u

DANGERED TJLhe Iinterrelationships among plants, animals, and their environments are fascinating and often com- plex. By learning more about these interactions, scientists, L L E T I resource managers, and

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR FISH AND WILDLIFE SERVICE landowners can go beyond the NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOL. XXI NO. 6 protection of individual species and work toward protecting these critical linkages in natural systems. Flowering plants, for example, sometimes need specific birds and insects for pollination, while some butterfly larvae require a specific host plant for food. Certain predators depend on a single prey species. This edition of the Endangered Species Bulletin looks at various ways in which the decline of some plants and animals, and their prospects for recovery, are related directly to the fate of other species. ."Wii'li,- J

•y -.JS/ •C. ® S; fefi- & Wildlife

WASHINGTON D.C. OFFICE Washington, B.C. 20240

John Rogers, Acting Director E. La Verne Smith, Chief, Division of Endangered Species (703)358-2171 Jamie Rappaport Clark, Assistant Director for Ecological Services Ren Lohoefener, Deputy Chief. Division of Endangered Species (703)358-2171 Richard Hannan, Chief, Branch of Information Management (703)358-2390 Jay Slack, Chief Branch of Conservation and Classification (703)358-2105 William R. Kramer, Chief Branch of Recovery & Consultation (703)358-2106

REGION ONE Eastside Federal Complex, 911 N.E.llth Ave, Portland OR 97232

California, Hawaii, Idaho, Nevada. Oregon, Michael J. Spear, Regional Director (503)231-6118 Washington, American Samoa, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Guam and the Pacific Trust Territories

REGION TWO P.O. Box 1306, Albuquerque, NM 87103

Arizona, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas Nanc7 Kaufman, Regional Director (505)248-6282

REGION THREE Federal Bldg., Ft. Snelling, Twin Cities MN 55111

Illinois. Indiana. Iowa. Michigan. William Harrwig, Regional Director (612)725-3500 Minnesota, Missouri, Ohio, and Wisconsin

REGION FOUR 1875 Century Blvd., Suite 200, Atlanta, OA 30345

Alabama, Arkansas. louisiana. Georgia, Kentucky, Noreen Clough, Regional Director (404)679-4000 Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Florida, Tennessee, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands

REGION FIVE 300 Westgate Center Drive, Hadley, MA 01035

Connecticut, Delaware, District of Columbia. Ronald E. Lambert,son, Regional Director (413)253-8659 Maine. Maryland. Massachusetts. New Hampshire, New fersey. New York, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Vermont. Virginia, and West Virginia

REGION SIX P.O. Box 25486, Denver Federal Center, Denver CO 80225

Colorado, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, North Ralph O. Morgenweck, Regional Director (303)236-7920 Dakota, South Dakota. Utah, and Wyoming

REGION SEVEN 1011 E. Tudor Rd., Anchorage, AK 99503

Alaska Dave Allen, Regional Director (907)786-3542 IN THIS ISSUE

G E R E D 4 As Goes the Prairie Dog ... So Goes the Ferret

U L L E T I N

Telephone: (703)358-2390 Contributors 5 The Lupine and Fax: (703)358-1735 Pete Golfer The Butterfly Internet: Mike Lockhart [email protected] Dave Hopper http://wtvw.fws.gov/~r9endspp/endspp.html Adam Asquith iMarie Bruegmann 8 Hawaii's Birds and Bees Editor Kim Mitchell Michael Bender Cathy Games Richard Neves Associate Editor Sally Valdes-Cogliano 11 A Lost Piece of the Puzzle Jennifer Greiner Susan Saul Robert Mesta Art Director Mary F. Pols The Mussel/Fish Connection Steve Friesen Robert S. Butler 12 Richard G. Biggins

Cover and Left Looking like a cabbage on a baseball bat, Brighamia insignis has a thick, succulent stem topped by a cluster of broad leaves. One of the main threats to this plant is the loss 14 Pelican Deaths of native pollinators. Linked to Sick Fish photos by Stove Perlman

Opposite Page Condors Return The Vermilion Cliffs, north of the 16 Grand Canyon in Arizona, are the site to Arizona of a new California condor reintro- duction effort. photo by Michael Bender I S S <5 I !

A Wish Takes Wing The Endangered Species Bulletin welcomes manuscripts on a wide range of topics related 18 to endangered species. We are particularly interested in news about recovery, habitat conservation plans, and cooperative ventures. Please contact the Editor before preparing a manuscript. We cannot guarantee publication. 20 The Conasauga Saga The Fish and Wildlife Service distributes the Bulletin primarily to Federal and State agencies, and official contacts of the Endangered Species Program. It also is reprinted by the University Departments of Michigan as part of its own publication, the Endangered Species UPDATE. To subscribe, write the Endangered Species UPDATE. School of Natural Resources, University of Michigan. 22 Regional News and Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1115; or call 313/763-3243. Recovery Updates

24 Listing Actions Printed with vegetable-based ink on recycled and recyclable paper. If you do not 2B keep back issues, please recycle the paper, pass them along to an interested person, or donate them to a local school or library. 27 1997 Refuges Calendar by Pete Gober and Mike Lockhart As Goes the Prairie Dog

TJ hee black-footed ferret (Mustela during the early 1970's. The species nigripes) evolved on the North Ameri- was feared to be extinct until a small can prairie when the prairie dog population was found in northwestern (Cynomys sp.J, the prey on which the Wyoming in 1981. This population was ferret depends, inhabited approxi- monitored for several years but soon mately 100 million acres (2.5 million was decimated by disease. Before the hectares). The historical range of ferrets ferret population disappeared, a few and prairie dogs roughly overlapped animals were salvaged for a captive and extended across 12 States, from breeding effort conducted by the western Canada to Mexico, although the Wyoming Game and Fish Department, ferret was never a commonly observed the Fish and Wildlife Service, participat- animal. Prairie dog habitat has been ing institutions of the American Zoo and reduced by about 98 percent from Aquarium Association, and other former levels. What remains is frag- cooperators. Successes in the captive mented into remnants of various size. breeding program allowed biologists to Reductions in occupied prairie dog initiate reintroduction at a south-central habitat resulted initially from the Wyoming site in 1991- Reintroduction conversion of native prairies to other efforts in Wyoming were limited by uses, primarily relating to farming. disease and other factors, and the black- Prairie dog colonies were Subsequent losses resulted from footed ferret program in that area was integral components of the widespread poisoning programs suspended in 1995. prairie ecosystem as it intended to reduce competition Additional reintroduction efforts once existed across the Plains States. between prairie dogs and domestic began in Montana and South Dakota in USFWS photo livestock for forage, and more recently 1994 and have continued through 1996. from the impacts of Ferrets released in the.se States appear sylvatic plague (an to have had higher survival rates than Old World disease those in Wyoming and have not been introduced into North impacted by disease to date. Approxi- America at the turn of mately 60 ferrets, including reintro- the century). These duced captive-born animals and their factors continue to offspring born in the wild, existed in influence prairie dog Montana and South Dakota prior to the populations, which in release of additional captive-born ferrets turn influence in 1996. opportunities for Higher ferret survival and productiv- ferret recovery. The ity rates at the Montana and South \ black-footed Dakota sites are likely associated with ^ ' ferrets known to exist the occurrence of more densely in the wild have populated black-tail prairie dog resulted from reintro- (Cynomys ludovicianus) towns there, ductions using as opposed to the white-tailed prairie captive-bred stock. dog (Cynomys leucums) habitats found One of the last at the Wyoming reintroduction site. known populations of Improved success also may be the ferrets was extirpated result of "preconditioning" the ferrets in in South Dakota outdoor pens inhabited by prairie dogs.

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 ... So Goes the Ferret

The plight of the ferret is only part are a vital part of the ecology of native of a greater issue, the loss of a largely grasses, and that burrowing and mixing unrecognized but perhaps equally of soil constituents are important for Captive breeding and important resource-prairie dog towns. maintaining the long-term viability of reintroduction projects are the backbone of the Prairie dogs occur on a variety of prairie soils. national Biaci(-footed vegetative communities, and their Among the species associated with Ferret Recovery Program. towns provide food and habitat for prairie dogs that have declined along Although the program has many wildlife species. Prairie dogs are with the ferret are the ferruginous made substantial strides, consumed by such predators as the hawk, burrowing owl, swift fox, and the total number of ferrets coyote (Canis latrans), badger mountain plover. Although the pres- is still quite small (less (Taxidea taxus), swift fox (Vulpes ence of ]irairie dogs is not compatible than 500). velox), golden eagle (Aquila with many agricultural uses, there is chrysaetos), ferruginous hawk (Buteo hope that enough of these animals can regalis), and red-tailed hawk (Buteo be conserved on public lands to ensure jamaicensis). In some locations, even the survival and recovery of the black- A black-footed ferret can wintering bald eagles (Haliaeetus footed ferret and associated species. be a prairie dog's worst leiicocephalus) make their living by nightmare, but recovery robbing hawks that are more successful Pete Goher, the FWS Black-footed efforts for the ferret at catching prairie dogs. Ferret Recovery Coordinator, is located promote the conservation The burrows of prairie dogs are used in the Pierre, South Dakota, Field of prairie dog species and prairie ecosystems by as shelter and hibernation chambers for Office. Mike Lockhart, also with the focusing on the common many species of snakes, lizards, and ferret recovery program, is in the FWS needs of these closely amphibians. In portions of the west, Laramie, Wyoming, office. associated mammals. burrowing owls (Speotyto cunicularia) USFWS photo also depend completely on prairie dog towns, using their holes for nest sites. The associated denuded lands also expose potential enemies and the prey animals on which the owls feed. The burrowing owl is in serious decline throughout many parts of its range in direct response to losses of prairie dog colonies. Like the burrowing owl, the mountain plover (Eupoda montana) is also attracted to short grass or barren areas and is closely associated with prairie dog towns through- out much of its range. Prairie dogs clip tall-growing vegeta- tion within their towns to enhance preda- tor detection. The rather barren appear- ance of the landscape surrounding prairie dog towns and the associated loss of vegetation have earned prairie dogs the reputation as vermin. Several States still

- - •. promote their eradication. However, re- — - •. ./^mS^Swt.U.J.I cent information suggests that prairie dogs

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 by Kim Mitchell and Cathy Games The Lupine anc. The Butterfly

jf]^bitat loss or modification, the main tlireat to most rare species, has been particularly hard on the Karner blue butterfly (Lycaeides melissa samuelis). Its numbers have fallen by 99 percent in some portions of its range, with most of the losses occurring in the past 15 years. Populations survive only in widely scattered The Kamer blue is a small (about postage stamp size) remnants of its former range, which once included 10 butterfly that appears northern States and the Province of Ontario. Most of almost white as it tlits over short distances. The the decline can be traced to the butterfly's depen- lower surfaces of the wings of both the male and dence on the wild lupine (Lupinus perennis) and the female are actually slate ecological changes that are reducing lupine habitat. gray with orange crescents and metallic spots near their margins. The upper Wild lupine is a perennial plant in array of other rare plant and animal wing surfaces of the male the pea family with beautiful pink to species such as the Blanding's turtle and are violet blue with a black blue flowers. It is found primarily on prairie fame flower. If the natural forces margin and white fringed dry, sandy soils in open to partially (e.g., wildfires) that create or maintain edge. The upper surface of shaded habitats. Many of the areas these open habitats are suppressed, the females' wings ranges where the lupine grows are oak management is needed. Lupines can from dull violet to bright savanna and pine barrens plant commu- occur in power line rights-of-ways and purplish-blue, with marginal orange crescents nities. In addition to the Karner blue, utility corridors, military installations, on the hind wings only. these communities support a diverse forest trails, and other open areas that Ann B. Swengel are maintained as early successional landscapes. Without natural or artificial disturbance, savanna and barrens communities yield to shrubs or forests. Lupines in semi-shaded habitats do not flower; lupines in more shaded (or closed canopy) habitats may survive, but usually with poor vigor and without flowering. Eventually, the lupines are shaded out, making the site unsuitable for Karner blues. The Kamer blue butterfly's annual life cycle is inextricably tied to that of the lupine. About mid-April, wild lupines sprout from rhizomes and form clumps of flowering stalks. Two generations of Karner blue butterflies are produced each year. The first brood

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 begins around mid-April, when eggs laid soil, where there is little or no or the previous summer hatch. Tiny larvae vegetative litter to protect them, snow is crawl up the lupine stems to feed on necessary to insulate the eggs from cold the new leaves. They eat the interior temperatures and the drying effects of portion of the leaf, leaving behind the the sun. surface layer and creating a "window Wild lupine is a plant that thrives in pane" effect. Dense stands of lupine areas that are periodically disturbed, which are necessary to ensure that enough reduces or eliminates overhead canopies butterflies are produced to maintain the and plant competition. Historically, fire population over time. Peak bloom is provided open barrens and savanna habi- reached by mid- to late May, when tats for colonization by lupine and Karner flowering lupines may create a sea of blues. Not surprisingly, fire suppression blue in the open meadows of oak has consistently been identified as the savannas and pine barrens. About the primary factor affecting the butterfly's time of peak bloom, the year's first population decline and reduction in range. brood of Kamer blue larvae pupate. It is now extirpated from Ohio, Pennsyl- Adults are usually flying from late May vania, Massachusetts, Ontario, and prob- through eariy June. ably Illinois, and is barely hanging on in During the flowering period, the New Hampshire and Minnesota. first-flight adult butterflies lay eggs on The Karner blue fares better today in or near the lupine plants. In about a Wisconsin and Michigan than anywhere week, they hatch. The season's second else. Landscapes supporting lupines and brood of larvae feed through mid-July, butterflies in these States vary from public when lupine flowering is ending and lands managed as savannas or barrens A Kamer blue butterfly seed pods are produced. The second- to rights-of-way and military lands. larva feeds on the young flight adults then emerge through mid- Wildfire, prescribed burns, and artificial leaves of a wild lupine plant. It is "tended" by August, depending on weather disturbance-such as mowing and ants, which have a conditions. Because they cannot grazing-have maintained a patchwork mutualistic relationship depend on lupine flowers for food at of open-canopied and lupine-domi- with the larva. It is thought that time, the adults must have a nated sites that continue to support that the ants provide some variety of mid- to late summer Kamer blues. protection from larval flowering plant species to serve as The future for the Karner blue lies in natural enemies. Larvae, in turn, possess specialized nectar sources. By the time second- active management to simulate the glands that secrete a flight females lay their eggs, the lupine historic role of fire in maintaining oak liquid, thought to be high in is dying back or is already dormant. The savanna and pine barren habitats. The carbohydrates and amino active periods for both the plant and Fish and Wildlife Service looks forward acids, avidly harvested by the butterfly last only about 4 months to working with its many partners in the the ants. Larvae tended by of the year (Dirig 1994). protection of this endangered butterfly, ants are thought to be more likely to survive to The ranges of the wild lupine and the wild lupine, and the ecosystems adulthood. Karner blue do not exactly overlap. upon which both depend. Ann B. Swengel Instead, Karner blues are found along the northern extent of the lupine's Dirig, R. 1994. Historical notes on wild lupine and the Kamer blue butterfly at the range. The butterfly occurred histori- Albany Pine Bush, New York. Pages 23-36 In cally in a rather narrow band extending KARNER BLUE BUTTERFLY: a symbol of a from eastern Minnesota across portions vanishing landscape. Edited by D.A. Andou, R. of Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, J. Baker, and C.P. Lane. St. Paul. MN Ag. Exp. Stn. Ohio, and Canada (Ontario), Pennsylva- nia, New York, and Massachusetts to Kim Mitchell and Cathy Games are New Hampshire. Dirig (1994) surmises fish and wildlife biologists in the FWS that Kamer blues are limited to areas Twin Cities, Minnesota, Regional Office where continuous winter snow pack is and Green Bay, Wisconsin, Field present for over 80 days. Because the Office, respectively. eggs are often deposited on bare sandy

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 by Dave Hopper, Adam Asquith, and Hawaii's Birds Marie Bruegmann and Bees

ihe Hawaiian Islands are home to 277 species of endangered and threatened plants, more than any other State and almost half of all plants listed under the Endangered Species Act. Another 10 Hawaiian plants are considered candidates for future listing. Two basic factors account for these high numbers. As

Botanists estimate that 80 the worid's most geographically isolated island ecosys- percent of Hawaii's listed tem, Hawaii supports a rich diversity of endemic plant species are likely pollinated by insects and plants. But these species have been plagued by a other animals. But with a few exceptions, the details variety of impacts, including habitat loss, browsing of pollination for these and trampling by non-native animals, and competition Hawaiian plants are poorly known or completely from introduced plants. Another threat, not as well lacking. A better understanding of their known but of increasing concern, is the decline and reproductive biology is extinction of endemic pollinators. needed if recovery efforts are to succeed. Many endemic plants appear to iiave insigtiis) of the island of Kaua'i and pua evolved closely with avian pollinators. 'ala (B. rockii) of Maui, Moloka'i, and The most notable of these are the Lana'i, were pollinated by a species of lobelias, a number of the hibiscus, and moth, possibly a hawk moth some of the mints. Virtually all of the (Sphingidae). With the apparent endemic lobelias bear a flower with a extinction of this moth, these plants long, curved floral tube, and a number have been hand-pollinated by research- of the native nectar-feeding honey- ers (if the National Tropical Botanical creepers (forest birds) have long, Garden, located on Kaua'i. The en- curved bills that appear to fit these demic yellow-faced bees (subgenus flowers perfectly. While curve- or Nesoprosopis), of which some 60 sickle-billed honeycreepers like the species were originally described, are i'iwi (Vestiaria coccinea) are .still important pollinators for many of the common in many upper elevation archipelago's plant species. Among the habitats, other birds known to be plants dependent on these bees are foragers on lobelias, such as mamos such endangered species as the (Drepanis spp.^, are now extinct. Haleakala silvensword (Argyroxiphium Pollination by insects has not been as sandivicense ssp. macrocephaliim) and well studied in Hawaii, but it probably 'ohai (Seshania tomentosa). Other was a major evolutionary force for native insects that likely serve as many of its native plants. For instance, pollinators are butterflies, moths, and botanists surmise that two endangered beetles, but little is known about them. lobelia species, the 'olulu (Brighamia

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 Just as Hawaii's plants iiave declined Introductions of alien insects, in the face of habitat loss and the especially social ants, bees, and wasps effects of introduced species, so have in the order Hymenoptera, have had their pollinators. Of the 14 bird species huge impacts on native insect pollina- most likely to have played a role in tors. Non-native ants are known to prey Hawaiian plant pollination, 8 are on the yellow-faced bees and their believed to be extinct and one, the larvae. This is a well-documented crested honeycreeper (Palmeria dolei), problem in Haleakala National Park and is endangered. This leaves only six likely occurs elsewhere throughout the native bird species that are considered islands. In some instances, important important pollinators. The recent nectar resources are monopolized by restriction of many of these avian the European honeybee (Apis pollinators to habitats above 4,500 feet mellifera), which excludes the native (likely due to the upper elevational bees and possibly native birds as well. limits of introduced malaria-carrying In many of these cases, the introduced mosquitos) bodes ill for the native bees fail to transfer pollen in a fashion plants that occur only below that that will result in fertilization and seed elevation. Although there have been set of the plants. Introduced ants, too, introductions of other flower-visiting will monopolize nectar resources. The birds, they certainly will not provide the big-headed ant (Pheidole megacephala) pollinating services of the original has been observed to drive native Hawaiian endemics. The continuing yellow-faced bees away from flowers of decline of some forest bird species will the endangered 'ohai. almost certainly have negative impacts While pollinator extinction has not on some rare plants as well as on more yet received the attention it needs, common species. Hawaii's pollinating some steps have been taken to insects have undergone declines as investigate plant-pollinator associations well. For example, of the recognized 62 and initiate recovery efforts. Successful species of native yellow-faced bees forest bird conservation efforts will originally described from the islands, 37 likely have positive effects on the are considered rare and another 13 are native flora. Control of the invasive believed to be extinct. Argentine ant (Iridomyrmex hiimilis).

The 'i'iwi, a bright vermilion forest bird, has a long, curved bill that fits the curved flowers of Hawaiian lobelias. Jack Jeffrey

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 which preys on the pollinators of honeybee, which is widespread and silverswords and other plants, is being common from sea level to high eleva- researched in Haleakala National Park. tion forests. (See Bulletin Vol. XX No. 4.) This could Naturalist Aldo Leopold spoke of the result in measures that not only protect need to save all "the cogs and wheels" native pollinators and their associated of ecosystems to ensure that they work plant species, but also help protect properly. To be successful in plant and other native species from ant predation. ecosystem conservation, we need to The Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS) is know more about the many integrated also supporting research at the Univer- parts. The interaction of plants and their sity of I lawaii at Manoa to address larval pollinators is one of those parts. host plant associations of a rare, endemic sphinx moth that is likely Dave Hopper. Adam Asqtiith, and important in the pollination of native Marie Bniegtnann are biologists in the plants. Issues still to be addressed FWS Pacific Islands Ecoregion Office in include control of the introduced Honolidii. Hawaii.

Above: The 'olulu (Brighamia insignis) of Kaua'i is endangered in part due to •. . ' ' i the presumed extinction of its natural pollinator. The trumpet-shaped flowers will not set seed without being cross-pollinated by botanists using paintbrushes. Diane Ragone

Right: Brighamia species now i • survive primarily on f remote cliffs that tower thousands of feet above the ocean. Intrepid botanists like Steve Perlman of the National Tropical Botanical Garden rappel down ropes to cross-pollinate the plants by hand. The plants likely lived on flatter ground before introduced L *'Jf** # •• • t • t ungulates eliminated them r^l^''- 'It ' from accessible land.

Ken Wood

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 A Lost Piece by Sally Valdes-Cogliano of the Puzzle

The dodo (Raphus cuculatus), a large flightless bird in the pigeon family, has long been considered a sym- bol of extinction. But the loss of this hapless bird may have had an impact that escaped notice for nearly three centuries.

In the 1970's, botanists noticed that a for what was an extraordinarily poor Endemic to Mauritius, an large tree on Mauritius, Sideroxylon seed germination rate for tambalacoque island in the Indian Ocean grandiflonim (formeriy known as trees. The good news is that the off eastern Africa, the dodo was discovered by Calvaria major, and called tambalacoque is no longer in danger of Portuguese explorers in tambalacoque by Mauritians), was also extinction. The Mauritius Forestry 1505. Within 200 years, the in danger of extinction. The cause of its Service now promotes the survival of species had disappeared. decline was uncertain. Most of the this tree by abrading its seeds and has No living dodos have been remaining trees were greater than 300 achieved good germination success. seen since 1681. Passing years of age. The trees produced seeds This time, the loss of another piece of sailors found the bird easy but few, if any, were germinating. nature's puzzle has been averted. to kill and hunted it heavily for fresh meat and eggs. Stanley Temple, a wildlife ecologist Pigs and other non-native at the University of Wisconsin, sug- Sally Valdes-Cogliatio is a biologist mammals introduced to the gested that there could be a connection with the Fish and Wildlife Service's island may also have between the loss of the dodo and the Division of Habitat Conservation in contributed to its loss. decline of the tambalacoque tree. Washington. D C. Before the dodo became extinct, its diet included the fruit and seeds of trees. Temple hypothesized that the tough seeds of the tambalacoque may have been an adaptation to resist crushing in a dodo's gizzard. The trouble is that such an adaptation could result in a pit too thick to germinate without abrasion of its outer wall. To test his idea. Temple fed tambalacoque seeds to domestic turkeys. Some of the pits that passed through the turkeys were caished, but most survived after considerable abrasion of the outer hull. Temple then planted the seeds, and 30 percent germinated. Because the dodo is extinct. Temple's hypothesis that dodos and tambalacoque trees had a mutualistic relationship cannot be tested directly. But it did offer a possible explanation

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 by Richard J. Neves The Mussel/Fish Connection

y?eshwater mussels, the most endangered family of animals in the United States, have a reproductive cycle unique to the animal world. Most marine mussels reproduce by spawning their free-floating gametes into the water column, where fertilization and larval development occur before the juvenile mussels settle to the bottom. But the native freshwater mussels of our river systems have developed an unusual repro- ductive strategy. It allows them to disperse upstream and to take advantage of the nutrition provided by freshwater fish.

The life cycle of most The reproductive cycle of mussels usually begins with male mussels releasing freshwater mussels sperm into the water in spring or summer. The female draws the sperm in through includes a brief but vital her siphon and her eggs are fertilized internally. These fertilized eggs are stage at which it is a then stored temporarily in her gills, which serve as brood pouches. benign parasite on The gills are capable of holding up to several million embryos fish of until they develop into larvae (glochidia) in about 2-3 weeks. appropriate species. These glochidia are less than 0.01 inch (0.25 millimeter) in Emily Pels diameter and have gaping, half-moon shaped valves or Glochidir. on gills shells with a single muscle to open and close them. When the glochidia have developed, the female releases them into the water, where they drift

Juvenile Mussel Life Cycle helplessly downstream unless they contact a fish. If glochidia attach to a fish of the appropriate species, Sperm Glochidia (young larvae). either on the gills (for most mussel species) or fins, they become encapsulated by the fish and draw Fertilization sustenance from its blood. This brief parasitic phase, - which lasts only a few weeks, provides an opportu- nity for mussel larvae to reach other areas. Dispersal in an upstream direction is possible only at this stage, as adult mussels are sedentary and move very little during their 20-50 year life span. Once the larvae have completely transformed into young mussels, they drop from the fish carrier and, if they fall onto the appropriate substrate for that species, begin their growth to adulthood. The fish swims away unharmed. Because the contact of a mussel with its host fish is a hit-or-miss event, females of some mussel species have developed ingenious mechanisms to lure fish in and improve the chances. These include such adaptations as body structures that mimic

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 the appearance of a fish's mate or a prey species, and releasing glochidia in "pack- ets" that resemble edible larval fish or colored worms (see "Fishing Mussels" in Bulletin, Vol. XXI No. 2). However, the suitability of fishes to host glochidia is not universal; the larvae of certain mussel species can survive only on certain fish species. Thus, the luring behavior of female mussels must be specific to target fishes. Recent laboratory studies have shown that female mussels can sense the presence of host fish by chemical cues. Why do some fish serve as hosts but others do not? Can the mussel larvae tell the difference between a black bass and a black crappie? Laboratory research indicates that the recognition, or lack thereof, is on the part of the fish and not the mussel larvae. Apparently, the immune system of non-host fish species attacks the glochidia as foreign invaders and promotes the sloughing of these would be hitch-hikers. Conversely, the immune system of host fish species does not exhibit instant rejection of these benign parasites; the fish merely encapsulates them in tissue, walling them off to prevent any potential harm. However, even host fish, upon re- infestation, will exhibit a low-level immune response and attack the glochidia as aliens. Thus, host fish can "learn" to recognize glochidia as tiny parasites and attempt to rid themselves of these freeloaders. In recent years, the reproductive success of native mussels has taken a turn for the worse. Populations of many species consist of old individuals that have not reproduced in more than a decade. What is the impasse in their reproductive cycle? Some researchers have suggested that the host fishes have disappeared, leaving the released glochidia to float downstream to a certain death. However, research indicates that hosts frequently are present but probably in lower numbers than before. Our native fish fauna has been drastically altered by habitat degradation, Some mussels lure potential hosts with body water pollution, introduction of non-indigenous species, and other factors that have structures that mimic altered species composition and abundance. It is likely, therefore, that attachment to other fish. host fishes may not be occurring at levels sufficient to maintain the mussel popula- Richard J. Neves tions that are in decline. This gradual decrease in host fish abundance could account for the steady decline being reported in many endangered mussel species throughout the country. If we knew the identity of the host fishes for endangered mussel species, we could sample the fish populations and assess whether mussel reproduction is being hampered by a reduced diversity and abundance of their hosts. Unfortu- nately, we know the hosts for only one-third of all mussel species and less than one-fourth of the species that are listed federally as endangered. Our ability to determine whether host fishes are the reproductive bottleneck for these species is hampered by our lack of information. Similariy, without knowledge of host fishes, no mussel propagation efforts are possible in a laboratory or hatchery setting. Host fishes are truly critical to recovery of the 57 mussel species recognized as endan- gered or threatened in the United States.

Dr. Neves is Leader of the Virginia Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in Blacksburg.

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 by Susan Saul Pelican Deaths Linked to Sick Fish

A n outbreak of avian botulism that by October 31, 1996, had killed at least 1,125 endangered brown peli- cans (Pelecanus occidentalis), 8,525 American white pelicans (Pelecanus erythrorhynchos), and 4,383 other birds in southern California's Salton Sea may indicate a larger environmental problem. Two biological labora- tories of the U.S. Geological Survey have reached a preliminary conclusion that the bird deaths may be traceable to massive kills of tilapia, an African fish species introduced into the Salton Sea.

Biologists attempt to rehabilitate one of the sick pelicans at Salton Sea National Wildlife Refuge's "pelican hospital." Ken Sturm/USFWS

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service As of October 14, 1996, 1,121 brown (FWS), California Department of Fish pelicans and 8,369 white pelicans had and Game, and the laboratories in the died from avian botulism. An additional Biological Resources Division of the 4,078 birds of 59 other species also Geological Survey have worked died. In addition, 814 brown pelicans together for two months to respond to and 183 white pelicans were sent to a the botulism outbreak and determine its rehabilitator for treatment. Release of cause. Avian botulism, which is caused rehabilitated pelicans began on Septem- by a toxin produced by the anaerobic ber 19. As of October 14, 167 brown bacterium Clostridium botulinum, is pelicans and 62 white pelicans had considered a disease of waterfowl. It been released at Seal Beach National has never before been reported to Wildlife Refuge on the California coast. affect pelicans in such large numbers. State and FWS employees have The Geological Survey's Northwest been systematically removing dead and Biological Science Center in Seattle, dying birds from the Salton Sea each Washington, reports that all of the day since August 15 because carcasses Salton Sea fish samples examined had provide a nutrient medium for the acute bacterial infections. The type of spread of botulism. bacterium responsible for the fish The Salton Sea was formed in 1905 infections and deaths is Vibrio when the Colorado River burst out of an alginolyticus. This microbe is known to irrigation canal and flooded the dry inhabit salt water and has been previ- alkaline basin of the Imperial Valley. Some of the sick brown ously associated with disease in fish. Water flowed for the next 2 years until pelicans under care at the Although the link between bacterial the flooding could be stopped. Today, Saiton Sea refuge. infection in tilapia and botulism poison- the Salton Sea is kept full by irrigation Kan Sturm/USFWS ing in birds is not proven, scientists run-off from surrounding farm lands and suspect the bacterial disease may precipitation flowing down from the produce conditions in the intestinal tract mountains. The Salton Sea is the largest of sick fish that allow botulism spores to inland body of water west of the germinate and produce toxin. The Rockies, about 35 miles (56 kilometers) spores themselves are likely to be long and 9 to 15 miles (14 to 24 km) widely present in both the Salton Sea wide. At 227 feet (70 meters) below and the fish. The dying fish become sea level, it also is one of the lowest easy prey for pelicans, herons, and and warmest spots in the United States. other fish-eating birds that then ingest The Salton Sea's strategic position on fatal doses of toxin. the Pacific Flyway attracts thousands of Scientists from the Geological birds to the open waters and the Survey's National Wildlife Health Center marshes on its edges. It is a notable in Madison, Wisconsin, will be conduct- migration stopover or wintering area for ing additional studies to determine if many species, and a portion was and how botulism toxin is actually designated as a national wildlife refuge produced in the sick fish. in 1930. Outbreaks of fish diseases are often triggered and sustained by environmen- Susan Saul is a Public Affairs tal stresses, including pollution, over- Specialist with the FWS Portland, crowding, and high temperatures or salt Oregon, Regional Office. levels. All of these factors are present in the Salton Sea. The Northwest Biologi- cal Science Center plans to continue monitoring Salton Sea fish to determine if the Vibrio outbreak is a one-time event or a chronic problem.

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 by Robert Mesta Condors Return to Arizona

^ giant step in tlie recovery of the California condor (Gymnogyps califomianus), one of the world's largest and rarest flying birds, took place October 29, 1996, when 6 captive-reared condor chicks were trans- ferred to a release site located in the vast canyonlands of northern Arizona. The Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), in cooperation with the Bureau of Land Management and the Arizona Game and Fish Depart- ment, plans to release the chicks at the Vermilion Cliffs, about 30 miles (48 kilometers) north of Grand Canyon National Park on the southwestern corner of the Paria Plateau, in early December 1996.

Robert Mesta and Dianna This large and remote area, which are expected to move east along the Van Safford (FWS Phoenix, supported California condors in histori- Vermilion Cliffs to Marble Canyon, Arizona, Field Office) cal times, contains the ridges and cliffs where they will likely fly north to Glen escort the young condors needed by this soaring bird and caves Canyon or south to the Grand Canyon. to their new home in The area that condors may eventually northern Arizona. for nesting. As the young condors occupy stretches from eastern Utah Philip W. Carroll mature and expand their range, they southwest through northern Arizona to southern Nevada, providing the species with ample habitat in which to raise future generations. If the reintroduction project is successful, it will achieve one of the primary goals of the California Condor Recovery Plan: to establish a second self-sustaining population in the wild. The existing wild population is in southern California, where biologists are releasing captive-bred condors into the region from which the last condor of the original wild population was collected in 1987. Current plans call for a long-term effort to release a cohort of captive- reared California condors at the Vermil- ion Cliffs each fall. The condors will be raised at the breeding facilities by their parents or by handlers using condor

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 look-alike hand puppets to avoid applying to species classi- imprinting the chicks on humans. At the fied as endangered. This age of 3 to 4 months, the young birds flexibility helps to ensure that will be transported to a pen at the such land uses as forest release site to promote social bonding management, agriculture, and undergo aversion training to make mining, livestock grazing, them avoid power lines. Collisions with sport hunting, and non-con- power lines have caused the death of sumptive outdoor recreation four condors and imperiled the lives of in the area will not be others. When the condors are about 6 restricted. Further, designa- months old, biologists will release them tion of the population as into the wild. Once released, the birds nonessential and experimen- will be monitored through the use of tal will encourage coopera- radio transmitters and wing markers. tion in this recovery effort by Biologists will provide carrion for the landowners, agencies, and released condors until the birds learn to recreational interests in the area. The Tagged immature condor locate carcasses on their own. proposal to reintroduce condors in the in California The experimental Vermilion Cliffs Vermilion Cliffs area as an experimental David Clendenen/USFWS release project is a cooperative effort population appeared in the January 2, Upon release into the wild, by the FWS and its primary cooperators, 1996, Federal Register. After notices condors raised in the Arizona Game and Fish Department were published in local newspapers, propagation facilities and the Bureau of Land Management. the FWS held 59 meetings (including 2 sometimes show behavior Other cooperators include Grand public hearings) in the vicinity to threatening to their Canyon National Park, Glen Canyon further explain the proposal and gather survival, in a sense, they National Recreation Area, Kaibab public comments. no longer know how to act as wild animals. The National Forest, the Hualapai Tribe, the Young condors for the northern greatest threats these Navajo Nation, the Los Angeles Zoo, Arizona reintroduction effort will come birds face in the San Diego Wild Animal Park, and the from the three captive-breeding flocks. environment are people and Phoenix Zoo. The Peregrine Fund, At present, 104 California condors are their structures- which maintains one of the three being maintained for propagation at the specifically, power lines condor breeding facilities, has been Los Angeles Zoo, San Diego Wild and poles. Early in 1995, a program to teach condors contracted to carry out the release Animal Park, and World Center for Birds to avoid power poles was program in the field. of Prey, a Peregrine Fund facility in initiated at the Los Under section 10(j) of the Endan- Boise, Idaho. Another 17 condors are Angeles Zoo. Power pole gered Species Act (ESA), California flying free in California, where a aversion training was condors released into northern Arizona separate reintroduction project has accomplished by will be designated as a "nonessential been progressing since 1992. constructing an electrified experimental" population. Such a The California condor was last seen mock power pole in the large flight pen holding designation means the condors will be in Arizona in 1924, but thanks to the young condors scheduled treated under the ESA as a threatened spirit of cooperation shown thus far in for release to the wild. population for section 9 purposes the recovery effort, this magnificent This pole was designed to (protection from take). For the pur- bird will soon grace the skies of Arizona give the condors that poses of section 7 (interagency consul- once again. When the first condor soars landed on it a mild but tation), the birds will be treated as a from the Vermilion Cliffs this Decem- uncomfortable electrical shock. Natural tree snags species proposed for listing-except on ber, so too will hope for the recovery of National Park System and National were placed in the flight this endangered species. pen to reward the condors Wildlife Refuge System lands, where that perched on them with they will be treated as if threatened. Robert Mesta, the FWS California a positive experience-no The "nonessential experimental" Condor Program Coordinator, is in the shock. To date, the designation enables the FWS to de- Ventura, California, Field Office. aversion training appears velop special management regulations to be a big success. that are more flexible than the rules

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 by Mary F. Pols A Wish Takes Wing

//e could have asked for anything, this young man from Fullerton fighting to overcome a rare form of cancer. But instead of opting for a trip to Disneyland or a meeting with his favorite movie star when the Make-A-Wish Foundation offered to fulfill a dream for him, 18-year-old Sean Morrissey wanted to see a California condor, the bird fighting its way back from near extinction.

Editor's note: On October On Tuesday (October 8), in a stuffy, No one knows for sure when the 9, the Los Angeles Times sweat-inducing bird blind, deep in the lump in his foot turned cancerous. But published a story, rugged mountains behind Fillmore, he by the time doctors finally identified the excerpted at right, about a got his wish—eight times over. problem, they told his family they had special young man and his There they were, the eight juvenile to amputate his leg or he probably wish to see a California would die within a year. condor. The Fish and California condors, ranging in age from Wildlife Service was 4 1/2 to 6 months. Oblivious to Now, with a few more sessions of pleased to help make that Morrissey's rapt stare and quiet de- chemotherapy to go and the kind of wish come true. meanor, they squatted balefully on tree quiet determination that fueled him up stumps, stalked around their pens and and down a steep path to the condor's even, during one breath-catching pens Tuesday—despite a new pros- moment, showed off their legendary thetic leg—Morrissey has another nine-foot wing span. Accompanied by chance at life. It's only fitting then, said his three younger sisters, his parents his aunt, that he would want to meet and his aunt, Morrissey spent the day at the condors. "After what he's been the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service's through, losing his leg, now he has a Hopper Mountain National Wildlife second chance at life," Nancy Morrissey Refuge, where young condors are taken said. "And the condors, they were taken to test their wings and learn to fly out of the wild and now this is their before being released into the wild. second chance. Both of them wanted The visit, which coincided with freedom and another chance, and National Wildlife Refuge Week, had they're both getting it." been planned since June. Morrissey's Nancy Morrissey played a key role in parents contacted the Make-A-Wish developing her nephew's interest in Foundation after their son's condition birds. A longtime Fish and Wildlife was diagnosed as soft cell sarcoma, an employee, she is the assistant refuge extremely rare form of cancer. manager for western Oregon. Sean The foundation grants wishes to Morrissey learned to love birds on trips children ages 2 1/2 to 18 with life- to visit her, and the condors particularly threatening illnesses. Morrissey had attracted his curiosity. In eighth grade, trouble with his left foot since he was he wrote a three-page essay about the seven. But his father, Nick, said re- species at a time when the California peated trips to doctors over the years Condor Recovery Program was just never yielded answers. beginning to reintroduce the birds into

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 the wild after successfully raising chicks the younger birds climb the side of its in captivity. Over the next few months, cage, throw open its wings and experi- the eight birds Morrissey saw Tuesday ment with the concept of flapping, will be released after being trained to Sean Morrissey said his wish fulfillment avoid humans. was already better than he expected. Few people are ever allowed to visit "That was impressive," he said, a the Hopper Mountain refuge, which lies slight smile lighting his solemn features. at the end of a bumpy, dirt road dotted with oil wells, hairpin curves and Mary Pols is a staff writer for the Los spectacular vistas. Its isolation gives the Angeles Times. This article is copy- condor recovery program much-needed righted by the Times and reprinted with seclusion. Condors are by nature permission. curious, and after previous releases close to civilization, they have been killed by eating anti-freeze and landing on power lines. When Sean Morrissey and his family As a result, the birds are no longer later visited the Lion Canyon release released in Ventura County. Instead, site in an attempt to see a wild condor, biologists set them free farther north in they were rewarded with the spectacle Los Padres National Forest in Santa of six condors soaring overhead. Barbara and San Luis Obispo counties. Refuge staff described him as 'ecstatic.' Today, the Morrissey family will travel into that wild territory, hoping for a look at free-flying condors. Because biologists can't guarantee a sight of those condors, they opted to bring the family first to the Hopper Mountain refuge. But even the sight of the birds inside their rearing facility seemed enough for Sean Morrissey. After watching one of

Sean Morrissey and his aunt. Assistant Refuge Manager for western Oregon, coming back from the condor rearing facility at Hopper Mountain National Wildlife Refuge. David Clendenen/USFWS

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 by Robert S. Butler and Richard G. Biggins The Conasauga Saga

.imagine a sparkling mountain stream where abun- dant and colorful fishes dart about, and the rocky bottom is paved with beds of freshwater mussels. Several of these aquatic organisms-with interesting names like the frecklebelly madtom (Noturus munitusj, burrhead shiner (Notropis asperifrons), Tennessee heelsplitter (Lasmigona holstonia), and Outreach is an important part of tlie conservation upland combshell (Epioblasma metastnata)-2ive found effort. Tlie FWS field office nowhere else on earth. Such a picture reflected much in Jackson, Mississippi, has worked with the of the Conasauga River's 91-mile (146-kilometer) Tennessee Aquarium in nearby Chattanooga and length a mere 80 years ago. with the Institute of Originating in the Blue Ridge the endangered amber darter Ecology to produce an educational pamphlet Mountains of north Georgia, the (Percina antesella) and Conasauga about the values provided Conasauga River flows northwestward logperch (Percina jenkinsi) and the by a healthy river system, into southeastern Tennessee before threatened blue shiner (Cyprinella in addition, the U.S. dipping back south into Georgia. caerulea). Four mussels-the endan- Department of Comprising the headwaters of the gered Coosa moccasinshell Agriculture's Natural Coosa River system in the species-rich (Medionidiis parvulus), southern Resources Conservation Mobile River Basin, the Conasauga pigtoe (Pleurobema georgianum), Service is working through the Limestone Valley now contains a paltry fraction of the and triangular kidneyshell Resource Conservation biological diversity it supported (Ptychobranchus greeni) and the and Development Council before the turn of the century. Much threatened finelined pocketbook to contact landowners, of the lower river system has been (Lampsilis altilis)-ro\xnd out the business leaders, and degraded by pollutants from industry seven listed species. In addition, other interested parties in and sedimentation from poor land-use about a dozen more rare species the area for their ideas practices. More than two dozen inhabit its waters. The river also about ways to better manage the watershed. mussel species and several fishes provides designated critical habitat for have disappeared from its waters. the Conasauga logperch, which is Sadly, at least seven species of found only in the Conasauga River, mussels that once occurred there are and the amber darter. now considered extinct throughout Helping to preserve this excep- their entire range. tional example of a southeastern All is not lost, however. The riverine ecosystem is a veritable army headwaters of the Conasauga from of researchers, resource managers, the vicinity of the Georgia/Tennessee and interested individuals with various State line upstream still flows clear government agencies and private and is relatively pristine. Seven organizations. The U.S. Fish and federally listed species, all endemic to Wildlife Service's (FWS) field offices the Mobile River Basin, still call this in Jacksonville, Florida, and Asheville, river home. Three of them are fishes: North Carolina, have provided funds

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 to The Nature Conservancy to begin restoration work along the upper river corridor. Conservancy field offices in Tennessee and Georgia are working to identify areas with high biological diversity, map land-use patterns within those areas, and pinpoint threats to habitat quality. The U.S. Forest Service, which manages two national forests in the Conasauga headwaters (the Chattahoochee National Forest in Georgia and Cherokee National Forest in Tennes- see), is monitoring rare fishes and has an interest in the well-being of other species at risk. Researchers at the University of Georgia's Institute of Ecology are mapping quality habitats and conducting studies on the status Biologists seine the and life history of federally listed Conasauga River to assess species, with financial support from populations of the blue the Endangered Species Act's section shiner and other 6 program and the States of Tennes- endangered fishes. Richard G. Biggins see and Georgia.

Significant benefits have already been achieved from similar efforts by

The Nature Conservancy on the True to its name, the blue Clinch River, a stream in the upper shiner, a medium sized Tennessee River system that also is minnow attaining a length rich in biological diversity. Panner- of about 4 inches (10 ships with willing landowners have centimeters), is dusky blue eliminated major sources of sedimen- in color with yellow fins. Richard G. Biggins tation and nutrients from the system, and have restored riparian areas that filter pollutants and provide habitat for neotropical migratory birds. In return, landowners benefit from the control of erosion and sloughing of their stream banks and adjacent land. "With the continued efforts of the agencies, organizations, and individu- als involved in the Conasauga River project, one more of America's imperiled riverine ecosystems may be saved for posterity.

Robert S. Butler. Riparian Lands Restoration Biologist, and Richard G. Biggins, Fish and Molliisk Recovery Coordinator, work in the FWS Asheville, North Carolina, Office.

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 REGIONAL NEWS & RECOVERY UPDATES

Bob Moseley, a plant ecologist, and Mabel Jones, a The discovery of retroviruses in turtle tumors raises the wetland ecologist at the Idaho Conservation Data possibility that such a virus is responsible for the Center, discovered the Idaho population during surveys tumors. To date, the only other pathogen found with conducted as part of the FWS recovery effort for this these tumors is a herpes virus discovered by researchers species. The draft recovery plan calls for surveys to be at the University of Florida in Gainesville. Whether conducted on public lands where potential habitat may either a herpes virus or retrovirus is responsible for the be found. tumors remains a mystery. The NWHC central labora- tory in Madison, Wisconsin, has successfully estab- This species may be adversely affected by modification lished laboratory cell cultures from green sea turtle of riparian habitat, including stream channelization, embryos provided by the FWS and a private organization urban development, and construction projects. It is (Sea Life Park, Hawaii). The researchers will cooperate Region 1 likely that current recreational activities such as boating to further clarify the role that retroviruses may play in can continue without adversely affecting the habitat. green sea turtle fibropapillomatosis. Ute Ladles'-tresses (Sptrantbes dUuvialis) A popu- lation of this orchid species, listed as threatened in The FWS will look for opportunities to use Partners for January 1992, was discovered recently along the south Wildlife Program funding to implement watershed Region 2 fork of the Snake River downstream of the Palisades improvement projects with willing cooperators. FWS Dam in Idaho. The plants are on Federal lands biologists have already met with the Bureau of Recla- Attwater's Greater Prairie-chicken (tympanuchus administered by the Forest Service and the Bureau of mation to discuss the Snake River flow levels needed to cupido attwateri) In the spring of 1996, only an Land Management. The discovery of Ute ladies'-tresses maintain a stable population of this plant. estimated 42 individuals of this endangered bird re- in Idaho represents a significant range extension. Other mained in the wild at 3 areas in eastern Texas. These populations of this orchid occur in Utah, Colorado, wild populations received a much-needed boost in July Wyoming, Montana, and Nebraska. Although no popu- and August through the release of 50 captive-reared lations have been identified on private lands in Idaho, Green Sea Turtle (Chekmia mydas) In a cooperative birds on the Attwater Prairie Chicken National Wildlife the species may occur in areas containing suitable effort, researchers at the Cornell University School of Refuge and 19 birds on The Nature Conservancy's riparian or wet meadow habitat. The FWS will seek Veterinary Medicine, the National Wildlife Health Center's Galveston County Coastal Prairie Preserve. All of the voluntary cooperation from private landowners whose (NWHC) Honolulu Field Station, and the Marine Turtle birds were fitted with radio transmitters to facilitate property may support the orchid. Research Program of the National Marine Fisheries monitoring after their release. By the end of October, 67 Service (NMFS) have discovered the presence of a new percent of the released birds survived. All but three of the retrovirus in green sea turtles affected with birds that died were lost to predation. fibropapillomas. Fibropapillomatosis is a serious dis- ease of this listed species in Hawaii, Florida, and other The released birds had been hatched and reared at the parts of the world. (See Bulletin Vol. XXI No. 2.) It Houston Zoological Gardens and Fossil Rim Wildlife causes large skin tumors, particularly around the Center. Texas A&M University-College Station and the limbs, eyes, and mouth. These tumors impede effective San Antonio Zoological Gardens and Aquarium also foraging by the affected turtle and can lead to eventual hold Attwater's prairie-chickens for propagation. starvation. The prevalence of this disease is increasing and poses considerable risk to free-ranging green sea turtle populations.

Mexican Gray Wolf (Canis lupus baileyi) The George Balazs of NMFS has been cooperating with captive Mexican wolf population stands at 150 animals Thierry Work of the NWHC in conducting necropsy after this year's breeding season. Eleven pups were bom surveys of turtles washing up moribund or dead in to pairs at Wolf Haven in Tenino, Washington (4), the Hawaii. The research team from Cornell-including Phoenix Zoo in Arizona (3), and the Rio Grande Zoo in James and Rufina Casey, Paul Bowser, and Sandra Albuquerque, New Mexico (4). Another four pups were Quackenbush-subsequently lent their expertise in produced to pairs at two cooperating facilities in Mexico. molecular biology of fish retroviruses to ferret out retroviruses from the turtle tumors. Mexican wolves are being managed for the recovery Ute ladies'-tresses program by 24 cooperating facilities in the U.S. and 5 (Spiranthes diluvialis)

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 REGIONAL NEWS & RECOVERY UPDATES

tion project, a private property owner dedicated the portion of his property containing the orchid as an Region 5 Illinois State Nature Preserve. He has also worked with volunteers to manage orchid habitat on his property. Endangered Bats The FWS West Virginia Field Office has assisted in the construction of gates at all five known entrances to the Arbogasl/Cave Hollow Cave system, located on the Monongahela National Forest in Tucker Indiana Bat (Myotis sodalis) The Indiana Depart- County, West Virginia. These gates are intended to ment of Natural Resources and the FWS have coopera- protect the habitat of endangered bats from human Mexican gray wolf USFWS photo tively funded a project to assist in recovery of the disturbance. The Arbogasl/Cave Hollow system sup- endangered Indiana bat. The 3D/Intemational Envi- ports a large winter and summer colony of Virginia big- ronmental Group, with support from the Indianapolis eared bats (Plecotus townsmdii virginianus) and a in Mexico. A new breeding facility on Sevilleta National International Airport and the Texas Gas Corporation, winter colony of Indiana bats (Myotis sodalis). Part- Wildlife Refuge in New Mexico is receiving its first wolves completed a literature summary and Habitat Suitability ners in the gating work included the Monongahela in November. These animals may be selected for the first Index model for components of Indiana bat summer National Forest, West Virginia Department of Natural Mexican wolf reintroduction effort if the Fish and habitat. The model will be useful in quantifying Resources, Natural Resource Conservation Service, Wildlife Service's (FWS) proposal to restore a "nones- summer roosting and foraging areas lost to develop- National Speleological Society, American Cave Conser- sential, experimental" population in New Mexico and ment, planning habitat restoration, and managing vation Association, and The Nature Conservancv. Arizona is approved. (See Bulletin Vol. XX No. 5.) A final existing habitat. It has been applied successfully to environmental impact statement on the proposal is evaluate habitat conditions on commercial develop- expected to be released soon. ment sites, Federal lands, and a Superfund site. Dwarf Wedge Mussel (Alasmidonta beterodon) Last year, during a statewide survey of freshwater Region 3 mussels in New Hampshire, two previously unknown Kirtland's Warbler (Dendroica kirtlandii) The sites for this endangered mussel species were discovered Fat Pocketbook Pearlymussel (Potamilus capax) 1996 census of singing males resulted in the second- in the mainstem of the Connecticut River, which fomis Funded with an ESA section 6 grant to the Missouri highest number for this endangered species since the the boundary between New Hampshire and Vemiont. Department of Conservation, Dr. Chris Bamhart of annual counts began in 1951. During the June survey, Two live dwarf wedge mussels were found in the upper Southwest Missouri State University has identified for researchers, biologists, and volunteers counted 692 Connecticut River near Dalton, New Hampshire, and the first time one of the suitable fish hosts for this singing males in Michigan, including 14 in the Upper shells were found near Lancaster, New Hampshire. endangered mussel. During its parasitic larval stage, Peninsula. The record high of 765 was established in approximately 200 juvenile fat pocketbook pearlymussels 1995, compared to the record low count of l67 in 1987. After these discoveries were made, two bank stabilization successfully matured on the freshwater drum Especially encouraging is the fact that the Upper projects on the Vermont side of the Connecticut River (Aplodinotus grunniens). The drum had been sus- Peninsula count is the highest ever recorded there. The were proposed for construction in the general vicinity pected as a potential host in the past, but was never presence of at least sk females and the mist netting of of the new mussel sites. To assess the potential impacts confirmed. During the research, Dr. Bamhart and the two juvenile birds in the Upper Peninsula indicates of these projects on the species, biologists from the FWS Neosho National Fish Hatchery are attempting to rear successful nesting activity. This is only the second year New England Field Office and divers from the Vermont the juvenile mussels to the stage that they can be that mated pairs have been found outside of the Agency of Transportation and Vermont Department of reintroduced to the wild. traditional nesting areas in the northern Lower Penin- Environmental Conservation, volunteers from The sula. One singing male was also reported in Wisconsin. Nature Conservancy, and a private individual have explored a stretch of the river. Survey results indicate that a large, scattered population of dwarf wedge Eastern Prairie Fringed Orchid (Platantbera mussels extends along the 8-mile (13-kilometer) stretch leucopbaea) In recent times, some populations of Piping Plover (Charadrius melodus) Studies of the surveyed and probably further upstream and down- this threatened wildflower in northeastern Illinois have critically endangered Great Lakes population of the stream as well. The mussels were found on sand bars had reproductive problems, possibly because of inad- piping plover continued over the summer. During the and clay banks, unusual locations for this species in equate pollination. To aid in its recovery, botanists have 1996 nesting season, 23 nesting pairs produced about New England, as well as on the more typical sand/ hand-pollinated plants and dispersed their seeds. Al- 89 eggs and fledged 28 to 30 young. Nest protection and pebble/cobble substrate. though the results are not yet known, we have seen one a landowner outreach program complement the habi- positive outcome: after involvement with this restora- tat use and productivity studies.

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 LISTING ACTIONS

Final Listing Rules (Campanulaceae) now found only on the island of Another rule listed 19 plant species endemic to the During ()ctot)er 1996, the Fish and Wildlife Service Hawai'i. Only a single plant remains in the wild, island of Kaua'i for ESA protection. Seventeen were (FWS) published final rules in the Federal Register growing on the edge of a collapsed lava tube. listed as endangered: listing 84 plants as endangered or threatened. Endan- One rule classified 13 plant species endemic to the gered Species Act (ESA) protection has been extended to island of Hawai'i as endangered: Alsinidendron lynchnoides, or kawawaenohu-a the following: white-flowered subshrub in the pink family Clermontia drepanomorpha, or 'oha wai-a tree in the (Caryophyllaceae); Seventy-five Hawaiian Plants On October 10, the bellflower family with purplish-black flowers; Alsinidendron viscosum-i recently-discovered sub- FWS published 6 separate rules listing a total of 75 plant Cyanea plalyphyila, or haha-a palm-like shrub in shrub in the pink family, named for the sticky hairs taxa endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. These plants the bellflower family with white and magenta- that cover the entire plant; have declined significantly in population and distribu- striped flowers; Cyanea remyi, or haha-a purple-flowered shrub in tion, and some now number fewer than 10 surviving Hibiscadelphus giffardianus, or hau kuahiwi-a tree the bellflower family, rediscovered recently after not individuals. They face a multitude of threats, including in the mallow family (Malvaceae) that is extinct in being seen for more than 130 years; competition from introduced plant species; habitat the wild but survives in cultivation; Cyrtandra cyaneoides, or mapele-a shrub in the destruction by feral or domestic non-native animals: Hibiscadelphus hualalaiensK, or hau kuahiwi-an- African violet family (Gesneriaceae) with shaggy predation by rats, insects, and other introduced ani- other tree that is extinct in the wild; brown hairs on the flowers and berries; mals; fire; and agricultural, militar\-, and urban Melicope zahlbruckneri, or alani-a tree in the citrus Delissea rivularis, or 'oha-a shrub in the bell- development. The Hawaiian names, if any, follow the family (Rutaceae) know from a single fenced flower family known from a single population of scientific names as listed below. population of 35 plants; 20 plants; Neraudia ovata-i shrub in the nettle family Hibiscadelphus woodii, or hau kuahiwi-a small, In one rule, the FWS listed as endangered Delissea (Urticaceae) with 11 individuals remaining in cliff-side dwelling tree in the mallow family, undulata, a palm-like tree in the bellflower family the wild; discovered by it namesake. Ken Wood, and known Phyllostegia racemosa, or kiponapona-a climbing, from just four trees; white-flowered vine in the mint Hibiscus waimeae ssp. hannerae, or koki'o ke'oke'o- a tree in the mallow family with large white flowers that fade to pink in the afternoon; 1 Kokia kauaiensis, or koki'o-a tree in the mallow family (Lamiaceae); Phyllostegia velutina-2. vine in the family; mint family; Labordia tinifolia w. wahiawaensis, or Phyllostegia warshaueri-i vine in kamakahala-a shrub or small tree in the family the mint family with white and Loganiaceae, decimated by Hurrican Iniki in 1992; rose-colored flowers, known from Phyllostegia knudsenii-a. recently rediscovered pe- only 10 individuals: rennial herb or vine in the mint family with only Pleomele hawaiiensis, or hala pepe- one wild individual; a tree in the agave family Phyllostegia waurana-n perennial vine in the mint (Agavaceae) that grows on open family, rediscovered in 1993; lava fields; Pritchardia napaliensis, or loulu-a small palm Pritchardia schattaueri. or loulu- named for the rugged Na Pali Coast of Kaua'i; a large palm in the family Pritchardia tiscosa, or loulu-a taller species of palm, Arecaceae, known from only 12 known from one population of three individuals; wild individuals; Schiedea helleri-a recently rediscovered vine in the pink Sicyai alba, or 'anunu-a white-flow- family with a single known population; ered vine in the gourd family Schiedea membra7iacea-2i purple-flowered, cliff- (Cucurbitaceae), known from only dwelling perennial herb in the pink family; two populations; and Schiedea stellarioides, or laulihilihi-a subshrub in Zanthoxylum dipetalum var. the pink family, known from one population; and tomentosum, or a'e-a tree in the Viola kauaensis var. wahiawaensis-2L perennial hert Delissea undulata propagated by tissue culture. citrus family, known from 1 popu- in the violet family (Violaceae) with white and Only one plant exists in the wild. Joan Canfield/USFWS lation of 24 plants. purple flowers.

24 ENDANGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 LISTING ACTIONS

Because the other two Kaua'i plants in this listing Lepidium arbuscula, or 'anaunau-a gnarled shrub than 50 plants; rule are believed to be vulnerable but not in imminent in the mustard family (Brassicaceae); Cenchrus agrimonioides, or kamanomano, a peren- danger of extinction, they were listed under the less Lobelia gaudichaudii ssp. koolauensis-m un- nial in the grass family; critical status of threatened: branched shrub in the bellflower family with a Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, or haha-a single remaining population; shrub in the bellflower family with magenta- Cyanea recta, or haha-an unbranched shrub in the Lobelia monostachya-a recently rediscovered woody striped flowers; bellflower family with purple berries; and shrub in the bellflower family known from only Cyperus trachysanthos, or pu'uka'a-a perennial, Myrsine linearifolia, or kolea-a shrub in the eight plants; grass-like plant in the sedge family (Cyperaceae), family Myrsinaceae. Melicope saint-johnii, or alani-a slender tree in the known from three populations; citrus family; Euphorbia haeleeleana-a dioecious (male and female One rule classified 25 plant species endemic to the Myrsine juddii, or kolea-a highly-branched shrub in flowers on separate plants) tree in the spurge family; island of O'ahu as endangered: the family Myrsinaceae; Isodendrion laurifolium, or aupaka-a slender, fra- Phyllostegia hirsuta-m erect subshrub or vine in the grant-flowered shrub in the violet family, named Chamaesyce herbstii, or 'akoko-a small tree in the mint family with densely hairy stems; for its resemblance to the laurel tree; spurge family (Euphorbiaceae), named for Phyllostegia kaalaemis-m herb in the mint family, Panicum niihauense, or lau 'ehu-a perennial bunch- Dr. Derral Herbst, a former FWS botanist who known from fewer than 50 plants; grass known from a population of 23 plants co-authored the Manual of the Flowering Plants Pritchardia kaalae, or loulu-a member of the palm growing in a State park on the island of Kaua'i; of Hawaii, family with 130 known individuals; Phyllostegia parviflora-a perennial herb in the Chamaesyce rockii, 'akoko-a compact shrub or small Schiedea kealiae-a cliff-dwelling subshrub in the mint family; tree in the spurge family; pink family; Platanthera holochila-an erect, bog-dwelling herb in Cyanea acuminata, or haha-an unbranched shrub Trematolobelia stngularis-2. violet-flowered shrub in the orchid family (Orchidaceae), known from fewer in the bellflower family, known from fewer than the bellflower family; and than 35 plants; 100 individuals; Viola oahuensis-a yellow-flowered Cyanea humboldtiana, or haha-a white- to ma- subshrub in the violet family. genta-flowered shrub in the bellflower family; Cyanea koolauensis, or haha-a shrub found only Another listing rule extended in the Ko'olau Mountains; endangered statuso three plant spe- Cyanea bngiflora, or haha-a shrub in the bellflower cies endemic to the island of Moloka'i: family; Cyanea st.-johnii, or haha-a shrub named for the late Cyanea dunbarii, or haha-an botanist Harold St. John; unbranched shrub in the bell- Cyrtandra dmtata, or ha'iwale-a sparingly-branched flower family, known from 1 shrub in the African violet family, with fewer than population of 20 plants rediscov- 50 known plants; ered in 1992; Cyrtandra subumbellata, or ha'iwale-a white-flow- Lysimachia maxima-a sprawling ered shrub in the African violet family; shrub in the primrose family Cyrtandra viridiflora, or ha'iwale-a small shrub (Primulaceae), known from a with fleshy, heart-shaped leaves, now known from single population; and fewer than 10 plants; Schiedea sarmentosa-a highly- Delissea subcordata, or 'oha-a shrub in the bell- branched shrub in the pink flower family; family. Eragrostis fosbergii-^ recently rediscovered perennial in the grass family (Poaceae) with only six One rule addressed 14 species known individuals; from throughout the archipelago. Gardenia mannii, or nanu-a tree in the coffee family All but one were listed as endangered: (Rubiaceae)with fragrant, cream-colored flowers; Labordia cyrtandrae, or kamakahala-a yellow- Achyranthes mutica-a recently re- flowered shrub in the family Loganiaceae, known discovered shrub in the ama- Pleomele hawaiiensis Joan CantieWUSFWS from only 10 individuals; ranth family (Amaranthaceae), known from 1 population of fewer

24 ENDANGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 LISTING ACTIONS

Sanicula purpurea-^ prickly-fruited perennial herb Four Califomia Chaparral Plants A final rule Approximately 85 percent of this habitat has been lost in the parsley family (Apiaceae), named for its published October 7 extended protection to four plant to agriculture and urbanization. Most of the remaining purple flowers; taxa associated with southern maritime chaparral, a 15 percent is on private property in San Diego County, Schiedea hookeri-a sprawling or clumped perennial distinctive plant community found only along the coast and is subject to further habitat modification or herb in the pink family; of southem Califomia and northem Baja Califomia, fragmentation. The situation facing southem coastal Schiedea kamiensis-m erect subshrub in the pink Mexico. The two plants most vulnerable to extinction chaparral in Baja Califomia is much the same. family, known from 15 individuals; and were listed as endangered: Also on October 7, a previous proposal to list two Schiedea nuttallii-^ subshrub in the pink family with other plants was withdrawn: fewer than 75 known plants. Del Mar manzanita (Arctostaphylos glandulosa ssp. crassfoliaJ-SL shrub in the heath family (Ericaceae), short-leaved dudleya (Dudleya blochmaniae ssp. One species that is not as severely imperiled was and brevifolia)-z low-growing succulent in the listed as threatened: Orcutt's spineflower (Chorizanthe orcuttiana)-i low- stonecrop family (Crassulaceae). Threats to this growing annual in the buckwheat family plant have decreased since it was originally proposed Isodendrion bngifolium. or aupab-a slender shrub (Polygonaceae). for listing. in the violet family with fragrant purple flowers. Del Mar sand aster (Corethrogyne filaginifolia var. Because the danger to the other two plants is not as lintfolia)-an erect perennial herb with violet ray Five Central California Plants An October 18 final immediate, they were listed as threatened: florets and yellow disk florets. Due to a taxonomic rule gave protection to five plants native to the central revision, this plant is no longer considered distinct Sierra Nevada of Califomia. The four in greatest danger big-leaved crown-beard (Verbesina dissita)-2i low- from Corethrogyne filaginifolia var. filaginifolia, were classified as endangered: growing shrub in the aster family, and which is more widespread. Encinitas baccharis (Baccharis vanessae)-2. fall- Stebbins' morning glory (Calystegia stebbinsi)-z. blooming shrub in the aster family. perennial herb in the morning glory family (Convolvulaceae); Southem maritime chaparral is a low growing, Pine Hill ceanothus (Ceanothus roderickii)-w\ ever- relatively open plant community frequently restricted to green shrub in the buckthorn family sandy coastal terraces, and has high species diversity. (Rhamnaceae); Pine Hill flannelbush (Premontodendron califomicum s^, decumbens)-3. shrub in the cacao family (Sterculiaceae); and El Dorado bedstraw (Galium califomicum ssp. sierrae)-n perennial herb in the coffee family.

The status of the fifth plant, originally proposed for listing as endangered, was found to be somewhat less critical and was listed as threatened:

Layne's butterweed (Senecio layneae)-n perennial herb in the aster family (Asteraceae).

The main threat facing these five plants is habitat loss. Many sites have been fragmented, damaged, or destroyed by one or more of the following; urbanization, road construction and maintenance, off-road vehicle use, herbicide spraying, mining, competition from non-native plants, unauthorized dumping, overgraz- ing, and suppression of wildfires.

Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana seedling in cultivation. Joan Cantield/USFWS

24 ENDANGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 1997 Refuges Calendar Available

T1 h hee extraordinary diversity of habitats and species protected in the National Wildlife Refuge System is highlighted in a new calendar featuring the work of natural history photographers John and Karen Hollingsworth. Its 24 color photo- graphs portray ecosystems ranging from the high arctic of northern Alaska to the mangroves of southwest Florida, and wildlife from a young bull moose in the north woods of New Hampshire to a camouflaged canyon treefrog near a rocky pool in Under a partnership with Arizona (below). An events section, Come Discover & Leam, contains a schedule of the National Fish and public activities at refuges throughout the country. Wildlife Foundation, the Still available is the Hollingsworths' book. Seasons of the Wild-A Journey Hollingsworths donate 50 Through Our National Wildlife Refuges. With more than 70 photographs and an cents for each calendar purchased, and a portion of evocative text, the book features 47 national wildlife refuges. New this year is The the proceeds from each Refuge Experience, the first in a series of posters that portray a "moment in time" on book and poster, to the the nation's refuges. The subject of this year's poster is an autumn reflection scene Foundation to support its at Rice Lake National Wildlife Refuge in northern Minnesota. conservation work on To order the calendar, send $12.95 to Worm Press, P.O. Box 235, Bellvue, behalf of the refuge Colorado 80512, or call 1-800-493-2713 (orders only). The price of the book is system. These contributions release an $19.95, and the poster is available for $12.95. As a courtesy to readers of the equal amount in matching Bulletin, the normal $3 00 per order shipping and handling charge will be waived if funds from the Foundation you mention seeing this announcement. to benefit refuges.

images from these publications can be viewed on-line at Refuge Net (http://www.refugenet.com). This new website was established by Karen Hollingsworth to support Fish and Wildlife Service outreach efforts and promote a greater understanding of the nation's refuge system.

16 ENDA.NGERED SPECIES BULLETIN NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6 BOX SCORE Listings and Recovery Plans as of October 31,19% ENDANGERED THREATENED TOTAL SPECIES GROUP U.S. FOREIGN U.S. FOREIGN LISTINGS W/PLANS

MAMMALS 55 252 9 19 335 40

BIRDS 74 178 16 6 274 73

REPTILES 14 65 19 15 113 30

AMPHIBIANS 7 8 6 1 22 11

FISHES 67 11 39 0 117 72

SNAILS 15 1 7 0 23 18

CLAMS 51 2 6 0 59 43

CRUSTACEANS 14 0 3 0 17 5

INSECTS 20 4 9 0 33 20

m ARACHNIDS 5 0 0 0 5 2

ANIMAL SUBTOTAL 322 521 114 41 998 314

FLOWERING PLANTS 485 1 98 0 584 298 A CONIFERS 2 0 0 2 4 1 FERNS AND OTHERS 26 0 2 0 28 18

PLANT SUBTOTAL 513 1 100 2 616 317

GRAND TOTAL 835 522 214 43 1,614* 631^

TOTAL U.S. ENDANGERED: 835 (322 animals, 513 plants) term "species" can mean a species, subspecies, or distinct verte- TOTAL U.S. THREATENED: 214 (114 animals, 100 plants) brate population. Several entries also represent entire genera or even families. TOTAL U.S. USTED: 1049 (432 animals, 6l3 plants)*** **There are 440 approved recovery plans. Some recovery plans 'Separate populations of a species listed both as Endangered and Threatened, cover more than one species, and a few species have separate plans are tallied twice. Those species are the argali, leopard, gray wolf, piping covering different parts of their ranges. Recovery plans are drawn plover, roseate tern, chimpanzee, green sea turtle, saltwater/Nile crocodile, up only for listed species that occur in the United States. and olive ridley turtle. For the purposes of the Endangered Species Act, the ***Four animals have dual status.

FIRST CLASS POSTAGE AND FEES PAID DANGERED « U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR PERMIT NO. G-77

Constitution Gardens U.S. Department of the Interior C/o National Capital Parks - Central 900 Ohio Drive SW Fish and Wildlife Service Washington, DC 20242 Washington, D.C. 20240

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NOWMBER/DECEMBER1996 VOLUME XXI NO. 6