比治山大学現代文化学部紀要，第15号，2008 Bul. Hijiyama Univ. No.15, 2008 39

An Economic Essay on Traditional Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTD-TEKI KDGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal

佐 中 忠 司 Tadashi SANAKA

Japan has been well known as a nation of handicraft. Hand made items used to be conventionally divided into some such categories as traditional crafts, fine arts, mingei (folk-crafts), household utensils and so on. Is it possible to make a sharp distinction between those and, if possible, then what kind of criterion could be conceivable for the purpose? Even today, the definition of craft is not necessarily definite and easy to identify. We have some items which could, in many ways, time be classified into different categories. Ceramics of the highest quality, for example, can at the same time be fine art, practical craft and mingei as well. So-called traditional crafts include a wide range of objects which can be handmade in whole or in part, by industrial process or by studio artists as well. They can be functional or non- functional, and can hold a high or popular art status. The popular understanding of Japanese crafts outlined here is based on the convention borrowed from Europe in the late 19th century. Nevertheless, the definition of handicraft is not as clear-cut as one might expect, due to the fact that art, visual culture and daily necessities developed in a different manner. Some conventional ways of definition do not necessarily fit fairly enough with Japanese art culture and as a result the current definition of Japanese crafts is somewhat more complicated than its European counterpart. The typical one is an institutional separation of “craft" and “fine art". Japanese art (fine art) and craft have sometimes been taken as synonymous, and in fact have overlapped in a number of cases. The purpose of this essay is to get better socio-economic understandings on craft businesses in Japan from the viewpoint of traditional handicraft industries which include a wide range of handmade objects. It is not without academic interest to study an essential feature of this genre. Here is a need to sharpen the focus of the distinction among various genres of handmade articles. To conclude in advance, the author can say that these concepts, from the viewpoint of economic theory, can be and should be clearly distinguished one from another respectively.

I. Handicraft Industries in Japan

1. by definition Handicraft is a type of work where useful and decorative items are made chiefly by hand or by applying only simple tools. Handicrafts are generally considered more traditional work, created as a 40 佐 中 忠 司

necessary part of daily life. Handicraft items are intended to be used, worn, and so forth, having a purpose beyond simple decoration. The term is also applied to traditional means of making goods. Items made by mass production or machines are not handicrafts. In practical terms, the categories have a great deal of overlap. The individual artisanship of the items is a paramount criterion; such items often have cultural and/or religious significance. So-called arts and crafts, however, implies more of a hobby pursuit, a demonstration and/or perfection of a creative technique. Usually, what distinguishes the term handicraft from the frequently used category arts and crafts is a matter of intent. In a preindustrial community, it is said that artisans were the dominant producers of such goods including furniture, clothing, jewellery, household items, and tools. Artisans traditionally work in media such as wood, ceramic, glass, common and precious metals, basketry, textile, and leather. Artisans employ creative thinking and manual dexterity to produce their goods that may be functional or strictly decorative. It is well conceivable that manufacture by skilled hand and with hand tools imparts unique and individual qualities to artisanal products, in contrast to mass produced goods where every one is nearly identical. The term “craft" is often used to describe the family of artistic practices within the decorative arts that traditionally are defined by their relationship to functional or utilitarian products or by their use of such natural media as wood, clay, glass, textiles, and metal. Folk art follows craft traditions, in contrast to fine art or “high art" and crafts practiced by independent artists working alone or in small groups are often referred to as studio craft. The decorative arts are often categorized in opposition to the “fine arts", namely, painting, drawing, photography, and large-scale sculpture. Some distinguish between decorative and fine art based on functionality, intended purpose, importance, status as a unique creation, or single-artist production. Fine art is any art form developed primarily for aesthetics rather than utility. This definition tends to exclude visual art forms that could be considered craftwork or applied art, such as textiles. The final cause of fine art is the art object itself; it is not a means to another end except perhaps to please those who behold it. Applied arts refers to the application of design and aesthetics to objects of function and everyday use. Fine art is seen as being distinct from applied arts, which presumably includes the more commonplace crafts of the masses within the realm of the arts. Whereas fine arts serve as intellectual stimulation to the viewer or academic sensibilities, the applied arts incorporate design and creative ideals to objects of utility, such as a cup, magazine or decorative park bench. Since the at the turn of 19th century, the applied arts have increasingly gained in importance and recognition.

2. A brief history of Japan’s craft industries Crafts which had thrived under the patronage of daimyA, feudal lord, were in some places developed into nationwide large-scale industries of the time. During the following period some crafts gradually became extinct, while other crafts were supported by the new government. These crafts which were regarded as important for export trade were strategically marketed by sending them to a series of international exhibitions and traded through semi-governmental companies. Interest was aroused further by the Japonisme trend propagated in the West. It is said that so-called “export crafts" of the time had characteristics of modern technology and taste often reflecting Victorian excessive An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 41

decorativeness and the contemporary design trend of Art Nouveau and were developed through various channels. Craft-based proto-design activities were also developed during this time. When the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce Exhibitions (NAShAmushABijutsu KAgei Tenrankai ) was set up in 1913, one of its missions was to improve and activate export craft design. The Imperial Craft Association (TeikAku KAgei Kai ) was established in 1926, modelled after the Deutsche Werkbund. The government also sent students and envoys to the west to learn advance craft and industrial technology. In 1928 the Ministry of Commerce and Industry established the Industrial Arts Research Institute (KAgei ShidAsho) to take the official initiative in the research and development of export craft design by taking advice from eminent western designers. The TaishA(1912-1926) and early ShAwa (1926-1989) periods are often called the “golden period" of the modern crafts movements. Arguably the most important modern craft movement was the mingei (folk crafts) movement led by Yanagi SAetsu, which began in the 1920s. This movement “discovered" functional daily crafts with simple natural beauty, made by anonymous craftspeople as modern aesthetic objects. Yanagi’s mingei theory, which argues “quintessential Japaneseness" as “modern", became the inspiration for both nationalists and artists. A number of eminent studio craft artists representing Japanese modern craft emerged from this movement. While the Japanese vernacular was searched, new types of studio craft artists who trained in art schools emerged under the strong influence of modern movements such as Art Deco and Constructivism. Their creative energy led to the publication of numerous craft magazines and the mushrooming of avant-garde craft groups. The Japan Craft Art Association (Nihon KAgei Bijutsu Kai ) was established in 1926. This was followed in 1928 by official recognition of modern studio craft through the addition of a “craft art" section to the prestigious Imperial Arts Exhibition (Teikoku Bijutsu Tenrankai, based on the earlier Bunten and launched in 1919 after the model of the French Salon), thereby recognising craft as a “creative art" along with paintings and sculpture. This became a landmark for the modern craft world. During the Second World War craft activities were heavily politicised. In collaboration with the Imperial Rule Assistance Association (Taisei Yokusan Kai ), national bodies such as the Industrial Arts Research Institute and the Great Japan Crafts Association (Dai Nippon KAgei Kai, established in 1943 and later to become the Japan Arts and Crafts Control Association, Nippon Bijutsu Oyobi KAgei TAsei KyAkai ) implemented the regulations and exerted control over craft makers. The aim was to promote the creation of daiyAhin (substitute products) and a number of selected crafts deemed necessary for daily use, made of non-precious materials. One of the most important developments of the post-war period was the establishment of the Japan Craft Association (Nihon KAgei Kai ) and the opening of the Japan Traditional Crafts Exhibition (Nihon DentA KAgeiten) in 1955. At this time the government also set up an “honours listing" for crafts and craft makers, governed by the Ministry of Education, awarding the titles of Important Intangible Cultural Property (JuyAMukei Bunkazai ) and Living National Treasure (Ningen KokuhA). In this way, traditional techniques and craftspeople have been protected from extinction. Studio craft activities have been ever more diversified. The establishment in 1958 of the Nitten - Japan Fine Arts Exhibition (Nihon Bijutsu Tenrankai, successor to the Teikoku Bijutsu Tenrankai of 1946) and in 1961 of the Association of Contemporary Craft Artists (Gendai KAgei Bijutsuka KyAkai ) created the two 42 佐 中 忠 司

central organs of “creative crafts." In 1953, as part of its efforts to develop Japanese craft and product design, the Industrial Arts Research Institute became engaged in a project to develop “Japanese Modern" styles to accord with the global “Good Design" movement. This led to the emergence of a new type of craft called kurafuto, which occupied the space between studio craft and craft design/product design. Kurafuto sought to create a contemporary mingei through the mass production of well-designed, functional and affordable household crafts. 1956 saw the establishment of a national craft union known initially as the Japan Designer Craftsman Association; it was renamed in 1976 as the Japan Craft Design Association. This national craft union seeks to contribute to the development of the industries and enrichment of the cultural standard of daily life in Japan through promotion of the trade of the knowledge and experience in craft and design. It regularly exhibits works by members at an annual “New Craft Exhibition" at Matsuya Department Store in Tokyo. Another important organ is the Craft Centre Japan (CCJ), which was established in 1960 and holds a permanent exhibition space at the Maruzen Bookshop in Tokyo, as well as spaces in Sapporo, Nagoya and Okayama. CCJ displays newly-designed local household crafts with the aim of revitalising the economy through the modernisation of local crafts by local designers. This aim is shared by the ideology of the New Mingei (Shin Mingei ). In effect, the mingei movement has been subsumed by this collective kurafuto movement and continuously developed to the present. Within the frame of handicraft production after the war, the traditional handicraft industry has been in a steady decline. Some items of new decorative designs including so-called studio craft are emerging as art objects rather than functional utensils. The Japanese Cultural Agency also has an independent program of promoting crafts that complements the work of the Association. “Masterpieces" is the right word for many objects. Nowhere else in the world is such lavish government support and consumer affection lavished on such small objects: ceramics, lacquer ware, weaving, bamboo, paper, wood, metal work, even fans, umbrellas, art dolls, ink, ink stones, ink brushes, and the list goes on. Often these are produced by “Living National Treasures" (the Japanese words translate much more elegantly to “Bearers of Intangible Cultural Assets"), bestowed by a government-appointed committee for each craft tradition on the truly exceptional practitioner. All this had to be systematised in some meaningful way, so in 1987 the Japanese government established the Japan Craft Forum. (The outline of this part is a brief summary referring to an article Japan ‘OVERVIE' Traditional crafts by Yuko Kikuchi )

II. MINGEI (folk crafts of Japan)

1. Evaluation of handicrafts: from William Morris to SEetsu Yanagi It was about forty years later than the Arts and Crafts movement led by William Morris and his followers in the UK and Europe that the mingei (folk crafts) movement flourished in Japan in the period 1926 to 1945. William Morris took art in all its manifestations as a life-affecting issue. An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 43

‘He believed the most admirable and successful works were those designed specifically to suit their purpose and that beauty was the natural result of hard and honest labour. Improving design and the conditions and manner of artistic production provided a panacea for correcting social injustices and the basis of his philosophy for a just and worthwhile life. To paraphrase, he believed that contented and valued workers could not help but produce admirable art and, as a result, a happier and more beautiful world.' ‘He set high standards but loved nothing better than to be totally involved in manual work which he described as “delightful ... hard on the body but easy to the mind". He loved to work in groups of friends or alongside his own employees, and when establishing his workshops ensured that the conditions were good and the work as enjoyable as he could make it.' ‘Many Arts and Crafts designers and crafts workers copied these ideas but it was the ethical spirit of work, the intellectual and psychological underpinning behind almost everything that Morris believed and practised, that remains his greatest legacy.' (Linda Parry ‘William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement’, 2008-2009).

The mingei was almost equivalent to, and in many aspects directly inspired by, these western parallels. Its underlying aim was to preserve and revitalise rural folk crafts, and through them to establish a new aesthetic in modern crafts.

‘The ideologies of the Mingei movement, which found beauty in everyday objects (one of the main characteristics of Arts and Crafts throughout the world), were channeled through the founding of museums, the practices of collecting, the publication of journals and manifestos, the formation of craft associations, and through exhibition and display. The concept of the home as the environment in which the ideas and philosophies of the Mingei movement could become relevant to contemporary life was also central to the way the Arts and Crafts Movement manifested itself in Japan.' ‘In the period following the Second World War, their work laid the foundations for the development of a new European crafts movement which stressed the importance of handcraft and emphasised the role of the individual maker. In Japan the concept of Mingei and the importance of crafts remained central to its sense of place, while in other countries crafts also flourished.' (Karen Livingstone ‘Morris to Mingei ; the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain, Europe and Japan,' 2008-2009).

2. What is mngei (folk crafts of Japan)? 2-1. Definition and brief history Before so-called pre-industrial periods, items necessary for daily life had been produced by hand. Such items as clothes, household utensils, furniture and so on used to be handmade presumably by local people. Among everyday ordinary and utilitarian objects produced by nameless and unknown craftsmen, some kind of beauty surged up as a matter of wide concern among aesthetic critics and activists. The idea and activity has gradually culminated in the mingei movements. The term mingei was a new word coined in the mid-1920’ by Soetsu Yanagi and his fellow enthusiasts. Mingei is, thus, (1) utilitarian oriented and (2) commonplace ordinary or a “normal" thing. The term was applied to refer to handmade products, for the most part, by unknown craftsman for use by 44 佐 中 忠 司

ordinary people in their everyday lives --- works, that is, made by people for the people. Mingei (standing for minshu-teki kAgei ) is translated as “folk crafts" in English. Although the philosophical pillar of mingei is “hand-crafted art of ordinary people” or “people's art", votaries involved put comparative emphasis on the utilitarian aspect, rather than “folk arts." Those who make mingei items are not notable individuals, but nameless craftspeople. What is made is not to be displayed but to be appreciated by everyday usage. They are regular indispensable things made in quantity and affordably priced. The nature of mingei is borne from the community’s way of life. However, mingei is not every single inexpensive necessity you see lined on shop shelves. Mingei must be honest to its utilitarian purpose. 2-2. Categorical criteria Handicrafts in general are not necessarily mingei, if the concern in decoration and ideas preceded utilitarian basics. Mingei items must be: I. honest to utility and “healthy" in form, II. particular about quality, III. produced without being forced, artificial or self-imposing, IV. conscientious of the user. (SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on Mingi')

The following is regarded as some important criteria of mingei arts and crafts: ‘made by anonymous crafts people, produced by hand in quantity, inexpensive, used by the masses, functional in daily life, and representative of the region in which it was produced.' (‘mingei', from Wikipedia). ‘For these reasons, mingei must be faithful to everyday life and “health" both physically and spiritually'. ‘The true is your true companion for life. It has the virtue of being useful, dependable, convenient, and comforting to live with. It has the affection to grow on you. Mingei is therefore natural, genuine, simple, durable, and safe.' (SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on Mingi') ‘For nothing is healthier than normal things.'(SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan) 2-3. The specific characteristics (a) spirituality Yanagi went into particulars why he paid special attention to the spirituality accompanying mingei: Normal: Handicrafts by the craftsmen have been neglected because of the normality of their beauty. The folk crafts were made to be ordinary. As a Buddhist monk said; “The everyday norm is truth." Ordinary and normal qualities are the secret of beauty. Natural: The craftsmen are not conscious of creating beauty. They do not now what they are doing; their hands work unconsciously and naturally. That is why folk crafts are natural and unassuming, without any intentional touch or unnatural, contrived twists. Healthy: The beauty of folk crafts is health, calm, quiet and unpretentious. Folk crafts are well- formed and built so as to suit everyday uses. There is no eccentricity nor abnormality in the folk crafts. Non-Egocentric: Art objects are often the products of egocentric ideas while folk crafts are the works of unknown craftsmen who do not have any self-consciousness during working time. The beauty of folk crafts is the beauty of non-individualism. Simplicity: Folk crafts are made simple in shape, in color and in design. There is not any surplus of decoration in folk crafts, which are made in quality with simple techniques to keep costs low. Folk An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 45

crafts are simple, plain and functional. Intimate Mood: Since folk crafts are simple and unassuming, they give us an intimate feeling, creating a homelike atmosphere, which one cannot find in the work of individual artists. Freedom: Folk crafts are made freely and nonchalantly by craftsmen who have no ambitious aim of creating a masterpiece, and who rather enjoy themselves working. The craftsmen do not care about unevenness or imperfection of their works, while an artist aims to make things perfect and spotless. The free attitude of the craftsmen creates the beauty of spontaneity and vitality. (SAetsu Yanagi ‘The Collection of the Japan Folk Crafts Museum’, Expo’ 70). (b) the Buddhist concept Furthermore, the craftsmen did not attempt to create the products with their imagination; instead, they followed faithfully and blindly the traditional way of making which was the crystallized golden rule set up by their ancestors’ experiences and wisdom acquired over generations. Each pattern, each design, and each glaze was not a new experimentation, but the result of tradition. The beauty of folk crafts is not attributed to the talent of any genius. It is not the outcome of intellect or of individual expression. The beauty of these unknown craftsmen’s works is attributed to the “other-power" (tariki), that is to say, a simple belief in tradition. With practically no exceptions, folk crafts are beautiful; it is difficult to find any bad, or degenerate works among them. (SAetsu Yanagi `The Collection of the Japan Folk Crafts Museum’, Expo’ 70). A national tradition is normally experienced, in practice, via the outer shapes of things, but this carries with it the danger that tradition, in time, will degenerate into the preservation of empty forms. The most important thing here is the strength of the roots that lie hidden beneath the ground even before any visible form becomes apparent. Tradition, to use another metaphor, might be likened to an underground supply of water that lies beneath our feet waiting only to be dug for; it is not a supply channeled in overground from some other source, but a spring ever welling up from the depths of the earth, a spring that is ancient yet eternally brimming with new life. (Supplement by ShAji Hamada to, Japan Folk Crafts Museum, Expo’70). Reflecting on this process, Yanagi concluded that beauty was not the result of any conscious intent but was born of chance and the cumulative skill of generations of unknown artists. He saw this process as akin to the Buddhist concept of tariki, the attainment of salvation not through one’s own merits but through complete reliance on the Buddha’s mercy. (‘folk crafts’, JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1994). According to his idea, the most crucial things with mingei are “the true spirit of the traditional styles" and “the craftsman’s attitude to his work". Yanagi theorized that the arduous repetition of work brought total disengagement of self; no hesitation, anxiety, or ambition in creation. Submissive reliance on tariki (other power) or the “Greater Power" resulted in the production of warm items through the medium of man. Yanagi accounted tradition ― the accumulation of wisdom and experience ― as the “Given Power" that enabled the individual “to produce work of astonishing merit with the utmost ease." (The Japanese Folk Crafts Museum ) Yanagi described the beauty of mingei with words such as wholesome, honest, natural, innocent, free, simple, and pure. It is a quality that lies in what he called the “Eternal Now," a state in which all dual distinctions, such as old and new, are eliminated. (MINGEIKAN HISTORY, HISTORY - Japan Folk Crafts Museum) 46 佐 中 忠 司

Mingei is the highest combination of utility and beauty. Yanagi had an exceptional eye for true beauty and found the heart of beauty in people’s everyday craft. He had the insight to notice the significance of the arts and crafts as the source of beauty in every person’s everyday material and spiritual life. His gospel of sincerity and beauty to enrich everyone’s lives developed and expanded throughout Japan and then to the world as the mingei movement. (SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on Mingei’, MINGEI: 1995). (c) “folk arts” as compared with fine arts The products are those of the unelaborated art of craftsmen, and not works of art by geniuses. The consumers of these products are also the general populace. The history of art is the biography of a few geniuses, and the works of the great multitude of artisans are forgotten before they are recorded on the pages of history. Not pure aestheticism, but usefulness, is the primary consideration. And because it is useful, it has been given a place inferior to the fine arts. Not beauty for beauty’s own sake, but beauty answering all immediate needs of life － that is the essence of ceremonial tea. And the votaries of cha-no-yu have chosen their tea-things from among them. For cha-no-yu is not an aesthetic of the eye alone: beauty is also found in usefulness. In brief, it may be defined as an aesthetic of actual living, and one in which utility is the first principle of beauty. And that is why great significance has been attracted to certain articles necessary for everyday life. One distinguishing feature of our aesthetics appreciation, as compared with that of Western appreciation is the emphasis we place on the things of immediate use in living. Why do we pay so much for mere containers for tea drinking? Because to us they are as artistic and beautiful as painting and sculpture. No other people in the world attach as much importance to things of daily use as the Japanese. (SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan, 1936). Then, what is the nature of the beauty of peasant ware which has been discovered by those tea- masters who posses a high degree of aesthetic sensibility? This is an interesting consideration. In the first place, such ware is non-individualistic. The vessels were made not by a well-known artist but by many persons in a like manner into a like shape. In other words, it is tradition, and not individuality, that characterizes people’s art. The handicraftsmen of olden times were faithful to the tradition of their fathers. As in mediaeval Europe art meant adherence to tradition, so in the East all works of arts and crafts were governed equally by common principles. As a result, no work of people’s art is signed by the creator. In the realm of people’s art, all efforts to attribute a particular work to a definite artist － which is a great concern of the art historian － are quite useless. The highest virtue of the beauty of people's art is its non－individuality. (SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan , 1936).

‘By folk crafts I refer-chiefly to handcrafts of pre-industrial periods. I feel that modern machine- made products are not the expression of the people, but rather the result of commercialism. Until recently, man was apt to think that only the fine arts are essential in the realm of beauty. However, I found in folk crafts an important key to solve the question of beauty, they are healthy, natural, simple, unpretentious, and beautiful. (Supplement by ShAji Hamada to, Japan Folk Crafts Museum, Expo’70).

Utility was the main characteristic of these crafts; therefore they were made functionally and An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 47

practically in order to endure the rough handling of everyday use. Since the craftsman had to produce them at low cost and in quantity, they were obliged to work hard in repeating the same type of process over and over again. This repetitious exercise made the craftsmen skilful in technique, compared with individual artists who work on single objects of art one at a time.

‘Through seeing the collection of folk crafts at the Japan Folk Crafts Museum, you will understand and appreciate the beauty of unknown craftsmen’s works which has been neglected for many years. Seeing the objects without any prejudice or any distorted information is very important in order to penetrate their beauty and to discover their charm.’ ‘I sincerely hope that you will view the collection of this Museum with your eyes and with your heart, not with your brain nor with your knowledge.’ (Supplement by ShAji Hamada to, Japan Folk Crafts Museum, Expo’70).

Based on these theories Yanagi coined the term mingei to differentiate between bijutsu, or fine art, which he saw created for aesthetic appreciation alone, and kAgei, or utilitarian craftwork made for practical use.

3. Beautility An idea of mingei was originally brought about from discovery of the sincerity of handicrafts people. Due to their wholesome, pure and healthy characteristics, it is said that “the most beautiful objects were the products not of individual artists but the collective genius" of the ordinary artisans. (‘folk crafts', JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1994). Utilitarian objects by common people are expected to emerge as beautiful as well and, thus, its beauty emanates from the item’s purpose and utility. It must fundamentally be healthy and free from artificial contrivance of the craftspeople.

‘But utility is a necessary part in the completeness of life, and in order that beauty may be brought into life, crafts － so far neglected － must play a vital part. I, for one, attach great importance to the alliance of Beauty with daily Life.' ‘Utility, all would agree, is the first characteristic of people's art.' (SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan , 1936).

No matter what the handicrafts, so far as they are authentic ones, any objects can be indigenous artistic sources for so-called beautility (*) accordingly. Thanks to these ideas, beautility of handicrafts by the people and for the people can arguably supersede the beauty of articles used by the people of upper class, which are exhibited in most museums. (*) beautility is a compound word made up of beauty and utility. Yanagi explored enthusiastically why he put a special importance to the so-called beautility.

‘As these workers of people's art were originally meant to be useful in daily life, they would not serve the purpose if they were over-adorned and over-decorated. These utensils are characteristically simple in shape, in colour, and in design. Simplicity may be thought of as being 48 佐 中 忠 司

characteristic of cheap things, but it must be remembered that it is a quality that harmonizes well with beauty. That which is truly beautiful is often simple and sparing.’ (SAetsu Yanagi, Folk-crafts In Japan, 1936).

According to him, the way of approach of modern European art history was inadequate in understanding mingei, because it used to put emphasis on the creativity of individual artists.

4. The tradition inherited and modern Even in the modern type of mingei, the fundamental soul is still expected to remain as the true spirit of the traditional styles. The displays have been divided into three main sections. The first focuses on old folk crafts, while the second is a selection of works of today that inherit the old, traditional techniques. Where the one brings home even more strongly the strangely modern appeal of the old, the other is a reminder that even today excellent work is being produced in the true spirit of the traditional styles. (Supplement by ShAji Hamada to, Japan Folk Crafts Museum, Expo’70).

In his book The Unknown Craftsman (outside link), Yanagi writes: ‘On reflection, one must conclude that in bringing cheap and useful goods to the average household, industrialism has been a service to mankind － but at the cost of the heart, of warmth, friendliness and beauty. By contrast, articles well made by hand, though expensive, can be used in homes for generations, and thus considered, they are not expensive after all.' ‘In the wake of the great tide of industrialism in the early part of the last century, something of the human touch and spirit was lost in everyday articles of use. It was with a sense of urgency that Yanagi and his lifelong companions, the potters Bernard Leach, Hamada ShAji, Tomimoto Kenkichi (who later left the Mingei group) and Kawai Kanjiro sought to counteract the desire for cheap, mass-produced products by pointing to the works of ordinary craftsmen that spoke to the spiritual and practical needs of life.’ (MINGEIKAN HISTORY, HISTORY - Japan Folk Crafts Museum)

Thus the mingei movement had three objectives: the collection and display of folk crafts, a thorough survey and study of mingei in Japan, and financial assistance to declining mingei arts along with the organization of craftsman to engage in the production and sale of authentic mingei articles. The first objective was realized with the establishment of the Japan Folk-Craft Museum in Tokyo in 1936. Surveys of folk crafts in Hokkaido and Taiwan during World War II resulted in Yanagi's posthumously published Teshigoto no Nihon (1972, Handicrafts in Japan), and periodicals devoted to crafts helped disseminate the ideals of the mingei movement in Japan. With the third objective, however, the mingei movement was less successful. (SAetsu Yanagi ‘The Collection of the Japan Folk Crafts Museum', Expo’70). However the significance of the mingei movement may be seen in its anti-modern tendencies, Buddhist influence, and emphasis on regional and ethnic culture. (‘folk crafts’, JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1994). Use of the term mingei spread rapidly, and by now it is a household word in Japan. Unfortunately, however, worthwhile folk craft products, both old and new, have become increasingly scarce. On the other hand, a flood of work is being turned out which, though superficially An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 49

in the folk craft style, is in fact calculated to give a false idea of its true nature.

5. Folk crafts’ and handicrafts According to Yanagi, the character of kAgei was defined, first, by yA(use or function): kAgei objects must be simple and sturdy to function effectively. Second, kogei objects must be produced on a large scale at low prices. Third, the beauty of authentic kAgei is created by anonymous laborers who have honed their skill by turning out large numbers of articles without thought of self-expression. Fourth, handcrafted kAgei objects are superior to those made by machine. (‘folk crafts’, JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1994). By the early 20th century, however, with the introduction of synthetics and increasing reliance on machinery, folk crafts began to decline. Folk crafts in Yanagi's sense of the term have nearly become extinct in Japan. However, folk traditions in a broader sense are thriving. Under the Cultural Properties Law of 1950 the concept of cultural assets (bunkazai ) was revised and broadened, encouraging governmental participation in the preservation of folk knowledge, folk performing arts, games, and folk utensils (mingu) used for making clothing, food, and shelter, and in trade or communal life. (‘folk crafts', JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1994). Adherents of the mingei movement revered products that expressed regional and ethnic distinctions and claimed that the Japanese central government was ruining local culture and encouraging its absorption by a uniform society. (‘mingei', The Kodansha Bilingual, 1998). Yanagi saw kAgei as a broader term than mingei: kAgei included objects made by machine and by individual artists, as well as “aristocratic" works. But he also claimed that the best of kAgei belonged to the category of mingei. Second, kAgei objects must be produced on a large scale at low prices. Third, the beauty of authentic kAgei is created by anonymous laborers who have honed their skill by turning out large numbers of articles without thought of self-expression. Fourth, handcrafted kAgei objects are superior to those made by machine. (‘mingei', The Kodansha Bilingual, 1998). Folk crafts are generally classified in the categories of ceramics; wood and bamboo articles; metal and leather objects; dyeing and weaving; paper; and painting, sculpture, and calligraphy. Numerous types of paintings and religious sculptures are considered representative of Japanese folk crafts, although in these categories there are different opinions about what is and what is not folk craft. (According to Yanagi’s somewhat personal and subjective criteria, Otsu-E are included among folk arts where as Ukiyo-E are not.) Present designations of what can be considered mingei should not be accepted as final, since scholars may develop a more comprehensive method of categorization in the future. (‘folk crafts’, JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, 1994). Items created with commercial motives are dishonest to its purpose. Items made in fashion are elegant and refined and often based on distinct preferences. (SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on Mingei', MINGEI : 1995). Among a number of handmade objects, distinguishing features of mingei as compared with those of the rest lie behind the spiritual stance of votaries involved, especially that of artisans. SAetsu Yanagi puts the most important stress on the spiritual attitude with which handmade articles are to be made; that is, of selfless unknown craftspeople or of self-assertive artistic craftspeople. Here lies the vital distinction between so-called mingei (folk craft) and art crafts even if their apparent beauty bears a close resemblance or overlap. 50 佐 中 忠 司

6. Traditional handicraft as “fine art” “The Japanese Traditional Crafts" is the term which used to be applied by The Japan Crafts Association (Nihon KAgeikai ). The Japanese Traditional Crafts Exhibition (Nihon DentAKAgeiten) celebrated its 50th anniversary in the autumn of 2003. The production of hand-crafted items historically fostered in different parts of Japan developed under the programme of modernization instituted during the Meiji period (1868-1912) into what may be called a traditional crafts industry. At the same time, inspired by developments taking place in Europe, Japan saw the rise of artist-craftsmen and the pursuit of individualistic expression through the making of crafts. The term traditional crafts as it is used in Japan today covers all of these activities. In the 1940s, when Japan was suffering from severe shortages and the desolation of its people following the ravages of the Second World War, the traditional crafts industry was on the verge of extinction. Re-establishing the foundations of Japanese society and encouraging industry were of the utmost urgency, and in 1950 the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties was enacted in order to help rebuild and reaffirm Japan’s unique way of life and system of spiritual values. Every year since 1954, the Japanese Traditional Crafts Exhibition has carefully selected works in accordance with the commitment to “protect and foster crafts which have high historical or artistic value" encoded in the Law for the Protection of Cultural Properties. Traditional crafts industries in the regions began a belated recovery in the latter half of the 1950s. Since then, however, mass production, mass consumption, globalization and recession have all taken their toll on the industry’s business trend. While the Traditional Crafts Exhibition has prevailed for 50 years despite these circumstances, the situation today, which is marked by a relentless decline of support for traditional crafts resulting from rapid changes in people’s values, is once again critical. Traditional crafts have been deeply rooted in the everyday lives of the Japanese people. The changing of the way of lives, which are clearly differentiated in Japan, have always been reflected in the choice of designs and materials, as has been sensitivity to the feelings of others, another virtue of Japanese culture. To understand traditional crafts, manifestations that they are of many of Japan's most essential qualities, is to understand Japanese people better and their culture as a whole. So-called studio is made by modern artists working alone or in small groups, producing unique items or pottery in small quantities, typically with all stages of manufacture carried out by one individual. As is often the case with craft, much studio pottery is tableware or cookware but an increasing number of studio potters produce non-functional or sculptural items. The Arts and Crafts movement has played a significant role in the formulation of the studio crafts due in large part to the Arts and Crafts movement’s emphasis on both the handmade object and the importance of the individual maker. Viewed in comparison to the practice of traditional craft which tends to generate craft objects out of necessity or for ceremonial use, studio craft represents a contemporary shift from traditional craft by producing craft objects at the whim of the maker or intended owner and which tend to be at best only desirable for use and sometimes outright in opposition to the usefulness. Since the 1980s there has been a distinct trend away from functional pottery and some studio potters now prefer to call themselves ceramic artists, ceramicists or simply artists. Studio pottery is often sold An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 51

at high prices, and their simple, functional designs chimed in with the modernist ethos. The products of artistic production are produced within a specific community of practice and while they differ from the products produced within the communities of art and design, the boundaries often overlap resulting in hybrid objects, but today “crafts" are most commonly seen as a form of hobby or art. The Industrial Revolution and the increasing mechanisation of production processes gradually reduced or eliminated many of the roles professional craftspeople played, and the term craft also refers to the products of artistic production or creation that require a high degree of tacit knowledge. As the interpretation and validation of art is frequently a matter of context, an audience may perceive crafted objects as art objects when these objects are viewed within an art context, such as in a museum or in a position of prominence in one’s home.

III. DentE-teki KEgei-hin SangyE(Japan’s Traditional Craft Industries)

In Japan there are a large number of traditional craft products that can be traced back through the ages. Each is unique, fostered through regional differences and loving dedication, and provides a continual wealth of pleasure. However, during the last 50 years, changes in the socio-economic structure of Japanese society, accompanied by a Westernization of traditional lifestyle, have affected conventional ways of the production of some traditional crafts. Due to the socio-economic turmoil, many traditional craft industries that date from before the Edo period (1600-1868) face considerable problems. Japan’s traditional craft industries are on the verge of steady decline in the world of business. Some conceivable reasons are: the difficulty in getting the raw materials such as Japanese lacquer, wood, and potter's clay; mass production and mass consumption caused by technical innovation have accelerated the spread of disposable low-cost products; and the change in Japan’s economic structure which has brought about a change in people’s life style. But the situation is in general getting unfavorable. The Japanese economy is more different than it was a few decades ago, and though this claim may still be true, how long it will hold has become a valid question. Much more than the quantity of handicraft activity in Japan, what is of interest and value is that Japan has been and still remains a repository of continental Asian craft techniques, many of which have disappeared long ago on the continent. On the other hand, Japan’s fast-moving society is beginning to see more value in the traditional craft items. That is partly because of the difficulty in getting the materials and the growing demand in handmade products. With some kind of deep-rooted needs for high-quality products, which bring about “comfort" and “real affluence", Japanese traditional crafts have been gaining wide ranging attraction as irreplaceable cultural items.

1. Traditional craft products designated Traditional craft products are designated by the Minister of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI). METI’s effort to promote traditional Japanese crafts have been carried out hoping that the industries will continue to exist in spite of the adverse business circumstances. For a craft item to be designated DentA-teki KAgei-hin SangyA(a Traditional Craft Product) under the Law for the Promotion of Traditional Craft Industries, it must satisfy the criteria outlined below. 52 佐 中 忠 司

1. Must be used in daily life 2. Must be handmade 3. Must be made by traditional techniques and technology 4. Must have materials that are used traditionally 5. A production district must be formed

Generally, Japanese traditional craft is called “DentA-kAgeihin". It has an another name, “DentA- teki-kAgeihin". In Japanese law it is referred to as, “DentA-teki-kAgeihin-sangyA-no-shinkA-ni- kansuru-hAritsu" (“Densan-hA" abbreviated). The law regulates the promotion of the Japanese traditional craft industry. Items that are not craft products themselves, but which are indispensable for the production of a Traditional Craft Product and which satisfy all criteria apart from “1." are categorized as traditional craft tools and materials designated by METI and are promoted in the same way as Traditional Craft Products. By adding “teki " to the word, “DentA-kAgeihin", Japanese traditional craft is defined as - a craft that has the particular materials and the special techniques which are inherited and characterise itself, and that tries to improve and match the industrial environment and the needs of people without losing the characteristic(s).

2. Conditions to be met The law requires that “DentA-teki-kAgeihin" meets the following conditions:

a. The article must be used mainly in daily life. Such as a marriage, funeral, seasonal, or coming-of-age ceremony. This means it is based on daily life. “KAgeihin"and “YA-no-bi ", mean beauty of work in Japanese. When many people use and watch something for a very long time, its work and use gets better. Its color, pattern, and form are influenced deeply by Japanese lifestyle and traditional culture. b. The article must be primarily handmade. All parts of it don’t have to be handmade, but the part that has the characteristic such as its quality, form, design, and/or technique of creation must be handmade. Using a machine in an auxiliary making process is allowed, if its characteristics are not lost. All products are made through the process of human touch. Therefore their size and form are ergonomic, appropriate, and safe. c. The article must be manufactured by traditional techniques and technology. “Traditional" means a continuation of more than 100 years. It is thought that technique and technology of “KAgeihin" are established by many craftsmen trying, failing, and improving for more than 100 years. Gizyutsu (technique in Japanese) and GihA(technology in Japanese) are inseparable from each other. Gizyutsu generally means a craftsman’s skill and precision, and GihA generally means the historical know-how and continuation of the process from selecting materials to making. Traditional technique and technology may be improved and developed if they don't degrade the characteristics of the product. d. The materials should be chiefly those which have been used traditionally. This is similar to number 3 above, the materials must have been used and examined carefully for An Economic Essay on Traditional Handicraft Industries by Taking MINGEI (Folk Crafts) and DENTB-TEKI KBGEI-HIN (Traditional Crafts) as a Base of Reappraisal 53

more than 100 years and be matched to humans and nature. Some of the materials are now scarce and difficult to obtain. In these cases, changing the material is allowed if it doesn’t drastically change the product’s characteristics. e. The industry must be of a regional nature. A production district must be formed where certain craftsmen may work and business be conducted. “Certain craftsmen" is normally 30 craftsmen or 10 firms. Success of some firms is not enough to form a producing district. Reliability, confidence and responsibility of all people in the district are required.

During the latter half of the 1960s, interest in traditional craft industries increased. Subsequently, laws concerning the promotion of traditional craft industries were enacted in May, 1974. As of 2008, there are 210 different crafts which METI designates as “DentA-teki-kAgeihin" in Japan. Among the many different types of Japanese handicrafts are those that formerly were important local industries protected and promoted by the feudal lords. In July, 1975, based on the new legislation, the Association for the Promotion of Traditional Craft Industries was established by a nation-wide consensus from the traditional craft industry. This Association, under the guidance of national and regional authorities, has been active in the promotion of traditional crafts at a grass-roots level while ensuring that these traditions are passed on to the next generation. Thus, the Association for the Promotion of Traditional Craft Industries is an organization affiliated with the government (METI). These industries vary greatly in size and organization and do not represent all the crafts or craft communities in Japan by any means. Most of the involved industries are structured around a cooperative union or association (or sometimes more than one); not all of the industries utilize handwork exclusively (there is limited mechanization); and not all are organized in the same manner. The Japanese people as well as the people of the world should not forget the quality of handwork and keep a place in their hearts for the unassuming and innocent products of direct human effort as well as the products of contemporary technology.

Conclusive Remarks

This paper is chiefly meant as a brief rethinking about the vast field of Japanese traditional handicraft industries from the viewpoint of economic aspects. It is hoped that this article will contribute to draw attention and to whet people’s interest in the culture related to them. Until the high-growth economic period in Japan, a number of handicraft people have been involved as inevitable purveyors of the necessities of daily life without substantial change for a long time. From that time, however, things took an aggravating turn in terms of the quality of life due to the reckless withering commercialism. So-called mingei, above all ceramics, have received much active interest from potters and pottery students abroad. But the information about the rest of traditional handicrafts seems to be sparse in foreign languages. Generations who got used to commune with handicraft items as daily utensils still have their deep- seated tradition, but they are now almost retiring. Respecting the high quality of a number of traditional handicraft, many Japanese people long for homes dotted with beautility that comes from 54 佐 中 忠 司

much of the handicrafts traditions. It is imperative, in a sense that these traditions should be passed on to future generations not only as one of the cultural treasures of the nations but also as a rich utensil and beautility to improve the quality of life. Traditional craft products are extremely different from those mass-produced, in that they apparently bring a richness and charm to modern consumer life styles. In order to be designated as a traditional craft by the government, it is absolutely necessary to prove that the industry has been continuing in the business for roughly more than a century, and reveal itself as a going concern together with its own prospectus in the future. On application, a proof of historical existence without effective breaks and that of local ongoing operation en masse are inevitable requisite conditions. The spiritual aspect of artisans and the tradition inherited does not seriously matter here in comparison to the case of mingei. The fundamental conditions prerequisite are mostly confined to the methods and techniques to be applied and raw materials used well in the course of processing. The rest of the conditions seemingly overlap in these genres. On the other hand, a great majority of daily necessities nowadays come from the machine-made inexpensive market. Good feeling for the qualities of handmade articles, in and of itself, is outstanding, but the problem is a bit expensive and affected marketability. In the age of mechanical mass production and new artificially synthesized materials, a growing number of handmade articles are suffering from deteriorating conditions of the business. It seems that handmade items as conventional daily necessities of the time have almost outlived their effective useful existence. Many people involved in the trade make a precarious living on the fringes of society earning a very unstable and limited income. By all means, we should try to tackle what has brought about the trends, before these irreplaceable traditional cultures disappear from the world. Crafts as fine and applied art are objects that evoke aesthetic emotions. From an aesthetic point of view, artists try to embody their own individual emotion or spirit into the crafts merely as a vehicle for the artistic purpose. That is, one can sublimate his or her energy through refined dexterity into some works of art, which may be deeply expressive of individual emotion. An artist, thus, may try to give actuality to emotions and feelings by means of handmade objects solely as shadow of daily goods. It sounds as if the point of heart must be much more artistic than functional, because the handworker does not deal either with the practical usefulness or industrial side of the thing, but with something about the beauty. Almost nothing but aesthetic appreciation of the final product alone matters in this case. References

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(Nippon Mingeikan). Supplement by ShAji Hamada to, Japan Folk Crafts Museum, Expo’70 (Nippon Mingeikan). SAetsu Yanagi, The Unknown Craftsman: A Japanese Insight into Beauty, Kodansha International, 1989. ‘folk crafts', JAPAN An Illustrated Encyclopedia, Kodansha, 1994. SAetsu Yanagi ‘Proposition on Mingei', MINGEI: Two Centuries of Japanese Folk Art, International Programs Department, The Japan Crafts Museum, 1995. ‘mingei', The Kodansha Bilingual Encyclopedia of Japan, 1998. DentA-KAgeihin - Traditional Japanese Crafts (www.japan-101.com/art/crafts_dento.htm) Japanese Crafts: A Complete Guide to Today’s Traditional Handmade Objects, Japan Craft Forum, Kodansha International, Paperback, 208 pages, June 2001. Japan: OVERVIEW: Traditional crafts by Yuko Kikuchi (www.culturalprofiles.net/japan/directories/ Japan_Cultural_Profile/-6093.html) Yuko Kikuchi, Japanese Modernisation and Mingei Theory, Cultural Nationalization and Oriental , Rougledge Curzon, 2004. Linda Parry ‘William Morris and the Arts and Crafts Movement', Life and Art: Arts & Crafts from Morris to Mingei, 2008-2009, Asahi Shimbun. Karen Livingstone ‘Morris to Mingei ; the Arts and Crafts Movement in Britain, Europe and Japan,' Life and Art: Arts & Crafts from Morris to Mingei, 2008-2009, Asahi Shimbun. Traditional Crafts of Japan (http://www.kougei.or.jp/english/) The Japan Crafts Association(http://www.artjapan.com/TEBIKI-E/8.html)

佐中 忠司（地域文化政策学科） （2008. 10. 31 受理）