Abst~act E~p~essi~~is~ a~d Art. Ed."U-cati~n.= F~r~alis~ an.d. Self-E~pressi~n. as C"U-rric~l~ Id.e~logy

Kerry Freedman

In the 1940's and 1950's, forma li sm and self-expression theories about abstract expressionism were incorporated into art education. However, as these products of the art community became a part of cu rdculum, the social and po l itica l foundations of the art and the theories were ignored. A school art style was emphasized that contai ned only selected e l ements of Greenberg's f orma l ist analysis of abstract expressionism. Curriculum also contained a reduction of Rosenberg 's theory of expressive process to some pseudo- expres­ sive technical characteristics. While the argument is not made that there was a studied and analytical reinterpretation of these critics' theories in school, the theories represented and became part of a general cl im ate of opinion, which helped to shape people's (including teachers') understanding of modern art. Th e transformation of abstract. expressionism in art education was not arbitrary. It supported and legitimated post-i-Jorld \·Jar II institu­ tional priorities of socialization and professional training.

The theories which frame curricu­ been shaped by institutional impera­ lum often approach issues of educa­ tives . tion from "lith;n . For examp l e , This paper concerns the cultura l arti stic development is viewed in and po li t i cal dynamics of the terms of physical and psychological abstract expressionist art community traits of children or strategies of and the conceptions of the arti stic teaching which are believed to movement represented in education. promote ch i 1 dren' s growth. A Although a ll of the complex proces­ different form of analysis is to ses which have shaped art education examine how interna l definitions of during t his period cannot be dealt school art are influenced by exteri ­ with in a single paper, it will be or, social relations. An analysis argued t hat the formal i st and which focuses upon exterior influen­ express ive concerns that developed ces includes not only a discernment around abstract expressi ani sm of causes but a reconstructi on of a infl uenced, but were transformed in climate of opinion in order to school. Th e vital social values and understand what was poss ible for intellectual interests which sustain curriculum. the art community were largely The exterior relations that ignored in curriculum. What became shape curriculum include the priori­ po ssi b1 e for curri cul um was deter­ ties of public schooling and the mined by the social purposes and dynamics of the art community. arrangements of schooling. Schooling is shaped by institutional ThE> purposes such as the upbringing, Establishrn~n.t socialization and labor training of of Abstra.ct children. Art involves a different E~pr~ss.i..~r:Lisrn set of soci a 1 arrangements. By Abstract expressionism is distinguishing between the dynamics considered America's first avant­ of the art community and those of garde art movement and the first schoo 1 i ng, we may better understand international style to have origin­ the ways in which school art has ated in the United States.

17 However, the movement ':Ias not European understand i ng of sci ence, concerned merely with a set of the arts and 1 i terature. The stylisti c techniques or individual Europeans brought wi th them ideas acts of self- expression; the proces­ associated with the moral and social ses and products of abstract expres­ commitments of socialism and commun ­ sionism represented a community of ism . discourse concerned wi th soci a 1 r.lany or those who initiated a l ienation and political reform. abstract expressionism were employed Abstract expressionism emerged by the Federal Art Project. The at a time of radical cultural project gave artists an opportunity change. DUrl ng the 1 ate 1930 ' sand to work; but there were cultural 1940's, a desire for a culture agendas as we 11 . I t supported independent from European tradition social realism as a representation emerged I"li th i n i nte 11 ectua 1 and of national culture. The styl e was artistic circles . A nationalism thought particularly appropriate developed I-Ihich focused upon cultu­ because it was considered democratic ral leadership and was confirmed by and easily understood and appreciat­ a growing faith in Am e rican enter­ ed by the general pub 1 i c. prlse. These cross- currents provid­ Some Federal Art Project artists ed a source of debate and insplra­ attended Hans Hofmann's influent i al tion in the art community. Eighth Street school. Hofmann, a Sc:>c= .ial German refugee, has a perspecti ve FC:>1...l.rl.Cia.t .:i... c:>:n..s c:>£ that was both a conceptual and t h e A:rt perceptual contrast to European CC>ITUT\-u.:n..:i.. t y cubism and a vital urban alternative A number of conditions made the to rural social realism . He emp ha­ focus upon national culture possible sized Matisse's imagery and color at including changes in the interna­ a time when most of the art communi- tional political and economic scene. ty was i nfl uenced by Pi casso's The development of an influential analytic abstraction. ~ ofmann art community in New York was explored the idea that art could enhanced by its physical distance emerge completely from ... lithir an from the war . The destruction of artist . \.Jorld l,·Jar II made it difficult for By the middle 1940's t hese the continued development of Euro­ various groups came together for pean artistic traditions, while social interaction and debate. American cultural activity and study Artists who had been meeting at the were sustained . Waldorf Cafeteria merged with the However, the American art American Abstract Artists to form communi ty had strong European roots the Eighth Street Painter's Club. A through tl'IO groups of artists and vital aspect of this coalition was intellectuals . One of the groups that it was not only artists within was made up of fi rst and second their own coterie; the Club promoted generation immigrants who sought a joining of academics and intel l ec­ assimilation and social mobility tuals with the art community. through cultural (academic and Lectures and discussions were held artistic) knowledge. A second concerning political and philosophi­ influential group was the ref ugees . cal issues involving painters, Many of Europe ' s greatest artists writers, composers and people and intellectuals came to the United associated with literary magazines, States to escape the war. Although museums, and universities. some of the refugees 1 ater returned These interactions enabled New to Europe, they i nfl uenced Amer; can York pa inters to become acqua i nted cultural discourse through their with European surrealism. There was

18 also a growing familiarity with the than symbolic, and is generated symbolic abstraction of artists such through crises of urban technol ogi­ · as Klee , Miro and particularly cal life . The re is a sense of Kandi nsky through reproduct ions and alienation of human beings in exhibited examples of thei r work. general and a marginality of artists The artists adopted the surrealist in particular. practice of automatism as an expres­ The view of science al so in­ sion of the unconscious. However, cludes a belief in progress based on unli ke the surrealists, the American psycho l ogy. It is assumed that a painters used the graphic represen­ science of the human mind wi ll solve tation of chance and unconscious social problems. When abstract gesture to explore the possibilities expressionism emerged, Freudian and of imagery. Jungian ideas framed many explorato­ Sc>cia..l ry responses to modern existence. Vis..ic>Tl.s c>::E the Artists rejected mechanistic views Art CC>rnrrl"U.rl..ity of man and society and glorified From these social relations and both the idiosyncratic experience artistic experimentation emerged the and human union through a common ideas and images which developed mythical unconscious. into abstract expressionism. At A third current In the art least three social and political community I-/as an American socialist currents coalesced to give direction vision which became prominent in the to the art movement, One was a 1930's . During the Depression, many be 1 i ef in Amed can democracy as the artists and intellectuals identified guardian of individual rights and with socialist reforms and Marxist autonomy, a belief particularly theory. cherished by the refugees and In the 1930's. a debate concern­ immigrants who had come from count­ i ng Marxism and modernism received a ries where these values were denied. forum in the literary journals where Hofmann and others believed that abstract express ion; sm was fi rst artists represented the independence discussed. There was a problematic and creative freedom which democracy quality of the alliance between promised and which had been sought Ma rx ism and modernism . Some who in their exile from Europ e (e.g . supported Marxi sm sought to combat Seitz, 1983). alienation with the pastoral values A second current was a concern and worker contro 11 ed 1abor repre­ with modernism and the relation of sented in Regional i sm which contras­ science to society. Modernism is an ted with abstract art \..,hich could intellectual, as well as artistic, not be understood by common peapl e. movement . In contrast to nineteenth But Marxism also rep~esented an century certitude, modernism in­ international social consciousness volves a consciousness in which which challenged the wartime situa­ conventions and trad itions are tion in Europe and the isolationism thought tenuous and existence is in mainstream intellectual 1 ife. By considered ambiguous and paradoxi­ the 1940's an urban disillusionment cal. Modern art focuses upon a with Regionalism developed . Al­ self-reflexiveness which draws though the work of artists such as attention to the medium and process Thomas Hart Benton and Grant Wood of production . Aesthetic forms have was supported by urban museums, it a technical immediacy which contrast provided a sanctified view of with previous pastoral, contempla­ American country l ife which New York tive and romantic notions of know­ artists rejected as isolationist. le"dge and culture. Art is thoug ht New York artists sought an urban art cognitive and perceptual, rather which would be more compatible with

19 international commu nism (C ox, 1982) . sought to represent United States Th ere were te!1sions as artists corporate industry as a superior wi th these soci a 1 commi tments mo de l of producti on and economy. engaged i n t heir work which may be Originall y he had s upported region­ i ll ustr ated by two examples. First, a. lism as a nati onal culture. their support for international However, as it grew evident t hat communism became coupled with a regionalism represented progress fierce patriotism by the end of through worker control and the styl e World War II. There was a belief became associated with mas s culture, that the Un; ted States wau l d , ead Luce stressed i nd i vi dua 1 i ty through the ne xt cultural revolution. abstr act expression i sm I ..hich he Second, psychology was to r eplace be li eved illustrated independent older forms of manipulation but thought (Doss, 1987) . For example , possib l y provided a more compell ing a 1948 issue of l i fe represented the form of social control by focusing non-obj ecti ve work of Jackson upon inner thoughts and beliefs. Pollack as an imagery without social For a time , New York artists confli ct whi ch wou l d be free of sought t o retai n a theoretical political manipulation (Dos s , 1987). perspecti ve of Marxism wi thout However , rather than autonomy, Luce allowi ng authoritati ve constraints promoted a form of cu l tural and of the doctrine to determine t he po l itical consensus 'tlni l e maintain­ form of their work. However, by the ing an illusion of neutrality 1 early 1940 5, Soviet aggression through an i mp l ied reporting of the (particu l arly the invasion of f acts . Fi nland i n 1939) r esul ted in a To this point , I have presented rejection of ~larx i sm. Also i nfluen­ a brief hi storical s ketch of t he tial were the dynam i cs of the cold social and po l iti cal c l imate in war. A growing nati onal fear of which abstract expressionism e- communi sm placed individuals and merged. Al though what has been institutions with communi st s ym ­ presented in t his and the following pathies at risk . section mus t be 1 imited an d may be Part of the American cold war familiar, it ; s an i mportant back­ soci a l cl i mate was a pressure on ground for final secti on i n wh i ch art i sts and intell ectual s to disen­ the transformati on of abstract gage from t he pol itical arena. expressi onism in curriculum ...lill be Anti - communi st campaigns ended t he discuss ed. financ ial support of many New York SC)cia.l artists and federa l ly funded art CC>rl.sciC)'\..l.sn.~s:s pr ojects untii the 1960's (Gui l baut, a.=d 1983). Previ ously radi ca l artists Art cr-iticisrn and intel lectuals began to support One way to understand t he more ma i nstream Ameri can values development of abstract exp r essi on - ! (Barrett, 1982; Guilbaut, 1983). ism, and its representation in There was a political shift that curriculum, is to cons ider t he appeared to be toward an apol itical analyses of two critics which became stand. Pa rt of the shift was a essential parts of the mo vement. gl or i f i cation of the ind ividual Cl ement Greenberg and Harold Rosen­ which deemph as i zed the social berg supported abstract expression­ quali t i es of li fe and art. ism from different pe r specti ves, but The popul ar press publi cized the both helped to illuminate the work of abstract expressionism as a artistic style and the intellectual symbol ic r epresentation of these cl imate of t he time. Their perspec­ va 1 ues. For examp l e, He nry Luce, t ives of modern art have continued ed itor of life, Time and Fortune, to influence contemporary taste I I 20 (e.g . Ku spit, 1979; Ti l1im, 1987 ) . (Krame r , 1962, p.61) . Hi s no t ion of Gre enberg and Ro senberg took pur ity assumed that art should part in the intellectua l debate maintain an integrity of the proper­ about l'1a rxism and modern i sm. ties i nh erent t o a medium. He Greenberg was a literary reviewer argued that abstract expression i sm and editor of the Partisan Review , had evo l ved from cubism toward a an inf1 uenti al journal which began pure experience of medium that he in association with the Communist t ho ught was the essential nature of Part y, but l ater became an indepen­ art . dent l eftist forum concerned with Greenberg's support of abstract modernism in art. I n the 1940 ' s, expressionism was based upon a before art magaz i nes reported on con ception of formalism . He consid­ abstract expressionism, Greenberg ered a purg ing of subject matter ch ampioned the style i n the Partisan from art (w hich he thought dis­ Review and the Nat ion. His argument tracted from pure form) a hi stori cal for the style developed f rom what he necessi ty. Greenberg assumed that conceptualized f rom Hofman n 's objective standards of art qual ity l ectures on Eighth Street as a and criticism were revealed over histodcal determinism of art. The time. His f ocus upon objective determi nism was not unrelated to the standards of forma l ism \'Jas to free historical ma teri a lism of his art from the i nfl uence of mass Ma rx i st perspect ive. culture mediocrity and unifor mity For Ros enberg, Marxi sm was a (Greenberg, 1940). lne particu l ar perspective from \~hich to investi ­ concern about mass culture was gate individual ex istence and related to a growing f ear of banal ­ cul tural life. The relationship of ; t y as a representati on of the the individual to soc iety was an authori tari an contra 1 blamed for i ssue that Rosenberg focused upo n Hitler 's rise to power and the through hi s l ife and a cause of the Ge rman people's participat ion in ri ft with Commun ist Party loyali sts Wo r l d War II. as he gave greater emphasis to the Ros enb erg's r ej ecti on of Marxism no t ions of idios yncrasy and creati ­ took a different form. He di d no t vity i rniependent of soci al con­ absolve arti sts from soc i a l commi t ­ straints (Co x,. 1982 ) . ment . He recogni zed that artists The conditions of the war, could not eas ily address certain Stal i nist pograms and the growing issues during the co ld war; howe ve r. nationalism in t he United States they we r e ob 1 i gated to res; st moved Greenberg and Ros enberg toward conformity and support ex pressive re li nquishing their Marxist sym­ freedom . Rosenberg bel i eved that pathi es by the 1940' s. Greenberg abstract expressionism provided the supported Am erican nationa l ism, but potent i a l for a pure , human expres­ opposed peopl e such as Michigan's s i on in an a l i enating ,,"/or ld . His conservative Congressman Geo rge conception of purification involved Donde ro , who beli eved that modern an existent i a l process wh i ch was to art was par t of a commun i st conspir­ eliminate political ideology f r om acy (Guilbaut, 1983). Greenberg , art while maintaining opposition to like Luce, criticized communism but the moral and aesthetic European supported the production of abstract traditions of the masterpiece. art as important to a free and In Greenberg 's and Rosenberg's stabl e soc i ety . criticism, the Qua l ity of art was In his mov eme nt away f rom determined by forces i nternal to the Marxism, Gr eenberg changed hi s object and the subj ect ivity of an perspective "from purist ideology in a rtist, rather t han by external politics to pure aesthetics in art" sociological forces. Greenberg took

21 a historical approach which ironi ­ climate, and in part to the denial cally led to an asocial argument and of ideo l ogical qualities in their an interior examination of the theories and in abstract expression­ production and experiencing of art. ism, that Greenberg's formalism and While Greenberg argued that there Rosenberg's notion of self- expres­ is a dialectic between the history sionism were easi l y techn;c;zed ;n of art and any particular work of curriculum. art, he omitted considerations of The the relation of production to social I r.l.st..i... t.'U.t.ior.l.a..li ­ context. Greenberg assumed. for za..t.ion of a.. example, that Rosenberg had arbi ­ :Mo"'V'ernen.t.:::: trarily connected abstract expres­ C'U.r:r.ic:::'U.l~ ar:l.o si onism with the existentialism that t.he A.."'V'a.n.t.-Ga.:rd.e pervaded intellectual thought at the The introduction of abstract time. He accused Rosenberg of exp ressionism into curriculum was construct; ng an i nteracti on between part of a movement in general the philosophy and the art merely education which developed in the because both were newsworthy (Green­ 1950's and promoted curr icula based berg, 1962 ) . on professional knowledge of school Rosenberg. in terested in the subjects (Barkan , 1955). The subjective life of the individual as reforms resulted in new r equirements a representation of huma n struggle , for art teachers' studio train i ng was ahistorical. He did not attend and an increased use of art t heory to the historical construction of to justify school practices . Future social life by various groups, or art teachers had course requirements the multiple subjectivities, which simi lar to those training to be became legacies that make possible professional artists. Through this and shape contemporary subjectivity. education (and t he popul ar press ) Rosenberg defined the process of art teachers became parti cu l ar ly pa inting as the restoration of the influenced by ab stract exp ressi onism metaphysi cal to art which resolved (Logan, 19 75). individua l crisis without ideologi ­ Gr eenberg' s and Ro senberg's ca l mediation. expl anations of abstract expression­ While both critics denied ism r epresented and became part of a I ideological qua liti es in art and in general climate of opinion which their criticism , the art community, helped to shape teachers' under ­ i ncl udi ng Greenberg and Rosenberg, standing of modern art. As the art responded to social and political and theories of formalism and conditions. These critics helped to expression became part of education, shape pub 1 i c understand; ng of the social and political foundat i ons abstract expressionism in relation of abstract expressionism \·Iere I to concerns about alienation and the i gnored. The social context that t definition and purposes of culture shaped and gave meaning and i mport­ in industrial society. Paradoxes in ance to the ideas, images and their theories about abstract processes of the styl e were lost . expressionism reflected the social In school , art was transformed confl i ct. The emergence of the into displays of emotion and prob­ style became possible in and was lems to be solved, eliminating part of a milieu wh ich focused upon conflict and changing the cultural democratic freedom, but also upon purposes of the avan t -garde. In ex i stential isolation; an idiosyn­ higher educati on art was interpreted cratic production process was valued as a trai ning of "craft plus inspira- as wel l as a common material i sm. It t i on" (Rosenberg, 1972, p.47) . was due i n part to the political Simi l arly. in pub lic school, there

22 was a bel ief that a combination of abstract expressionist artists were fam il iarity l'iith media and free depicted as heroic f i gures who self-expression would yield creative represented nati ona 1 va l ues and art from chlldren (D'Amico, 1953). polici es of cultural authority. A school art style emerged which Educators defined the avant-garde as emphasi zed certa; n techni ca 1 and signifying the cultural supremacy of formal qualities . While Greenberg's the United States. formalism had concerned a vitality Three important SOcl ali zi ng of medium and the control by form of mechan; sms interacted I"i th i n art aesthetic experience, the use of education, and i n some ways, l egiti ­ media in education was a process of mated a curricul um already in place. physical manipulation for young First, individualism l'ias to deve l op children and the development of in chi l dren a confi dence in the skill in using particular media for correctness and independence of older students . Rather than the their actions and beliefs. Curr i cu ­ contemplation of artistic tradi ­ lum maintained that producing art tions, school practice focused upon was an act of autonomous expression an arbitrary concern with physical without social or institutional qualities such as paint, drips, and mediation . Through this lens of splashes. Knowledge was to emerge individual ism, the history of art through an institutionalized form of was a culmination of indi vidual acts play instead of through the histori ­ of self- expression. cal study of media, form, and A second mechanism of socializa­ function. tion was the achievement of a Curriculum also contained a certain conception of mental hea l th reduction of Rosenberg's expressive through art activHies. Art was to process to qualities which were be therapeutical l y self-expressive assumed to represent the individual in order to mainta i n a society expression of "the child". Expres­ without anti - democratic el ements s i on in school was shap'ed by def; n i ­ which \'iere considered pathological. tions of what was considered natural Art became an aid to develop a and normal in children. II/hile democratic, and therefore, hea l thy, Rosenberg's notion of expression was personal ity in children ( Freedman, an idiosyncratic process, school art 1987b) . involved a conception of psychologi ­ However, rather than provide the cal norms. Expression was reinter­ rigorous analysis of a particular preted from a statement of alienated person's past experiences which discomfort to a procedure which occurred in psychotherapy, the provided an il l usion of personal school art style became a subtle well - being. form of social control. The style The transformation of abstract was not persona 1 . Groups of school expressionism in art education was children were given the same assign­ not arbitrary. Art education has ments but were to make something historically responded to the expressing the individual and socialization and labor training personal . Students are expected to functions of public schooling express themselves through a generic (Freedman, 1987a; Freedman & Popke ­ freeing of mundane emotion for witz, in press). In the 1950's, display in school. A manipulation curriculum supported and legitimated of medium and certain formal deve­ post-World War II institutional lopments were to denote expressi on priorities of socialization and and were assumed to represent the professional training through a psychology of a child. Through the focus upon nationalistic priorities. use of technical devices, such as For examp l e, as in the press, bright colors and painterly brush-

23 strokes, school art supported the other (i .e. Franklin, 1976; Klie­ humanisti c rhet oric of public bard, 1979; Popkew itz , 1987). education (Efiand, 1976). The l egacies of abstract expres­ Interacting with the f4rst two sionism rema in important in school mechanisms was a third : the deve­ but are practiced outside of their lopment of a faith in professi onal historical context. Political and and sci entific exp ertise. As a social structures of the pe riod resul t of the war, there was a fear discussed, y,hile s till influe ntial, of the devel opment of an author i ­ have dramat ica lly changed. The tarian personality in children (e.g . current reform effort to draw art Adorno, Frenkel - Brun swick, Levinson education closer to the art communi ­ & Sanford , 1950 ) . Direction from t y reflects some of these larger professional psycho logi sts was to changes. prevent t his from occurri ng {e.g . As we develop a new relationship Lowenfeld. 1947}. Th e strain between adult art and school art , between a reverence for scientific the quali ty of that r e l ationShip structure and certitude and fears of must be attended to in a way that dehumanizati on by science and has no t previously been refl e cted in technology provided support for the art education. Too often, a rt has therapeut ic perspective of school been decontextua l ized in school. It art during this period. has been reduced in ways that The t ransfor mati on of t he forma l respond to institutional agendas but and expressive concerns of the art which are contrary to the cul tu ral commun i t y he l ped to faci litate importance of art making and under­ schoo 1 pract i ces. Art was repre- standi ng. \·Ihile seem ing innocuous sented as both objective (in rela­ or heal thful, nationalistic beliefs tion to profess iona l scientifi c about individual autonomy, profes ­ interpretat ion and jUdgment ) and si ana 1 exp e r t i se and the commod if i - subjective (characterized by the cation of a rt have been focused upon inner self of a mythological gener ic a t t he expense of other vita l issues Chil d). The shape of curri culum and have become rei fi ed through determ i ned the mean; ngs of the curriculum. Art education shou ld know 1 edg e tha t supposed 1y made up include a representation of t he i ts content. comp l ex histori ca l and social Cc)rl.cl-u.siC)rl.. dynamics which prov ided the po ssibi ­ Th e phenomenon of art edu cation lities for art rather than allowing can be understood in the context of the current sh i ft to merely 1 ead us education. As school subjects are away frem a subtle, but manipulative I reconstructed for school i n9 , the fa i th in psychology , toward a mor e communa l r e l ations of a field are crystalli zed representation of I fi l tered and redefined by the expertise as the standard for priorities of schooling. Historical aesthet i c judgment. Rather, the analyses of vari ous aspects of continual flux and debate of artis­ education i ndicate shifts i n beli efs tic production should be reta ined in and va lues as theory and practice s choo 1. reinterpret and recontextualize each

R.ef~rerl..ces

Adorno, T.W., Fr enkel - Brunswik , Levi nson, D.J . and Sanford, R.N. ( 1950). The authoritarian personal ity. New York: Harper & Brothers. Barkan, M. (1955 ). A foundation for art education. New York: Ronald Press. Barrett, w. ( 1982). The truants. Garden City, NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday.

14 Cox, A. (1982) . Art- as- politics; The abstract expressionist avant-garde and society. Ann Arbor, Michigan: UMI Research Press. D'Amico, V. (1953). Creative teaching in art. (r ev . ed. ) . Scranton, PA; Intel'national Textbook . Doss, E. (1987, October). Avant garde art and the popular press i n post-wa r America. The 51st Mid -America College Art Association Annual Conference , Minneapolis. Ef land, A. (1976) . The school art style: A functional ana l ysis. Stud i es in Art Education, 17(2) , 37-44. Frankl in, B. (1976). -Curriculum thought and social meaning; Edward L. Thorndike and the curriculum field. Educational Theory, 26(3), 298-309 . Freedman, K. (1987a). Art education as social production: Culture, society and politics in the formation of curriculum. In T.S. Popkewitz (Ed . ) . The formation of school subjects: The struggle for creating an American insti tution . London: Falmer. Fr eedman, K. (1987b). An analysis of curriculum ideas of the 1940's and 1950's. Studies in Art Ed uc ation , 29(1). Freedman, K. and Popkewitz, T.S. (in press). Art education and social interests in the development of schooling: Ideo l ogical origins of curriculum theory. Journal of Curriculum Studi es. Greenberg, C. (1940). Towards a newer Laocoon. Partisan Review, 7 rall . 296- 310. Greenberg, C. (1961). Art and culture. Boston: Beacon Press. Greenberg, C. (1962). How art writing earns its bad name . En co un ter, 17 December, 67-71. Guilbaut, S. (1983). How New York stole the idea of modern art: Abstract expressionism, freedom and the cold war. (A. Go l dhammer, Trans.) . Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Kliebard, H.M. (1962). The drive for curri cu lum change: The United States, 1980 - 1958 . Journal of Curriculum Studies, 11(3), 191-202. Kramer, H. (1979). A critic on the side of history: Notes on Clement Greenberg, Arts Magazine, 37, 60-63 . Kuspit , D. B. (1979). Clement~reenberg: Art criti c. Mad'son, Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press. Logan, F.M. (1955). Growth of art in American education. New York: Harper & Brothers . Logan, F.M. (1975). Up date '75, growth in American art education. Stud ies in Art Education, 17(1 ) , 7- 16. Lowenfeld, V. (1947).-Creative and mental growth. New York: Macmillan . Popkewitz, T.S. (Ed.). (1987). The formation of school sub j ects: The struggle for creating an American institution. London : Falmer . Rosenbe rg, H. (1972). The definition of art . New York: Macmi l lan. Rose~berg, H. (1973) . Discovering the present: Three decades of art, culture, and politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Seitz, W.O . (1983) . Abstract expressionist painting in America. Cambr i dge, MA: The Harvard Press. Tll lim, S. (1 987). Criticism and culture, or Greenberg's doubt. Art in America, May, 122- 127, 201. Kerry Freedman is an Assistant Professor in the Art Education Program at the Unversity of Minnesota, Twin Cities Campus.

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