlor (n.d.; interview, June 1981), George Legrow ;; AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS, ALDERDICE 35 (1946), M.H.M. MacKinnon (1946), W.E. Parsons (letter, is best known as the pilot, with Arthur Whitten Brown qv as Mar. 1979), Frank Pye (interview, Apr. 1981), D.B. Sim­ navigator, of the first successful non-stop trans-Atlantic flight mons (letter, Mar. 1981; interview Apr. 1981), Ron Watts on June 14-15, 1919 from St. John's to County Galway, Ire­ (interview, Apr 1981), Francis Whalen (letter, Apr. 1981), land. For this he was knighted in the same year. Captain Amy Zierler (1981), Atlantic Bridge (1945), The Transporta­ Alcock died on December 18, 1919 when the Viking flying­ tion and Communications Sub-Committee. Report to the Bu­ boat that he was piloting crashed near Rouen, France. See chans Task Force (1976), History of Hqrbour Grace Airstrip AVIATION. Alcock and Brown ( 1969), Percy Rowe ( 1977), (n.d.), TOPS Gander International (n.d.), Air Transport Graham Wallace (1955), The Story of Alcock and Brown (1974), Among the Deep Sea Fishers (June 1942; July 1943; (n.d.). CFH Apr. 1952), DN (June 5, 1937; June 6, 1937; June 7, 1937), ALCOHOL. See BREWERIES; DISTILLERIES; LIQUOR, ET (June 16, 1951; July 5, 1952; Oct. 26, 1970), Southern BEER AND WINE; TEMPERANCE. Gazette (June 3, 1981). BGR ALCOHOL AND DRUG ADDICTION FOUNDATION. AITKEN, WILLIAM MAXWELL. See BEA VERBROOK, Continuing and expanding on the work of its predecessors, WILLIAM MAXWELL AITKEN, BARON. the Newfoundland Temperance Federation, founded in 1950, ALABASTER. Alabaster (CaS04·2H20) is a massive, compact and the Newfoundland Council on Alcohol Problems estab­ form of gypsum which holds its form when carved. It is used lished in 1963, the Alcohol and Drug Addiction Foundation, to produce endless varieties of ornaments and decorations. which began its work in 1970, aims to contribute to the pre­ The major cache of alabaster in Newfoundland is at the Flat vention and treatment of alcoholism and other drug dependen­ Bay gypsum deposits in Bay St. George. It is on property cies through education, counselling, industrial alcohol control owned by the Flintkote Mining Company, which avoids min­ programmes and research. A private agency, funded pri­ ing any of the product. There are several outcrops of a blue­ marily by the Government of Newfoundland, and with offices white variety, while at a depth it is white-translucent. J .H. in Comer Brook, Grand Falls and St. John's, the Foundation McKillop (1963), R.M. Pearl (1955), F.H. Pough (1960), also sponsors Allied Youth qv groups in Newfoundland and F.J. Warren (n.d.). BGR Labrador. CFH AL-AN ON. Incorporated in the United States in 1954, this ALCOHOLICS ANONYMOUS. Founded in 1935 by two al­ world-wide, non-profit organization strives to help friends coholics, AA is a world-wide society of approximately one and relatives of alcoholics to learn more about the alcoholic million people, all of whom are attempting to overcome the and the disease of alcoholism through the establishment of affliction of alcoholism. Following a set of rules and beliefs discussion groups. Since its incorporation its services have known as the Twelve Steps, AA members maintain that alco­ spread to seventy countries where 14,000 groups have been holism is an incurable disease, controlled only by complete established. Al-Anon was introduced to Newfoundland in abstinence, which is attained through dependence on God or a 1953 when a group was formed in Comer Brook. Since then superior being according to each individual's religious be­ twenty-five other groups on the Island and three groups in liefs. The society itself is composed of a loosely-knit network . Labrador have been formed. "Al-Anon and Alateen Groups at of small groups, each of which meets regularly for members Work" (19761 "Al-Anon 1978 Annual Newsletter" (1978). CFH to discuss their alcoholism and thereby help each other fight ALASKA DIAMOND. Alaska Diamond (Mg3Si20 5(0H)4) is a the effects of the disease. The organization is funded by con­ lustrous, black, crystalline variety of the Serpentine group of tributions from its members. minerals. It is used in making jewelry and for carving. New­ The first AA group in Newfoundland began meeting in foundland and Labrador deposits are found at Hickey's Pond, 1950 in Comer Brook. Since then AA groups have been es­ Placentia Bay; Pollard's Point, Sop's Arm, White Bay and on tablished in almost every area of the Province. In 1980 there the Iron Ore Company of Canada property at Carol Lake near were approximately 500 members of AA in Newfoundland Labrador City. J.H. McKillop (1963), F.H. Pough (1960), and Labrador. Consistent with AA groups everywhere, AA in F.J. Warren (n.d.). BGR Newfoundland and Labrador is not affiliated with any other ALBANY, H.M.S. See CABLE, ATLANTIC. organization, but it co-operates with anyone who is attempt­ ALBATROSSES (Family Diomedeidae). The Yellow-nosed ing to defeat alcoholism and its growth. Alcoholics Anony­ Albatross, Diomedea Chlororhynchos, is a large bird, dark mous Comes of Age (1957). CFH above and white below with long, narrow wings with a seven­ ALCOHOLISM. See HEALTH. foot span. It is accidental in Newfoundland; a specimen iden­ ALDER BIRD (COMMON REDPOLL). See GROS­ tified by Oberholser in 1928 was later destroyed by fire. In BEAKS. July 1979 a possible Yellow-nosed Albatross was seen from ALDERBURN. See NORRIS ARM NORTH. the Argentia ferry. The Albatrosses wander the oceans but ALDERDICE, FREDERICK occur only rarely in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Peters and Bur­ CHARLES (1872-1936). Prime leigh (1951), The Osprey (May 1980). PMH Minister of Newfoundland. Born ALBERT, BATTLE OF. See BEAUMONT HAMEL Belfast, Ireland. F.C. Alderdice's ALCAN-NEWFOUNDLAND FLUORSPAR LIMITED. See connection with Newfoundland MINING. began in 1886, when he came to the ALCIDS. See AUKS, MURRES AND PUFFINS. Island to work for his uncle, Moses ALCOCK, CAPTAIN SIR JOHN WILLIAM (1892-1919). Monroe qv, at the Colonial Cordage Aviator. Born and educated in England. Received his Royal Company. Over the years he rose in Aeronautical Club Licence by the age of twenty. During the company and in 1922 was pro­ Frederick C. Alderdice World War I he was the first to bomb Istanbul and was given moted to the positions of vice-presi­ the D.S.C. for his record of long-distance bombing raids. He dent and managing director. Like many businessmen of his 36 ALDERDICE time Alderdice became interested in government affairs, and country's immediate financial problems by leasing Labrador in 1924 was appointed to the Legislative Council. In the sum­ to a group of British financiers. This attempt failed, however, mer of 1928 he assumed the office of Prime Minister follow­ and Alderdice was then faced with the impossible task of ing the resignation of his cousin, Walter S. Monroe qv, from gathering up enough money to meet loan payments on Jan­ that post. After the defeat of his United Newfoundland Party uary 1, 1933. Funds in the Government's coffers were not in the General Election of October 1928, Alderdice led the sufficient and further credit from the banks had already been Opposition in the House of Assembly until 1932 when he and refused. Late in 1932, after talks with the Canadian Govern­ his United Newfoundland Party were elected to office. Alder­ ment, the British Government offered the Newfoundland dice was to be the last Prime Minister of Newfoundland be­ Government two-thirds of the amount of money owing on its fore Confederation. Following the election he also took on the loans (one-third was to come from Great Britain and the other portfolios of Minister of Education and Minister of Finance third from Canada) on condition that Newfoundland accept and Customs, holding the latter office only until August 1932. the appointment of a commission to examine the financial During the five decades before Alderdice's administration, problems and to recommend measures to place Newfoundland and more particularly during the decade immediately preced­ on a sound economic footing. Alderdice accepted the offer, ing it, Newfoundland was faced with growing economic and and soon afterwards the Amulree Commission was ap­ financial difficulties. Owing to payments on Newfoundland' s pointed. war debt and on debts incurred by financing various unsuc­ Although Alderdice had not been given the opportunity to cessful development projects (most notably the Newfound­ appoint his own commission of inquiry his views on New­ land Railway) coupled with the faltering state of the New­ foundland's politics and the future of the Island's form of foundland fisheries, the Newfoundland Government had government were examined by the Commission. In their re­ found it impossible to match expenditures with revenue port, released in November 1933 , the Commissioners essen­ throughout the 1920s. From 1920 the Government had re­ tially agreed with the Prime Minister' s opinion on Newfound­ peatedly taken out larger and larger loans to cover its growing land politics. They therefore recommended that deficits, thus increasing future deficits. In 1920 the national Newfoundland be given a rest from politics through the sus­ debt stood at $43,032,785. By 1924 it had risen to pension of Responsible Government and the establishment of $60,451 ,754 and still the borrowing continued. From 1928 to a Government by Commission; they also recommended that the end of 1930 alone a further $21 million was borrowed. responsibility for Newfoundland's financial difficulties be The depression in world trade which had begun in 1929 wor­ transferred to the British Government until such time as New­ sened the economic situation. It further decreased Govern­ foundland became self-supporting again. ment revenue, which was drawn mostly from Customs tariffs, Upon the publication of the Report the Secretary of State increased expenditure on social assistance as the number of for Dominions Affairs made it known that should the New­ unemployed increased, and made credit ever harder to obtain. foundland Assembly give the Commission's recommenda­ The Squires administration (1928-1932) had managed to tions its approval the British Government would ask their Par­ make payments on its loans in 1931 only because the Cana­ liament to pass legislation to bring the recommendations into dian Prime Minister, R.B. Bennett, convinced Canadian effect. Alderdice accepted the recommendations immedi­ bankers to extend further credit to Newfoundland on two oc­ ately. Besides believing that the recommendations were casions. Default on loan payments in the summer of 1932 had sound, Alderdice felt that to have rejected them would have been escaped when Squires granted a monopoly on the sale of meant default on the payments of Newfoundland' s loans, various petroleum products in Newfoundland to the lmperial which might have resulted in worsened poverty and the cessa­ Oil Company in return for annual royalty payments of tion of the flow of credit. [Archives: House of Assembly Pro­ $300,000 and a $1 ,750,000 loan. ceedings (typescript) Nov. 28, 1933] Some historians have By the time Alderdice assumed office the Newfoundland questioned the Commission's and Alderdice's analyses of Government was spending sixty per cent of its revenues to Newfoundland's financial problems, stating that politics and meet its obligations to the public debt. The country stood peri­ corruption had very little to do with the crisis. Alderdice's de­ lously close to defaulting on payment of its loans. In cision not to default has also been criticized. (See for example Alderdice's opinion this situation was not only the result of David Alexander: 1980; R.M. Elliot: 1980.). purely economic problems but was also the legacy of past In February 1932 Responsible Government was officially government mismanagement particularly during the two ad­ replaced by Commission Government (no national referen­ ministrations of Richard Squires qv . In an age when the value dum was ever held on this constitutional change). Alderdice of democracy was being questioned Alderdice shared the feel­ served as Commissioner for Home Affairs and Education in ing of many that politics was inherently corrupt and that New­ the new Commission of Government until his death - on foundland's economic crises would only be worsened by the February 28, 1936 in St. John's. See AMULREE ROYAL continuation of the political system. Therefore, during the COMMISSION; DEPRESSIONS; GOVERNMENT; RAIL­ election campaign of 1932 Alderdice had promised that his WAYS; David Alexander (1980), R.L. Clark (1951), R.M. administration would appoint an investigative body to study Elliot (1980), Michael Harrington (1962), S.J.R. Noel the ''desirability and feasibility of placing the country under a (1 971), E ofC:N , Newfoundland Royal Commission 1933 Re­ form of commission of government for a period of years'' port (1933), " The Passing of Hon. F.C. Alderdice" (1936), (ET: May 25 , 1932). He promised at the same time to hold a Who's Who in andfrom Newfoundland 1930 (1930?), Year­ national referendum on the subject should the inquiry recom­ book (1928-1932), Archives GN 1/1/7 (1927-1935); GN mend the establishment of such a commission. 1/3A (1932-34); GN 8/6; P 2/5; House of Assembly Proceed­ Once in office Alderdice first attempted to solve the ings (typescript) 1933. CFH ALDERS, ALEXANDER 37 ~..., ALDERS (Alnus of Corylaceae or Betulaceae). There are two drich and his work with the squid. Aldrich has been involved native alders in Newfoundland and Labrador: Alnus crispa with various associations and has been a director and member (Ait.) Pursh, also known as the Mountain Alder, and Alnus of the Canadian Society of Zoologists; Fellow of the Zoologi­ rugosa (Du Roi) Spreng., which is commonly referred to as cal Society of London; Vice-Chairman of Scientific Explora­ either the Speckled or Grey Alder. Both species are usually tion of the Atlantic Shelf (SEAS); member of the Board of tall shrubs, attaining a height of 3 m (10 ft) or slightly more. Directors of Huntsmen Marine Laboratory in St. Andrew's, Their twigs are usually smooth, reddish-brown or brown. New Brunswick; recipient of a Visiting Professorship in Their leaves are alternate, simple, dark green and toothed Marine Biology, Zoologische Anstalt, University of Basel in along the margin, approximately 4 to 9 em (1.5 to 3.5 in) Switzerland and Honorary Professor of Marine Biology, Na­ long and broadly elliptic or ovate in shape. The main veins are tional Taiwan University in Taipei, Taiwan. Aldrich has been prominent on the underside of the leaf. The flowers are ar­ honored also as a distinguished teacher of Biology by the Uni­ ranged in catkins, similar to those of the Birch. Both female versity of Toronto. In 1981 he had approximately 160 publi­ and male appear on the same tree, but in separate catkins. The cations to his credit, including "Invertebrates of the Cather­ male catkins are relatively long, approximately 4 to 6 em (1.5 wood Peruvian Amazon Expedition" and "The Distribution to 2.5 in), and cylindrical, and droop from the branches at of Giant Squids (Cephalopoda, Architeutlidae) in the North flowering time. The female catkins are much smaller, about Atlantic and Particularly about the Shores of Newfoundland" 1 em (.4 in) high, and upright. They bloom in April or May. As well, Aldrich has written regular columns for the MUN The fruits of the alder are also similar to those of the Birch. Gazette, the Newfoundland Churchman and The Monitor . They are small nutlets borne on scales which are arranged in F.A Aldrich (letter, Aug. 1981), Centre for Newfoundland oval, cone-like, fruiting bodies which usually remain on the Studies (Dr. Frederick A. Aldrich), Who's Who Newfound­ branches in winter. The Mountain Alder is a common shrub in land Silver Anniversary Edition (1975). DPJ Labrador and Newfoundland occurring on the sides of roads, ALEWIFE. (Alosa pseudoharengus) A species of the family lakes and rivers and a variety of other habitats. The Speckled Clupeidae or the true herrings, the alewife or gaspereau as it is Alder occurs usually in wet soils throughout most of New­ also called, is an anadromous fish which occurs in coastal foundland and Labrador; it is not known to occur, however, waters from Newfoundland and the Gulf of St. Lawrence on the Avalon and Great Northern Peninsulas. southwards to North Carolina; landlocked populations also Both species are quite similar but may be distinguished by a occur in the Great Lakes and in lakes in Maine and New number of differences. The leaves of the Mountain Alder York. Similar in appearance to the Atlantic herring and the have seven or eight pairs of main veins and their small vein­ American shad, to which it is related, its longer body and the lets do not meet, while the leaves of the Speckled Alder lack of vomerine teeth distinguish it from the herring, and the usually have ten or slightly more main veins and their veinlets presence of one black spot on each side behind the head dis­ do join. In winter, only the male catkins are visible on the tinguishes it from the shad. The average length of the fish is Mountain Alder, while both female and male catkins are visi­ between 25 and 30 em (10 and 12 in), it has a saw-type edge ble on the Speckled Alder. In winter, the "cones" of the on its ventral surface and its lower jaw extends anteriorly Speckled Alder appear to droop from the tree; those of the beyond the upper jaw. Mountain Alder do not. Neither species is economically im­ Abundant in the waters around the Maritime Provinces and portant. M.A.J. Collins (1978), H.A. Gleason (1952), Asa in the Great Lakes, where alewife fisheries are relatively Gray (1950), R.C. Hosie (1979), Mann and Hewitt (1978), profitable, the alewife is a rare fish in Newfoundland waters, A.G. Ryan (1978). CFH occurring mainly off the south coast of the island during the ALDRICH, DR. FREDERICK summer, when warmer waters appear to attract it to that ALLEN ( 1927- ) . Scientist; ed­ shore. It is possible that alewives spawn in fresh water bodies ucator. Born Butler, New Jersey, on the south coast of Newfoundland, but this has not yet been U.S.A. Educated Butler High determined through scientific research. There is no commer­ School; Drew University, Madison, cial exploitation of the alewife in Newfoundland. See SHAD, New Jersey; Rutgers, the State Uni­ AMERICAN; HERRING, ATLANTIC. Leach and Nepszy versity of New Jersey. After gra­ (1976), Leim and Scott (1966), John Moores (interview, duating with a Ph.D from Rutgers in 1979), New Brunswick Department of Fisheries (1977), Scott 1954 Aldrich became Assistant, and Crossman (1964; 1973). CFH then Associate, Curator of the Es­ ALEXANDER, DAVID GEORGE Dr. F. Aldrich tuarine Science Division of the Aca­ (1939-1980). Educator; economic demy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia. In 1961 he joined historian. Born Nanaimo, British the Department of Biology at Memorial University of New­ Columbia. Educated University of foundland as an Associate Professor. Aldrich was made a Pro­ British Colombia (Victoria Col­ fessor of Biology in 1965 while serving as Head of the Biol­ lege); University of Washington; ogy Department from 1963 to 1967. He was a founding University of London. After com­ Director of the Marine Sciences Reseach Laboratory at Me­ pleting the requirements for a Ph.D. morial University and in 1970 was appointed Dean of Gradu­ in Economics from the University of ate Studies. His international reputation as an expert on the London in 1967 Alexander accepted Giant Squid (Architeuthis) has resulted in requests to visit an appointment with the Department David Alexander. sites around the world to study the species. In 1980 the United of History at Memorial University of Newfoundland. States television series Those Amazing Animals featured AI- Throughout his academic career Alexander became known 38 ALEXANDER,ALLEN

both as an economic historian and as one of the leading spe­ some localities when a person is " fooled" by another after 12 cialists in the area of Newfoundland fisheries studies. As well noon the following lines are repeated by the person "fooled" as contributing several scholarly works on the fisheries of to the originator of the prank: Newfoundland and Labrador, Alexander participated in the April-fool is gone a-past investigation into the federal fisheries licencing policy (1974) You're the biggest fool at last and the Atlantic Canada Shipping Project (in which he was Up the ladder principal investigator in 1976). Alexander published various Down the tree articles in the Dalhousie Review, the Journal of Canadian You're a bigger fool than me. Studies and Acadiensis (to which he was a principal contribu­ Newfoundland joined Canada on March 31 , 1949 at a mo­ tor after 1971). In 1977 Alexander published The Decay of ment before midnight even though Canada's fiscal year began Trade: An Economic History of the Newfoundland Saltfish on April 1. This was done specifically so that Confederation Trade 1935-1963. In addition to his published works and par­ qv with Canada would not begin on All-Fools' day. ELGM ticipation in various committees he also held membership in ALLAN LINE. The Allan Line Steamship Company estab­ the Maritime History Group at Memorial University from lished a passenger service between Liverpool and St. John's 1973 until his death at St. John's on July 25, 1980. in 1872. *Baine Johnston and Company qv were Allan agents His last work, a paper entitled "Literacy and Economic for a number of years, including the time of the Anglo Saxon Development in Nineteenth Century Newfoundland," was qv disaster in 1863. The direct mail connection to and from delivered by a colleague after Alexander's death and was the England began in 1872 when the S.S. Hibernian arrived in St. first in an annual series of scholarly lectures delivered at the John's. The mail contract was first for five years at $62,500 a University of New Brunswick; a revised version was subse­ year, between the Allan Company and the Newfoundland quently published in Acadiensis. G .E. Panting (interview, Government. Shea's (Sir Ambrose Shea qv) were agents at Nov. 1980), Acadiensis (Autumn 1980, Vol. X, No. 1), Me­ that time and continued until World War I when Allan's was morial University of Newfoundland Calendar 1979-80 absorbed by the Canadian Pacific Railway. Paul O'Neill (1979?), ET (June 3, 1978; July 26, 1980), Journal of Cana­ (1975). GL dian Studies (Summer 1980), Mun Gazette (Sept. 4, 1980), ALLAN'S ISLAND. See LAMALINE. The Rounder (Mar. 1976). WCS ALLARDYCE, LADY ELSIE ELIZABETH (1878-1962). ALEXANDER, FIELD MARSHAL LORD HAROLD RU­ Born England. Wife of Sir William Lamond Allardyce qv. PERT LEOFRIC GEORGE, (1891-1969). Governor Gen­ After arriving in Newfoundland in 1923 she began to reorga­ eral. Born County Armagh, Ireland. Educated Harrow; nize the outport nursing scheme devised by Lady Harris and R.M.C., Sandhurst, England. Alexander served in the First Evelyn Cave Hiscock qv, and through her efforts, in April World War and was awarded numerous military and civilian 1924 the Newfoundland Outport Nursing and Industrial Asso­ honours. From 1946 to 1952 he held the office of Governor ciation was officially launched. She also officially helped to General of Canada. On August 29, 1949 he made the first of­ begin the *Girl Guides qv organization in Newfoundland in ficial visit by a Governor General to Newfoundland as its November 1923. She left Newfoundland after Sir William head of state. The Canadian Who's Who (1951), Who's Who Allardyce' s term as Governor expired in 1928. See NURS­ in Canada 1949-50 An Illustrated Biographical Record of ING AND INDUSTRIAL ASSOCIATION, NEWFOUND­ Men and Women of the Time (1950). ELGM LAND OUTPORT. Gordon Duff (1964), J.R. Thoms (n.d.), ALEXANDER, SIR WILLIAM (1567?-1640). Earl of Ster­ Who Was Who (1961-1970), Who's Who In and From New­ ling. Born Menstrie, Scotland. Well-known in his native land foundland I927 (1927). CFH for his literary works and statemanship, he is also noted for ALLARDYCE, SIR WILLIAM LA­ his attempts to establish a New Scotland in the New World. MOND ( 1861-1930). Governor. With this end in mind, and in collaboration with John Mason Educated at Aberdeen and at the qv, in 1621 he was granted the northwestern part of New­ Oxford Military College, England. foundland from Placentia Bay to the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Husband of Elsie Elizabeth This parcel of land, which he called Alexandria, was not (Stewart) Goodfellow. Before com­ colonized by him because he was later granted a larger area of ing to Newfoundland Allardyce was land in Canada and part of the area that became the United governor of three British posses­ States. Although he was unsuccessful in his attempts to colo­ sions: the Falkland Islands, the Ba­ nize this area, part of it still bears the name he chose for his hamas and Tasmania. In 1922 he Sir William L. Allardyce colony- New Scotland, or Nova Scotia. Samuel Purchas was appointed Governor of New­ (Vol. XIX, 1905). ELGM foundland and served in that office until 1928. One of the ALEXANDRA THEATRE COMPANY. See THEATRE. most important events in Newfoundland during his governor­ ALL-FOOLS' DAY. (April Fools' Day). Of uncertain origin, ship was the settling of the *Labrador boundary dispute qv in the observation of this day may be associated with ancient cel­ 1927. Allardyce died in London in 1930 See ALLARDYCE, ebrations of the vernal equinox. On this day it is common LADY ELSIE ELIZABETH. Gordon Duff (1964), Who Was practice in many cultures to play practical jokes on friends or Who (1961-1970), Who's Who In and From Newfoundland to send them on "fools' errands." 1927 (1927). CFH Traditionally in Newfoundland this custom is observed ALLEN (ALLEYN), ALFRED H. ( ?-1949 ). Musician. A from dawn until 12 noon on April first. A person who is professional musician who came to St. John's from England "fooled" in this manner is called an "April Fool." (In in 1905, Allen was organist and choirmaster at the Church of French Canada the term is poisson d' avril - april fish) . In England Cathedral (1905-1917). He set the "Ode to New- ALLEN, ALSOP 39 foundland" to music for chorus and orchestra in 1907, ~fin the position of Director of Urban and Rural Planning for New­ 1908 was invited to the conductorship of the male voice choir foundland, 1954, President of Atlantic Planners Institute, then being formed in the city. He conducted the first produc­ 1967, Canadian Institute of Planners, 1968, and Canadian tion ofHandel'sMessiah in Newfoundland (1913), and estab­ delegate to "Habitat," the United Nations Conference on lished and conducted the first Bach Choir (1914). He died Human Settlements. He was commanding officer of the Royal February 1949, in Devonshire, England. PAG Newfoundland Regiment from 1963 until 1968, and Com­ ALLEN, GEORGE WILLIAM mander of the Newfoundland Militia District from 1968 until DOUGLAS (1901- ). Accoun­ 1972. Allston has also been involved in various educational, tant; civil servant. Born Petries, military and charitable organizations. The following honours Newfoundland. Educated local and awards have been conferred upon him: the Canadian Dec­ schools; Mount Allison Academy, oration, the Centennial Medal, the Queen's Silver Jubilee Sackville, New Brunswick; Queen's Medal. Who's Who Newfoundland Silver Anniversary Edition University, Kingston, Ontario. He (1975). ELGM began his accounting career in 1926 ALMANACS. In 1840 the earliest known Newfoundland al­ with the International Power and manac was compiled by Joseph Templeman and entitled The Paper Company, Corner Brook, the Newfoundland Almanac. Around 1856 all rights to the New­ George William D. Allen predecessor of Bowater, and foundland Almanac were acquired by Joseph Woods, who worked there until entering the Newfoundland Civil Service had established a printing press in St. John's. From that date in 1935. In 1935 he became a member of the Institute of Char­ until 1878 he compiled an Almanac which contained astro­ tered Accountants of New Brunswick. He was appointed nomical, statistical and general information, and in the 1870s Newfoundland Assessor of Taxes in 1941, Director of Taxa­ he included a Newfoundland post office directory which con­ tion in 1949, and Auditor General in 1950. During this term tained an alphabetical list of towns, villages and settlements as Auditor General, which lasted until his retirement in 1968, with their post towns and way offices. From 1879 to 1886 the he introduced the Chartered Accountant course into his De­ Almanac was printed by W.J. Herder of the Evening Tele­ partment. In 1949 he was a founding member of the Institute gram, and in 1887 the Newfoundland Almanac appears to of Chartered Accountants of Newfoundland. He served on nu­ have passed into the joint control ofthe Auditor General (F.C. merous boards and commissions and was awarded the Berteau) and was at that date renamed A Year Book and Al­ Queen's Coronation Medal in 1953 and the Centennial Medal manac of Newfoundland and published under official aus­ in 1967. In 1976 he was made a Fellow of the Institute of pices. It contained ''a calendar and nautical intelligence for Chartered Accountants of Newfoundland. PAG the year, authentic and valuable information relating to public ALLEN, STUART R.W. (1886- ). Lawyer. Born St. offices, institutions, banks, etc. of the Colony, together with John's, Newfoundland. Educated Newfoundland; Montreal a carefully revised directory of all towns, villages and settle­ (Quebec) High School. Allen articled in Patent Law with ments of the Island.'' It continued to be published until 1932 Fetherstonhaugh and Company in Montreal and was admitted when it was discontinued as an economy measure by the Al­ to the Bar in Canada and the United States in 1915. He be­ derdice Administration. In 1941 and 1942 a Handbook, Gaza­ came President of the Patent Institute of Canada and was a teer and Almanac was published by J .R. Smallwood and member of the Chartered Institute of Patent Agents of Lon­ printed by Long Brothers, St. John's, and in 1954 the New­ don, England. The Canadian Who's Who (1949-1951). DPJ foundland Year Book and Business Directory was printed and ALLENS LIMITED. See FISH PLANTS. published by Guardian Limited, St. John's with subsequent ALLIED AVIATION SERVICE COMPANY OF NEW­ issues in 1955 and 1956. Yearbook (1841- passim). GL FOUNDLAND LIMITED. See AIR SERVICES. ALPHABET FLEET. The Alphabet Fleet (so called because ALLIED YOUTH. An international organization A. Y., as it is the initial letters of the names of the ships followed the alpha­ also called, attempts to encourage high school students to be­ bet) were mainly coastal vessels, carrying passengers and come involved in the improvement of their communities by freight around the Island and north to Labrador, and were promoting awareness of current social issues within the owned by the Reid-Newfoundland Railway. The first eight group. Begun in Newfoundland in 1961 in Corner Brook, were built in Scotland in 1898, and each was given a name as­ A.Y. has grown rapidly and today has branches in every part sociated with Scotland: Argyle, Bruce, Clyde, Dundee, Ethie, of the Province, which hold regular educational seminars to Fife, Glencoe and Home. In subsequent years the fleet was in­ further the aims of A. Y. The organization in Newfoundland creased by the addition of new vessels: the Inverness, Kyle, and Labrador is sponsored by the *Alcohol and Drug Addic­ Lintrose and the Meigle. The Alphabet Fleet gradually disap­ tion Foundation qv. By 1978 A. Y. membership in Newfound­ peared from Newfoundland and by the 1970s the Kyle was the land and Labrador had grown to 2000. CFH only one left in the Province. Property of the Newfoundland ALLSTON, LT. COL. JACK Government, she lies beached at Riverhead, Harbour Grace. THOMAS (1923- ). Civil ser­ Paul O'Neill (1975). GL vant. Born Colchester, England. ALPINE AZALEA. See AZALEA, ALPINE. Educated Essex County, England. ALSOP, ROBERT (1814-1871). Born St. John' s to a wealthy During the second world war All­ merchant family. When the family firm (R. Alsop and Com­ ston served with the Royal Engi­ pany) began to falter as a result of poor fisheries in the 1850s neers and the Royal Hampshire and 1860s, Alsop began his political career. In a by-election Regiment. T.A. Allston emigrated in 1866 he was elected M.H.A. for Trinity Bay and was ap­ to Canada in 1954 where his activity pointed Chairman of the Board of Works (which made him a in urban and rural planning included Col. Jack Allston member of the Executive Council). 40 ALSOP. AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION In 1869 Alsop was again elected to represent the Trinity tury, when the Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem Bay District, this time as an anti-Confederate in C.F. was established to care for Christian pilgrims during the Bennett's qv party. He was named Colonial Secretary in 1870 Crusades. Over the years the aims of the Order changed many but was defeated in the election that year because of very ef­ times and by the late Nineteenth Century its work had been fective and damaging electioneering by his opponents. Never­ expanded to include the care of poor convalescents, the estab­ theless he continued as Colonial Secretary and was appointed lishment of cottage hospitals and frrst aid stations, the instruc­ to the Legislative Council before his death in 1871. D.W. tion of first aid and the manufacture and provision of ambu­ Prowse (1895) DCB (X). ELGM lance equipment. In 1877 the St. John Ambulance ALTERNATE PRESS. This St. John's community newsmaga­ Association was founded by the Order In Great Britain to zine frrst appeared on May 27, 1971. Initially designed as a direct its frrst aid training and ambulance services. tri-weekly publication, the paper became a monthly in Sep­ In 1910 at a meeting in St. John's, called by Sir Ralph C. tember of 1971 and eventually folded after only one year in Williams qv, Governor of Newfoundland, the Newfoundland circulation. The paper's name illustrated its editorial policy: a centre of St. John Ambulance was founded. With the primary deeper or alternate coverage of important social issues dealing aim of providing first aid to everyone who needed it, particu­ with municipal concerns, consumerism, human rights, legal larly sealers, fishermen, policemen and frremen, St. John advice and pest control. Denys Mulroony was the founding Ambulance began classes immediately. In the frrst year of its editor of the Alternate Press. The early issues were published existence 400 people received certificates in first aid and four­ in Room 203 of the Thompson Student Centre at Memorial teen passed the "Home Nursing" course in St. John's. University of Newfoundland and in February 1972 the paper's Classes continued to be a success in the capital, and in 1915 office moved to 198 Water Street in St. John's. TheAlternate instructors were sent to Grand Bank and Greenspond to Press was printed by Robinson-Blackmore Limited. Alternate spread the work of the society outside the city's limits. In the Press (May 27, 1971- June, 1972 passim), Archives GN meantime the St. John Ambulance Brigade, composed of peo­ 32/22. DCM ple qualified in frrst aid, was founded. In addition to adminis­ AMALGAMATED FISHERMEN OF ST. JOHN'S. See tering to the victims of theNewfoundland qv disaster in ·1914, FISHERMEN OF ST. JOHN'S, AMALGAMATED. the Brigade sent an ambulance unit to France to work with the AMALGAMATED LEGISLATURE. See GOVERNMENT. Royal Newfoundland Regiment during World War I and con­ AMALGAMATED SCHOOLS. See SCHOOLS. ducted a "Cot Fund" which resulted in 239 beds being sup­ AMATEUR RADIO. See RADIO, AMATEUR. plied for the military hospital at Etaples, France and the Naval AMATEUR THEATRE. See THEATRE. Convalescent Hospital, Waterford Hall, St. John's 1n that AMAZONITE. Microcline is the bright green variety of the war. feldspar group of minerals. Amazonite (KAlSi30 8) is the Over the years St. John Ambulance expanded its first aid pale green to blue-green variety of microcline often associated instruction to a number of small communities in the Country with Labradorite deposits. The pale green amazonite is some­ and the Brigade, besides providing assistance at large public times called "green Labradorite." It can be found in the gatherings, sent members overseas during World War II to anorthosite rocks around Nain, Makkovvik and Port Hope work with the Red Cross qv. Simpson, Labrador. The stones are of good quality, easily cut Following the joining of the Newfoundland Centre with the and polished and used in making jewelry. J .H. McKillop Priory of Canada in 1950, a permanent St. John Ambulance (1963), F.H. Pough (1960), F.J. Warren (n.d.). BGR office was established in St. John's. AMBROSE SHEA, M. V. This car-carrying ice-breaker was During the early 1970s the Newfoundland and Labrador built by Marine Industries and purchased by Canadian Na­ Association began to review its record of service and found tional Marine. The Shea was launched on November 24, that, despite its relative success, its work had not reached a 1967, is 119m (291ft) long, has a 21m (70ft) beam and a majority of isolated coastal communities where knowledge of displacement of 7, 708 t (8 ,444 T). In 1979 it operated be­ frrst aid was (and still is) essential, owing to the lack of read­ tween Argentia and North Sydney, N. S. during the summer at ily available medical services. Consequently St. John Ambu­ a full capacity of 534 passengers and 160 automobiles, and lance began to expand its services to include many different between Port aux Basques and North Sydney in the winter, groups in all parts of the Province. A multi-media course was when needed. The Shea also makes an occasional run to Lab­ designed in safety-oriented first aid in 1974 and a special rador. It was named after Sir Ambrose Shea qv. P AG health care course for senior citizens was begun in 1977. Spe­ AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION, ST. JOHN. St. John Ambu­ cial training of school children, teachers and industrial lance trains the general public, industrial workers and other workers in all areas of the Province was increased, as was special groups in safety and first aid, and conducts courses on teaching of first aid to the general public. patient care in the home, and health care for senior citizens, From 1974 to 1978, as a result of the increased effort by the with the aim of reducing health care costs and the number of volunteer instructors of St. John Ambulance, 25,336 New­ accidents. foundlanders and Labradorians received certificates in first Through qualified volunteer members of its Brigade, St. aid, and 18,000 children were trained in artificial respiration John Ambulance also provides first aid at all large public and control of bleeding. In addition in 1978 alone 125 senior events. The official name of the association is the Newfound­ citizens completed courses in health care for the elderly and land and Labrador Council of the Priory of Canada of the 500 teachers were awarded certificates in frrst aid. In total, most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusa­ during the five year period, people from over 200 communi­ lem. ties in Newfoundland and Labrador were instructed by the The origins of the association date back to the eleventh cen- Association. During the same period the number of Ambu- AMBULANCE ASSOCIATION, AM/ENS 41 .J lance Brigades also increased from four to thirteen and mem­ bulky, brown or black bird with broad wings and bare neck bership grew from fifty-five to 256. In those five years the and head, red in colour. It soars and glides well and is a scav­ Brigades provided 90,000 hours of volunteer service and at­ enger which feeds on carrion because its legs and claws are tended to more than 8,000 casualties. too weak to kill. J .P.S. Mackenzie (1976). PMH Funded through the returns from training fees, grants from AMERICAN WHITE BIRCH. See BIRCH TREES. the Provincial and Federal Governments and donations AMETHYST. Amethyst (SiO:J is the violet to purple variety of obtained during fund-raising campaigns, St. John Ambulance crystallized quartz. The colour is due to impurities of iron provides an invaluable service at an annual cost of $131,000. oxide in the quartz deposit. Pieces of amethyst in Newfound­ This is accomplished at a time when accidents constitute the land can be found at Man Rock Cove, near Wareham, Bona­ largest single cause of death amongst Canadians between the vista Bay, along the shoreline of Signal Hill National Historic ages of one and forty-five. Park and at Outer Cove. The stones are used in jewelry. J.H. Today the importance of St. John Ambulance in New­ McKillop (1963), R.M. Pearl (1955), F.H. Pough (1960). foundland and Labrador may be measured not only by its suc­ BGR <;ess in the Province, but also by its beneficial effects on life in AMHERST COVE (pop. 1976, 64). This community is located many Third World countries which have adopted the pro­ on the east side of Bona vista Bay, approximately 18 km grammes devised by the Association in Newfoundland and (11 rni) southwest of Bonavista. Once known as Lower Am­ Labrador in the 1970s. St. John Ambulance Newfoundland herst Cove, it was first settled in the 1840s. and Labrador Council (letters, 1978-1979), NQ (July 1911; In 1981 most workers from Amherst Cove commuted to July 1914). CFH such large centres on the Bonavista Peninsula as Bonavista AMBULANCE BRIGADE, ST. JOHN. See AMBULANCE and Catalina. There they were employed in fish plants, con­ ASSOCIATION, ST. JOHN. struction work, service industries and in jobs requiring skilled AMBULANCE SERVICES. See HOSPITALS. labour, especially carpentry. There were a total of about ten AMERICAN. See also UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. fishermen in Amherst Cove and nearby Middle and Upper AMERICAN ENCAUSTIC TILE COMPANY. See Amherst Coves in 1981. The catch was sold mainly to fish MINING. plants in other centres of the Bonavista Peninsula. See MID­ AMERICAN AND EUROPEAN SHORT LINE RAILWAY DLE AMHERST COVE; UPPER AMHERST COVE. A.G. COMPANY. See RAILWAY. Macpherson (1977), E.R. Seary (1976), H.A. Wood (1952), AMERICAN POINT (pop. 1901, 11). American Point (Ameri­ Census ( 1845-1976), JHA (1851-1875 passim), Lovell's New­ can Cove?) was a small community situated on the north side foundland Directory (1871). Map G. CFH and JEMP of Sandwich Bay on the coast of Labrador. According to the AMHERST, GENERAL WILLIAM (c.1732-1781). Born 1901 census returns it was occupied by one family who were Kent, England. Entered the army in the early 1750s. He ac­ engaged in the cod and salmon fisheries and cultivated a small companied his brother General Jeffrey Amherst (then Com­ patch of land. All were native born Newfoundlanders, of the mander-in-Chief of the British regiment) to Louisbourg in Church of England faith, and all were literate. By 1911 the census return is for American Cove which is also in Sandwich Bay. There was only one inhabitant, a widower engaged in the fishery. It would seem that the place was a temporary fish­ ing station. It does not appear again in the census returns. Census (1901; 1911). BGR AMERICAN REVOLUTION. In 1774, at the beginning of the war between The Thirteen Colonies and Britain, the Conti­ nental Congress in America prohibited all exportation to Newfoundland from those colonies. From then until the end of the war in 1782 American Privateers patrolled the New­ foundland coast plundering and capturing banking vessels and making the waters hazardous for fishing. They interferred with the arrival of supply ships from England, which in turn caused a population decrease in the outports as the famine­ stricken inhabitants emigrated to the American colonies, England or St. John's in search of food and employment. In General Amherst St. John's the Newfoundland Volunteers, a militia group, 1758 and assisted in the capture of Montreal in 1760. In 1762 gave work and provisions to many of the unemployed. C. G. Lieutenant Colonel (as he was then) Amherst and Lord Col­ Head (1976). GL ville led a march from Torbay to Signal Hill where they recap­ AMERICAN SMELTING AND REFINING COMPANY. tured St. John's from the French. He died in England May 13, See MINING. 1781. See ST. JOHN'S. D.W. Prowse (1895). GL AMERICAN TREATY SHORE. See ANGLO-AMERICAN AMIENS, BATTLE OF. On August 8, 1918 an assault spear­ CONVENTION OF 1818. headed by the Canadian Corps penetrated the German posi­ AMERICAN VULTURES (Family Cathartidae). The Turkey tion in front of Arniens, France for a distance of 13 km (8 mi) Vulture, Cathartes aura, primarily a bird of the American and was completely successful in its objective of freeing the tropics, is accidental in Newfoundland. Peters and Burleigh Arniens-Paris railway. It was one of the most outstanding (1951) report only one record. The Turkey Vulture is a large, achievements of the Canadian Corps. John Bernard Croke qv, 42 AM/ENS, AMULR££ a Newfoundlander of the 13th Battalion who was killed dur­ Government following the war would be disastrous, as the ing intense fighting, was awarded the highest military award, Newfoundland people were inexperienced in and relatively the Victoria Cross, for his part in the operation. PAG apathetic about politics. In the case that Newfoundland chose AMIENS, TREATY OF. See TREATY OF A MIENS. Commission of Government, he suggested the implementa­ AMMON, LORD CHARLES GEORGE (1875-1960). British tion of a plan of social and economic development financed, M.P. The Labour Member of Parliament for North Camber­ at least in part, by the British Government. The last recom­ well, England from 1922 to 1931 and from 1935 to 1944, he mendation was flatly rejected by the British Treasury and the was one of three British M.P.s of the Goodwill Mission qv to first, concerning a choice, was later radically modified by the Newfoundland sent by Clement Attlee qv, then the British British Government. Created first Baron of Camberwell, Secretary of State for Dominions Affairs. Charged with the 1944; P.C., 1945. See GOVERNMENT; NATIONAL CON­ task of examining Newfoundland's war effort and determin­ VENTION. Lord Ammon (1944), W.J. Browne (1967), St. ing what problems the country would have to solve following John Chadwick (1967), Who Was Who (1951-1960). CFH the end of the war, Ammon, along with the two British AMONG THE DEEP SEA FISHERS. See GRENFELL M.P.'s who accompanied him, interviewed people around the ASSOCIATION, INTERNATIONAL. Island and Labrador. Their reports to the British Government AMULREE, WILLIAM WARRENDER MACKENZIE, were never published, but one year after the Goodwill Mis­ LORD (1860-1941). Born Scone, Perthshire, Scotland. sion's visit Ammon published Newfoundland: The Forgotten Called to the Bar 1886; K.C., 1914; became Baron Amulree Island, in which his impressions of Newfoundland were 1926. Between 1917 and 1919 he served as chairman of a given. Among recommendations that he outlined in his book committee on Production in Britain under the Munitions of Ammon suggested that following World War II the British War Act. In 1919 he was appointed the first president of the Government offer to Newfoundland the choice between an International Court in Britain, a position he held until 1926. immediate return to Responsible Government and the contin­ From 1929 to 1933 he chaired many commissions and com­ uation, for a specified number of years, of Commission of mittees, including the Newfoundland Royal Commission, Government in a modified form, allowing for some elected 1933. See AMULREE REPORT. S.J.R. Noel (1971), J.R. representation of the Newfoundland people to the Commis­ Smallwood (1975), Current Biography Who's Who And Why sion. Ammon felt that an immediate return to Responsible 1942 (1942), DNB (Supplement, 1931-1940). ELGM

Lord Amulree AMULREE REPORT. ANCHOR POINT 43 --;,~ AMULREE REPORT. During the 1932 election campaign about her youth in Labrador. In collaboration with Heluiz Frederick C. Alderdice qv had promised that he would estab­ Chandler Washburne she wrote an autobiography called Land lish a body to look into the "desirability and feasibility of of the Good Shadows published in 1940; as well she wrote placing the country under a form of commission of govern­ Wild Like the Foxes and Children of the Blizzard. Robin Ge­ ment for a period of years" (ET: May 25, 1932) and that he dalof (letter, June 1981), Anauta and Washburne (1940). would hold a referendum on the subject if the inquiry so rec­ DPJ ommended. The finances of Newfoundland had been on the ANCESTRY. See POPULATION. brink of bankruptcy for some time and when he assumed ANCHOR POINT (inc. 1974; pop. 1976, 329). Anchor Point office it was at the point of crisis. Alderdice first attempted to is located in St. Barbe Bay, south of Flower's Cove qv on the lease Labrador to British financiers but when this attempt west side of the Great Northern Peninsula. Heavy seas break failed he was faced with the task of finding enough money to on the entrance of the cove and the harbour entrance is meet loan payments due on January 1, 1933, as further credit extremely narrow and concealed; off Anchor Point a ledge from the banks had been refused. After discussions with the stretches westward toward the Seal Islands. Despite the in­ Government of Canada, Britain offered the Newfoundland ability of the harbour to afford shelter to more than a few Government two-thirds of the amount of money it owed on its small craft, this site was the first English settlement on the loans, to be shared equally by Great Britain and Canada, with French Shore because of its concealed harbour, its strategic the condition that Newfoundland accept the appointment of a position close to the Labrador Coast and the annual seal mi­ commission to investigate its financial problems and to rec­ gration, and because of its proximity to the finest salmon ommend measures to make Newfoundland economically rivers and brooks on the northwest coast. sound. Alderdice accepted and the Amulree Commission was Anchor Point was first settled by Robert Bartlett, a British appointed. seaman, and his nephew Robert Genge, both from Yeovil, The Amulree Report, or the Newfoundland Royal Commis­ Somerset. They used the cove as a base for fishing and fur sion 1933 Report, contains the recommendations made by the hunting from Anchor Point to Bartlett's Harbour qv in the late Commission. The Commission was established by a Royal 1700s. Robert Bartlett eventually returned to England while Warrant from the British Government upon the request of the Robert Genge was joined by his brother Abram, who in tum Alderdice Administration for an evaluation of Newfound­ "employed men from England seasonally and sold his furs land's political and economic situation. It presented, in addi­ and fish products very profitably to American vessels" (J. T . tion, a description of the social, economic and political state Richards: 1953). According to the evidence given by the Hon­ of the country since the inauguration of Responsible Govern­ ourable James Tobin to the Select Committee to Inquire into ment in 1855. the Proposed Cession of Fishing Privileges on the Coast of The report suggested some methods to repair Newfound­ Newfoundland: "There is a case at Anchor Point, Mr. Gauge land politics and its economy, but the historically important [Genge], who has had a salmon post in possession of his fam­ recommendations were that Responsible Government be sus­ ily over 90 years which has been recently taken from him by pended until the country was once again able to support itself the French (1847) .... Mr. Gauge has a large fixed establish­ and the restoration of Responsible Government was desired ment at Anchor Point, which has been in existence prior to the by the people; that Responsible Government be replaced by a Declaration of Treaty (1783) and affords strong proof of the Commission of Government responsible to, and controlled right of British Subjects to settle on the Coast.'' (JHA: by, the British Government; that this Commission of Govern­ 1857). ment be composed of six members, three representatives of By the 1820s Genge was the major local planter in the Newfoundland and three representatives of the United King­ Strait of Belle Isle and in 1823 he acquired a schooner in part­ dom; that the Government departments in Newfoundland be nership with Joseph Bird and Company based at Forteau divided into six groups, each under the jurisdiction of one of (Transcript of Registry Newfoundland BT-1007 -483 quoted in the Commissioners. The report further recommended that the Robert Genge: 1973). After 1828 Genge became an indepen­ British Parliament should assume temporary responsibility for dent "petty trader" and controlled trapping and the salmon the country's finances and assist it in its immediate financial rivers along the entire shore from River of Ponds qv to Boat dilemma. Ultimately, however, the objective of the Commis­ Harbour qv (P.A. Thornton: 1977). Sealing was also impor­ sion of Government was to be the development of a long-term tant in the early industry of Anchor Point as thousands of seals plan aimed at the stabilization of the Newfoundland economy. passed the community on their annual migration. Taking ad­ See GOVERNMENT. R.L. Clark (1951), S.J.R. Noel vantage of this strategic position the Genges invented the first (1971), The Newfoundland Royal Commission 1933 Report *seal frame qv to catch seals off the point. This bulk method (1933). ELGM of harvesting seals was very successful: James Prendergast, ANAUTA. (c.1890-1950). Writer; lecturer. Anauta was the the Superintendent of Fisheries, reported in 1858 that "Mr. Inuit name of Elizabeth Ford Blackmore, a girl of Inuit and Genge, an English resident, took 400 seals this spring in English parentage born in Ford Harbour (?), Labrador. She frames" (JLC: 1859). grew up on Baffin Island and along the Labrador Coast. An­ By the 1850s Anchor Point was the established commercial auta married William Ford, a distant cousin, but he drowned centre for fur trading and fishing stations on the St. Barbe several years later in Labrador. Anauta then married a man Coast; in 1843 Captain Lock reported in a letter to Earl Dun­ named Blackmore (it is not known whether be was from New­ donall: ''The fishings are carried on with profit by five estab­ foundland or from the United States). lishments . . . four, connected with Jersey, Poole and St. Anauta and her daughters left Newfoundland for Indianap­ John's, are in the bay; and the fifth, planted upon the Eastern olis in 1917 and she became popular as a lecturer, talking Point, belongs to a Mr. Grange [Genge], a wealthy colonist 44 ANCHOR POINT, ANDERSON

from Anchor Point, Newfoundland. About 400 employed" Port aux Basques, processed approximately 13,680 t (JLC : 1849). Interference from the French, however, was a (8,500,000 lbs) of cod and scallops and employed about 100 great problem for the business at Anchor Point. The Genges people. In 1981 Anchor Point had three general stores and a repeatedly .complained of French incursions into their estab­ newly-opened Co-operative which was an extension of the lished commercial territory: in 1848 it was reported that the store at Flowers Cove. Edward Feild (1851), Robert Genge French were netting a river " that had been in his [Genge's] (1973), C.G. Head (1963), J.F. Imray (1873), Joseph Ken­ family for upwards a century" and that " after much opposi­ nedy (interview, Mar. 1981), Arthur Mauger (interview, tion . .. he [Genge] had to yield to the French one-half and Mar. 1981), J.T. Richards (1953), P. A. Thornton (1977), upwards two-thirds of the produce of the river. This year they Census (1874-1976), JHA (1857; 1873), JLC (1849; 1856; had taken it from him altogether" (JLC: 1848). The problem 1857; 1859), Sailing Directions Newfoundland (1980). Map continued with further complaints and confrontations until the D. JEMP resolution of French fishing rights in 1904. In 1873 it was re­ ANCIENT COLONY, MOST. A traditional title for New­ ported that " A difficulty having arisen at St. Barbe Bay, an foundland which described its position in The British Empire. old resident named Genge, who had fished the Western Brook Most Newfoundlanders added the word " loyal" so that the for many years, had been ordered by the commander of the expression became " Britain' s most ancient and loyal French schooner La Belette to discontinue doing so" (JLC: colony. '' JRS 1873). A.N.D. COMPANY. See PULP AND PAPER MAKING. Vice-Admiral Fanshawe in his Fishing Report also noted ANDERSEN, REV. OLAF A.E. (1936- ). Clergyman. the comparatively extensive cultivation of land and the raising Born Makkovik, Labrador. Educated Moravian Mission of livestock in Anchor Point, echoing an earlier report that: School, Makkovik; St. John 's Adult Education Centre; Amer­ " The ground about is very productive, it has excellent pasture ican Air Force Base, Goose Bay, Labrador; Moravian Theo­ land; Mr. Grange [Genge] keeps six milck cows" (JLC: logical Seminary, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Unlike most 1859). On his visit to Anchor Point in 1848 Bishop school children in Canada, Olaf Andersen did not attend a Edward Feild qv noted with pleasure the development of the grade school, but rather attended a "class" school at the land by the industrious people stating that "altogether the Moravian Mission at Makkovik until he was twelve and the good things of both earth and sea appear to abound in this lo­ school was no longer suited to his educational needs. No other cality, and to make it a fruitful and profitable settlement" type of schooling was available there, and it was not until he (Edward Feild: 1851). was seventeen that he was able to travel to St. John's, where It was during this visit that Bishop Feild consecrated the he completed Grades Five through Eleven in five years at first cemetery on the Strait of Belle Isle at Anchor Point, and nightschool while working by day. After working as a teacher by 1849 a schoolhouse was built, supported initially by the and with the Department of Labrador Affairs, and after addi­ Society for the Propagation of the *Gospel qv. Because of its tional schooling at Goose Bay, he was admitted as a candidate isolation, Anchor Point (and other St. Barbe communities) for the Moravian ministry. After graduation in 1967 he was had difficulty retaining teachers and from 1850 to 1960, edu­ called to serve the Moravian congregation at Upton Manor, cational facilities remained relatively poor (C.G. Head: London, England. He was ordained at Homsey Moravian 1963). In 1961 there was an elementary school in Anchor Church, London, that year and became the first native of Lab­ Point and high school students were bussed to nearby Flowers rador to become a Moravian clergyman. After four years in Cove qv, and by 1981 all students attended school there. With England he returned to Labrador and served the mission at the building of St. Barnabas Church in Flowers Cove in 1871 Hopedale until 1976. While at Hopedale he was ordained a the Anchor Point congregation attendeq church there. Ser­ presbyter in the Moravian Church at Nain as part of the two vices were later held in the school basement in Anchor Point. hundredth anniversay celebration of the Moravian Mission in In the 1970s the first church at Anchor Point was built. Labrador. The first recorded census of Anchor Point was taken in In 1976 Andersen was accepted into the American Province 1873: William Genge, his wife and eight children, and Abra­ of the Moravian Church. He became assoCiate pastor at Roll­ ham Genge and his wife were living there (JLC: 1873). Many ing Hills Moravian Church in Longwood, Florida, a position of the men employed by the Genge business at Anchor Point he held until 1979, when he moved to Wisconsin as minister settled at their fur stations, founding many communities in St. at Veedum Moravian Church and at Pittsville United Church John Bay, St. Barbe Bay and the Strait of Belle Isle, including of Christ in Pittsville. While in Labrador he served on the Forteau qv and Flowers Cove which eventually replaced Hopedale Community Council and was a member of the Anchor Point as a commercial, educational and religious School Board and of the Offshore Gas and Oil Committee. centre by the 1900s. Seal, salmon and fur eventually became O.E.A. Anderson (letter, May 1981). BGR less profitable and by the 1920s cod, lobster and herring fish­ ANDERSON, ADMIRAL SIR ing had become increasingly important. The population grew DAVID MURRAY (1874-1936). steadily from fifty-one in 1901 to 120 by 1935, and the labour Governor. Born England. Anderson force followed the traditional subsistence cycle of spring and began naval training at thirteen and summer fishing and winter woods work. Until 1957, when quickly rose through the ranks, be­ operations were sharply curtailed, timber cutting for Bowaters corning Lieutenant (1894); Com­ was an important source of winter employment. mander (1905); Captain ( 1911); In 1980 a fish plant was operating seasonally for four Rear-Admiral (1922); Vice-Admiral months in two shifts on the community stage supplied by resi­ (1927); and Admiral ( 1932) . He dent and area fishermen in draggers and longliners. The plant, served in numerous campaigns in a feeder operation which shipped fish packed in ice daily to West Africa, East Africa, India and Sir D . M. Anderson :;_, ANDERSON, ANDERSON'S TIME 45 China. During World War I he commanded the British ship Ajax. He was knighted in 1930 and retired from the naval ser­ vices two years later. In 1933 he was appointed Governor of Newfoundland. During his term of office Newfoundland vol­ untarily suspended its Constitution in 1934 and was governed by a Commission of which Murray served as first Chairman. He was posted to New South Wales in November 1935 but before he left Newfoundland, early in 1936, he officially opened the Gosling Memorial Library on January 9. He died at Sydney, Australia October 30, 1936. Gordon Duff (1964), Harold Newell (1937). BGR ANDERSON, CAPT. HUGH ABERCROMBIE (1890- ). Writer. Born St. John's. Son of Hon. John Anderson qv. Educated Bishop Feild College; Edinburgh Academy. After spending several years in the family business in St. John's he began a military career in which he reached the rank of Captain. In 1921 he became managerofhis brother's (John Murray Anderson qv) theatrical business in New York. Hugh Anderson's dramatization of Robert Louis Stevenson's The Suicide Club received favourable reviews in 1929. Under the pen name of Hugh Abercrombie he wrote the musical Auld Lang Syne, and in 1954 he published, under his own name, John Murray Anderson Out Without My Rubbers, the Memoirs of John Murray An­ derson. Awarded M.B.E. ELGM From the debut of his first play until his death in 1954 he pro­ ANDERSON, HON. JOHN duced numerous plays, reviews and films. The best known ( 1855-1930). Businessman; were The Earth Mother, Greenwich Village Follies, What's in politician. Born Saltcoats, a Name? and Dearest Enemy. Among his original productions Scotland. Educated Saltcoats were The League of Notions; the motion picture The King of Academy, Scotland. In 1875 Jazz. and John Murray Anderson Almanac. ELGM Anderson came to Newfound­ ANDERSON'S COVE (pop. 1961, 104). Abandoned fishing land and joined the firm of settlement west of Long Harbour Point, Fortune Bay. Ander­ James Baird in St. John's. Dur­ son's Cove was first settled by nine Church of England fami­ ing the early 1880s Anderson lies in the 1880s. The settlement was chosen for its land­ was senior partner of the fum of locked harbour following a deep run from the sea and its Anderson and Lumsden until he access to good herring fishing grounds. The economy of became the lone proprietor of Anderson's Cove was based solely on the commercial herring the business. He served on the and lobster fisheries. In 1953 there was a fish plant there, but Hon. John Anderson St. John's City Council from by 1960 the herring fishery had declined and lobster fishing 1900 to 1904 and was also elected a member of the House of had almost entirely replaced it. Because it was remote and Assembly during that same period. In 1904 he was appointed rugged, Anderson's cove had no road and the community de­ to the Legislative Council, a position he held until the late pended entirely on coastal boat supplies. While government 1920s. Anderson was instrumental in the passing of the Day­ attempted to improve services in the early 1960s, the commu­ light Savings Act of 1917. His advocacy of this novel bill re­ nity was abandoned in 1966 and the residents relocated in sulted in the sobriquet "Anderson's Time." He was also an Harbour Mille, Jacques Fontaine, Bay L' Argent, Little Har­ advocate of measures aimed at solving the housing problems bour East, and Little Bay East qvv under the Resettlement of St. John's and in 1920 he was Managing Director of the Program. The population of Anderson's Cove was nearly en­ Dominion Co-operative Building Association, Limited. An­ tirely Church of England until 1901, when the majority of the derson died on November 8, 1930. Mona Cram (interview, people became Congregationalists and, later, United Church. Aug. 1981), H.Y. Mott(1894), Who's Who inandfromNew­ When Anglican families from Stone's Cove qv, English Har­ foundland 1927 (1927), DN (Nov. 10, 1930). DPJ bour East qv, and Hare Harbour qv moved to Anderson's ANDERSON, JOHN MURRAY (1886-1954). Writer; theatri­ Cove in 1964 there was difficulty accommodating new pupils cal producer. Born St. John's. Son of Hon. John Anderson in the small school which had served first as a Church of Eng­ qv. Educated Bishop Feild College; Edinburgh Academy; land (and, later, as a Congregational) institution since the first Lausanne University, Switzerland. Studied singing in London days of settlement. Failure to resolve the denominational under Sir Charles Stanley and dramatic art under Sir Herbert school problem, and the attraction of relocation grants, are Beerbohm Tree. Before establishing himself as a writer and cited by Iverson and Matthews (1968) as the reasons for the theatrical producer he became an art dealer in New York with resettlement of Anderson's Cove. Iverson and Matthews antiques and objets d'art that he had collected in Newfound­ (1968), Census (1884-1961), Fishing Communities of New­ land during 1910. He began his theatrical career in 1913 as a foundland (1953). JEMP dance instructor, in competition with Vernon and Irene Cas­ ANDERSON'S TIME. This is the name which was popularly tle. In 1919 he produced his first play, The World Mother. given to *Daylight Saving Time qv in Newfoundland. It was 46 ANDERSON'S TIME, ANGEAC

named after the Hon. John Anderson qv who advocated its Meaning of Christ for Paul;' ' an article on St. Paul for Ency­ adoption in Newfoundland. ELGM clopedia Britannica and an article on ''The Religious History ANDREWS, DR. CATER W. (1916-1978). Educator. Born of Newfoundland" for Encyclopedia of Canada. Ralwyck Wesleyville, Newfoundland. Educated Memorial University and Quinn (1980), Who's Who in Canada (1980), ET (Dec. College; Mount Allison University; University of Western 10, 1938; Jan. 23, 1941). BGR Ontario; University of Toronto. After completing his formal ANDREWS, HAROLD (HAL) DOMINEY (1942- ). Pol- education in Canada C. W. Andrews returned to Newfound­ itician. Born Twillingate, Newfoundland. Educated Bishop land to accept a teaching position at Memorial University Col­ Feild College; Memorial University of Newfoundland. lege in 1947. From 1948 until 1951 Dr. Andrews was Assis­ Andrews worked in the Civil Service with the Departments of tant Professor of Biology at New York University. After his Agriculture, Forestry, Provincial Affairs and Fisheries until return to St. John's in 1951 he assumed the position of Head 1966, when he joined C.B.C. television as a commentator­ of the Biology Department at Memorial University College producer. He became producer and host of the popular local until 1963, when he began full-time research and teaching C.B.C. programme Land and Sea. In 1979 he resigned his duties. In 1965 Andrews received Canada Council funding to position with C. B. C. after successfully contesting the provin­ compile a history and biological assessment of seal popula­ cial district of Burgeo-Bay d'Espoir for the Progressive Con­ tions in Newfoundland, which was prepared and presented servative Party in a by-election. In April 1981 he was ap­ (with Robert Parker) as a Brief to the Minister of Fisheries pointed to the Provincial Cabinet as Minister of Environment and Forestry in 1971. Andrews was also involved in earlier and Minister of Culture, Recreation and Youth. H.D. research in the area of fresh water fish and fish stocks in the Andrews (letter, May 1981). BGR Murray's Pond area. Andrews died at St. John's on ANGAKKUK. This is the modem spelling of the Inuttut (lan­ November 25, 1978. ET (Nov. 27, 1978), Luminus (Vol. 7, guage of the Inuit qv) word meaning sorcerer or shaman. no. 1; 1979), M.U.N. Gazette (Dec. 8, 1978). WCS There are other older spellings of the word, such as angakok ANDREWS, DONALD (1907- ). Businessman; trade rep- and angekok. The angakkuk was probably the most powerful resentative. Born Ship Cove, Conception Bay. Educated Ship person in any Inuit group. Among other powers he or she was Cove; Bishop Feild College, St. John's. Early in his teens said to be able to give or take away life, change the general Andrews started working with his father, who was a fish mer­ geography of any area or make a hunt a success or failure. chant in Ship Cove, Port de Grave. He worked with the Lab­ Since the arrival of Europeans on the Labrador coast the rador fishery until 1949, when he founded his own business, number of angakkuit (plural of angakkuk) has decreased dras­ Andrews's Labrador Fisheries Limited in Bay Roberts. In tically. Shmuel Ben-Dor (1966), J.W. Davey (1905), W.O. 1952 he was appointed Newfoundland's trade representative Gosling (191 0), Rose Jeddore (1976), F. W. Peacock ( 1978). to Jamaica. Andrews was the designer of many technological CFH innovations in fish processing, such as a salt-fish washing ANGASHORE. (Angishore, Hang-ashore) A person who is machine (patented 1955), a hook-baiting machine (patented afraid to go to sea and "hangs around the shore" or, accord­ 1976) and indoor-outdoor fish-drying equipment (patented ing to P.K. Devine (1937), "a weak miserable person; an ob­ 1980). Donald Andrews (interview, Feb. 1981), J.R. Small­ ject of pity.'' ELGM wood (interview, Dec. 1980). CMB ANGEAC (DANGEAC, DANJAIQUE, DON JAQUE), ANDREWS, REV. ELIAS (1906- ). Clergyman. Born FRANCOIS-GABRIEL D'. (1708-1782). Soldier; gover­ Winterton. Educated Salvation Army and Methodist Schools, nor. Born in Plaisance (Placentia qv) Newfoundland, d' An­ Winterton; Methodist College, St. John's; Dalhousie Univer­ geac entered the military at the age of eight at Port Dauphin sity and Pine Hill Divinity Hall , Halifax; Drew University, (Englishtown, Nova Scotia). He was commissioned in his fa­ Madison, New Jersey. After several years of teaching and ther's (Gabriel D'Angeac) company in 1722 at Louisbourgqv serving as a lay minister in the church in Winterton, Elias and was promoted to Captain by 1747 after serving at Port Andrews was ordained a minister of the United Church of Dauphin (1738-1741 and 1743-1745), Louisbourg (1745), Canada in St. John's in 1935. He served for two years in Deer France (1745-1746) and Quebec (1747). From 1751 to 1758 Lake before accepting a teaching position at Pine Hill Divin­ d' Angeac was Commandant at Port Dauphin and was ity Hall in 1937. He served as Professor of New Testament awarded the Cross of Saint-Louis while on leave in France in and of Philosophy and Psychology of Religion. In 1941 he 17 54. He was recalled to Louis bourg from Port Dauphin and was appointed to the Chair of Church History. From 1948 was wounded there during the second seige of the fortress in until he left Pine Hill in 1955 he was also Lecturer in Reli­ 1758. He returned to France and in 1760 was sent to Canada gious Knowledge at Dalhousie University. in command of troops during the Seven Years War. In 1760 Andrews was invited by the Board of Management to be­ he inflicted much damage on ships commanded by John come Principal of Queen's Theological College at Kingston, Byron qv in the Battle of the Restigouche and when he Ontario in 1955. He served in this position for fifteen years, returned to France that year he was awarded a gratuity for his resigning in 1970. While at Queen's Theological College he valour. was also Head of the Department of Religion at Queen's Uni­ In 1763 as a further reward d' Angeac was appointed Gov­ versity, Kingston and taught New Testament Studies until ernor of the New French colony of St. Pierre and Miquelon, 1974. He also served as President of the Bay of Quinte Con­ which by the Treaty of Paris 1763 was to be used as a base for ference of the United Church of Canada for 1962-63. the French Shore fishery and the deep sea fishing fleet. The In addition to being a highly qualified professor and admin­ new colony attracted many displaced Acadians from Nova istrator, Andrews is also an author of high repute. He has pub­ Scotia and also some prominent Louisbourg merchants. As lished "Modern Humanism and Christian Theism," "The numbers became too great to be supported on the islands, ANGEAC, ANGEL'S COVE 47 ;,:,_ d' Angeac was ordered by the French Government to deport In 1889 James Angel was ap­ 763 Acadians to France in 1767. pointed to the Legislative In 1765 Newfoundland Governor Hugh Palliser qv formally Council in Sir William White­ protested to d' Angeac about French incursions for wood and way's Administration. He also food on British territory, as well as the presence of French chaired the Methodist Orphan­ warships and French fishing in the channel between the age Committee, acted as Gov­ French islands and the Island of Newfoundland. Palliser also ernor of the Methodist College increased naval patrols in the channel to try to reduce the con­ Board and was a founder of traband trade in fish and spirits with the islands; however, George Street Methodist (now d' Angeac took no action and the smuggling continued. These United) Church. See FOUND­ matters were disputed by the home governments for years. RIES . S.J. Carew (1967), H.Y. d' Angeac requested permission to retire in 1765 (denied) Mott (1894), Paul O 'Neill and again in 1769 (denied) as his health deteriorated in the (1976), J.R . Smallwood Hon . James Angel damp climate and he became increasingly discouraged over (1975). ELGM relations with Newfoundland. In 1770 he was promoted to ANGEL, JOHN BARTLETT (1913- Brigadier and in 1772 he left St. Pierre for France where he ) . Engineer; businessman. retired on his pension and died 9 March, 1782 at Soubise. Born St. John's. Son of Frederick DCB (IV) . JEMP William Angel qv and Mary Eliza­ ANGEL, FREDERICK WILLIAM beth Bartlett (sister of Capt. R.A. (1874-1937). Engineer. Born St. Bartlett qv). Educated Methodist John's. Son of Hon. James Angel College; Memorial College; McGill qv. Educated Methodist College; University. Angel was a member of McGill University. After graduating the following northern expeditions: from McGill University in 1898 the Norcross-Bartlett Expedition to John B. Angel Angel worked with the Reid New­ North East Greenland, 1931; the foundland Company until 1901, Peary Memorial Expedition to North West Greenland, 1932; when he became Chief Engineer at the Norcross-Bartlett Expedition to Foxe Basin, Canadian Arctic, 1933; and the Bartlett Expedition to North West Wabana Mines, Bell Island. In 1904 Frederick W. Angel he accepted the position of Chief Greenland, 1935. Engineer with the Oliver Mining Company in Minnesota, Angel held administrative positions in many commercial only to return to Newfoundland the following year to become enterprises and he was an active member of numerous busi­ Director and Chief Engineer of the Angel Engineering and ness, charitable, professional and academic organizations. He Supply Company Limited. From 1913 until his death in 1937 was awarded the Canadian Centennial Medal ( 1967) , hon­ he was President of United Nail and Foundry Company and ourary life membership in the Canadian Cancer Society he acted as consulting and contracting engineer for several (1971), life membership in the Association of Professional businesses with which the family was associated. During Engineers of Newfoundland (1971), an honorary Doctor of World War I Angel established the Newfoundland Shell Com­ Engineering Degree by Memorial University of Newfound­ pany in St. John's where more than 1800 tonnes (2000 tons) land (1974); in 1976 he was made a member of the Order of of 4.5 calibre shells were produced. For this contribution to Canada, and in 1980 he was awarded the Canadian Council of the war effort he was awarded an M.B.E. Professional Engineers Gold Medal Award, J.B. Angel , In 1967 the F. W. Angel Memorial Lecture Series was es­ Harold Horwood (1977), Luminus (Winter 1980), Newfound­ tablished at Memorial University of Newfoundland by his land Who's Who (1961 ?) , Newfoundland and Labrador family and some businesses in which he had had an interest. Who's Who Centennial Edition (1968) . ELGM The purpose of this lecture series was to generate interest in ANGEL'S COVE (pop. 1976, 41). Like other settlements on engineering among students, the academic community and the Cape Shore qv, Angel's Cove was first settled in the early the general public by " permitting Memorial University of 1800s. During this time a number oflrishmen who worked for NewfoundLand to bring an outstanding person to the campus the firm of Sweetman's decided to stay in Newfoundland and each year to speak on topics of interest to the profession" settle on the Cape Shore. One of these men, a Coffey, made (" The F.W. Angel Memorial Lecture:" 1980). Since 1967 his home at Angel's Cove and raised his family there. In the some of the lecturers have been Lord Bowden of Chesterfield; first days of settlement the inhabitants cleared the land and Pierre Burton; Sir Bernard Lovell; John Kenneth Galbraith. until the 1870s earned their livelihood solely from farming. A.B. Perlin (1958?), NQ (Apr. 1937), Who's Who in And Hay and potatoes were the principal crops grown and sheep, From Newfoundland 1930 (1930?), Newfoundland Who's cattle and pigs were the principal animals raised. In the 1870s Who (1961?) . ELGM the inhabitants began fishing as well, and by 1874 three fish­ ANGEL, HON. JAMES (1838-1918). Businessman. Born ing rooms had been established on the shore line of the com­ Halifax, Nova Scotia. In 1850 he and his father, John Angel, munity. originally from England, came to Newfoundland where they From that time the cod fishery has been the major industry built and operated the Island's fust iron works, which later of Angel's Cove. Farming, however, has never been aban­ became United Nail and Foundry Company. According to doned and most people who have lived in the community have S.J. Carew (1967) the Angel company built Newfoundland's farmed, usually part-time, raising sheep, a few beef cattle and first steam engine, fust steam boiler, and first steel ship. cows and growing hay and potatoes. Randy Devine (inter- 48 ANGEL'S COVE, ANGLICAN CHURCH view, Sept. 1980), Rev. C. Kelly (interview, Feb. 1981), J.J. In 1725 the S.P.G. mission in Newfoundland continued by Mannion (1974), Census (1836-1976), DA (Dec. 1978). Map supporting the Rev. Henry Jones in Bonavista, where, he H.CFH claimed, the inhabitants were ''poor and unable to support ANGLE BROOK. See GLOVERTOWN. their minister." Jones wrote to the Bishop of London request­ ANGLICAN CATHEDRAL. See CATHEDRAL OF ST. ing assistance "from the Honourable Societies in England JOHN THE BAPTIST (ANGLICAN). who are much delighted in promoting such glorious De­ ANGLICAN CHURCH. HISTORY. The first Church of Eng­ signs," to establish a school and charity fund for orphans. land service to be held in Newfoundland is said to have been With the financial help of the Society Jones started a school held on the beach at St. John's by Sir Humphrey Gilbert qv in ''for the instruction of all the poor children'' in Bonavista, the 1583. The first recorded resident Church of England clergy­ first school in Newfoundland to be maintained by the S.P.G. man in Newfoundland was the Rev. Erasmus Stourton qv Jones in 1745 was transferred to Trinity, where the Society who, according to popular belief, came with John Guy qv in provided him with a regular salary, various gratuities, and 1612 as chaplain to the colony at Cupids. However, the Rev. books and tracts to continue his religious and secular teach­ E. Hunt has determined the most likely date of Stourton's ar­ ings. rival as 1627, not at Cupids but at the Ferryland colony from In 1730, prior to Jones's mission, the Rev. R. Killpatrick which he was expelled in 1628 by Lord Baltimore qv for his qv was stationed at Trinity with an annual allotment of £30 anti-Roman Catholic feelings (communication from Anglican from the S .P. G. The residents of Trinity, who had petitioned Church Archives). As a consequence Newfoundland was the Society for a Church of England clergyman, failed to pro­ without a Church of England clergyman until 1696. In this vide for Killpatrick as they had promised, so Killpatrick, find­ year the residents of Newfoundland presented a petition to the ing the sum he was given by the Society barely enough to sub­ home Government asking for ministers to be sent from Eng­ sist upon, requested a transfer in 1730. He immediately land to the main harbours of the colony, and after the French moved to New York, where he found the conditions even invasion of St. John's in 1697 the Government of William III worse, and he returned to Trinity, where he remained until his issued an order for men-of-war to carry chaplains to the Col­ death in 1741. ony. Among these chaplains was the Rev. John Jackson qv, St. John's was served by Rev. John Fordyce from 1730 who remained on the Island as a chaplain to the soldiers at the until 1736 when he returned to England after his congregation garrison in St. John's and clergyman to the permanent failed to provide him with the necessary means of subsis­ settlers. During Jackson's officiate a small church was built tence. near Fort William in St. John's which, however, fell into In 1744 the Rev. W. Peaseley, who was Jones's successor decay so that in 1720 a larger wooden church was built on the at Bonavista, was transferred from there to St. John's in re­ site of the present Anglican Cathedral qv in St. John's. sponse to a petition to the S.P.G. for "an orthodox Episcopal In 1703 Jackson became the frrst Church of England cler­ clergyman," and he was guaranteed £40 yearly and a house gyman to receive assistance from the Society for the Propaga­ by the parishioners. According to the S.P.G. reports, prior to tion of the *Gospel qv (S.P.G.) being granted £50 per annum and during Peaseley's mission to St. John's, New England for three years by the Society and a supply of fish each year traders had been "endeavouring to persuade the parishioners from the residents of St. John's. At the garrison in St. John's, ... to apply ... for dissenting teachers, but they, influenced where Jackson was commissioned by the S.P.G. as chaplain, by a great love for the liturgy and Doctrine of the Church of disputes about the abuses practised by the Commandant England," had chosen "rather to continue in ignorance than occurred frequently among the English soldiers. Around 1704 to be instructed by Presbyterian Preachers." Peaseley's con­ Jackson became involved in a dispute between Thomas Lloyd gregation increased daily. qv, the Commandant, and a soldier with whom the minister The Rev. Edward Langman qv became the S.P.G. 's mis­ had sided after the latter accused Lloyd of violating the sab­ sionary to St. John's in 1752, but during the French occupa­ bath by playing a violin and flute. Jackson was recalled by the tion in 17 62 (which lasted from June 27 to September 16) his Bishop of London at the request of the lords of trade who home was confiscated and plundered. Langman was too ill to blamed him for this incident. As a result the S .P. G. suggested accompany his parishioners who were sent out of the city, as that its missionaries "take special Care to give no Offence to only Roman Catholic families were permitted to remain. De­ the Civil Government by intermeddling in Affairs not relating spite this, and the death of his wife and child, Langman acti­ to their own Calling and Function.'' vely performed his duties not only in St. John's but in the In 1705 the Bishop of London appointed Jacob Rice to smaller communities to the north and south which he visited Jackson's mission in St. John's, where Rice served until during the summer by open boat or overland through the 1712. Rice afterwards served at Placentia where he was chap­ woods. With Langman's death in 1783 ended the longest mis­ lain to the garrison soldiers as he had been in St. John's. But sionary service in the Island up to that time. little seems to have been done for the permanent inhabitants Langman was succeeded in the same year by the Rev. during this time. Rice gave an account of the situation in Walter Price (or Rice), former curate of Dartmouth, Devon, Newfoundland to the Bishop of London and informed him who informed the S.P.G. that Langman's "faculties had that a government should be established "Under a good, Reli­ failed him since October last, in consequence of which the gious and Understanding Gentleman" to promote the spiritual form of religion as established by the Church of England was life of the Colony. However, Newfoundland remained with­ almost extinct." Price was transferred to New Brunswick in out any other form of government until 1729 when Henry 1789, but during his mission in Newfoundland he witnessed Osborne qv, a naval officer, was appointed Newfoundland's the organization and enfranchisement of the Roman Catholic frrst governor. Rice was succeeded at St. John's by Rev. Church qv in the colony. Charles Davis in 1713 and Thomas Phillips in 1719. In 1765 or 1976 the Rev. Laurence Coughlan qv, an Irish- ANGUCAN CHURCH 49 man and follower of John Wesley's Methodism, begar?1.rs appointed first Archdeacon of Newfoundland and was sta­ mission at Harbour Grace, where in 1763 a church had been tioned at Bonavista where, the S.P.G. reports, he had " in­ built, and Mr. Coughlan remained there until 1773. Being an duced his congregation to make three miles of excellent Irishman he was able to speak in the native Gaelic tongue to road," the first built around the settlement. In 1830 the Rev. his countrymen who were without a Roman Catholic priest. Edward Wix was appointed Archdeacon of Newfoundland but Consequently many of the Roman Catholics who went an­ moved from Bonavista to St. John's because the S.P.G. nually to Ireland to confession were given a heavy penance thought it a more suitable station for performing his duties. In for attending the Protestant services of Coughlan. During his 1839 the Rev. Aubrey George Spencer qv, who between 1818 appointment in Harbour Grace Coughlan established a school and 1822 had worked as a missionary for the S.P.G. at Fer­ with a schoolmaster, and by 1770 his congregation had in­ ryland and in Bonavista, was appointed first Bishop to the See creased to over 200 communicants. This was quite an accom­ of Newfoundland including northern Labrador and the Ber­ plishment for Coughlan, to judge by the small number of mudas under the jurisdiction of the Archbishop of Canter­ communicants reported to the S.P.G. by his predecessors. bury. After he assumed office in 1840 he divided his new The Rev. Benjamin Lindsay had become the S.P.G. mission­ Diocese into three Rural Deaneries: Avalon, Trinity, and Ber­ ary to Trinity in 1750 and in 1764 the Rev. James Balfour muda. In a letter to the S.P.G. in 1841, he reported, "In the succeeded him there. Balfour reported to the S.P.G. that the course of my visitation during the present year, I have travel­ parishioners built him a "good convenient new house, valued led by land and by water 1188 miles, visited thirty-five sta­ at 130 pounds." His mission extended to Old and New Perli­ tions, confirmed 1136 persons, consecrated six churches, or­ can, Bonaventure and Trinity where he baptized, gave spiri­ ganized or assisted in the building of twenty-one new tual counsel, and performed marriages. In a letter to the churches, ordained two priests and eight deacons, and S.P.G. Mr. Balfour described Scilly Cove (Winterton) as "a founded or restored more than twenty day schools or Sunday most barbarous, lawless place," Trinity as a place where schools." In addition Bishop Spencer founded the Newfound­ there were ''about forty sedate people who attended services land *School Society qv, the Theological Training Institution regularly,'' and the inhabitants of Harbour Grace (where he (later Queen's College), and a Diocesan Church Society. In succeeded Mr. Coughlan) as "a barbarous, perfidious, cruel 1843 Bishop Spencer was transferred to the See of Jamaica people and divided into many sectaries.'' After Coughlan's where he remained for ten years. His successor in Newfound­ resignation from his post at Harbour Grace in 1773, Balfour land in 1844 was the Right Rev. Edward Feild qv who also moved to the Harbour Grace Mission but the parishioners presided over the Bermuda Islands as part of his Diocese. Be­ there who had adherred to Coughlan's Methodism opposed fore leaving England for Newfoundland Bishop Feild was him and refused him entrance to the the two chapels and par­ presented with a "Church Ship," theHawk in which he sailed sonage. The Governor ordered the house and chapels restored to Newfoundland and used the vessel to visit settlements to the clergyman and Balfour was able to continue his mission around the Island and in Labrador. During his episcopate in at Harbour Grace and Carbonear. In 1788 Balfour requested Newfoundland Bishop Feild established the Diocesan Synod his own recall and in 1793 the S.P.G. relieved him of his of the Church of England in Newfoundland, supervised the post, where he claimed "ill treatment" by the parishioners construction of the Cathedral, created the office of a Coadju­ had prevailed throughout his ministry. He was replaced by tor Bishop (which was first held by the Rev. James Kelly qv George Jenner in 1795. Placenta petitioned for a clergyman in during 1867-1887), established an Asylum for Widows and 1787 and in 1788 John Harries was appointed to that commu­ Orphans and consecrated a number of churches in the Colony. nity. He was succeeded by John Evans in 1790 when Harries In 1848 Bishop Feild appealed to the S.P.G. for funds toes­ transferred to St. John' s. tablish missions on the Labrador coast and in 1849 the Rev. In 1817 the Rev. John Leigh qv visited Fogo, and was the Algernon Gifford was sent to Forteau, where he remained for first clergyman to appear in that community. He reports hav­ ten years until he was succeeded by the Rev. Edward ing "found a small church, and the service regularly per­ Botwood qv, and the Rev. H. P. Disney qv was sent to Battle formed by an old man aged u8," who also baptized the chil­ Harbour in 1850. Missions to White Bay and Bay of Islands dren in the community. In 1821 Leigh was appointed were begun during Bishop Feild's episcopate by the Rev. Mr. Ecclesiastical Commissary in Newfoundland by the S. P. G. , Temple and by the Rev. Ulric Rule respectively. In 1853 the the first office of Church Government in the Colony. Rev. George Hutchinson was appointed to the mission at Bat­ In 1825 Newfoundland was made part of the See of Bishop tle Harbour, where in the same year Bishop Feild consecrated J. Inglis qv of Nova Scotia, who visited Newfoundland in the first Church of England church in Labrador. 1827 accompanied by the Rev. Edward Wix qv. They re­ Bishop Feild was succeeded by his coadjutor, the Rev. corded 600 communicants, twenty-three school masters and James Kelly, in 1876. After his resignation in 1877 the Rev. ten clergymen already in Newfoundland. In St. John's Inglis Llewellyn Jones qv was appointed fourth Lord Bishop of consecrated the parish church, confirmed 316 people and Newfoundland. During his episcopate the Cathedral in St. formed a District Committee of the S .P. G. In the larger settle­ John's was completed, more orphanages built, churches were ments in Conception Bay he held confirmations, consecrated erected throughout the Diocese, and the Clergy Sustentation churches, and arranged for churches and schools to be built. Fund and the Home and Foreign Mission Fund were estab­ In 1832 Bishop Inglis visited the Island again and ordained lished. In 1898 an Assessment Act was passed which did Thomas M. Wo~d qv , the first to be ordained in the Church of much to improve the church's finances by assessing each mis­ England in Newfoundland. sion in Newfoundland a definite sum of money to support its In 1829, when Newfoundland was made an Archdeaconry clergymen, insuring the church's progress towards financial of the Diocese of Nova Scotia, the Rev. George Costerqv was autonomy. In 1917 Bishop Jones resigned his See and was 50 ANGLICAN CHURCH. ANGLICAN CHURCH WOMEN

succeeded the following year by the Rev. William Charles Lowder Seaborn became first Archbishop of the Diocese of White qv, rector, canon and sub-dean of the Cathedral in St. Eastern Newfoundland and Labrador.) John's and the first native-born Newfoundlander to become The Right Rev. Gordon W. Legge (1976-1978): first an Anglican Bishop. In 1919 Bermuda, which had remained Bishop of the Diocese of Western Newfoundland. for eighty years under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of New­ The Right Rev. Mark Genge (1976- ); first Bishop of foundland, became a separate Diocese, and in 1924 the Rev. the Diocese of Central Newfoundland. Heber Brown, former rector and sub-dean of the Cathedral in The Right Rev. Stewart S. Payne (1978- ); Bishop of St. John's, was appointed first Bishop of Bermuda. the Diocese of Western Newfoundland. In 1942 the Right Rev. (Phillip) Selwyn Abraham qv be­ The Right Rev. Martin Mate (1980- ); Bishop of the came Bishop of Newfoundland and it was during his episco­ Diocese of Eastern Newfoundland and Labrador. pate that the Anglican Diocese of Newfoundland, by agree­ See CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE BAPTIST; PRO­ ment with the Anglican Church of Canada, was placed under CATHEDRAL OF ST. JOHN THE EVANGELIST; the governing body of the General Synod of the Canadian QUEEN'S COLLEGE; ST. MARTIN'S PRO-CATHE­ Church, in 1948. In 1956 the Right Rev. John Alfred Meaden DRAL. F.M. Buffett (n.d), R.M. Christensen (1951), J. qv succeeded the Right Rev. (Phillip) Selwyn Abraham as Langtry (1892), C.H. Mockridge (1896), C.F. Pascoe Bishop of Newfoundland. In 1965 the Most Rev. Robert (1901), William Pilot (1896), O.R. Rowley (1928), Louise Lowder Seaborn qv became Bishop of Newfoundland (he had Whiteway (1980), List of Missions of the Church of England been Suffragan Bishop since 1958) and in 1975 he was in Newfoundland and Labrador (1877). GL elected Metropolitan Archbishop of the Ecclesiastical Prov­ ANGLICAN CHURCH ASSISTANT ASSOCIATION. ince of Canada (made up of the Diocese of Quebec, the Dio­ Originally known as the Church of England Assistant Associ­ cese of Montreal, the Diocese of Fredericton, the Diocese of ation this body was established at St. James Parish, Carbonear Nova Scotia, the Diocese of Western Newfoundland, the Dio­ in December 1886. Its first President and Sergeant at Arms cese of Central Newfoundland and the Diocese of Eastern was Mr. M.J. Hawker. Although the club was originally Newfoundland and Labrador.) In 1976 the Anglican Diocese founded as a school meeting and debating club it rose steadily of Newfoundland restructured into three Dioceses: the Dio­ to incorporated status on September 12, 1928. Among the As­ cese of Eastern Newfoundland and Labrador, under the juris­ sociation's eminent patrons were Lord Bishops of Newfound­ diction of the Most Rev. Robert Lowder Seaborn who was land, Right Reverend Llewlyn Jones and his successor the succeeded in 1980 by Right Rev. Martin Mate qv; the Diocese Right Reverend W.C. White. The early membership of the of Western Newfoundland, under the jurisdiction of the Right Association united young Church of England men in over Rev. W. Gordon Legge qv (who was Suffragan Bishop of thirty communities throughout the Island. The Church of Eng­ Newfoundland at the time of restructuring); the Right Rev. S. land Assistant Association's banner consisted of a red St. Stewart Payne qv succeeded the Right Rev. W. Gordon Legge George's Cross on a field of white, with a Union Jack in the qv as Bishop of the Diocese of Western Newfoundland in upper left comer and the letters C.E.A.A. in the four corners 1978); and the Diocese of Central Newfoundland, under the of the flag. The society held weekly meetings and based its jurisdiction of the Right Rev. Mark Genge qv. constitution on an active support of the Church of England in When the Anglican Church in Newfoundland was restruc­ Newfoundland. The association as a body was responsible for tured, Gander became the See of the Central Diocese and St. the training of the membership in church principles, assisting Martin's Church the Pro-Cathedral of that Diocese; Corner distressed members, maintaining the laws of the community Brook became the See of the Western Diocese and the Church among the Association's membership, and supporting benev­ of St. John the Evangelist the Pro-Cathedral of that Diocese; olent acts within the community parish and mission. M.J. and St. John's became the See of the Diocese of Eastern New­ Hawker (1912) notes the establishment of an unusual mem­ foundland and Labrador and the Cathedral of St. John the bership insurance plan where members of the period could in­ Baptist, the Cathedral of that Diocese. Each Diocese is inde­ sure amounts over five dollars by paying a two percent pre­ pendent but works together on matters of common concern (ie mium. In 1976 a new constitution was adopted by the education, training for the ministry) through the Joint Com­ Association and the name changed to the Anglican Church mittee of the three Dioceses. Assistant Association. The current flag of the organization re­ BISHOPS. When the ecclesiastical authority over the Church places the previous lettering C.E.A.A. with A.C.A.A. In the of England in Newfoundland was transferred from the Bishop 1977 records of the Anglican Church Assistant Association of London to the Archbishop of Canterbury in 1839, the Dio­ there were fifteen active branches in Newfoundland with a cese of Newfoundland was created. Since then Newfoundland total strength of six hundred members. Stephen Russell has had the following Bishops: ( 1937), Eugene Toope (letter, Apr. 1980), Ritual and Consti­ The Right Rev. Aubrey George Spencer (1839-1843). tution of the Anglican Church Assistant Association (1976). The Right Rev. Edward Feild (1844-1876). wcs The Right Rev. James Butler Kelly (1876-1877). ANGLICAN CHURCH WOMEN (A.C.W.). The Church of The Right Rev. Llewellyn Jones (1878-1917). England Women's Association (C.E.W.A.) was founded in The Right Rev. William Charles White ( 1918-1942). 1876 at Heart's Content by the Rev. George Gardiner as a sis­ The Right Rev. Philip Selwyn Abraham (1942-1955). ter association of the Society of United *Fishermen qv The Right Rev. John Alfred Meaden (1956-1965). (S.U.F.). The C.E.W.A. endeavoured to promote and extend The Most Rev. Robert Lowder Seaborn (1965-1975): Met­ Christian unity and fellowship at horne and overseas by at­ ropolitan Archbishop of the Ecclesiastical Province of Can­ tending to the spiritual, educational and physical needs of its ada (1975). (In 1976, when the Diocese of Newfoundland followers. was restructured into three Dioceses, the Most Rev. Robert The first branch of the C.E. W .A. was formed at Scilly ANGLiCAN CHURCH WOMEN, ANGLO-AMERiCAN CONVENTiON 51 ;;" Cove (Winterton) and soon had other branches established in British waters. Negotiations for the Anglo-American Conven­ nearly every settlement on the Island. To commemorate its tion finally began in Washington in 1816 but were halted in Golden Jubilee in 1926 the primary branches formed a Dioce­ the following year, when the United States refused to ratify san Council and in 1951 set up a scholarship fund to assist the British proposals. The United States, however, was given graduates of Queen's College qv in their studies abroad. fishing privileges on the Labrador shore until 1818. The C.E.W.A. also assisted in missionary enterprises, or­ Signed on October 20, the Anglo-American Convention of phanages, senior citizen's homes, medical clinics and the 1818 established part of the forty-ninth parallel as a boundary erection of churches and schools in the Province. line between Canada and the United States and limited the In 1967 the C.E.W.A. became the Anglican Women's As­ fishing rights of U.S. citizens in the Atlantic colonies of Bri­ sociation (A. W.A.) with approximately 200 branches and tain. 7000 members in the Province. In 1969 the A.W.A., the In Newfoundland U.S. fishing vessels were prohibited Women's Association (W.A.) Parish Guilds and Alter Guilds from fishing within three miles of the shore, but some conces­ merged to become the Anglican Church Women's Associa­ sions were granted to them. They were allowed to enter any tion (A.C.W.A.). After the restructuring of the Anglican unoccupied harbours, bays, creeks, and so on, for subsistence Church qv in Newfoundland in 1976 the word "association" needs (such as wood, water, shelter and to repair any damages was dropped by the three new Dioceses. The A. C. W. , corre­ to their vessels) along designated parts of the Newfoundland sponding to the Diocesan boundaries of the Anglican Church and Labrador coasts. These "treaty shores" included a stretch in Newfoundland, is divided into three sectors. GL from the Ramea Islands to Cape Ray, and from there to the ANGLICAN HOMES INCORPORATED. See SENIOR Quirpon Islands, the area surrounding the Magdalen Islands, CITIZENS' HOMES. and from Mont Joli northward on the Labrador coast. How­ ANGLO-AMERICAN CONVENTION OF 1818. American ever, these rights were to become void immediately upon the vessels had frequented the Newfoundland fishing grounds establishment of any settlements in the area by British citi­ long before the 1783 Treaty of Paris qv in which their rights zens. there were clarified. Up until the end of the 1700s, and in the As with many other official proclamations, the Anglo­ Nineteenth Century, there were many reports of fishermen American Convention, as H.A. Innis (1940) notes, was not from the United States interrupting the British and French fi­ strictly enforced in the more sparsely settled regions of the Is­ sheries in Newfoundland, specifically by fishing in British land and Labrador. Throughout the Nineteenth Century U.S. and French territories and by vandalising their gear and equip­ summer fishermen would arrive on Newfoundland shores in ment. Also, in his 1805 report to the British Secretary of the spring and pay residents up to ten percent of their catch if State, Governor Gower complained of the Americans' take­ they could use the local flakes to dry and cure their fish. over of a large number of British and Newfoundland fish mar­ The Nova Scotian Council and Assembly protested the kets in the West Indies. Convention in 1818 and 1819, claiming that by granting Following the War of 1812 Britain and the United States Americans these rights in the Magdalen Islands and in the negotiated several times to clarify the rights and properties of Labrador shore fishery, Britain was undermining the Nova U.S. fishermen as distinct from those of British North Ameri­ Scotian fisheries. cans. In 1815 the British Secretary of State declared that all In Newfoundland during the early 1820s there were still previous treaty rights granted to the United States were nulli­ complaints of "unruly" American fishermen interrupting the fied and U.S. citizens were to be prohibited from fishing in British and French fisheries, particularly in Labrador, the Strait of Belle Isle and on the west coast of the Island. In 1820 Governor Hamilton ordered that U.S. fishermen not be per­ mitted to fish within three miles of any settled areas in Labra­ dor. Yet the U.S. fishery in Labrador grew until about 1840 when there was a demand for larger fish than could be caught in those waters. Later in the Nineteenth Century and during the early 1900s both Canada and Newfoundland interpreted and enforced the Convention more strictly in their attempts to obtain reciproc­ ity with the United States. An example of this is Newfound­ land's reaction to the rejection of the Bond-Hay Convention qv by the U.S. Senate. Immediately thereafter the ''settlement clause" of the Anglo-American Convention was staunchly upheld, so that U.S. fishermen were only permitted to fish in the unsettled parts of the coasts between Ramea and the Quirpon Islands and on the Labrador coast. Moreover, a re­ reading of the wording of the Convention led to further limita­ tions: though Americans could fish "on the coasts, bays, har­ bours and creeks from Mount Joli, on the southern coast of Labrador, to and through the Strait of Belle Isle, and thence northwardly,'' they were only allowed on certain parts of the coast of the Island, and not in all of the "bays, creeks and har­ The American Shore 1818-1854. bours." These measures, taken by the Newfoundland Legis- 52 ANGLO-AMERICAN CONVENTION, ANHYDRITE

lature, were vetoed by the British Government in its attempts to remain on friendly terms with the United States. W.G. Gosling (1910), H.A. Innis (1940), E ofC:N. LAP ANGLO-AMERICAN TELEGRAPH COMPANY. See TELEGRAPH AND TELEPHONE COMPANIES. ANGLO-AMERICAN TOBACCO COMPANY. See TO­ BACCO COMPANIES. ANGLO-FRENCH CONVENTION. See FRENCH SHORE. ANGLO-NEWFOUNDLAND DEVELOPMENT COM­ PANY LIMITED. See PULP AND PAPER MAKING. ANGLO-NEWFOUNDLAND INDUSTRIAL RE­ SOURCES. See MINING. ANGLO SAXON. This fully rigged, three-masted steamship was built by W. Denny and Brothers of Dumbarton, Scotland in 1860 for the *Allan Line qv. A 10-knot iron vessel, she was used in the emigrant trade from Great Britain to the Canadian West. On April 16, 1863 she left Liverpool, England with eighty-six crew members and 360 passengers for London­ derry, Ireland, and Quebec City. While attempting to round Cape Race qv on April 27, in a dense fog and without the aid of a fog alarm, she hit firmly between the twin rocks of Clam Cove, near Cape Race. During the ensuing disaster the ship sank and 237 of those on board drowned. In the subsequent level and its highest point is 536 m (1759 ft) above sea level. investigation into the disaster the need for a fog alarm at Cape The name "Anguille" is a French word, one meaning of Race was recognized and in 1872 a steam whistle was in­ which is "eel," and is thought by some to have been applied stalled there. Arthur Johnson (n.d.a), H.M. Mosdell (1923). to the range because of the abundance of that species of fish in CFH the mountain streams. Others, however, believe that the name ANGLO-SAXON ROUTE. The term coined in the early 1960s " Anguille" was given to Cape Anguille first because of the to describe the "English" route proposed for the transmission existence there of a slip-way, which in French is also known of Churchill Falls hydro-electricity after Hydro-Quebec re­ as anguille; following the dubbing of the Cape it is believed fused for years to buy Labrador power. The proposed route the name came to be applied to the plateau as well. W.B. was to follow a course from Churchill Falls by land-line Hamilton (1978), Hatzfeld and Darmesteter (1924), John across Labrador to the Strait of Belle Isle, across the Strait to Hewson (interview, Jan. 1980), E. Littre (1873), E.R. Seary the Northern tip of Newfoundland by underwater cables, then (interview, July 1980), Harold Williams (letter, Dec. 1979), overland southward along the Newfoundland coast to Port aux The Gazetteer of Canada: Newfoundland (1968), Topogra­ Basques, across the Cabot Strait to Cape Breton by under­ phic Series Canada (11-0/14 Edition 2; 12 B/2 Edition 2; 12 water cables, and from there overland through Nova Scotia B/3 Edition 2). CFH and New Brunswick to the United States. However, the trans­ ANGWIN, REV. THOMAS (1804- mission of power by that system and route proved too costly 1890). Clergyman. Born Cornwall, and the venture was abandoned. J .R. Smallwood (interview, England. Thomas Angwin was or­ Mar. 1979). GL dained in London in 1832 and his ANGO (ANGOT), JEAN (1480-1551). Privateer. Born first posting was at the Methodist Dieppe. Succeeded his father Hean Ango c.1510 as mission at Grand Bank, Newfound­ shipowner. He endeavoured to find for France a direct and land. He served in various New­ equitable trade with the West Indies, Spain and Portugal. He foundland circuits during the next was appointed chief officer of the French Merchant Marine of twenty-three years, including the the Atlantic by King Francis I and arrived in Newfoundland old Port-de-"Grave - Bay Roberts Rev. Thomas Angwin with his fleet of armed ships in 1520. With him were the in­ circuit, St. John's (Gower Street), famous brothers Parmentier, and together they plundered all Bonavista, and Blackhead. In 1855 Angwin became first the non-French fishing ships in eastern Newfoundland. These chairman of the newly organized Newfoundiand District of raids, which continued for over twenty years, helped to estab­ the Wesleyan Methodist Church of Eastern British America. lish the French fishery in Newfoundland. He died in poverty He was superanuated in 1864 and retired to Nova Scotia in 1551. Bibliotheque Municipale, Ville De Dieppe (Docu­ where he died in 1890. D.W. Johnson (n.d.), A Century of ments); Harold Horwood (1967) . GL Methodism in St. John's, Newfoundland (1915). BGR

ANGUILLE MOUNTAINS. Also known as Cape Anguille ANHYDRITE. Anhydrite (CaS04) is a blue to bluish-grey min­ Mountains. A range on Newfoundland's west coast running eral often found in conjunction with gypsum. It is a variety of approximately 48 km (30 mi) from Cape Anguille qv in a calcium sulphate occurring in massive or fibrous forms in northeasterly direction, it is an eroded plateau composed of evaporite deposits. Unlike gypsum, anhydrite does not retain sedimentary deposits that are an estimated 300,000,000 years water. It is used for carving and in Newfoundland can be old, some of the youngest rock on the Island. The plateau runs found near the Fischell's River and Flat Bay areas of Bay St. at an average of approximately 460 m (1500 ft) above sea George. J.H. McKillop (1963), R.M. Pearl (1955). BGR ANIMALS. ANSPACH 53

ANIMALS, THE SOCIETY FOR THE PREVENTiol!F rival arguments amongst the subscribers to the plan arose over CRUELTY TO. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to the financial terms of their agreement. Anspach became in­ Animals (incorporated in 1954) is a volunteer charitable orga­ volved, and a number of subscribers then refused to send their nization to promote animal welfare and humane education children to the school for a few weeks. Finally, in 1800, the which traces its roots back to the first animal protection soci­ case was sent to the courts, the disagreement was settled, and ety formed in St. John's- the Society for the Protection of Anspach was awarded the sum of £300 as payment for run­ Animals formed in 1887 and incorporated in 1912. In 1981 ning the institution. The grammar school was then operated there were four branches of the organization in St. John's, successfully until the end of the term of his contract in 1802, Grand Falls, Comer Brook and Stephenville, ancf members in when neither Anspach nor the subscribers attempted to renew several other communities throughout the Province who were the contract. In a letter written in December 1801 to the Soci­ not meeting as a group. ety for the Propagation of the Gospel Anspach claims that When the Animal Protection Act of 1916 was updated in since (in his opinion) the state of affairs in Newfoundland at 1978 the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals had that time rendered a grammar school in the Colony unneces­ a major advisory role. The Newfoundland branch is a member sary he wished to leave his job as school master and direct his of the Canadian Federation of Humane Societies, a federation energies more usefully as the missionary of the S.P.G. in Har­ of thirty-six animal welfare societies across Canada, with bour Grace, a post which was vacant at that time. In the fol­ headquarters in Ottawa. Hilda Smith (interview, Aug. 1981). lowing year the S.P.G. appointed him to the post in Concep­ ELGM tion Bay and in the same year he was appointed a Justice of ANNIEOPSQUOTCH MOUNTAINS. Rising to a peak of the Peace for Conception Bay by Governor Gambier. 687 m (2255 ft) above sea level, this range of hills in the inte­ In the spring of 1803 Anspach reached Harbour Grace and rior of the Island of Newfoundland, which is composed of immediately began his work as missionary and Justice of the 500-million-year-old ocean-floor rock, runs in a north- Peace. According to his own account (L.A. Anspach: 1819) he performed an admirable job in the latter position, for within a short period of time he managed to re-organize the system of justice in the area by elevating it from "confusion and anarchy'' to an efficient system whereby quarter sessions were held regularly and all cases for which he was responsible were tried: ''Thus the public tranquillity was completely es­ tablished .... " (Anspach: 1819). As one of three justices for the district he was also responsible for the rebuilding of the public jail and court house in Harbour Grace. Anspach set about performing his ecclesiastical duties with equal zeal, providing regular church services in Harbour Grace and mak­ ing regular visits to his flock up and down the coast. As the minister and justice of the area, Anspach soon be­ came a community leader and during his stay in Conception Bay worked for the establishment of schools in the Bay. In 1803 he drew up a plan for establishing Sunday Schools which would teach both church catechism and reading. Such Sunday schools were to be especially important for they would operate on the only day of the week that children nor­ mally had time to attend classes. In the same year he estab­ lished a Sunday School in Harbour Grace, and by 1810 a number of these schools had been established in other com­ eastward direction between Victoria Lake qv and Red Indian munities throughout the Bay. In addition to these efforts An­ Lake qv. Its name is Micmac and literally translated means spach also assisted people in Portugal Cove and Brigus to es­ " terrible rocks ." John Hewson ( 1978), Harold Williams (let­ tablish schools. ter, Dec. 1979). CFH Perhaps in recognition of Anspach's many efforts in im­ ANSPACH, REV. LEWIS AMADEUS (1770-1823). Born proving life in Conception Bay the Governor promoted him to Geneva, Switzerland. Missionary; educator; historian; judge. the position of Surrogate Judge in 1810. Despite his success In December 1798 about twenty-five cif the principal inhabi­ in the Colony, by 1812, at least, Anspach was setting his tants of St. John's formulated a plan for the establishment of sights on different endeavours. In July 1812 he announced to the first grammar school in Newfoundland, to be attended by the S.P.G. that he was returning to England, where he was to both their male and female children. The Chief Justice of take up a better position, and where his children could receive Newfoundland was entrusted with the task of finding a a better education. By October of that year he was back in schoolmaster who would agree to their terms. While he was in England. He died in London. England that winter the Chief Justice was apparently success­ During his stay in Newfoundland Anspach became inter­ ful , for in the following autumn Anspach, accompanied by his ested in the history of the Island and collected information on family , arrived in St. John's to take up his position as the su­ it. Seven years after his departure from Newfoundland, in perintendent of the grammar school. All did not run smoothly 1819, he published A History of the Island of Newfoundland: in operating the school, however. Within a few days of his ar- Containing a Description of the Island, the Banks, the 54 ANSPACH, ANTICOSTI ISLAND Fisheries and Trade of Newfoundland and the Coast of Lab­ Associate of the Chartered Insurance of London, England. At rador, which was one of the earliest books of its kind. He also this time he was also President of Ready Credit Acceptance published A Summary of the Laws of Commerce and Naviga­ Corporation Limited and President of Insurance Exchange tion Adapted to the Present State, Government and Trade of Limited. In 1974 Anthony became Chairman of the Board for the Island of Newfoundland in 1809 and one year later he the Anthony group of companies. He retired in December, wrote A Systematical Review of the Laws and Regulations re­ 1977 but retained the Chairmanship of the Anthony Group. lating to the Trade and Fishery of Newfoundland. L.A. Rex C. Anthony (interview, July, 1981), Newfoundland Anspach (1819), H.M. Mosdell (1923), C.F. Pascoe (1901), Who's Who (1952?), Newfoundland Who's Who (1961), New- J.R. Smallwood (1975), G.M. Story (interview, June 1981), foundland and Labrador Who's Who, Centennial Edition Centre for Newfoundland Studies (Reverend Lewis Amadeus (1968). DPJ Anspach), Duckworth's Newfoundland (1971?); Records of ANTI-CONFEDERATE. A local merchant, James Murray, the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel; Archives (GN founded this paper as its proprietor, editor and publisher. The 2/1/15-22). CFH Anti-Confederate was printed by William J. Herder at the ANSTEY, GARY (1955- ). Editor. Born Gander, New- office of the Evening Telegram . The paper was not published foundland. Educated Gander; CEGEP, Montreal. Anstey's at regular intervals and it is not known when publication career in journalism began in 1973 with the Montreal ceased. The first issue appeared on May 20, 1895. Archives Gazette's West Island News. In 1974 he joined the Sunday Ex­ GN 32/22. DCM press and later became editor of the Newfoundland Herald qv. ANTI-CONFEDERATE MOVEMENTS. See CONFEDER­ Under his editorship, in 1979, the Herald reached a weekly ATION. circulation of 70,000 the largest in the Province at the time. ANTICOSTI ISLAND. Located in the Gulf of St. Lawrence Anstey subsequently became an assistant in Ottawa to Hon. approximately 80 km (50 mi) north of the Gaspe Peninsula, William Rompkey, Newfoundland's Minister in the Govern­ the island is 225 km (140 rni) long and 56 km (35 mi) wide at ment of Canada. Sheila Anstey (letter, Aug. 1979). ELGM its widest point. Discovered by Jacques Cartier in 1534, Anti­ ANTHONY, REX C. (1942- ). costi was one of the largest privately owned islands in the Businessman. Born St. John's. Son world for almost 300 years. Beginning with Louis Jolliet, the of R. C. Anthony qv. Educated famous explorer of the Mississippi who was granted the island Bishop Feild College, St. John's; by King Louis XIV in 1680, the island passed through the Bishop's College, St. John's; Me­ hands of a succession of owners including the Anticosti Com­ morial University of Newfound­ pany, established in 1872 by a group of businessmen to colo­ land. After graduation from Memo­ nize the island; Henri Menier, "the chocolate king of rial University in 1968 with a Bachelor of Commerce degree,

Anthony spent a year working in the Rex C. Anthony United States. He joined R.C. Anth­ ony Insurance Limited in 1969 and became Vice-President of the company in 1971. He became President in 1974. In 1981 Rex Anthony was President of several companies including the parent company, Anthony Group, Ltd; Insurance Cor­ poration of Newfoundland, Ltd; Insurance Exchange, Ltd; Superior Office Equipment, Ltd; and Canasco Bonham Inc. Agencies Ltd. (Toronto). Anthony was a President of the In­ surance Institute of Newfoundland, Insurance Brokers Asso­ Anticosti ciation of Newfoundland and Vice-President of the Insurance Island Institute of Canada. In 1981 Anthony served as a member of the Advisory Board of the School of Business at Memorial University of Newfoundland as well as President-elect of the Canadian Federation of Insurance Agents and Brokers Asso­ ciations. Rex C. Anthony (interview, July 1981). DPJ ANTHONY, ROBERT CHARLES (1916- ). Businessman. Born Kelligrews. Educated Codner High School, Kelligrews; Bishop Feild College, St. John's; Memorial Uni­ France;'' and a group of companies which eventually became versity College, St. John's. Anth­ Consolidated-Bathurst Incorporated of Montreal. In 1974 the ony was Managing Director of island became public property when the Quebec Government Steers Insurance Agencies Limited purchased it from Consolidated Bathurst for $23,780,000 to from 1943 to 1952. In 1953 he left transform it into a provincial park. The majority of the people and formed his own company, R. C. · living there today work for the Quebec Government in the Robert C. Anthony Anthony Insurance, which was in­ management of the park. corporated in 1957. In the 1960s Anthony was President of Although it was privately owned for 300 years Anticosti the Newfoundland Insurance Agents Association as well as an was administered for much of that time by various govern- ANTICOSTI ISLAND, ANTLERS 55 ;;L ments. Newfoundland's connection with the island began in Work ceased shortly thereafter and Howley reported in 1763 when, following the conquest of New France, the 1900 that he felt the mine had not received the attention that it island's administration was transferred from the former Gov­ deserved. It was re-opened in 1906 and employed twenty-five ernment of New France to that of Newfoundland. Anticosti persons. In that year 101.6 tonnes (100 tons) were mined and was then officially part of Newfoundland until 1774, when of this 82 tonnes (81 tons) were shipped to New York at $50 the island was transferred to the jurisdiction of the Govern­ per ton or $4050 in total. The mine closed again that year, ment of Quebec. Thirty-five years later, in 1809, it reverted to was re-opened around 1914-15 but had shut down by 1916. Newfoundland and remained under its official control until During that period two tunnels were dug into the hillside 1825 when it was given back to Lower Canada (present-day where the ore was located, one 3 m (10ft) above sea level to Quebec). During these two periods of Newfoundland's con­ a length of 70 m (230ft), the other 17 m (55 ft) above sea trol over the island the Newfoundland Government took very level but to a shorter distance. In 1955 an electromagnetic sur­ little interest in its affairs. (This is not surprising, for during vey was carried out; a similar survey took place in 1965 as much of this time very few people lived on Anticosti.) It is well as a geochemical survey, a self potential survey and dia­ reported, however, that in 1810 the Newfoundland Govern­ mond drilling. Sampling carried out across a 31 em (12 in) ment sent people to the island to assist any mariners whose vein and 10 em (4 in) of footwall indicated the ore was 5.39% vessels might become wrecked upon its shores. (Shipwrecks antimony. No work has been attempted since 1965. in the area were numerous because of the dangerous, shallow C. Douglas (1976) G.R. Heyl (1936), J.P. Howley (n.d.; waters off its shores.) Apparently the Newfoundland Govern­ 1917a; 1917c; 1917g), A.K. Snelgrove (1953). BGR ment sponsored this rescue team for only a short time, for by ANTI-ROMAN CATHOLIC POLICY. See ROMAN CATH- 1811 the Quebec Government had assumed responsibility for OLIC CHURCH. the group. ANTI-SEALING GROUPS. See SEALS. Although the island was never again part of Newfoundland ANTI-SETTLEMENT LAWS. See SETTLEMENT. after 1825, its ties with the Island, as tenuous as they were, ANTLE, REVEREND JOHN (1865-1919). Missionary. Born were not severed forever. In 1873, in an effort to colonize the Brigus, Conception Bay. Educated Brigus; Queen's College, island, the Anticosti Company enticed a few hundred people St. John's. Ordained deacon of the Church of England 1889; to settle in various parts of the island. Included in this group priest 1890; received his D.D. from Trinity College 1898. was a large number of fishermen and their families from the Antle became rector of Holy Trinity Church, Vancouver in southwest coast of Newfoundland. Most of them settled in a 1899 and in 1905 he founded the Columbia Coast Mission. small bay known as Fox Bay (Baie des Renards) where they He designed and commanded the hospital ship Columbia eked out a living by fishing in the Gulf. In 1900 Henri Men­ which served loggers and isolated families of the area. During ier, who had bought the island five years earlier, succeeded in his lifetime four other such ships were built and put in service. having the majority of them deported for what he considered He also established hospitals at Rock Bay, Vananda, Alert misbehavior. Instead of returning to their native country the Bay and Pender Island. For his missionary work on Canada's Newfoundlanders were transported to Manitoba, where farm Pacific Coast he was referred to as the "Grenfell of the Pa­ land was provided for them. Unused to the severe climate and cific." Two years before his death he attempted a voyage inexperienced as farmers, the group fared badly on the through the Panama Canal. The Canadian Men and Women of prairies. After several deaths within the group many of them the Time, 1912: a hand-book of Canadian Biography of Liv­ returned to eastern Canada, where they re-established them­ ing Characters (1912), DN (Dec. 20, 1949). ELGM selves as fishermen . Since that time the histories of New­ ANTLE, PATRICK JOSEPH foundland and Anticosti have been independent of one ( 1909-1977). Labour leader. Born another. L.A. Anspach (1819), W.G. Gosling (1910), Don­ Fox Cove, Burin. Antle represented ald MacKay ( 1979), An Act for taking away the public use of the fishermen of Fox Cove at the certain ships rooms in the town of St. John, in the Island of founding meeting of the Newfound­ Newfoundland and for instituting Surrogate Courts on the land Federation of *Fishermen qv Coast of Labrador, and in certain Islands adjacent thereto (51 1951. At that meeting he was Geo. lll, c. 45), Brief Notes on the Island of Anticosti in the elected treasurer, a position he held Gulf of St. Lawrence, Dominion of Canada (1886), Archives until 1961 when he was elected GN 2/1/21 (316-317); GN 2/1/22 (52). CFH General Secretary. In 1971, until his ANTIMONY. Antimony (Sb) is a metallic, silvery white, crys­ resignation in 1973, he held the of­ Patrick J. Antle talline and brittle, yet soft, element used mainly in combina­ fice of President. At the time of his resignation membership in tion with other metals to form alloys. In Newfoundland it is the Federation was on the decline (probably because of the found in several localities (including the Pond Island bismuth formation of the Newfoundland Fishermen, Food and Allied prospect, the Cinq Cerf gold site and the Lapoile zinc-lead Workers Union and the Newfoundland Government's deci­ deposit) though the major concentration of antimony in New­ sion to discontinue funding the Federation). ET (July 23, foundland occurs in the mineralogical belt surrounding More­ 1977), Who' s Who Newfoundland Silver Anniversary Edition. ton's Harbour. J.P. Howley recorded finding several loca­ (1975). ELGM lized deposits in his geological reports for 1892. There had ANTLERS, THE NEWFOUNDLAND ORDER OF. Accord­ been some mining done there in the previous two years and ing to A. C. Tait ( 1937) this non-sectarian order, originally exports of antimony were valued at $1200 for 1890 and $1000 named the "Victorians," was founded by a group of unem­ for 1891. By 1897 152 tonnes (150 tons) had been shipped ployed youth in the west of St. John's in 1933. An initial club from Moreton's Harbour and several tonnes were mined and membership of thirty young men met in a vacant garage on ready for shipment. Alexander Street to organize social and athletic activities, as 56 ANTLERS, AQUAFORTE well as benevolent fund-raising for worthy community APRIL FOOLS' DAY. See ALL-FOOLS' DAY. causes. By 1934 the group's membership had so increased AQUA FISHERIES LIMITED. See FISH PLANTS. that they approached the Benevolent Order of Elks in St. AQUAFORTE (inc. 1972; pop. 1976, 172). A fishing commu- John's for a meeting place. It was at this time that the Victori­ nity situated on the Southern Shore of the Avalon Peninsula ans changed their name to the Newfoundland Order of Antlers approximately 6.5 km (4 mi) southwest of Ferryland qv. Al­ through their association with the ''Elks.'' By 1937 the group though not ideally situated for the prosecution of the inshore had become an independent body again and moved their cod fishery (it is located at the end of a 6 km long fiord) Aqua­ quarters to the Duff Building, above the Queen Theatre on forte has had a long history of dependence on this industry. Water Street. Prior to the second world war the club member­ The fiord may have been known to cartographers by 1519 as ship was gradually depleted until the Order disbanded. A.C. R da aguea and it was definitely known by 1544 as la baye de Tait (1937), Eric Baggs (interview, 1980). WCS l'Islet (E.R. Seary: 1971). According to Seary, Aquaforte A.P.E.C. SeeATLANTIC PROVINCES ECONOMIC COUNCIL. probably got its name from "R da aguea ... , anglicized as APOSTOLIC FAITH MISSION. The Apostolic Faith Mission Agoforta ... -strong water.'' It is possible that the name was was founded in 1907 in Portland, Oregon by Rev. Florence L. derived from the existence of a waterfall which empties into Crawford. The Newfoundland Mission was founded in 1952 the harbour. As early as the 1670s, and perhaps before that in Roddickton and Stanley Hancock became the Faith's first decade, the harbour at the end of the fiord was being used re­ Provincial Overseer. The Mission was incorporated in 1980. gularly as a fishing station by a few fishing crews who came The Faith maintains churches in Englee, Bide Arm, Salt out each year from north Devon, England. The seasonal fish­ Brook and Birchy Bay, and a Mission in Comer Brook. In ery in which these crews were engaged lasted until at least 1981 the Faith had approximately 1 ,000 followers and four 1715 and possibly well into that Century. Despite its early use Pastors in Newfoundland. Rev. Dolly G. Walker (letter, Sept. the site was slow to attract permanent settlers. When settle­ 1980), The Apostolic Faith: Its Origin, Functions, and Doc­ ment did occur, however, (in the early 1800s) it developed trines (n.d.). DPJ rapidly, and by 1819 Aquaforte was considered to be a settle­ APPLE TREE WELL. This was one of the numerous wells ment of some importance. Since that time the community has that existed in St. John's to supply drinking water to the fami­ grown little and has depended primarily on the inshore cod lies that were not connected with the water system. It was sit­ fishery. uated on New Gower Street between Pleasant and Casey When the first fishermen came to Aquaforte the limitations Streets, and on September 16, 1858 a conflagration broke out of the site were recognized immediately. Although the fiord known as the Apple Tree Well Fire. The fire started in Jonas provided shelter in storms its waters were too deep to provide Barter's stable just above the well on Pleasant St. and in less anchorage except in the small relatively shallow harbour lo­ than two hours between forty and fifty houses were destroyed. cated at the end of the fiord. As well there were no beaches Barter died in the fire when he attempted to save some impor­ along the sides of the fiord, except at the harbour. Because of tant papers from the flames. On May 13, 1859 a child, Anas­ these limitations and because good fishing grounds were lo­ tasia Raftus, drowned in the well and it was never used again. cated miles from the harbour, off the headlands of the fiord, M.P. Murphy (1976), Paul O'Neill (1975). GL the fishery at Aquaforte remained small. Throughout the APPLETON. (inc. 1962; pop. 1976, 342). A residential com­ period between 1675 and 1715 no more than four, and usually munity located on the east bank of the Gander River, opposite three, ships were based in the harbour at the same time. The Glenwood. Situated in the midst of good timber lands, the site ships which did use the harbour came invariably from one of of Appleton was first settled around 1900 when a lumber two North Devon ports: Bideford and Barnstaple. These ships company established operations there. It is said that the man­ annually carried out between seventy and ninety men who ager of the company's sawmill on the site was a Mr. Appleton fished from small boats and dried their catch on shore . Cleaves, and that it was after him that the community was throughout the summer. As well as ship's crews there were named. By 1914 the sawmill operations at Appleton had been periodically a few bye-boat keepers who fished out of Aqua­ abandoned and it was another fifteen to twenty years before forte as well. Appleton became active again. At this time a Tom Murphy Despite this continual use of the harbour permanent settle­ moved to the site, built a new sawmill and started logging ment at this time did not occur. In various years in the late operations there. The community of Appleton remained small 1600s and early 1700s small numbers of people were listed as until 1947 when Bowater's began operations out of Glen­ "inhabitants" or "planters" of Aquaforte. This population wood. After this date a large number of people were attracted fluctuated greatly, however, and it is unlikely that any stayed to the area and Appleton quickly became a residential suburb for a long time. of Glenwood. By 1956 there were 156 people living in Apple­ It is very difficult to surmise what occurred in Aquaforte ton. In 1981 the majority worked in Glenwood for Bowater or between 1715 and 1836. In that period Aquaforte was not in the woods as loggers for that company. Others commuted listed in any of the Annual Schemes of the Fishery of New­ to jobs in Gander or worked at the sawmill begun by Murphy, foundland which were compiled annually in Newfoundland which was still operating in 1981 under new ownership and for the information of authorities in England. It is known, management. Children of the community attend schools in however, that the harbour was the site of a small fishery in the Glenwood and Gander, and church services are provided in late 1700s. In 1776 Robert Carter qv, a Justice of the Peace Glenwood. Maude Goulding (interview, Apr. 1981), Walter for the area, applied for and was granted a tract of land in Steele (interview, July 1981), Jack Wall (interview, July Aquaforte for farming. In his application an undisclosed 1981), Census (1956-1976). Map F. CFH number of inhabitants were said to be living in Aquaforte. APPRENTICES IN LAW. See LAWYERS. (Carter farmed on his land for an unknown length of time and ;;:, AQUAFORTE, ARCADE STORES 57 applied, in 1780, for an additional piece of land.) Later, in 1930s a Mont Winsor began buying fish in the community. 1794, when Aaron Thomas visited the harbour there were During the 1920s and 1930s ice houses were established in only two families living in Aquaforte and there were a number the settlement. Ice was cut from nearby lakes and stored in of deserted dwellings on the shoreline. According to Thomas, small warehouses in sawdust to be sold later to schooners poor fishing returns combined with the expense of living in which stopped at the community before going on to the fish­ Newfoundland resulted, some time before his visit, in fornier ing grounds. According to C.H. Ryan (1975) at one time four residents deserting their dwellings. such ice houses operated in Aquaforte. Some time between Thomas's visit and 1819, when L.A. Since then the cod-fishery has continued. During the Anspach qv wrote his history of Newfoundland, living condi­ 1950s, 1960s and most of the 1970s cod and other marine spe­ tions at Aquaforte must have improved, for by the latter date cies, including a small amount of lobster and salmon, were Aquaforte was deemed to be one of the few "settlements of sold to a variety of plants along the Southern Shore. In the late any consequence on this part of the coast." (L.A. Anspach: 1970s this changed when a fish plant opened in Aquaforte. 1819, p. 308). It was around this time that a Nicholas Brand Buying mainly cod, the plant was a feeder operation until operated a farm there ( 1813) and that Peter Winser arrived in 1980 at which time it began the freezing of fish. In 1981 there Aquaforte (1815) and subsequently established a large fishing were sixty-five fish plant workers and approximately thirty­ room. Peter Winser stayed in Aquaforte and by 1821 hades­ five fishermen in Aquaforte, of whom twenty-four were full­ tablished himself as a merchant in the settlement. (The town time. The fishery is carried on in small inshore boats (from of Windsorton in South Africa was named after his grandson, 7.5 to 10.5 m long). The principal species caught are cod, Peter Ford Windsor qv who was born in Aquaforte.) which is fished off the headlands of the fiord, and herring, Local tradition claims that Winser also brought other fami­ which is caught inside the fiord. Other species which are lies with him to settle in Aquaforte during the early years of fished are lobster, squid, capelin and salmon. the Nineteenth Century, and that these settlers, with Winser, As well as the fishery employment is provided by the De­ formed the backbone of the growing settlement. By 1836 it is partment of Transportation station located in Renews and by a recorded that the settlement had grown to include more than small construction industry in Aquaforte itself. Some part­ 125 residents. time domestic farming is carried on in the community as well. From that date the settlement of Aquaforte was well estab­ In 1981 one Roman Catholic Church served the inhabitants; lished. By 1833 a constable was appointed for the settlement, the children attended schools in Ferryland. and nine years later there were three schools there - one Aquaforte was incorporated as a community in 1972; the Church of England establishment and two Roman Catholic. · community council's first chairman was Donald Graham. Throughout the Nineteenth Century its inhabitants generally L.A. Anspach (1819), C.G. Head (1963; 1976), Donald relied on the inshore fishery. When the inshore fishery began Graham (interview, Apr. 1981), Keith Matthews (1968), to decline in the area around mid-century, however, fisher­ Michael Murphy (1954), Jean Payne (interview, Feb. 1981), men began going to Labrador to fish there. Nevertheless, the C.H. Ryan (1975), E.R. Seary (1971; 1976), Avalon Penin­ inshore cod fishery remained the mainstay of the community sula Study, Southern Shore Region, The Regional Plan 1968- for the rest of the century. 78 (1968), Census (1836-1976), DA (Apr. 1980), ET (Mar. Perhaps because of the bad fishing seasons and the inherent 20, 1970, JHA (1841-1931 passim), Men of the Times (1906), troubles in reaching fishing grounds from Aquaforte, the pop­ Trade Review (Aug. 1, 1903), Archives (CO 1/35, 38, 41, ulation of the settlement declined from 213 in 1869 to 172 by 47, 49, 55; CO 194/1, 6; GN 2/1/a, Vol. 6, p. 135, Vol 9, 1891. p. 59). Map H. CFH In the early 1900s the economy of the small settlement re­ AQUARENA. See SPORTS FACILITIES. ceived a boost from the developing whale industry. In 1902 ARBUTUS, TRAIL- an Anders Ellefsen made application to the Newfoundland ING. Epigaea repens Government to build a whale factory in the community and L. (Ericaceae) Native one year later his new factory was processing whales. Al­ shrub of Western and though seamen on board the whaling steamers based out of Central Newfound­ Aquaforte were all Norwegian, the local inhabitants were land. Also known as given employment at the factory. At first the enterprise was the Mayflower or successful, and in 1904, 198 whales were brought to Aqua­ Ground-Laurel, the forte. The factory employed thirty-two men and had the addi­ Trailing Arbutus is a tional benefit of taking pressure off the local cod fishery as it trailing, somewhat drew fishermen away from the fishery. Success was short­ woody plant with al­ lived, however. By 1906 a marked decrease in the number of ternate, evergreen oval leaves. Its fragrant white or pink flow­ whales around Newfoundland coasts occurred, and in that ers have ten stamens and occur in clusters which bloom in year only eighteen whales were processed at the factory and in Newfoundland from mid-May to late June. The fruit which the following year only three. With catches such as these the follows is a dry, many-seeded capsule. It grows in a variety of business was forced to shut down soon afterwards. habitats, ranging from evergreen forests and clearings to bar­ Following the failure of this endeavour the settlement rens and mountains. H.A. Gleason (1952, III), W.C. Grimm shifted back to the cod fishery. Most fishermen operated from (1966), Asa Gray (1950), H.L. Keeler (1969), G.H.M. small boats with four or five men to a boat. The fish, as Lawrence (1951), L.C. Linn (1978), Ernest Rouleau (1978), always, was salted. For a while, during the early 1900s, fish A.G. Ryan (1978). CFH was sold to an agent of a merchant in Bay Bulls and in the ARCADE STORES LIMITED. The Arcade Store was first es- 58 ARCADE STORES, ARCHAEOLOGY

tablished on Water Street West in St. John's opposite the Post main~ continued to be attributed to the Beothuk. T.G.B. Office in 1937 by Patrick J. Halley qv. Although part of this Lloyd qv (1874; 1875; 1875a) visited the northeast coast and building has been rebuilt most of it dates back to 1845, as the southern Labrador and published three papers relating arti­ fire of 1892 did not reach up that far on Water Street. facts he found to the extinct "Red Indians." Except for the After Patrick, J. Halley's death his son-in-law John J. explorations of Jewell Sornberger on the northern Labrador Murphy qv assumed management of the Arcade. In 1959 he coast (S.L. Cox: 1978) and the efforts of various local relic began a programme of expansion which resulted in an en­ collectors little else was accomplished in the Nineteenth Cen­ largement of the main store through the acquisition of the Cre­ tury. scent theatre, the Crosbie warehouse and the Boulos store, all The early Twentieth Century saw continued sporadic col­ to the east of the Arcade. lecting in the Province, particularly by A. V. Kidder, later to A series of branch stores in St. John's was also part of this become doyen of Southwestern United States archaeologists, expansion programme: Water Street East (1959), Rawlins who visited the Province in the company of M.L. FernaU qv, Cross (1963), Mount Pearl (1964), Fabric Centre in Avalon the noted botanist, and collected material from Port au Choix Mall (1966), the Goulds (1970), Merrymeeting Road (1977), and elsewhere in the northern part of the island. and Chamberlains (1979). There was also a store located in the Torbay Road Mall. J.J. Murphy (interview, Feb. 1980). CMB ARCHAEOLOGY. No one knows when the first resident of, or visitor to, Newfoundland and Labrador picked up some ob­ ject left by aboriginal people. Almost certainly aboriginal peoples themselves were aware of campsites and burial places which had been used by their ancestors or some other prehis­ toric people. What they believed about these places or what they thought about when they encountered a spear point of a completely unfamiliar style while digging a fire pit or grave we will probably never know. In the late Eighteenth and early Nineteenth Centuries explorers and others visited Beothuk qv habitation sites that were no longer occupied. A few of these people made small collections - particularly from recent graves - and others visited the sites for the express purpose of learning something about the about-to-become-extinct Beothuk. The over-riding interest at this time, however, was to contact some living Beothuk, to learn something of their way of life, and perhaps to preserve that mysterious race of people against whom the balance of survival had already been irrevocably tipped. Chipped stone knives and spearpoints from the world's oldest burial EARLY ARCHAEOLOGY. It was not until the last half of the mound at L'Anse Amour, Labrador. The mound is dated at more than Nineteenth Century that archaeology - the study of past 7200 years ago. people through their material remains - began to be prac­ tised in Newfoundland and Labrador. Earlier explorations continued to set the tone for archaeological research and, at least on the Island of Newfoundland, all artifacts and other re-

Artifacts from Pinware, Labrador. This is the oldest site yet discovered in A toggling harpoon (upper left) , bone spearpoints, and a whetstone from the Newfoundland and Labrador and is dated at 8,855 years ago. L'Anse Amour Mound. ARCHAEOLOGY 59

Throughout these early years a Newfoundland geologist, James P. How ley qv, pursued his passionate interest in the Beothuk by collecting documentary, ethnographic, and ar­ chaeological information which was published in 1915 in his monumental The Beothuks or Red Indians . The collection of documentary material remains the most valuable compendium available today and portions of the archaeological material re­ main useful. However, in the absence of information which has since become available, Howley continued the practice of attributing all archaeological material to the Beothuk. From the perspective of more than a half century of additional re­ search, therefore, much of Howley's material can be seen to be dated and incorrect. THE BEGINNINGS OF CULTURE HISTORY- 1920-1940. Between the First and Second World Wars the pace of archae­ ological research quickened somewhat; and, more important, A bone flute (top), antler pendant (left), paint pestle (center), and graphite cultures besides the Beothuk began to be recognized. In 1920 paintstonesfrom the l'Anse Amour Mound. G.M. Gathorne-Hardy (1922) travelled the northern Labrador coast where he collected artifacts which he assigned to the "Eskimo Stone Age." Diamond Jenness qv (1927) visited Badger, Red Indian Lake, the Bay of Exploits and the east coast of the Northern Peninsula as far as Canada Harbour dur­ ing the summer of 1927. He was disappointed to find the inte­ rior sites either destroyed or flooded but was more successful in his coastal survey. In addition to items of European man­ ufacture, Jenness recovered a number of stone tools, some of which compared favorably to early Eskimo specimens which Jenness had described as "Dorset Eskimo" a few years ear­ lier. They probably resembled as well those recovered a few years earlier by Gathome-Hardy. Jenness chose to view these as Beothuk artifacts and suggested that their presence in New­ foundland was evidence of contact between the prehistoric Beothuk and their Dorset Eskimo contemporaries to the north. He did not suggest the possibility that Dorset Eskimos had once lived on the Island of Newfoundland. Shortly thereafter, however, another pioneer in Canadian archaeology visited the west coast with the express purpose of determining whether Dorset Eskimos had once been present The Burial of an adult female cradling an infant in her arms. From the Port on the Island. In this W .J. Wintemberg was eminently suc­ au Choix site, nearly 4 ,000 years old. cessful for he found no fewer than ten areas which produced Dorset material and extended the known range of this culture as far south as Bonne Bay (W.H. Collins: 1931; W.J. Wintemberg: 1939). The notion that there were at least two cultures responsible for the archaeological material from Newfoundland and Labrador found additional support in the results of Douglas Leechman's 1935 and 1936 surveys in northern Labrador. Leech man (1943; 1950) discovered a number of Dorset sites and also recorded a number of Labra­ dor Inuit sites dating from within the last 400 or 500 years. Leechman's was not the first interest shown in the archae­ ology of the Labrador Inuit, however. In 1927 and again in 1933 and 1934 Junius Bird sailed from New York to Hope­ dale with Captain Robert A. Bartlett qv to investigate sod house ruins. Bird excavated a number of these houses, all of which contained goods of European origin but which also pro­ duced a number of items of native manufacture (J .B. Bird: 1945). The number of archaeologically-known cultures in the Province thereby increased to three: historic Beothuk, Dorset Eskimo, and Labrador Inuit of the historic period. A caribou bone needlecase and the needles it contained. From Still another culture was recognized by William Duncan Port au Choix. Strong as a result of his explorations on the central and north- 60 ARCHAEOLOGY ern Labrador coast in 1927 and 1928 as part of the Rawson­ excavated at several coastal sites and at the site near Badger, MacMillan Subarctic Expedition (W.D. Strong: 1930). A se­ but her greatest success occurred at Indian Point on Red In­ ries of stemmed and notched spear or arrow points was dian Lake, where housepits containing both native stone arti­ assigned by Strong to the "Old Stone Culture" which he sug­ facts and objects of European origin were excavated. Some gested predated both the Eskimos and historic Naskapi in the hints of the nature of prehistoric Beothuk culture were offered region. by her investigations. At about the same time Urve Linnamae Therefore at the outbreak of the Second World War a much (1975) began her researches into Dorset Eskimo culture which more comprehensive, but still meagre, outline of Newfound­ resulted in a lengthening of the sequence and a refinement of land and Labrador prehistory had begun to emerge. The his­ our understanding of the period. toric Beothuk and Labrador Inuit had been identified and their In 1966 Donald MacLeod of the National Museum of Man presence in the Province pushed back to the Eighteenth Cen­ began work on an early burial site on Twillingate Island. Be­ tury or before. The previously unknown and completely pre­ fore the close of the decade Memorial University had begun historic "Cape Dorset" or "Dorset Eskimo" culture was an intermittent programme of research, and William Fitzhugh recognized in both Labrador and on the Island. Finally inaugurated his programme of research on the prehistory of Strong's work suggested an even earlier substratum of Indian Hamilton Inlet, Labrador. Each of these endeavours has con­ occupation, the "Old Stone Culture," which he defined on tinued for more than a decade and, collectively, have resulted the basis of material from coastal Labrador. in a reasonably complete understanding of Newfoundland and THE MODERN ERA- POST 1945. The years since World Labrador culture history War II have seen a geometrical increase in archaeology in In 1968 Memorial Newfoundland and Labrador. In 1949, 1950, and again in University and the De­ 1961 Elmer Harp Jr. qv conducted surveys and excavations on partment of Provincial the Northern Peninsula and in southern Labrador. At Port au Affairs excavated a Choix he investigated a large Dorset Eskimo village (E. Harp large Indian cemetery Jr.: 1964) and at a number of other stations he discovered ma­ at Port au Choix, terial related to Strong's "Old Stone Culture" which he re­ where over 100 frag­ lated to the "Boreal Archaic'' culture, a term used to describe mentary or intact skel­ several ancient Indian cultures in northeastern North America etons and several thou­ (E. Harp Jr.: 1951; 1963). Harp was also the first to apply the sand artifacts of stone, A carved stone killer whale from the Port au Choix site. bone, antler, and ivory were recovered. So complete a picture of the way of life of these people was revealed that the name "Maritime Archaic" was coined to denote the ancient Indian hunters of Newfound­ land and Labrador whose life was closely tied to the resources of the area (J. A. Tuck: 1976). The cemetery excavated by MacLeod on Twillingate Island and at least a portion of Strong's "Old Stone Culture" were subsumed within this cul­ tural tradition. William Fitzhugh (1972) and James Tuck qv (1975) subsequently discovered evidence of this culture as far

Stone and antler spears and harpoons from Port au Choix revolutionary technique of radiocarbon dating to Newfound­ land sites. As a result of analysis of wood charcoal from cook­ ing fires he was able to fix the date of Dorset Eskimo occupa­ tion at Port au Choix between A.D. 1 and A.D. 500. Some of his "Boreal Archaic" sites in Southern Labrador produced re­ markably early dates- some older than 4000 B.C. (Harp Jr. and Hughes: 1968). Shortly after the last of Harp's investigations Helen Devereaux, sponsored in part by the Department of Provincial Affairs, made still another attempt to attack the problem of Stone artifacts from the Maritime Archaic Living Site at the Beaches Sire, Beothuk origins and identification through archaeology. She Bonavista Bay. :;_, ARCHAEOLOGY 61 north as Saglek Bay on the Labrador coast. Paul Carignan (1975) excavated a large Maritime Archaic site in Bonavista Bay which pushed the date of occupation of the Island of Newfoundland by Maritime Archaic people back to 3000 B. C. Dates in Labrador were also receding into the more dis­ tant past. The early dates of 4000 B.C. obtained by Elmer Harp, Jr. were confirmed by additional samples obtained by Robert McGhee and James Tuck of Memorial University. A sequence of Indian occupations dating from nearly 7000 B.C. (McGhee and Tuck: 1975; M.A.P. Renouf: 1976) until about A.D. 1 (M.M. Madden: 1976) has been documented for the Strait of Belle Isle region. As a result of these researches the Maritime Archaic tradition now seems well-established as the earliest, most widespread, and longest-lived culture known to archaeologists in Newfoundland and Labrador. A stone hearth/rom the Dorset Eskimo Site at Lane's Cove, Njld., dated about 2,600 years old.

A stratified site at Saglek Bay, Northern Labrador. Maritime archaic and Palaeo· Eskimo cultures are represented in the various numbered bands. Shortly after the excavations at Port au Choix a Memorial University expedition to Saglek Bay, northern Labrador, and a Smithsonian party working at Thalia Point, north of Nain, discovered evidence of still another cultural tradition in the Bone and stone weapons from the Dorset Eskimo Period- •• ,,,,, 2000-1500 years old.

Stone tools and weapons from the early Palaeo-Eskimo Period (4,000-3 ,500 Stone projectile points, knives, and scrapers from the recent Indian period, years old). All are from northern Labrador. perhaps related to prehistoric Beothuk culture. 62 ARCHAEOLOGY Province. This represented an extension backward in time of the Dorset Eskimo culture which had already been described by Wintemberg, Harp, Linnamae, and others. The tiny arti­ facts found during the late 1960s belonged to the ancestors of the Dorset people (called "Pre-Dorset"). The entire range of Pre-Dorset and Dorset culture is now known as the Palaeo­ Eskimo tradition or the "Arctic Small Tool tradition," the latter because of the minute, often jewel-like, nature of their carefully chipped stone tools and weapons. We know that these people first entered northern Labrador shortly after 2000 B.C., colonized the Island prior to 1000 B.C., and are last known from northern Labrador after A.D. 1000. They may, in fact, be among the native peoples of the New World known · to Norse visitors of the eleventh century as Skraelings. After the Maritime Archaic tradition, the Palaeo-Eskimo people were the most widespread. Present activity in archaeology continues each summer, with field parties investigat­ ing a variety of sites Bone penda111s made by the Beothuk Indians during the early historic period. throughout the Prov­ ince. As a result our knowledge of not only the Maritime Archaic ' =-- .-:: and Palaeo-Eskimo A soapstone cooking pot from the recent peoples but also the Inuit Period. Labrador Inuit, Beothuk, Naskapi, and Montagnais is grow­ ing each year. H!STORlC ARCHAEOLOGY. Although many of the methods and techniques are the same as those used in prehistoric ar­ chaeology, historical archaeology in Newfoundland and Lab­ rador deals primarily with European settlements, fortifica­ tions, and other structures. Historical archaeology in Newfoundland and Labrador did not begin until after World War II, although interest in identifying various historic sites resulted in some col1ecting.::>.rior to that time. A recent Inuit burial covered by a small sled. Sagter Bay, Northern Labrador Historical archaeology came with a flourish to the Prov­ ince. Within the space of a very few years Parks Canada ex­ cavated portions of the military establishments at Castle Hill and Signal Hill, and the Ingstads made their monumental dis­ covery of the long-sought-after Norse settlement in the New World.

An ulu or woman's knife, needle case, comb, and spoon from the recent Excavation of the powder magazine at the 18th century fortifications at Inuit Period. Admirals Point, Trinity ARCHAEOLOGY 63

A Memorial Univ. Archaeology student excavates a cache of iron nails at the 16th century whaling station at Red Bay, Labrador. The former two excavations revealed portions of Eigh­ teenth and Nineteenth Century fortifications, other structures and artifacts, and resulted in partial reconstruction of the sites, both of which are now open to the public. L'Anse aux Excavations at the 16th century whaling station at Red Bay, Labrador. in the Meadows qv, discovered by Helge lngstad qv and excavated foreground archaeologists explore a waterlogged deposit containing refuse from a cooperage. The barge in the background marks the location of a 16th by Anne Stine Ingstad qv (Helge lngstad: 1966, 1969; A.S. century whaling vessel excavated by Parks Canada divers. Ingstad: 1977) revealed traces of the walls of typical Norse

A section through the 16th century whaling ship sunk at Red Bay Labrador. Visible are frames, the Keelson, ceiling timbers, ballast, and collapsed barrels which contained whale oil when the ship sank. 64 ARCHAEOLOGY, ARCHIBALD

longhouses, smaller structures, artifacts of the Eleventh Cen­ cember 3, 1972, one at Corner Brook and one at Gander. In tury, and features and artifacts from Indian and Eskimo occu­ 1979 there were five clubs (associate members of the associa­ pation of the site. Subsequent excavations by Parks Canada tion) across the Province, with 150 members. The association confirmed the lngstads' discoveries. Together the two series membership each year is approximately forty to fifty . GL of excavations provided the basis for the reconstruction of ARCHES OF WELCOME. In 1933 Harold Mitchell qv made three structures at L'Anse aux Meadows which are now com­ the suggestion that a great arch be built across the Narrows of plete and open to the public. St. John's Harbour to welcome the first members of the Com­ More recently excavations at a Sixteenth Century Spanish mission of Government who were expected to arrive from Basque whaling station at Red Bay qv, Labrador have been England early in 1934. Their ship would pass underneath the conducted by Memorial University with the assistance of the arch, which would contain words of welcome to them. The Historic Resources Division, Department of Tourism. Evi­ suggestion, however, was not acted upon. GL dence of dwellings, "ovens" where blubber was rendered ARCHIBALD, SIR EDWARD MORTIMER (1810-1884). into oil, other structures, and several thousand artifacts of ce­ Attorney General. Born Bible Hill, Nova Scotia. Educated ramic, metal, and wood have been recovered to date. Excava­ Truro; Halifax Grammar School; Pictou Academy. Read law tions are expected to continue into the mid-1980s. as an apprentice to his father, Honourable S. G. W. Archibald. UNDERWATER ARCHAEOLOGY. Like historical archae­ Called to the Nova Scotia Bar 1831. The years he spent ac­ ology, of which it is a part, underwater archaeology is a rela­ tively in the public administration of Newfoundland span its tive newcomer to the Province of Newfoundland and Labra­ transitional period from the inauguration of Representative dor. The development of the SCUBA diving gear and suits Government to Responsible Government. In 1831 he was ap­ capable of withstanding the cold waters of the North Atlantic pointed Registrar of the Supreme Court of Newfoundland and have provided a freedom of movement and relative comfort he became Chief Clerk of the General Assembly on January unthought of by divers prior to the 1960s. Local commercial 1, 1833 when the first House of Assembly was opened, jest­ and sport divers have recovered a number of objects of ar­ ingly named "Bow-Wow Parliament" qv. As Attorney Gen­ chaeological significance but in only a few cases has system­ eral, an appointment he received in 1841, he played an active atic underwater archaeology been attempted in the Province. role in obtaining Responsible Government for Newfoundland. For nearly a decade the Newfoundland *Marine Archaeology Shortly after his resignation in 1855 he witnessed the begin­ Society qv has searched for wrecks and done limited excava­ ning of Responsible Government. E.J. Archibald (1924), tions at several sites, including the Sapphire qv in Bay Bulls Paul O'Neill (1975), D.W. Prowse (1895), EC (I). ELGM and wrecks at Trinity and Conche. ARCHIBALD, FRANK C. (1887-1972). Politician. Born and The main efforts, however, have been once again by Parks educated Harbour Grace. Frank Archibald worked in his fam­ Canada which conducted full-scale excavations on the Sap­ ily's business at Harbour Grace before entering politics in phire (sunk in 1696) at Bay Bulls, and is now excavating the 1919. He was elected as one of the three members for Har­ galleon San Juan qv lost in 1565 a few metres offshore of the bour Grace in support of Sir Richard Squires's Liberal Re­ Spanish Basque whaling station at Red Bay, Labrador. form Party in the general election on December 2 that year. In sum, then, the last century has seen the study of archae­ He later broke with Squires and in 1923 was defeated as a ology in Newfoundland and Labrador grow from an anti­ candidate for the Liberal-Labour-Progressive Party in Har­ quarian interest in the Beothuk to the much more sophisti­ bour Grace district. When A.E. Hickman became Prime Min­ cated study of the Province's 9,000 year history. Although ister of Newfoundland on May 10, 1924 Archibald was ap­ there remain a large number of unanswered questions, the pointed Minister of Marine and Fisheries. He resigned this simple story of a single people who arrived on the Island portfolio on June 9 after being defeated in the general election sometime in the early years of the Christian Era has been re­ in that year. Reconciled with Squires, he was elected as the placed by a much more complex and interesting view of the Liberal candidate in Harbour Grace in 1928 but was subse­ past, encompassing not only the Beothuk but Maritime Ar­ quently defeated in 1932. chaic, Palaeo-Eskimo, Inuit, Naskapi, Montagnais, Micmac, On February 24, 1922 Archibald was a passenger on the Norse, Basques, qqv and other people. James A. Tuck first combined passenger-mail flight between St. John's and ARCHAEOLOGY SOCIETY, NEWFOUNDLAND Harbour Grace piloted by Major Sidney Cotten qv . After his MARINE. See MARINE ARCHAEOLOGY SOCIETY, retirement from politics he co-managed Archibald's Inn, Har­ NEWFOUNDLAND. bour Grace with his sister. He died January 15, 1972. Lloyd ARCHBISHOPS. See ANGLICAN CHURCH; ROMAN Archibald (interview, July 1981), M.W. Graesser (1977), CATHOLIC CHURCH. H.M. Mosdell (1923), S.J.R. Noel (1971). BGR ARCHER, JOHN ROSE. if!. 1723-1724). Pirate. Once in ARCHIBALD, HERMAN H. (1883-1969). Businessman. league with the notorious pirate Blackbeard, Archer took up Born Harbour Grace. Educated McGill University, Montreal. legitimate employment on a Newfoundland fishing boat, but After graduation, Archibald returned to Harbour Grace and was captured in 1723 by Captain John Phillips qv and ap­ reorganized Archibald Brothers, Limited, a shoe manufactur­ pointed quarter-master on his pirate ship. Captured in 1724 by ing business begun by his father. In 1927 the citizens of Har­ the authorities, Archer was hanged on June 2 at Boston. Phi­ bour Grace set up their own Airport Commission which was lip Gosse (1924). GL led by Archibald. In the early 1940s he began Archibald ARCHERY ASSOCIATION, NEWFOUNDLAND. An affil­ Farms with his son Cecil. He was appointed to the Town of iate of the Newfoundland and Labrador Amateur Sports Fed­ Harbour Grace's first Council, serving a term as the first eration and of the Federation of Canadian Archers; there were mayor. According to Frank Sheppard (interview, August two branches founded at a meeting in Corner Brook on De- 1981) Archibald was returned at the Town's first election in ARCHIBALD, ARCHITECTURE 65 1948 but he resigned as mayor soon after. Archibald di~t wharves, stores and other fishing structures. In 1623 Captain Harbour Grace in 1969. Lloyd Archibald (interview, Aug. Edward Wynne qv set up a colony at Ferryland where "he 1981), Frank Sheppard (interview, Aug. 1981), H.M. Mos­ built the largest house yet seen on the island'' (quoted in dell (1923), J.R. Smallwood (1931). DPJ H. W. LeMessurier: 1915). ARCHIBALD, ROSE (1891-1972). Businesswoman. Born Forts were built at St. John's and in other settlements for Harbour Grace. After attending a women's college in Nova defence against attack. However, nothing remains of these Scotia, Archibald returned to Harbour Grace and began work­ early establishments because they were destroyed. In 1670 Sir ing at the family business of Archibald Brothers, Ltd. In 1921 Josiah Child qv persuaded the British Government to prevent she took over and ran Cochrane House (later Archibald Inn), a settlement by destroying the buildings in the entire colony and hotel in Harbour Grace. When Major F.S. Cotton qv made his Sir John Berry qv was ordered to destroy the settlements in historic flight from St. John's to Harbour Grace in 1922 1675. Attacks from the French in 1696 and again in 1708 left Archibald was with him on the return trip. She was the first little chance for survival of architecture. Newfoundland female known to fly in an aeroplane in New­ During the Eighteenth Century anti-settlement laws were foundland. She died in Harbour Grace in 1972. Lloyd Archi­ enforced under Sir Hugh Palliser qv, Governor in 1764. The bald (interview, Aug. 1981), H.M. Mosdell (1923). DPJ building of a house of more than one story was prohibited and ARCHITECTURE. Although Newfoundland was visited as no houses were allowed near the water except for fishery pur­ early as the Eleventh Century, permanent settlement did not poses and no buildings could be erected without the permis­ occur legally until the early Nineteenth Century when restric­ sion of the Governor. In St. John's fish flakes covered the tions on building and settlement were lifted. Until that time hills, and the waterfront was lined with wharves and stages. It Newfoundland settlers were usually temporary and thus built was little more than a fishing station. The restrictions on temporary homes for their visits. Frequent invasions by the building were strictly adhered to and as late as 1790 Governor French, anti-settlement laws and attempts on the part of the Milbanke qv ordered a house to be destroyed which was built West Country merchants to keep Newfoundland a fishing sta­ in contravention of the existing laws. tion all hindered the settlement of the Island. As a result ex­ It was not until the Nineteenth Century that these restric­ amples of the architecture of the Sixteenth, Seventeenth and tions were lifted and permanent settlement allowed. In 1811 most of the Eighteenth Century are almost non-existent. the ships' rooms, areas of land along the shore reserved for St. John's during that time was a reflection of the fishery. the fishermen, were permitted to be used as private and com­ The harbor was lined with fish flakes and wharves set up dur­ mercial property. Not until 1820 were the restrictions on ing the summer for the fishery. Fisherman from the West of building houses entirely abolished. Before the period then, England carried out a migratory fishery to Newfoundland for very few substantial houses were built; Charles Fox Bennett centuries, going there during the summer fishing season and qv described St. John's as he saw it in 1806: "At that time returning in the fall. These merchants opposed settlement be­ the town ... was little more than a fishing settlement. The lieving that it would interfere with the fishery and they did whole area was nearly covered with flakes on which to dry everything to prevent people from settling. Thus the only fish .... The houses, if they could be called such, were, with buildings erected during this period were for the fishery. very few exceptions, of a temporary character. Their height Eventually crews were left behind during the winter to pre­ was limited to about 7 or 8 feet between the ground floor and pare for the new season. Their dwellings were called tilts, the roof floor. There were some moderately spacious stores wooden structures built as temporary homes. The tilt was built over the water" (quoted in Paul O'Neill: 1975, p. 51- used until the early Twentieth Century as a temporary house 52). because it took very little time to build. D.C. Tibbetts (1968) What little remained of Newfoundland architecture from describes the Newfoundland tilt: ''The original tilt consisted before the 1800s was destroyed over the decades by numerous of vertically arranged poles (sometimes fastened into a trench fires. St. John's especially was affected and it grew up in a outlining (the shape of the dwelling) with the interstices very unorganized manner. The streets (or paths as they more caulked with moss-a process known as chintzing. The roof accurately were) were very narrow. The fires during the early consisted of small pole rafters covered with rinds with a hole 1800s resulted in regulations to govern the layout of streets left at one end to let in light and let out smoke. Tamped earth and buildings. Streets were to be widened, Water Street to provided the floor and an open fire supported on some flat 15.24 m (59ft) and Duckworth Street to 12.18 m (40ft), and stones provided heat for cooking and for a minimum of brick and stone were to be used for buildings. In 1833 build­ comfort in winter.'' According to Sabine (cited in Louise ings of non-flammable materials would be taxed at half the Whiteway: 1958) in 1522 St. John's had forty or fifty houses. rate of wooden buildings. It is probable that these houses were merely tilts. Because very few people actually used brick or stone in re­ Despite the anti-settlement laws, the population grew. By building, buildings were constructed out of wood and were the end of the Seventeenth Century the population was 2640 again destroyed by fire in 1846. The Hip or Cottage roof (fig. with perhaps 200 dwellings in more than forty settlements, 1) prevalent before the fire was succeeded by the Gable or the majority between Cape Race and Bonavista. The first Saddle roof (fig. 2) becoming the most popular style. Two buildings erected by the early settlers were of wood, chosen and a half stories was the most common form in domestic because of its abundance and possibly because it was more buildings during this period. Government and church build­ appropriate for a temporary structure than stone or brick. The ings built in the mid-century varied in style. One of the oldest colonies set up by John Guy qv, William Vaughan qv, Henry institutional buildings in Newfoundland is located in Harbour Cary qv and later David Kirke qv included more or less per­ Grace, the Court House ·and jail built in 1830 (fig. 3) - a manent buildings. Guy built three houses at Cupids as well as large stone building in use since it was first built. ARCHITECTURE

Fig. 1-Hip or Cottage Roof. A popular style in St. John's before the Fig. 3-Harbour Grace Court House. fire in 1846. years later it was rebuilt using the original outer walls. De­ signed by Gilbert Scott the church is an example of Gothic Revival. The Roman Catholic *Basilica of St. John the Baptist qv (fig. 6) when completed in 1855 was the largest ecclesiastical building in North America. Designed by John Jones of Ire­ / land, the building is essentially Romanesque in character. The Cathedral is faced with limestone and granite. Built in the form of a Latin Cross, it has two towers each 42 m (138 ft) high. David Mills (1975) described the architectural styles of the domestic house in Trinity Bay during the 1800s, which were probably typical of those found throughout the entire Island. The first generation house (as Mills describes it) often evolved from the tilt (fig. 7). It was a one-story rectangular -• house with a steeply pitched roof. This style was replaced by - Fig. 2-Gable or Saddle Roof. the second generation saltbox (fig. 8) about the 1860s. The

Fig . 4-Colonia/ Building, St. John's. The Colonial Building qv built in 1850 is an example of saltbox was often an enlargement of the first. A one and a half Classic Revival (fig. 4). The architect was James Purcell. Im­ story house, the roof was steeply pitched and extended down ported limestone was used to face the walls and the portico is over the linhay continuously. (The linhay was a one-story rear surmounted by six ionic columns 9.1 m (30ft) high. The addition on the house extending from one end to the other.) building is symmetrical both in exterior and interior design. The saltbox was succeeded by the third generation house, Some magnificent churches were built during the mid- about the end of the century, which was in some cases a fur­ 1800s and are still standing, having survived the rrre or hav­ ther extension of the saltbox. It was a full two-story house ing been rebuilt after them. The Church of England *Cathe­ with a peaked roof and a flat rear extension. (fig. 9) The door dral of St. John the Baptist qv (fig. 5) was started in 1847 but was usually in the centre of the house with five front win­ the fire of 1892 destroyed the interior of the church. A few dows. ARCHITECTURE 67

Fig. 5-Cathedral of St. John the Baptist.

Fig. 8- The Saltbox.

//,/' .. / /,? .,-:'

Fig. 6--Basilica of St. John the Baptist.

Fig. 9-Common during the late 1800s, this house features the peaked roof with flat rear extension.

Fig. 7--First Generation House featuring steeply pitched roof, one storey with loft, rectangular in shape. Fig. 10-Square Roof 68 ARCHITECTURE

Fig. 11--Mansard Roof with Dormer Windows, popular after the fire of 1892 in St. John's.

Fig. 12---Square Roof design in Row Housing in St. John's.

Towards the late 1800s the square roof (fig. 10) replaced three on the second storey. The flatter roof used less construc­ the steeper roof and although also built in St. John's it was tion material than the older one and was more accessible for more popular in the outports. The house was rectangular with repairing. a central front door and five front windows, two below and The 1890s witnessed another disastrous fire in St. John's which changed the architecture again. The fire of 1892 de­ stroyed most of the city and when it was rebuilt the gable roof was generally replaced by the mansard roof (fig. 11) intro­ duced by James Thomas Southcott. Southcott was the son of James Southcott, a Devon carpenter who came to Newfound­ land in 1846 to help rebuild St. John's after the fire of that year. James Thomas Southcott went to England to study ar­ chitecture, later working in London and Sheffield, where he probably encountered the Second Empire Style, a style he used in rebuilding St. John's after the 1892 fire. He also worked in the outports but was most influential in St. John's. Examples of the Second Empire Style, characterized by the concave-curved mansard roof and the bonnet-topped dormer windows, are visible throughout the city particularly on Ren­ nie's Mill Road (where it was first used), Temperance Street and Gower Street. The style of the house in the outports had stabilized by this time. The square roof style was the most common and was not greatly influenced by the changing trends evident in the city. The square roof was not as common in St. John's but where it was seen it featured a side-hall plan (fig. 12) because of space Fig. 13 -Flat roof houses with brackets beneath the eaves and large bay limitations, as opposed to the center-hall plan common in the windows. outports. ARCHITECTURE, ARCHWES 69 delegated to the Colonial Secretary in 1898; with Confedera­ tion this duty was transferred to the Department of Provincial Affairs. Other government documents were kept in Britain; these included volumes of correspondence from the governors of Newfoundland to the British Secretary of State and Board of Trade, records of shipping between Newfoundland and Great Britain and scores of other documents. Historical manu­ scripts of various types had also been collected by numerous institutions including the Athenaeum qv and the Gosling Me­ morial Library as well as by private collectors. In 1956 work on establishing an archives of Newfoundland and Labrador material was begun at Memorial University of Newfoundland by a number of university professors who ob­ tained funds from the Carnegie Corporation in the United States for that purpose. The aim of their work was to gather and arrange as many historical Newfoundland documents, Fig. 14-Queen Anne. photographs, paintings and other items as possible in one ar­ Also popular during the 1890s and to the mid-1900s was chives, to catalogue these items and then pass over the mate­ the bracketed styles, flat roof buildings with brackets beneath rial to a permanent archives to be maintained by the Provin­ the eaves (fig. 13). The Queen Anne Style (fig. 14) was popu­ cial Government. The members of this group also made lar in St. John's after the mansard roof, characterized by its proposals to the Provincial Government concerning the estab- varying roof forms with decorative shingling, large bay win­ dows and cross gabling, most common from 1905 to 1914. The early 1900s brought with them a diversification of the economy and an increase in population. Newfoundland was becoming more than a fishing station: the centre of the Island had opened up for settlement and St. John's was developing into a commercial centre. The bungalow was introduced in about 1930 and has been a common style of house ever since, slowing spreading to the outports where the square roof con­ tinued to be built until the 1960s. In 1943 the Commission of Enquiry on Housing and Town Planning was created and their report on the housing situation in St. John's led to establishment of the St. John's Housing Corporation, which took responsibility for the acquisition of land for the construction of houses, apartment buildings and commercial centres. For the first time St. John's housing would follow an organized pattern. With Confederation the Central Mortgage and Housing Corporation extended its operation to include Newfoundland, introducing standard house plans. St. John's expanded and rows of houses, most very similar in design sprang up. Apart­ ment buildings were constructed and St. John's architecture took the appearance of that in many other Canadian cities. The source of much of the information used in the ENCYCLOPEDIA. A.J. Campbell (1967), H.W. LeMessurier (1915), David lishment of such a permanent archives, its functions and pur­ Boyd Mills (1975), Shane O'Dea (1973; 1980; interview, pose. Following the appointment in 1956 of an archivist, Har­ July 1981), Paul O'Neill (1975), D.C. Tibbetts (1968), vey Mitchell (who was succeeded by W.H. Whiteley in Louise Whiteway (1958), Architectural Heritage of St. 1958), work on collecting material was begun and within one John's (1976), A Gift of Heritage (1975), Heritage Canada year a good, basic collection of Newfoundland documents (Oct. 1979), Ten Historic Towns .(1978). EMD was acquired as gifts from the Department of Provincial Af­ ARCIDVES OF NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR, fairs in St. John's, the Public Records office in London and PROVINCIAL. The Newfoundland and Labrador Archives private collectors. Among its accessions were microfilms of was established in 1959 by an act of the Newfoundland Legis­ Governors' correspondence to British authorities from 1696 lature, The Historic Objects, Sites and Records Act (1959, to 1902, Nineteenth Century records of a small number of no. 76) for "the safekeeping, classification, indexing and cal­ mercantile firms, port records from various Newfoundland endaring" of government documents and other materials communities and a collection of Newfoundland newspapers. deemed to be of historical importance. Before the 1950s his­ These initial acquisitions were added to yearly. torical records relating to Newfoundland had been scattered In 1959 the Provincial Government passed the Historic Ob­ about in various locations. Local government records, dating jects, Sites and Records Act and in the next year the collection back to 1749, had been stored in government buildings in St. at Memorial was transferred to the *Colonial Building qv in John's and responsibility for their safekeeping had first been the new permanent archives of the Province. The new archi- 70 ARCHIVES, ARGENT/A vist, Allan M. Fraser and his staff, while continuing to add to fewer than eighty-five survived, the majority of whom were the collection, arranged the material for public use and before crew members. None were women or children. The forty-two the end of 1960 the archives was opened to the public. men who drifted ashore at Broad Cove (Cappahayden) on Work on expanding the archives' holdings continued as did September 29 in two partially filled life boats received a cataloguing of the materials. Through the efforts of subse­ rather cool reception when they arrived in St. John's on quent Provincial Archivists Burnham Gill and David Davis, October second. However, not all aboard the Arctic behaved as well as the staff at the archives, the holdings of the archives in this way; for instance Captain Luce and his young son re­ have been increased substantially since 1959. In 1980 it was fused to leave the sinking vessel until the passengers and crew estimated that the archives held 2500 linear metres of records. were off. A.C. Brown (1961). ELGM Included in its holdings are parish records, newspapers of the ARCTIC SMALL TOOL TRADITION. See PALAEO­ Colony, personal business and organization papers, colonial ESKIMO TRADITION. records, films, photographs, maps, charts and plans. These ARCTIC STEAK. See WHALES. collections are invaluable material to students, professional ARCTIC VESSEL MARINE RESEARCH INSTITUTE. researchers and family historians. In 1980 over 4000 visits See MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND. were made to the archives by members of the public. ARDA. See REGIONAL ECONOMIC EXPANSION, DEPARTMENT OF. ARENAS. See SPORTS FACILITIES. ARGENTIA. Situated on a small peninsula on the east side of Placentia Bay, Argentia was in 1981 the site of a Canadian National *Marine qv terminal, a United States Naval Facility and a small industrial park. Settled about the same time as Placentia qv during the late 1600s, Argentia was fust a small French fishing village (pop­ ulation in 1687:35) known as Petit Plaisance. The settlement changed hands in 1713 when in accordance with the terms of the Treaty of Utrecht the French abandoned southern New­ foundland, including Petit Plaisance, and Great Britain as­ sumed jurisdiction over the area. Soon after 1713 the British fishery began slowly to expand into Placentia Bay, and Little Placentia (as the settlement was then called), endowed with a good harbour, large beaches and good stands of timber, soon One of the many researchers taking advantage of the Archives' material. became a British fishing station. At first it was merchants Since 1973 the archives has also been responsible for the from Bamstaple and Bideford, North Devon, who were inter­ management of all current and dormant records of the Provin­ ested in operating a fishery from Little Placentia. Their efforts cial Government, and since its inception, all Newfoundland in doing so, however, were hampered by the Lieutenant­ publishers have been required to place a copy of all publica­ Governor of nearby Placentia, Samuel Gledhill qv, who was tions in the archives. David Davis (interview, July 1981), stationed at Placentia and who during the 1720s seized a large A.M. Fraser (1967), John P. Greene (1973), Agnes O'Dea number of the best fishing rooms in Little Placentia for his (interview, July 1981), W.H. Whiteley (interview, July own use. By the late 1720s this problem had apparently been 1981), An Act Relating to Historic Objects, Sites and Records overcome for in 1727, according to K. Matthews ( 1968), (1959, no. 76), "Provincial Archives" (1969), Report of the there were a number of ships from Poole and the Channel Is­ Newfoundland Archives (1956-1957 to 1978-1979), Report of lands operating in Little Placentia. The fishing station subse­ the President (1957-1958; 1958-1959). CFH quently assumed a certain degree of importance and in three ARCTIC CURRENT. See LABRADOR CURRENT. years a constable and Justice of the Peace were stationed ARCTIC FISHERY PRODUCTS. See FISH PLANTS. there. ARCTIC HARE. See BRUNETTE ISLAND; HARES. Over the years Little Placentia took on the appearance (and ARCTIC, SS. The ''luxury liner'' of its era and the pride of the problems) of a settlement. By 17 57, for instance, the effects Collins Line (New York and Liverpool United States Steam­ of '' Publick Houses'' in Little Placentia had assumed such ship Company) began its first voyage October 26, 1850. In proportions that several of the ''inhabitants,'' as they called February 1852 the S.S. Arctic made a record crossing from themselves, petitioned the Governor to close these "Houses" New York to Liverpool in nine days, seventeen hours and down (the Governor acted upon their wishes, but it is not twelve minutes. On September 27, 1854, in the midst of a known how well his orders were received or if they were ever thick fog off Cape Race, it collided with a small French iron followed). From what can be gathered from the few official steamer the Vesta, and sank. The wreck of the S.S. Arctic and reports of the 1700s which included information on Little Pla­ the excessive loss of life was not the only tragedy of the day. centia it may be assumed that Little Placentia was an impor­ Following the accident deplorable behavior was exhibited by tant fishing station and centre of trade. There were a number some of the passengers and crew members. Women and chil­ of agents of various British mercantile establishments sta­ dren were pushed aside as the crew and some male passengers tioned there at various times throughout most of the Eigh­ struggled for a place in one of the life boats. According to ru­ teenth Century and the winter population was relatively large; mour at least one man offered money in return for a place in in 1762-1763, for instance, approximately 130 people (in­ one of the life boats. Of the four hundred persons on board cluding women and children) wintered at Little Placentia; in ;; ARGENT/A , ARGENT/A BASE 71 1797 the winter population had more than doubled to 266, the 1930s the herring fishery was revived. In the late 1930s a majority of whom were Roman Catholics. United States Company from San Francisco became inter­ During the early 1800s a large number of Irish came and ested in the herring fishery of the community and in 1937 it settled in Little Placentia and by 1845 the population stood at built a herring-meal and oil plant there. 573, making it the largest community along the east side of Another source of employment was created in 1918 with Placentia Bay. A school which had been established in Little the establishment at Argentia of the Placentia branch railway Placentia in 1836 and a church which had been built there terminal. Thereafter Argentia also became a terminal for the around the same time were operating then. Law and order south-coast passenger-freight steamers. were maintained by a constable who had been appointed in The history of the community of Argentia came to an end in the previous decade by the new Newfoundland Legislature. A late 1940 when the United States Government acquired a postal Way Office and Customs Office were established there large portion of land on the small peninsula from the Govern­ in the next decade. ments of Great Britain and Newfoundland and began con­ Most men in the settlement, as before, were engaged in the struction of the large United States naval base, which was still cod fishery at this time. The majority fished for cod near Ar­ there in 1981. In order to make way for the base, the 477 peo­ gentia but a large number prosecuted the more prolific fishery ple living there were resettled in various other communities in off *Cape St. Mary's qv at the southwestern tip of the Avalon the area during the winter of 1940-1941. Peninsula. The herring fishery was also a lucrative pursuit in Since 1968 Argentia has also been the site of a Canadian Placentia Bay during this period as a ready market for herring National marine terminal for a summer ferry service between existed in the French banker fleet based at St. Pierre. Informa­ the Avalon Peninsula and North Sydney, Nova Scotia. tion on the trade in herring with the French was not given In 1969 the naval base at Argentia began to phase down freely, however, because the sale of bait to the French was il­ some of its activities and during the nine years that followed legal for much of the first half of the Nineteenth Century. the north side of the base was gradually abandoned. In 1978 When in the 1850s (by which time the trade, though restricted the Government of Canada leased the land on the north side of by tariffs, was legal) the Newfoundland Government began the base from the United States Government and assumed re­ researching the extent of this trade, Little Placentia fishermen sponsibility for the jurisdiction of the harbours of the area. were found to be involved in it. It is not known exactly when Soon after, the Newfoundland Government subleased some the trade between the settlement and St. Pierre ended but it land in the area and began attracting businesses to it. By early did continue at least through the 1860s. The sale of herring 1980 three small industries had been established on the site. was quite important to these fishermen. Local merchants who See ARGENT! A BASE; BAIT ACT. Ted Bartlett (interview, were opposed to it did not become involved in it. Instead the Mar. 1980), H.C. Brown (1973), H.W. LeMessurier (1910), fishermen caught the bait and sold it themselves either to Michael McCarthy (1973?), R.A. MacKay (1946), Keith bank-fishing vessels which arrived at southern Newfoundland Matthews (1968), E.R. Seary (1971; 1976), J.R. Smallwood ports looking for bait or to merchants in St Pierre itself. In ef­ (1940), A.K. Snelgrove (1953), Richard Straus (1972), fect this provided the fishermen with an income which was Census (1836-1935), Censuses of Canada 1665 to 1871, Vol­ not tied to the truck system. It also provided them with the ume IV (1876), Home of Wooden Boats and Iron Men (1970), means to buy cheaper goods in St. Pierre and it offered some JHA (1834-1930), Report of the Newfoundland Fisheries relief to the fishermen during bad cod-fishing seasons. Board and General Review of the Fisheries Economic Bulle­ Nevertheless, the cod fishery remained the most intensively tin (no. 7), The Rounder (Nov. 1979), A.C. Hunter Library prosecuted fishery in Little Placentia throughout the Nine­ (Newfoundland Uncatalogued Box 4.l.nos. 5, 41, 47), Ar­ teenth century, supplying the fishermen and the several mer­ chives (C.O. 194/8-40; GN 2/1/2 and 7). Map H. CFH cantile establishments in the settlement with the main source ARGENTIA BASE. United States Military Base on the west of their livelihood. As well as the inshore fishery near the set­ coast of the A val on Peninsula, in Placentia Bay. Throughout tlement and off Cape St. Mary's, cod fisheries on the Banks the spring and early summer of 1940 Germany threatened to of Newfoundland and off Labrador were conducted from Lit­ conquer all of Europe. During that time Germany's army in­ tle Placentia in the late 1800s. vaded and conquered the countries of Belgium, Luxembourg, In the early 1880s mining began to contribute a small the Netherlands and France, and its Luftwaffe and Navy amount to the local economy when an argentiferous galena stepped up their attacks on Britain. The small number of ships (silver-lead) mine was opened at Broad Cove Creek Canyon, in the Royal Navy at that time was not equal to the task facing close to the community. Producing a total of approximately Britain, and the construction of new British warships, begun 1814 t (2000 T) of lead ore and several hundred tons of con­ at the outset of the war, had not yet been completed. Prime centrates the mine was operated sporadically until 1925 when Minister Churchill, desperate for destroyers, turned to the it was finally closed, owing to a lack of ore. To celebrate the United States for aid. Following months of negotiations the existence of the silver-lead deposits in the area, the name Lit­ United States Government agreed to give Britain fifty old des­ tle Placentia was changed to Argentia about the turn of the troyers in return for the right to lease land in various parts of century. the British Empire on which the U.S. could build military In the Twentieth Century most of the men in Argentia con­ bases. Britain accepted the deal and offered to the United tinued to fish. The fishery was carried out in a variety of ves­ States, in addition, the right to lease land for a period of sels ranging from small boats to sailing vessels of up to 60 ninety-nine years in Newfoundland and Bermuda ~s a free tons; by the 1930s motor dories were also being employed. gift, not contingent upon the delivery ofthe United States des­ Cod continued to be the main species fished; a short-lived lob­ troyers. ster fishery was also developed in the early 1900s, and in the Although the official agreement between the two govern- 72 ARGENT/A BASE

.. - ..;. - - I f t~ I --- Peace time. ments (commonly referred to as the "destroyers-for-bases Holyrood to improve war-time transportation and communi­ deal") was not signed until March 27, 1941, Argentia qv, cation. In all, 12,403 military personnel were stationed at Ar­ with its good, ice-free harbour and its strategic position, had gentia by 1943. already been chosen by an American military survey team in The establishment of the Argentia base affected those who the fall of 1940 as a site for a military base, and by the end of lived on the site prior to 1941. In fact the whole community of December 1940 construction of the base there had begun. Be­ cause of its strategic position it was quickly realized that Ar­ gentia would be one of the key bases for the Allied Forces in the North Atlantic during World War II. The mammoth U.S. military base which was subsequently established at Argentia was the most expensive of the American overseas bases built during World War II, costing over $45,000,000. When com­ pleted it consisted of a Naval Operating Base and a Naval Air Station with three runways on the north side of the Argentia harbour and a U.S. Army Base known as Fort McAndrew on the south side of the harbour. The Naval Operating Base and Air Station at Argentia served throughout World War II as a base for both United States and Allied Forces anti-submarine air patrols and task force escorts. The largest single United States task force in the Atlantic, consisting of six escort carri­ ers and fifty destroyer escorts, was based there. Fort Mc­ Andrew was used as the base for a seacoast artillery group, an anti-aircraft artillery company, an anti-motor torpedo boat battalion and an infantry company. There were also search­ light positions at Fox Island, Dunville and on the base itself. In addition Army personnel regularly patrolled the east side of Placentia Bay and in 1942 built a road from Argentia to U.S . Naval Base ARGENT/A BASE, ARMISTICE DAY 73 ~:t· Argentia was dismantled and its inhabitants moved to other partially true, but it should be noted that in the case of dairy communities in the area. Nevertheless, the overall economic farming in the Argentia area no increase in business was ef­ benefit which resulted from the base's activities compensated fected by the establishment of the U.S. base. Instead, a for this inconvenience to the Argentia area, which like the rest marked decrease in the number of cows and the volume of of the western world, had just come through a long and hard milk production in the area resulted, probably because a large economic depression. Although detailed statistics do not exist number of part-time and full-time farmers began working at on the subject, a few indications of the benefits resulting from Argentia during the war.) the establishment of the base are available. Probably the most Since World War II a number of changes have occurred at frequently recognized effect of the base's presence was the the base. Fort McAndrew, which had become an Air Force creation of a large number of jobs for civilians. Estimates Base in 1948, was given to the Navy in 1955 prior to the es­ have been made which place the number of Newfoundland tablishment of an Atlantic Barrier Force and an Airborne civilians working on the base during construction at between Early Warning Wing at the Naval Station that year. A Naval 10,000 and 15,000. Certainly large numbers of men were em­ Facility was commissioned in 1959 to begin oceanographic ployed there. Entire communities even as far away as the west studies for the U.S. Navy and by 1965, following the dises­ side of Placentia Bay became dependent on the base for their tablishment of the Airborne Early Warning Wing at Argentia, livelihood. Following construction Newfoundlanders contin­ the Facility was the largest tenant command on the base. In ued to be employed at the base, and as late as the mid-1950s 1974 the Air Station was abandoned and in the following year payroll for civilians working at Argentia amounted to approx­ the Naval Station was disestablished. imately $400,000 a month. In 1980 the Naval Facility, manned by both Canadians and The impact that Argentia and the other U.S. bases made on Americans, still conducted oceanographic studies. A Navy Newfoundland's economy may also be gauged by the increase Commissary Store, a detachment of the United States Air in total imports for the civilian population of Newfoundland Force and a radio station, the Navy Broadcasting Service Det from 1940 to 1944. In the former year $28.4 million worth of One (AFRTS), were also operating on the base at that time. In 1980 there were approximately four hundred male and female personnel of the U.S. and Canadian Forces stationed at Argentia and approximately three hundred Newfoundland civilians employed at the base. Besides use of the base by military personnel, commercial airlines, operating in Newfoundland, periodically used the Argentia airstrips after World War II when weather in St. John's was too poor to land there. This practice ended in 1974, when the Air Station was abandoned by the military. W.C. Brown (interview, June 1981), R.A. MacKay (1946), Leonard Lee (interview, June 1981), B.L. Peebles (letters, 1979-1980), Richard Straus (1972; 1975), Census (1935; 1945), Customs (1939/40-1943/44), Mary Ellicott Arnold Collection, Naval Chronology, World War II (1955). CFH ARGENTIA FISHERIES LIMITED. See FISH PLANTS. ARGYLE. See ALPHABET FLEET. ARIEL, THE. A thirty-ton coppered cutter belonging to the Brigus Packet Company qv, the Ariel began a passenger-mail service between Brigus and Portugal Cove in July 1836. Paul O'Neill (1975). GL ARMADA, ITALIAN AIR. See BALBO, GENERAL ITALO. ARMED FORCES, CANADIAN. See MILITARY. ARMISTICE DAY. On the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month in 1918 an armistice was declared which ended World War I. Each year since then, on the same date, which became known as Armistice Day, the event has been commemorated throughout the British Commonwealth and in France and the United States with memorial services for these countries' fighting men who were killed in the war. The tradition was continued after World War II and the U.S. NavalshipsNov.J943. Korean War, but although the name was officially changed to commodities for civilians were imported into Newfoundland; Remembrance Day to include the dead of these wars also, it is by 1944 that figure had risen to $46.6 million. It has also been still usually referred to as Armistice Day. stated that certain businesses, such as dairies, soft drink fac­ The arrival of Armistice Day is heralded by the Canadian tories and retail outlets near Argentia and other bases experi­ veterans' sale of poppies which symbolize the great loss dur­ enced significant increases in sales following the establish­ ing World War I of Canadian soldiers in Flanders where pop­ ment of the U.S. bases in Newfoundland. (This may be pies grow profusely. On November 11 in Newfoundland cere- 74 ARMISTICE DAY, ARMY CADETS monies usually begin with a parade of war veterans to the right forepaw elevated, looking out from the shield, the tail local War Memorial or Legion Hall for the laying of wreaths. displayed over the back and a gold crown on its head; in the At 11 am a period of two minutes silence is observed which second and third quarters a silver unicorn walking, three may begin and end by the Legion Honour Guard's firing a hoofs on the ground, the right forepaw raised, the animal volley or by a cannon shot. A trumpeter may play the Last looking forward, the tail displayed over the back, and with the Post during the interval. teeth , mane and hoofs in gold and a gold crown round the On the eve of November 11 the Armistice Day Ball is held, neck of the unicorn , to which is attached a gold chain, passing usually at the Legion Club. The Lieutenant Governor attends between the forelegs and reflected over the back of the ani­ alternately the Balls at St. John's, Grand Falls and Comer mal. The cross represents the St. George cross, though of a Brook. Armistice Day is one of the few holidays in New­ different colour; the lion is the lion in the arms of England, foundland which is always observed on its actual date. PAG and unicorns were used as heraldic supporters by the Kings of ARMOUR BEARER, THE. Robert English became the fust Scotland and one was taken as a supporter by the King of editor of this quarterly periodical which was established in St. England at the union of England and Scotland. John's on June 16, 1921. The Bethesda Pentecostal Assem­ Crest - On a wreath of red and silver, an elk in easy mo­ blies, the periodical's proprietor, published and printed the tion and in natural colouring. The elk was as close a substitute journal from its offices at 193 New Gower Street. There are as could be found for the caribou, which are still numerous in no known copies in existence, nor has it been ascertained how the interior of Newfoundland. Motto - Seek ye fust the long The Armour Bearer remained in publication. Archives kingdom of God. Supporters- On the right and left of the GN 32/22. DCM shield are two figures representing the natives, the now ex­ ARMOUR, REV. JAMES S.S. tinct Beothuk qv. See Frontispiece, page I. PAG (1931- ). Clergyman. Born ARMSTRONG, WHITWORTHANDCOMPANY.In 1923 Toronto, Ontario. Educated Sir W.G. Armstrong, Whitworth and Company, Limited, one University of Toronto; Univer­ of the largest and most varied industrial concerns in Great sity of Edinburgh; Union Theo­ Britain, in association with the Newfoundland Products Cor­ logical Seminary, New York poration set up the Newfoundland Power and Paper Company City. Armour was ordained as a to construct a paper mill at Comer Brook and harness the clergyman of the Presbyterian Humber River as its source of hydro-electric power. The Reid Church in 1958. Before this he Newfoundland Company qv owned the power and property had held assistantships at Edin­ rights, while Sir W.G . Armstrong, Whitworth and Company burgh and New York City. owned the majority of the common stock which was issued in After his ordination he served two series of debenture bonds worth £2 million each. The for four years in Alberta before British Government guaranteed the principal and interest of Rev. James S .S. Armour. coming to Newfoundland in the first series, and the Newfoundland Government made the 1962. He has been clergyman at St. David's Presbyterian same guarantee for the second series. When in 1928 the Cana­ Church in St. John's since that time, which makes him the dian subsidiary of the International Paper Company of New dean of St. John's clergy. He was Chairman of the Denomina­ York formally took over the operations, the International tional Education Committee for two years and was elected Power and Paper Company of Newfoundland was formed and Moderator of the Presbyterian Church in Newfoundland on Sir W.G. Armstrong Whitworth and Company association four separate occasions, in 1964, 1966, 1968, and 1970. He with the enterprise ended. See PULP AND PAPER MAK­ also served as Moderator of the Synod of the Atlantic Prov­ ING. PAG inces for the Presbyterian Church, 1974-75 . J.S.S. Armour ARMY CADETS. The Army Cadets Programme is a Canada­ (interview, Apr. 1981). BGR wide movement which aims to promote citizenship and de­ ARMS OF NEWFOUNDLAND. Newfoundland did not as­ velop leadership qualities in young people between the ages sume the use of a distinctive coat of arms until early in 1928 of thirteen and eighteen. It was fust introduced to Newfound­ when the Arms of Newfoundland which had been granted to land in 1949 with the establishment of #2355 *Church Lads' the colony by Borough Garter on January 1, 1637, during the Brigade qv Cadet Corps in St. John's. By 1967 it had grown reign of Charles I, were revived and authorized. The former to include twenty-one separate corps in various parts of New­ official emblem was the *Badge of Newfoundland qv. The foundland and included over 1400 boys. Most of the corps heraldic description of the Newfoundland Coat of Arms is as were sponsored by school boards but others were sponsored follows: Arms -Gules, a cross argent, in the first and fourth by civic groups. Almost all were affiliated with the Royal quarters a lion passant guardant regally crowned or, in the Newfoundland *Regiment qv . second and third quarters a unicorn passant argent, maned and The Army Cadet programme involves required military unguled of the third, and gorged with a crown, thereto a chain training but also offers extra courses in such areas as band affixed passing between the forelegs and reflected over the training, fire prevention, communication and first aid. The back, also or. Crest- On a wreath of the colours an elk trip­ cadets may receive awards of excellence as they progress pant proper. Motto - Quaerite prime dei . Supporters - through their training. There is a star system ranging from Two Savages of the clime armed and apparelled according to green through red and silver to gold. A cadet who receives a their guise when they go to war. Gold Star has excelled in all facets of cadet life. The following is an explanation of this heraldic description: During the summer months the cadets can partake in a Arms - A silver cross on a red shield; in the first and fourth number of special camps and training courses. The majority quarters a gold lion, walking, three paws on the ground, the of Newfoundland participants attend Camp Argonaut at Cana- ARMY CADETS, ARNOLD'S COVE 75 J dian Forces Base, Gagetown, New Brunswick, where they re- crew and passengers were placed on strict water rations. ceive additional instruction in leadership, adventure training, Arnold, quick to remedy his personal inconvenience, secretly instructional techniques and other basic skills, and participate gave the wine that he and Cartwright had bought for the jour­ in recreational and social activities. Selected cadets are given ney, to the sailors on board in return for the sailors' water sup­ an opportunity to attend specialized training courses at Banff, plies. Cartwright never did receive any of the traded water Alberta; an Arctic Indoctrination course at Resolute Bay, and only learned of Arnold's deal with the sailors after both N. W.T.; an Athletic Leadership course and Driver Communi­ had arrived safely in England and had gone their separate cation course in British Columbia; a Special Cadet Leadership ways. B.R. Boylan (1973), C.W. Townsend (1911), Carl course at Whitehorse, Yukon Territory; and an Army Cadet Van Doren (1941), W.M. Wallace (1954). CFH & JRS Parachutist course at C.F.B. Edmonton, Alberta. There are ARNOLD, MARY ELLICOTT (1876-1968). Organizer. Born also exchange tours and courses in England, West Germany Staten Island, New York. Experienced in organizing co­ and the Caribbean. In 1981 over 700 Newfoundland cadets at­ operative ventures of various kinds in the United States and tended the summer camps. Canada, Mary E. Arnold came to Newfoundland in the sum­ By 1981 the Army Cadet movement in Newfoundland had mer of 1939 to work under J.H. Gorvin qv, then Commis­ grown to over twenty-eight corps with over two thousand par­ sioner of Natural Resources and Rural Reconstruction. As ticipants, both male and female. The programme was under part of his economic reconstruction plan for Newfoundland the jurisdiction of the Canadian Department of National De­ Gorvin had devised a resettlement plan, to be carried out with fence and the Army Cadet League of Canada. There was a government funds and organized along co-operative princi­ branch of the Army Cadet League in Newfoundland which ples for the depressed area of Placentia Bay West. The provided summer camp facilities within the Province in addi­ first area chosen as a resettlement centre was Marystown. Ar­ tion to the national camp. Harry Rayner (1967), The Caribou nold's initial role in the project was that of cost-administrator, (Sept. 1977; Sept. 1978), ET (Aug. 12, 1981). BGR architect and director of the co-operative housing project in ARMY, CANADIAN. See MILITARY; MILITARY HIS­ Marystown, where fifty homes were to be built for resettled TORY. families. Soon after the project was begun she was also ap­ ARNOLD, GEN. BENEDICT pointed Secretary-Manager of the Placentia Bay Special Area (1741-1801). Soldier. Born Nor­ Development Corporation which had been established to fund wich, Connecticut. An experienced the project. Throughout the fall of 1939 work proceeded at mariner and merchant-trader who Marystown and by December 25 eight new homes had been often plied the waters between New completed under Arnold's supervision by the men who were England and Newfoundland, Arnold to live in them with their families. Unable to continue build­ joined the American forces follow­ ing through the winter, Arnold went to St. John's in January ing the outbreak of the American 1940, where she was appointed cost administrator of all Revolution. In May 1775 as a mili­ government-funded resettlement projects. As a result of war­ tia officer he led the attack on the time cutbacks, however, the resettlement scheme for Placen­ Benedict Arnold. British Fort Ticonderoga with Ethan tia Bay was cancelled in the spring of 1940. Mary Arnold re­ Allen. Later in the war as a general of the American army he signed from her positions in July 1940 and left Newfoundland is credited with having Jed the forces who won the important soon after to return to the United States where she continued battle of Bemis Heights on October 7, 1777. Following treat­ her work in the organization of co-operatives. She died on ment from fellow patriots which he considered unjust, he de­ May 23, 1968 in Middletown, Pennsylvania. Lillian Bouzane serted to the British army in 1780 and soon after led the Brit­ (1976), A.R. Semeraro (letter, Mar. 1979), Mary Ellicott Ar­ ish forces who burned the city of Richmond, Virginia. For nold Collection. CFH this his name has become synonymous in the United States ARNOLD'S COVE (inc. 1967; pop. 1976, 1160). A fishing with the word "traitor." community located at the head of Placentia B~e Following the war Arnold returned to being a merchant and Isthmus of Avalon. It is not known when Arnold's Cove was established a small business in New Brunswick. In the fall of first settled, but its name appeared in the first Census, 1836. 1786 he set out for England to fetch his family and take them In that year the total population of"Arnold 's Cove ana the two back to New Brunswick. As St. John's was a likely port to nearby communities of Bourdeaux and Come by Chance find a ship bound for England he travelled to the town, and (with which it is grouped in the 1836 Census) amounted to while there met George Cartwright qv who was also on his ~ forty. Throughout the Nineteenth Century the cod way to London after his long stay in Labrador. Both ap­ fishery supplied the people of the community with their main parently enjoyed each other's company and they agreed to source of income. Until the second half of the century the share a cabin on the brig John of Teignmouth, England. They fishery was carried out close to shore near Arnold's Cove. In stored on board for their own use across the Atlantic two later years fishing for cod was prosecuted farther out in the sheep, several hens, a good supply of vegetables and other Bay and probably off *Cape St. Mary's qv as well. Salmon provisions. On their way a strong storm in mid-Atlantic hit fishing, carried on close to shore, was also prosecuted in a the vessel and both their sheep drowned in the longboat in limited way in some years. In addition to these two fisheries which they were stabled. Most of the ship's provisions, in­ the lobster fishery became a profitable sideline in the late cluding a large amount of the fresh water, were swept over the 1800s. side. During the Nineteenth Century the community grew stead­ Cartwright later recalled the experiences on board in his ily. In 1845 twenty-three people were reported living there. journal. According to Cartwright, following the storm the By 1891 there-were ninety-six. A small, one-room school had 76 ARNOLD'S COVE, ARSAC DE TERNAY

A mold's Cove.

been established in_1863 and a Church of England church was the 1960s. In 1967 Arnold's Cove became a Local Improve­ built around the same time. By the tum of the century-- a Salva- ment District and in 1971 it elected its flrst Town Council. tion Army church had also been erected. Three years later a Fire Department was established. During For much of the Twentieth Century Arnold's Cove re­ this period a large school accommodating all grades was built mained a small fishing community. In the early years of the to replace the previous two-room building and a new library century the lobster fishery continued to be prosecuted, and by was also built. In 1981 there were four churches in the com­ 1911 there were fifteen small lobster factories in the commu­ munity: Anglican, Salvation Army, United Church of Canada nity. Lobster in the area was over-exploited, however, and the and Pentecostal. Glenis Brinston (1975), H.C. Brown (1974), catch diminished yearly. By about 1930 this fishery had col­ Clyde Guy (interview, Feb. 1981), Bruce Wareham (inter­ lapsed. In the next decade, though, it was revived and since view, Feb. 1981), Census (1836-1976), ET (Sept. 9, 1978), then it has continued to be prosecuted. Cod continued to be JHA (1857-1911 passim), Newfoundland Historical Society fished near shore as well as farther out in Placentia Bay, and (Arnold's Cove), The Packet (Oct. 4, 1979), Statistics Fed­ herring was also fished. In winter many men also did woods eral-Provincial Resettlement Program (1975?). Map H. work for the Anglo-Newfoundland Development Company of CFH Grand Falls. ARRAS. Located in France, the site of a battle in April, 1917. In the late 1960s and early 1970s the population of The Hindenburg Line ran from Arras southward to a point on Arnold's Cove increased substantially. In that period, with as­ the Aisne. During the battle ten Newfoundlanders, com­ sistance from the Federal-Provincial Resettlement Program, a manded by Lieutenant-Colonel James Forbes-Robertson, total of 620 people or 139 families resettled from numerous stopped the enemy from taking the main objective, Monchy. isolated communities including Haystack, Little Paradise, General de Lisle commented that had Monchy been taken Brookside, Isle Valen, Harbour Buffett and Woody Island. 40,000 troops would have been needed to recapture it. New­ Since then employment has been provided by two major foundlanders received the following awards: the Distin­ sources. During the late 1960s and early 1970s the Come by guished Service Order, the Military Cross and the Military Chance qv Oil Refinery employed large numbers of men from Medal. The Regiment was awarded Battle Honours for this the town. When this closed the majority returned to work in engagement and ''Arras'' was approved for emblazonment on the fishing industry. Between 1967 and 1978 National Sea the Regimental colours. G.W.L. Nicholson (1964). CMB Products operated a small processing plant in the community, ARSAC DE TERNA Y, CHARLES-HENRI-LOIDS D' which cured herring and marketed fresh and salt cod and live (1723-1780). French Naval Officer. Born Angers, France? lobsters. The operation employed roughly eighteen full-time Charles-Henri-Louis d' Arsac de Temay was admitted as a workers and thirty-two part-time workers and provided a page to the Knights of Malta in 1737 and eventually took steady market for fish .products of the community. monastic vows in the order. In 1978 National Sea began construction of a large new In 1738 he enlisted in the midshipman's corps and subse­ plant with freezers. When completed in 1979 it was equipped quently attained the rank of captain by 1761. According to to process many under-utilized species such as squid, mack­ G.C. Salagnac (DCB IV) Arsac de Ternay was secretly en­ erel and lumpfish, as well as cod and herring. By 1981 the trusted with the task of seizing the garrison of St. John's act­ fish processing plant was employing approximately two ing in the interests and as agent of the French Minister of hundred people and was buying from the approximately fifty War, Marine and Colonies, Due de Choiseul, but D.W. fishermen who operated from Arnold's Cove in a fleet of Prowse (1895) is of the opinion that Count D'Haussonville about fifteen longliners, and numerous smaller craft. was responsible for the French sortie in 1762. Prowse holds Employment for people in the community is also provided "Admiral" Temay guilty of deserting over 553 French fusi­ by the Electric Reduction Company plant at Long Harbour liers and officers on the evening of September 15, 1762. Lord and the service industry based in Arnold's Cove itself. Colville (cited in Prowse) reported this act as an escape tactic As a result of the growth of population in Arnold's Cove made by Temay's ships in a thick fog. After the land capture many services have been established in the community since of St. John's by the French on June 27, 1762 a British squad- ARSAC DE TERNAY, ART 77 ~~ ron was dispatched to assault the garrison under the command pamtmg in the English settlements of Newfoundland and of Lieutenant-Colonel William Amherst qv. The rendezvous Nova Scotia lagged behind that in French Canada" (p. 26). of Amherst's and Colville's fleets in September 1762 caused He suggests that art developed so slowly in Newfoundland be­ dissension among the French command. cause, dominated by the cod fishing industry, it supported a Salagnac maintains that Ternay executed a partial retreat population only during the fishing season, and that "Frontier from Fort William which he reversed at the approach of the English churches and chapels were austerely simple, lacked English fleet on September 12, 1762. Ternay then suggested a carvings and painting, and contrasted sharply with the lux­ full retreat from the fort and harbour and the eventual escape uriously decorated Catholic churches in New France.'' of the French garrison. Count D'Haussonville, however, Early painters of Newfoundland were thus not native-born maintained the garrison at strength and as a result the entire artists. In 1690 a prominent painter of Dutch origin, Gerard garrison was forced to surrender to the British force, their Van Edema, visited the Grand Banks and spent the summer in only retreat hampered by the escape of Ternay's vessels on Newfoundland, sketching. Upon returning to England, Van the evening of September 15, 1762. Edema made full-sized paintings from these sketches and sold Ternay eventually returned to Brest in January 1763 but them to merchants with some interest in the Newfoundland was not reprimanded for the retreat from St. John's. In 1776 fishery. Though Van Edema did paint the first landscapes of he was appointed Rear-Admiral of the French Navy after at­ Newfoundland it was not until recently that any of his can­ taining ranks of Commandant General, Isle de France and Isle vases were seen in North America. John T. Serres, the marine Bourbon, and Brigadier of the naval forces in 1771. artist, also sketched in Newfoundland at the close of the Eigh­ Ternay died of typhus in 1780 while his ship was blockaded teenth Century. by a British fleet at Newport during the American War of In­ "A View of St. John's" painted in 1798 by H.P. Brenton dependence. See CLERON D'HAUSSONVILLE, JOSEPH­ and reproducted in D.W. Prowse's History of Newfoundland LOUIS-BERNARD DE COMTE D'HAUSSONVILLE; (1895) exemplifies the kind of work done by some fifty Brit­ CUCKHOLD'S COVE. DCB (IV) D.W. Prowse (1895), ish officers serving in Newfoundland and Eastern and Central (1979), David Webber (1974). WCS Canada who were competent water-colour topographers. ARSENIC. Arsenic (As) is a greyish white element having a Peter Mellen ( 1978) writes that "Topography was a popular metallic luster, volatilizing when heated and forming poi­ art form in the eighteenth century and was practised by many sonous compounds. It is often found in the mineral form in of the British military officers who learned it as a regular part combination with iron as arsenic sulfide (FeAsS), or arseno­ of their military training. In war time it was used as a means pyrites as it is commonly called, in silver-white to steel-grey of documenting fortifications and battles, and in peace time it crystals or masses. Arsenopyrites have been detected in sev­ was considered to be a 'gentlemanly pursuit,' along with fish­ eral areas of Newfoundland including the gold-bearing depos­ ing, hunting, and having elegant picnics with the ladies" its at Ming's Bight and Rose Blanche, and the copper deposits (p. 104). Some of these topographers showed a sensitivity to near the Bay of Islands, Bonavista Bay, Bay d'Espoir and Lit­ the environment they were painting that was not reflected in tle Bay. The major deposit of arsenopyrites in Newfoundland, Canadian painting again until Newfoundland-born Maurice however, is in conjunction with the gold deposits in the More­ Cullen qv began to paint the Canadian winter. ton's Harbour area of Notre Dame Bay. In 1898 J.P. Howley By the early Nineteenth Century various schools had been reported that 127 tonnes (125 tons) of arsenopyrites were re­ set up by the denominational missions across the Island, and moved from Stewart's Mine at the Moreton's Harbour deposit in St. John's there were occasionally academies that offered, and shipped to Nova Scotia during 1897. Captain Stewart, besides a classical education, instruction in the rudiments of who owned the mine, did further work on the deposit and an painting. By mid-Century the school system was more estab­ assay was carried out on the ore which reported it to be: lished and the various denominational schools began to ac­ Silica 3. 98 % quire qualified music and art teachers from abroad. Ray Perlin Lime .97 notes in ''Art in Newfoundland'' ( 1967) that in 1873 J. W. Ni­ Phosphoric Anhydride .14 chols, F.S.A., was brought from England to teach at the Wes­ Manganese Dioxide 2.39 leyan Academy (later to become the Methodist Academy), Metallic Iron 47.64 and after thirteen years with the Academy he founded the St. Sulfur 29.11 John's School of Art, probably the first school in Newfound­ Metallic Arsenic 15.717 land to teach art exclusively. Students at J. W. Nichols' school Loss .053 sat for the examination of the Royal Drawing Society of Great Britain. Amateur Newfoundland artists such as W.F. Rennie 100.00 % and J. W. Hayward, who contributed sketches to North Amer­ The deposits of arsenopyrites in Newfoundland are of little ican weeklies for engraving, probably received their instruc­ commercial value and no major work has been done towards tion at the school. mining the product since 1900. C. Douglas (1976), J.P. How­ Maurice Cullen qv was born in St. John's in 1866 but at the ley (1917a; 1917c), A.K. Snelgrove (1953), Mineral Re­ age of about four years he and his parents moved to Montreal. source Development Province of Newfoundland and Labra­ Cullen eventually moved even farther afield to study painting dor (1966). BGR in Paris. In 1894, when he exhibited at the Paris Salon with ARSON. See POLICE. another Newfoundland-born painter, Margaret Campbell­ ART. Despite Newfoundland's unique culture and history, early MacPherson, the French Government bought one of his paint­ art work is scanty. J. Russell Harper in his Painting in Can­ ings. Despite assured success in France he returned to Mon­ ada (1977), writes that "seventeenth- and eighteenth-century treal the next year. Inspired by the Impressionists he 78 ART concerned himself with light and colour and began to paint and had begun classes in Art History at the College, as well as Canadian landscapes, especially Canadian winters, as they mounting several exhibitions for students and the general pub­ had never been painted before. He strongly influenced the lic. The Art Students' Club filled a void created by the demise Group of Seven: A. Y. Jackson has said that the Group of of the Newfoundland Society of Art. Between 1941 and 1954 Seven were more strongly influenced by Cullen than by Mor­ the Club held thirteen exhibitions, including an exhibition of rice, generally held to be Canada's greatest painter of the the paintings of men in the Armed Forces. Despite the activi­ time. Cullen's step-son, Robert Pilot, became President of the ties of the Society of Art and the Art Students' Club, Robert Royal Canadian Academy, and like Cullen returned to paint Ayre, editor of Canadian Art in 1949, wrote that not only had in Newfoundland. Maurice Prendergast qv of the "ashcan" Newfoundland left the painting of her ' 'rugged landscape to school, although born in St. John's, left with his parents as an outsiders and amateurs" but that a lack of facilities and edu­ infant and never returned to paint in the island. cation in art "has hindered the development of painting John Vincent qv born in Cape Freels in Bonavista Bay in beyond the dabbling stage. " Ayre credited Harold Good­ 1885 is another Newfoundland "export." Vincent studied at ridge, then an active member of the Art Students Club and an the Boston Institute of Technology and won a trip to Europe exhibiting artist, with "vigorous water-colours" and called for a design for a two-million-dollar railway station, and J.R. Ewing's profile of Captain Bob Bartlett " impressive in $5,000 for a drawing of a projected $15,000,000 Nebraska its native simplicity and dignity" (in Rae Perlin: 1967). In State Capitol. He studied in Florence with John S. Sargeant 1950 a brief presented by the St. John's Art Club to the Royal and went on to paint portraits of Theodore Roosevelt, Pope Commission for National Development of the Arts and Let­ Puis XI and King George VI. In 1913 he drew up plans for ters supported Robert Ayre's assessment of a year earlier. *Cochrane Street Methodist (United) Church qv. Vincent In 1949 Helen Parsons Shepherd and Reginald Shepherd worked mostly in the United States, where he gained a reputa­ qqv , recent graduates of the Ontario College of Art, opened tion for his lithographs and portraits. the Newfoundland Academy of *Art qv. The Academy of­ In the 1920s Dorothy Ayre ·and Gwen Meux (Mews qv) be­ fered classes for children, classes in life drawing and portrait came important Newfoundland artists. Ayre studied at Byan instruction. In 1957, during a trip to Holland, Reginald Shep­ Shaw School, London, contributed to many local exhibitions, herd met and recruited for the Academy Hans Melis qv. Melis and in 1960 held a one-person show at the George V Institute offered courses in sculpture and was employed as the Govern­ in St. John's. Gwen Meux studied at Mt. Allison and caused a ment of Newfoundland Sculptor. In 1961 the Academy closed sensation with an exhibition of her " cubist" works at Mac­ because the Shepherds wanted more time for their own work. Nab and Company in St. John's. Hans Melis, however, joined the staff of the Arts Centre. Among the painters who came to Newfoundland for vary­ Begun by Fred Davies of the London Theatre Company, the ing periods of time were Frederic Edwin Church qv, Ernest Centre offered classes in speech, drama, and dance and, after Louison, George Pearce Ennis, a leading North American 1961, painting and sculpture taught by Melis. The Art Centre water-colourist who painted many Newfoundland scenes and offered a meeting place for artists, sponsored several exhibi­ held exhibitions there, Ethel Kazan of the Art Students tions, and published a magazine on the arts. Unfortunately, fi­ League in New York, Loren Harris, Arthur Lismer, and A.Y. nancial problems forced the Centre to close in 1963. Jackson (of the Group of Seven). Rockwell Kent, qv, the In 1952 the Government of Newfoundland instituted the American graphic artist and lithographer, worked in Brig us *Arts and Letters Competition qv to encourage the arts in where he resided with his family for over a year during World Newfoundland. Graphic Art adjudicators in the initial years War I. He was requested to leave by the government of that included, among others, Robert Pilot, La wren Harris Jr. , time because of suspected subversive activities, but in the Bruno Babak, and R.H. Hubbard. Outside of St. John's there 1960s returned to Newfoundland upon the invitation of the was some intermittent activity in Art. From 1951 to 1955 Premier, J.R. Smallwood. The result of Kent's visit in the Grand Falls held four exhibitions by Jean Ball and Stephanie sixties was After Long Years, published in 1968. According to Edwards. In Gander a Palette Club was founded by Terry John F. H. Gorton, Director of the Rockwell Kent Legacies, Gibson and operated for a year. the house pictured in And All Women Must Weep is the one In 1960 the Art Gallery Association of Newfoundland was Kent and his family occupied at Brigus. formed to stimulate interest in exhibitions and to support all The Newfoundland Society of Art (1925-1936) grew out of progress towards a Provincial art gallery. A permanent collec­ the art exhibitions held by the *Old Colony Club qv to raise tion of art of the Memorial University St. John's Art Gallery funds for their other activities. The Society sponsored exhibi­ began when Christopher Pratt qv had charge of the Gallery tions of local work, paintings from the Maritimes, Canadian under the Arts Committee of the University. In 1963 Peter water-colours and British posters lent by the National Gallery Bell qv succeeded Pratt as Artist-in-residence and was eventu­ of Canada, and of works by Robert Pilot, Frank Keating, ally appointed Curator of the gallery. Under Bell the collec­ Dorothy Ayre, and other Newfoundland artists living outside tion grew in size and quality. In 1966 Bell joined with other Newfoundland. The Society also sent exhibitions elsewhere. Maritime curators to form the Atlantic Provinces Art Circuit. An exhibition was sent to the Imperial Institute of Kensing­ In 1973 Edythe Goodridge qv became Acting Curator of Me­ ton, London and works of local artists were sent to the Mari­ morial University Art Gallery and in 1976 she was appointed time Society's shows in Halifax. The Society closed under the Curator. strain of financial difficulties and with the deaths of the During the late 1960s nature artists (and Newfound­ founders. landers), Christopher Pratt and David Blackwood qv, began In 1940 the Art Students Club was founded by Muriel building a national reputation. Pratt is among the best-known Hunter, who had joined the Memorial College staff in 1932 contemporary Canadian artists and the best-known New- -·- ART, ARTS AND CULTURE CENTRES 79 foundland artist. He was born in St. John's in 1935 and in passing phase, that despite the slow and scanty beginnings of 1981 lived and worked in St. Mary's Bay. He works in the development of art in Newfoundland, it was at last finding its Newfoundland idiom, but his works are far from colloquial. place in reflecting and refming Newfoundland and Labrador' s While Paul Duval (1974) has put him in his book about high unique culture, history, and environment. Paul Duval (1974), realism in Canada, and some call Pratt a magic realist, Mi­ Michael Greenwood (1976/77), Sandra Gwyn (1976), J.R. chael Greenwood (1976/77) insists, "to associate (Pratt) with Harper (1977), Rae Perlin (1967), D.W. Prowse (1895), any kind of realist purpose is to completely misinterpret the Peter Mellen (1978). Lois Brown nature of an art concerned with determining qualities of expe­ ART ASSOCIATION OF NEWFOUNDLAND AND LAB­ rience" (pp. 30-33). Pratt is unique among Canadian realists RADOR. See ART. in the concern most of his works have with confronting the ART, NEWFOUNDLAND ACADEMY OF. The Province's viewer, and his own concern with self-awareness and refine­ first art school, the Newfoundland Academy of Art, was ment. David Blackwood was born in Wesleyville and al­ founded in 1949 by Reginald Shepherd qv and Helen Parsons though his prints are of uniquely Newfoundland subject mat­ Shepherd qv, two young Newfoundland graduates of the ter he lived in 1981 , in Ontario. His physical distance from Ontario College of Art. Located on Cochrane Street in St. his subject matter allows him to paint from memories of his John's, it was open nearly full-time with day and night classes childhood. His prints depict the Newfoundland of a previous for adults and Saturday classes for children. Still life, figure era. drawing and portrait instruction were given by the Shepherds, In 1976 Sandra Gwyn wrote an article for Saturday Night and there were occasional lectures on water-colour by Harold magazine, "The Newfoundland Renaissance." It sharply Goodridge, art appreciation by Muriel Hunter, and perspec­ contrasted with the picture of the Newfoundland art commu­ tive by John Maunder. The classes were very popular and an­ nity described by Richard Ayre in 1949. Gwyn wrote that at nual exhibitions of work were held. The school shut down for the beginning of the 1970s Newfoundland art meant Christo­ one year during 1956-1957 when the Shepherds went to pher Pratt and, though not as well-known, David Blackwood. Europe. In Holland they met Hans Melis who subsequently In 1976 Gwyn said, Pratt was more "the elder statesman" to joined the Academy as a full-time instructor in sculpture. Al­ about twenty-four or twenty-five full-time professionals. though it was not a diploma school the Academy greatly en­ Gwyn praised Mary Pratt qv, Christopher Pratt's wife, a real­ couraged the development of visual arts in the Province, and ist who concerns herself with light and colour. In 1975 Mary many of Newfoundland's practising artists and art teachers Pratt exhibited paintings in the National Gallery of Canada studied there. Eventually the two founders felt the need to de­ with six other artists. Gwyn also named Peter Bell (who was vote more time to their own work. When the Academy closed not only curator of the University Art Gallery but a print­ in 1961 , after twelve years of operation, it had an enrolment maker and art critic); Gerry Squires, (born in Change Islands of 120 students, its highest ever. PAG in 1937, who opened Headland Studios in 1973 with sculptor, ARTISANS GUILD, NEWFOUNDLAND CREATIVE. The Stewart Montgomerie); and Frank Lapointe, Heidi Ober­ Newfoundland Creative Artisans Guild was formed in 1972 heide, and Don Wright (who joined the staff of Memorial's by a group of people interested in promoting Newfoundland Extension Services Department in 1967 as Specialist-in-Art). hand-made articles by providing a sales outlet for such work. In 1981 there were many other exhibition painters in the The Guild was registered as a co-operative on May 31 , 1972 Newfoundland community: George Noseworthy, an experi­ and in June opened a retail outlet, The Cod Jigger, on Duck­ menting artist who established an art centre for children in worth Street in St. John's. This store sold a great variety of Hibbs Cove; Rae Perlin, a painter and art critic, who at one merchandise including silver and labradorite jewelry, knitted time published reviews in The Daily News and who studied goods, paintings, wood carvings and ceramics. In 1981 the with Samuel Brecher and Hans Hofman in New York and store was supplied with goods from about 500 artisans later studied in Paris; Jon Wilkerson, a winner of the New­ throughout Newfoundland and Labrador. In that year there foundland and Labrador and Letters Competition, who lived were approximately 100 Guild members represented by an in Brigus and made prints of such familiar objects as the kil­ elected executive which met once every two months. A gen­ lick; Scott Goudie, who had just begun a career as a print eral meeting of the co-operative's membership was held each maker but had already had two one-man exhibitions and who year. RDP was first commissioned by the St. John's Heritage Foundation ARTS AND CULTURE CENTRES. In 1981 there were five and featured St. John's architecture; and Carl Stevenson, government-operated Arts and Culture Centres in the Prov­ Maureen Greene, Paul Parsons, Ron Pelley and Scott Butt, ince, one each in St. John' s, Gander, Grand Falls, Corner who were also gaining good reputations for their work. Brook and Stephenville. Built during the late 1960s and early In February 1974 at Queen's College, Memorial Univer­ 1970s, the centres are intended to provide a setting for the de­ sity, an Arts Council was established with a ten member exec­ velopment of the arts in Newfoundland. Three of the centres utive. Though this soon dissolved, on December 14, 1979 the contain libraries or library storage areas, all house art galleries Newfoundland Government announced the founding of the or exhibition areas which are operated by Memorial Univer­ Newfoundland and Labrador Arts Council, a body to admin­ sity of Newfoundland Art Gallery, and all have theatres, ister grants to artists. Edythe Goodridge was its first director which are used for everything from puppet shows to ballets. and in 1981 she was succeeded by Ken Pittman, at one time ST. JOHN'S. As the Province's principal Centennial Year an art consultant in the Department of Education. The estab­ project the Newfoundland Government built the St. John's lishment of a grant-giving body administered by persons who Centre during the 1960s at a cost of eight million dollars, two were part of the Newfoundland art community was to ensure and a half million of which was provided by the Canadian that the " renaissance" described by Gwyn was more than a Government. The building, which was designed by the Mon- 80 ARTS AND CULTURE CENTRES GANDER . The Gander centre was built in two phases the first of which was completed in 1971 and the second in 1977 at a total cost of two and a half million dollars. The first sec­ tion of the building completed is a reassembled portion of the Expo '67 Czechoslovakian pavillion, which was redesigned by the architectural firm of Dobush, Stuart, Burke and Barlow to contain a swimming pool, classroom and cafeteria. The second portion of the building, designed by Barlow and Asso­ ciates of St. John's, was officially opened by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, in 1977, and consists of a mobile library storage room, an art gallery and a 408-seat theatre, which has been used by a wide variety of performers including the National Ballet of Canada and the Canadian Opera Company. Attendance at the theatre in 1980 was 25,000. The centre's fa­ cilities also include rooms for the Boys' and Girls' Club of Gander. treal architects of Affleck, Desbarets, Lebensold and Sise and GRAND FALLS . The Arts and the St. John' s firm of Campbell and Cummings, took two Culture Centre of this town, years to construct and was officially opened during Centen­ like that of Gander, is a reas­ nial Year celebrations in May, 1967. The library section of sembled portion of the Czecho­ the building contains the main St. John's adult library, a chil­ slovakian pavillion which was dren's library and a reference library which houses a large redesigned by Dobush, Stuart, collection of Newfoundland material. As well the administra­ Burke and Barlow. It was com­ tive centre for the Province's public libraries is situated in the pleted in 1971 at a cost of two building as are the adrninistrati ve offices of the mobile library million dollars. It houses the services of the St. John's area. The centre also contains the Harms worth Library, which largest public art gallery of the Province, which exhibits contains a total of 17,000 works works of local, national and international travelling exhibit­ and which seats approximately ions. Notable showings at the gallery have included the Roth­ eighty people. The centre's man's Collection and the works of Henry Moore and Christo­ theatre, which has 392 seats, pher Pratt. Two theatres are situated in the centre: a main has been used by the Royal Winnipeg Ballet, the Canadian theatre with seating for 1017 and a smaller theatre, the "Base­ Opera Company and Canadian Brass, among others. Atten­ ment Theatre," which has seating for sixty. Performances dance there in 1980 was approximately 25,000. There is also held at the centre have included those of the National Ballet of an art exhibition area in the Centre. Canada, the Comedie Franc;aise, Victor Borge, Stephan Gra­ CORNER BROOK. Completed in 1968 as a Centennial Year pelli and Dame Vera Lynn. Attendance at the theatre in 1980 project the Arts and Culture Centre of this city was built with totalled 152,000. A craft training school, a Newfoundland funds from the Government of Newfoundland, Bowater New­ Sports Exhibition, a restaurant and lounge are all housed in foundland Limited and Lundrigans Limited of Comer Brook, the Centre. and was designed by Dobush, Stuart, Burke and Barlow. The

centre contains an art exhibition area, a swimming pool and a 385-seat theatre which has been the site of performances by a large number of performers such as Maureen Forrester and the Royal Winnipeg Ballet. Shows at the theatre in 1980 were at­ tended by approximately 25,000 people. - ; .... ARTS AND CULTURE CENTRES, ASBESTOS 81 JL STEPHENVILLE. The centre in this town is a former military rials); best original musical score (vocal, instrumental, choral building of the Harmon Air Force Base which was redesigned or orchestral); best colour photograph; best black and white as an arts centre by the Newfoundland Government's archi­ photograph. tect, Dr. E.A. Steinbrink. Completed in 1975 at a cost of In 1966, acting on a suggestion from the Canadian Au­ $1,200,000, it contains an art exhibition area, meeting rooms thors' Association, the Government funded a banquet in order and a 448-seat theatre, which has been used by such perform­ to present medals to the winners in all categories of the com­ ers as the Canadian Opera Company, the Good Brothers and petition. The tradition has continued with the medal presenta­ the Royal Winnipeg Ballet. Attendance at the theatre's perfor­ tions usually made by a Minister of the Crown. mances totalled in 1980 approximately 25,000. Several people who later received acclaim in their fields Margaret Down (interview, July 1981), Laura Lush (inter­ took part in this competition over the years, such as Gregory view, July 1981), Sadie Maloney (interview, July 1981), J. Power, Christopher Pratt, David Blackwood, Michael F. G.W. Neil (interview, July 1981), John Perlin (1975; inter­ Harrington, and Gary Saunders. Elizabeth Dunphy (inter­ view, July 1981), Rae Perlin (1967), R.J. Petrie (interview, view, 1979), ET (May 3, 1951; June 5, 1980). CMB July 1981), Betty Wyatt (interview, July 1981), The Arts and ARTS, RESOURCE CENTRE FOR THE. A non-profit Culture Centre, St. John's, Newfoundland (n.d.), From This charitible organization incorporated as The Resource Founda­ Perspective (1981). CFH tion for the Arts a limited company November 21, 1972 by ARTS COUNCIL, NEWFOUNDLAND AND LABRADOR. Christopher Brooks, John Doyle and Lynn Lunde. The foun­ The group was originally organized in February 1974 at dation utilized the resources of the Longshoremen's Protec­ Queen's College, Memorial University. According to Barbara tive Union (L.S.P.U.) Hall on Victoria Street which they Doran (1978) the society, which consisted of a ten-member leased in 1975, and subsequently purchased in June 1976, as a executive, was organized to develop interest in and educa­ theatre and cultural centre for the arts. From 1972 to 1979 the tional promotion of the performing, media, environmental, Resource Foundation for the Arts mainly sponsored the activi­ and folk arts in the Province. The initial group collapsed be­ ties of the Mummers Theatre Troupe. In September 1979 a cause of a lack of funds for programmes. On December 14, new executive opened the Foundation to public membership 1979 Charles Power, Minister of Tourism, Recreation and and the Foundation's name was changed to The Resource Culture, announced the formation of the first Arts Council for Centre for the Arts. In 1981 the Centre was funded by operat­ Newfoundland and Labrador. This body, organized under ap­ ing and programme grants from the Newfoundland and Labra­ pointed Executive Director Edyth Goodridge, was established dor Arts Council and the St. John's Municipal Council, with to promote the arts, assist professional artists, provincial ama­ the remainder of funding coming from space rental and pro­ teur organizations, and to act as a consulting body for Gov­ ceeds from the box office sales. Derek Butt (interview, Nov. ernment. The Arts Council is responsible for the administra­ 1980), Barbara Doran (1978), Fran Locke (interview, Nov. tion of provincial grants to the Arts. 1980), Ann Narvaez (interview, Aug. 1981). WCS On January 27 and 28, 1980 the council ratified the twelve­ ASARCO (AMERICAN SMELTING AND REFINING person committee appointed in December 1979. Bill 56, for COMPANY.) See MINING the formation of the Arts Council of Newfoundland and Lab­ ASBESTOS. This is a general term applied to any mineral rador, received passage in the House of Assembly on May 22, which possesses a fibrous crystalline structure and which can 1980. Edyth Goodridge (interview, May 1980), Debbie Petite be processed into flexible fibres and spun into heat-resistant (interview, June 1980), The Week in Review (Dec. 14, 1979). materials, such as those which are used in the manufacture of wcs brake linings and asbesto-cement pipe. Five such minerals are ARTS AND LETTERS COMPETITION. In February 1951 mined in the world. Asbestos, in Canada, however, com­ the Arts and Letters Competition came into being by an Order monly refers to the most highly valued industrial type of as­ in Council of the Government of Newfoundland. In an an­ bestos, the fibrous variety of serpentine qv , called chrysotile, nouncement in the Evening Telegram on May 3, 1951 the which is mined in Newfoundland, Quebec and British Colum­ Government described it as "an endeavour to broaden the bia, and until recently was mined in the Yukon and Ontario. scope of activities and develop a greater interest in the Arts In Newfoundland chrysotile occurs in a number of small de­ and Letters." It offered awards in the following categories: posits and on the Baie Verte Peninsula in one major deposit. best historical account of neglected periods of the Island's Small deposits of other types of asbestos (tremolite, actinolite history, best original poem, best short story, best portrait and crocidolite) also occur throughout the Province. painting (12 X20 ins); best landscape or mural setting During the early 1890s interest was aroused in the chryso­ (12 x 20 ins); best script (musical or literary) adapted for tile deposits of the Port-au-Port Bay and Bay of Islands area radio presentation, best play written and/or produced (produc­ when world markets for the product began to expand. A tion 1'h hours minimum), award - $200, second choice - number of foreign-owned companies and local individuals $100; more than $2,000 in prize money was offered. started prospecting for the mineral in the area soon after­ Since 1951 the Arts and Letters Competition has been very wards. By 1896, however, only $5,200 worth of asbestos had successful in achieving its aims. Some new categories have been exported from Newfoundland. Work on at least two been added, others broadened. Some examples of the addi­ mines had been begun, but because of the difficulty in trans­ tions made to the categories are best essay and feature article; porting materials to and from the mine sites the mines were best original painting in oil, tempra, acrylic, watercolour; best abandoned. Asbestos mining in Newfoundland then virtually original graphic art category (drawing, serigraph, etching, ceased until 1963, when Advocate Mines Limited began lithograph or blockcut); best sculpture (in clay, stone, wood, open-pit mining and milling of large chrysotile deposits, dis­ plaster, metal, fabric, fibreglass or any combinations of mate- covered in 1955 near the town of Baie Verte qv. Still operat- 82 ASBESTOS, ASCENSION COLLEGIATE ing in 1980, Advocate Mines, which employed approximately Hill), it was decided to call the new school Ascension Colle­ 550 people, was the only producer of asbestos in the Atlantic giate. It opened for classes in September 1964 and on May Provinces. The following table shows the amount and value 28, 1965 Ascension Collegiate was officially opened and de­ of asbestos fibre produced yearly at the Baie Verte Mill from dicated by Bishop Meaden. Premier Joseph R. Smallwood the ore extracted at the Advocate Mines quarry (these figures took part in the ceremonies. It was during this official opening represent an approximate 3% recovery rate of asbestos fibre that the Ascension Collegiate School Hymn was first sung. from the asbestos ore mined): The hymn, approved as " theologically sound and inspira­ tional" by Bishop Meaden, was written by E.H. Vokey of YEAR QUANTITY OF ASBESTOS VALUE ($) Spaniard's Bay (E.H. Vokey: interview, 1981). Newman FIBRE Kelland became the first principal of the new school in Sep­ 1963 18,497 t (20,390 ST) 3,320,064 tember of 1964 and remained so until June of 1967. There 1964 46,552 t (51,315 ST) 6,355,578 were approximately 500 students attending the school each 1965 59,535 t (65,626 ST) 8,825,182 year, filling the nineteen classrooms. Students came from the 1966 51' 798 t (57,097 ST) 9,301,204 communities between Brigus and Upper Island Cove, al­ 1967 57,810t (63,725 ST) 10,499,143 though several of the smaller schools retained Grade 9 until 1968 62,762 t (69,183 ST) 11,844,605 1966-1967. Some schools kept Grades 9, 10, and 11 until in­ 1969 53,082 t (58,513 ST) 10,588,875 tegration in 1969. 1970 56,905 t (62,727 ST) 11,669,402 Subject Promotion was introduced into Newfoundland 1971 62,794 t (69,218 ST) 12,497,626 schools for the first time at Ascension Collegiate (Newman 1972 57,920 t (63,846 sn 10,841,820 Kelland: interview, 1981). Administrators from the St. John's 1973 89,468 t (98,622 ST) 17 ,529,667 area kept a close watch on the method to decide whether or 1974 68,893 t (75,941 ST) 16,111,107 not to bring it to St. John's. It was an important implementa­ 1975 57,867 t (63,787 ST) 18,139,165 tion, for any student who failed a grade by only one or two 1976 89,017 t (98,124 ST) 34,445,154 subjects would not have to repeat the whole year. (With the 1977 64,758 t (71 ,384 ST) 29,449,609 reorganization of the high school programme and with the in­ 1978 36,850 t (40,620 ST) 18,381,495 troduction of Grade Twelve in 1981, no student will have to 1979 53,892 t (59,406 ST) not available repeat a grade. He will simply advance through the pro­ (Sources: Statistics Canada Catalogue 26-201 and Advocate gramme by doing thirty-six to forty-two credits over three Mines Limited, Baie Verte.) years.) C.M. Smith became the new principal in 1967, and it was Major markets for Baie Verte asbestos are located in West­ during this year that an Adult Education programme was in­ ern Europe and South America, where the asbestos is used in troduced which offered academic courses to allow adults from the manufacture of a number of products, including conduit communities in the area to continue their education. For the pipes and roofing materials. At the end of 1979 the reserves of first few years upgrading in Grades 8, 9, 10, and 11 was a pri­ asbestos ore on the Advocate Mines site were reported to be ority. During 1968-69, with William Hedderson as principal, sufficient to keep the mine operating for twenty years. See the integration of various denominational school boards took HEALTH. Hans Berger (1963), R.A. Clifton (1979), place, so that by 1969-1970 there were 634 students. C. Douglas (1976; 1976a) Moses Harvey (1894; 1897; During the night of November 11, 1974 (the eleventh year, 1897a), J.P. Howley (n.d.; 1917; 1917a; 1917b; 1917c), the eleventh month, the eleventh day, and during the eleventh Mercer and Gibbons ( 1980), N. L. Mercer (interview Mar. hour) Ascension Collegiate caught fire and burned to the 1980), John Young (interview, Mar. 1980), JHA (1894-95 ground. Within days the students were sent to other schools Appendix; 1896 Appendix; 1897 Appendix), Statistics Can­ under the jurisdiction of the Avalon North Integrated School ada Catalogues (26-201; 26-205). CFH Board, and a " shift" system was begun to accommodate ASBESTOS-RELATED DISEASES. See HEALTH. them. This system continued for a year and a half, the Adult ASCENSION COLLEGIATE. The first of a series of meet­ Education programme continuing its academic courses at Bay ings to discuss the possibility of a Regional High School for Roberts' Amalgamated school. In September 1976 a new the Bay Roberts qv area was called in December 1959. It was Ascension Collegiate opened on the site of the former school. decided to proceed, with part of the money coming from the The dedication and official opening ceremony took place on Department of Education and the rest to be raised by the vari­ Ascension Thursday, May 19, 1977, with an address given by ous school boards in the area. A canvassing campaign was Archbishop R.L. Seaborn. launched and much money was raised by church groups and In 1981 Ascension had twenty-three classrooms with mod­ other volunteers going from door to door. Several of the busi­ ern Music and Home Economics rooms, three Special Educa­ nesses in the area of Coqception Bay North donated large tion classrooms, a resource centre, modern Chemistry labs, a sums of money. A site was chosen at the top of Guyney 's Hill Mathematics lab, an Industrial Arts room, a double gymna­ in Bay Roberts on land which was then sold to the new school sium, and three seminar rooms for small groups projects. board by Harold Gosse. There were thirty-eight teachers on staff (though several of On October 8, 1961 nearly three thousand people witnessed these were shared with other schools in the area) and the total the official sod-turning ceremony by the Anglican Bishop of high school enrolment was 7 57. In 1981 the Adult Education Newfoundland, the Rt. Rev. J.A. Meaden qv. Because the programme offered over thirty courses, which included typ­ new school would be used for higher education (and some say ing, bookkeeping, extension courses and professional driver­ because the students were ascending to the top of Guyney's education courses for businesses with fleets of vehicles. On ASCENSION COLLEGIATE, ASHLEY 83 ~- Feb. 14, 1981 the school hosted Newfoundland's first Provin­ France, attaining the rank of Lieu­ cial Cheerleaders' Competition. Clement Drover (interview, tenant. Besides being the managing Jan. 1981), Harold Gosse (interview, Jan. 1981), William director of both Ash bournes Limited Hedderson (interview, Jan. 1981), Newm~n Kelland (inter­ and the former Ashbournes Fish­ view, Jan. 1981), Cecil Smith (interview, Jan. 1981), eries Limited of Twillingate, Ash­ E.H. Vokey (interview, Feb. 1981), Rev. E. Willis (inter­ bourne has had a lengthy career in view, Jan. 1981), DN (Oct. 13, 1961), Department of Educa­ politics: he served as Member of the tion (Division of Vital Statistics). Gordon A. Francis House of Assembly for Twillingate ASH, AMERICAN MOUNTAIN. See MOUNTAIN ASH. from 1924 to 1928; he was a ASH, ERNEST (1894-1975). Radio member of the National Convention Pioneer. Born Harbour Grace. Edu­ and a member of the National Con- Thomas G.W. Ashbourne. cated Church of England Schools, vention's Delegation to Ottawa in 1947; and after Confedera­ Harbour Grace. An electrician and tion he was elected Member of the House of Commons for amateur radio enthusiast, Ash was Grand Falls-White Bay-Labrador in 1949, 1953 and 1957. In founder and first president of the St. 1952 he also became Parliamentary adviser for the Canadian John's Radio Club in 1921. In 1923 Delegation to the United Nations General Assembly in Paris. he was issued the first Amateur Ex­ Newfoundland and Labrador Who's Who Centennial Edition perimental Licence, with the call ( 1968), Who's Who In and From Newfoundland 1927 (1927), letters 8AA. After the international Who's Who Silver Anniversary Edition 1974-1975 (1975), radio conference in Washington in Ernest Ash Yearbook (1925-1929). CFH 1927, which assigned special call letters to each country in the ASHLEY, JOSEPH DANIEL (1920- ). Born St. John's. world (Newfoundland being assigned VO) Ash's call letters Educated Holy Cross School; Memorial University College; became V08A. Because there were no regulations governing Sir George Williams University, Montreal. As an employee broadcasting he was able to use his station for commercial of the Newfoundland Railway Ashley became a journeyman purposes. See RADIO, AMATEUR. Ernest Ash (1937; let­ electrician and eventually earned his master electrician's li­ ter, Nov. 1960), J.R. Smallwood (1975), From Spark to cence. Following periods of work with the United States Gov­ Space: the Story of Amateur Radio in Canada (1968). ernment at Fort Pepperrell, St. John's; United Ship Yards, ELGM Montreal and Halifax, and the Merchant Marine in 1945 Ash- ASH, EUROPEAN MOUNTAIN. See MOUNTAIN ASH. ASH, SHOWY MOUNTAIN. See MOUNTAIN ASH. ASH TREES. Fraxinus (Oleaceae). The Black Ash (Fraxinus nigra Marsh.) is the only native Ash of the Province and is found on the Island in two areas: the west coast south of Bonne Bay and near Springdale on the north-east coast. It is a small tree with a narrow, open crown and a relatively tall, straight trunk covered with a soft, grey, scaly bark. Its twigs are grey, dull and stout, and its buds are dark brown. The leaves of the tree are opposite and pinnately compound, com­ posed of from seven to eleven oblong-lance-shaped, elliptic or inversely oval leaflets, each of which usually measures from 7.5 to 12.5 em (3 to 5 in) in length, is dark green above, finely-toothed, and long-pointed at the tip. Small tufts of hair occur at the junction of the rachis and the undersurface of the leaflet base. Only the terminal leaflet is stalked. The flowers, which appear in clusters in May or June, have no petals; they may be bisexual, male or female and all three types may occur on the same tree. The flat, oblong fruit, which matures by early autumn, consists of a seed surrounded by a thin wing. The fruit hang from the tree in clusters until late autumn or early winter when they begin to fall. The tree's wood is moderately hard, coarse-grained and dark brown. The Black Joseph Daniel Ashley Ash is found in moist soil, such as the soil of lakeshores. It is ley returned to Newfoundland to begin his own business, not of commercial importance in the Province. Joseph D. Ashley and Company (Ashley Electric Limited). E.R. Beams (1967), M.A.J. Collins (1978), H.A. Gleason As his business grew he ventured into other Canadian prov­ (1952, Ill), Asa Gray (1950), W .C. Grimm (1957), R.C. inces starting A.D.G. Enterprises Limited, Halifax in 1970. Hosie ( 1979), Mann and Hewett ( 1978), Ernest Rouleau By 1978 his operations had branches in Calgary, Alberta; and (1978), A.G. Ryan (1978), C.S. Sargent (1961). CFH Saint John, New Brunswick. In 1979 Ashley joined with two ASHBOURNE, THOMAS G.W. (1894- ). Politician and other businessmen to give fmancial support to the pioneer vol­ company executive. Born Twillingate. Educated Methodist ume of the Encyclopedia of Newfoundland and Labrador. College, St. John's; University of Toronto. During World J.R. Smallwood (1975), Newfoundland and Labrador Who's War I Ashbourne served with the Royal Garrison Artillery in Who Centennial Edition (1968). ELGM 84 ASHUANIPI AVIATION, ASPEY BROOK ASHUANIPI AVIATION. See AIR SERVICES. pany in logging. By 1977 a government wharf, breakwater ASHUANIPI RIVER. See CHURCIDLL RIVER. and gear storage shed had been built and fishing had once ASPEN BROOK PARK. See PARKS, PROVINCIAL. again become a full-time activity with between seven and ASPEN COVE, FOGO (pop. 1976, 253). A small exposed eight men reported fishing cod in 1976. This included a long­ cove located in the mouth of Hamilton Sound between Car­ liner crew and more part-time lobster fishermen (catch sold to manville qv to the west and Musgrave Harbour qv to the east, Beothic Fishery, V alleyfield). The remaining work force was the settlement is clumped in the only protected area behind a employed on seasonal construction crews (DA: Dec. 1976). small headland on the northwest side. According to local tra­ Since the 1950s there have been Jehovah's Witnesses in the dition, Aspen Cove, formerly called Aspey or Aspy Cove, is community which continues to be predominantly United named for the aspen trees that were once abundant in the area Church. Aspen Cove shares many recreational and other facil­ ("A Brief History of Aspen Cove": 1968). ities with nearby Ladle Cove. Since the late 1960s high school Aspen Cove is first recorded in the Census of 1857 with students have been bussed to schools in Carmanville. Robert thirteen inhabitants of one family whose living depended on Wells (1960), "A Brief History of Aspen Cove" ( 1968), the salmon fishery. According to oral tradition the first Census (1857-1976), DA (Dec. 1976), Lovell's Newfound­ settlers of Aspen Cove found the remains of a Beothuk land Directory (1871), Sailing Directions Newfoundland encampment on the shores of the cove. The first settler was (1980). Map F. JEMP from Fogo: Robert Shelly (later Shelley) from Hampshire, ASPEN COVE, RANDOM ISLAND. See PETLEY. England, who had come to Barr'd Islands, Fogo and had ap­ ASPEN, TREMBLING. See POPLARS. peared on the Slade Company qv records in 1825 as a salmon ASPEY BROOK (pop. 1976, 48). Known locally as Apsey fisherman. He continued to appear in account books trading Brook, this settlement is located on the shore of Random Is­ salmon, harp seal pelts, hay, calves, cattle, turnips and pota­ land at the mouth of a large brook between Snook's Harbour toes for tobacco, clothing, food, knives and fishing equip­ and Britannia qqv . Its name is most likely derived from the ment. After marrying Mary Cull of Barr'd Islands Shelley re­ presence of aspen trees near the brook, and local tradition portedly moved to Aspen Cove to prosecute the salmon maintains the first settlers, William Smith from Hants Har­ fishery about 1825 ("A Brief History of Aspen Cove") and bour qv and the Phillips family, settled in Aspey Brook in the his name appeared in the Slade records for the next forty-nine late 1800s to log and fish. There is some confusion about the years. It is conjectured that Shelley settled Aspen Cove about first census of the community as a contiguous community the same time John Day settled Rocky Bay (Carmanville) and named Aspen Cove was located a few kilometres away next to that these pioneers divided the fur (mainly fox) trapping terri­ Petley and of a similar size and nature to Aspey Brook. An tory from Rocky Harbour to Aspen Cove between them. Aspey Point was first recorded on the Census of 1884 with a Lovell's Newfoundland Directory (1871) lists two resident population of thirty-eight people; the community was pre­ fishermen in Aspen Cove: Robert Shelley and John Robinson. dominantly Methodist (with some Church of England ad­ From the 1870s to the early 1900s, new families were drawn herents) and engaged in lumbering, fishing and mining, prob­ to Aspen Cove to prosecute the cod and lobster fisheries: John ably at the Britannia slate quarries which operated from 1865 Coles from Hare Bay (Deep Bay), Fogo, Richard Falkner to 1909. Both Aspen Cove and Aspen Point are shown on the from Bonavista, a Stratton family from Greenspond qv , and Census of 1891 with thirty-three and forty-nine inhabitants re­ members of the Tulk family (from Newtown qv) most of spectively and in 1901 Aspey Brook, with a population of whom settled in Ladle Cove qv, the growing community be­ forty-five and Aspen Cove with a population of twenty-one, tween Aspen Cove and Musgrave Harbour qv. There was also are recorded. George Easton (Ragged Harbour) Job Smith (Lumsden qv) The early community of Aspey Brook had a diverse econ­ and Jesse Chaulk (Deadman's Bay qv) who by 1911 had re­ omy based on the industries of the Random Island area in the treated north to Aspen Cove against the advancing sand of the early 1900s. From c .1900 to the early 1950s employment was Straight Shore. available at the brickworks at Snook's Harbour and, until the By 1921 the population of Aspen Cove reached 104. A 1920s, three water-powered sawmills operated in Aspey Methodist school-chapel was built between 1902 and 1906 Brook and two at Snook' s Harbour. Logging and sawmilling which served the community until a new church was built in continued to be a mainstay of the economy and in 1981 two 1964. The economic base of the community had shifted from sawmills were reported to be operating in Aspey Brook. The salmon, fur and agriculture to cod, lobster and lumbering. timber was cut locally or bought from suppliers and the From the late 1880s to 1930s Aspen Cove residents, in order lumber picked up by trucks from Bay Roberts to supply the to prosecute the cod fishery , shifted to summer homes on Lit­ local building industry. The inshore cod and herring fisheries tle Fogo Islands, Peckford Island and the Wadham Islands, were also prosecuted almost exclusively until the 1970s when where a church and school were reportedly set up, ("A Brief capelin, squid and some turbot and flounder were caught. The History of Aspen Cove": 1968). Cod and lobster fishing and Aspey Brook catch was taken to Britannia where it was winter lumbering and sawmilling made up the bulk of the resi­ trucked to fish plants on the Bonavista Peninsula qv. The dents' incomes. With the coming of the Anglo-Newfoundland remaining workers in Aspey Brook commuted to jobs in Development Company in the late 1930s, logging provided Clarenville. the most lucrative and steady employment, (supplemented by In the early 1900s a Methodist school was built in Aspey summer lobster fishing) until 1961 when fire destroyed most Brook and the community shared the teac~er with Snook's of the forest reserves in the area. Although woods clearing Harbour with each community having the services of the provided employment during the 1960s, by the 1970s only a teacher for five months of the year. (R. Clarke: 1968). A few residents were employed by Price (Newfoundland) Com- church was built c .1926 and was served by the United Church -:; ASPEYBROOK,ATHENAEUM 85 ministers on the various Random Island circuits and United Church services were still held there in 1981. A new school replacing the old one (which was tom down) was in operation until the 1960s when Aspey Brook students were bussed to Shoal Harbour and Milton qqv. In 1981 students attended school at the new regional all-grade school at Hickman's Har­ bour qv. The population of Aspey Brook has remained rela­ tively stable; during the resettlement programme (1966-1975) one family, numbering five people, moved to Clarenville and several families were received in Aspey Brook from the reset­ tled communities of Deer Harbour, Ivanhoe and Ireland's Eye qqv. R. Clarke (1968), Hayward Smith (interview: 1981), Census (1884-1976), Sailing Directions Newfoundland ( 1980), Statistics: Federal Provincial Resettlement Program (1975?). Map H. JEMP ASSEMBLY, HOUSE OF. See HOUSE OF ASSEMBLY. ASSOCIATE OF ARTS. See SCHOOLS. ASSOCIATIONS. See key word headings. ASSYRIAN, THE. Lost at Cape Race in June, 1901, the Assyrian mistook the fog-whistle for that of another ship. This caused lighthouse whistles there to be replaced by horns. GL ASTON, SIR ARTHUR (jl.1625). Governor of George Calvert The Athenaeum. qv, Lord Baltimore's Province of Avalon, c.1625-1626. The sixty newspapers and twenty-two reviews and magazines by history of the early colonies in Newfoundland, including that 1881, and a small museum (which was sold to the Newfound­ of Lord Baltimore, is still not well documented. In the case of land Government in 1871 because of financial difficulties). Sir Arthur Aston, very little information is available. Accord­ The institute also organized weekly lectures which were given ing to Paul O'Neill (1977) Aston was a devout Roman Catho­ from January to Easter Sunday each year. Lectures were lic, who had been recommended to Baltimore by a fellow usually instructional and dealt with a number of topics: his­ Roman Catholic, a Father Stout, as a suitable person to gov­ tory, geography, science and philosophy, to name only a few. ern Baltimore's small Roman Catholic colony in Ferryland. Speakers were usually local lawyers, teachers or clergymen. According to the same author Aston subsequently Members of the House of Assembly were sometimes invited arrived in Ferryland in 1625. Keith Matthews (1968) differs to speak as well. Periodically concerts and readings replaced with this statement, claiming that Aston arrived one year the weekly lectures. later, in 1626, while M.F. Howley (1888) asserts that hear­ Managed by such notable persons as D. W. Prowse qv and rived in 1627. Information on his work as governor of the Rev. Dr. Moses Harvey qv, the society, like Athenaeum colony is lacking. According to O'Neill, who is the only au­ societies elsewhere in North America, drew most of thor to discuss Aston in any detail (though he gives no source) its members from the small, relatively wealthy and well­ the new governor had returned to England by the spring of educated classes. Membership in the society's reading room 1627, where he resigned from the position and joined the and library usually fluctuated between 270 and 300, while forces of the Duke of Buckingham in France. He died there subscribers to the course of lectures numbered approximately the same year. M.F. Howley (1888), Keith Matthews (1968), 300 during the time when the Athenaeum lectures were most Paul O'Neill (1977), Archives CO 1/10. No. 43. CFH popular. These numbers represent a very small part ( 1%) of ATALAYA. The United States BrigantineAtalaya was wrecked the population of St. John's at this time. near Renews on March 3, 1889. The only person saved was Before 1879 the society's rooms were located in a building her captain, Brown; the entire crew, including his son, was on Water Street. Plans for the construction of a new building lost. PAG to house the facilities for all the society's activities were ATHENAEUM, THE ST. JOHN'S. In 1861 the St. John's started in the 1860s, *Library Society qv, the Mechanics Institute and the Young and in November 1875 Men' s *Literary and Scientific Institute qv united to form the the cornerstone of the St. John's Athenaeum, a society whose aims were "the cul­ new building was laid tivation and diffusion of knowledge by the establishment and by Sir Hugh Hoyles qv maintenance of a Library and Reading Room, providing for on the site of the pres­ the delivery of popular lectures on Literary and Scientific sub­ ent day Newfoundland jects, organizing Classes for the instruction of young men, the Museum. Four years collection of Books of reference of Chemical and Philosophi­ later, at a cost of cal Apparatus, and of a Museum of Natural History, Models, $58,000, the large or- Drafts, Specimens, etc." (Statement of aims of the St. John's nate building, which The Athenaeum after the fire. Athenaeum quoted in Louise Whiteway: 1970-1971). contained several offices, a library, a reading room and an au­ Through the contributions of its founding societies the ditorium with seating for 1000, was completed. institute from its inception could offer its subscribers the use Twelve years after its completion the Athenaeum building of a 2,500 book library, a reading room which grew to contain was completely destroyed by the Great Fire of 1892. Compe- 86 ATHENAEUM, ATLANTIC DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL tition from smaller societies of the same kind had been caus­ ATLANTIC COLD STORAGE. See FISH PLANTS. ing some financial problems for the Athenaeum and the fire ATLANTIC CONFERENCE. The first meeting between lead­ made these problems worse. Although the society managed to ers of the Allied Nations in World War ll took place in August find new rooms in various buildings after the reconstruction 1941 at sea off Argentia qv. Franklin D. Roosevelt, President of St. John's, to restock its shelves with 1000 books and sev­ of the United States, and Winston S. Churchill, Prime Minis­ eral periodicals, and to resume lectures, it was unable to re­ ter of Great Britain, along with the Chiefs of Staff and naval gain its financial stability and in 1898 the society's officers and military commanders of the British Empire and the were finally forced to sell their reading material and cease their services. See MECHANICS INSTITUTES. Arthur Fox (1967), Louise Whiteway (1970-1971). CFH ATHENS OF THE NORTH. This is a name adopted by sev­ eral citizens of King's Cove, Bonavista Bay for that commu­ nity because a large number of the people from there had be­ come successful teachers, authors, lawyers, politicians, etc. These include people such as John, Maurice and Patrick De­ vine and Kenneth Brown qqv. J .R. Smallwood (interview, Jan. 1981). BGR ATHLETES. See SPORTS. ATHLETIC CLUB, AVALON. The Avalon Athletic Club was formed in 1908 to further wrestling as a sport in St. John's. Its site was the old "Hannah Barns School" on Flem­ ming Street. The club sponsored some of the first formal Roosevelt and Churchill in Placentia Bay. wrestling matches held in St. John's. Its Executive Directors were William O'D. Kelly, Ern Goodland, B. Mitchell and United States, sat in conference for three days. This was one Reg Dowden. Young Olsen was the coach and wrestling of the critical events of World War II since it preceded the tutor. Fred Marshall, one of the club's more prominent formal entry of the United States into the war, continued the members, was a well-known St. John's athlete. The club policy of aid to Great Britain and resulted immediately in the closed during the First World War. Wallace Furlong (1981; Atlantic Charter which proclaimed, in a joint press release, interview, May 5, 1981). DPJ the united ideological goals of Great Britain and the United ATHLETIC FACILITIES. See SPORTS FACILITIES. States. PAG ATKINSON, REV. THOMAS ATLANTIC DEVELOPMENT BOARD. The Board was WHITFIELD (1846-1925). Cler­ created by Act of Parliament in 1962 "to inquire into andre­ gyman. Born Dacre Ripley, Leeds, port to the Minister upon measures and projects for fostering England. Thomas Atkinson came to the economic growth and development of the Atlantic Region Newfoundland in 1872 and served of Canada.'' The Act was amended in 1963 to provide the in fifteen Newfoundland circuits of Board with a $100 million (subsequently increased to the Methodist Church during the $208, 750,000) Atlantic Development Fund, and to assign next forty years including Western responsibility to the Board for preparing ''an overall co­ Bay, Harbour Grace, Burin, ordinated plan for the promotion of the economic growth of Cupids, Hant' s Harbour, Catalina, the Atlantic Region." Although the plan was not brought to T. Whitfield Atkinson. Twillingate, and Green's Harbour. completion before the Board was abolished by the Govern­ He served as Financial Secretary Bonavista District ( 1879-81; ment Organization Act of 1969, which created the Depart­ 1905-06; 1907-08), Assistant Secretary of Conference ment of Regional Economic Expansion, the Board contri­ ( 1882), Financial Secretary Burin District ( 1889), Journal buted substantially to a number of development projects in the Secretary of Conference (1891) and was a Delegate to Gen­ Region. Newfoundland projects included the hydro-electric eral Conference (1894). In 1892 he was elected President of plant at Bay d'Espoir, trunk highways, water supplies for a the Newfoundland Conference of the Methodist Church. A number of fish processing communities and the phosphorous Century of Methodism in St. John's, Newfoundland (1915). plant at Long Harbour, and a number of technical and eco­ BGR nomic surveys and studies. James L. Miller ATLANTIC ADVOCATE. This magazine was begun in Sep­ ATLANTIC DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL. The Council is tember 1952 to publish articles, stories and photographs relat­ an advisory body to the Minister of Regional Economic Ex­ ing to the Atlantic Provinces of Canada and incorporated The pansion, and in effect retained the advisory role of the *Atlan­ Maritime Advocate, Busy East and the Atlantic Guardian qv. tic Development Board qv when that body was abolished and In 1981 the magazine was published by Brunswick Press, the Department of Regional Economic Expansion was created Fredericton, New Brunswick. Dawn Haines (letter, Nov. in 1969. The office of the Council was moved from Ottawa to 1980). CMB St. John's, Newfoundland in late 1973. Some of the Coun­ ATLANTIC CABLE. See CABLE, ATLANTIC. cil's advice to the Minister has been in the form of published ATLANTIC CHARTER. See ATLANTIC CONFERENCE. reports, including Manufacturing Opportunities in the Prov­ ATLANTIC COAST COPPER CORPORATION. See ince of Newfoundland and Labrador (1971), A Strategy for MINING. the Economic Development of the Atlantic Region, 1971-81 ATLANTIC COAST FISHERIES COMPANY. See FISH (1971), and The Atlantic Region of Canada- Economic De­ PLANTS. velopment Strategy for the Eighties (1978). James L. Miller ATLANIKi-IJEVELOPMENI., COUNCIL, ATLANIIC PROVINCES ECONOMIC COUNCIL 87 ATLANTIC FISH PROCESSORS. See FISH PLANTS. was made for the benefit of natural scientists as well as for the ATLANTIC FLIGHTS. See AVIATION. knowledge needed to lay submarine telegraph cables between ATLANTIC GUARDIAN. Three Newfoundlanders living in Britain and Newfoundland. During the Twentieth Century Quebec started this magazine in 1945. Ewart Young, as editor more sophisticated methods, such as echo sounders, have and publisher, and Brian Cahill and A.R. Scammell, both as- been used to gain further information about the make-up of sociate editors, released the first edition of the Atlantic the ocean's floor. See BANKS, MARINE; CABLE, AT- Guardian in February 1945. The primary objective of the LANTIC; CARTOGRAPHY; CONTINENTAL MARGIN; magazine was simply to provide information about New- EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY; PETROLEUM. foundland and Newfoundlanders. Published in Montreal, on CMB Lincoln Avenue, the periodical featured other Newfound- ATLANTIC PLACE. See SHOPPING MALLS. landers living abroad as contributing editors, people such as ATLANTIC PROVINCES. This name for the three Maritime Dr. E.J. Pratt qv, Dr. F. Fraser Bond and Dr. W.H. Hatcher Provinces and the Province of Newfoundland was coined by qv. Joseph R. Smallwood qv immediately after Newfoundland The Atlantic Guardian moved to St. John's, Newfoundland entered Confederation with Canada in 1949. The term caught in 1951, producing its first local issue in August of that year. on and is now commonly used across Canada. PAG In 1955 the magazine became the first-ever recipient of the ATLANTIC PROVINCES ECONOMIC COUNCIL. Begun Canadian Wine Institute Trophy (for the best in Canadian lit- in 1954, with the support of the Maritime Provinces Board of erature of a historical and cultural nature). The Guardian con- Trade and the Premiers of the four Atlantic Provinces, the At- tinued monthly publication until 1957, when after thirteen !antic Provinces Economic Council (A.P.E.C.) was formed years the magazine was merged with The Atlantic Advocate by a number of businessmen who felt the need for an organi- qv. Atlantic Guardian (1945-1957 passim). DCM zation which would represent the business community of the ATLANTIC GYPSUM WALLBOARD COMPANY. See Atlantic Provinces and would provide a forum discussion by GYPSUM WALLBOARD COMPANY, ATLANTIC. the community's members and a means whereby they could ATLANTIC NURSE AND MIDWIFERY ASSOCIATION. act on their problems in a unified way. One year after the See NURSE AND MIDWIFERY ASSOCIATION, ATLAN- Council was formed a federal charter for the group was estab- TIC. lished. The organization's specific objectives were then stated ATLANTIC OCEAN. The Atlantic ocean, in which the island to be research and study of economic development in there- of Newfoundland is situated, is 82,400,000 km2 gion, the encouragement of "united action" on common 2 (31 ,814,640 mi ) in area without its dependent seas and problems and the co-ordination of all "organizations, agen- 2 2 106,400,000 km (41,081,040 mi ) including them. The cies or individuals" who were concerned with the social and Atlantic Ocean's greatest depth is 9144 m (30,000 ft) with economic developments of the region ("Into the 80s": 1979, an estimated 2438 m (8,000 ft) to 4572 m (15,000 ft) p. 1). depth along the Continental Shelf. One of the most outstand- At first A.P.E.C. confined its endeavours to researching ing features of the ocean's floor is a mountain range, the Mid- the economy of the Atlantic Provinces and to helping small Atlantic Range, which covers at least a third of the ocean bed. businesses with their problems. By 1960, however, the Coun- On either side of the range is a trough, each one divided into cil began expanding its activities to include the formulation smaller basins and hills such as the Labrador Basin and the and presentation to government of recommendations on how Newfoundland Rise. Extending outwards from Newfound- to improve the economic situation in the Atlantic region. Its land is the Continental Shelf of which the Grand Banks are a recommendations since then have included the support by part. This shelf causes the relatively shallow water in which government of businesses and industries in the Atlantic area fish thrive. The mixing of the warm Gulf Stream flowing which demonstrate "real competitive strength," the estab- from the south and the cold *Labrador Current qv from the lishment of incentives by government to industries to set up north also helps make the Grand Banks a good environment shop in economically depressed areas, and the implementa- for fish production. The mingling of these two currents causes tion of government policies which would ensure the creation some of the fog for which Newfoundland is famous. The At- of new jobs in any economic development project created in !antic Ocean's floor is rich in mineral resources, ninety per- the area. ("Into the 80s": 1979, p. 1) As well as lobbying cent of which, it has been estimated, are petroleum and gas. governments the Council has continued its research on the The Atlantic Ocean has always served as the main link be- economy of the region and has published its research reports, tween Newfoundland and Europe. The expanse has been its recommendations and forecasts in various pamphlets, crossed by Norse, British, French, Spanish and Portuguese books and briefs in an effort to increase the public's aware- ships in search of new trading routes or new land for colonies. ness of the economy's strengths and weaknesses. Spain was the superior naval power on the Atlantic in the Six- The Council is not a government agency, although it bas teenth Century but was gradually displaced by the growing received funding from the governments of the four Atlantic strength of the French and British navies during the next two Provinces. Rather, it is a non-profit, a political organization centuries. By the 1800s Britain was the undisputed master of composed largely of businessmen, and a smaller number of the ocean and remained so until the Twentieth Century when labour organization representatives, academics and people German, United States and Russian naval powers vied for he- from various other walks of life. As well as receiving funds gemony. from government, the Council is maintained through mem- Curiosity about the Ocean led to British scientific explora- bership fees and money earned by the Council for contracted tions during the Nineteenth Century. From 1872 to 1876 a research work. survey conducted by the British ship Challenger charted the Membership in the Council in 1981 totalled approximately ocean's floor by means of lead wire or line. This expedition 1300 individuals, corporations and organizations from the 88 ATLANTIC PROVINCES ECONOMIC COUNCIL, ATTLEE four Atlantic Provinces. Each year members in each Province As the British Secretary of State for Dominions Affairs elect seven members to a provincial Board of Governors. The Clement Attlee made an official visit in September, 1942 to four provincial boards thus created, make up, along with a Newfoundland, then under the administration of the British salaried, full-time secretary and executive vice-president the government-controlled Commission of Government. With the Regional Board of Governors, the policy-making arm of the announced intention of examining current events in New­ Council. This latter body appoints an executive committee of foundland and determining the economic problems that New­ ten members who manage the affairs of the Council between foundland would face after the war, he held discussions with the quarterly meetings of the Board of Governors. As well as the Commission of Government and with representatives of the voluntary Boards of Governors, the Council is maintained labour and business in St. John' s, Grand Falls and Corner by a staff of seven in its Halifax office, a staff of two in its Brook. At a time when the continuation of the Commission Fredericton office and a staff of two in its St. John's office. was in question his visit touched off discussions about pos­ Lois Duffy (interview, Aug. 1981), C.S. Gillis (1969),Atlan­ sible changes in Newfoundland's Government. Attlee, how­ tic Advocate (Jan. 1980), ET (Oct. 1, 1980), "Into the 80s" ever, said very little about Newfoundland's political future (1979), "The Promise of the Future" (1980), The Rounder and some few persons said they believed that Attlee's discus­ (Mar. 1975). CFH sions with the Commission were part of a secret British plan ATLANTIC PROVINCES TRANSPORTATION COM­ to prepare the way for Newfoundland's entry into the Cana­ MISSION. In 1925, as a response to slow economic growth, dian Confederation. the Maritime Provinces Board of Trade with the support of the The Secretary of State announced in 1943 that the British three provincial governments (Nova Scotia, New Brunswick Government was sending a *Goodwill Mission qv to New­ and Prince Edward Island) established the Maritime Provinces foundland and Labrador, the members of which were to inter­ Transportation Commission. Its mandate was to tackle the view people around the country to ascertain Newfoundland's transportation problems which they felt were retarding the future problems and to fmd out more about Newfoundland's economic progress of the region. In 1950 Newfoundland was war effort. The British Government had suspended New­ admitted as the fourth member, and in 1969 the name was foundland's constitution in 1933, " until such time as the changed to the Atlantic Provinces Transportation Commis­ island may become self-supporting again and upon the request sion. of the Newfoundland people" (First Schedule of The New­ The object of the Commission was to provide for the best foundland Act: 24 Geo. 5, c. 2) . By the early 1940s New­ transportation to Atlantic Canada at a cost which would allow foundland's economy was quite strong. The British Govern­ the region to compete with the rest of Canada and the world. ment, however, suspected that it would not remain so It reports on new developments in the transportation industry following the war and indeed many believed that Newfound­ and offers technical advice to government bodies. It reviews land could never again be a self-supporting country. Never­ the transportation systems on a regular basis, issuing an an­ theless, many Newfoundlanders disliked the lack of democ­ nual report including information on rail, highway, air, ferry, racy under the Commission of Government, and the British shipping and port facilities, and rates for domestic, interna­ Government knew that requests for a new constitution would tional and express transport of goods and services. It issues a be forthcoming from the Newfoundland people. No constitu­ Transportation Directory providing information on groups tional change could be effected until after the end of the war, and companies offering transportation services in Atlantic but, in the meantime, the British Government would have to Canada. It also acts as an unofficial ombudsman for the prepare itself. Consequently, Attlee sent the mission in the industry. summer of 1943 to study Newfoundland's situation and make In 1981 the headquarters of the Commission was located in forecasts. (This was essentially the British Government's offi­ Moncton, New Brunswick. It has a permanent office staff and cial reason for sending the Goodwill Mission.) a Transportation Manager. Financing is provided by the gov­ The return to England of the Mission aroused much interest ernments of the four provinces. The Commission is governed in the British House of Commons and in the following by a twenty-one man Board of Directors, four of whom are December a debate on Newfoundland was held, during which from Newfoundland. Of these four, two members are ap­ the Government was challenged to restore self-government to pointed by the Provincial Government and two by the local Newfoundland. Speaking for the Government, Attlee replied Chambers of Commerce. Maritime Provinces Transportation that such a constitutional change could not be made hastily. Commission Annual Report 1967-68 (1968?), Atlantic Prov­ The Deputy Prime Minister, however, appeared to favour the inces Transportation Commission Annual Report 1979-80 suggestion of one of the Mission's members, M.P. Alan Her­ (1980?). BGR bert qv, that a council of citizens be appointed to draft a con­ ATLANTIC SALMON. See SALMON, ATLANTIC. stitutional plebiscite for Newfoundland following the war. ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH COMPANY. See TELEGRAPH The idea of such a council appeared to hold much weight AND TELEPHONE COMPANIES. with the Government of Great Britain and on December 11 , ATTLEE, CLEMENT RICHARD (1883-1967). British Prime 1945 Attlee, then Prime Minister, announced that a " National Minister. Born Putney, England. Distinguished for a long and Convention" would be elected in Newfoundland to help the successful political career, Attlee was a British Labour Newfoundland people decide the future of their government. Member of Parliament from 1922 to 1955. Among other high In 1947 the National Convention decided that two choices positions he held in the British government, was Secretary of be given on the plebiscite: the continuation of Commission of State for Dominions Affairs from 1942 to 1943 and Deputy Government or the return to Responsible Government. It was Prime Minister from 1942 to 1945. He was elected Prime under Attlee's premiership that the British Government added Minister of Great Britain and First Lord of the Treasury in a third choice, Confederation with Canada. W .J. Browne 1945; he held those offices until 1951. (1967), St. John Chadwick (1967), R.L. Clark (1951), DN -... ATTLEE, AUKS 89 ..~~ (Sept. 18, 1942;Sept. 29, 1942),£T(Sept.15-Sept. 29,1942 Alcids nest in colonies and six of the seven species have bred passim), Newfoundland Act, 1933 (24 Geo. V, c. 2), NQ in the Province. They feed mainly on small fish (capelin) and (Autumn, 1942), Who Was Who (1961-1970). CFH some crustaceans. ATTORNEY GENERAL. See GOVERNMENT. GREAT AUK, Pinguinis im­ ATWILL, MABEL (1883-1975). Nurse. Born St. John's. Edu­ pennis. The Great Auk, largest cated-Methodist College, St. John's. During World War I she of the North American divers, served as a voluntary aide at the Third General Hospital, Lin­ about 75 em (30 in) long, was a coln, Lincolnshire, England and also in France and Egypt. flightless bird, unafraid of man. She was presented to Princess Mary as representing the A strong swimmer, it nested on V.A.D. of Newfoundland. In 1923 she moved to Hartford, Funk Island and was hunted by Connecticut and worked in various offices with the Bond fishermen for bait and meat and Hotel in Hartford until she retired in 1950. She died De­ the soft breast feathers which cember 25, 1975. PAG were used for feather beds and AUDITOR GENERAL. See GOVERNMENT. pillows. The commercial AUDUBON, JOHN JAMES (1785- slaughter of these birds in the 1851). Naturalist. Born Haiti. Son late 1700s was merciless: of Lieutenant Jean Audubon, ' 'Men camped on Funk Island The Great Auk. French Naval Officer and planter. throughout the summer to kill and pluck the Great Auks. At the age of eighteen James Audu­ Stone corrals or compounds were constructed and the birds bon was sent to the United States to driven into them. As needed, they were thrown into kettles of enter business which, however, hot water preparatory to removing the feathers. There was no failed. His interest in bird life and wood on this barren island, so their bodies, covered with a drawing increased, and in 1820 he thick layer of fat, were said to have been used as fuel to feed endeavoured to draw all the North the flames which scaled their companions" (Peters and Bur­ American birds. Between 1827- John J. Audubon. leigh: 1951). By 1800 they were extinct in Newfoundland and 1828 The Birds ofAmerica was published in three volumes by by 1844, throughout the world. A few piles of bones on Funk Robert Havel! of London. Audubon travelled in Island, and some skins and skeletons in museums are all that Labrador from June 17 to August 11, 1833 and did illustra­ remain of the once-familiar, once-abundant ' 'Penguin,'' as tions of the land and sea-birds. He died in the United States in the Great Auk was called in Newfoundland. 1851. GL RAZORBILL, A lea torda. Known locally as "Tinker," the AUGER DE SUBERCASE, DANIEL D' (1663-1732). Gover­ Razorbill, about 43 em (17 in) long, is distinguished from the nor. Born Beam, France. After serving for ten years in the Murres which it resembles by its chunky, laterally com­ land forces he was made a captain in the Regiment de Bre­ pressed bill with a white line around it, and by its pointed tail. tagne in 1684 and in 1687 he came to Canada. In 1690 he was Razorbills make no nests but lay their single eggs in natural Commandant at Verdun, and in the same year he took part in holes or crevices on rocky cliffs. Once abundant in the Gulf of the defence of Quebec. In 1694 he became a Major, and par­ St. Lawrence, Razorbills, like the other alcids, were hunted ticipated in Frontenac's expedition against the Iroquois in heedlessly in the Nineteenth and early Twentieth Centuries 1696. On April 1, 1702 he succeeded Monic qv as governor and have since been subject to toxic chemical pollution so that of Placentia and in 1704-5 destroyed almost all the English the populations have fallen. About 73% of the population of habitations on the Island of Newfoundland. On April 10, Eastern Canadian Razorbills (38, 100 birds in 1976) breed 1706 he became Governor of Acadia but returned to France in along the coast of Labrador and about 5% in Newfoundland 1710 after the surrender of Port Royal. He died at Cannes, (D.N. Nettleship: 1976). They are probably more commonly France on November 19, 1732. DCB Cm. GL seen off the island of Newfoundland in winter when the regu­ AUGUST, JOHN (c.1750-1788). Beothuk. Captured at the age lar residents are joined by birds from more northern colonies. of four by two fishermen from Trinity, Trinity Bay he was These auks often dive to great depths for their food. named John August after the month in which he was taken. COMMON MURRE , Uria aalge. Known locally as " Turr," Sold and sent to England, he was exhibited at fairs in Poole the Common Murre is one of the most familiar seabird species and other western towns. Later, sent back to Trinity, he be­ in Newfoundland, where it is shot for food and its eggs are came master of a fishing boat. August died in October 1788 at gathered. Murres are about 41 em (16 in) long with slender Trinity. GL bills, longer and more pointed than those of the thick-billed AUGUSTINIAN FRIARS. See ROMAN CATHOLIC species. Some individuals also possess a white eye ring. Both CHURCH. species of Murres lay only one egg on bare rocky cliffs. AUKS, MURRES AND PUFFINS (Family Alcidae). Seven Ninety-one percent of the present-day North Atlantic Com­ species of this family, the northern equivalent of the penguin mon Murre population nest in Newfoundland, mostly on Funk family, have been found in Newfoundland and Labrador. One Island, Green Island and at Cape St. Mary's. They are also species, the Great Auk, is now extinct. Alcids are expert found along the coast of Labrador. Once exceedingly abun­ swimmers and divers, living at sea and coming ashore only to dant in Atlantic Canada, the Common Murre population there breed. Generally black above the white below, these birds has been drastically reduced in the past 100 years and al­ have short necks and tails, stout bodies and short narrow though protection has increased, the species has not recovered wings which beat rapidly in flight and are used in underwater (D.N. Nettleship: 1976). swimming. Their feet are webbed, and, with their legs set THICK-BILLED MURRE, Uria lomvia. Also known as back on their bodies, they often sit upright like penguins. "Turrs," the Thick-billed Murres closely resemble the Com- 90 AUKS, AVALON PENINSULA

mon Murres but are more northern species nesting in large and large numbers are shot for food. The ecology of the Puf­ colonies in the Canadian Arctic (a few also nest along the fin is still largely unstudied as it is not known where they northern coast of Labrador). Their wintering grounds include spend the winter once they leave their breeding grounds in the the east coast of Newfoundland and "Turrs" shot in fall, fall. W.E. Godfrey (1966), J.P.S. Mackenzie (1976), Peters winter and early spring are often Thick-billed rather than and Burleigh (1951), W.E.C. Todd (1963), Tuck and Common Murres. Like the Common Murre, this species is Maunder (1975). PMH vulnerable mainly because of its restricted breeding range. AUNTSARY (GREATER YELLOWLEGS). See WOOD­ Both species migrate by swimming long distances each year COCK. with their flightless young and are thus subject to pollution AURORA. The Aurora is the weekly newspaper of the Labrador from oil spills. The Gill-net Salmon fishery has also had its West area. It was begun by The Daily News qv, and first pub­ impact as one-half to three-quarters of a million Thick-billed lished in 1969. It is now locally owned, and the publisher is Murres were estimated killed annually in Danish nets off the Gordon Parsons of Labrador City. The paper is printed by Ro­ Greenland coast from 1968 to 1973 (D.N. Nettleship: 1976). binson-Blackmore Ltd., St. John's. G. Parsons (interview, This is half the annual production of the species and has con­ Nov. 21 , 1980). BGR tributed to its decline at several Arctic nesting colonies. AURORA. The Aurora: The Wabush Lake News and Views was DOVEKJE, Plautus alle. This small Auk, about 20 em (8 in) a local paper from Labrador West which first published in long, is the only member of its family which does not breed in 1964 and ran for three years. The final issue, number 27, ap­ the Province. It is a common winter resident off the coasts, peared in August 1967. BGR however, and its short neck, small size and fast wing beats AUTOMOBILE CLUBS. See MOTOR VEHICLE CLUBS. distinguish it even from the young of the other alcids. Possi­ AUTOMOBILES. See MOTOR VEHICLES. bly the most abundant North Atlantic seabird, it is important AVALON ATHLETIC CLUB. See ATHLETIC CLUB, to the Inuit for food and clothing. Often found on slob ice, AVALON. Dovekie are locally known as "Bullbirds," "Gillies" or "Ice AVALON, CHARTER OF. See CALVERT, SIR GEORGE. birds." AVALON CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL BOARD. See BLACK GUILLEMOT, Cepphus grylle. Unlike the other SCHOOL BOARDS. alcids found in Newfoundland the Black Guillemot is black AVALON MALL. See SHOPPING MALLS. with a large, white wing patch in breeding plumage, and in AVALON NORTH INTEGRATED SCHOOL BOARD. See winter the plumage is whitish below, grayish above with a SCHOOL BOARDS. white wing patch. It is a small bird, about 22 em (13 in) long. AVALON PENINSULA. The Avalon Peninsula is considered Its bright red feet and legs are easily distinguished when it to be that part of the southeast portion of Newfoundland dives into the waves close to shore. Also known as "Pigeon" which is bounded to the west by Placentia and Trinity bays or "Sea-Pigeon" the Black Guillemot is also shot for food and by the Isthmus of A val on, by which it is connected to the and its eggs are collected. However, as it nests in small rest of the Island. It stretches about 215 km (130 mi) from groups rather than large colonies, it has survived compara­ Grate' s Cove in the northern-most tip to Cape Freels (South) tively well. While it nests along the coasts and is resident year in the south (which is the southern-most point in Newfound­ round, many of the birds found in Newfoundl~nd in winter land) and 105 km (65 mi) from east to west across the middle come from breeding grounds farther north. of the Peninsula. It has never been agreed, however, exactly COMMON PUFFIN, Fratercula arctica. Also known as "Sea where the Isthmus ends and the Peninsula begins. The major Parrot" this small bird, about 30 em (12 in) long, with its large white face and distinctive, large, colourful bill nests at four colonies in Witless Bay where 12% of the total North American population is found, and at other scattered locations including the coast of Labrador (D.N. Nettleship: 1976). Comically serious in their gaze and gait, Puffins are excellent swimmers and divers. The bulky, bright bill of the breeding season is somewhat dimmed and diminished by shedding dur­ ing fall and winter but is still powerful enough to crush small crustaceans. Puffins feed at sea in large schools, often stack­ ing several dozen small fish cross-wise in their bills. In the air, Puffins fly with the typical side-to-side swaying motion of the alcids. Puffins are particularly vulnerable to small preda­ tors such as foxes or dogs and cats, because they make their nests in burrows in the ground. Unlike the other alcids, which call their young into the sea, Puffins abandon their offspring \ at six weeks when they are extremely fat, overweight even, \ and unable to fly. The young stay in burrows living off their \ \ fat during the final development of their feathers. The Puffin \ population has been reduced in the Gulf of St. Lawrence in \ the past fifty years but the Newfoundland and Labrador popu­ . \ I . lations seem to have remained stable, this despite H.S. Peters --·-·-·-·-·-·-1 and T.D. Burleigh's assertion that Puffins are highly desired Avalon Peninsula. See Map H page XXI/I. :;_, AVALON PENINSULA 91 areas of the Peninsula which have attracted settlement are the manent settlement of the Avalon, like much of eastern New­ peninsula separating Trinity and Conception Bays, the east foundland, occurred. At the turn of the century the Napole­ side and bottom of Conception Bay, the St. John's area, the onic Wars were being fought and because of the perils on the Southern Shore, Trepassey Bay, St. Mary's Bay, the Cape seas and the need for fishermen to join the British Navy, the Shore and the Placentia to Long Harbour area qqv. Areas of migratory fishery from Britain was seriously curtailed. At the settlement reflect the major traditional fishing sites of the same time the numbers of English and Irish settlers going to Avalon, with the exception of the Markland region and Cape the Island as a whole increased, the majority settling in well­ Shore where deliberate attempts to establish farming led to the known harbours of the Avalon Peninsula. The majority of present-day communities there. these people went to fish but some, mostly Irishmen, also The Aval on Peninsula was probably the first area of the Is­ went to farm , and during this period small farming settle­ land to be explored by European fishermen in the Sixteenth ments were begun in many areas, most notably in the St. Century, and since the 1600s it has been the most populous John's area, in Conception Bay and on the Cape Shore. Farm­ portion of Newfoundland. It was on this peninsula in the ing was, however, a small endeavour compared to the fishing 1600s that the first organized attempts to colonize the Island activity of the new inhabitants, and throughout the Nineteenth were made as well (See SETTLEMENT). It was because of Century the inshore cod fishery formed the backbone of the one such organized attempt by Sir George Calvert qv that the economy along with the Labrador fishery and seal hunt Avalon Peninsula received its name. In one Arthurian legend (which were most prosperous in the first half of the Century) Avalon was the name of the island of the Afterworld, some­ and the Bank fishery (which was prosecuted in the late where to the west of England where King Arthur had sailed to 1800s). be healed of his wounds. Over the years, the legend was mo­ During the Nineteenth Century, with growth centered in St. dified and the location of Avalon was changed. By the Thir­ John's, the population of the Peninsula increased substan­ teenth Century A val on was believed to be Glastonbury in So­ tially. In 1836 there were approximately 53,300 people on the merset, where, according to legend, Joseph of Arimathaea, Avalon, making up 76% of the Island's total population. By escaping from persecution in his homeland, built the first 1854 these numbers had increased tci 79,774 and by 1891 had Christian church in England. Sir George Calvert, a follower reached 104,626. Although the population increase was sub­ of the legend, chose the name Avalon for his Roman Catholic stantial on the Aval on Peninsula it did not keep up with the in­ colony on the Southern Shore, for he believed that, like creases in the rest of the Island, owing to emigration from the Joseph of Arimathaea in England, he was planting in his relatively crowded areas of the Avalon to other areas of the Is­ colony the seeds of Christianity in North America. In time the land. Consequently, in 1854 the population of the Peninsula name of A val on came to designate the whole of the peninsula represented 68% of the total colonial population and in 1891 it on which his colony had been established. represented less than 53%. This decline in proportional Before the 1620s fishermen from Britain, France, Portugal numbers has continued in the Twentieth Century as well. and Spain mingled in its harbours; after 1620 this situation Early in the Nineteenth Century, St. John's assumed domi­ changed, with the English taking effective control over the nance over the Island as the centre of the Island's Govern­ shorelines of the Peninsula from Renews north and the French ment, public services and mercantile life. In the 1860s it ex­ concentrating their activities in Trepassey, St. Mary's and panded the last when it also assumed direct control over much Placentia Bays. To safeguard their interest in the area, the of the seal hunt, which before this date had been the preserve French established a garrison in Placentia in the 1660s and a of the inhabitants of Conception Bay. Throughout that cen­ small French settlement grew up around it shortly afterwards. tury and the next St. John's was the largest centre on the Is­ Likewise the English built fortification at St. John's after land and for that reason enjoyed most public services. Schools French attacks on English harbours around the coast in the and academies were established and churches representing all 1690s. In 1713 peace was made between France and England the major faiths of the town were built. Postal service was es­ with the signing of the Treaty of Utrecht, which established tablished and a relatively large network of roads was built to the French Shore qv on the northeast coast and part of the connect most parts of the Peninsula. The St. John's area be­ northwest coast of Newfoundland. Thus, in that year, the carne the largest farming area as well in response to the de­ French withdrew from the A val on Peninsula, leaving it com­ mands of the market in the town. pletely to the English. In the late 1800s and early 1900s the economy of the Penin­ Throughout the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries the sula began to diversify somewhat with the establishment of a fi shery on the Avalon Peninsula, and in Newfoundland in large iron ore mine on Bell Island qv and with the develop­ general, expanded. With its expansion a small but gradually ment of secondary manufacturing in St. John's and on the increasing number of year-round residents established them­ west side of Conception Bay. With the establishment of two selves on the Peninsula' s shores, concentrating themselves on United States military bases, one at Fort Pepperrell, St. the West Shore of Conception Bay and in St. John's. As well, John's, and the other at Argentia qv, more fishermen were starting in the early 1700s Irish, as well as English, fishermen drawn away from the fisheries during the 1940s. After the end were brought out to the Island, their numbers increasing as the of World War I1 the importance of the bases to the economy century wore on. diminished steadily, however, as military personnel were in­ Although year-round settlement of the A val on Peninsula creasingly transferred elsewhere and civilian workers were had begun in the 1600s, it was mostly of a temporary nature, dismissed. By 1964 Fort Pepperrell had been abandoned and with the numbers of " inhabitants" fluctuating greatly be­ by 1981 the Argentia Base was only a shadow of its past. tween periods of good and bad fisheries and peace and war. It After the 1940s, dependence on the cod fishery on the Ava­ was not actually until the late 1700s and early 1800s that per- lon Peninsula continued its decline and by 1981 the majority 92 AVALON PENINSULA, AVIATION of people living there depended on employment in commerce, heavier than air machine." The first group was the team of public services, transportation, communications and secon­ Lieutenants J.C.P. Woods and C.C. Wylie who in April 1919 dary manufacturing. As well, the farming community on the flew west from Kent, England, attempting to fly to America. A val on continued to be the largest on the Island. The fishery, Their plane had the dubious honour of becoming the first vic­ however, was still conducted from many of its ports and in tim of a transatlantic aviation accident when it crashed into 1981 there were approximately forty fish plants operating on the Irish Sea. the Peninsula. Forestry also employed a small number of peo­ ple, principally on the west side of Conception Bay and in the St. Mary's Bay area. St. John's is by far the largest centre in the area and con­ tinues to be the site of Government for the Province. The Fed­ eral Government has established its main provincial offices in St. John's as well. The main campus of *Memorial University of Newfoundland qv, and the *College of Fisheries, Naviga­ tion, Marine Engineering and Electronics qv are located in St. John's, making it the centre of higher education in the Prov­ ince, and it retains its role as the commercial centre of the Is­ land. In 1976 the population of the Peninsula was approximately 220,000 representing 40% of the Island's population. R.H., Bonnycastle (1842, Vol. 2), M.B. Doyle (1971), C.G. Head C-5 dirigible. (1963; 1976), M.J. James (1937), J.L. Joy (1977), Keith The U.S. Navy Airship C-5, commanded by Lt. Com­ Matthews (1968), Shannon Ryan (1980), E.R. Seary (1971), mander Emory Coil, left Montauk, New York on May 15, W.F. Summers (1967), Census (1836-1976), DNB (IV), Di­ 1919, navigating a distance of 1945 km (1,208 mi) to a for­ rectory of Newfoundland and Labrador Manufacturers 1975- mer cricket field at Pleasantville on the outskirts of St. John's 1976 (n.d.), JHA (1835-1930 passim), Me Alpine's StJohn's in a record time of twenty-five hours and fifty minutes. At Directory (1908-1909), Yearbook (1847) CFH 8:48 pm on May 16, Ensign H.C. Rodd, U.S.N.R.F. re­ AVALON, PROVINCE OF. See CALVERT, SIR GEORGE. ceived a radio telegraph signal reporting that "Navy dirigible AVALON TELEPHONE COMPANY. See TELEGRAPH C-5 broke adrift from moorings at Pleasantville period rip AND TELEPHONE COMPANIES. cord broke period no one on board no casualties ... Ten per­ AVALONIAN MAGAZINE. Edward J. Penney, a St. John's sons with instructions to attempt bring down with anti aircraft journalist, launched the magazine on December 15, 1913. It fire'' (Newfoundland Historical Society: Aviation). The craft, was published monthly by Penney from the printing office of which was 58.5 m (192ft) in length containing a 12 m (40 ft) Dicks and Company on Duckworth Street. The proprietors of long control car equipped with two 125 hp engines capable of the types and presses were the American Magazine Associa­ making the journey across the Atlantic, was last seen, later tion, Dicks and Company and the Evening Telegram. In 1914 that day, by the crew of the NC-4 aircraft near Trepassey the publishing office was moved to the Temple Building on "moving just above the icebergs ... blowing out to sea, ap­ Duckworth Street. It is not known when circulation ceased, parently out of control" (Ted Wilbur: 1969). The first suc­ nor are there any known extant copies. Archives GN 32/22. cessful dirigible crossing of the Atlantic was made by the DCM British Airship R-34 which made a round trip flight from Eng­ A VENS, MOUNTAIN. See MOUNTAIN A YENS. land to Mineola, New York in July, 1919. It would be 1928 AVENS, SMOOTHLEAF MOUNTAIN. See MOUNTAIN before the German Graff Zeppelin flew over Newfoundland AVENS. during a flight from North America to Germany. The first AVENS, TOOTHLEAF MOUNTAIN. See MOUNTAIN successful transatlantic, though not non-stop, flight was made AVENS. by the U.S. Navy Curtis flying boat NC-4 which flew from AVIATION. TRANSATLANTIC ATIEMPTS. Because of its prox­ Trepassey Harbour on May 16, 1919 to Ponta Delgada in the imity to Europe, 3025 km (1880 rni), Newfoundland was the Azores and then on to Lisbon Harbour, Portugal on May 27, primary land and sea base for the world's first transatlantic 1919. This attempt, completed by Lt. Commander A.C. Read flights. In April 1913 Alfred C.W. Harmsworth, (Lord North­ and his crew, was not without mishap, however. Two other cliffe) owner of the Daily Mail in London and principal inves­ Navy flying boats and a complete Naval flotilla of over sixty tor in the Anglo Newfoundland Development Company, of­ escort vessels began the voyage. The projected course was fered a£ 10,000 prize to the first aviator to cross the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Plymouth, England, via the Azores. Ocean in a continuous, non-stop flight from Canada, the On May 16 the three seaplanes (NC-1, NC-3 and NC-4) took United States or Newfoundland to the United Kingdom in off from Trepassey Bay but the NC-1 was forced down be­ seventy-two continuous hours or less. Because of World War cause of engine trouble 322 km (200 rni) from Azores. The I most aviators joined or were recruited into military service. NC-3 came as close as 121 km (75 mi) from the islands be­ As a result, a ban was placed on transatlantic aviation and the fore it was forced to make an emergency landing on the competition for the Daily Mail prize was cancelled until the ocean. The NC-4 crew eventually completed their flight to end of the war. Plymouth by May 31, 1919 by way of Lisbon, Portugal. Within months of the signing of the armistice five groups Although officially recognized as the first successful trans­ began preparations to make the Atlantic crossing in "a atlantic flight the U.S. Navy attempt was not eligible to win AVIATION 93

NC-1 and NC-3 in Trepassey Bay.

NC-4. the Daily Mail competition, which was for a nonstop flight. In tic had been forced down because of an overheated radiator February 1919 Major Fairfax ("Fax") Morgan came to New­ caused by obstruction in the cooling lines. foundland to search for a level field ''at least a hundred yards Even if the Hawker-Mackenzie Grieve attempt did end in in length" to use as an aircraft runway (ET: Feb. 15, 1919). disaster the two pilots had the distinction of making the first Morgan was in a hurry to get an edge on his competitors for airplane flight in Newfoundland on April 10, 1919. The flight the transatlantic prize and his haste was justified. By the time was one in a series of test flights made by crews preparing for he and his partner, F. Raynham, had arrived on April 10 with the attempt. Ironically the first flight made in Newfoundland their crew and equipment former R.A.F. ace Harry Hawker by a native Newfoundlander was accomplished by Lieutenant and Lt. Mackenzie Grieve, who arrived on March 30, 1919, Richard Janes of the crew of the successful NCs' support ves­ were already preparing for an attempt to fly the Atlantic from sels. On May 10, 1919 Lieutenant Janes oftheAroostook was Glendenning meadow at Mount Pearl. They had shipped their given permission to fly aU .S. Navy seaplane over Trepassey, plane to Placentia and brought it by rail the rest of the way. the place where he was born. On May 18, 1919 both crews had decided to attempt a The final two competing crews, the team of John Alcock transatlantic flight. Although they were not competing with and Arthur Whitten Brown qqv and the team headed by Rear the NC attempt for the Daily Mail prize, Hawker and Mack­ Admiral Mark Kerr consisting of Maj. Herbert Brakley, enzie Grieve left Mount Pearl on Sunday morning with the an­ Major Tryggve Gran, and Air Mechanic Frederick Wyatt all ticipation of beating the U.S. crew across the Atlantic (which arrived at St. John's before the two unsuccessful flights . was possible because the NC-4 had landed in the Azores at Alcock and Brown had been making preparations to cross this point). Raynham and Morgan attempted a flight from the Atlantic from Newfoundland to Ireland since early in the their field at Quidi Vidi that afternoon but their Martynside spring. Having arrived in St. John's in May they, as did the Raymor crash landed on take-off severely injuring Morgan contestants before them, began the task of assembling their (who would never be permitted to fly again because of inju­ aircraft and leveling suitable ground for a take-off. On June ries sustained in the accident). 14, 1919, with all the preparations completed, Alcock and Hawker and Mackenzie Grieve were forced to down their Brown took off from Lester's Field in St. John's in a Vickers Sop with Atlantic the following morning in the North Atlantic Vimy biplane, fitted with two Rolls-Royce engines of 350 hp 1690 km (1050 mi) from St. John's. There they were rescued each. by the Danish tramp steamer S. S. Mary. The Sop with Atlan- Owing to the experimental nature of aircraft and the lack of 94 AVIATION accurate weather forecasting, flying at that time was particu­ knighted by King George V. Everyone, it seems, was happy larly dangerous, as the abortive attempts before Alcock and with their success, except perhaps the Kerr team competing Brown proved. A number of mishaps occurred during the for the Daily Mail prize, who hearing of the success of Alcock flight of Alcock and Brown as well, including a failure in the and Brown, decided to abandon their plans for a transatlantic air-speed indicator which resulted in a spiral fall from 1219 m flight from Harbour Grace to Europe. (4000 ft) to around 15 m (50ft) above sea-level. Another Mark Kerr's attempt was to have been made from a series particularly frightening episode occurred when the airmen of Harbour Grace fields, which would later be used by future flew into a snowstorm: the fuel gauges were soon covered aviators. In May 1919 their World War I Handley Page with snow and ice, and the air-intakes for the engines began to bomber was carried by rail to the Conception Bay community clog up with snow. In order to continue the flight safely the but it was not until July 4, 1919 that the plane finally took off. gauges had to be read and the air-intakes had to be cleared. Because of the successful flight of Alcock and Brown, Kerr's Brown, who had been crippled in World War I, climbed out crew were directed by the Handley Page Company to fly to of his seat and onto the icy wings, where he rubbed the ice the United States on a promotion tour which they hoped and snow off the gauges and intakes. All this time the plane would sell planes. was flying at 160 km (100 mi) per hour, 1.6 km (1 mi) above In September 1924 Newfoundland once again gained the sea. Despite the problems, however, Alcock and Brown prominence in international aviation when Ice Tickle at Indian sighted Clifden, Galway, Ireland sixteen hours and fifty­ Harbour, Labrador, and Hawkes Bay became the landing seven minutes after take-off from St. John's. They landed in points for a fleet of United States seaplanes completing a. Clifden nose down in a bog a few minutes later, completing round-the-world flight. It was not, however, until three years the first successful non-stop transatlantic flight, and the first later that international aviators next used Newfoundland air­ transatlantic conveyance of air mail, consistng of 196 letters fields and sea ports to refuel and resume aerial journeys. On and one package. May 19, 1927 the Italian aviator Francesco De Pinedo qv News of their success spread rapidly and congratulations landed at Trepassey on his way to Italy after circumnavigating were sent to the two from all over the world. Soon after the the South Atlantic in the twin engine Savoia-Marchetti Santa flight they received the Daily Mail prize and were later Marie II. The next day Charles Lindberg flew over New-

Grieve, Raynham, Hawker and Morgan AVIATION 95

quickly followed by the successful attempt by William Stultz, Lou Gordon and Amelia Earhart who flew from Trepassey to Southampton, England on June 17. Earhart was the first woman to cross the Atlantic by air. Her flight as a passenger on the Friendship narrowly preceded a second attempt by the crew of the Colombia who had been grounded at Harbour Grace since June 12 by unfavourable weather. The Colombia flight was cancelled, however, when the disappointed crew member-passenger Miss Mabel Boll learned of Earhart's suc­ cess. On June 25, 1930 Captain C. Kingsford-Smith and his crew E. VanDyk, P. Saul and J. Stannage landed the South­ ern Cross at Harbour Grace completing the last leg of their

Hawker and Grieve's Sopwith Atlantic. foundland during his first non-stop flight from New York to Paris. On August 27 three months after De Pinedo's success­ ful flight, U.S. Aviators William S. Brock and Richard F. Schlee landed the Pride of Detroit at Harbour Grace. The fol­ lowing day, they landed in Croydon, England. the following year two record flights occurred. On April 13, 1928 Captain Herman Keohl, Baron Von Huenfeld and Major James Fitzmaurice became the first crew to make a suc­ cessful non-stop, east-west transatlantic flight when they crossed the North Atlantic from Dublin, Ireland, to Greenley Island in the Strait of Belle Isle. The flight of the Bremen was The landing at Clifden.

A /cock and Brown's Vickers Vi my Biplane at Lester' s Field. 96 AVIATION

Kerr's Handley Page bomber at Harbour Grace.

Labrador on July 12. On the return trip to Italy from New York the fleet landed off Shoal Harbour near Clarenville in Newfoundland and remained there eleven days before resum­ ing their homeward journey on August 8, 1933. According to the Newfoundland Quarterly (Oct. 1933) Balbo's flight, considered a military 'manoeuvre, was viewed as a step towards military re-armament. While in Newfound­ land Balbo's air armada was visited by two Italian Subma­ rines and an Italian naval yacht, the Alice. · The Quarterly, noting the military significance of planes, went on to comment, that "Newfoundland must become an important base for the Atlantic air fleet. General Balbo's achievement has furnished a lesson which [we are] not per­ mitted to neglect.'' This was certainly true considering the strategic part that Newfoundland was to play in the wartime aviation ferry service. In a latter-day transatlantic attempt, two British balloonists, Donald Cameron and Major Christopher Davey left Banner­ man Park, St. John's at 7:30am, July 26, 1978, on the eigh­ teenth known attempt to cross the Atlantic by balloon. Over 1000 people came out at dawn to see them off, after they had DO·X

round-the-world trip, from Port Mamock, Ireland. The flight had begun at Long Island, New York, on May 3, 1930. On July 1, 1931 two American airmen, Wiley Post and Harold Gatty, completed a flight around the world in eight days and fourteen hours. They had stopped at Harbour Grace field on June 23 before going on to Chester, England. The fol­ lowing year an unusual aircraft landed at Dildo Arm and Holyrood on a trip to Spain from New York. This aircraft, a German Dornier seaplane DO-X, had a total of twelve propel­ lor engines. Amelia Earhart returned to Harbour Grace in May 1932 with her Lockheed Vega Monoplane. She became the first woman to fly the Atlantic in a solo flight, landing at Lon­ donderry, Ireland on the morning of May 21 after setting out from Harbour Grace field at 2 pm the previous day. In 1933 the city of Chicago sponsored the World's Fair. Italian aviator General Italo Balbo assembled a fleet of twenty-four flying boats to visit the fair on behalf of the Italian government. The "Armada," as it was called, left Rome on June 30, arriving at Iceland on July 12. From Ice­ land the entire fleet of flying boats shuttled to Cartwright, Earhart at Harbour Grace. ;;_, AVIATION 97 waited three weeks for proper weather. Eight hours after their departure Queen Elizabeth II, on her way to Newfoundland, radioed them a salutation. After four days and twenty-four minutes in the air they came down off the coast of Brittany, 2846 km (1768 mi) from their starting point. A 2.5 m (8ft) rip in the inner helium-filled bag of the hot-air balloon, com­ bined with unpredictable weather and winds, forced them to abort their f]jght 185 km (115 mi) from the coast. A French trawler, Elsinor, brought Cameron, Davey and the 4.5 m (15 ft) gondola to Concareau, a small fishing port in France. The first successful transatlantic balloon crossing was made by three Americans, Maxie Anderson, Ben Abruzzo and Larry Newman when they sailed from Maine and landed in a wheat field in Miserey, France, August 18 , 1978. CIVIL AVIATION. In a speech delivered on April 23, 1920 in the Newfoundland House of Assembly J.R. Bennett noted Cotton's Martynside Bipwne, Quidi Vidi. that in his previous capacity in the Colonial Secretary's office when "the British Government or the British Admiralty of­ " twelve passengers besides the three pilots, and fly com­ fered us [Newfoundland] one hundred airplanes we flatly pletely equipped with living gear for use in the event of a turned down their offer, telling them we had no earthly need forced landing.'' of them" (PHA: April 23, 1920). Bennett preferred marine According to A.B. Perlin (1922) Cotton, backed by asso­ tugboats to airplanes. However, as a result of growing interest ciates A. S. Butler and Captain V. S. Bennett, demonstrated in iri aviation the Newfoundland government had passed its first 1922 that a passenger could be landed safely at Alexander Aerial Mail Service Act (9-10 Geo. V, c.5) on June 5, 1919. Bay from St. John' s and that "when railway communication The Act, anticipating large scale transatlantic and transconti­ was interrupted and Harbour Grace, Carbonear, Bay Roberts, nental air mail and passenger services, contracted an English and other Conception Bay towns were completely isolated firm , the Aircraft Manufacturing Company, to establish regu­ . .. Major Cotton visited them all, landed mails and passen­ lar air passenger, freight and mail service between the Island gers, took return mails and arrived back in the city after ac­ and "such routes as may be agreed upon from time to time." complishing in two hours what ... would have taken at least As well as providing ample grants of land and tarriff-free five" (NQ : April 1922). Cotton also approached sealing com­ entry for company equipment the Act provided for the prefer­ panies offering his services to find ' 'the main patch'' at both ential hiring of Newfoundland labour in the venture. the 1920 and 1921 seal hunts. By 1923 this unsuccessful ven­ The next twenty years did not diminish Newfoundland's ture was behind him and his crew, and the distinction of being role as the primary refueling point for further transatlantic, the first successful pilot to spot seals went to a Roy S. Grandy transcontinental and circumnavigational attempts. at the March hunt of 1924. Grandy, a native Newfoundlander In 1921 Captain Sidney Cotton qv, an Australian airman and former sealing captain, persuaded the St. John's firms of who had formerly flown with the Royal Flying Corps in Job Brothers and Bowrings to use his plane on the S. S. Eagle , World War I, came to Newfoundland. The next year he and he successfully spotted a patch of an estimated 125,000 started an aviation enterprise called the Aerial Survey Com­ seals. According to Frank H. Ellis (1954) the Aerial Survey pany (Newfoundland) Limited. His associates were Lt. David (Newfoundland) Company's activities in seal spotting ended Plaistowe, a friend and flying veteran of World War I, and in the late 1920s. The last plane privately contracted for spot­ Captain Sydney Bennett, a Newfoundland pilot. ting crashed near St. Anthony during the 1929 seal hunt. Cot­ Although it is assumed that the three pilots had become ton had left in 1923. engaged in air post activities during this period it was not until In October 1930 Newfoundlanders Captain Douglas C. February 1921 that a postal agreement was made to fly mail to Frazer and Arthur D. Sullivan, flying partners in Sullivan's St. Anthony and later to Fogo. The flight was made by Cot­ ton, with Plaistowe and Captain Kean, who flew the de Havil­ land to Fogo delivering mail on March 28, 1921 from Botwood. From April 1921 until February 1922 the group successfully completed several mail drops and as a result " by February 1922 the Postal Authorities had made a contract with Cotton and Bennett's Aerial Survey Co. " (Dalwick and Harmer: 1953). Cotton, however, achieved further commer­ cial recognition as a result of a flight from Botwood to Cartwright Harbour where he arrived on March 4, 1922. Ac­ cording to Captain W.R. Landis (letter, May 17, 1961) Cot­ ton penetrated farther north than any airman before him. The company, contracted to survey the coast of Labrador from the air, now owned Cotton's Martynside biplane and two Napier and Rolls Wesland aircraft, which the July 1923 issue of the Newfoundland Quarterly maintained could accommodate Sullivan and Frazer. 98 AVIATION

company, Newfoundland Airways Ltd., received a contract to air-lift mail to and from Newfoundland ports of call during the winter. Their successful landing at Mount Pearl on November 19, 1930 with the first air mail from Toronto, Canada to New­ foundland earned them the local contract which was to consist of "six flights at weekly intervals, commencing in January. The company to receive $150 subsidy per round trip, the route being St. John's to St. Anthony via Hampden, Western Arm and Conche- a distance of about 660 miles" (Dalwick and ... Harmer: 1953). The first local postal flights started on Jan­ uary 29, I931 with Sullivan at the controls. Because of a se­ ries of breakdowns the plane, a Gypsy Moth, did not arrive at its destination, St. Anthony, until February 13. Sullivan, however, delivered mail at Hampden and Western Arm as he flew northward. On the return flight he delivered the remain­ ing mail to Conche. During I 931 Frazer started a company which he called Old Colony Airways delivering mail to Burin, and on July 16, 1931 he delivered the first air mail to Corner Brook in his new Curtis-Reid seaplane CF-ACK. Although no longer with Sul­ livan's company (Sullivan was killed in a plane crash near St. Anthony in I 932) Frazer continued to pursue government Pan American Clipper Ill at Botwood, 1937. mail and private contracts. He also flew missions for the Geo­ detic Survey of Canada from 1934 to 1942, meteorological continuing on to New York on July 8-9, I937. The success of observation flights at Gander and Norris Arm, and extensive the Clipper Ill and the Caledonia resulted in the expansion of aerial surveys of the Stephenville and Argentia areas. On July the transatlantic air operation to accommodate weekly flights I2, 1933 Charles Lindbergh arrived at Quidi Vidi Lake. Lind­ to Montreal from Botwood connecting Europe and the United bergh and his wife Anne flew immediately to Bay Bulls Big States. By I939 the Caribou, Connemara, Cabot, Clyde and Pond. On July 14 the Lindberghs flew to the seaplane base at three commercial Handley Page Harrow flying boats and Botwood where they refueled for a flight to Cartwright the tankers were operating from Botwood and Gander. (Don same day. Lindbergh's flights to Newfoundland were specifi­ Morris: I 976). Substantial strides in aviation had been made cally made to survey aerial routes across the Atlantic. Lind­ during the period between 19 I 9 and 1939 and this was espe­ bergh's extensive surveys from Newfoundland, Labrador, cially true of flying time and comfort for the passengers. In­ Greenland, Shetland Islands, and Denmark resulted in the in­ deed, the flying boats "had plenty of cabin space and one auguration of the first transatlantic commercial passenger ser­ could move about as in the lounge of a small steamer. There vice. The first regular transatlantic airmail service was a joint was a bar which opened at 10:00 am and which helped many venture of British Imperial Airways and Pan American Air­ passengers to find an excuse for airsickness ... on a flying ways inaugurated in 1937. Pan Am Clipper III, piloted by boat which could not fly above the weather and often rocked Captain Harold Gray, left New York on July 3, I937 landing with the motion of a ship in a tidy swell" (Newfoundland His­ at Botwood the same day. On July 5, 1937 it left Botwood ar­ torical Society: Aviation). riving at Foynes, Ireland, on July 6, 1937. GLIDING. J. Hebbard formed The British Imperial Airways Caledonia, piloted by Cap­ the Newfoundland Aero Club tain A.S. Wilcockson, made the east-west flight from Foynes which met at the Oak Building also on July 5, 1937. It arrived at Botwood on July 6, 1937 in St. John's during 1937. The club consisting of Hebbard (President), J. Mercer (Secre­ tary), S. Mills (Treasurer); R. Yetman, H. Brownrigg and F. Noseworthy purchased a Slingsby English glider for $350 in that year and in early May 1938 Hebbard completed the fust glider flight in New­ J. Hebbard in his glider. foundland; it lasted thirty sec­ onds. The club's patrons, Montgomery-Ward and Crosbie's Margarine Company, planned to utilize the glider in an adver­ tizing venture for Crosbie's "Solo" Margarine. From 1938 until the beginning of the war the Newfoundland Aero Club completed more than IOO flights from Lester's Field, the site of Alcock and Brown's historic take-off. Charles and Anne Lindbergh. POST-I940. During World War II the Governments of Can- AVIATION, AYRE 99 ada, the United States and the United Kingdom establis~t!air settlement facing the Middle Arm of Colliers Bay, probably bases at Gander, St. John's, Stephenville, Argentia and named for a village in Waterford Harbour, Ireland. In 1978- Goose Bay. Thousands of military aircraft were stationed at 79 the three schools in the town employed forty-five teach­ these bases as part of the overall defence of North America. ers. (See MILITARY HISTORY). After the war Newfoundland The population is almost exclusively Roman Catholic and took on increasing importance as a military and commercial has been from the beginning of the settlement there. The first transatlantic refueling stop. Trans-Canada Airline (later Air church, however, was not constructed until 1906; before that Canada) began a regular service to St. John's and Gander in time the nearest church and priest were in Harbour Main. The 1942. By 1945 several international airlines were scheduling first church burned in 1911 and a second one was completed flights into Gander. Several Newfoundland airline companies in 1915. E.R. Seary (1971), Census (1836-1976), Directory had sprung up during the 1930s and 1940s. In 1949 Eric of Schools of Newfoundland and Labrador (1978-79), New­ Blackwood started Eastern Provincial Airways and after that foundland Historical Society (Avondale). Map H. JRD time other local companies developed. Air Canada introduced AWARDS AND DECORATIONS. See HONOURS. a regular jet service in 1967 and one of the world's largest air­ A. W.P.A. BULLETIN, THE. Pierce Power, acting as chief ed­ craft, the Concorde landed at Gander in 1975. itor, started this newspaper on August 16, 1934. It was See AIRPORTS AND AIRSTRIPS; AIR SERVICES; printed at the office of the Commercial Quick Print in the Co­ FLYING CLUBS. Alcock and Brown ( 1969), Addison Bown lumbus Building on Duckworth Street. (1959), Dalwick and Harmer (1953), F.H. Ellis (1954; 1966), The A . W.P .A. Bulletin was the official mouthpiece for the Edward Jablonski (1972), M.P. Martyn (1962), Don Morris Avalon Welfare and Protective Association Inc. of which (1976), A.B. Perlin (1922), Percy Rowe (1977), R.H. Tait Pierce Power was the president. It is not known when publica­ (n.d.), Graham Wallace (1955), Alan Wykes (1967), Histori­ tion ceased, nor are there any known extant copies. Archives cal Souvenir of Harbour Grace (n.d.), The Story of Alcock GN 32/22. DCM and Brown (n.d.), DN (Sept. 7, 1967), ET (Feb. 15, 1919; AYRE (nee MILLER), AGNES Mar. 12, 1919; Mar. 19, 1919; Mar. 20, 1919; Apr. 1, 1919; MARION (1890-1940). Born May 12, 1919; June 25, 1930; Sept. 15, 18, 19, 1936; May St. John's. Educated Bishop 12, 1938; Feb. 21, 1941; Apr. 15, 1954; Jan. 26, 1961; Mar. Spencer College. Married 20, 1965; Apr. 9, 1966; Sept. 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 1967; Oct. 9, Harold C. Ayre. Well-known 1969; June 24, 1970; Oct. 26, 1970); JHA (1920; 1931), NQ as a botanist and amateur histo­ (July 1923; Oct. 1930; Apr. 1931; Oct. 1931; July 1932; Oct. rian, she published several 1933; Oct. 1937), Observers Weekly (Mar. 18, 1941), PHA books and pamphlets on New­ (1920), Newfoundland Historical Society (Aviation). WCS foundland topics, including A VION PLAYERS. See THEATRE. Wild Flowers of Newfoundland AVONDALE (inc. 1974; pop. 1976, 937). A town in the south­ ( 1935) and Newfoundland em part of Conception Bay 58 krn (36 rni) by highway from Flowers (1936), Wild Flowers St. John's. The first settler known to have possessions in the of Newfoundland in the Book of 4gnes Marion Ayre. area now known as A von dale was a J. Mahany in the late Newfoundland (1937), and pro­ 1790s and by c.1805 there were twelve settlers there. Until vided assistance to Asa Gray when he was compiling his stan­ 1897 the area was known as Salmon Cove. In 1836 Salmon dard Gray's Manual of Botany (published 1950). She was ac­ Cove and Cats' Cove (Conception Harbour) had a population tive in the Current Events Club in the 1920s and 1930s and of 366. By 1857 there were 199 people in Salmon Cove and was considered to be one of the ablest minds among New­ by 1884, 742. foundland women. It was c.l901 that Avondale reached the peak of its pros­ In 1981 a plaque in her honour was placed in Memorial perity as a fishing-farming settlement. Like many other settle­ University out of the proceeds of a fund raised to assist in the ments in Newfoundland in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth upkeep of the University's botanic garden on Mount Scio. Centuries it began as a fishing settlement and, soon after, the The Agnes Marion Ayre Herbarium at Memorial University people began to grow crops and raise cattle and livestock to was named in her honour. RDP supplement their food supply. In 1901 the settlement sent four A YRE, ANTHONY GREEN (1916- ). Farmer; soldier; fishing vessels with 109 men and nineteen women to the Lab­ businessman. Born St. John's. Son of James Garfield and rador fishery. In that year also there were sixty-four smaller Carlotta P. (nee Glassey) Green. (His stepfather was Hon. boats prosecuting the inshore fishery. At the same time the C.P. Ayre qv). Educated Holloway School and Prince of soil was yielding almost 6000 barrels of potatoes, more than Wales College, St. John's; Caldecot Preparatory and Leys 400 barrels of turnips and more than 155,000 heads of cab­ Public Schools, England; McGill University, Montreal. Soon bage. The inhabitants owned fifty cows and 228 swine. A after completing his education at McGill, Ayre moved back to sawmill was started there in the late 1880s by William Lewis St. John's where he began a dairy farm in 1937 and became Clark of Bristol, England and in 1971 it was still in operation one of the first farmers in Newfoundland to produce cottage two or three months each year. cheese. He continued to operate his farm until the outbreak of The early decades of the Twentieth Century saw a certain World War II, when he joined the Royal Canadian Navy, amount of emigration to the United States, and the coming of serving in the Atlantic and Pacific from 1941 to 1945. Fol­ the Second World War and Confederation brought a greater lowing the war he was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant diversification in the occupations of the people of the area. At Commander and became the Commanding Officer of the Me­ incorporation in 1974, Avondale took in Ballyhade, a fishing morial University of Newfoundland Naval Training Division. 100 AYRE

In 1950 he became Chief of Naval Staff in Newfoundland and resigned in 1884 Ayre engaged three of his sons to enter into continued in that post until 1952. From then until 1955 he business with him, thus creating Ayre and Sons, the forerun­ served as area officer of the Sea Cadets of Newfoundland. ner of the modem-day *Ayre Group of Companies qv, which During the late 1950s Ayre became interested in business af­ is owned and operated by his descendents. As well, Ayre fairs and in 1959 became the executive manager of the New­ served as a Member of the House of Assembly for the District foundland Board of Trade. He remained in that post until of Burin from 1873 to 1878, as a member of the Executive 1970, when he became General Manager of the St. John's Council in Robert Thorburn's qv administration of 1885 to Board of *Trade qv. In 1971 he founded Anthony G. Ayre 1888, and as Member of the Legislative Council from 1979 to Associates, a public relations firm which he continued to Ayre's death in 1889. Active in the Methodist Church as well, direct in 1980. Since 1965 Ayre has also been the consul for Ayre is remembered also for having donated $15,000 toward Belgium and the Netherlands in Newfoundland. the building of a Methodist orphanage in St. John's. H. Y. Among other positions, Ayre was Secretary of the St. Mott (1894), A.B. Perlin (1958?), D. W. Prowse (1896), Eve­ John's Shipping Association Limited from 1959 to 1978, and ning Mercury (Apr. 12, 1889),JHA (1874-1879),JLC (1879- Executive Secretary of the Newfoundland Real Estate Board 1889). CFH from 1973 to 1975; he has also served as director of the John AYRE, FREDERICK W. (1915- ). Businessman. Born Howard Society, as a member of the Newfoundland Labour St. John's. Son of Harold C. and Agnes Marion (Miller) Ayre Relations Board, and as Chairman of the Public Libraries qv. Educated Methodist College, St. John's; Shrewsbury Board of Newfoundland. Ayre is also a writer, freelance School and Cambridge University, England. F.W. Ayre broadcaster and member of ACTRA. Awarded OBE, 1976. served during World War II with the Royal Army Service A.G. Ayre (interview, Dec. 1980), Canadian Who's Who Corps from 1939 to 1946 when he returned to St. John's to (1979; 1980), Newfoundland and Labrador Who's Who Cen­ join Bowring Brothers Limited. In the following year he be­ tennial ~dition (1968). CFH came managing director of that company and still held this AYRE ATHLETIC GROUNDS. See SPORTS FACILITIES. position in 1980. Ayre also served as President of Bowring AYRE,HON.CHARLESPASCOE Brothers Limited until 1979 and as Chairman of the Board of (1861-1937). Businessman; politi­ Directors of the same firm from 1977 to 1980. Ayre was a cian. Born St. John's. Son of Mary president of the St. John's Chamber of Commerce and of the and Charles R. Ayre qv. Married Retail Division of the Newfoundland Board of Trade. Angela Diana Stevenson; Carlotta P. (nee Cantwell (interview, Aug. 1981), Canadian Who's Who Glassey) Green. C.P. Ayre entered (1979; 1980), DN (Feb. 10, 1981), Newfoundland and Labra­ the business world in 1889 when he dor Who's Who Centennial Edition (1968). CFH became a director of his father's AYRE, GEORGE W.B. (1879- firm, Ayre and Sons. In 1932 he be­ 1945). Born St. John's, son of came Chairman of the Board of that John Bulley Ayre qv. Educated company. While he directed his HoTI . Charles P. Ayre. Bishop Feild College; Isle of company Ayre became active in public affairs and served as a Man; Dalhousie University, member of the St. John's Commission of Government from Nova Scotia. Besides operating 1914 to 1921 and as a member of the Legislative Council a law practice in St. John's dur­ from 1925 to 1934. Ayre also served as Chairman of the ing most of his life, Ayre who Board of Governors of the Methodist College (later Prince of was an avid sportsman, was a Wales College qv) and, as well, donated to the United Church key figure in the development in St. John's a field to be used as a play ground and a building of sports in Newfoundland. to be used as an orphanage. Awarded M.B.E. following Among his many achievements World War I. C.P. Ayre (interview, Dec. 1980), J.A. Ayre founded the Newfound­ George W.B. Ayre. Cochrane (1937), E.B. Foran (1937), Kay Murphy (inter­ land Amateur Athletic Associa- view, Dec. 1980), R.A. Parsons (1937), A.B. Perlin (1958?), tion in 1921 and became its first president in the same year; he ET (Dec. 18, 1937), JLC (1 & 2, 28, 1933), NQ (July 1925) also helped to found an organization known as the Old Boys' Yearbook (1926-1932). CFH Association, the purpose of which was to encourage young A YRE, CHARLES ROBERT people to become active in sports. It is reported that it was (1819-1889). Businessman; Ayre who suggested to Sir Cavendish Boyle that he establish politician. Born Exeter. Ayre the Boyle trophy for hockey competition in St. John's. In arrived in Newfoundland in 1904 as President of the Terra Nova Hockey Club Ayre re­ 1832 to work in the business of ceived that trophy. In the 1920s Ayre also helped to develop Benjamin Bowring qv in St. track and field sports in St. John's and raised funds to send John's. Later he left the Bow­ Newfoundland athletes to compete in Canadian sports events. ring Company to establish a For his efforts in organizing sports on the island Ayre was business with John Steer, the posthumously inducted into the Newfoundland and Labrador resulting partnership lasting *Sports Hall of Fame qv in 1976. Active in other areas as until 1858. One year later he well, Ayre was a benefactor of Church of England education opened a store on Water Street and was President of the Church of England Institute. He is with a second partner, Alex­ credited with having been responsible for the establishment of ander Marshall. When the latter Charles R. Ayre. St. George's Day and St. John's Day as holidays in New- -;;:, AYRE 101 foundland. He died in St. John's. Blaike R. Ayre (interview, eluded Job Brothers and Company Limited (with which Clay­ Dec. 1980), J.A. Clancy (1937), Frank Graham (interview, ton Refrigeration, Construction and Diesel Limited was Dec. 1980), Centre for Newfoundland Studies (G.W.B. merged in 1979 and which deals in refrigeration parts and Ayre), DN (Mar. 12, 13, 1945). CFH equipment, commercial fire and automobile insurance and A YRE GROUP OF COMPANIES. The beginning of the Ayre wholesale distribution of food to hospitals and restaurants), Group of Companies occurred in 1859 when Charles Robert Blue Buoy Foods Limited (a meat and fish processing and fro­ Ayre qv opened a store on Water Street in St. John's. Three zen food distribution company), Ayre's Limited and Giant years later he joined Alexander Marshall, another St. John's Mart Limited, Ayre and Sons Limited, which still operates as businessman, and formed a new company known as Ayre and a holding company and a number of other companies. Alto­ Marshall, operating as importers and wholesale and retail pro­ gether the companies operate approximately fifty stores in vision merchants in St. John's. In 1884 Marshall withdrew Newfoundland, Ontario, Alberta and Saskatchewan. L.H.M . from business and three of Ayre's sons, John Bray, Frederick Ayre (interview, Aug. 1981), A.B. Perlin (1958?), " Ayre & William and Robert Chesley qqv took over in Marshall's Sons Ltd." (1937), Maclean's (Dec. 4, 1978), NQ (Oct. place, and the name of the business was changed to Ayre and 1907), The Newfoundland Record Special Issue (n.d.), Year­ Sons. Upon Charles Robert Ayre's death in 1889 a fourth son, book (1882). CFH Charles Pascoe Ayre qv, entered the business. A few years AYRE, JAMES STEWART (1881-1953). Businessman; poli­ later the four brothers began expanding the business, opening tician. Born St. John's. Educated Methodist College, St. a department store in St. John's and beginning a mail-order John' s; Liverpool College and Upper School, England. Fol­ service for clients outside the city, while continuing to operate lowing completion of his education J. S. Ayre entered his fam­ a wholesale service. During the Great Fire of 1892 their pre­ ily's business, Ayre and Sons Limited, in 1898 as an appren­ mises were destroyed; soon after, a temporary building was tice. In 1914 he became a director of the company and in constructed and within two years the company, little affected 1937, following the death of the Hon. C.P. Ayre, he became by the *Bank Crash qv of 1894, opened a large new store on the Chairman of the Board of Ayre and Sons, Limited andre­ Water Street. In 1903, the year that Robert Chesley Ayre mained in that post until his death. He was also President of died, the company became a limited liability company, the Newfoundland Clothing Company. As well, Ayre served known as Ayre and Sons Limited. In the next thirty years the as a Minister without portfolio in the Hon. F.C. Alderdice's company opened a five-storey building in which hardware, cabinets of 1928 and 1932-1934. During World War 11 he was groceries, stationery, books and other retail departments were an executive member of the Newfoundland Patriotic Associa­ housed, and acquired a third building, adjoining their older tion. He died in St. John' s. S.J.R. Noel (1971), A.B. Perlin store, which allowed them to expand other retail departments. (1958?), The Canadian Who's Who 1949-1951 (1951), DN In 1931 the company began operating a radio station, known (Oct. 17 , 1953), ET (Oct. 17, 1953), Who's Who in Canada as VOAS, the "Voice of Ayre and Sons." By the late 1930s 1953-54 (1954). CFH the second generation of directors bad died and the company AYRE, HON. JOHN BRAY (1850- was being managed by grandsons and great-grandsons of the 1915). Businessman; politician. founder. Born St. John's to Mary Hannah Following Confederation with Canada the firm continued Bray and Charles R. Ayre qv. Be­ expanding. By 1959 it was operating five supermarkets in the sides being a member of the House St. John's area, as well as its five-storey department store and of Assembly for the district of Bay a variety store. In the same year a new company, Ayre's Lim­ de Verde from 1894 to 1897 and a ited, was formed to conduct retail business and Ayre and Sons member of the Legislative Council Limited became an investment and holding company. Since from 1898 to 1915, Ayre was a then a number of changes have occurred in the company. member of the Newfoundland Hon. John B . Ayre Ayres' supermarkets were sold to a large Canadian supermar­ Board of Trade and a director of ket chain in 1963; Giant Mart Limited was created in 1962; Ayre and Sons Limited, the firm his father founded. He died and within a few years this company and Ayre's Limited were in St. John's in 1915. H.T. Renouf (1937), NQ (July 1915), operating a total of eight stores spread out over the Island and Yearbook (1894-1915) . CFH in Labrador. In the 1960s Ayre and Sons acquired controlling AYRE, JOHN BULLEY (1834- interest in Job Brothers and Co. Ltd. and Blue Peter Steam­ 1912). Born Rant's Harbour, ships, and in the 1970s Job's acquired control of Clayton Re­ Trinity Bay. Father of George frigeration and Diesel Limited and founded Blue Buoy Foods W.B. Ayre qv. John B. Ayre and MacNeil Music Limited. Ayre' s Limited opened two moved from Trinity Bay to St. more retail stores on the Island and in 1973 opened three retail John's when he was twelve clothing stores in Ontario. In 1973, as well, Ayre and Sons years old and remained in the purchased an Ontario firm, Maxmax Limited, and took over town working in a bakery estab­ its sixteen clothing stores. During the 1970s two of the Ayre lishment until 1854, when he Group of companies were closed or sold (MacNeil Music sailed to England to volunteer Limited and Blue Peter Steamships), and the five-storey de­ for service with the Royal Navy partment store on Water Street was closed. By 1980 the group in the Crimean War. In 1857 he of Ayre's companies (under the chairmanship of L.H.M. returned safely to England, John Bulley Ayre Ayre qv and with W .J. Ayre qv as President of Ayre and Sons where he was awarded the Bal- Limited and M.H. Ayre qv as President of Ayre's Limited) in- tic Medal for his service in the war. After working in various 102 AYRE, AZORES bakeries in St. John's and Boston Ayre began his own baking 1981, the President of the Rotary Club in Newfoundland. See and confectionery store in St. John's in 1872. The business AYRE GROUP OF COMPANIES. Centre for Newfoundland did well and less than eight years after its opening a branch Studies (Miller H. Ayre), Who's Who Newfoundland Silver store which sold chinaware was opened. As well, Ayre was Anniversary Edition (1975). CFH involved in other Newfoundland businesses, including the A YRE, WILFRID J. ( 1934- ) . Newfoundland Brewery Company, of which he became the Businessman. Born St. John's. Edu­ president, and a number of local manufacturing firms. He cated Holloway School; Mourne died in St. John's. Blaike R. Ayre (interview, Jan. 1981),DN Grange School, Ireland; the Leys (Jan. 4, 1912), NQ (Sept. 1902), Yearbook (1880-1908 pas­ School, Cambridge; McGill Univer­ sim). CFH sity. In 1981 Ayre was Deputy­ AYRE, LEWIS H.M. (1914- Chairman of Ayre's Limited and ). Businessman. Born Giant Mart Limited and Chairman St.John's. Son of Harold C. of the Credit Bureau of St. John's. and Agnes Marion (Miller) He also held the position of director Ayre qv. Educated Methodist with a number of companies, in­ Wilfrid J. Ayre College, St. John's; Mostyn cluding Job Brothers and Company Limited and Conway House School, Wreckin Col­ Computer Services Limited. L.H.M. Ayre (letter, Aug. lege, England. Ayre started 1981). CFH working with Ayre and Sons AZALEA, ALPINE. Loiseleuria procumbens (L.) Desv. (Eri­ Limited, his family's company, caceae) Native shrub of the Province, known also as the May­ in 1931 and thereafter became flower or White-flower. The Alpine Azalea is an intricately­ active in business affairs. By branched evergreen shrub which grows in low tufts up to 1980 he was Chairman of 13 em (5 in) high. Its leaves are dark green on the upper sur­ Lewis H. M. Ayre Ayre's Limited; Ayre and Sons face, oblong or elliptic in shape, opposite on the stem and Limited; Blue Buoy Foods Limited; and Newfoundland Tele­ leathery. Its small pink or white flowers are bell-shaped, have phone Company, Limited. In the same year he was a director five stamens and occur in terminal clusters of two to five of a number of Newfoundland companies including New­ flowers each. They bloom in Newfoundland and Labrador foundland and Labrador Hydro, Dominion Stores Limited, from late May to late June. The fruit are ovoid, dry capsules Labrador Mining and Exploration Limited and the Bank of which are filled with many small seeds. The Alpine Azalea is Nova Scotia. Ayre was also the President of the Newfound­ found in peaty or rocky soils of alpine habitats of the Prov­ land Board of Trade from 1948 to 1949 and sat on the Board ince. Clapham et a/ (1962), H.A. Gleason (1952, ill), Asa of Regents of Memorial University of Newfoundland from Gray (1950), Ernest Rouleau (1978), A.G. Ryan (1978). 1968 to 1974. He was a vice-president of the Canadian CFH Cancer Society, an Honorary Life Member of that body and AZORES. The name given to a group of nine islands located on president of the Newfoundland Division of the Canadian the Mid-Atlantic Ridge approximately 1600 km (1000 mi) Cancer Society. He was the first chairman of the St. John's due west of Lisbon, and 2575 km (1600 mi) from the North­ Heritage Foundation and ,of the St. John's Transportation American coast. They were discovered by the mariners of Commission and a member of the Newfoundland Royal Com­ Prince Henry the Navigator in 1427. Since that time they have missions on the Cost of Living and on Education and Youth. acted as a stepping-stone and resting spot for transatlantic He was also made a Member of the Order of Canada. L.H.M. navigators. Christopher Columbus qv stopped at the island of Ayre (interview, Dec. 1980), Canadian Who's Who 1980 Santa Maria in the Azores when returning from his famous (1980), Memorial University of Newfoundland Calandar voyage to the New World in 1492. (1969/1970- 1974/1975), Who's Who in Canada 1977-78 The Azores are said to have been used by at least one and (1977), Who's Who Newfoundland Silver Anniversary Edition possibly two early New World explorers who are believed to (1975). CFH have been in and around the waters of Newfoundland and AYRE, MILLER H. (1941- ). Labrador. The first was Joao Vaz Corte-Real, father of Ga­ Businessman. Born St. John's. Edu­ spar and Miguel Corte-Real qqv. Although never substan­ cated Harvard University; McGill tiated there is evidence to indicate that Joao Vaz may have University. Ayre entered the busi­ discovered Newfoundland before 1497. According to Dr. ness of his family in 1968 when he Francisco Fernandes Lopes (1957) "the sea-faring activities became personnel manager of of Joao Vaz gave him every opportunity to explore new lands, Ayre's Limited. Two years later he and there is evidence that points to one discovery made by became General Manager and him at the orders of King Alfonso V: Newfoundland." To Director, and in 1973 President of reward this service Joao Vaz and his companion Alvaro Mar­ the company. In 1969 he became a tins Hom em were given the governorship of the island of Ter­ Miller H. Ayre director of Ayre and Sons Limited ceira in the Azores in 1474. Lopes further points out that there and in 1973 became President and Director of Maxmax Lim- are in existence three old charts that refer to Newfoundland as ited. Active in other areas, Ayre was president of the St. the land of Joao Vaz, or Terra de Joao Vaz. Gaspar Corte­ John's unit of the Canadian Cancer Society from 1972 to 1973 Real, the youngest of Joiio Vaz Corte-Real's three sons, lived and was a member of the St. John's Municipal Council from in the Azores on lands given him by his father. It is believed 1974 to 1978. He was the founder of *Cod Peace qv and, in that he stopped at the island of Terceira on his way from Lis- AZORES, AZTEC AVIATION -~:, 103 bon to North America and possibly at Newfoundland in Halifax, Nova-Scotia, to Trepassey Newfoundland, landed at 1500. Horta in the Azores on May 17, 1919. It left the Azores on The Azores was also the stopping-off point during another May 26 enroute to Lisbon, thus completing the first transat­ important historical trans-atlantic voyage. The first flight lantic flight. See EXPLORATION AND DISCOVERY. F.F. across the Atlantic Ocean in May 1919 by the American Lopes (1957), D. Moser (1976), Newfoundland Historical NC-4, of the NC Flying Boats qv, was successful partly be­ Society (Aviation). DCM cause of the strategic location of the Azores in the mid-Atlan­ AZTEC AVIATION. See AIR SERVICES. tic. The NC-4, after travelling from Rockaway, New York to