(Re)Framing the Storyteller's Story in John Adams's Scheherazade.2

Home , Alan Gilbert (conductor), Anthony Tommasini, Doctor Atomic, Hallelujah Junction, Joan Tower, John Adams (composer)

(Re)Framing the Storyteller’s Story in John Adams’s Scheherazade.2

A thesis submitted to

The Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati

in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF MUSIC

in Music History

in the Division of Composition, Musicology, and Theory of the College-Conservatory of Music

March 2019

Rebecca A. Schreiber

B.M., Murray State University, May 2017

Committee Chair: Jonathan Kregor, Ph.D.

Abstract

As a modern foil to Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade (1888), John Adams’s

Scheherazade.2 (2014) offers an opportunity to evaluate program music’s potential to function as contemporary social commentary through narrativity and representation. I demonstrate how

Adams’s dramatic symphony serves as an effective vehicle of critique of twenty-first-century dynamics surrounding gender and ethnic identity. Both Rimsky-Korsakov and Adams drew inspiration from One Thousand and One Nights, whose narrator Scheherazade overcomes the

Sultan’s brutality through her storytelling. Adams expressly offers a new interpretation of

Scheherazade by evoking modern images of physical, verbal, and emotional abuse faced by women around the world. I analyze Adams’s construction of the voice of an empowered woman by parsing his program and his collaboration with performer Leila Josefowicz, for whom Adams composed the violin’s narrative role. By examining intertextual relationships of musical narrative devices and signifiers between the portrayals of Rimsky-Korsakov and Adams, I argue that the narrative construction and treatment of thematic characters in Scheherazade.2 adhere to program music conventions while simultaneously re-positioning Scheherazade as a social commentator confronting contemporary oppression.

Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction 1

Background 6

Chapter 2: Musical Narrativity 13

Narrative Interpretations of Scheherazade and Scheherazade.2 19

Chapter 3: Representations of Gender and Ethnicity 35

Suggestions of Femininity and Empowerment 36

Suggestions of Exoticism and Universality 44

Modes of Engagement 52

Chapter 4: Reception and Broader Implications 61

Conclusion 78

Bibliography 83

iii

Lists of Examples and Figures

Example 1: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, first movement, mm. 1-7 19

Example 2: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, first movement, mm. 14-17 20

Example 3: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, first movement, mm. 20-24 21

Example 4: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, second movement, mm. 5-9 22

Example 5: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, third movement, mm. 1-8 22

Example 6: Adams, Scheherazade.2, first movement, mm. 14-22 26

Example 7: Adams, Scheherazade.2, first movement, mm. 360-376 28

Example 8: Adams, Scheherazade.2, second movement, mm. 120-130 29

Example 9: Adams, Scheherazade.2, third movement, m. 312 30

Example 10: Adams, Scheherazade.2, fourth movement, mm. 204-210 31

Example 11: Adams, Scheherazade.2, fourth movement, mm. 214-215 32

Example 12: Adams, Scheherazade.2, fourth movement, mm. 252-263 32

Example 13: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, fourth movement, mm. 641-655 41

Example 14: Adams, Scheherazade.2, fourth movement, mm. 132-137 50

Figure 1: Narrative Structure of Scheherazade.2 25

Figure 2: Violinist Leila Josefowicz 55

Figure 3: Album cover of Scheherazade.2 – “I Am Its Secret,” Shirin Neshat, 1993 57

Chapter 1: Introduction

But Scheherazade rejoiced with exceeding joy and got ready all she required and said to her younger sister, Dunyazad, “Note well what directions I entrust to thee! When I have gone in to the King I will send for thee and when thou comest to me and seest that he hath had his carnal will of me, do thou say to me: O my sister, an thou be not sleepy, relate to me some new story, delectable and delightsome, the better to speed our waking hours; and I will tell thee a tale which shall be our deliverance, if so Allah please, and which shall turn the King from his blood-thirsty custom.”1

An over-arching frame story of survival and redemption encompasses these “delectable and delightsome” tales, infused with magic and allure. The well-known collection of folktales

One Thousand and One Nights presents a network of stories within stories, weaving together colorful narratives of intrigue and fantasy. Narrated by the storyteller Scheherazade in a frame of

subjugation and ingenuity, this collection offers vibrant source material for composers to create

imaginative musical narratives and sound-worlds. One such inspired narrative is Nikolai

Rimsky-Korsakov’s symphonic suite, Scheherazade, opus 35, composed in 1888. His four-

movement suite portrays various scenes alluding to the tales of One Thousand and One Nights.

Rimsky-Korsakov imitates the over-arching frame structure of One Thousand and One Nights as individual tales conveyed in each movement. Various themes that musically depict characters and events interact throughout the piece, with the prominent solo violin representing

Scheherazade’s narrative voice. Through Scheherazade, Rimsky-Korsakov tells romantic, fantastical stories just as Scheherazade related. A more recent composition by John Adams evokes similar characteristics inspired by One Thousand and One Nights but repositioned in time to tell a modern tale. Adams’s dramatic symphony, Scheherazade.2, composed in 2014,

1 Richard Francis Burton, Tales from the Arabian Nights (New York: Fall River Press, 2012), 20.

introduces a twenty-first-century representation of Scheherazade.2 Rather than conveying fantastical tales as Rimsky-Korsakov did, Adams claims to address misogyny; he refers to the

violence that permeates the folktales reflected in contemporary news and media images of

women oppressed and violated around the world. Scheherazade.2 constructs this modern

Scheherazade striving to overcome masculine brutality. Like Rimsky-Korsakov’s narrator,

Scheherazade is embodied in a solo violin role composed specifically for Leila Josefowicz,

whose performances lend a tangibility to the interpretation of Scheherazade Adams proposes.

As a modern foil to Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade, John Adams’s

Scheherazade.2 offers an opportunity to evaluate music’s potential to function as contemporary

social commentary through narrativity and representation. Adams adheres to program music

conventions to create a narrative that problematizes twenty-first-century power dynamics through his construction of gender and ethnic identity. In collaboration with violinist Leila

Josefowicz, Adams creates a female persona confronting abuse and persecution (embodied in the music as the solo violin against the orchestral adversary) in a narrative that seeks to elevate the status of those whose voices are unheard. Adams’s work with Josefowicz has gained largely positive attention in the music world, and the program he presents is generally acknowledged and supported in performance settings. However, differing perspectives and ideologies challenge the agenda that Adams purports to advance, calling into question his intentions, ambiguity of the narrative, and sustainability of the piece. By considering both the positive support and the disputing perspectives, I argue overall that Scheherazade.2 successfully provokes listeners to engage with and respond to the social issues Adams highlights.

2 Adams verbally expresses the composition’s title as “Scheherazade point two.”

I approach Rimsky-Korsakov’s and Adams’s compositions through analysis and

comparison, synthesizing diverse theories to evaluate each composer’s construction of

Scheherazade. The concept of intertextuality as explained by Michael L. Klein provides a frame

for comparing the two compositions. Scheherazade and Scheherazade.2 share prominent

elements including a four-movement symphonic structure, orchestral instrumentation featuring a

solo violin, programmatic titles and descriptions, and literary inspiration from One Thousand and

One Nights, inviting an intertextual approach in seeking to derive meanings of each piece

informed by the other. Klein presents intertextuality as a web of relationships; ideas can be

linked in multiple directions, as a system of allusions and references that are independent of

influence.3 Drawing from the work of Julia Kristeva, among others, Klein outlines the concept of

a text as a space within which multiple texts interact. Any person can approach a given text and

shape an individual understanding of it based on his or her perception of the internal interaction of texts in relation to the external background and experience he or she brings to the analysis.

This approach allows for many possible interpretations, each perhaps considering similar elements but detailed through the individual’s identity and perspective. Klein describes different kinds of connections, not necessarily mutually exclusive, that one can consider to derive

meaning in a given text: poetic intertextuality shaped by texts in the writer’s creative process,

esthesic intertextuality of texts considered by societal perspectives, historical or transhistorical

intertextuality considering a text in its own time or across all time, intertexts within a style or

canon or beyond such boundaries.4 Following Klein’s explanation, I do not seek to suggest direct

influence, but rather a web of multi-directional relationships. While I touch on many of Klein’s

3 Michael L. Klein, Intertextuality in Western Art Music (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2005), 4.

4 Klein, Intertextuality in Western Art Music, 12.

types of intertextuality, I focus on esthesic interpretations, deriving meanings of Scheherazade.2

that may be perceived from a listener’s perspective. By exploring parallels of narrative voice,

character depiction, framing, setting, and plot events in the music, in relation to compositional

and socio-cultural contexts, I present a possible reading of Scheherazade.2 through the lens of

Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade.

An array of literature contributes to the ideas explored in this thesis. A brief background of Scheherazade as a literary figure and Scheherazade as a musical work by each composer provides a context for understanding the two pieces. This first chapter culminates with a background section that synthesizes biographical and autobiographical information and details regarding the composition of Scheherazade and Scheherazade.2. The second chapter builds on scholarship of musical narrativity, arguing that the programs supplied by Rimsky-Korsakov and

Adams can be supported in musical events, while musical and extra-musical ambiguity allows for flexibility of interpretation.5 I draw from ideas of linear plots and musical tableaux to analyze

how the overarching structure of the compositions might convey a narrative. I examine how

acceptance of the extra-musical programs proposed by the composers might shape interpretations

of musical events. Edward Cone’s concept of musical personae establishes a method that I apply

to identify characters and their interactions within the musical drama of each piece.6 Using these

theories, I present possible narrative interpretations that could be derived from the compositions.

The third chapter examines representations of identity in the two pieces, arguing that Adams’s

updated version of Scheherazade challenges power dynamics in contemporary society. Literature

5 A more detailed literature review follows in Chapter 2, parsing ideas of scholars including Jean-Jacques Nattiez, Thomas Grey, James Hepokoski, and Susan McClary.

6 Edward Cone, The Composer’s Voice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), 1.

regarding feminist music theory and exotic soundscapes provides a foundation that allows me to

interpret the construction of character identity.7 I build on ideas of physicality and sensuality in music to identify signifiers of femininity, exploring the musical subjectivity of Scheherazade in each piece. I also interpret suggestions of exoticism and Orientalism. I utilize Ralph Locke’s paradigm of “All the Music in Full Context” to determine how musical elements in conjunction with the extra-musical references construct ethnicity.8 I argue that, while Rimsky-Korsakov seems

to create Scheherazade’s persona following her identity in One Thousand and One Nights,

Adams’s Scheherazade is less clearly communicated in terms of her ethnicity and empowerment.

Different interpretations of Scheherazade will be shaped by individual perceptions of the musical

narrative and personal modes of engagement with the music.

Each chapter will in turn be organized to reflect the intertextual relationships between the

two compositions. This structure of two large sections with internal comparison contextualizes

Adams’s dramatic symphony as a modern foil to Rimsky-Korsakov’s symphonic poem. Through

this frame, the final chapter explores the reception of Scheherazade.2, synthesizing perspectives

that offer support and challenges to the piece. I bring together performance reviews praising the

piece, opinions concerned about the role of John Adams (questioning his status as a white male

composer) and the role of Leila Josefowicz (questioning the effectiveness of the piece beyond

her powerful performances), and broader socio-cultural contexts, such as the conventional canon

7 Chapter 3 includes a more elaborate literature review considering feminist music studies by Suzanne Cusick, Marcia Citron, Carolyn Abbate, and Marianne Kielian-Gilbert. Scholarship by Edward Said, Carl Dahlhaus, Richard Taruskin, and Marina Frolova-Walker contribute to interpretations of musical exoticism and Orientalism.

8 Ralph Locke, Musical Exoticism: Images and Reflections (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 59.

of Western music and the #MeToo movement. I conclude by parsing the implications of

Scheherazade.2 as a part of the program music tradition and as a part of modern social activism.

Background

Rimsky-Korsakov and Adams both drew from the same rich literary source material to create their respective compositions. The tales of One Thousand and One Nights have evolved over the centuries in various editions and translations. The English translations are generally known as the Arabian Nights, or Arabian Nights’ Entertainment. The stories originate largely from ancient folklore and literature of Arabic, Persian, Greek, Indian, Jewish, and Turkish cultures. Authors, scholars, and translators have revised and added stories in their diverse processes of compilation, producing collections of tales characterized by an “Oriental” style but of questionable authenticity. Prominent multi-volume translations include Les Mille et une nuits, contes arabes traduits en français by Antoine Galland (early 1700s) and The Book of the

Thousand Nights and a Night by Richard Burton (late 1800s).

The main frame story evokes a rich Middle Eastern setting, introducing the Sultan

Shahryar, ruler of the Sasanian Empire. After learning of his wife’s infidelity, Shahryar orders her execution and then vows to protect himself from any future betrayal by marrying only virgins, consummating the marriages, and killing them the next morning. Once Shahryar had established this pattern, Scheherazade seeks to become his wife with a plan to overcome his cruelty. On their wedding night, Scheherazade begins to tell him a tale and leaves it unresolved.

She continues her storytelling little by little each night to keep the Sultan curious and thereby postpone her execution. Her tales convey themes of magic, romance, and adventure, and some of her stories feature characters who tell stories of their own. By the end of Scheherazade’s storytelling, the Sultan has undergone a transformation from brutal to merciful and grants

Scheherazade her life. I utilize Tales from the Arabian Nights, a collection compiled from the

translation by Richard Burton, to refer to the fantastical and violent images confronted by the

composers in their musical adaptations of the narrative.9 Inspired by this rich source material,

both composers incorporate musical signifiers of feminine identity and an ethnicity reminiscent

of the literary Middle Eastern setting, participating in broader tropes of gendered and exotic

representations in music. Their respective compositions reflect their unique compositional styles

shaped by their personal, historical, and cultural backgrounds.

While he received no formal training in composition, Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov (1844-

1908) is widely considered to be a master of orchestration and the “architect” of Russian style.10

Rimsky-Korsakov’s childhood featured dreams of sailing and musical influences from his parents. As a young adult, he became a naval officer and concurrently joined the ranks of a group of musicians that would later be called the “Mighty Handful,” otherwise known as the “Five,” the “Kuchka,” and the “New Russian School.” Rimsky-Korsakov joined their efforts in the

1860s to establish a national identity for Russia by foregrounding folk idioms and rejecting traditional German ideology in musical form, harmony, and style. They embraced the concept of program music exhibited by Franz Liszt and the progressive New German School and adopted an

Oriental style that combined folk tunes with projections of exotic qualities, seeking to establish a

Russian music distinct from the sounds of Western art music. Rimsky-Korsakov demonstrated these characteristics in his many operatic and orchestral works, particularly in Scheherazade.11

9 Burton, Tales from the Arabian Nights.

10 Marina Frolova-Walker, Russian Music and Nationalism: From Glinka to Stalin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 141.

11 For further biographical and musical background of Rimsky-Korsakov, see Gerald Abraham, Rimsky- Korsakov: A Short Biography (New York: AMS Press, Inc., 1976); V.V. Yastrebtsev, Reminiscences of Rimsky-Korsakov, trans. Florence Jonas (New York: Columbia University Press, 1985); Steven Griffiths, 7

Rimsky-Korsakov’s autobiography, My Musical Life (1909), documents his musical

output at various points of his life.12 Scholars have generally considered this book to be a

prominent piece of literature providing insight into the tradition of Russian program music.

However, as it was published about two decades after Rimsky-Korsakov wrote Scheherazade, the book needs to be approached with the recognition that he may have retroactively embellished his accounts. The autobiography indicates that Rimsky-Korsakov completed Scheherazade in the summer of 1888, describing his intentions that listeners “carry away the impression that it is beyond doubt an Oriental narrative of some numerous and varied fairy-tale wonders.”13 He constructed a vague narrative recalling One Thousand and One Nights through the title

Scheherazade and suggesting episodes of a story through evocative movement titles—“I. The

Sea and Sinbad’s Ship; II. The Legend of the Kalendar Prince; III. The Young Prince and the

Young Princess; IV. Festival at Baghdad. The Sea. Ship Breaks Upon a Cliff Surmounted by a

Bronze Horseman.” His symphonic suite features a violin solo throughout the four movements, interspersed among the musical episodes. Analyses of Scheherazade by Nasser Al-Taee, Maiko

Kawabata, and Steven Griffiths provide insight into the formal and thematic elements of the composition and offer a methodological framework for approaching Scheherazade.2 by John

Adams.14

A Critical Study of the Music of Rimsky-Korsakov, 1844-1890 (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1989); Gerald R. Seaman, Nikolay Andreevich Rimsky-Korsakov: A Research and Information Guide, Second Edition, Routledge Music Bibliographies (New York: Routledge, 2015); Nikolai Rimsky- Korsakov and His World, ed. Marina Frolova-Walker (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018).

12 Nikolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov, My Musical Life, trans. Judah A. Joffe (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1989).

13 Rimsky-Korsakov, My Musical Life, 292.

14 Nasser Al-Taee, Representations of the Orient in Western Music: Violence and Sensuality (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2010); Maiko Kawabata, “The Narrating Voice in Rimsky- 8

As an exceptionally prominent, influential American composer, John Adams (b. 1947) is

widely considered to be the nation’s unofficial composer laureate.15 His renown has grown over

the past several decades, establishing his voice as the emblem of American classical

contemporary music. Growing up in New England, his musical background features childhood

clarinet lessons from his father, participation in community ensembles, early exposure to

orchestra concerts, and studies at Harvard University. He began composing at the age of ten, and

his eclectic compositional style has been shaped over the years by different influences, including

minimalism, the collage style of Charles Ives, and the “American” openness of Aaron Copland.

Adams has received honorary doctorates, many Grammy Awards (largely for his pieces released

with Nonesuch Records), and the 2003 Pulitzer Prize in Music for his September 11

commemoration piece, On the Transmigration of Souls (2002). Adams’s compositions engage

with historical, social, and political affairs, connecting his music to the nation’s concerns and

ideologies. He is noted for his many symphonic works, as well as for operatic works created in

collaboration with stage director Peter Sellars. By interacting with such issues, Adams’s works

tend to be provocative and controversial among audiences and critics.16 With Scheherazade.2,

Adams again seeks to address modern social dynamics.

Korsakov’s Shekherazade,” Women and Music 4 (2000): 18-39; Griffiths, A Critical Study of the Music of Rimsky-Korsakov, 1844-1890.

15 John Adams Reader: Essential Writings on an American Composer, ed. Thomas May (Pompton Plains, NJ: Amadeus Press, 2006); for further biographical and musical background of Adams, see John Adams, Hallelujah Junction: Composing an American Life (New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux, 2008); “John Adams,” official composer website, https://www.earbox.com/.

16 With librettos by Sellars, Adams has musically called attention to the 1945 atomic bomb explosion at the New Mexico test site in his opera Doctor Atomic (2004), female perspectives of the Passion in The Gospel According to the Other Mary (2012), and gendered and ethnic stories during the California Gold Rush of the 1850s in Girls of the Golden West (2017). His opera The Death of Klinghoffer (1990) (libretto by Alice Goodman) has generated controversy in perceived anti-Semitic suggestions. The conclusion of this thesis explores the position of Scheherazade.2 within Adams’s socially provocative output.

Adams claims to address contemporary representations of Scheherazade, referring to

images in the news and media of women oppressed and violated around the world. He explains

that his composition was motivated by an exhibit featuring the history and evolution of One

Thousand and One Nights at the Institut du Monde Arabe in Paris in 2012. Struck by the

underlying violence and brutality in the folk tales, Adams imagined a modern Scheherazade

facing misogyny in the world today. He specifically describes “the ‘woman in the blue bra’ in

Tahrir Square, dragged through the streets, severely beaten, humiliated and physically exposed

by enraged, violent men” (2011) and “the young Iranian student, Neda Agha-Soltan, who was

shot to death while attending a peaceful protest in Tehran” (2009).17 He presents a suggested

narrative of this twenty-first-century Scheherazade in the scenes of his four movements—“I.

Tale of the Wise Young Woman – Pursuit by True Believers; II. A Long Desire (love scene); III.

Scheherazade and the Men With Beards; IV. Escape, Flight, Sanctuary.” Adams refers to his

piece as a “dramatic symphony,” borrowing the term from Berlioz’s programmatic compositions.

This four-movement symphonic structure creates an intriguing intertext with Rimsky-Korsakov’s

suite. Why would Adams choose an instrumental medium to convey his conception of

Scheherazade’s story? Like Rimsky-Korsakov, he is well-known for his opera compositions;

would not an operatic medium more clearly express the drama and action he suggests? Perhaps

17 “Scheherazade.2: Dramatic Symphony for Violin & Orchestra (2014–15),” in “John Adams: Works: Orchestra,” composer website. Accessed 29 September 2018. https://www.earbox.com/scheherazade2/. The program notes Adams includes here are also printed in the liner notes of the 2016 Nonesuch recording and likely appear in programs distributed at concert hall performances of Scheherazade.2.

For details regarding the images he cites, see Nazila Fathi, “In a Death Seen Around the World, a Symbol of Iranian Protest,” The New York Times, 22 June 2009, accessed 1 February 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/23/world/middleeast/23neda.html; Kainaz Amaria, “The ‘Girl in the Blue Bra’,” NPR, 21 December 2011, accessed 1 February 2019. https://www.npr.org/sections/pictureshow/2011/12/21/144098384/the-girl-in-the-blue-bra.

the ambiguity of program music that leaves room for individual interpretations is a crucial

component to Adams’s project. By avoiding the communication of specific details, Adams

allows for a flexibility that requires listeners to critically contemplate the issues he addresses as

they construct their understandings of the musical narrative.

Adams creates another prominent intertext with Scheherazade through his solo violin part. He composed this part specifically for his friend and colleague, Leila Josefowicz (b. 1977).

The role of Josefowicz as the soloist lends the piece expressive power. The Canadian-American violinist is renowned for her emotive and virtuosic performances of new music; she received the

prestigious MacArthur Fellowship in 2008 and the Avery Fisher Prize in 2018, indicating her

outstanding musical achievements and excellence.18 My opportunity to interview Leila

Josefowicz following a performance of Scheherazade.2 by the Cleveland Orchestra allowed me

to gain insight from her perspective regarding the piece’s creation and reception.19 Josefowicz

has thus far been the only solo violinist to perform Scheherazade.2, presenting the piece over

fifty times with various ensembles nationally and internationally.20 She received a 2016 Grammy nomination for Best Classical Instrumental Solo in her performance with the St. Louis

Symphony Orchestra, which was recorded and released with Nonesuch Records. 21 Her

collaboration with Adams plays an important role in influencing audience perception of

18 For further biographical information and background of Josefowicz, see “Profile,” Leila Josefowicz, artist website. Accessed 14 February 2019. https://www.leilajosefowicz.com/profile/.

19 Leila Josefowicz, interview by Rebecca Schreiber, conducted 29 November 2018, at Severance Hall, Cleveland, Ohio.

20 This pattern does not seem to be deliberate or specifically desired; it seems other violinists simply have not yet chosen or met the opportunity to perform this piece.

21 John Adams, Scheherazade.2, St. Louis Symphony, Powell Hall. David Robertson, conductor. With Leila Josefowicz, violin. Recorded 19-20 February 2016. Nonesuch.

Scheherazade.2. As the following chapters will explore, many factors contribute to the

narrativity, representation, and reception of this piece. By using Rimsky-Korsakov’s

Scheherazade as an intertextual lens, this thesis examines the diverse perspectives that interact to

shape the broader implications of Scheherazade.2. I argue that Adams and Josefowicz present a

twenty-first-century Scheherazade who may or may not be empowered and may or may not

represent women of all backgrounds, telling an ambiguous story that challenges demographic inequality in modern society.

Chapter 2: Musical Narrativity

And Scheherazade perceived the dawn of day and ceased saying her permitted say. Then quoth Dunyazad, “O my sister, how pleasant is thy tale, and how tasteful; how sweet, and how grateful!” She replied, “And where is this compared with what I could tell thee this coming night, if I live and the King spare me?” Said the King in himself, “By Allah, I will not slay her until I hear [her] next story, for truly it is wondrous.”1

In One Thousand and One Nights, Scheherazade’s storytelling intrigues Shahryar night after night, delaying her execution indefinitely. Her narration sustains her; the tales she tells are

“tokens of life prolonged,” gradually transforming the Sultan into a merciful husband.2 Music is

often metaphorically described as a language, but does music have the potential to carry the same

kind of power as Scheherazade’s stories? How can Rimsky-Korsakov’s suite relate fantastical

tales reminiscent of One Thousand and One Nights through instrumental music? How can John

Adams’s symphony convey a narrative that extends beyond storytelling to make a statement

against oppressive power dynamics? While music alone may not be able to inherently express

meaning, as many scholars assert, meaning may more clearly be interpreted through “music plus

a title, a poem, a person—that is, something extrinsic to the music itself.”3 Through this

understanding of nineteenth-century program music, a listener may derive meaning from the

music through the title of a work and its movements, descriptions in program notes, and ideas

from external commentary. These kinds of extra-musical supplements lend meaning to Rimsky-

Korsakov’s Scheherazade, shaping interpretations generally shared by audiences and scholars.

Familiarity with this well-known piece creates a lens through which the narrative of

1 Richard Francis Burton, Tales from the Arabian Nights (New York: Fall River Press, 2012), 246.

2 Burton, Tales from the Arabian Nights, 374.

3 Jonathan Kregor, Program Music, Cambridge Introductions to Music (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2015), 2.

Scheherazade.2 may be understood. Through this intertextual frame, structural and thematic

narrative devices in conjunction with provocative extra-musical references provide a context that

may enable listeners to interpret the story Adams seeks to communicate in Scheherazade.2.

Scholars have generated different theories regarding how narrativity in music may be

explained. Jean-Jacques Nattiez asserts that, rather than music being a narrative itself, the

linearity of music evokes “a narrative thread that narrativizes music.”4 He follows Jean Molino’s

tripartite semiological theory, describing the process in which one might consider narrativity in

music: the composer (or storyteller) creates an intended narrative, traces of which exist in the music (or text), and the listener (or reader) employs imagination to fill in the narrative void surrounding those traces. Nattiez applies the terms poietic, immanent, and esthesic to three levels

of musical analysis (referring to the composer’s perspective, the musical text itself, and the listener’s perspective, respectively) and describes processes of musical-narrative construction that can elucidate interpretations.5 In these processes, he asserts the need for the composer to provide a context for the music’s narrative and for the listener to approach the music with a particular frame of mind to reconstruct that narrative. James Hepokoski reflects Nattiez’s emphasis on this interaction in his description of an “assumed generic contract between composer and listener whereby musical ideas are agreed to be mappable onto aspects of specific

4 Jean-Jacques Nattiez, “Can One Speak of Narrativity in Music?” trans. Katharine Ellis, Journal of the Royal Musical Association 115, no. 2 (1990): 257, emphasis in original.

5 Jean-Jacques Nattiez, Music and Discourse: Toward a Semiology of Music, trans. Carolyn Abbate (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1990), 140.

characters or situations.”6 In this sense, the cooperation of composer and listener may allow a

narrative to be communicated through music.

Thomas Grey outlines two primary modes of metaphorical discourse in music criticism

used to describe expression in music: a visual (pictorial) mode and a verbal (narrative) mode.7

Grey suggests that the verbal mode corresponds to the linearity of music described by Nattiez, building on the “temporal, processive, and teleological characteristics shared by music and narrative.”8 James Hepokoski and Susan McClary offer ideas that reflect this evocation of linear narrative through explorations of formal structures. McClary presents the idea of tonality and form organizing time and expectation into a story-arc of beginning, middle, and end, creating a plot-driven narrative.9 Hepokoski, in his work on sonata theory with Warren Darcy, similarly

suggests the expressive possibilities generated through a piece’s adherence to or deformation of

normative formal conventions.10 This kind of musical narrative reflects Vladimir Propp’s

morphology of folklore, a set of narrative elements that can be organized in a sort of template to

comprise a standard folktale.

6 James Hepokoski, “The Second Cycle of Tone Poems” in The Cambridge Companion to Richard Strauss, ed. Charles Youmans (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010), 92; cited in Kregor, Program Music, 2.

7 Thomas Grey, “Metaphorical Modes in Nineteenth-century Music Criticism: Image, Narrative, and Idea,” in Music and Text: Critical Inquiries, ed. Steven Paul Scher (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 94.

8 Grey, “Metaphorical Modes,” 96.

9 Susan McClary, “The Impromptu That Trod on a Loaf: Or How Music Tells Stories,” Narrative 5, no. 1 (January 1997): 22.

10 Warren Darcy and James Hepokoski, “The Medial Caesura and Its Role in the Eighteenth-Century Sonata Exposition,” Music Theory Spectrum, 19, no. 2 (Autumn 1997): 116.

Grey describes the visual mode as a metaphor for the images that music may seem to evoke. However, he asserts that the verbal and visual modes are not mutually exclusive. He explains the visual narrative as a “kind of story conveyed by a series of images: a story expressed in mimetic rather than diegetic terms.”11 This sequence of juxtaposed musical scenes creates a kind of tableau, which does not follow a linear narrative thread like Nattiez’s. Instead, a

“storylike quality may be suggested by the succession of fleeting, phantasmic musical ‘images’ in a composition,” creating a suggestive narrative thread linking the scenes.12

While these theories provide a possible way to understand how music may convey a

narrative, the question remains of how to interpret the narrative. Edward Cone proposes the

concept of a musical persona, building on the idea of a literary persona that allows an author or

poet to communicate in lyric, dramatic, or narrative modes (through his own voice, through the

voices of characters, or through a combination of both techniques, respectively).13 An implicit

musical persona serves as a vehicle allowing the composer to speak in these modes through

prominent vocal and instrumental roles present in a composition. In a purely instrumental

composition, each instrument may personify a role, representing a protagonist and various

characters. The interaction of these personae constructs a story to be interpreted by the listener.

Cone explains how the meaning of a composition’s content can be revealed through human

context. Considering instrumental music, he specifically pinpoints the role of an external

program in shaping interpretations:

11 Grey, “Metaphorical Modes,” 96.

12 Thomas Grey, “Fingal’s Cave and Ossian’s Dream,” in The Arts Entwined: Music and Painting in the Nineteenth Century, ed. Marsha L. Morton and Peter L. Schmunk (New York: Garland Publishing Inc., 2000), 90.

13 Edward Cone, The Composer’s Voice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), 1.

A program can specify a general mood to be associated with the movement of the music, or it can follow—or direct—the course of the music more closely through the succession of sounds, actions, tensions, and relaxations that its narrative suggests. The effectiveness of a program depends on the degree to which it is felt to be figuratively isomorphic with the form of the composition—the extent to which the pattern of activity suggested by the program corresponds to the pattern of symbolic gestures created by the music.14

With varying degrees of specificity, a program provides a concept for the audience to imagine as the music unfolds. Whether they perceive a linear plot or a less structured series of images in the music, listeners may identify personae and their interactions in musical events to fill in the details suggested by the program and interpret the narrative.

Synthesizing these theories of narrativity provides one possible approach to understanding

Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade and Adams’s Scheherazade.2. Grey’s concept of a musical tableau seems to best describe the structural organization of the two pieces. Both composers suggest a narrative through the juxtaposition of musical images; rather than telling linear, plot- driven stories of Scheherazade, the movement titles and thematic material of each composition indicate a series of scenes that are connected through a suggested narrative thread. This interpretation of the narrative seems to be supported by the composers’ claims. Rimsky-Korsakov wrote in his autobiography that he sought to convey a program of “separate, unconnected episodes and pictures from the Arabian Nights, scattered through all four movements of my suite… a kaleidoscope of fairy-tale images and designs of Oriental character.”15 Similarly, Adams

claimed in his program notes that he intended to present a narrative that “follows a set of

14 Cone, The Composer’s Voice, 167.

15 Nikolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov, My Musical Life, trans. Judah A. Joffe (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1989), 292-93.

provocative images” alluding to a loosely-knit story.16 Viewing the musical narrative as a story of pictures reflects the narrative structure of One Thousand and One Nights: the overarching framework of the story consists of individual folktales juxtaposed, linked by Scheherazade’s narration. Both compositions reflect this collage-like narrative style, weaving together musical scenes in their respective colorful programmatic movements.

Following Cone’s conception of musical personae, identifying characters and events in each composition allows for interpretations to take more concrete form. The prominent roles of the solo violin establish Scheherazade as the narrative voice in each piece. In her analysis of

Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade, Maiko Kawabata describes the violin’s semiotic signification of feminine vocality, tracing historical associations of the violin accompanying female singing and noting similarities between the violin’s virtuosic potential and that of aria singing.17 By recognizing the violin’s conventional signification and its thematic interaction with the orchestra in each piece, listeners may begin to shape interpretations. With the guidance of the program each composer provides, each listener’s imagination may fill in details and elaborate on the musical narrative it perceives. Potential interpretations of each piece follow here, offering possible perceptions of the interaction of selected musical narrative devices and extra-musical references,

shaped through intertexts of the four-movement symphonic structure, programmatic elements,

and suggestive instrumentation. Due to differing individual backgrounds and perspectives that

shape diverse encounters with the music, interpretations of the musical narrative will differ for

each person. The interpretations that follow present only one possibility of meaning.

16 “Scheherazade.2: Dramatic Symphony for Violin & Orchestra (2014–15),” in “John Adams: Works: Orchestra,” composer website. Accessed 29 September 2018. https://www.earbox.com/scheherazade2/.

17 Maiko Kawabata, “The Narrating Voice in Rimsky-Korsakov’s Shekherazade,” Women and Music 4 (2000): 37.

Narrative Interpretations of Scheherazade and Scheherazade.2

In Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade, the solo violin represents Scheherazade as she tells

fantastical tales to the Sultan. The identity of Scheherazade is reinforced by thematic contrast

with the Sultan’s persona. The Sultan is depicted at the beginning through a loud, low unison

statement in E minor, with the dark timbres of low brass, clarinet, bassoon, violin, and low

strings playing the same pitch classes in their respective registers (Example 1). The “strong

rhythmic, harmonic, and dynamic gestures that suggest the Sultan as a commanding, dominant,

and imposing figure” establish his character, with chromatic notes later in the theme perhaps

indicating his “volatile mental state.”18 Scheherazade’s theme follows shortly thereafter, as a

musical opposition to his character; the violin’s improvisatory line emerges softly, lingering on a

high E6 before flowing into a lyrical, rippling line accompanied sparsely by harp (Example 2).

Example 1: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, first movement, the Sultan’s theme, mm. 1-7.19

These themes return throughout the piece, reflecting the framing structure manifested in One

Thousand and One Nights; Scheherazade’s voice reappears between the stories she tells, reaffirming her position as an external narrator of a series of tales. With this narrative structure, the piece demonstrates Grey’s concept of a musical tableau. The movements are structured as a

18 Nasser Al-Taee, Representations of the Orient in Western Music: Violence and Sensuality (Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Company, 2010), 239.

19 Nikolai Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, Op. 35, Symphonic Suite for Orchestra (Mineola, NY: Dover Publications, Inc., 1999); all subsequent musical examples from Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade come from this edition.

patchwork of sections, presenting musical images reminiscent of Scheherazade’s tales in One

Thousand and One Nights but not pinpointing specific stories. The individual scenes evoked in

each movement are not necessarily linked linearly, but the details within each and the details

connecting them can be filled in by the listener’s imagination.

Example 2: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, first movement, Scheherazade’s theme, mm. 14- 17.

After the violin’s cadenza, the music delves into Scheherazade’s first tale, the content of which is suggested by the movement’s title, “The Sea and Sinbad’s Ship.” The beginning section introduces a theme that could be perceived as a characterization of Sinbad’s ship, appearing as a lilting variation of the Sultan’s theme in the violins over repetitive undulating waves in the low strings (Example 3). A tranquil section follows, introducing brief solo statements in the

woodwinds and a return of Scheherazade’s voice, in a calmer, metered form, perhaps explaining

some element of the story. Energetic triplets in a full woodwind texture may evoke a more

turbulent sea in the next section. These three juxtaposed scenes return, reintroducing Sinbad’s

ship on the waves and providing an opportunity for the listener to imagine a quest on the seas.

Example 3: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, first movement, music of Sinbad, mm. 20-24.

The second movement, “The Legend of the Kalendar Prince,” begins with Scheherazade’s

narrative theme, reappearing in its original expressive form ending with a cadenza. A bassoon solo marked “capriccioso,” or playful and impulsive, follows her introduction, perhaps establishing a persona of the Kalendar Prince embarking on an adventure (Example 4). His theme is varied throughout the opening and closing sections of the movement’s ternary form, surrounding a middle section of rapid fanfare iterations.

Example 4: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, second movement, music of the Kalendar Prince, mm. 5-9.

Example 5: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, third movement, music of the Young Lovers, mm. 1-8.

The third movement introduces a story of romance, “The Young Prince and the Young

Princess.” Another ternary form movement, it opens and closes with a slow, sweet melody in

homophonic texture, evoking the quality of young noble love (Example 5). The middle section is

more light-hearted, a playful march, perhaps representing their carefree attitudes. Scheherazade’s

voice interjects again, accompanying the return of the opening material. The final movement

concludes the piece with intensity and color: “Festival at Baghdad. The Sea. Ship Breaks Upon a

Cliff Surmounted by a Bronze Horseman.” The Sultan’s theme begins the movement, followed by a brief cadenza response from Scheherazade. Then the music takes off in a frenzy. Thematic material from the previous movements reappears here, with the sea as the most prominent. The music features a break that could indicate the crash of the ship upon the cliff. The piece concludes with Scheherazade’s final remarks, overlapping the Sultan’s response. Steven Griffiths describes the unity among the four separate movements as “a web of thematic references,” explaining the recurrence of the melodic and harmonic themes representing Scheherazade and

Shahryar in different contexts throughout the piece.20

Applying a similar method of identifying characters and musical events suggested by the

program illuminates a possible interpretation of Adams’s Scheherazade.2. The programmatic

symphonic structure, distinct instrumental parts, and allusive titles form intertexts that invite

listeners to approach Scheherazade.2 with an interpretive lens similar to that which they might

employ to understand Scheherazade. Again, there are a multitude of possible readings of the

musical narrative, with the following interpretation offering just one potential. Following

Rimsky-Korsakov’s model, the solo violin line can again be understood as an embodiment of

20 Steven Griffiths, A Critical Study of the Music of Rimsky-Korsakov, 1844-1890 (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1989), 251.

Scheherazade. However, Adams’s Scheherazade does not have a recognizable theme that returns

throughout the piece as Rimsky-Korsakov’s does. As such, Scheherazade.2 does not share the same framing structure that reflects the narrative style of the Arabian Nights; rather, Adams’s reinterpreted Scheherazade seems to tell excerpts of her own modern story as the piece progresses. Again, the images evoked seem to align with Grey’s musical tableau narrative mode.

The scenes are not necessarily continuous, but instead present snippets of Scheherazade’s journey, leaving the connective and elaborative details to the listener’s imagination (Figure 1).

The distinctive solo violin voice evolves throughout the piece, suggesting a narrative that can be constructed by the listener following Adams’s programmatic movement titles and accompanying program notes. His vague outline hints at what he seeks to communicate through the music but allows the individual listener to fill in the details of the story by imagining the dramatic action and settings that may correspond to salient musical events:

While not having an actual story line or plot, the symphony follows a set of provocative images: a beautiful young woman with grit and personal power; a pursuit by “true believers”; a love scene which is both violent and tender; a scene in which she is tried by a court of religious zealots (“Scheherazade and the Men with Beards”), during which the men argue doctrine among themselves and rage and shout at her only to have her calmly respond to their accusations; and a final “escape, flight and sanctuary,” which must be the archetypal dream of any woman importuned by a man or men.21

21 “Scheherazade.2: Dramatic Symphony for Violin & Orchestra (2014–15),” https://www.earbox.com/scheherazade2/. Again, these notes also appear in the liner notes of the Nonesuch Album and likely in programs distributed at live performances. 24

Figure 1: Narrative Structure of Scheherazade.2

Movement Title Selected Elements Suggesting Musical Narrative I. Tale of the Wise - m. 1 – “Tale of the Wise Young Woman” – storytelling flourish, French Young Woman – Pursuit horn introduces solo violin by True Believers - m. 14 – solo violin enters as Scheherazade, registral jumps on D, then G♯ - m. 64 – solo violin registral jumps on F, “playful” - m. 144 – strings undulating as a “seamless web” – solo violin fades in misterioso at m. 165 - m. 223 – “Pursuit by True Believers” – solo violin veloce, stingers by the orchestra, low accompaniment (low strings, contrabassoon) - m. 360 – oboe solo reflecting the solo violin melody - m. 449 – descending frenzied conclusion

II. A Long Desire (Love - m. 1 – overlapping walls of sound, lush chords Scene) - m. 120 – French horn, trombone, bass melody - m. 124 – solo violin enters the scene, echoes melody - m. 209 – agitato brass and winds, no Scheherazade - m. 232 – anxious triplets in the solo violin - m. 246 – fermata rest, somber to the end III. Scheherazade and the - m. 1 – frenetico “argument” – stark contrast between sharply articulated Men With Beards brass/strings and slurred rhythmic woodwinds/xylophone – back and forth - m. 43 – solo violin, smooth slurs, semplice - m. 139 – “Doctrinal disputes: the men with beards argue among themselves” – sixteenth-note lines layer in, punctuated by outbursts from the strings - m. 181 – “The Judgement” – bass drum hit, authoritative trumpet fanfare - m. 223 – “Scheherazade’s Appeal” – solo violin, calm/improvisatory - m. 252 – furious outburst by solo violin – double stops, feroce - m. 286 – “The Condemnation” – shrill orchestral scream, agitato persistent strings - m. 311 – ad lib repeating cimbalom and harps, tremolo strings, solo violin improvisatory response IV. Escape, Flight, - m. 1 – unison low strings, cello solo lines Sanctuary - m. 38 – solo violin and pizzicato strings – misaligned downbeats - m. 127 – solo violin ascent, orchestral sforzando stingers - m. 160 – solo violin drops out, trumpet con sordino and woodwinds unison – low strings col legno, upper strings produce “frantic scratching sound” with heavy pressure on the string - m. 178 – “Sanctuary” – solo violin returns, smooth and calm - m. 204 – solo violin, high soaring line accompanied by strings - m. 228 – low plucked harp, soft sustained strings - m. 240 – high soft solo violin entrance, loose rhythm around plucked harp on downbeats – high fading away to the end

An ascending whirlwind opens the piece, creating a storytelling gesture leading into the

tale. This flourish produces a “pulling-back-the-curtain” effect, similar to the introductions of

other programmatic repertoire, such as Mendelssohn’s Midsummer Night’s Dream Overture,

Liszt’s “Dante” Symphony, and Richard Strauss’s Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche. A French horn solo introduces the solo violin, anticipating Scheherazade in the declamation of a similar melodic contour. Adams’s Scheherazade demonstrates bold, virtuosic features reminiscent of

Rimsky-Korsakov’s. The violin’s entrance in the first movement begins softly, sustaining a high

D6 before gliding smoothly down through acrobatic octave leaps. The rhythm is free with an improvisatory feel. Additional pitches gradually weave into the line, creating a lyrical cascade reflective of Rimsky-Korsakov’s undulating melody (Example 6; compare with Example 2).

Example 6: Adams, Scheherazade.2, first movement, solo violin’s initial appearance suggestive of Scheherazade’s persona, mm. 14-22. Used with permission by Boosey & Hawkes. © 2014 Hendon Music, Inc. A Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright For All Countries. All Rights Reserved.

The accompaniment consists of soft sustained chords in the strings and brief gentle gestures in the cimbalom, celesta, harp, and viola, highlighting the solo violin’s voice. Unlike Rimsky-

Korsakov’s narrator, however, Adams’s Scheherazade is not presented in contrast to any single male counterpart. Instead, Adams’s Scheherazade is set against the orchestral accompaniment, sometimes against the whole and sometimes against smaller internal ensembles. While the violin

embodies Scheherazade’s persona, the orchestral opposition embodies modern male oppression manifesting in many forms, not solely in the Sultan of One Thousand and One Nights. The independence of the violin solo captures Scheherazade’s position amongst opposition from all sides.

When the first movement transitions into the section labelled “Pursuit by the True

Believers” at measure 223, Scheherazade’s agitation is evident in her rhythmic veloce outbursts punctuated by emphatic chords from the strings. An accompaniment of cello and bass tremolos and a contrabassoon solo sets a low, ominous timbre against the violin’s continued anxiety, perhaps embodying a masculine aggression of the true believers confronting Scheherazade. The intensity increases with accented double-stops in Scheherazade’s solo line against brutal slashing in the high strings and col legno—a vicious assault of the stick of the bow striking the string—in the viola and cello. A distinct character emerges in the oboe line at measure 360, with a melodic line reflecting an embellished version of Scheherazade’s initial D registral jumps. Perhaps the oboe is a potential ally? Or a foe seeking to gain her trust? Scheherazade answers this gesture with a further embellished statement of her initial theme, adding more pitches to the octave leaps

(Example 7). The movement ends in a frenzy, with Scheherazade’s character maintaining her individuality against the descending whirlwind of the orchestra.

The second movement, “A Long Desire (Love Scene),” constructs a lush atmosphere of overlapping walls of sound, a love scene from which Scheherazade is at first absent. The strings and winds dance around each other, with growing tension at first but then dropping to a more tranquil interaction. It is not until measure 124 that the solo violin enters. Perhaps the “long desire” is depicted by the extensive span of time Scheherazade waits before joining the love scene. In measure 120, the French horn, trombone, and bass extend what seems to be an

invitational melody, to which Scheherazade responds in a similar fashion in measure 124, thereby entering the scene (Example 8). This scene might suggest Scheherazade’s uncertainty and mistrust transforming into love and acceptance as she consents to the invitation. But what does Scheherazade encounter upon entering this love scene?

Example 7: Adams, Scheherazade.2, first movement, oboe solo and Scheherazade’s response in the solo violin, mm. 360-376. Used with permission by Boosey & Hawkes. © 2014 Hendon Music, Inc. A Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright For All Countries. All Rights Reserved.

Example 8: Adams, Scheherazade.2, second movement, French horn, trombone, bass invitational melody, followed by Scheherazade’s response in the solo violin, mm. 120-130. Used with permission by Boosey & Hawkes. © 2014 Hendon Music, Inc. A Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright For All Countries. All Rights Reserved.

The third movement, “Scheherazade and the Men with Beards,” introduces a growing animosity, with an even more pronounced disparity between the violin and the rest of the orchestra. The movement begins with stark segmentation between two groups alternating emphatic declamations, seeming to reflect the argument among the “religious zealots” Adams proposes. The sharply articulated statements by the strings and low winds are juxtaposed with slurred bubbling rhythmic retorts by the higher woodwinds and xylophone, with short rests separating the two groups. The solo violin enters at measure 43, her smooth, calm slurs contrasting the urgent babble. When she “speaks,” the other instruments fall away, with only gentle chords from the celesta and harps. Scheherazade’s assertion of her own voice among the

“accusers” demonstrates her confidence. Her vocality seems to be further empowered in her adamant retaining of her perspective. Beginning in measure 64, the strings periodically interrupt

Scheherazade’s speech, abruptly bursting through her solo to interject their voices. However,

Scheherazade does not waver; she continues to hold her stance against the oppressive

adversaries.

In some places, Adams provides subtitles in the score to indicate scenes within the

movement’s program. While not necessarily available to listeners, his labels align musical

gestures with narrative events, facilitating the interpretation of themes of empowerment. At

measure 181, Adams provides the label, “The Judgement.” A dramatic bass drum strike followed

by authoritative bursts from the trumpets, perhaps depicting the accusation against Scheherazade,

is followed by broad sweeping gestures and harp glissandos. The chaos dies down to just tam-

tam and bass drum, and then a single high sustained pitch by the first violin con sordino makes

way for Scheherazade’s response. The solo violin enters with a calm, improvisatory tone at

measure 227, labelled “Scheherazade’s Appeal.” She is accompanied minimally by cimbalom,

harp, strings, and clarinet, allowing her voice to dominate the scene. After a short pause,

Scheherazade bursts out in a furious rant of rapid double stops, perhaps demanding justice. In the

final subsection, “The Condemnation,” the orchestra’s frantic babble condemns Scheherazade,

who responds in the ad libitum, free conclusion—with strength and resolve or with despair?

(Example 9).

Example 9: Adams, Scheherazade.2, third movement, Scheherazade’s response to “condemnation,” m. 312. Used with permission by Boosey & Hawkes. © 2014 Hendon Music, Inc. A Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright For All Countries. All Rights Reserved.

Scheherazade’s story concludes in the final movement, “Escape, Flight, Sanctuary.” The contrast between tension and calm throughout the remainder of the piece creates active drama as 30

Scheherazade attempts to escape her oppressors. As an ambiguous musical ending, the

culmination of Scheherazade’s journey may take different shapes for different listeners. The low

ominous opening breaks in a scream from the brass at measure 35, perhaps depicting a frustrated

pursuit. The solo violin enters against persistent pizzicato strings. Scheherazade’s line consists of

slurred sixteenth-note-eighth-note patterns, re-articulating on off-beats, thereby avoiding

coincidence with the steady downbeats of the strings. Her aggressive double stops later suggest a

more frantic evasion from the emphatic string and woodwind interjections. At measure 178, the

label “Sanctuary” may point toward a place of safety within sight for Scheherazade. The solo

violin re-enters, smooth and calm after the preceding frantic struggle. Harp and celesta gently

accompany her, along with long legato tones from the French horns and strings. An emotional climax breaks through at measure 204 with Scheherazade’s high D7 soaring sigh (Example 10).

Does her sigh indicate relief or despair? When Scheherazade’s line aligns with the strings at measure 214, does this coincidence suggest supportive safety or capture (Example 11)? The solo violin’s final monologue, accompanied by low plucked harp, is free and flowing; but is this a declaration of triumph or of defeat? (Example 12).

Example 10: Adams, Scheherazade.2, fourth movement, Scheherazade’s emotional climax, mm. 204-210. Used with permission by Boosey & Hawkes. © 2014 Hendon Music, Inc. A Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright For All Countries. All Rights Reserved.

Example 11: Adams, Scheherazade.2, fourth movement, strings align with Scheherazade, mm. 214-215. Used with permission by Boosey & Hawkes. © 2014 Hendon Music, Inc. A Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright For All Countries. All Rights Reserved.

Example 12: Adams, Scheherazade.2, fourth movement, Scheherazade’s final monologue, mm. 252-263. Used with permission by Boosey & Hawkes. © 2014 Hendon Music, Inc. A Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright For All Countries. All Rights Reserved.

The ambiguous nature of this ending has significant implications for the perception of

Scheherazade’s empowerment in the piece. In his program notes, Adams describes the last movement as “a final ‘escape, flight, and sanctuary’ which must be the archetypal dream of any woman importuned by a man or men.”22 This description suggests that Scheherazade escapes and

flees to a place of refuge, but how might this manifest in the stories constructed by the listeners?

Some may hear the violin’s narrative role overcoming the orchestral counterpart and understand

the event as an absolute victory for Scheherazade, a clean-cut triumph over adversity. Others

may interpret the story as incomplete, sensing only a temporary sanctuary while the threat remains. Still others may understand the ending as an “archetypal dream,” imagining that

Scheherazade does not actually succeed in her search for safety but merely dreams of it.

The narrative quality of Scheherazade.2 draws on program music tradition and theories of musical narrativity, updating them to meet contemporary issues. Due to the nature of a vague program that gives freedom to the individual’s imagination, listeners may interpret

Scheherazade’s experiences differently depending on differing modes of engagement with the program and music. This potential diversity of interpretation affects the role the narrative might play in a broader context. The descriptions proposed by Adams through his liner notes and movement titles present both a story and a statement on wide-reaching social concerns. His program suggests a characterization of Scheherazade as a twenty-first-century female striving to overcome oppression, a narrative that can be traced through the music. Over the course of the dramatic symphony, Scheherazade is introduced as a strong, independent female pursued by overbearing masculine adversaries. The love scene may present Scheherazade’s desire to belong

22 “Scheherazade.2: Dramatic Symphony for Violin & Orchestra (2014–15),” https://www.earbox.com/scheherazade2/.

in the romantic atmosphere, a longing she seems to fulfill but may result in a number of

experiences. The domineering men with beards confront Scheherazade in an intense trial scene,

condemning her as she tries to stand up for herself. But the final question: does she successfully

escape from the danger and find refuge, or does the masculine brutality win? Different

interpretations of the story depend on how the listener interprets the music in conjunction with

the program. A listener may shape different dramatic events based on different musical material

than those in the suggested analysis here, and any given musical event may be understood in

vastly different ways. Musical elements that make up a persona provide clues for constructing

that persona’s identity, but the characters may appear differently to different listeners, affecting

how they interact. The next chapter explores musical representations of gender and ethnicity,

considering how signifiers may shape a listener’s interpretation of identity and the implications for the overall narrative in Scheherazade.2.

Chapter 3: Representations of Gender and Ethnicity

[The Wazir] related to her, from first to last, all that had happened between him and the King. Thereupon said she, “By Allah, O my father, how long shall this slaughter of women endure? Shall I tell thee what is in my mind in order to save both sides from destruction?” “Say on, O my daughter,” quoth he, and quoth she, “I wish thou wouldst give me in marriage to this King Shahryar; either I shall live or I shall be a ransom for the virgin daughters of Moslems and the cause of their deliverance from his hands and thine.”1

As the musical tales are loosely structured and guided by narrative suggestions, each individual listener will have a unique interpretation of the stories conveyed through both

Scheherazade and Scheherazade.2. The listener’s understanding of the story depends largely on individual readings of characters’ identities and their interactions. Perception of a musical persona’s identity is influenced in part by musical and extra-musical signifiers of gender and ethnicity. By considering these indications of a musical character, the listener can construct the dramatic action that may occur surrounding each persona. Musical tropes of femininity and exoticism in Scheherazade suggest the identities of Scheherazade and the Sultan and the setting of their story. Exploring the manifestation of similar musical elements in Scheherazade.2 can influence a listener’s perception of the narrative and its broader implications. Understanding how

Scheherazade might be empowered as a woman in Rimsky-Korsakov’s piece might shape a listener’s understanding of how femininity may or may not be similarly empowered in

Scheherazade.2. In the same comparative frame, reading exotic signifiers that may represent a

Middle Eastern setting and ethnicity in Scheherazade may affect the setting and ethnicity a listener perceives in Adams’s composition. Many factors of performance and personal engagement play a role in how the listener might interpret these characteristics and their roles in the narrative of Scheherazade.2.

1 Richard Francis Burton, Tales from the Arabian Nights (New York: Fall River Press, 2012), 12.

Suggestions of Femininity and Empowerment

The consideration of femininity in music has grown in recent years through the interdisciplinary application of feminist theory. Gaining prominence in the late 1980s through the 1990s, feminist music scholarship raised concerns about the position of females in the world of music, particularly in history, academia, and performance halls. Scholars such as Susan

McClary, Marcia Citron, and Suzanne Cusick drew attention to the marginalized status of women in society and the reflection of that status in music. They present issues including the lack of female acknowledgment in the canon of Western art music advanced in music history classes and symphony hall programs, the objective and detached “masculine” style of analysis traditionally employed in scholarship, and the often-problematic treatment of female characters in musical drama. The plural term “feminisms” has been employed to acknowledge the diversity of approaches scholarship might pursue to explore intersections of gender and music and to consider the flexible conceptions of “masculinity” and “femininity” in history and culture.2

Through the lens of feminist music perspectives, scholarship examines how gender relations are expressed and experienced through music.

Interpretive strategies seek to understand how gender is encoded in musical material, exploring musical interactions as metaphorical reflections of societal gender roles. Conventional musical practices feature contrast that has been perceived as a gendered division between masculine and feminine traits. For example, the independence of a melody line and the support of accompaniment could be construed as symbolic of male and female operating on separate

2 Susan C. Cook and Judy S. Tsou, ed., Cecilia Reclaimed (Champaign, Il.: University of Illinois Press, 1994), 2.

planes of society.3 In another conception, thematic and harmonic opposition in sonata form could reflect male/female interactions. Marcia Citron discusses gendered discourse in music shaped by nineteenth-century conceptions of “masculine” primary themes and “feminine” secondary themes; she outlines theories proffered by A. B. Marx, Hugo Riemann, and Vincent D’Indy, which interpret the first theme as forceful and definitive, exerting tonal dominance over the secondary theme, which is gentle, affective, modulatory, and submissive.4 Along the same lines

as Citron’s explanation of this nineteenth-century idea, Susan McClary describes the narrative

conflict between the primary masculine theme and the secondary theme, a feminine Other

threatening to destabilize the protagonist.5 In this musical representation of gendered stereotypes, the female is overcome by male superiority.

Beyond the immanent musical elements, analyses consider how gendered meaning can be derived from both poietic and cultural contexts as well as from more intimate, experiential esthesic engagements with music. Scholars have noted the significance of individual identities shaped by background and social and cultural experiences. Living with unique characteristics affects the way in which each individual interacts with the world. By taking into account the composer’s background and the broader social and cultural implications surrounding a composition, one might consider how personal experiences of difference impacted the musical composition. Similarly, each listener approaches a piece with a unique background, influencing the level and mode of engagement with the music. Feminist music scholarship emphasizes

3 Suzanne G. Cusick, “Feminist Theory, Music Theory, and the Mind/Body Problem,” Perspectives of New Music 32, no. 1 (1994): 10.

4 Marcia Citron, Gender and the Musical Canon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 132- 138.

5 Susan McClary, Feminine Endings (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1991), 14-16.

intimacy and emotion when interacting with music, criticizing the prevalent impersonal and

removed “masculine” style of analysis. Cusick characterizes this dichotomy as the mind/body

problem, equating the objective “mind” with “masculine” and the subjective “body” with

“feminine,” and argues that music scholarship should engage with both the body and the mind.6

In this assertion, Cusick highlights the performative and experiential nature of gender identity, building on Judith Butler’s concept of one’s gendered self emerging as a result of cumulative performances acting out identity.7

Marianne Kielian-Gilbert similarly emphasizes experience and focuses on poiesis

(subjective reconstructing of experience) to explore “how subject positions shape and are

(re)enacted in musical discourse.”8 She presents modes of femininity as linked to subject

position, defined as “molded by male gaze,” “appropriated by men,” “transformed by women for

positive identity,” or “vision and social change.”9 In her methodology of music analysis, Kielian-

Gilbert outlines strategies for analysis as a mode of critique in relation to subject position.

Kielian-Gilbert argues that “the question of whether to locate perception/experience in aesthetic

values or in a bodily situatedness is not an either/or but a both/and situation.”10 By considering

the physical bodies that contribute to the compositional and performative processes and cultural

contexts, a stronger understanding and interpretation of the construction of gender identity in the

6 Cusick, “Feminist Theory, Music Theory, and the Mind/Body Problem,” 17.

7 Cusick, “Feminist Theory, Music Theory, and the Mind/Body Problem,” 14; Judith Butler, Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity (New York: Routledge, 1990).

8 Marianne Kielian-Gilbert, “Of Poetics and Poiesis, Pleasure and Politics—Music Theory and Modes of the Feminine,” Perspectives of New Music 32, no. 1 (1994): 47.

9 Kielian-Gilbert, “Of Poetics and Poiesis, Pleasure and Politics,” 49.

10 Kielian-Gilbert, “Of Poetics and Poiesis, Pleasure and Politics,” 48; emphasis in original.

music can be attained. Synthesizing these concepts of feminist music scholarship provides a

possible lens for viewing the construction of gender dynamics in Scheherazade and

Scheherazade.2. In the narrative interpretations of these pieces, both compositions suggest a

female character overcoming male oppression. By examining signifiers of gender attributed to

the musical personae and their interactions, I present a possible approach to understanding how

Scheherazade’s femininity is constructed and how she may or may not achieve empowerment.

Rimsky-Korsakov and Adams both introduce Scheherazade as a strong, alluring female

narrator in their respective first movements. Her two representations reflect femininity in similar

ways, creating empowered personas distinct from and rising above the other characters.

Kawabata characterizes Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade theme as “seductive and mobile, hard

to pin down, undulating melodically and harmonically, and suspending or taking up time.”11 As described in the previous chapter, the violin may be understood to conventionally signify the female voice. By imitating the quality and expressivity of the female voice and expanding the range and capacity of sustaining, the violin may even exceed female vocality to exhibit a

“hypervocality.”12 Rimsky-Korsakov’s violin theme provokes this conventional understanding of

femininity, particularly as it is heard against the stern masculine theme of the Sultan (see

Examples 1 and 2). The presentation of characters—the Sultan’s theme followed by that of

Scheherazade’s—initially seems consistent with the nineteenth-century hierarchy of gendered themes. In this construct, the dominant masculine primary theme asserts itself, confronts the

11 Maiko Kawabata, “The Narrating Voice in Rimsky-Korsakov’s Shekherazade,” Women and Music 4 (2000): 29.

12 Kawabata, “The Narrating Voice in Rimsky-Korsakov’s Shekherazade,” 37.

lyrical secondary theme, and ultimately overcomes the feminine threat as the form moves away

from and back to tonic. In Scheherazade, however, this male-dominated model is subverted.13

Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade is empowered through her transformative influence on

the Sultan over the course of the suite. Kawabata has noted the temporal aspect of Scheherazade,

describing the music’s sense of suspended time that reflects Scheherazade’s efforts to prolong

her life.14 By the end of the fourth movement, the frame story reflects the softening of the

Sultan’s character. Scheherazade’s theme returns in measure 641, appearing in an identical

manner to her first entrance. Her final E at the end of her cadenza is sustained, overlapping the

entrance of the Sultan’s theme. While Scheherazade’s theme remains the same, the Sultan’s

theme has mellowed drastically. His dynamics are now pianissimo and unaccented; the harsh

dotted-eighth-sixteenth-note rhythmic gesture has been smoothed; the instrumentation has been

reduced to cello and bass, without the previous support (Example 13). The Sultan’s profound

musical transformation seems to indicate victory achieved through Scheherazade’s storytelling,

implying that “the envoicement of Shekherazade is her empowerment.”15 This resolution reflects

the conclusion of the frame story in One Thousand and One Nights. Though the exact

circumstances vary among translations, the Sultan ultimately grants Scheherazade her life; in the

translation by Burton, Scheherazade requests that the Sultan spare her life for the sake of their

sons. In response to her plea, the Sultan “wept and, straining the boys to his bosom, said, ‘By

Allah, O Scheherazade, I pardoned thee before the coming of these children, for that I found thee

13 It should be noted that while the initial presentation of themes reflects the gendered dichotomy of the nineteenth-century, Scheherazade does not follow the sonata form with which this hierarchy is associated.

14 Kawabata, “The Narrating Voice in Rimsky-Korsakov’s Shekherazade,” 32.

15 Kawabata, “The Narrating Voice in Rimsky-Korsakov’s Shekherazade,” 37; alternative spelling of “Scheherazade” in original.

chaste, pure, ingenuous and pious!’”16 In this display of mercy, Scheherazade’s victory is confirmed.

Example 13: Rimsky-Korsakov, Scheherazade, fourth movement, Scheherazade’s theme overlapping and transforming the Sultan’s theme, mm. 641-655.

The conventional femininity of the violin and the intertextual relationship with Rimsky-

Korsakov’s feature of the violin solo may be strong enough indicators of Scheherazade’s female

16 Burton, Tales from the Arabian Nights, 654.

persona in Adams’s Scheherazade.2. However, her femininity is further reinforced throughout

the piece. Adams’s Scheherazade exhibits a virtuosic, sensuous voice reminiscent of Rimsky-

Korsakov’s. As shown in Example 6, Scheherazade’s initial entrance is eloquent and undulating,

demonstrating hypervocality in the wide melodic range, acrobatic leaps, and expressive sustained

notes. The sparse accompaniment during her opening monologue sets her apart from the orchestra, affirming her independence. Throughout the four movements, Scheherazade’s violin line interacts with the orchestra, often diametrically opposed to the ensemble. Her rhythmic continuity features syncopations and sustained notes, frequently non-conforming to the regular downbeats of the orchestra. Her expression often contrasts that of the rest of the ensemble, calm against the orchestra’s agitation or frantic against the orchestra’s oppression. Sometimes

Scheherazade is aurally absent from the narrative, her voice singing out distinctively when she re-enters. If Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade might be understood to be buying herself time through her storytelling, perhaps Adams’s Scheherazade can be understood to be standing up for herself against her persecutors as she tells her story.

As noted earlier, Adams’s program does not follow the original literary narrative or

Rimsky-Korsakov’s interpretation. While Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade seems to musically transform the Sultan, Adams’s Scheherazade does not achieve the same kind of empowerment.

Indeed, depending on one’s interpretation of the narrative, femininity may or may not seem to be elevated. As described in the previous chapter, Scheherazade’s final escape and flight in the fourth movement culminates in an ambiguous “sanctuary.” Whether she has truly overcome the mass of adversity posed by the orchestra—whether femininity is truly empowered—is left for each listener to determine. Her emotional climax beginning in measure 204 of the fourth movement sustains a D7, centered an octave higher than her opening statement in the first

movement (see Example 10 and Example 6). This extreme range seems to reinforce the

hypervocality of the violin, highlighting the expressivity and power of Scheherazade’s voice.

Shortly following this climax, the violin’s descending line is briefly joined by the rest of the

strings in the same rhythm, doubling and harmonizing her double-stops—could this unity

indicate safety of friendly support or capture and forced conformity (see Example 11)? The low steady plucks of the harp accompany Scheherazade when she reenters for her final monologue at measure 239. A second harp and the tuned gongs contribute more sporadically along with the sustained tremolos of the bass drum, tam-tam, and strings. Scheherazade’s solo soars over this passive accompaniment (see Example 12). Her rhythm again reflects a nonconformity to the regular downbeats of the harp, avoiding coincidence of articulation. Her melody is sinuous and virtuosic, again highlighting a hypervocal feminine range. Her final pitches are Db7 to Eb7, fading to niente, curiously skipping the D that had previously featured prominently in her line.

Perhaps this suggests a personal transformation, manifesting at the end of her journey—but should this transformation be considered positive or negative? The absence of the bulk of the orchestra could suggest that Scheherazade has successfully triumphed over the oppression, leaving their malicious voices behind. Alternatively, the sparse accompaniment could indicate a place of introspective contemplation, a personal reflection on the struggles she may or may not have overcome. The smooth, lyrical expression of her melody could communicate a sense of tired relief and rest, or of melancholy acceptance of defeat. Each listener may focus on certain aspects of Scheherazade’s final monologue, reaching different conclusions about the success of her journey. While her femininity does seem to be clearly translated in the music, her empowerment does not seem to be as easily understood as Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade transforming the Sultan.

Suggestions of Exoticism and Universality

Both composers created their figures of Scheherazade by drawing from the empowered

woman in One Thousand and One Nights. Beyond providing inspiration for the gendered identity of the protagonist, the folktales also offer a Middle Eastern identity that is adapted by the composers in different ways. Gender and ethnic identity often appear in music in generalized and conflated binaries. McClary describes how “the racial Other became a favorite ‘feminine’ zone within the narratives of European colonizers,” constructed as a projection of “desire, envy,

contempt, or fear” through exoticism.17 In this sense, the exotic figure and the female figure are

the marginalized Others, situated as an opposition to Western male figures. While the femininity

of Scheherazade seems to be rather clear in both compositions, her ethnic identity is somewhat

more ambiguous, suggested through musical tropes of exoticism.

Interpretations of musical exoticism build on the cultural construction of “Otherness”

presented by Edward Said, who describes the Orient as a Western projection of exotic

imagination; it is a place of “European invention… a place of romance, exotic beings, haunting

memories and landscapes, remarkable experiences.”18 This Western expression of the East

results in a cultural dichotomy, in which the Orient exists as a counterpart, helping to define the

self-image of the West by embodying everything the West is not. The opposition of “West” and

“East” establishes a binary characterized as “Self” and “Other.” Rather than representing a

specific place or group of people, the “Other” is a conflation of all things exotic and foreign.

Carl Dahlhaus echoes this generic view of the exotic in musical terms:

17 McClary, Feminine Endings, 63.

18 Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1978), 1.

The crucial point is not the degree to which exoticism is “genuine,” but rather the function it serves as a legitimate departure from the aesthetic and compositional norms of European music… musical exoticism is a question of function, not of substance.19

Said’s and Dahlhaus’s assessments align in the sense that the specific identity of the exotic being is not important, only that it is exotic with respect to Europe. Signifiers of exoticism can thus be

understood as conventional tropes generated by Westerners to depict the “Other.”

Ralph Locke further develops conceptions of musical exoticism in his two paradigms for interpreting musical representations of “Otherness”: the “Exotic Style Only” Paradigm and the

“All the Music in Full Context” Paradigm.20 His “Exotic Style Only” Paradigm encompasses a

perspective that “assumes that music is, by compositional intent, exotic—and that it registers as

exotic to the listener—if (and, often, only if) it incorporates specific musical signifiers of

Otherness.”21 In purely instrumental music, certain musical elements suggest an exotic flavor,

which can then inform the listener’s interpretation. Locke presents a table of stylistic features

that are employed exclusively or in combination to evoke exoticism.22 He includes distinctive

modes and harmonies (chromaticism, pentatonic or gapped scales, whole-tone and octatonic

scales); complex mysterious chords; distinctive repetitive rhythmic patterns or ostinatos; simple

melodies reminiscent of folk tunes; chanting and cries; melismatic melodies and lines with

pervasive quick ornaments; instrumental timbres that can sound foreign, such as cimbalom,

19 Carl Dahlhaus, Nineteenth-Century Music, trans. Bradford Robinson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989), 302.

20 Ralph Locke, Musical Exoticism: Images and Reflections (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2009), 48-64.

21 Locke, Musical Exoticism, 48.

22 Locke, Musical Exoticism, 51-54.

xylophone, oboe, flute, drums; and distinctive instrumental and vocal techniques. Some of these

musical elements reflect the Turkish Music topic characterized by Leonard Ratner as the

Western adaptation of the “colorful military style called janissary music, using drums, triangle, winds, and cymbals” to suggest a Middle Eastern identity.23 In the “Exotic Style Only”

Paradigm, the music itself is used to shape interpretations that evoke an exotic sound-world. To broaden the scope of analysis, Locke proposes the “All the Music in Full Context” Paradigm, outlining a way to interact with a wider range of elements that suggest exoticism, beyond the explicit musical codes. He highlights dramatic works, such as operas, Broadway musicals, and films, in which music “helps ‘characterize’… the exotic entity being represented” by lending support within the context of the plot, visual cues, and sung words.24 In this paradigm, Locke calls for a consideration of all the relevant elements of a given piece—musical and extra- musical—that interact to suggest familiar or exotic locales. To this end, a program presented with a musical work can contribute to a listener’s interpretation of exotic suggestions. By considering the historical development of the conception of musical exoticism and employing

Locke’s “All the Music in Full Context” Paradigm, possible interpretations of exotic signifiers in

Scheherazade and Scheherazade.2 may be derived.

Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade largely evokes an Arabian sound-world through the

style of Russian Orientalism. To distinguish themselves from Western expressive styles, mid-

nineteenth-century Russian composers embraced features of Orientalism and combined them

with elements of folk music. This development helps contextualize readings of Rimsky-

23 Leonard G. Ratner, Classic Music: Expression, Form, and Style (New York: Schirmer Books, 1980), 21.

24 Locke, Musical Exoticism, 63.

Korsakov’s Scheherazade. Richard Taruskin discusses Orientalism in relation to Russia’s musical character, exploring “Orientalism” as a sign and describing its development through convention in the associated sounds. Taruskin outlines a historical trend of Orientalism’s role in

Russian art music, identifying musical elements that create an Oriental sound. He highlights the

“undulating melisma, chromatic accompanying line, [and] drone,” describing how they signify nega, the Russian Oriental attribute of sensual “sweet bliss.”25 He identifies the nega undulation, which Marina Frolova-Walker elaborates and labels the Kuchka Pattern: “namely, the melodic pattern 5-#5-6-b6-5 over a static bass.”26 Frolova-Walker cites Rimsky-Korsakov as the composer

who most clearly exemplified the “Russian style” of the Kuchka and solidified these traits of

Russian Orientalism in the 1860s. As a setting of the Oriental world of the One Thousand and

One Nights, Scheherazade offers a distinct demonstration of Russian Orientalism.

Rimsky-Korsakov’s narrative reflects that of the One Thousand and One Nights through

his use of “Oriental” signifiers that contribute to his evocation of a Middle Eastern sound world.

Rimsky-Korsakov asserts in his autobiography that while he did not intend to construct a

narrative specifically derived from the folktales, he hoped his audiences would “carry away the

impression that [Scheherazade] is beyond doubt an Oriental narrative of some numerous and

varied fairy-tale wonders.”27 Taruskin discusses the Oriental sound world constructed through

Rimsky-Korsakov’s use of the octatonic scale, and Steven Griffiths describes the fantastical

25 Richard Taruskin, Defining Russia Musically (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1997), 165.

26 Marina Frolova-Walker, Russian Music and Nationalism: From Glinka to Stalin (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2007), 142.

27 Nikolai Andreyevich Rimsky-Korsakov, My Musical Life, trans. Judah A. Joffe (London: Faber and Faber Limited, 1989), 292-93.

effect of whole tone scales and major third motions.28 The chromaticism and gapped nature of

these modes and harmonies contribute to a sense of exoticism. Other musical elements that

appear in Locke’s table of features manifest in Scheherazade. Scheherazade’s violin theme is sinuous and undulating, with neighbor tones ornamenting her descending line, evoking a melismatic singing style (see Example 2). Distinctive and accented rhythmic patterns are used

throughout the piece, and quick chromatic ornaments often decorate the melody. The orchestral

instruments are at times employed to sound foreign, highlighting woodwind instruments and

percussion instruments, including tambourine, snare drum, and triangle. For example, the middle

section of the third movement features a chromatically ornamented clarinet solo accompanied by

tambourine and pizzicato strings. Locke explores Scheherazade through his “All the Music in

Full Context” Paradigm, asserting that though not all musical elements suggest exoticism,

listeners will perceive an overall exotic narrative because they hear the music as a whole in the

context of Rimsky-Korsakov’s colorful program, alluding to the Arabian world of One Thousand

and One Nights.29

Adams, on the other hand, seems to have taken One Thousand and One Nights as a point of departure, writing in a musical language that does not clearly utilize exotic signification to construct the Arabian world Rimsky-Korsakov evokes. With his construction of a modern

Scheherazade, his conception of ethnicity is more ambiguous. In his written program, Adams seems to address a universal problem of oppressive power dynamics, starting in the Middle East but shifting his gaze to America as well:

28 Richard Taruskin, “Catching Up With Rimsky-Korsakov,” Music Theory Spectrum 33, 2 (Fall 2011): 174; Steven Griffiths, A Critical Study of the Music of Rimsky-Korsakov, 1844-1890 (New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1989), 252.

29 Locke, Musical Exoticism, 60-61.

Thinking about what a Scheherazade in our own time might be brought to mind some famous examples of women under threat for their lives… women routinely attacked and even executed by religious fanatics in any number of countries— India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, wherever. The modern images that come to mind certainly aren’t exclusive to the Middle East—we see examples, if not quite so graphic nonetheless profoundly disturbing, from everywhere in the world including in our own country and even on our own college campuses.30

By acknowledging the problem of misogyny both abroad and on the home-front (addressing the

United States), Adams suggests the universality of the issues he raises. Adams explicitly avoids

assigning blame only to the cultural “Other,” emphasizing that the fault also belongs to the

“Self.” In doing so, he blurs the dichotomy of West and East, “Self” and “Other,” breaking down

the opposition constructed in exoticism.

This potential universality implied in Adams’s program is reflected in the music in an

ambiguous manner. Before the music even begins, a listener’s interpretation may be influenced

by the intertextual relationship evoked by the piece’s title. Scheherazade.2 points explicitly to

Scheherazade, and by extension, to One Thousand and One Nights. Familiarity with the exotic flavor of Rimsky-Korsakov’s piece and the setting of the folktales may preemptively suggest

exoticism in Scheherazade.2. When the music begins, the opening gesture features the

cimbalom, a prominent sonic signifier suggesting exoticism. The cimbalom, a hammered

dulcimer instrument, evokes a sense of exoticism through its Hungarian origin and association

with the Romani of Eastern Europe.31 Perhaps the cimbalom in this introductory flourish

indicates a generalized exotic sound-world, proposing a Middle Eastern setting for the story. The

30 “Scheherazade.2: Dramatic Symphony for Violin & Orchestra (2014–15),” in “John Adams: Works: Orchestra,” composer website. Accessed 29 September 2018. https://www.earbox.com/scheherazade2/.

31 The cimbalom has been performed in Scheherazade.2 by Chester Englander. For biographical information about Englander, background on the cimbalom, and an audiovisual demonstration of cimbalom performance, see “Cimbalom,” in “Chester Englander,” artist website, accessed 21 February 2019. http://www.chesterenglander.com/cimbalom/.

reappearance of the cimbalom throughout the piece may lend itself to characterization of the

orchestra or Scheherazade herself. Its presence amid the orchestra suggests the oppressors faced

by Scheherazade may have a Middle Eastern identity. The occasional alignment of the cimbalom

with the solo violin line may suggest the same regarding Scheherazade’s persona (Example 14).

Example 14: Adams, Scheherazade.2, fourth movement, Alignment of cimbalom with Scheherazade’s violin line, mm. 132-137. Used with permission by Boosey & Hawkes. © 2014 Hendon Music, Inc. A Boosey & Hawkes Company. Copyright For All Countries. All Rights Reserved.

Considering Locke’s “All the Music in Full Context” Paradigm, the presence of the cimbalom and the association with One Thousand and One Nights in its referential title may be enough to mark Scheherazade.2 as an exotic composition. However, beyond the instrumentation and extra-musical suggestions, this piece does not seem to be saliently marked by other musical

signifiers of exoticism described by Locke. While chromaticism, distinctive rhythmic patterns,

melismatic melodic lines, and distinctive instrumental techniques do play a role in

Scheherazade.2, their effects do not seem to indicate exoticism. In this piece, these features

instead seem to produce effects generally characteristic of contemporary art music. Perhaps this

suggests contemporary music is unable to convey exoticism in the traditional sense. Locke

considers the nature of exoticism in twentieth- and twenty-first-century music, what he describes

as a modernist and global age. Beginning in the late 1800s, Locke notes a shift in historical,

cultural, and musical trends moving away from traditional, straightforward exoticism (what he

terms “Overt Exoticism”).32 Broader access to foreign cultures, shifting political relationships,

and the pursuit of creative originality influenced cultural and musical aesthetics, making way for

other forms of exoticism to gain prevalence. Locke defines “Submerged Exoticism” as the

incorporation of distinctive musical signifiers “that had previously been associated with exotic realms” into the general musical style of the turn of the twentieth century, not necessarily

asserting exoticism but transmitting a suggestion that lingers from prior associations.33 Another

variation of exoticism is “Transcultural Composing”—the incorporation of another culture’s

musical conventions into a Western context, “blend[ing], interweave[ing], or merg[ing] musical

elements that the composer (and audience) would recognize as being “our own” with those of the

distant Other culture (or several distant Other cultures).”34

Considering the application of these terms to Scheherazade.2, one might consider

Adams’s piece to be an example of what Locke calls “Transcultural Composing,” combining the

32 Locke, Musical Exoticism, 214.

33 Locke, Musical Exoticism, 217.

34 Locke, Musical Exoticism, 228.

sounds of American contemporary music with the suggestive flavor of the cimbalom. Locke

notes the effects of globalization on political and cultural boundaries beginning in the 1960s:

“the categories of West and East were quickly losing fixed meaning,” with new categories of

industrial nations and “developing” nations redefining political and cultural relationships.35 This globalization and the practice of “Transcultural Composing” may contribute to an understanding of the blurred “Self” and “Other” dichotomy suggested in Adams’s ambiguous use of exoticism.

The universality he suggests in his program may be musically communicated as the overlap of modern American music and exotic cimbalom. Perhaps the cimbalom pays homage to Rimsky-

Korsakov and the original folktales while the twenty-first-century style updates the concept of

Scheherazade in a universal context. The musical dissolution of “Self” versus “Other” reflects

Adams’s suggestion that the problem of misogyny should not be considered as belonging only to the “Other,” as a foreign and distant problem. Instead, the universal issues Adams addresses may be perpetuated by “Self” and “Other.” A subversive reading of the signifiers of exoticism may justify their presence in Scheherazade.2. While the conflation of “Otherness” evoked in exoticism may reinforce prejudices, exoticism in a modern context may alternatively “challenge those prejudices.”36 In this case, Adams’s use of cimbalom and homage to Scheherazade may be

interpreted as a statement against the reductive suggestions of traditional musical exoticism.

Modes of Engagement

With the ambiguity surrounding Adams’s construction of the empowered female and her

exotic nature, interpretations may be influenced significantly by external factors. Returning to

35 Locke, Musical Exoticism, 276.

36 Locke, Musical Exoticism, 1.

Cone’s methodology, the listener’s interpretation of persona may be shaped partly by the role of the performer. Considering vocal performance, Cone asserts that “the singer is the actual, living embodiment of the vocal protagonist.”37 The character evoked in the text of the song is brought to life by the singer. In instrumental performance, Cone suggests that the soloist may achieve this

personification only symbolically:

The human voice occupies a special position among musical instruments… A violin or a clarinet, despite its singing powers, can be dominated, hidden, or superseded by other instruments… The solo in a violin concerto, say, emerges from the orchestra, blends with the orchestra, disappears into the orchestra. Its priority is intermittent; its leadership is always subject to question… The fact that only the human voice can adequately embody a protagonist or character is due to this natural supremacy, more than to its ability to verbalize.38

Listeners may find this to be true when experiencing these symphonic works. In Scheherazade,

the concertmaster assumes the role of Scheherazade, performing from his or her seat within the

ensemble. In Scheherazade.2, however, there seems to be a greater possibility of the soloist

challenging Cone’s assertion. The stamina and expressivity required to perform the Adams’s violin role may seem strong enough to become an embodiment of Scheherazade. Interpretations of embodiment may be influenced by the medium through which a listener experiences

Scheherazade.2. Additionally, focusing on Kielian-Gilbert’s conception of poiesis highlights the role of the individual’s background in shaping understanding. Recalling her emphasis on subject

position, the multiple identities of each individual may influence interpretation of the multiple

identities of the musical persona. Kielian-Gilbert builds on Judith Butler’s idea of gender’s

37 Edward Cone, The Composer’s Voice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), 23.

38 Cone, The Composer’s Voice, 79, 105.

intersection with other components of identity, such as race, religion, sexuality, and class, a

concept that is important to interpreting Scheherazade’s persona.39

As an individual listener with a complex background, engaging with the music in live

performance and engaging with the music through recording present different situations which

may affect the listener’s impressions. When listening to the recording released by Nonesuch

Records, the listener hears a balanced ensemble, with each instrumental part clearly projected

through the speakers or earphones.40 Through this equilibrium, the violin consistently emerges

over the orchestra. This clarity may contribute to positive interpretations of the empowered

woman, supporting the aural indications of Scheherazade overcoming the orchestral oppression.

However, while the sound is balanced, it is also compressed and physically removed, perhaps

making the experience less powerful and perhaps minimizing Scheherazade’s experiences. When

attending a live performance, the acoustics may not be balanced; in a large hall, certain

instruments may overwhelm others at various points in the piece. The solo violin may not always

seem as loud and strong as it might in the recording, and the fluctuation of the violin’s

prominence may affect the narrative interpreted; the listener may perceive a woman not fully

empowered, suppressed by the orchestra, affirming Cone’s assertion. The physical presence of

the ensemble may contribute significantly to the narrative. The audience may feel the sound

vibrate around the hall and through their bodies. Seeing the orchestra surround the soloist and

conductor may provide a sense of the oppression Adams proposes. Watching the violinist (at

present, likely Leila Josefowicz) may enhance the drama and emotion; her facial expressions and

39 Kielian-Gilbert, “Of Poetics and Poiesis, Pleasure and Politics,” 51; Butler, Gender Trouble, 4.

40 John Adams, Scheherazade.2, St. Louis Symphony, Powell Hall. David Robertson, conductor. With Leila Josefowicz, violin. Recorded 19-20 February 2016. Nonesuch.

body movements give the impression that she is literally interacting with other characters and

experiencing the dramatic action (Figure 2).41

Figure 2: Violinist Leila Josefowicz42

In her consideration of opera performance, Carolyn Abbate emphasizes the significance of the visual component of watching the soloist. Considering music as a performed art, she highlights the role of the opera singer in bringing the art to life and assuming the position of creative expression. Abbate argues that while an audience visually and aurally stares at a female performer (seemingly reinforcing the objectification of women), her active performance before

41 To experience the visual effects of observing Josefowicz’s performance, see “Leila Josefowicz & John Adams on Adams’s Scheherazade.2,” New York Philharmonic, 26 March 2015, YouTube. Accessed 18 February 2019. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YfyUx4WpHeE, 0:19-0:46.

42 “Photo Gallery,” Leila Josefowicz, artist website. Photo by Chris Lee. Accessed 14 February 2019. https://www.leilajosefowicz.com/photo-gallery/.

the passive audience actually subverts the gender roles and empowers her.43 While observing the visual elements of her performance may affect narrative interpretations either positively or

negatively, the dramatic addition of her physical performance may lend itself to undermining

Cone’s assertion; perhaps Josefowicz is able to effectively embody Scheherazade and thus

achieve empowerment for her.

If Josefowicz may embody Scheherazade, with her physical presence affecting narrative

interpretations of the empowered female, then her visual appearance may also lend itself to

understandings of Scheherazade’s ethnicity in Scheherazade.2. While the cimbalom and association with One Thousand and One Nights suggest exoticism, seeing a Canadian-American female violinist performing may encourage interpretations that more closely align with Adams’s

universal suggestion in his program notes. Adams’s comments drawing attention to

contemporary misogyny occurring in America as well as the Middle East highlight a universality

that may be supported by identifying Josefowicz as an embodiment of Scheherazade.

Alternatively, experiencing the music through the recording removes the visual indication of

Josefowicz’s physical appearance. Indeed, the recording may negate the concept of universality

and lend more support to the reading of exoticism through the visual component of the CD

album cover art (Figure 3).

43 Carolyn Abbate, “Opera; Or, the Envoicing of Women,” in Musicology and Difference: Gender and Sexuality in Music Scholarship, ed. Ruth A. Solie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 254.

Figure 3: Album cover of Scheherazade.2 – “I Am Its Secret,” Shirin Neshat, 199344

The image contributes interesting layers of meaning to the recorded album, suggesting a

Middle Eastern identity for Scheherazade. Perhaps perceived as an anonymous veiled Muslim

woman by the listener without further context, a deeper story is revealed upon examining the

artwork’s origin.45 This piece, entitled “I Am Its Secret,” is part of a photographic series called

“Women of Allah” by Iranian-born artist Shirin Neshat (b. 1957). Neshat describes her series as

an expression in which “faith overcomes anxiety while martyrdom and self-sacrifice give the

44 Image from “Scheherazade.2,” Works, John Adams, https://www.earbox.com/scheherazade2/.

45 While the image selection may not be directly attributed to Adams, the likelihood of his input may be significant as an extra-musical factor of Scheherazade.2. The liner notes of the Nonesuch album attribute the design to John Heiden for SMOG Design. The liner notes identify the artwork only by title and artist; the contextual background of Neshat is not included.

soul strength.”46 The photographs, created in the 1990s, explore the “complexities of women’s

identities in the midst of a changing cultural landscape in the Middle East” after the Iranian

Islamic Revolution of 1979, emphasizing personal, religious, and political factors:

A single subject, it suggests, might be host to internal contradictions alongside binaries such as tradition and modernity, East and West, beauty and violence… Each [photograph] contains a set of four symbols that are associated with Western representations of the Muslim world: the veil, the gun, the text and the gaze. While these symbols have taken on a particular charge since 9/11, the series was created earlier and reflects changes that have taken place in the region since 1979, the year of the Islamic Revolution in Iran.47

In the twentieth-century, modernization by the government brought urban women out of their

state of private isolation and public veiling. Under the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, a new

dress code and the need for urban labor led to the public unveiling of women and their

participation in the workforce. This model was overturned with the Islamic Revolution of 1979.

Revolutionaries overthrew the Shah, and a more conservative religious government replaced the

former. Under this new social system, women were forced back into private isolation and public

veiling, though the veiling was altered such the women could still contribute cheap labor. To

escape the political upheaval, Shirin Neshat fled to the United States, where she has lived since

the mid-1970s. Her visit back to Iran in 1991 inspired her project, “Women of Allah.”

The woman in “I Am Its Secret” is Neshat herself. Her intense gaze stares directly into

the camera, penetrating the viewer. Combined with the symbolism of the veil, designed to hide a woman from sight, the female gaze may challenge the cultural “male gaze.” While there is no

46 Shirin Neshat, Arthur C. Danto, Marina Abramović, Shirin Neshat (New York: Rizzoli International Publications, Inc., 2010), 19; see also Shirin Neshat, Women of Allah (Torino: Marco Noire Edotore, 1997).

47 Allison Young, “Shirin Neshat, Rebellious Silence, Women of Allah series,” in Smarthistory, 9 August 2015. Accessed 18 November 2018. https://smarthistory.org/shirin-neshat-rebellious-silence-women-of- allah-series/.

gun in the image, the circular pattern of the Farsi text printed on the photograph alludes to a target centered on her face. The script could serve as a visual signifier, indicating the role of calligraphy in Islamic art. However, the text that appears on the photographs of the series actually conveys poems and prose by prominent Iranian women writers, including poet Forough

Farokhzad (1935-1967). Farokhzad was an influential modernist poet writing with a feminine perspective before the Iranian Revolution. Her poems engage with political and ideological views, offering reflections of secular and religious thought. The Farsi script on “I Am Its Secret” refers to Farokhzad’s poem, “I Will Greet the Sun Again”:

I will greet the sun again; I will come, I will come, I will greet the streams which flowed in me; I will come with my hair, I will greet the clouds which were As the continuation of the smells of the soil; my lengthy thoughts; With my eyes, as the dense experiences of I will greet the painful growth of poplars darkness, Which pass through the dry seasons; Carrying the bushes I have picked in the I will greet the flocks of crows woodlands Which brought me, as presents, beyond the wall. The sweet smells of the fields at night; I will come, I will come, I will greet my mother who lived in the mirror I will come and the entrance will be filled with And was the image of my old age; love; And I will also greet the earth whose burning And at the entrance I will greet again womb those who are in love, Is filled with green seeds by the passion she has And also the girl who is still standing For reproducing me. At the entrance in diffusion of love. 48

The artwork on this album cover thus supports the feminine and exotic identity of Scheherazade in Scheherazade.2 explicitly and implicitly. By serving as a visual cue, the photograph evokes the identity of an anonymous Middle Eastern woman, perhaps identified as Scheherazade by listeners. If the listener takes further steps to understand the image, the underlying meanings might be uncovered. Through the implicit stories of Shirin Neshat and Forough Farokhzad, two

48 Translation in Neshat, Shirin Neshat, 25, 40-41; see also Steve Coates, “Shirin Neshat’s ‘I Am Its Secret,’” ArtsBeat (blog), New York Times, 17 May 2010. Accessed 18 November 2018. https://artsbeat.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/05/17/shirin-neshats-i-am-its-secret/.

additional women speaking out against oppression in their own artistic expressions, the image provides further support for the empowerment of Scheherazade in Scheherazade.2. The presence of the poetry script may be understood to foreground text, presenting a symbolic form of storytelling on the album cover that alludes to the storytelling of Scheherazade.

Various factors influence the way in which a listener might interpret representations of gender and ethnicity in Scheherazade.2. The programmatic title builds an intertextual relationship with Scheherazade that may influence a precursory understanding, perhaps leading one to expect an exotic narrative reminiscent of Rimsky-Korsakov’s and One Thousand and One

Nights. The virtuosic violin solo, forming another intertext with Scheherazade, signifies femininity in its hypervocal range and expressivity. The final movement of Scheherazade.2 presents an ambiguous ending to the protagonist’s journey, allowing for different interpretations of the empowerment of femininity. Adams’s piece is similarly ambiguous in its suggestion of ethnic representation. The cimbalom and extra-musical references indicate an exotic setting and identity, but universality of Adams’s program and the modernism of the composition may contradict that characterization. An individual’s interpretation may be significantly shaped by external factors, such as the medium of experiencing the music and personal background. Visual and aural cues and subject position may lead to differing understandings of Scheherazade.2, varying by individual listener and by changing experiences upon multiple encounters by the same listener. The wide range of possible interpretations can have significant impacts on the broader implications of Scheherazade.2 as it engages with the musical world and real-world society.

Chapter 4: Reception and Broader Implications

There [Shahryar] sat him upon his throne and sending for the Chief Minister, the father of the two damsels who (Inshallah!) will presently be mentioned, he said, “I command thee to take my wife and smite her to death; for she hath broken her plight and her faith.” So he carried her to the place of execution and did her die. Then King Shahryar took brand in hand and repairing to the Seraglio slew all the concubines and their Mamelukes. He also sware himself by a binding oath that whatever wife he married he would abate her maidenhead at night and slay her next morning to make sure of his honour; “For,” said he, “there never was nor is there one chaste woman upon face of earth.”1

“What does it sound like to be condemned to death? I have to make that known to the audience.”2 Leila Josefowicz takes on this emotion-laden mission in her role embodying

Scheherazade in John Adams’s Scheherazade.2. Attempting to communicate such a powerful story to audiences leads to powerful potentials for the music to affect the public. The way in which the audience understands the narrative of the musical piece significantly impacts the broader implications of the composition. Adams proposes a program that could have profound meaning for modern societies around the world. However, the effects of the music and program depend on the contributions of the various agents involved and how those contributions are perceived by audiences. The different interpretations of the musical narrative itself impact the wide-reaching influence of the piece. The role of John Adams as composer and conductor bears significance; how does his identity and public commentary shape the way people understand the music? Leila Josefowicz also plays an important part in shaping interpretations of the musical message conveyed to audiences. The personal background of the individual listener is perhaps

1 Richard Francis Burton, Tales from the Arabian Nights (New York: Fall River Press, 2012), 11.

2 Russell Platt, “Woman of the World: The violinist Leila Josefowicz plays John Adams’s latest piece,” The New Yorker, 30 March 2015, accessed 4 October 2018. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/30/woman-of-the-world. In his review, Platt quotes Josefowicz’s perspective on performing in Scheherazade.2, which for her carries more significance than a typical concerto soloist role.

the most crucial component to shaping the way he or she analyzes the overall musical

experience.

Performance reviews and critical reception provide insight into various perspectives

responding to Scheherazade.2.3 Considering the responses of the public to the interrelated

subjects of Adams, Josefowicz, and the piece itself offers insight into the possible impact

Scheherazade.2 might have in a broader context around the world. While the following reviews largely voice the perspective of critics writing for media, many of the comments may reflect the thoughts of individual listeners and general audiences. They address concerns regarding the musical narrative, questioning the clarity and sustainability of the message Adams presents.

Reviews further raise issue with Adams as the voice of this musical narrative, as well as the effectiveness of the narrative beyond Josefowicz’s performance as its vehicle. All of these concerns weave together in multi-faceted evaluations of Scheherazade.2 and affect how it interacts with broader social and cultural realms.

As noted earlier, the ambiguity of the ending of Scheherazade.2 leaves a great deal of flexibility for the listener interpreting the narrative. The listener may perceive a triumphant

Scheherazade who successfully evades her pursuers, a Scheherazade who finds temporary reprieve, or a Scheherazade who is unable to escape and can only dream of freedom, or the listener may construct a different narrative altogether. The interpretation could be significantly altered depending on the medium through which one experiences the music. As explored in the representation chapter, the medium of experience may affect the imagined characterization of

Scheherazade (whether influenced by the Nonesuch Record album cover or Josefowicz’s

3 Several performance reviews are cited in this chapter, though it should be noted that additional national and international reviews exist and could further contribute to this discussion.

presence) as well as the level of intimacy and emotion in the listener’s engagement with the

music. The listener’s personal background and subject position also contribute to understanding

the music. While all of these factors influence the reception of the narrative and its meaning, a

broader question remains: after an audience experiences Scheherazade.2, hearing the music and

interpreting the story, how can the piece extend beyond the concert hall (or audio device) and

into the real world?

According to Adams’s program notes, Scheherazade.2 seeks to evoke “the many images

of women oppressed or abused or violated that we see today in the news on a daily basis.”4 But what does a listener do with these images now that the programmatic music has projected them?

Perhaps the music could serve to raise awareness of the issue by critiquing modern power imbalance. People may not realize the prevalence of such an issue; people may not consider the effects this problem has for different demographics; people may not give much thought to resolving the issue, believing it to be distant and rare; people may deny that the problem exists, ignoring and challenging those who attempt to bring it to light. People of different personal and ideological backgrounds may perceive gendered power dynamics differently and thus have different understandings of the problem Adams highlights.

Presenting a musical story of an empowered woman may have the potential to go beyond raising awareness; the music may encourage those who have been victimized by abuse or assault to reach out, and it may encourage others to offer support to those in need and take action against misogyny. The potential effects of Scheherazade.2 are heightened when considered in conjunction with the wide-reaching #MeToo movement. Spreading virally as a social media campaign in late

4 “Scheherazade.2: Dramatic Symphony for Violin & Orchestra (2014–15),” in “John Adams: Works: Orchestra,” composer website. Accessed 29 September 2018. https://www.earbox.com/scheherazade2/.

2017, the #MeToo movement grew as a hashtag to counter sexual harassment and assault, demonstrating the prevalence of the problem.5 The phrase “Me too” has been attributed to Tarana

Burke, a black civil rights activist who used these words in 2006 to address the problem of sexual

harassment and assault. Following allegations against film producer Harvey Weinstein in October

2017, thousands of personal accounts on social media sprang up using the hashtag “Me too,”

expressing solidarity in victimization. Women of all backgrounds across the world began to speak

out, developing various local and international off-shoot hashtags. As an indication of the

significance of #MeToo, TIME magazine named “The Silence Breakers” as the 2017 Person of the

Year.6 “The Silence Breakers” included many women who helped launch the movement by facing

their fears of speaking out about their ordeals. Their courage helped countless others who have

been victimized (including men) share their stories as well. Though some incidents may have

occurred recently, close to the 2017 rise of #MeToo, many people have lived for years keeping

their stories secret. Composed in 2014, Adams’s dramatic symphony predates the magnitude of the

#MeToo movement, but the message of Scheherazade.2 seems to align well with the social media

campaign. Perhaps the musical narrative can contribute to the #MeToo initiative by raising

awareness and inspiring action. Perhaps it already has.

Since its premiere on 27 March 2015, Scheherazade.2 has been performed many times

across America and around the world. Critic reviews largely indicate a positive response to the

5 “History and Vision,” Me Too. Accessed 4 February 2019. https://metoomvmt.org/about/#history; Nadia Khomami, “#MeToo: How a Hashtag Became a Rallying Cry Against Sexual Harassment,” The Guardian, 20 October 2017. Accessed 4 February 2019. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/oct/20/women-worldwide-use-hashtag-metoo-against-sexual- harassment.

6 Eliana Dockterman, Haley Sweetland Edwards, Stephanie Zacharek, “Person of the Year 2017: The Silence Breakers,” TIME. Published in print 18 December 2017. Accessed 4 February 2019. http://time.com/time-person-of-the-year-2017-silence-breakers/.

piece and its message. Following the world premiere with the New York Philharmonic, conducted

by Alan Gilbert at Avery Fisher Hall, initial reviews lauded the power of Adams’s composition as

well as Josefowicz’s performance and acknowledged the socio-political program Adams proposed.

A review in The New York Times exhibits support of all aspects of the performance, offering

appreciative detailed descriptions of Adams’s program and music and praise of Josefowicz’s

“stunning performance, by turns commanding and vulnerable, slashing and sensual.”7 A review in

The New Yorker similarly lauds the premiere, giving an explanation of Adams’s program and

focusing on the brilliance of Josefowicz.8 In the New York Classical Review, George Grella

positively addresses Adams’s composition and Josefowicz’s performance, but expresses concern

regarding the storytelling of the piece; Grella valorizes Josefowicz, claiming her “proud and

indomitable presence” allows her to fully embody Scheherazade, and he wonders if the story of

Scheherazade.2 would be effective without her personification.9 Other reviews also question the

sustainability of the composition beyond Josefowicz’s role, an issue explored further below.

Scheherazade.2 received its second performance a couple of weeks later in Cincinnati,

Ohio, with Adams conducting his own composition for the first time. A review in the Cincinnati

Enquirer again offers praise to Josefowicz for her “sensational” performance and to Adams for his

7 Anthony Tommasini, “Review: John Adams Unveils Scheherazade.2, an Answer to Male Brutality,” New York Times, 27 March 2015, accessed 4 February 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/28/arts/music/review-john-adams-unveils-scheherazade2-an-answer- to-male-brutality.html.

8 Platt, “Woman of the World,” https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/03/30/woman-of-the-world.

9 George Grella, “Aided by Josefowicz’s Fire, Adams Returns to Form with Scheherazade.2,” New York Classical Review, 27 March 2015, accessed 4 February 2019. http://newyorkclassicalreview.com/2015/03/aided-by-josefowiczs-fire-adams-returns-to-form-with- scheherazade-2/.

conducting as “an energized leader” and for his “exceedingly well crafted” music.10 After its third

performance, with the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra, Scheherazade.2 received a more critical response. In his review of the Atlanta performance, Mark Gresham again voices concern about

whether the piece could function “without the championing of Josefowicz.”11 However, he also

questions the narrative that he perceives in the music; he draws attention to Scheherazade’s ability

to transform the Sultan’s brutality into mercy (in the traditional folktales and in Rimsky-

Korsakov’s version), but Gresham asserts that this transformation does not occur in Adams’s

adaptation. In his interpretation, while Scheherazade may successfully evade the oppressors, the

violent nature of the oppressors remains unchanged, meaning that Scheherazade has not been fully

empowered. This understanding reflects the ambiguity of the musical narrative’s conclusion,

which leaves room for the listener to imagine stories that may not have a happy ending and, as

such, may seem to indicate a failure on Adams’s part. However, while Gresham’s ending does not

grant Scheherazade triumph, perhaps his recognition that Scheherazade should triumph might

indicate that Adams’s storytelling is ultimately effective. Considering the narrative in a broader

social context leads to Gresham’s primary concern:

The real question, then, is whether the music works, or will even survive in the repertoire, without its sociopolitical presumptions attached… It would have certainly been provocative, front-edge social change in the late 1970s or an earlier era, but today, in the second decade of the 21st century, the premises are simply raised to the level of stereotype, at least in the global cosmopolitan culture where they are, to a great extent, today’s politically correct establishment view. Adams’ version of the story is unquestionably born of current cosmopolitan progressive

10 Janelle Gelfand, “John Adams’ Powerful Scheherazade for Our Time,” Cincinnati Enquirer, 18 April 2015, accessed 5 February 2019. https://www.cincinnati.com/story/entertainment/2015/04/18/cincinnati- symphony-john-adams-scheherazade-music-hall/25984653/.

11 Mark Gresham, “ASO Review: John Adams’ ‘Scheherazade.2’ Celebrates an Archetype of Women,” Arts ATL, 8 May 2015, accessed 20 November 2018. https://artsatl.com/aso-review-john-adams- scheherazade-2-celebrates-archetype-women/.

thought: men are the source of social evil and, in the end, the heroine Scheherazade escapes her oppressors.12

In this statement, Gresham addresses the sustainability of the piece in contemporary society and

the novelty of its message, suggesting that Scheherazade.2 reinforces stereotypes of men versus

women. Two years later, in the Chicago Classical Review, Lawrence A. Johnson commends the

mastery of the music, but echoes Gresham’s concern of reductionism in his comment that the

piece’s “backstory is rather simplistic in its ‘men bad, women good’ platitudes.”13 These

comments highlight generalizations that, if perceived by the listener and taken literally, may

weaken Adams’s stance through absolute reductive distinctions that conflate masculinity with

evil and femininity with righteousness. However, more recent perspectives seem to consider the shades of gray blurring this distinction, focusing instead on how compromises in gendered power dynamics may alleviate the imbalance.

If the “men bad, women good” stereotype is taken seriously, then it may be problematic that a white male composer created the persona of the empowered heroine in Scheherazade.2.

Can a composer of these demographics speak knowledgeably and truthfully for another, whether in a musical or literal sense? In a musical sense, audiences may take issue with another white male composer proliferating the canon of white male composers. Returning to a consideration of the #MeToo movement, listeners may be troubled by the idea of a woman’s intimate story fabricated by a male. Does Adams’s assumption of feminine subjectivity add to the problem of

12 Gresham, “ASO Review,” https://artsatl.com/aso-review-john-adams-scheherazade-2-celebrates- archetype-women/.

13 Lawrence A. Johnson, “Josefowicz, Salonen and CSO Deliver Compelling Virtuosity in Adams Premiere,” Chicago Classical Review, 3 March 2017, accessed 5 February 2019. http://chicagoclassicalreview.com/2017/03/josefowicz-salonen-and-cso-deliver-compelling-virtuosity-in- adams-premiere/.

misogyny that he claims to challenge? Or does problematizing Adams’s identity contribute to

generalizations that deepen demographic divisions? In an article covering the Seattle

Symphony’s performance of Scheherazade.2, Thomas May considers these questions. He quotes

Adams’s observation that, in history, current news, or even fiction, it is often a male voice

relating his version of events. May calls his statement a “paradox of being a male composer

addressing such concerns,” to which Adams explains that art allows the artist to “inhabit another

sensibility,” giving him the opportunity to take on an identity other than his own.14 Perhaps this

self-defense is somewhat unconvincing to those who are skeptical about his appropriation? Or

perhaps this disavowal of his masculine identity justifies his assumption of a feminine voice in

his composition? Is this kind of disavowal even possible or does the music of Scheherazade.2 inherently and inescapably convey the identity of Adams?

The consideration of musical personae in the previous chapters may provide a lens for interpreting whose voice is heard. Different listeners may interpret various sources of these voices at different times and to varying degrees. Edward Cone suggests that, while different instrumental and textual layers may indicate various characters, the musical piece as a whole may be identified as the composer’s persona. However, he emphasizes that this identification be understood not as “‘the persona of the composer’ but ‘a persona of the composer,’” implying that

the composer may indeed shed a single identity in favor of another.15 This idea is elaborated

when shaping interpretations of the experiences of musical personae: “the reactions, emotions,

14 Thomas May, “Turning the ‘Arabian Nights’ on Its Head: John Adams Conducts ‘Scheherazade.2’ at Seattle Symphony,” The Seattle Times, 10 March 2016, accessed 5 February 2019. https://www.seattletimes.com/entertainment/classical-music/turning-the-arabian-nights-on-its-head-john- adams-conducts-scheherazade2-at-seattle-symphony/.

15 Edward Cone, The Composer’s Voice (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1974), 18; emphasis in original.

and states of mind suggested by the music are those of the persona, not the composer,” manifesting as “an imaginative transformation” of the composer’s experiences.16 Other

scholarship similarly discusses shifting attention away from the composer. Carolyn Abbate

explores how the opera singer’s creative voice may be highlighted over the composer’s as “a

female authorial voice that speaks through a musical work written by a male composer.”17 She builds on Roland Barthes’s essay, “The Death of the Author,” explaining that while the relevance of the historical and social context of the author means the author should not be “killed,” the author may be de-emphasized through the elevation of the “voice” within the artwork.18 In performance, the voice within the music is foregrounded, leading the audience to reconceive the soloist as creating what she sings.19 In this sense, the composer’s identity is irrelevant; the female performer has assumed creative dominance. Though Abbate focuses on opera performance, her

ideas may be applicable to pieces such as Scheherazade.2; the concept of the performer’s authorial voice is reflected in the quotation at the beginning of this chapter, in which Josefowicz asserts that she is the one communicating the story to the audience, not Adams. Whether an audience perceives the musical voice to be that of Josefowicz or of Adams, empowering the female or the male, both of their identities bear significance to the piece.

This issue of the legitimacy of a white male constructing a female voice has significant implications regarding male dominance in the world of classical music. The problem of gender

16 Cone, The Composer’s Voice, 85.

17 Carolyn Abbate, “Opera; Or, the Envoicing of Women,” in Musicology and Difference: Gender and Sexuality in Music Scholarship, ed. Ruth A. Solie (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 229.

18 Abbate, “Opera; Or, the Envoicing of Women,” 232; Roland Barthes, “The Death of the Author,” 1967, included in Image, Music, Text, trans. Stephen Heath (New York: Hill and Wang, 1977).

19 Abbate, “Opera; Or, the Envoicing of Women,” 256.

imbalance in the canon of Western art music perpetuated by traditional music history and performance practice has been generally recognized in recent years. This canon, consisting largely of European white males of the eighteenth- through twentieth-centuries, marginalizes female figures. The idea of de-centering the composer figures prominently in this consideration of the musical canon. Marcia Citron suggests that over-emphasizing the identities of composers contributes to the self-perpetuating canon by suggesting value judgments and classifications that are removed from the music itself; placing more emphasis on the music and its social context may allow the composer’s identity to become less problematic.20 Dozens of ensembles have

performed Scheherazade.2 nationally and internationally, a suggestion that this piece may

become “canonic.” The idea of Adams’s composition contributing to the canon may be

problematic to listeners; some may argue that a female composer should be the one to create this

narrative of an empowered woman, not a composer such as John Adams. Others might respond

that a sympathetic white male composer, seeking to use his privilege to advance minority voices,

could be a positive and perhaps necessary agent in bringing the musical Scheherazade to life.

The latter seems to be the perspective advanced by critics.

In her review of a performance by the Seattle Symphony, Claire Biringer confronts this

matter directly. She approaches the issue as an educator of Western music history, emphasizing

the “dead white male” composers that dominate the canon. While Adams is not dead, Biringer

recognizes his privileged status and notes the difficulty of accepting “the fact that symphonic

music in 2016 remains in a place where female characters are still primarily given life by male

20 Marcia Citron, Gender and the Musical Canon (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 114- 19.

composers.”21 However, rather than viewing Scheherazade.2 as a problematic proliferation of gender imbalance, she asserts that Adams’s conception of Scheherazade is a sign of progress.

While recognizing that “classical music is still a man’s world,” Biringer describes how the

landscape is slowly shifting to one where females are experiencing “small victories: the joy of

new music, an empowered female character, and John Adams, composing a gender-conscious

rendition of a centuries-old tale.”22 She suggests conservative ideologies of orchestra managers,

donors, and audience members preserve the canon and resist more forward-looking

compositions. Rebecca Wishnia echoes this sentiment by foregrounding women’s rights; she

observes that since no female composers were featured in the San Francisco Symphony’s regular

season that year (2016-17), it was fortunate “that this man cares enough to speak.”23 More recently, in his review of a performance by the Boston Symphony, Jeremy Eichler seems to view

Adams’s composition as more problematic, but perhaps in a way that raises awareness of the problem. He suggests that while Adams may contribute to the proliferation of the “white male” canon, the message of Scheherazade.2 seems to draw attention to the lack of female composers and support the progressive perspectives seeking to address this imbalance:

21 Claire Biringer, “Scheherazade in a Man’s World: Feminism, Classical Music, and Scheherazade.2,” Vanguard Seattle, 30 March 2016, accessed 5 February 2019. http://vanguardseattle.com/2016/03/30/seattle-symphony-feminism-classical-scheherazade-2/.

22 Biringer, “Scheherazade in a Man’s World,” http://vanguardseattle.com/2016/03/30/seattle-symphony- feminism-classical-scheherazade-2/.

23 Rebecca Wishnia, “Sorrow and Strength in John Adams’s Scheherazade.2,” San Francisco Classical Voice, 28 February 2017, accessed 5 February 2019. https://www.sfcv.org/reviews/san-francisco- symphony/sorrow-and-strength-in-john-adamss-scheherazade2.

There is now for instance more discussion than ever before about why the seasons of every symphony orchestra in the land, and even many new music festivals, are dominated by the music of male composers. Clearly when the next Scheherazade is written, it will be time for a woman to tell her own story.24

These reviews suggest that Adams’s composition, though the product of a masculine

imagination, may pave the way for female voices to be heard more prevalently in the musical world. As more attention is drawn to these wide-ranging issues, Scheherazade.2 may play a vital role in balancing the gender dynamics in the musical canon and performance institutions as well as in social and political situations on a broad scale.

In a wider social context, Scheherazade.2 may lend itself to considerations of male and female interactions in light of the #MeToo movement. Adams’s musical narrative speaking on behalf of women may seem to anticipate a trend that quickly arose in the movement. While the campaign consists largely of females coming forward with stories of victimization, many males have played a sympathetic role. In response to the #MeToo flood, men began to recognize opportunities to support women and alter misogynistic culture by posting to social media using the hashtag #HowIWillChange.25 Following the lead of Australian writer Benjamin Law, men

committed to taking actions that seek to lift up women and decrease sexual abuse. Law’s initial

post was met with countless “I Will” pledges, such as “call out other men on sexism,” “listen to

women more closely, seeking to understand,” and “acknowledge[e] MY OWN capacity for

24 Jeremy Eichler, “At BSO, Hearing Anew the Legend of Scheherazade,” Boston Globe, 2 March 2018, accessed 5 February 2019. https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/music/2018/03/02/bso-hearing-anew- legend-scheherazade/eAgpcYopMxnv5fxH10m3JM/story.html.

25 Law’s initial post read, “Guys, it's our turn. After yesterday's endless #MeToo stories of women being abused, assaulted and harassed, today we say #HowIWillChange.” Alanna Vagianos, “In Response to #MeToo, Men are Tweeting #HowIWillChange,” Huffington Post, 19 October 2017, accessed 9 February 2019. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/in-response-to-metoo-men-are-tweeting- howiwillchange_us_59e79bd3e4b00905bdae455d.

harmful behaviour.”26 This support bridges the gender gap and blurs the lines between the “men bad, women good” stereotype suggested in the reviews by Gresham and Johnson. Through

Scheherazade.2, Adams seems to offer a similar kind of support. However, if listeners question a motivation of support in his message, it may still be noteworthy that, whether the music and program provoke positive or negative responses, this piece seems to effectively call attention to the very problem Adams claims to address.

Remembering that gender intersects significantly with other modalities of identity, the social implications of Scheherazade.2 may extend beyond those concerning gender imbalances.

As discussed in the previous chapter, Adams’s musical construction of femininity in

Scheherazade’s persona seems to be much clearer than his construction of ethnicity. Elements suggesting exoticism and elements suggesting universality exist simultaneously in the music and extra-musical components of Scheherazade.2. This relative clarity regarding gender seems to be reflected in the piece’s reception; most reviews comment on Scheherazade’s position as an empowered female, while comments regarding the presence or absence of exoticism largely appear only in passing. The lesser emphasis placed on Adams’s ethnic representation has intriguing implications for the lasting impact of the piece. Perhaps the gendered meaning of this piece is so prominent that Scheherazade’s ethnicity becomes less significant. Perhaps the ambiguity in Adams’s program is taken for granted; while Scheherazade is modelled after the

Middle Eastern folktales, it may be understood and accepted that this modern representation now represents women of all backgrounds. Perhaps his ambiguity makes it difficult to reach conclusions, prompting critics to downplay that element. Perhaps exotic musical stereotypes that

26 Vagianos, “In Response to #MeToo, Men are Tweeting #HowIWillChange,” https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/in-response-to-metoo-men-are-tweeting- howiwillchange_us_59e79bd3e4b00905bdae455d.

were considered more problematic in nineteenth-century program music no longer stimulate as

much controversy. Or perhaps they still do, but maybe the suggestion of exoticism serves a more

progressive purpose in Scheherazade.2. Through the power of Scheherazade’s narrative, perhaps

Adams has humanized any exotic suggestions in Scheherazade.2, making them acceptable to

audiences. Alternatively, perhaps his exotic suggestions challenge the problematic conflations of

exoticism, both musically and extra-musically; if exoticization has traditionally represented the

de-humanized “Other,” then Adams’s use of exoticism may be understood to problematize and

subvert this representation. Depending on how one perceives Adams’s composition, his musical

style may comment just as significantly on ethnic divisions as on gender divisions in musical

representation and broader social realms.

Some critics mention the ambiguity of exoticism briefly, often through their recognition of

the color added by the performance of cimbalom by Chester Englander. Tommasini describes how

the cimbalom’s prominence “lends the entire score an exotic flavor,” while Mark Swed suggests it

contributes “a mysterious folk quality, if not exactly Middle Eastern.”27 Many note the connection

to Scheherazade created by Adams’s updated title, commenting on similarities and differences.

While recognizing the allusion to the One Thousand and One Nights and the intertextual suggestion of exoticism, critics have also recognized the obvious differences: “if there’s one thing

27 Anthony Tommasini, “Review: John Adams Unveils Scheherazade.2, an Answer to Male Brutality,” New York Times, 27 March 2015, accessed 4 February 2019. https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/28/arts/music/review-john-adams-unveils-scheherazade2-an-answer- to-male-brutality.html; Mark Swed, “Violinist Leila Josefowicz is a Powerful Story-teller in John Adams’s Scheherazade.2,” Los Angeles Times, 15 April 2016, accessed 4 October 2018. http://www.latimes.com/entertainment/arts/classical/la-et-cm-adams-laphil-review-20160416- column.html.

Scheherazade.2 is unlike, it is its Rimsky-Korsakov namesake.”28 Though many critics mention

these elements, few seem to take issue with Adams’s suggestion of exoticism, with some

exception. Eichler questions Adams’s motivation for his stylistic choices:

For all its dramatic storytelling and charismatic virtuosity, the piece leaves some larger conceptual tensions unresolved. I left Thursday’s performance taken by the music, but also wondering exactly how one simultaneously trades on the exoticism of this legend (the sultry perfumed orchestra, Adams’s ranting “men in beards”) while at the same time critiquing it from within a reimagined modern frame.29

This critique examines the general sense of exoticism in Scheherazade.2, suggesting that perhaps ethnicity is not a point of concern for Scheherazade specifically. Indeed, it seems perhaps the ethnic representation of the male perpetrators is a greater source of controversy. A comment in

Adams’s opening remarks introducing Scheherazade.2 at the 2015 premiere sparked a response that demonstrates a stark contrast among perspectives. Adams presented details largely derived from his program notes, explaining his inspiration to tell the story of a modern Scheherazade and describing examples of brutality toward woman throughout the world. He cites Middle Eastern examples but emphasizes that misogyny is found in America as well. In his introductory comments at the premiere, Adams suggested that the Rush Limbaugh radio show contributes to the problem, a comment met with applause from the audience. Adams’s assertion provoked a defensive response from both Limbaugh and his friend, critic Jay Nordlinger.30 Nordlinger

28 Brian Schuth, “Scheherazade.2 Take Two,” The Boston Musical Intelligencer, 4 March 2018, accessed 25 February 2019. https://www.classical-scene.com/2018/03/04/scheherazade-2-take-two/.

29 Jeremy Eichler, “At BSO, Hearing Anew the Legend of Scheherazade,” Boston Globe, 2 March 2018, accessed 5 February 2019. https://www.bostonglobe.com/arts/music/2018/03/02/bso-hearing-anew- legend-scheherazade/eAgpcYopMxnv5fxH10m3JM/story.html.

30 Rush Limbaugh, “Two Minutes Hate at Avery Fisher Hall,” radio show transcription, The Rush Limbaugh Show. 27 March 2015. Accessed 4 October 2018. https://www.rushlimbaugh.com/daily/2015/03/27/two_minutes_hate_at_avery_fisher_hall/; Jay Nordlinger, “A Sick and Twisted Culture,” National Review, 27 March 2015. Accessed 22 October 2018. https://www.nationalreview.com/corner/sick-and-twisted-culture-jay-nordlinger/.

explains his interpretation of Adams’s remark as an unfair conflation: “Rush equals the Taliban or the Muslim Brotherhood.”31 Perhaps Adams’s statement was unnecessarily accusatory, and

perhaps the response was appropriately defensive? Or perhaps the provocation of Adams’s comment drew attention to a more general injustice that places verbal antagonism on a radio

show on the same level as physical abuse? Perhaps the outraged responses of Limbaugh and

Nordlinger reflect a denial of a problem, a blindness to the different forms of harm that can affect others? Perhaps the controversy is a result of misunderstanding and lack of clarity, or perhaps a more superficial flame-fanning game that belittles the problem Adams claims to address? With its many gray areas, this conflict provides insight into the ambiguity of representation, demonstrating how differing interpretations of the music and its message can lead to vastly different physical and emotional responses.

These reviews and external commentary of Scheherazade.2 present a variety of possible reactions to the musical and extra-musical meanings of the piece and the roles of Adams and

Josefowicz. They reflect some of the thoughts audiences might have, experiencing the music from an outside perspective. A personal interview with Leila Josefowicz following a performance of Scheherazade.2 offers her perspectives on some of the concerns about the piece, sharing a viewpoint that is more intrinsic to the composition’s creation and performance.32

Regarding the relevance and sustainability of the musical narrative, Josefowicz discusses

the power of the piece’s ambiguity and its intersection with the real world:

31 Nordlinger, “A Sick and Twisted Culture,” https://www.nationalreview.com/corner/sick-and-twisted- culture-jay-nordlinger/.

32 Leila Josefowicz, interview by Rebecca Schreiber, conducted 29 November 2018, at Severance Hall, Cleveland, Ohio.

John [Adams] has a very special way of really thinking about world issues and uses these thoughts and these ideas for inspiration for his composition… this came right before the whole “Me too” thing, which is crazy… it is a universal issue we are far from overcoming… He wanted to, I think… de-romanticize this whole story. Oh, the Arabian Nights and the Thousand and One Nights, and she seduces the king, well yeah, why? Why does she do that? Not because she’s a seductress per se, she does it to save her own life. And how many came before her that didn’t have the gumption, the courage, the instincts of survival that she had, that’s what he wanted to focus on, not the romanticized version of some seductress to the king… [The ending] is something that is left to the listener, and I like that, because it’s, you hear it the way you want to hear it and there’s no wrong way to hear it. There’s never a wrong way to hear music in general. So it’s kind of like life right now, there aren’t really clear answers, are there? That’s what this is also like, and again, it’s de-romanticizing, which is so important. De-romanticizing this sort of, happily-ever-after sort of mentality, which is not real. Things can end well I suppose, in various ways, but change is constant, right?

She provides her input regarding the concern of Adams’s identity as a white male composing a female’s story:

We can all go too far with this in my opinion. He can’t help that he’s white, nor can I. He can’t help that he’s male, I can’t help that I’m female. It’s sort of like, let’s focus on the quality of what’s being done, the people that are delivering the quality, who are they? We’re not judging, choosing, in my head and in his head, we’re not basing anything on whether someone’s a woman or whether someone’s a man or African American or what. I mean, straight, gay. We’re so self- consciously categorizing everything now… There’s so many gray areas of this that make this such a complex issue. For someone, whoever, to come forward and make a generalization of any kind probably is not right. This is far too complex an issue for that.

As the violinist who has thus far been the only soloist to perform in Scheherazade.2, Josefowicz

offers her opinion regarding the tangibility and intensity of the piece beyond her involvement:

The violin soloist, whether it be me or someone else, really has to embody a character… you have to really have this strength and at the same time, a vulnerability, and it’s about letting both show that makes the character complex… that took me some time actually to really feel that I could deliver this, and I did the first time, but just to feel like I’ve mastered how to pace this long journey that she goes on… I hope it doesn’t take me to die before somebody else [performs as soloist in Scheherazade.2]. It’s just that I’ve really established this as sort of my work, and it’s sort of like, why would they do it when this is sort of my specialty and written for me. I understand but, on the other hand, I’m doing this to set a standard for other

people. I’m doing this so that other people do what I’m doing, not that I’m the only one. So hopefully…

These thoughts shared by Josefowicz, as a performer closely aligned with the project of

Scheherazade.2, may not agree with many listeners. However, contemplating other perspectives

seems to be a key component to experiencing this piece. Regardless of how one interprets

Adams’s message, the ideas of representation and demographic interaction with which he engages seems to require a recognition of other viewpoints. Extending consideration to perspectives of different identities, experiences, and personal backgrounds could enhance the narrative interpreted by the listener and the potential for the music to effect change beyond the piece itself.

Conclusion

The various possible interpretations of Scheherazade.2 have wide-ranging and wide- reaching implications in current musical and social contexts. Different perceptions of narrative and representation can affect the messages listeners carry away from the music, possibly leading to significant impacts concerning gender and ethnic imbalances in different cultural settings.

Considering contexts of the past and the future further broaden the implications and applications of Scheherazade.2, in terms of the composition itself and its wider impact. With the centrality of

Adams’s socio-political message and Leila Josefowicz’s powerful performances, reception of the piece has raised concerns regarding the sustainability the music beyond the narrative and representational ambiguity and beyond the contribution of Josefowicz. Addressing these concerns allows one to explore how Scheherazade.2 might further function in a musical and social context.

Looking to the past at historical perspectives, Scheherazade.2 might influence how we respond to other familiar pieces of music. The new adaptation of One Thousand and One Nights 78

presented by Scheherazade.2 offers the opportunity to reevaluate Rimsky-Korsakov’s

Scheherazade. As Josefowicz articulates, de-romanticizing the story of Scheherazade can make the listener more aware of reality masked by fantastical elements. Imagining the musical narrative of misogyny and subjugation Adams proposes can make listeners more aware of these situations in the real world. After hearing Scheherazade.2, one might experience Rimsky-

Korsakov’s Scheherazade differently, imagining the characters’ interactions in a new way.

Considering similar source material, one might approach Maurice Ravel’s Shéhérazade in different ways.33 Listeners might have a renewed perspective on other artistic representations

that similarly engage with issues of representation and balance, seeing more clearly problematic

dynamics or effective attempts at equality; for example, listeners might reevaluate other

prominent female characters in the musical world, such as Carmen or Delilah. The narrative and

representation of Scheherazade.2 is also intriguing when considered alongside the socio-political

engagements in Adams’s other compositions. While Scheherazade.2 features ambiguity,

Adams’s operas offer more well-defined characters, settings, and plots. The librettos explicitly

describe the background information, providing a clear context. Adams’s position and identity

may again be viewed as problematic when considering his representations of race, gender,

religion, and other socio-cultural contexts in works such as The Death of Klinghoffer (1990),

Doctor Atomic (2004), The Gospel According to the Other Mary (2012), and Girls of the Golden

West (2017). However, while perhaps controversial, these pieces may again invite listeners to

look beyond their own perspectives by assuming other viewpoints.

33 Maurice Ravel composed Shéhérazade, ouverture de féerie in 1898 as an orchestral work planned for an opera. In 1902, he composed Shéhérazade, a song cycle setting the poetry of Tristan Klingsor, who was inspired by Rimsky-Korsakov’s Scheherazade. The song cycle consists of three movements: “Asie,” “La flute enchantée,” and “L’indifférent.”

Looking to the future, one might consider further how these reevaluations prompted by

Scheherazade.2 might effect social and cultural change through audiences. While the reviews cited above provide intriguing reflections on Scheherazade.2, it should be noted that they represent a certain perspective, that of music critics writing in widely-dispersed newspapers and forums. The impact of Scheherazade.2 reaches far beyond critics, but their words serve to spread recognition of the piece to readers who may not be aware of its existence or of the message it seeks to convey. Audiences experiencing the music will carry their interpretations of the piece into their everyday lives, serving as a greater vehicle of the music’s impact. As explored above, the message of Scheherazade.2 could intersect significantly with social situations such as the

#MeToo movement. Such applications demonstrate that the music has the potential to make meaningful differences for individuals and demographic groups, depending on how audiences experience the music. While many critics report that performances of Scheherazade.2 were met with standing ovations, a review of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra describes a “shockingly apathetic” audience.34 While a reaction such as this may indicate disapproval of the piece and its

narrative, it also invites the consideration of other factors that may contribute to a listener’s

opinion: different circumstances unique to each performance, potentially different social situations in different geographic locations, different timing, and aesthetic opinions of contemporary music.

This last point raises a significant implication regarding the position of Scheherazade.2 and the rather marginal status of contemporary art music. Many average listeners regard

34 Michael Vincent, “TSO’s Scheherazade.2 Makes a Bold Statement About the Strength of Women Everywhere,” The Star, 5 May 2016, accessed 12 February 2019. https://www.thestar.com/entertainment/music/2016/05/05/tsos-scheherazade2-makes-a-bold-statement- about-the-strength-of-women-everywhere.html.

twentieth- and twenty-first-century music with a negative impression, experiencing lack of understanding or aesthetic disagreement. Even among patrons of symphonies, conservative members tend to prefer the familiar music of earlier eras. In light of this stigma, perhaps

Scheherazade.2 inherits a lack of accessibility that limits its reach. Considering the potential of

Scheherazade.2 in relation to popular music that may reach a broader audience, perhaps Adams’s message might be more effectively conveyed in a more accessible genre. However, recognizing the conservative voices maintaining the canon of Western art music in concert hall settings may suggest that the concert hall is precisely the site that needs a message such as this to motivate canon reformation or deformation. The recognition of the marginalization of composers who are not white males may encourage the increased acknowledgment of such composers. As Marcia

Citron asserts, through reception and responses, the public taste has considerable power in “what might become and remain canonic.”35 Though Adams’s identity as a white male may spark controversy, the stimulation of the public’s voice may indicate that critics and audiences could effect change in the canon regardless of Adams’s position. In the review by Jeremy Eichler cited above, he indicates that discussion of male dominance in the music canon has increased, along with the recognition of the need for women’s voices to be heard. This demonstrates the possibility of a shift in academic and performance settings, perhaps highlighting female composers of the past or contemporary composers such as Joan Tower, Ellen Zwilich, or Kaija

Saariaho, among many others. Alternatively, academics and orchestral managers may pursue an approach that de-emphasizes the composer, instead focusing on different socio-musical contexts.

While the prominent recognition of Scheherazade.2 and its repeated performances may point towards this idea of canonicity, other perspectives question if the piece could or should be

35 Citron, Gender and the Musical Canon, 21.

considered “canonic.” In the review by Gresham discussed above, he wonders if “the music

works, or will even survive in the repertoire, without its sociopolitical presumptions attached.”36

Perhaps the current relevance of the message of Scheherazade.2 may weaken over time and thus pass out of the repertoire. However, this critique assumes that music must withstand the test of time in order to be considered “great.” Perhaps the sociopolitical significance of music is more important than its ability to survive. Perhaps the power of music to respond temporarily to current concerns outweighs its lasting existence. The idea that Scheherazade.2 may not survive without its sociopolitical presumptions does not need to be considered a negative aspect of the composition; the importance of these presumptions enables Scheherazade.2 to play an important cultural role in the present, regardless of what the future may hold for the piece.

The wide array of responses to the music presents a complex and multi-faceted network of the potential effects of Scheherazade.2 and demonstrates how Adams’s composition stretches beyond the tradition of program music to function as social commentary. Through his composition’s programmatic message, his music raises awareness of the issues he seeks to address.

Whether generating positive or negative responses, it is noteworthy that Scheherazade.2 has received repeated performances internationally and that the work of Adams and Josefowicz has been widely acknowledged. Reception of the piece indicates that recognition of the music’s various meanings might facilitate activism in different realms of society and culture.

Scheherazade.2 gives hope that perhaps one day the musical Scheherazade may be truly empowered.

36 Gresham, “ASO Review,” https://artsatl.com/aso-review-john-adams-scheherazade-2-celebrates- archetype-women/. 82

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