President Carter's Attempt to Change American Culture and Pass a Transformational And

In Pursuit of Energy Conservation: President Carter’s Attempt to Change American Culture and Pass a Transformational and Non-incremental National Energy Policy By William James Porter, Jr. B.S. in Management, May 1995, University of Maryland College Park M.Ed in Interdisciplinary Studies C&I, June 1997, National-Louis University A Dissertation Submitted to The Faculty of The Graduate School of Education and Human Development of The George Washington University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Education May 19, 2013 Dissertation Directed by Maria Cseh Associate Professor of Human and Organizational Learning 1 The Graduate School of Education and Human Development of The George Washington University certifies that William James Porter, Jr. has passed the Final Examination for the degree of Doctor of Education as of March 5, 2013. This is the final and approval form of the dissertation. In Pursuit of Energy Conservation: President Carter’s Attempt to Change American Culture and Pass a Transformational and Non-incremental National Energy Policy William James Porter, Jr. Dissertation Research Committee Maria Cseh, Associate Professor of Human and Organizational Learning, Dissertation Director Margaret D. Gorman-Kirchoff, Former Assistant Professor of Human and Organization Learning, Committee Member Susan Swayze, Assistant Professor of Education Research, Committee Member ii Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to my wife, Jan, who supported me through this long endeavor. The many hours I spent on this project were hours that we did not spent together. Her understanding and patience are greatly appreciated. iii Acknowledgments This dissertation was ultimately the result of the work of several people. At the earliest stages, Dr. Gorman - Kirchoff was instrumental in setting a direction for the study, and she also provided me with the encouragement that was essential to create the momentum for such a vigorous undertaking. Dr. Swayze set the boundaries for the methodology and fastidiously monitored the research protocol. Her demands for rigor and precision were much appreciated and she made a major impact upon the final product. Dr. Pugliese’s insightful questions at the defense helped to elicit specific meaning from the body of research. He is a contemporary who lived through the events under study, which brought a high level of circumspection to the discussion. His participation in the process added considerable value. Dr. Chalofsky’s experience provided an additional dimension to the defense. His observations, questions, and suggestions were meaningful contributions to the dialogue. Dr. Cseh is a wonderful person to whom I owe an enormous debt of gratitude. As the Dissertation Research Chair, she executed all of her functions in a highly proficient manner. However, it was all of her extra efforts as a fellow human being, a consummate professional, and as a friend that made the completion of this work possible. Her willingness to give so freely of her time and to patiently guide me along the journey provided me with an opportunity to appreciate the virtuous potential of human nature. iv Abstract of Dissertation In Pursuit of Energy Conservation: President Carter’s Attempt to Change American Culture and Pass a Transformational and Non-incremental National Energy Policy The success rate of modern U.S. presidents in passing significant, non- incremental policy initiatives, that involved transformational change, has been much slower than the rate at which unresolved, major issues (e.g., energy, deficits, and immigration) have been accumulating. Since congressional leaders play a major role in ensuring the passage of non-incremental legislation, understanding the leadership approaches used by U.S. presidents with congressional leaders could provide insights into the challenges faced in passing non-incremental legislation. Thus, the purpose of this qualitative, historical case study was to explore President Carter’s leadership approach in his attempt to gain the support of the two congressional leaders – Thomas “Tip” O’Neill, Speaker of the House of Representatives, and Robert Byrd, the Majority Leader of the Senate in his quest to pass a comprehensive energy policy. The following research question guided this study: What was the nature of President Carter’s leadership approach as evidenced by direct communication with the two congressional leaders during his attempt to pass a comprehensive energy policy between January 20, 1977 and November 8, 1978? This historical case study was conducted at the Carter presidential Library in Atlanta, Georgia. Written documents, as well as audio and video recordings provided multiple sources of data and allowed for data triangulation. In the instance of this energy legislation, President Carter rarely engaged in transactional exchanges and primarily limited his attempts at transformational leadership to public speeches; nearly to the exclusion of all other methods of direct communication. v The president’s limited use of other traditional presidential leadership tools (private meetings, letters, and the use of reciprocity or bargaining) was perhaps the reason that he was unable to secure the enthusiastic support of Senate Majority Leader Byrd. Unlike the House, which had passed the president’s proposal nearly intact, the energy bill was eventually dismembered in the Senate and only a shell of the original plan was enacted. Presidents should give special attention to their working relationship with the congressional leaders and utilize both transactional and transformational leadership approaches. vi Table of Contents Dedication .......................................................................................................................... iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv Abstract of Dissertation .......................................................................................................v Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................................1 Context ..........................................................................................................................3 Statement of the Problem ..............................................................................................7 Purpose of Study and Research Question ...................................................................12 Statement of Potential Significance ............................................................................13 Theoretical Foundation and Conceptual Framework .................................................13 Summary of the Methodology ....................................................................................21 Limitations ..................................................................................................................23 Definition of Key Terms .............................................................................................26 Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................28 Psychological Principles of Leadership ......................................................................30 Freud’s group psychology ...................................................................................30 Modern psychological theories of leadership ......................................................31 The role of leader schemas ..................................................................................33 Telling identity stories .........................................................................................34 Personality, leadership style, and contingency ....................................................35 Principles of presidential leadership ....................................................................36 Presidential character ...........................................................................................37 Reconstructive Presidential Leadership ......................................................................38 vii Presidential Personality and Effectiveness .................................................................40 Why presidents succeed ......................................................................................41 Leadership Cycles .......................................................................................................41 Presidential Leadership Models ..................................................................................42 Maximalist ...........................................................................................................42 Presidential-centric bargaining ............................................................................42 System-bargaining model ....................................................................................43 The guardian presidency ......................................................................................45 The Qualities of Effective Presidents .........................................................................45 Proficiency as a public communicator ................................................................46 Organizational capacity .......................................................................................46 Political skill ........................................................................................................47

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