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AUTHOR Radencich, Marguerite C., Ed. TITLE Adult Literacy. A Compendium of Articles from the Journal of Reading. INSTITUTION International Reading Association, Newark, Del. REPORT NO ISBN-0-87207-122-7 PUB DATE 94 NOTE 301p.; Selection of articles published between March 1975 and March 1994. AVAILABLE FROMOrder Dept., International Reading Association, 800 Barksdale Rd., P.O. Box 8139, Newark, DE 19714-8139 (members $14; nonmembers $19). PUB TYPE Collected Works General (020)

EDRS PRICE MFO1 /PC13 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Academic Achievement; Adult Basic Education; *Adult Literacy; Adult Reading Programs; Case Studies; 'Educational Research; *Literacy Education; Program Effectiveness; Program Evaluation; *Reading Instruction; Reading Research; Reading Strategies; Student Evaluation; *Teaching Methods; *Tutoring IDENTIFIERS *Workplace Literacy

ABSTRACT The following articles are included: "Reconceptualizing the Language of Adult Literacy" (Ilsley, Stahl); "Expanding the Definition of Literacy for Adult Remedial Readers" (Heathington); "Adult Literacy Programs" (Davis); "Stages in the Reading Development of Adults" (Norman, Malicky); "Reading Concepts and Strategies of Adult Nonreaders" (Malicky, Norman); "Some Assumptions about Adult Reading Instruction" (Shuman); "Adult Literacy in Rural Areas" (Ferrell, Howley); "Views of Personal Literacy within a Prison Population" (Mansell, Voelkel); "Issues in Adult Literacy Assessment" (Metz); "Exploring Reading with Adult Beginning Readers" (Padak et al.); "'Measuring Success' in Reading in Adult Basic Education" (Finlay, Harrison); "Learning from Researching" (Fargo, Collins);'"Reading Difficulty of Tests for Job Placement" (Ash); "Rapid Estimate of Adult Literacy in Medicine (REALM)" (Murphy); "What Works: Adult Literacy Program Evaluation" (Padak, Padak); "Profiles of and Instructional Strategies for Adult Disabled Readers" (Keefe, Meyer); "Building on Strengths" (Biggs); "Cooperative Learning Process" (Mocker); "Wori Banks for Adult Literacy" (Austin-Anglea); "?icture Books to Use with Older Students" (Danielson); "Storytelling for Adults" (Ford); "High Interest-Low Readability Books for Adults" (Hill, Rabideau); "Four Poets" (Kazemek, Rigg); 'Poetry in the Adult Literacy Class" (Conniff et al.: ;"Consumer Advocacy, Empowerment, and Adult Literacy" (Rosow); "Using Classic Novels with Adult New Readers" (Schierloh); "Writing Workshops" (Pates, Evans); "Writing Our Lives" (Stasz et al.); "Using Student Journals in the Workplace ESL [English as a Second Language] H: Classroom" (Sole); "Nondirective Combinatory Model in an Adult ESL Program"( D'Annunzio); "Using Computers in Adult Literacy Instruction" (Askov, Clark); "Adult Literacy in a Multiliterate Society" (Howie); "Interactive Computer-Assisted Instruction with Adults" (Finnegan, Sinatra); "College Students as Tutors for Adults in a Campus-Based Literacy Program" (D'Annunzio); "Intergenerational

. Adult Literacy Project" (Nickse et al.); "Training Family and Friends ...... as Adult Literacy Tutors" (Scob/e et al.); "HelpingaNonspeaking Adult Male with Cerebral Palsy Achieve Literacy" (Gipe et al.); "I Ain't Never Read My Own Words Before"- (Purcell- Gates); "Use of an Educational Therapy Model With an Illiterate Adult" (Scully, Johnston); "Norman: Literate at Age 44" (Meyer et al.); "Approaches to Assessment in Workplace Literacy Programs" (Askov); "Workplace Literacy Lessons" (DeStefano); "Navajo Head Start" (Anziano, Terminello); and "Using Annual Reports for Adult Literacy Improvement" (Miller).- (YLB) I j

U S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION Office or Educattonal Researzh and Improvement THIS EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE GRANTED BY CENTER (ERIC) MATERIAL HAS BEEN i This document has been reproduced as received from the person or organintion originating it Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality

Points of view or opinions slated in this document do not necessarily represent TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES olbclalOERI position or policy INFORMATION CENTER(ERIC) BEST COPY AVAILABLE 2 ,r.,,..;, 1 eracy A Compendium of Articles from the Journal of Reading

MARGUERITE C. RADENCICH EDITOR DADE COUNTY PUBLIC SCHOOLS, FLORIDA

INTERNATIONAL READING AssomnoN NEWARK, DELAWARE 19714, UNITED STATES o

IRA BOARD OF DIRECTORS Susan Mandel Glazer, Rider University, Lawrenceville, New Jersey. PresidentDolores B. Malcolm, St. Louis Public Schools, St. Louis, Missouri. President ElectRichard T. Vacca, Kent State University, Kent, Ohio,Vice PresidentMabel T. Edmonds, St. Louis Public Schools. St. Louis, MissouriJohn Elkins. University of Queensland. St. Lucia, Queensland. AustraliaLinda B. Gambrell. University of Maryland. College Park. MarylandYetta M. Goodman. University of Arizona, TucsonJerry L. Johns, Northern Illinois University. De Kalb, IllinoisSandra McCormick, The Ohio State University. Columbus. OhioMary Ellen Vogt, California State University. Long Beach. CaliforniaBarbara J. Walker. Montana State University. Billings. MontanaCarmelita Kimher Williams, Norfolk State University. Norfolk. VirginiaAlan E. Farstrup. Executive Director

Director of PublicationsJoan M. Irwin Managing EditorAnne Fullerton Associate EditorChris Celsnak Assistant EditorAmy Trefsger Editorial AssistantJanet Parrack Production Department ManagerIona Sauscermen Graphic Design CoordinatorBoni Nash Design ConsultantLarry Husfelt Desktop Publishing SupervisorWendy Mazur Desktop PublishingAnette Sch(itz -Ruff Cheryl Strum ProofingDavid Roberts

The International Reading Association attempts. through its publications, to provide a forum for a wide spectrum of opinions on reading. This policy permits divergent viewpoints without assuming the endorsement of the Association. Much of the material contained in this volume first appeared in the Journal of Reading. a copyright- ed journal of the International Reading Association. Every attempt was made to contact authors of previously published work to inform them of this use of their material. The publisher welcomes cor- respondence from contributing aLthors concerning corrections or updated information that can he incorporated in subsequent editions of this publication.

Copyright 1994 by the International Reading Association, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Adult literacy: a compendium of articles from the Journal of Reading/Marguerite C. Radencich. editor. p. cm. Selection of articles published between March 1975 and March 1994 in the Journal of Reading. Includes bibliographical references and indexes. I. Functional literacy.2. Adult education.I. Radencich. Marguerite C., 1952 . II. Journal of reading. r.c149.7.A39 1994 94-12295 374'.012--dc20 cn, ISI3N (1-87207-122-7

4 Contents

Foreword v Introduction

Theoretical and Organizational Issues 3

Assessment 33

General Teaching Methodology 9-1

Technology 163

Tutoring 201

Workplace Literacy 261

Citation Index 283 Subject Index 29() Contributor Index 296 Foreword

This compendium of articles is noth- gives the impression that the reader will fin- ing if not diverse. Denise Davisish any section with a clear and comprehen- starts the volume with a politicalsive sense of major issues or learnings in the call to action urging adult literacyhighlighted area. Brief introductions to each educators to structure their programs tosection attempt to frame some of the major become means to "achieve social and eco-foci in the field of adult literacy, but one nomic equality" by changing the social statuscould not use this volume, all by itself, as a quo. Her parting counsel to directors ofself-study textbook about adult literacy.It is "emancipatory" and "liberatory" programsinstead, a collection of solid. readable articles for which economic support is lacking is toon adult literacy which have appeared in the "maintain the vision and await the revolutionJournal of Reading during the last decade or and attempt to prepare learners for political so. As such, the collection offers support options not yet available.- Lest the rhetoric ofmaterials for several diffei,mt approaches one the first article deceives you into thinking themight take to teaching or learning about adult hook is a neo-Marxist approach to literacy. be literacy. It also makes for interesting brows- aware that the same volume also contains ing since one can literally enter the volume at articles which would make nervous anyany point and profitably pause to read. activists pushing for revolution. For example. Adult literacy educators usually find only Phyllis Miller writes on how to teach employ-brief time and opportunity to communicate ees reading strategies by using annual reportswith each other. Conversations with other and company correspondence, while Franciseducators are often transitory and cut short Kazemek and Pat Rigg describe adult literacya question will he asked in passing, a teaching teaching approaches using the politically neu- technique or a cogent idea quickly summa- tral poetry of William Carlos Williams and rized. Later. if one teacher has the time to sort others. In this book, political essays and opin-through a pile of old journals, he or she might ion pieces arc mixed with . ,:arch studieslocate and pass along a relevant article to and detailed descriptions of effective instruc-share as a conversation follow-up. This com- tional techniques. pendium of articles will make this process The dozens of articles contained withinconsiderably easier. Program directors will be this volume are arranged under six organiza-able to more easily share relevant articles tional headings (that is, theoretical and orga-with their staffs, and adult literacy instructors nizational issues. assessment, general teach- now have a hook full of articles more accessi- ing methodology. technology, tutoring. andble to themselves and colleagues. Between 1k orkplace literacy) which attempt to sort out the covers of this volume are a file drawer of the diversity. This organization is useful, to good ideas. Enjoy them and use them well. some extent. in that it may I:-]p the reader find areas that are important to him or her. Larry Mikulecky The organization is illusory, however, if it Indiana University. Bloomington Introduction

77 his book originated in a discussionresulting compendium come primarily from at the 1993 meeting of theJournal ofrecent years. Some article.s were e.vcluc/ec/ to Reading EditorialAd. 'co' Board. ctvoid unnecessary overlap; several important JRis a journal of adolescent and adult litera-pieces from earlier years were included. We cy, and the hoard members were looking fordecided to exclude articles on college litera- ways that the journal could address the theo- cy, an area gen.Tally distinct from other adult ry and practice of adult literacy instructionliteracy effOrts. strategies and tools, assessment and teach- The resulting selection of articles was ing. workplace literacy, beginning adultgrouped into sections, as follows: theoretical literacy, and the stages in betweenin a and of gani:ational issues. assessmi,nt, gener- comprehensive Hay without e.vcluding the al teaching methodology, techqoiogy, tutor- journal's focus on adolescents. ing, and workplace literacy. Ea( h of these Over the Years, many outstanding articlessections in the hook begins with a brief intro- On adult literacy issues have been published duction that provides an overview of the topic in JR.and we realised that they provided an and the articles. excellent resource. The suggestion was made Teachers of children clearly have a tremen- to gather these pieces into a single hook, todous responsibility. but how much greater. in allow easy access for both adult literacy pro- a way, is the responsibility of the teacher who fessionals chid volunteers. The Internationalserves adults. people who often had given up Reading Association could then use itson a system but have risked coming hack. resources to make the hook available to its This hook is aimed at providing some answers members as well as to others working in rills (and more questions!) to help teachers and field. tutors of adults increase their knowledge I reviewed hack issues ofJRand identifiedabout issues related to reading instruction so articles that focused on adult li,eraCy topic's. that they can better address the needs c).f their Janet Ramage Binkley.JR'.%editor. offeredstudents. I hope that the book will serve as some additional suggestions. In order tothe basis JO,' discussion among program ensure that the hook included the best andadministrators, teachers, and tutors, universi- most recent thinking on adult literacy instruc-ty students, and the adult clients themselves. tiona field that has changed over the past yearsmost of the articles included in this MCR OrganizationalTheoretical andIssues

cc The materials of instruction as well as the underling theories of teaching and learning that were developed during the first half of the centur continue to shape people's underlying conceptions of literao education.

\\GI lt,1991, 11

but paradigms are behind adultand corrects the assumptions he held regard- literacy programs? Whom do theing adult reading instruction. pr grams serve? With what suc- Hcathington argues fOr an expansion of cess? The pieces in this section address defin- the definition of literacy for adults. itional and management issliesl(R(11(1j11,54 Davis uses a sociological perspective to adult literacy programs. show how programs in different settings Langer ( 19911 points out that "althoughreflect the values of their sponsoring' institu- notions and uses c,`' literacy vary among cul- tions. Learners whose values do not coincide tural groups, they also change within groupswith those of the institutions become resisters. across time'" tp. 12). Wien I selected the arti- Community organizations -re suggested as a cles for this section, I took a haat look at the viable alternative to existing institutions. authors' theories and notions about the uses In the next two pieces, Norman and of literacy. In the first piece, Miff and StahlMalicky analyze stages in the reading devel- provide a provocative essay on the metaphorsopment of adults. Th,,v adopt a constructivist used to dramatize illiteracy and how thf'yview (Hiebert. 1991, in which learners are shape our thinking. The piece analyzes these'e'das active participants in the creation of problems of metaphor and of competingtheir own knowirdge In their latter piece. stakeholders and concludes that we shouldthey describe a study that used interviews and alwas, ' onsider literacy in a political con-miscue analysis to evaluate adults. Results test Shuman iiiites from personal experienceshowed that adults use knowledge-based

..3.. 0 strategies and supported previous findingsTheoretical and that adults' reading development begins with the use of language. Organizational The remaining pieces have .specific foci. Issues For Ferrell and Howler it is rural pro,qrams, and for Hansel! and tOelkel. a prison popula- tion. As a group, the pieces in this section Reconceptualizing the address the theory and practice of adult liter- av programs within changing paradigmsof Language of Adult instruction. The variety of settings helps keep a bloat' perspective. Literacy References /lichen, E./1. t /99/1. Introduction. In Ell. /lichen (Ed.). Literac.) for a diverse society (pp. 1-3). New York: Teachers College Press. PAUL, J. iI,SLEY ( I ). Literm and schooling: A soiaognitive perspective. In L.11. niche," NORMAN A. STAHL (EL). Literacy for a diverse society (pp. 9-27). SEPTEMBER 1993 New York: Teachers College Press.

Arecent magazine advertisement contained a headline designed to have the same type of advertising punch for the U.S. adult literacy movement as the "be all that you can be" sound hite had for tie U.S. Army. The idea behind the ad was to recruit volunteers for The Coalition of Adult Literacy. Produced in 1989 b; the National Advertising Council. the advertisement portrayed a crowd of most- ly average-looking people in a large picture. Underneath was the eye-catching message "There's an epidemic with 27 million victims. And no visible symptoms.- The application of certain trigger words in the headline was intended to shape the read- er's perspective and to recruit volunteers to assist nonreading adults in need. The text of the advertisement was even more gripping, in that it appealed to both altruistic and patriotic the +otd It is sheet speculation. if not instim isIt stated that "millions of Ameileuv, outfight piejudice, that guides the selec- are victims of a tragic epidemic,- and that "in tion and use of this term. human terms. the price of illiteracy is stagger Equating illiteracy with unemployment. ing. People who can't read, often can't work. or for that matter, crime, drug abuse, or They make up 50'74-75% of this country's any other social evil. rests on the assump- unemployed.- Furthermore. it appeared that tion that the inability to read necessarily one need not have special skills to help, be- makes a person a societal burden, and cause "when you join the fight against illiter- fails to note the productivity of illiterate, acy...it takes no spe.-2ial qualifications. If you semiliterate, and non-English-speaking can read, you can tutor or help us in countless adults in factories, on farms, in service other ways." Yet as one looks critically at the industries, in homes, and elsewhere. advertisement, the following components The implication that anyone who can seem out of place: read can help illiterates may well be true, Many people in the picture look confused but by itself the statement is facile and and aimless, as if nonreading adults are irresponsible. Effective volunteer literacy that way. Probably some are. though cer- programs are highly complex organiza- tainly not all. as is true of' any population. tions that rely on the coordinated efforts The reference to "epidemic" is strange. if of a variety of people. including the stu- not patently inappropriate, because it dents themselves (Ilsley. 1990). In a real sounds as though people who cannot read sense, a person's decision to learn to read are sick. Probably some are hut. again. so is a negotiated affair, not a matter of is some of the rest of the population. "helplessness" (Ilsley. 1985a). The overworked :Aid careless slogan used The overall effect of the advertising cam- by some members of the adult literacy paign is that it serves the need of organi- movement that there are "27 million vic- zations that produce literacy programs. tims" is suspect for two reasons. First, to not the needs of nonreading adults. estimate a number of illiterates requires a solid definition of illiteracy. Is literacy Unfortunately. illiteracy is often discussed merely 012 o".lity to read the printedin relation to such striking notions as war. dis- word? Is it a matter of' being functional inease, prison. and chronic unemployment both th,:. roles of parents. citizens. and work-in print and in electronic media campaigns. ers? Or is it to be equated with "voice"Similar overzealousness and sensationalism and "power"? The numbers vary greatlyis employed regularly in the speeches of well- according to the definitions of literacy 12known figures. For instance, when address- and illiteracy. Second, the word victim ising the 1984 National Convention of Literacy a label that applies to people who are onVolunteers of America. Barbara Bush (wife of the receiving end of a crime or a disease.the then U.S. vice president) proclaimed that Moreover, the word evokes images of a"adult illiteracy is one of the nation's most fool or a chunip. or someone who hasinsidious diseases." The following year. in his lost control of a situation. Nonrcadingaddress to the American Newspaper Publish- adults are not victims in either sense of'ers' Association, former U.S. Secretary of O

Education Terrell Bell (1985) argued that "themetaphors. followed by analysis of their time is now to mobilize our forces, the corpo- usage. rations, various sectors of government, the The discuss.n that follows is organized military, and, of course, the media against around four metaphors that have been pre- adult illiteracy." sented regularly in the popular press. in elec- Why resort to pretentious language, inflat-tronic media. and in speeches by both elected ed statistics, and misplaced metaphors for the and self-proclaimed U.S. leaders. These lan- purpose of dramatizing illiteracy to the pub- guage devices are what might be identified as lic? Usually, people select metaphors accord- public metaphors. They serve what Hayakawa ing to their own vested interests in describing(1978) noted as the affective use of lan- a situation or solving a problem. Furthermore,guage designed to invoke strong connota- as individuals or organizations develop and intions in the public's collective mind. We a sense market a metaphor to explain a con-cover (in order) illiteracy as a function of cept or a phenomenon. they are attempting to school language. illiteracy as a disease. illiter- create a power base that leads the selected acy as a national enemy in the military sense. audience to interpret the problem in a way and illiteracy as a lack of capital in a cultural favorable to the goals of the respective group. banking system. Scribner (1984) in a some- Indeed. both the public and nonprofit sectors what similar vein used the development of are rather like the private sector. where lan- metaphor to attempt to define literacy. Yet her guage is used strategically in advertising and forms of metaphor (i.e., literacy as adapta- public relations campaigns to compete fortion. literacy as power, literacy as state of market share or in this situation grants. con- grace) were presented for scholars by an tracts. favorable public opinion. etc. acclaimed scholar. Thus her metaphors have a The more successful if not dramatic therather "private" usage serving a specialized metaphor, the more likely will he the group's population. The metaphors identified here are emergence into a dominant leadership posi-drawn instead from the public media and tion. It is the metaphor that becomes known have an impact on us all. to many. Unfortunately. he highly affective- effective public metaphor on literacy avoids The SchoolMetaphor forcing both professional and laypersons to By far the most popular and perhaps most come to grips with a basic definition of litera-ironic of all choices of language to describe cy (e.g.. literacy vs. functional literacy vs.adult illiteracy comes from professional ed- illiteracy. or relative literacy vs. absoluteucators. who speak of literacy in absolute. literacy). (luantiliable termsgrade levels, achieve- At this juncture. the way stakeholders ment tests, competency examsreducing the describe adult literacy reflects their position problem to school language. This way of and goals and perhaps even determines theirlooking at literacy has consequences it' success as an ongoing entity. Hence, educa- applied to literacy programs. What sense does tors need tonote the language usedby gov- it make to subject people who did not per- ernment lead-m-s and by the media to describe form well in their school years to the same literacy and il!iteracy. In the rest of this arti-regimen of rote memorization. isolated skill cle, we present some of the more popular mastery. punctuality, and obedience?

G.. 1 In contrast. adult literacy education as- The medical metaphor, like any. has aC an- sumes participants will display consistency.tages and disadvantages. Among the advan- ingenuity, cooperation, and efficiencythetages is the image that there is scientific preci- kinds of attributes that promote personal suc-sion in teaching adult literacy. The result is the cess and help to drive an organization or pro-quest for systematic analysis of students, and fession in this modern technological culture.consistent and efficient programming and Hence. at the very least, pedagogese is out ofinstructional evaluation. Goals are clear, ac- place in the adult literacy context. countability is high, and records are kept meth- Anyone who has discussed the matter withodically under such a model. Moreover, the one or more nonreading adults will agree thatsense of drama contained in labeling adult il- the standards by which youngsters are mea-literacy a social disease creates societal aware- sured in the typical U.S. classroom give wayness and evokes public consciousness raising in adulthood to other standards and goals. It isand charitable participation akin to calling not necessarily true that adult nonreaders,national attention to cancer or heart disease. whom we often treat like metacognitively As for the negative. there is a difference naive youngsters, do not know what theybetween curing a disease and promoting want, as the stereotype would have us believe.health. A premise behind the idea of eradicat- Like the rest of us, they would like to achieveing illiteracy, as it' it were a disease, is that a their goals on their own terms. When the deficit model is appropriate. Merely by elimi- school language, tests, processes, roles, andnating illiteracy we will have met our goal. norms that failed them in the past appear toHowever, the medical model is not very at- he once again unrealistic or uncompromising,tractive to participants. Even if it were possi- adult nonreaders simply avoid them. ble, rooting out illiteracy from society is not nearly so upbeat a proposal as is the advance- The Medical ment of literacy, which is more purposeful (and Industrial) Nletanhor and full of hope. Common sense would indi- In response to the societal disease of adultcate that educational programs are more like- illiteracy, the adult nonreader is encouraged to ly to appeal to people when the benefits and check into a learning clinic, where the primaryease of attending are presented persuasively symptoms are hypothesized during a triage-rather than when people are shamed or even like intake interview, which is then followedcoerced into programs designed to "eradicate by the in-depth diagnosis of weaknesses andthe disease of illiteracy.- strengths (in that order) by a clinician or an Moreover, the medical metaphor places intern and the prescription of an individual-the problem within an individual. Consider ized plan of instruction. Then through thethe purpose of diagnosis. Once tested, various monitoring of instructional vital signs. prog-characteristics of the personas opposed to noses are made. Once the problem has beenhis or her context, L'ilture. or societyare controlled, the student-patient is released fromidentified for treatment. The myth is encour- the clinic to undergo long-term therapy at theaged that all similarly diagnosed individuals local adult education program while on thecan he treated with the same kind of instruc- other extreme the illiterate is declared a termi-tion. Also, when illiteracy is defined as an nal case as an undiagnosed dyslexic or aindividual problem. an educator can define learning-disabled deficiencies in ways that remove a student

2

It item the decisionmaking process Belief in ploblem is serious nd tequues an enoi mous the stamp of industrialization, or the cookie- amount of attention and the commitment of cutter model, predominates, leading to the resources. Similarly. the unidirectional unitization. standardization, and compart- recruitment campaign makes no estimation of mentalization of students and their problems. the difficulty of reaching illiterate adults and In this way, illiterates are not educated: theyconvincing them to join programs. It will take are processed. (And people don't like that inlong-term strategic planning to reach.and to medicine, either.) serve the target population of nonreading Finally, the medical metaphor. with its adults properly. crass implication that people are diseased and Furthermore. we must ask what a closer that there is an epidemic in our midst. sug-examination of military talk says about vol- gests that illiterates are contagious and are to unteers and the call to arms. Talk of such a he shunned or feared. Despite the drama good war suggests there may he the glory of implied when the medical metaphor is put topersonally co,ering illiteracy in a willing use, it is pretentious and misleading. As theand able tutee. Yet, when a person decides to model is questioned at other levels of edca-become involved in the "war on illiteracy,- he tion, so it certainly should he rethought inor she must he concerned with the possibility adult literacy education circles. of becoming another of the casualties who fall by the tutorial wayside. The Minim" Metaphor And what does the military metaphor say Perhaps it was the Lyndon Johnson-eraabout the potential students? Just who is the slogan of the "War on Poverty" that gave riseenemy in this war on illiteracy? Is it all of to the more current U.S. slogan of the "warsociety, for permitting conditions to reach on illiteracy." In declaring war. thelegionsofsuch proportions? Not likely. Social reform is volunteers will hestrategically mobili:ed in a not an important matter in the circles that rely campaignto hit the ta?'t populations. Ame-or. such rhetoric. Are schools to blame for ricans will win thebattleagainst illiteracyineffectively educating a proportion of stu- andconquerignorance. In this way. the mili- dents under their charge? Hardly, since the tary metaphor provides the illusion that the action is with the students. and not with school C 17C171Vis a seriousthreatto the nation andreform (adult literacy and school reform are that as good Americans, we must find that concepts that are rarely linked). No, adult illit- inner resolve to respond in a bold and forth- erates themselves are the object of attention, right manner. and, though they are not deemed the enemy. While such militaristic talk highlights the they are nevertheless depicted as Kiplingish problem of illiteracy for the public, it skirts burdens to society. as unemployable, and as the harsh analysis that the populace would ashamed of themselves, and therefore as like- find of little direct interest. There is no mis- lytargetsfor literacy instruction. taking that those who use such rhetoric are Like the medical metaphor. the military dreaming of a speedy educational Desert metaphor is based on a deficit model. The Storm rather than a pedagogical Vietnam- logic of it leads one to believe that conquer- style quagmire. Indeed it is all too easy to get ing the enemy will bring peace (or peace of caught up in patriotic flag waving (if not pro- mind). That is. ridding society of illiteracy paganda) without realizing that the illiteracy will promote higher levels of employment,

3 better family relations, and even improvedis comfort in wealth, and a realistic plan to worker morale. The American Century' willgain economic (educational) security is continue past the year 2000. intriguing to people as well as ingrained in Yet there is an old saving that "a nationthe American national psyche as positive. that hates war will never find peace.'' It is not Better y:t, unlike money. knowledge is infi- enough for society to hate the opposite of nite, and its value relative to the situation. It is what it wants. It must instead envision itsall around people, and it is there for the tak- goal, and then act on the vision. No amounting. A belief in the banking metaphor is a of hating a social condition, such as illiteracy, belief in the goal of education. will bring about the opposite, such as the To consider the metaphor's prejudicial achievement of a literate society. There is aside, not all knowledge is equally accessible, vast difference between a nation that is notand not everyone is granted equal entry to it. illiterate and one that is literate. PromotingSome knowledge is sacred and is kept from war, calling good people to arms, and encour-people who lack the proper credentials to aging hate of any kind is a limited worldviewobtain it and hence to use it "properly." Infor- in any event. While the battles rage on andmation from the medical, legal, mortuary sci- nonreading adults are caught in the crossfire, ence, and insurance fields comes tomind as the military metaphor is not all it can he. an outstanding example. It takes persistence The Banking Metaphor to secure the linguistic capital or the specific information about a disease, a coffin, or a life In the banking metaphor, assumptions are insurance policy, unless one happens to have made about the nature of knowledge and of passed the respective rites of passage to he a the way people gain it. Accordingly, knowl- doctor, an attorney, an undertaker, or an insur- edge is stored in vaults from which with- ance agent. The professions are nottypically drawals and deposits can he made. A person educative. Indeed, many professional regis- is rich when his or her mind is full of facts. In this way, educators from the preschool ters and practices are inherently monopolistic and are designed to hinder public access to through the university are like bankers, in that information that would otherwise he in the they keep watch over the currency of knowl- edgeor of that knowledge that is officiallypublic interest. approved. The coin of the realm then is the Since the teaching profession has been his- content. which is taught in school, thattorically an acceptable portal into the middle appears on standardized tests and supportsclass, teachers have often fallen into the role the belief system of the dominant economicof the metaphorical loan officer guarding the culture. Language, facts, beliefs, and even cultural capital. The question that becomes regional or cultural dialects that are not a partcentral to the literacy debate is whether edu- of the official system are deemed inappropri- cators should be keepers of the official knowl- ate and, on balance, "correctable" (Freire,edge, as opposed to facilitators of the critical 1970) to the degree that a corpus of culturallythinking skills that will empower others who appropriate knowledge is deemed necessary are at present without the accepted currency. (Hirsch, 1987). Actual capital to offer services, of course. One positive attribute of the banking meta-tends to go to those who accept the keeper phor can he seen in its hopeful nature. There role, as opposed to those serving in COMMU- nity organizations that advocate change with-ic of illiteracy" we must not view the learner in the system. as diseased. It is imperative that society Choice of Metaphors respect the dignity, the rights, and the accom- plishments of all people, regardless of their The four common metaphors just discussedability to deal with the printed word. are not the only ones now in use. Others favored in public relations circles, if notThe Problems of Metaphor and among professional educators, include gar-Competing Stakeholders dening. computing. machine language. and Values and assumptions are inherent in communications. All of these metaphors.phrases applied to adult illiteracy. The along with the ones we analyzed above, have metaphors all too simply present fundamental at least two things in common. First, theypremises about the nature of illiteracy and place the selection of solutions above thethose who cannot read. Those most prone to determination of the problem. In doing so.making such statements are probably well- they categorically remove students from themeaning members of the adult literacy move- decision-making process, as if their opinionsment, such as politicians, community leaders. of what it means to be illiterate or to he literateand educators. Though they may. not intend to are subjective, value laden. unsophisticated. oraffront adult nonreaders with their language, in some other way do not matter. Second.their word choice probably follows their own these metaphors are all nonhuman. Relianceintereststhat is, the interests of their respec- on medical. military. and banking metaphorstive profession. Educators may wish to spice conveys a belief in systems, techniques. andup the rhetoric with scientific or medical lark - professional expertisenot in the mission. the:wage to provide the clarion call. and politi- purpose. or the human processes of learning. cians may use forceful, vote winning military The careful selection of language to discusslanguage as a function of ongoing campaigns. any problem requires first considering the full Whatever the interest in adult literacy, the extent of a situation: second. determiningresulting choice of words used to describe it what is to he achieved and in what ways: andis important because the labeling of a prob- third. finding the connotations that accurately lem directs the solutions. To elaborate, if illit- convey the meaning. Adult literacy educatorseracy is defined in ternis of reading deficien- need not be locked into nonhuman metaphors.cy. the solution is to direct the nonreading despite their allure, unless these truly describeadult population toward reading instruction. our beliefs. Let's hope the day will comeIf literacy is defined in terms of citizenship when human language is more compellingthat is, if what it means to he literate includes than technical and mechanistic language. the ability to fill out tax forms, drive a car, There are times when dramatic, emotion-vote regularly. or use medical servicesthen laden language is used to convey a sense ofthe solution is quite different. untency and there are other times when it is The question then follows: Who should used to advance an agenda. In discussions oflabel the adult literacy problem? The govern- adult literacy, all stakeholders have a moralment? Corporations or other employers? The responsibility to avoid allowing the "warstudents themselves? Clearly. in the years against illiteracy" to turn into an undeclaredsince illiteracy has become a media-invested war on illiterates. In "conquering the epidem-concern. various groups have expressed an interest in defining both illiteracy and thetimed earlier, is regularly used, the best hope attending solutions. including reading spe-is that it will in time simply become a cliché cialists, adult educators, politicians of variousand hence inconsequential. Still there is no stripes, corporate moguls. workplace leaders,overcoming the initial problems encountered. criminal justice workers, librarians, religious The issue is not so much whether a meta- leaders, newspaper personnel, and morephor is used, but whether it promotes the lan- recently, special educators (working withguage of the commons, provides useful, posi- learning-disabled or otherwise cognitivelytive elements for public discourse, and handicapped persons). In each instance. therereaches the greater portion of the stakehold- is a different view of literacy and what iters. This implies the need to use language that means to be literate, according to the respec-educates, not simplifies, and the need for not tive stake or investment. There are alsojust education for illiterate adults but for all expectations of people regarding how theythe highly educated individuals who serve or are to behavefor example. to he spiritual, towant to serve the, nonreadersnamely, those he law abiding. to he good consumers. Yet inwho write the advertising text, those who no instance are provisions made to help non-draft the campaign speeches, those who com- reading adults determine for themselves why pose the popular press manuscripts, those kvho they should learn to read. Each of the stake-write the nighttime television sound bites, holders touches but a part of the elephant andthose who develop commentaries for radio describes the beast minimally. shows and newspaper editorials. It also calls Is there an easy way for professionals tofor greater communication between literacy avoid the problems inherent in the overre-providers and literacy advocates so that we liance on metaphor to convey understanding,come together to speak a common language biased or not. about the literacy situation? Weand convey important ideas and current issues think not. Clearly, metaphor provides easilyto the populace via agreed upon and readily developed affective-level communication thatcomprehensible understandings (Ilsley, promotes understanding without the necessity 1985h). The need for further cross-discipli- to coin new words or jargon unlikely to henary and cross-national forums such as the found in the working vocabularies of the mul-cosponsored Adult and Adolescent Literacy titudes, or to write extensive text conveyingForums becomes apparent. information to a sound-bite generation depen- To many, literacy is a phenomenon about dent upon bulleted, chopped text and 15- towhich society assumes a common and a uni- 30-second messages over the airwaves. versal understanding. Of course, neither as- Indeed, metaphor may be the most directsumption is correct. Compare, for example, form of communicating new ideas or impor-how literacy is defined in the workplace with tant issues of the day. However, as Hayakawahow it is defined in a community action cen- (1978) warned, the real danger is that meta-ter. In the former, the desired result is in- phor often passes into the language (and wecreased productivity for the company, if not would go as far as to say into the nationalthe country, whereas in the latter, it is group psyche) as part of the working vocabularyempowerment for the poor and oppressed. and hence the regularly accepted concepts ofViewed this way, the problem with the way complex societal phenomena. When a ques-most of us rely on adult literacy metaphors is tionable metaphor, such as one of those men-that it allows us all to bridge among special- ized fields at the expense of the nonreadingIlsley. P.J. (1985b). Including educationally de- adults themselves. So long as popular meta- prived adults in the planning of literacy pro- grams. In S. Rosenblum (Ed.). Including adults phor provokes either positive or negative in the educational process (New Directions for images of what it means to be illiterate or lit- Continuing Education. No. 26). San Francisco. erate, and the consequences to a nation, we CA: Jossey-Bass. may miss more subtle though holistic pointsScribner, S. ( I 984 ). Literacy in three metaphors. of the human issues of illiteracy. American Journal of Education, 93,6-21. Rather than presupposing that illiteracy is an individual problem, we should always con- sider litelaey in a political context. If illiteracy has political origins, it is likely that literacy Theoreticaland requires political solutions. Adult nonreaders can certainly participate in determining the Organizational curriculum. In this way, literacy education focuses not only on individual instruction but Issues also on group instruction, to the end that par- ticipants comprehend the forces and injustice that can oppress entire groups of people. If those of us involved in all facets of literacy Expanding the education begin to understand the attitudes and the agendas of the various stakeholders Definition of Literacy (our own included), exhibited through the metaphors and language used, we will have accomplished a great deal. Then and only for Adult Remedial then will the U.S. be in a position to address the needs of adult nonreaders. Readers References Bell, T. (1985. May 23). Kernel(' address. The Am- erican Newspaper Publishers' Association, Memphis. TN. Bush, B. (1984. September 17). Keynote address. BETTY S. HEATHINGTON rhc National Convention of Literacy Volunteers DECEMBER 1987 of America, Chicago, IL. Freix.P.(1971)). Pedagogy (!l. the oppressed. New York: Herder & Herder. Hirsch. E.B. (1987). Cultural literacy. New York: Harper & Row. Hayakawa. S.I. (1978). Language in thought and We often ask "How do we define action (4th ed.). New York: Harcourt Brace. an adult remedial reader?" The P.J. (1990). Enhancing volunteer participa- definition is important. It tion. San Francisco. CA: Jossey-Bass. should help us in providing an I 985a). Adult literacy volunteers: ls- Ilsley, P.J. ( appropriate reading program for these adults. MU'S and ideas ( Information Series No. 301). Columbus. OH: 1tic Clearinghouse on Adult.If we know, or can define, a situation, we Career, and Vocational Education. should be able to plan for it. However, many

..12.. current definitions do not help us to plan andcompletion data are compared with compe- implement programs or understand the needstency testing data, essentially the same num- of the adult remedial reader. This articlebers are established. There seems to be a reviews some current definitions of literacystrong link between years spent in school and and suggests that an expansion of the defini-competencies in reading. The ease of defining tions is needed, based on information gainedliteracy by years in school is undoubtedly from interviews with adult remedial readersanother reason it is often used as a measure. as they describe their needs. However, defining literacy by a prescribed number of years spent in school does little to Current Definitions guide the content or process of an adult Consider some of the current definitions ofprogram. literacy: The grade level equivalent definitionis The reading and writing ability definition prevalent in educational writings. Dinnan is one of the earliest definitions of literacy, (1980)has described illiteracy as the inability stating that persons are considered literate ifof the individual to function with materials they can read and write their names. The U.S.written beyond 5th grade level. In Adult Ba- Census Bureau has considered individuals tosic Education. three categories of ability are be literate if they reply affirmatively to adefined by references to grade levels: Level I question about their ability to read and write a= Grades 0-3 (beginning): Level II = Grades simple sentence. The requirements for litera-4-6 (intermediate): Level III = Grades7up cy under this definition are modest: extensive(advanced). Three levels associated with skills are not required. This definition givesgrades in school are also presented by Powell us little direction in program planning. We (1977): (1)a :.reliteracy level during which simply would have as our objective that thethe individual oegins to gain knowledge and adult would he able to read and write his oruse of basic skills in societynamely, those her name or a simple sentence. Such a read-essential literacy skills upon which further ing program would he a limited one for thelearning depends (estimated grade level of adult remedial reader. K-3): (2) a basic literacy level during which The years of schooling definition. An-literacy skills can develop further without for- other definition of literacy is years of school-mal instruction (estimated grade level of 5.5): ing or grades completed. Some people dis-and (3) a career literacy level during which a)zree that this is a valid definition. They pointbasic skills plus advanced skill performance out that just because someone has not com-are necessary (estimated grade level of 7.5). pleted 12 years of schooling, it does not nec- The definition of grade-level equivalents essarily follow that she or he cannot read:forces the adult into a pattern provided for and, conversely, just because someone doeschildren. It must be remembered that grade- receive a diploma, it does not mean that shelevel scores on standardized achievement or he can read. However. after examiningtests use norms based on testing of specific extensive data, Fisher(1978)has stated thatpopulations. For example, a 5.0 reading score the evidence is strong that those who fail tois what the average child in a 5th grade stan- graduate from high school constitute the bulkdardized sample scored on the test. Problems of illiterates. Further, Hunter and Harmanin using these scores with adults, who must (1979) have stated that when high school deal with very different types of content and .. 13.. is situations than those addressed in an achieve- literacy: consumer economics (reading labels ment test, must be recognized. The contenton cans). occupational knowledge (reading and situations related to reading for an adultjob-wanted ads), health (reading first aid are very different from those of a child in thedirections). community resources (reading a early grades. movie schedule), and government and law The competency-based or fitnctional lit-(reading about your rights after arrest) eracy definition relates to the individual's (Greenfield & Nogueira, 1980). ability to read real-life materials. At present, The competency-based or functional read- competency-based or functional literacy ising definition provides much more direction receiving more attention than the previousin program planning and program implemen- definitions. However. Ayrer (1977) has point-tation than do the other definitions. Content ed out how difficult it is to define functionalfor reading classes for adult remedial readers literacy: "Everyone knows what functionalcan he specified more clearly. Such a defini- literacy is but no one can tell you. It's one oftion has contributed much to an understand- those concepts for which there is no singleing of the adult's needs. However, although it definition which will fit every situation.-is superior to others. it lacks certain aspects Hunter and Harman (1979, p. 7) define func-needed for us to fully understand the adult tional literacy as "the possession of skills per-remedial reader. It focuses on the individual's ceived as necessary by particular persons andability to read certain types of adult materials. groups to fulfill their own self-determinedThe definition is directed at reading skills objectives as family and community mem- needed for real-life materials; overlooked are bers. citizens. job-holders. and members ofthe affective aspects of adult reading situa- social, religious, or other associations of theirtions. The current competency-based or func- choosing.- Kirsch and Guthrie (1977-1978)tional reading definition needs to be expand- defined functional literacy as relating to theed to include affective aspects of literacy. level of skills needed by individuals or popu-Interviews with adults in a literacy program lations to be able to complete a certain real-show us why. life reading task. Readence and Moore (1979) list functional literacy skills under five majorExpanding the Definition categories: forms and applications, advertise- In interviews conducted in the University ments. pictorial materials, consumer informa-of Tennessee Adult Reading Academy Pro- tion and directions, and information andgram over several years. adult remedial read- information sources. ers have described not only their needs relat- In recent years, the competency-based ored to reading certain types of materials but functional definition of literacy has beenalso their feelings about reading. These feel- prevalent in the United States. In 1970, Louis ings should he addressed as programs are Harris and Associates conducted a study todeveloped, for they can help us in under- assess survival literacy skills, defined instanding the adult remedial reader. Let us terms of such tasks as reading an application note examples taken from the interviews form, a telephone directory, and a classifiedwhich demonstrate the impact the affective ad in a newspaper (Hunter & Harman. 1979).domain has on the adult remedial reader. In The Adult Performance Level (Am..) Projectthe interview, the readers describe the effects also used functional competencies to assessof their inability to read on their lives as relat- i 9 ..1.1.. ed to their roles as workers, as consumers. as by most people in a modern society, adult parents, as students, in social situations, and remedial readers are affected in adverse in recreational or leisure situations. ways. For example. As workers. Unemployment and under- They are embarrassed when they cannot employment often concern adult remedial read labels in a grocery store and must readers. The interviews reveal over and over ask for assistance. the embarrassment of an adult who had to take his wife with him so that she could They feel guilty that they cannot re:id complete the job application form for him, health-related materials so that they or the adult who stated that his most embar- know how to take care of a sick child. rassing times were when he had to fill out a They are fearful of signing documents job applicatio:. form "in front of all of those for credit buying because they must de- people." The interviews reveal the frustra- pend on others to explain what they are tion and fear rehted to employment. signing. Examples include: The cook who was afraid someone would As parents. Many adult remedial readers find out she couldn't read the recipes. express concern about their reading as they become parents. They are fearful that their The mechanic who was embarrassed when reading problem will have detrimental effects his boss found out he couldn't read the on their children. For example: charting sheet. They are embarrassed when their chil- The truck driver who was frustrated be- dren's friends find out they cannot read cause he couldn't locate places for deliv- or they are afraid such revelations will be eries because he couldn't read the road or made. street signs. They are afraid their children will ask The chemical worker who was frightened them to read a hook aloud and they will and frustrated because he couldn't read not be able to do so. the labels on the chemicals he mixed. Fathers have expressed their feelings of The worker who was embarrassed because inadequacy when the mothers can help he had to ask fellow employees to read with homework and they cannot help. his work orders. The worker whose self-esteem was very As students. In educational settings, adult low because he had to tape-record his remedial readers face frustration and feelings work and take it home to he typed or writ- of inadequacy as they attempt to gain knowl- ten by family members who could read. edge and skills to improve themselves. For example: As consumers. Feelings of embarrassment, low esteem. and frustration also plague the They are embarrassed when asked to adult remedial reader in the consumer area. read aloud in a classroom. They are un- When faced with such tasks as buying gro- comfortable and nervous when teachers ceries, obtaining health services, securing make such requests. credit, paying bills, writing checks. reading They arc frustrated when they cannot read menus, and a host of tasks taken for granted assignments or pass tests.

..15.. 0 In social situations. Social interactions The foregoing comments taken from inter- with family, friends, and work colleagues areviews emphasize that current definitions of sometimes difficult for those with limited lit-literacy. which concentrate only on materials eracy skills. For example: and skills, are lacking. The definitions no not Many of them are frustrated at being un-help us understand the frustration. the nega- able to read letters from family andtive self-concept, the fear, and the embarrass- friends. One man could not communi-ment that plague dult remedial readers. We cate with a son in a distant state becausemust expand our definition of literacy to of his inability to write and inadequateencompass aspects of affect. We must under- financial resources for telephone calls. stand that not only does a definition of an Many report embarrassment in churchadult remedial reader relate to his or her read- activities. specifically Sunday schooling skills with various types of materials, but classes when they are asked to read aalso to using these materials. This informa- passage in the Bible. They report feelingtion can help us plan better reading programs inadequate when they must decline to for adult remedial readers. read in front of social acquaintances. References For some, social activities taken for grant-A,Ter. J.E. (1977. May). Problems in the des clop- ed by many of us create an unpleasant ment of a test of functional literacy. Journa/ of Reading. 20. 697-705. situation. One woman never went to baby Dinnan, J.A. (1980). An evaluation of literacy pro- showers because she was "afraid they'd gra-is for mature adults. In M.L. Kamil & A.J. play those writing games.- Moe (Eds.). Perspectives in reading research Many go to great efforts to hide the fact and instruction. Washington. DC: National they cannot read. Sometimes close fam- Reading Conference. ily members, even a husband or wife.Fisher. D.L. (1978). Eumtional literacy and the schools. Washington. DC: U.S. Department of are unaware that the person is unable to Health. Education. and Welfare. National In- read. They sometimes report they feel stitute of Education. like "half a person" and are ashamed to Greenfield. L.. & No.gueira. F. (1980). Reading tell even those close to them about their should he functional: The Am. approach. In L.S. inability to read. Johnson (Ed.). Reading and the adult learner. Ness ark. DE: International Reading Association. In recreational or leisure situations. Read- Hunter. C.S.J.. & Harman. D. (1979). Adult illiteracy ing provides pleasure for many people: this in the United States. New York: McGraw-Hill. Kirsch. I.S.. & Guthrie. J.T. (1977- 1978). The con- pleasure is denied those who lack reading cept and measurement of functional literacy. skills. For example: Reading Research Quarterly. 13, 485-507. One woman reported she was lonely andPowell. W.R. (1977. March). Levels of literacy. wanted to read hooks to fill the void. Journal of Reading. 20, 488-492. Readence. J.E.. & Moore. D. ( 1979. December). Another woman was frustrated at not be- Coping with minimal reading requirements: Sug- ing able to lead hooks that "teach things gestions for the reading teacher. Reading It odd. of value in life.'' /9. 139-148. :rig public (Hunter & Harman, 1979. Kozol, Theoretical and 1985: Mezirow, Darkenwald, & Knox. 1975). Organizational Many of these programs rely on state or fed- eral funding and must therefore adhere to Issues rigid requirements for teacher certification, financial accountability. maintenance of at- tendance and enrollment records, and course coiapletion figures. Although these factors Adult Literm may help explain the lack of attractiveness of these formal programs to many adult non- readers, it must be noted that volunteer or- Programs: ganizations such as Literacy Volunteers of America (t.vA) and Laubach Literacy Action Toward Equality (11A) face similar problems reaching and re- taining students. or Maintaining the Conflicting lalues These issues can be viewed from a socio- Status Quo? logical perspective. Programs found in com- munity colleges, universities, and adult high school classes tend to reflect the values of the sponsoring institutions, which more often than not coincide with values held by the DENISE M. Dmits dominant social class. In the United States, SEPTEMBER 1991 this "dominant social class" is that of the white middle-class male. These same values permeate the volunteer organizations. Ils ley (1985b, p. 12) suggests f adult literacy programs in the Unitedthat "without attempting any exact analysis at States are viewed as a means to achievethis point, one can state that both organiza- social and economic equality and there-tions I I.VA and I.LA1 uphold strong middle- 1by improve society, why do these pro-class orientations in such matters as interpre- gramsorams fail to reach most marginal economictations and definitions of literacy, the type and social groups? Are there some adult liter-and method of training provided, and the acy programs that havt, succeeded or mightgoals they attempt to reach.- succeed in reaching these people? What Sociologist Bourdieu (1981) speaks of obstacles lie in the paths of educatorssuch entrenched values as the "habitus" of the involved in the implementation of such pro-institution. Institutional values reflect laws grams? and customs accumulated by a social group The adult literacy programs found in U.S.over the course of history as well as the web community colleges, universities, and adultof perceptions, thoughts, and actions unique high school classes are frequently described to that institution. Educational curricula as serving the "cream" of the adult nonread-reflect what is accepted as knowledge. cul-

..I 7...) 4., 4, ture, or linguistic practice by the dominant willing to encounter and learn the same con- social group and thus serve to reproduce the tent when it is taught in a community center. values of that group. Bourdieu theorizes that In this context. the learner has an investment a mismatch between the values of the educa-both in the process of learning and in the tional institution and those of specific learn-community where the instruction is offered. ers is common. Consider adult literacy pro- grams in light of Bourdieu's theory. ManyThe Resistance Phenomenon nonreaders are not members of the dominant Quigley's (1987: Beder & Quigley. 1990) social group. Research suggests that a poten- analysis of the phenomenon of resistance tial learner's awareness of this mismatch inleads him to note the importance of the re- values may result in resistance to an educa-sister's values. Also important in Quigley's tional institution's programs, not so muchanalysis is the way in which the learner views because of content but because of the valuesthe consequences of resistance or nonresis- that institution embodies (Beder & Quigley,tance. Quigley deliberately developed his 1990: Fingeret, 1983. 1984: Quigley. 1987). model of resistance through analysis of resis- This problem seems to apply to programstance to education as it appears in literary fic- offered by formal educational institutions and tion. This, he asserts, eliminates the inevitable volunteer groups. intrusion of the researcher in cross-cultural For example. volunteer tutors are frequent- workthat is, the reactivity between the sub- ly recruited from outside the learners' com-jects being analyzed and the process and bias- munities and social groups. Despite their no es of the researcher. Expanding on Quigley's doubt good intentions, tutors may reflect an resistance model and applying it to an analy- attitude prevalent in their own communitysis of adult literacy programs yields the fol- that the inability to read represents a deficien- lowing conclusions: cy in the learner. Tutors may, as llsley (1985a) 1. Resistance may be either overt or sub- suggests, include the nonreader in the defini-tle, since resisters respond to values imposed tion of the problem by saying "You don't upon them in a number of ways. They may know how to read: I can teach you." suggest-enroll in a program but drop out quickly ing that "You are the problem: I am the solu- when they perceive a conflict between the tion'. (p. 38). program's values and their own. They may Fingerers (1983. 1984) research clearlyquietly conform (or appear to conform) to challenges deficiency-based theories of litera- the values, ethics, and definitions of what cy. Her work with adult nonreaders suggests constitutes knowledge imposed on them, that these individuals are neither perceivedwhile waiting to break through institutional as deficient by others in their communitiesconstraints. They may stay in educational nor do they view themselves as deficient. Itinstitutions in order to learn the language of' seems reasonable to assume then that adultthe dominant social group and eventually use nonreaders would he less likely to resistthis knowledge in educational or political involvement in literacy programs that moreactivities designed to strengthen their own closely reflected their own cultural or social group. values. 2. Resisters may not he resisting the con- In other words, a resister to a program tent of the program but may find the values offered by a community college may be quiteembodied in that program unacceptable. For example. learning the alphabet in one context 3. Underserved populationsthe program may he acceptable but in another, unaccept-serves populations who typically do not join able. more traditional programs because of low 3. Resisters may find the content irrelevant reading level or poverty. to their lives. Fingeret (1983) asserts that the 4. Student empowermentprogram ability to read is but one skill that contributesobjectives include economic and social self- to the exchange of skills in a social network. sufficiency for both students and their com- 4. Resisters are aware of the consequences munities through measures that promote in- of resistance and nonresistance. Adults independence. Here individual achievement Fingeret's (1983) research group. for exam- and independence are linked with community ple, knew that if they learned to read, all ofachievement and independence. Methm's by the relationships in their social networkwhich this is achieved vary considerahl\, would shift. Not only would they have less from job-skill training to promoting solidarity time to participate in their social networks, among groups effecting social change at the but their own needs would change. local level. Adult nonreaders who conform to the edu- 5. Learner-centered curriculumthe cur- cational practices and values expressed by riculum is based on learners' objectives as existing literacy programs risk eventual rejec- opposed to a prescribed set of activities and tion by their own cultural or social groups.subject matter. Community-based programs Some conform despite pressure from theiravoid diagnosis, grade-level assignments. and social. family. or cultural groups becausethe use of standardized materials. Instead doing so enables them to reconstruct the con-they rely on students' real-life problems and ditions under which they live. work. and on experiential materials. learn. 6. Learner-centered methodologymeth- odologies are not didactic nor authoritative in .thernathe: approach. Cotnntuniti Organizations To be defined as community based. an Experts argue that the most successfulorganization need not necessarily meet all of adult literacy programs are those offered by these six criteria. Heaney (1989) indicates community-based organizations or cnos that many modern community-based organi- (Atiorve, 1989: Fingeret, 1983. 1984. 1989: zations were originally grounded philosophi- Heaney. 1989: Hunter & Harman, 1985: cally in the work of Paulo Freire (1970). who Ils ley. 1985a. 1985b. 1989: Jurmo. 1989: asserts that learning to take control and Kozol, 1985: Zachariadis, 1986). Ils levachieving power are not individual objec- (1985b) defines CBOS in terms of six criteria: tives. For poor and dispossessed people, 1. Community orientationthe program strength is to he found in numbers. and social serves a definable constituency, is basedchange is accomplished in unity. locally, and uses indigenous staff. The Freirean liberatory programs that mul- 2. Program independencethe program tiplied during the 1970s (Heaney. 1989)gave is independent and autonomous and does rise to national networks of liheratory educa- not rely on a larger organization (such as ators who attempted to adapt methods used by public education system) for managerial Freire in other countries to the ghettos and guidelines. barrios of North America. These programs occupied storefronts and abandoned schools.taken pride in participating in decision mak- for educators in community-based organiza-ing. as well as in sharing the responsibilities tions were denied access to funds readily,of building upkeep. available to schools and community colleges. The director is grappling with the issue of Yet Heaney asserts that the cno programswhat has been and will he sacrificed in order were more effective than those offered by the to retain SHAG funding. She remarked that the well-funded institutions, when effectivenesscenter had managed with little money prior to is defined as high enrollment, retention. andobtaining the grant and would survive if its completion rates. Heaney states that as longmembers felt compelled to refuse the funding as a program is considered "methodologicallyin future because of state interference with distinct but not different in its social and cul-the center's mission. She agrees with Heaney tural consequences," it is tolerated as a varia-( 1989, p. 24) that "cooperation with main- tion on traditional systems of adult literacystream educational institutions takes its toll education (p. 24). Thus. some cnos were ableon staff for whom the limited interests of their to build cooperative relationships with tradi-sponsors dictate priorities and moderate tional institutions, as well as to apply for gov-(ion," There is often little time left for "criti- ernment or state funding. These alliancescal teaching and transforming action" after v.oro formed at a high cost to their missions,fulfilling these obligations. however, when their emancipatory efforts Iliterkicand Social Change were blocked by economic sanctions imposed by their institutional sponsors. The missions of successful community- Such problems persist today. A visit to abased literacy organizations have typically neighborhood c13o serving a community ofbeen linked to issues of empowerment, social Spanish-speaking adults in the heart of a larget.iobility, and equality for program partici- midwestern U.S. city revealed that emancipa-pants. In this context, literacy education is tory initiatives are blocked if' the CI30 acceptsfocused on humanitarian principles and on federal or state funds. The director and one ofraising the ability of learners to participate the founders of this center said she was pon-more fully in a democratic society. Although dering the eventual consequences of theacquisition of basic entry-level employment center's recent acquisition of sum; fundingskills may be a part of the program, it is not (from the State Local Impact Assistanceusually the program's sole focus. Grant program, jointly sponsored by the By contrast, traditional literacy programs Illinois State Board of Education and thesanctioned and financially supported by the United States Immigration and NaturalizationUnited States government stress literacy for Service). Since rcceivipg the st.iAG grant, theincreased workplace productivity and mainte- center has had to devot.! much time and ener-nance of the status quo. For many adult non- gy to meeting federal and state priorities.readers, that status quo includes a standard of There are rigid requirements for teacher certi-living well below the poverty level. fication (a problem for this particular center, Federal funds and private donations are where former students often become tutorsreadily available for institutionalized literacy and teachers) and accountability. sum; fund-programs that typically lack student involve- ing prohibits students from doing volunteerment in goal setting and are laden with insti- work. At this center students have heretoforetutional values. While some administrators

2 5 20- and adult literacy instructors ponder the effi-eracy education may be transformed into a cacy of whole language as compared to phon- vehicle dedicated to the pursuit of equality. ics or skills-based methodologies for teaching As Heaney (1989) points out, most eman- adult nonreaders, others express concern re- cipatory or liberatory literacy programs have garding the inability of literacy programs to been sustained by governments for only a attract and serve large sectors of the nonread- brief time following either a revolution or a ing adult population. Ils ley (1985a) theorizesdeclaration of independence. For these pro- that adult literacy programs such as thosegrams to proliferate and survive, he counsels offered by manyCBOtithreaten the established that their directors, founders, and teachers social order because one of their goals is stu- must "maintain the vision" and "await the dent empowerment. revolution and attempt to prepare learners for Community-based organizations are in- political options not yet available" (p. 25). volved in the education of marginalized social and cultural groups, many of whose members belong to racial minorities. Some fear theReferences inevitable social changes that will occur Anorxe, R. (1989). Community-based literacy edu- when these groups educate themselves and cators: Experts and catalysts for change. In A. begin to express values counter to those of Fingeret & P. J unlit) (Eds.). Participatory litera- cy education: Nett. directionlOr continuing the dominant social group. education (Vol. 42, pp. 35-421. San Francisco. The United States has traditionally looked CA: Jossey-Bass. for economic returns from its literacy pro-Beder. H.. & Quigley'. B.A. (19901. Beyond the grams. We may do well to ponder the wisdom classroom. Adult LeornitN. /(51,19-2I, 30. of Botkin. Elmaraljra, and Malitza (1979) Botkin, J.. Elmandjra, M., & Malitza. M. (1979). who in No Limits to Learning: Bridging the No limits to learning: Bridging the human gap. Oxford. UK: Pcrgamon. Human Gap noted as follows: Bourdicu. P. (1981). Men and machines. In K. It is neither proper nor necessary to assess such Knorr-Cetina & A. Cicourel (Eds.). Advances in literacy programs in terms of immediate eco- theory and methodology. London: Routledge & nomic returns; whilliteracy may bring eco- Kenn Paul. nomic advantages in the lone run, the most Fingeret. A. (1 983 ). Social network: A new per- immediate concern is to start a process that spective on independence and illiterate adults. leads to increasing human dignity and to break Adult Education Quarterly, 33.133-146. ing the vicious circle of poverty and marginal- Fingeret. A. (1984). Adult literacy education: ization ( p. 911. Current and future directions (Contract No. 400-81-0035). Columbus, OH: National Center Can we as educators meet the challenge of Puhlications, National Center for Research in viewing literacy not only as a technical prob- Vocational Education. (ED 246 3081 Fingeret, A. (1989). The social and historical con- lem, but as a social and political issue? Will text of participatory literacy education. In A. we dedicate our efforts to development and Fingeret & P. Jurnio (Eds.). Participatory litera- use of superior techniques and methodology cy education: New direction. jOr continuing for working with adults who are nonreaders? education (Vol. 42. pp. 5-16). San Francisco. We must without hesitation focus our efforts CA: Josses -Bass. Freire. P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppreA.,ed. New on eventual resolution of the social and politi- York: Seabury. cal issues just addressed. We have the energy, Heaney. T. (1989). Freirean literacy in North means. and enthusiasm with which adult lit- America: The community-based education 9 r, ..2 I..

dI movement. Thresholds in Education. Adult Literacy: Global Perspective', /5.21-26. Theoretical and Hunter, C.S.J.. & Harman. D. (1979). Adult literacy in the United States. New York: McGraw-Hill. Organizational Ilsicy. P. (1985a). Including educationally deprived adults in al.; planning of literacy programs. In Issues S.H. Rosenblum (Ed.), Involving adults in the educational process: New directions for contin- uing education (Vol. 26, pp. 33-42). San Fran- cisco. CA: Jossey-Bass. P. (1985h). Adult literacy volunteers: Issues Stages in the Reading and ideas (Information Series No. 301). Colum- bus. OH: ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult. Career and Vocational Education. (ID 260 303) Development of Adults IlsleN. P. (1989). The language of literacy. Thresholds in Education. Adult Literacy: Global Perspectives. /5. 6-10. Jurmo. P. (1989). The case for participatory literacy CHARLES A. NORMAN education. In A. Fint.leret & P. Jurmo ;Eds.). GRACE MALICKY Participatory literacy education: New directions for continuing education (Vol. 42, pp. 17-281. JANUARY 1987 San Francisco. CA: Jossey-Bass. Kozo]. J. (1985). Illiterate America. New York: Anchor/Doubleday. Mezirow. J., Darkenwald, G.G.. & Knox, A.B. Can stages be identified in the read- (1975). Last gamble on education. Washington. DC: Adult Education Association. ing development of adults? The Quigley. B.A. (1987). The resisters: An analysis of answer to this question has more non-participation in adult basic education. than theoretical significance since Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Northern this information could he very useful in plan- Illinois University, DeKalb. IL. ning reading programs for adults. Zachariadis. C.P. (1986). Adult literacy:A study of community-based 'iteracy programs (Vol. 1, 1 his article reports a study in wkich 123 study findings and recommendations). Washing. adults, reading at grade levels 1-8, were ton. DC: Association for Community Basedassessed to determine the strategies they used Education. as they read. Oral reading miscues were ana- lyzed in terms of reading processes and com- parisons were made across levels. Results generally revealed two stages of reading development across the levels tested. In the first stage, at reading levels 1-3, the adults relied equally on print-based and language- based strategies as they read. but initially they had difficulty integrating these two knowl- edge sources. Near the end of the first stage, an increase in integration was evident and this was followed in the second stage. at read- ing levels 4-8, by a marked increase in the ability of adults to use language knowledge toend points of learning to read and reading to integrate and to predict as they read. learn. In Phase I, which involves "using lan- guage for reading,- the focus is on reading as Stages Among Children a language process and on use of knowledge- Stages in the reading development of chil-based strategies. Once the reader has estab- dren have frequently been postulated but per-lished a basic understanding of what reading haps the most comprehensive attempt tois, the focus turns to "refinement of word delineate stages is that undertaken by Challrecognition ability" or print-based strategies (1983). who outlined six stages of readingin Phase 2. Finally in Phase 3. labeled "read- development. Stage 0 is labeled "prereading,- ing to learn,- the emphasis is on deriving and the focus is on meaning. with knowledge- meaning from print with the aduk relying based strategies used to reconstruct stories. heavily on vocabulary and background For children, school entrance signals the knowledge. start of Stage I. which involves initial reading There is considerable similarity between or decoding and lasts for one or two grade Chall's Stages 0-3 and Jones's three phases, levels. In this stage the reader is "glued to print," focusing on print-based rather thanalthough Chall does not view Stage 0 as hav- ing relevance for adult learners. Neither meaning-based processing. Stage 2 is a tran- sition stage occuring at about Grade 3 readingscheme has been verified by research with level and is labeled by Chall as "confirma-adults and in fact there have been few at- tion. fluency. and ungluing from print.- Thetempts to provide empirical support for any reader begins to integrate print-based andnotion of stages in the development of adult knowledge-based strategies through exten-literacy. If, as both Jones and Chall suggest. sive reading but the major focus is still onthere are instructional implications arising decoding. Stage 3, which corresponds tofrom stages in reading development, the grades 4-9, involves "reading for learning theresults of research in this area could have new." The focus is on meaning and on use ofconsiderable significance in planning and knowledge-based strategies. implementing programs for adults engaged in Chall's final two stages are also meaningliteracy programs. based. Stage 4 occurs from grades 9-12 andThree Studies of Adults involves "reading for multiple viewpoints." and Stage 5 involves "construction and recon- The possibility of stages in the reading struction- to gain a "world view." Whiledevelopment of adult illiterates was evident Chall's major focus is on children, she doesin the results of two of our previous studies suggest that Stages 1-5 are appropriate for(Malicky & Norman, 1982, 1983). It ap- conceptualizing the reading development ofpeared that changes in reading strategies adults. were related to level of reading achievement and that it might be possible to identify Jones's Three Adult Stages stages in reading development by analyzing Few adult educators have attempted tothe strategies used by adults at increasing delineate stages in reading development butlevels of reading proficiency. The purpose of Jones (1981) is one exception. He describesa third study. reported here, was to investi- three phases which cover a continuum withgate this possibility The sample for the study involved 123integration of print-based and knowledge- adults reading from grade levels 1-8. Theybased processes. were attending three different literacy pro-A Shift at Level 3 for Adults grams, one at a vocational center as part of a Percentage scores were calculated for each program in academic upgrading, one at a uni- adult for each miscue variable and statistical versity as part of a research project. and the comparisons were made across reading grade final one in a community literacy projectlevels 1-8. Results revealed a significant sponsored by the provincial government.change between grades 3 and 4 on three of Hence, a fairly comprehensive cross-section the miscue variables: grammatical acceptabil- of adults in literacy programs in the area wasity, semantic acceptability, and meaning obtained. Of the 123 adults, 56 were maleschange. These results support the hypothesis and 67 were females. They ranged in ageof two adult stages in reading development. from 18 to 63 with the majority in their 20sAt grade levels 1-3, there was little differ- and 30s. ence in the ability of adults to use print-based Each adult read passages increasing in dif-as compared to knowledge-based strategies, ficulty from a first to an eighth grade readingbut at reading level 4, there was a marked level. Reading was discontinued when frus-increase in use of language knowledge and to tration level was reached. Oral reading mis-a lesser extent background knowledge to pre- cues on all passages except those at frustra-dict words while reading. In other words. an tion level were analyzed using categoriesimportant change at reading grade level 4 from theReading Miscue Inventory(1972): involved increased reliance on knowledge- (1) graphic similarity, which reflects printbased strategies but little change in relative processing: (2) grammatical and (3) semanticuse of print strategies. Hence, increased reli- acceptability. both reflecting knowledge pro-ance on print strategies was not a sivificant cessing: (4) meaning change: and (5) success-factor in reading proficiency for the adults in ful corrections, which are thought to indicatethis study.

Figure I Diagnostic Indicators of Adult Reading Stages

Adult Stage I Adult Stage 2 Print-based processing Integrative processing Level of reading: Able to read material at grade levels Able to read material at grade levels 1-3 with adequate comprehension 4 1 with adequate comprehension. (word identification may he ade- quate at a higher level ). Miscue profiles: Half or more miscues show graphic At least half the miscues are accept- similarity to the stimulus: less than able grammatically aml more show half are grammatically acceptable: grammatical acceptability than or the ratio is 50:50. graphic similarity. It is important to note, however, that the The second stage evident in our data. increased use of meaning-based strategies byAdult Stage 2, was consistent with what more proficient readers was accompanied byJones called "reading for learning" and Chall an increase in miscues which maintained thecalled "reading for new learning.- They both author's meaning. Thus, the adults at levelsdescribed readers at this point as being more 4-8 not only made greater use of knowledge- concerned with meaning, and this was reflect- based strategies but they were also generallyed in our study in an increase in the percent- able to integrate these strategies with thoseage of miscues with high grammatical and for processing print to maintain the author'ssemantic acceptability at Grade 4 reading meaning. level. There was also some indication in our When the results on meaning change weredata of what Chall referred to as "confirma- examined more closely, it was apparent thattion, fluency, and ungluing from print." Near the increase in ability to integrate print-basedthe end of our Adult Stage 1. which encom- and knowledge-based strategies, while evi-passed reading levels 1-3, a consolidation of dent on levels 4-8, began at level 3. Whatreading strategies was evident in the increase appeared to he happening at reading level 3 in miscues which retained the author's mean- ing. This ability to integrate print-based and was a consolidation or integration of strategies knowledge-based strategies may be necessary used at earlier levels, with little change in the relative use of either print- or knowledge-before the adult can begin to reiv more heavi- ly on his or her language and background based strategies. Correctional behavior, as knowledge. Without an ability to integrate found in previous studies with adults (Ma licky information sources, an increase in the use of & Norman, 1982, 1983), was not indicative of knowledge-based strategies may lead to con- increased integrative functioning. siderable inaccuracy in reconstruction of an Agreement on Two Adult Stages author's meaning rather than to an increase in The two stages identified in this study are reading proficiency. similar to those postulated by Jones (1981) A question which remains unanswered is and Chall (1983). Adult Stage I of readingwhether a prereading stage can be identified in adults. A major difference between the development is consistent with what Jones positions of Jones and Chall is that Jones referred to as "refinement of word recogni- feels that a prereading phase is crucial in tion ability" and Chall as "glued to print.- work with adults who are almost totally illit- Jones notes that the focus for adults at this erate. whereas Chall suggests beginning with stage is on word identification, and while that decoding. This has important instructional does not preclude use of knowledge-based implications. since most current literacy pro- strategies. it does result in considerable reli-grams, such as Laubach, focus heavily on ance on print. For Chall, this first stage is alsobottom-up processing, bypassing any pre print based, and while the adults in our studyreading stage. at reading grade levels 1-3 could not he de- scribed as completely "glued to print." theyTeaching :Willis at Different Stages definitely made less use of their background The distinction between the two stages of and language knowledge than adults at thereading identified in this study has implica- second stage of reading proficiency. tions for planning reading programs for

..25.. adults. To assist literacy teachers in identify-comments about the importance of "sounds" ing which stage students have reached. criti- and "words" in learning to read. Clearly then, cal differences in reading level and miscuesome focus in this area is indicated, but in profiles are presented in Figure 1. light of the need for adults to integrate print- Almost everr)ne would agree that adults and meaning-based strategies before they can at reading levels 1-3 need to develop print-move to a more advanced stage, it is ques- based strategies, but there is a difference oftionable whether instruction should focus as opinion regarding when and how this shouldexclusively or intensively on cues within be done. Chall suggests that work with illiter- words as many programs do. ate adults should begin with decoding; Jones When adults reach Adult Stage 2, at which as well as Rigg and Kazemek. (1983) recom-their major focus is on meaning. Jones and mend focusing on decoding after the adultChall both suggest the need for them to take becomes aware that reading is communica-more responsibility and to a large extent tion and knows what written language soundsdirect their own learning. It is at this stage like. that adults are able to take full advantage of There is little doubt that the people in ourthe extensive knowledge which they bring tc study who were at Adult Stage 1 believed inthe learning situation. the power of print-based strategies. This was Independence appears to be necessary for reflected both in their miscues and in theirthis to occur and Thistlewaite (1983) suggests

Figure 2 Patterns of Oral Reading Miscues Among Partially Literate Adults

Adults at Stage I Adults at Stage 2 (reading grade levels 1-3) (reading grade levels 4-8)

Graphically similar

Grammatically OK

Semantically OK

Changed meaning

Self-corrected

Dark har indicates significant difference between Stages I and 2 (statistically).

3126 that a comprehension-based model of reading provides a means for adults to work indepen- Theoretical and dently and take responsibility for their own Organizational learning. Without this independence adults may learn how to read but never become Issues "readers.- References Chall. J.S. (1983). Stagesofreading development. Toronto: McGraw-Hill. The Reading Concepts Jones, E.V. ( 1981). Reading in.struction for the adult illiterate. Chicago. IL: American Library Association. and Strategies of Malicky. G., & Norman. C.A. ( 1982, May). Reading strategies of adult illiterates. Journal of Reading. 25.731-735. Adult Nonreaders Malicky. G., & Norman, C.A. (1983). A compai- son of approaches with adult illiterates: Final research report. Ottawa, ON: Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council. GRACE MALICKY Reading miscue inventory. (1972). New York: CHARLES A. NORMAN Macmillan. Rigs. P.. & Kaiemek. F.E. (1983, Fall). Adult illit- DECEMBER 1989 eracy in the USA: Problem and solutions. Con- vergence, /6, 32-38. Thistlewaite. L. (1983. November). The adult dis- abled reader: An independent learner? Lifelong In a recent study, Norman and Mal icky Learning, 7. 16-17, 28. (1987) obtained data that provide support for stages in the development of adult lit- eracy. [The report of this study is reprint- ed in the preceding article.] Two stages were identified for adults reading at grade levels 1 to 8, and these stages appeared to have clear pedagogical implications. What was not evi- dent from the study was the nature of reading concepts and strategies of adults who have not yet reached a Grade 1level of reading profi- c:ency. Pelatively little attention has been devoted to stages in the literacy development of adults and more particularly to adults who are virtu- al nonreaders. However, Chall ( 1983) has outlined six stages in the reading develop- ment of children and has hypothesiz.1 that these stages are similar for adults, with the exception of the beginning stage. For children ') ..27.. Chall delineated a Stage 0 in which the focus groups in how they viewed reading. Only is on meaning and children use knowledge- 21% of poor readers gave a meaning-centered based strategies to reconstruct stories. She did response. as compared to 79e% of good read- not hypothesize a corresponding stage for ers. Similar results were obtained by Keefe adult illiterates but suggested instead that and Meyer (1986). Of the 100 adult disabled adults at beginning levels can be more appro- readers they interviewed, 85 perceived read- priately characterized in terms of her Stage I, ing as processino, of words rather than as which involves a strong focus on decoding.making meaning. Amoroso (1984) inter- She describes readers at this stage as "glued viewed 44 adults from prison, adult basic to print.- education, and alternative high school popu- Jones (1981) disagrees with Chall. He lations and also found evidence of a restricted 41 feels that the focus of the first stage for adults view of reading. For most, reading meant involves "using language for reading" or, in operations on words. In a local study by other words, reading for meaning and using Norman and Malicky (1986), only 2 of 25 knowledge-based strategies. An examination adults interviewed recognized the importance of most materials developed by publishers forof comprehension. but even they viewed it as use with adults at the beginning level revealssomething apart from readinge.g., "I can that they are more consistent with Chall'sread well but comprehension of vocabulary is rather than Jones's hypothesis regarding low." stages. None of the studies noted above focused The purpose of the study reported here was specifically on nonreaders, although it is like- to explore the nature of illiteracy for adults ly that a small number of adults at very low who have made no or minimal progress in levels of reading proficiency were included. learning to read or write, and to draw implica- In addition, few of the researchers related tions for planning effective programs forhow adults say they read to how they actually them. do read. Another line of research has focused on Concepts and Strategies how adults interact with print as they read Several researchers have attempted toaloud. In an early study, Raisner (1978) ex- determine through interviews how reading is amined the oral reading miscues of adults and viewed by illiterate adults. When Taylor.found that they focused primarily on print- Wade, Jackson, Blum. and Gould (1980) based cues and made far less use of context. interviewed 17 participants in literacy pro-The reading levels of the adults were not re- grams in Washington, D.C., they found twoported, so it is impossible to determine wheth- general patterns. One group defined readinger this was true for adults at all reading levels. in terms of decoding proficiency; the other The possibility of differences in reading recognized the necessity of integrating the processing between adults at different stages decoding process with comprehension. of development was indicated in two of our Most researchers have found that adultearly studies on adult literacy (Malicky & illiterates generally fall into the first group. Norman, 1982, 1983). In the first, adults in a Gambrell and Heathington (1981), interview-literacy program who made progress in read- ing 28 good and 28 poor adult readers. found ing were compared with those who did not. a significant difference between the twoFindings revealed that the no-gain group

3 3..2H.. entered the program demonstrating heavyreading was considered unlikely. The adults reliance on print-based processing but limited were attending literacy programs in two use of context clues. By the end of the pro-urban centers and most were urban dwellers. gram. this tendency was reversed so that theThey ranged in age from 20 to 65 with most adults more nearly resembled those in thein the lower age ranges. There were 15 males high-gain group. It was hypothesized thatand 7 females. The group presented a general adults needed to rely more heavily on knowl-picture of social and economic disadvantage edge than on print in order to make gains inas reflected in education, employment, and achievement. income. Half had either not attended school at In the second study, differences were ev-all or had gone for less than 4 years. Only two ident between reading strategies of adultshad been to high school. Their parents also at reading grade levels 1-2 as compared tohad limited education with very few going those at levels 3-6. The more proficient read-beyond Grade 6. Only six were employed at ers made more effective use of their knowl- the time of the study (even though most were edge to predict words as they read. in part-time programs), and only two of these A further study was designed to focusearned more than CANS10,000 per year. specifically on the question of stages in read- An examination of backgrounds indicated ing development of adults (Norman &that 16 of the adults were Canadian born and Malicky. 1987). Oral reading miscues andthat of this group, 7 were native Indians. Only unaided retellings of stories were collectedone of this native group had gone beyond from 123 adults reading at grade levels 1-8 in Grade 3 in school. Of the foreign born, three a variety of literacy programs. Resultscame from war-ravaged countries and two revealed two stages across these reading lev-from poor Caribbean families in which edu- els. In the first stage. at reading grade levelscation had been sacrificed for survival. The 1-3, the adults relied equally on print-basedother two were women of East Indian origin and knowledge-based strategies as they read.who had had limited educational opportuni- The second stage, which corresponded toties prior to coming to Canada. Overall, this reading grade levels 4-8. was indicated by agroup of nonreaders was more disadvantaged marked increase in use of language knowl-than the majority of illiterates as described in edge, with little change in use of print-basedthe Canadian literacy survey conducted by cues. However, this study did not includeSouthall' News (1987). adults below a Grade 1level of reading Assessing Response achievement and hence did not provide infor- mation regarding the strategies of adults who Each of the adults in the study was inter- are just beginning to learn to read. viewed individually to gather background data and to assess concepts about reading. The Adults Questions were adapted from Davis and Most of the 22 adults in this study wereO'Brien (1985). Paris and Meyers (1981), and either just entering literacy programs or hadGambrel! and Heathington (1981). A series of been in literacy programs for less than 3literacy tasks was used to determine how the months. Only one adult had been in a literacyadults interacted with print. The first was a program longer, and hence a strong impact oftask in which familiar print in the environ- that program on concepts and strategies forment (store names, product labels, etc.) was presented in three formats: picture context: of things. Like nobody will have to push you sign. trademark, or logo in isolation; and or tell you this or that." Some indicated that typed words in isolation. The adults were reading is important to gaining knowledge. asked to tell what each said and how they but a few recognized the even more profound knew. They were also given a local newspa- influence literacy has on our livese.g.. "This per and asked to locate and read any parts is sorta like a reading world. If you can't read, they could. you're not a part of it. sorta outside." The second type of task involved passages While their reasons for wanting to learn to containing familiar language of both pre-read were broad and encompassing, their dictable and unpredictable nature. The pre- notions about reading itself were much more dictable, familiar material involved common restricted. We asked questions such as songs (e.g., "Jingle Bells" and "0 Cinada"). "Which would be easier to do, read word for and the unpredictable material a languageword or for the general meaning?" or "When experience story generated and dictated by you are reading, what do you do if you don't the adult in the testing session. know a word?" The adults generally gave Finally, the adults were asked to interactresponses that reflected a concept that print with unfamiliar material. Rhymes fromJazz rather than meaning is paramount in reading. Chants(Graham, 1978) were predictable On the question about identifying hard words, though unfamiliar, and selections from theonly two adults gave a response indicating Bader Reading and Language Inventoryand they could use context cues. Laubach Way to Readingprovided unpre- Strategies for Reading dictable material. The adults were asked to attempt material first without assistance. If All the adults in the study were able to read they were unable to attempt a piece, it was some of the 24 environmental print items cor- read .'irst to them orally and then they were rectly when provided with picture context. asked to try to read it on their own. All but The number of items correct ranged from 3 to two of them attempted to read at least some20 with a mean of 12.2. The adults did almost of these passages. as well on the logo format (mean = 11.8) but Responses on the interview, environmental performed more poorly on the typed print for- print tasks, and reading passages were rated mat (mean = 7.4). The relatively high level of in terms of relative use of print-based and accuracy on the logo format suggests that knowledge-based information. these adults were beginning to use print cues, although certainly the distinctive shapes of Concepts About Reading the store signs and product labels were of When asked why they wanted to learn tomore assistance than the letters and words read, the adults gave a wide range of answers. themselves. On this task, ten of the people Some clearly involved functional literacyperformed better on the picture than print e.g., "if I go places..., so I can read the signs." format (7-point difference or more), suggest- These reasons seemed to be related to theing reliance on picture context (meaning- adults' desire to gain increased control overbased) cues. Eleven people performed at a their lives, and these and several other similar level on the two tasks, suggesting use answers reflected a theme of independence.of both print-based and knowledge-based Said one student, "You feel you could do a lot information.

3 5..30.. Survey of 22 Adults specific task and asked to comment on how Reading at Less Than Grade I Level they did it than when asked more abstract general questions. Mean score in reading 24 environmental print When miscues were combined across all items: Picture context. 12.2 passages. there was a clear-cut trend toward Logo, 11.8 greater reliance on knowledge than on print Print. 7.4 cues. This was reflected in higher scores in Self-reports on cues used on environmental print the grammatical area (-11(.4 of miscues were task: grammatical in relation to passage context ) Pictures or experience. 10 and in meaningfulness (355 were meaning- Picture and print. 7 ful in relation to passage meaning) than in Print. 4 categories assessing graphic similarity (25% Nature of oral reading miscues: contained half or more of the letters in the Grammatical in context. 4 i text word) and phonic similarity (17% con- Meaningful in context, 35(.( Graphically similar to cue. 25(r tained halt or more of the sounds in the text Phonically similar to cue. 17''( word). Performance adequate: When scores for individuals were exam- In a print-based miscue categor%. 15e? ined. it was found that over half of the adults In a knowledge-based miscue category. 40ci met the criterion set for adequacy (-10%) on a Adequate use of knowledge: knowledge-based category. as compared with On predictable passages. 56( only 15% who met this criterion on a print- On LEA stories. based category. The adult nonreaders in this On unfamiliar. unpredictable passages. 36ci study were not "glued to print" (Chan. 1983) Based on a study of 22 adult urban nonreaders indespite the fact they had reported reliance on Canada. age 20 -65. 15 male. 7 female. just enter- print in the interview. Instead. they attempted ing a literacy program or in a program for less thanto make use of the knowledge they brought to 3 months. the page in their efforts to interact with print. It was difficult to compare differential strategy use on different materials because of It is interesting to note that self-reports onthe small number of miscues subjects made cues used were relatively consistent withon some types of passages. However, there actual performance on this task. Most report-was a trend toward greater use of knowledge- ed using picture or experiential informationbased strategies on predictable and language (n = 10) or both print and picture cues tit = 7).experience stories than on unpredictable Only four reported heavy reliance on print,unfamiliar passages. with 56% of the adults and this was generally reflected in letter-by-demonstrating adequate use of knowledge- letter naming or sounding. Self-reports to thebased strategies on predictable passages. 64% general questions asked during the interviewon language experience stories, but only 36% reflected a far greater print bias than didon the unfamiliar unpredictable passages. responses to questions during the environ- It appears, then. that predictable and lan- mental print task. Hence, these nonreadingguage experience materials foster use of adults were much more accurate in reportingknowledge-based strategies. While use of their reading strategies when engaged in aunfamiliar. unpredictable passages did result in somewhat greater use of print cues, onlyprompting. most adults in this study sponta- about one-fifth of the adults made adequateneously relied on their knowledge as they use of these cues and half were unable to ade-approached environmental print tasks and all quately use either knowledge or print cues on types of passages. The material most con- that type of material. ducive to use of knowledge-based strategies, however, involved language experience and Implications predictable passages. The results of this study provide support Results of this study provide support for the for Jones's (1981) contention that the firstsuggestion of many (Jones. 1981; Newton, stage in reading development of adults 1980; Rigg & Kazemek. 1983: Schneiderman. involves using language for reading. Only 1978) that the language experience approach two of the adults in this study focused heavily be used for adult beginning readers. The un- on print and these were both Lebanese immi- familiar unpredictable passages found in many grants, one of whom was in a Laubach litera-of the widely used beginning literacy pro- cy program at the time. In relation to concepts grams appear to he less appropriate for adults about reading. quite different results were at a beginning stage of reading development. obtained when adults were asked in general Perhaps the most significant implications terms about how they read when compared toof this study, however, derive not from the what they said when completing a specific results on concepts and strategies for reading task or what they did when actually attempt-but rather from the nature of the nonreaders ing to read various types of passages. Thethemsels. These adults were far more dis- results on general questions were similar toadvantaged than adults who attend postsec- results obtained by others (Amoroso, 1983;ondary institutions and even than most of Gambrel! & Heathington. 1981). those who become involved in adult basic Brown (1980) has suggested that metacog- education programs. Chronic poverty and nitive deficiencies "are the problem of theunemployment were pervasive aspects of novice, regardless of age" (p. 475). However. their lives, with many viewing literacy as a the metacognitive abilities of the adults in this means to greater control, increased indepen- study were adequate when they were askeddence. and also a greater sense of self-worth to do a specific literacy task and commentand belonging. These goals provide further on how they did it. This has implicationssupport for a language experience approach, for both researchers and those assessing the as it begins by acknowledging and valuing literacy concepts of adults entering literacywhat adults already know and provides the programs. opportunity for daily concerns and problems In an earlier article (Norman & Malicky.to serve as the content of literacy classes. 1986), we suggested that instruction forLanguage experience stories need to be sup- adults in the early phase of literacy develop-plemented by functional literacy activities. ment should focus on whole language ratherhowever, so that adults can gain control over than on isolated words and letters. The results specific aspects of their lives involving print of this study provide further support for Finally, in order to enlarge self or, in whole language programs. We believe thatBhola's (1981) words, to enter the "magical programs should begin with and take advan-circle of the literate," adult nonreaders need tage of what the adults already know. Without to read a range of other material as well. In

.32.. the beginning, the use of predictable material Jones. E.V. (1981). Reading instruction for the such as poetry will foster use of knowledge- adult illiterate. Chicago. II.: American Library Association. based strategies as well as introduce a signifi- Keefe. D., & Meyer, V. (1980). Adult disabled cant part of the literate culture. readers: Their perceived models of the reading What will be critical as well, considering process. Adult Literacy and Basic Education. 4, the degree of deprivation reflected in the lives 120-124. of most of the adults in this study. is aware- Lind, A., & Johnston, A. (1986). Adult literacy in the third world: A review of objectives and strategies. ness that literacy programs alone are not the Paper presented for the Institute of International solution to the social and economic problems Education. University of Stockholm. of most adults at beginning levels of literacy. Malicky. G., & Norman. C.A. (1982). Reading As several writers (Hunter & Harman. 1979: strategies of adult illiterates. Journal of Reading, Lind & Johnston, 1986; Ryan, 1985) have 25, 731-735. pointed out, literacy programs need to he part Malicky, G., & Norman. C.A. (1983). A compari- son of approaches with adult illiterates: Final of a more comprehensive solution: this is par- research report. Ottawa, ON: Social Sciences ticularly true for adults at early stages of read- and Humanities Research Council. ing development. Newton. E.S. (1980). Andragogy: Understanding the adult as a learner. In S. Johnson (Ed.). Read ins; and the adult learner (pp. 3-6). Newark, DE: International Reading Association. References Norman, C.A.. & Malicky, G. (1986). LiteraL as a Amoroso, H.C. (1984). Adult concepts and assump- social phenomenon: Implications for instruction. tions about literacy. Paper presented at the con- Lifelong Learning, 9.12-15. ference of the American Educational Research Norman. C.A.. & Malicky. G. (1987). Stages in the Association. New Orleans. LA. reading development of adults. Journal of.Read- Bader, L.A. (1983). Bader reading and language big. 30. 302-307. inventory. London: Collier Macmillan Publish- Paris, S.G.. & Meyers. M.M. (1981). Comprehension ers. monitoring. memory. and study strategies of Bhola. H.S. (1981). Why literacy can't wait: Issues good and poor readers. Journal of Reading Be- for the 1980s. Convergence. N. 32-38. havior. 13. 5-22. Brown. A.L. (1980). Metacognitive development Raisner. B. (1978). Adult reading strategies: Do and reading. In R.J. Spiro. B.C. Bruce. & W.F. they differ from the strategies of children? Brewer (Eds.). Theoretic(/' issues in reading Reading World, 18, 37-47. comprehension (pp. 453-502). Hillsdale. NJ: Rigg. P.. & Kazemek, F. (1983). Adult illiteracy in Er lbaum. the USA: Problem and solutions. Convergence. Chall. J.S. (1983). crages of reading development. /6. 32-38. Toronto: McGraw-Hill. Ryan. J. (1985). Some key problems in adult litera- Davis. N.. & O'Brien, M. (1985). Literacy pro- cy. Prospects. 15, 375-381. grant.% and their participants in the Ha Schneiderman. P. (1978). Active reading tech- Metro area. Halifax, NS: Mount Saint Vincent niques system (ARTs): A method for instruction University. of functionally illiterate adults. Urban Educa- Gambrell. L.B.. & Heathingtoo, B.S. (1981). Adult tion. /3.195-202. disabled readers' metacognitive awareness about Southam News. (1987). Literacy in Canada: A reading tasks and strategies. Journal of Reading research report. Toronto: Creative Research Behavior. 13, 215-222. Group. Graham. C. (1978). la:: chants. New York: OxfordTaylor. N.. Wade. P.. Jackson. S., Blum, L. & University Press. Gould, L. (1980). A study of low-literate adults: Hunter. C.S.. & Harman. D. (1979). Adult illiteracy Personal, environmental and program considera- in the United States. Ness York: McGraw-Hill. tions. Urban Review, 12. 69-77. vv teach reading, having had only one reading Theoretical andcourse during his undergraduate education. Organizational He decided that if he was to teach success- fully. he had to learn more than he knew Issues about the basic skills of communication. so he entered a master's degree program in reading. Now. with 10 years of teaching and a mas- Some Assumptions ter's degree behind him, Mark felt better able to meet the needs of his students. He realized About Adult Reading that while he was trying to help students im- prove their reading ability. he had to seek out material in which mature ideas were present- Instruction ed in a form his students could deal with. He knew that he had to engage them intellectual- ly if he was ever to teach them either subject matter or reading skills. R. BAIRD SHUM ikN He also acknowledged that some students JANUARY 1989 with more severe reading problems would need special attention. He wanted to create an atmosphere in his classroom that would make his students feel secure and positive in Mark has just earned a master'stheir approach to learning. By now he had degree in reading at a U.S.overcome the initial discipline problems that urban university in the westface most new teachers, and he looked upon coast city in which he has beenhimself as an effective teacher who could a public school teacher for the past decade.make a difference in the way students learn. His career began in an inner-city middleIt was at this point that the school principal school where he taught English and socialasked Mark if he would be interested in studies for 3 years. He soon realized that histeaching two sections of a district-sponsored students were not in a position to learn muchadult reading class. "Improving Reading about English or social studies because mostEfficiency," that was to meet at a local com- of them could not read the textbooks desig-munity college. Each class would enroll no nated for their grade levels. more than 15 students and would meet for When Mark was assigned to teach socialone hour two evenings a week for 16 weeks. studies in a high school in the same district,Mark welcomed the opportunity to work he found his students were still plagued withwith adults. and before the first session, he reading problems that blocked their accesswrote down some assumptions about the to the ideas around which he wanted hisadult learners he planned to teach. Mark's course to he structured, and as he had in theassumptions, followed by a comment he middle school. he soon turned himself into amade about each at the end of the semester, teacher of reading. He felt ill equipped toare presented here.

,3 Mark's Assumptions of these foreign students had scored low on Assumption 1: These students are Itd/the pretest. they were adequate readers in aware of their reading problems and will betheir own languages. so their pretest scores edi,,er to remedy them. The reading level ofwere misleading. my adult students ranged from Grade 2 to Assumption 3: These students will be well Grade 10. The greatest problem I faced was inmotivated to learn. To a large extent this getting them to admit that they had readingassumption proved reasonable. These stu- problems. The fact that they enrolled in thisdents. with the exception of two who attend- class indicated that they felt a need to doed class to meet the conditions of their proba- something to improve their reading abilities.tions. had chosen the class voluntarily. The The weakest readers, however, were deeply title of the course, "Improving Reading. Effi- ashamed of their inability to read and didciency,- was selected so that those who took everything they could to mask it. as they hadit would not have to admit by their enrollment been forced to do throughout their adult lives that they were deficient readers. When they Many who could not read a newspaper withregistered, test scores were used to divert stu- real comprehension always carried one withdents who read reasonably well into a course them and sat before class with the paper open, that emphasized increasing one's reading appearing to read it.I made the mistake ofspeed and comprehension. entitled "Advan- calling on some of these apparent readers toced Reading.- Despite my students' inherent read aloud in class and found that they couldmotivation, however, I soon realized that not do so. My calling on them embarrassed some of them had worked at demanding jobs them and I soon learned that when readingfor such long hours during the day that they aloud is appropriate, it is best to ask for vol-dozed in class. I assumed correctly that if I unteers. If no one volunteers, teachers arecould encourage them to move around rather well advised to read to the class themselves. than just sit at their desks, they would be Assumption 2: Teaching classes that aremore likely to stay awake and accomplish halt the si:e of highhoof classes will besomething. easy. I soon learned that although my classes Assumption 4: These students. because were relatively small. they were extremelythey are well motivated. will present no disci- complex. The broad range of abilities amongpline problems. This assumption was largely my students presented a major challenge. Icorrect, although I was faced with having to found that 14 of my 30 students had readingdecide what to do when a student dozed off. problems directly related to interference fromBesides providing opportunities for sleepy the dialects they spoke naturally. Three differ-students to move around. I found that I had to ent major English dialects -- black. Chicano,make a conscious effort to keep the room and Asian Americanwere represented.well ventilated so the physically spent stu- Eleven students were nonnative speakers ofdents would not he breathing stale air for an English, and their native language back-hour. I had to move quickly from one class- grounds included Romance. Germanic,room activit\ to another to keep interest high Slavic, Arabic, Indic, and Oriental languages.and to add as much variety as I could to the Each language group had different identifi-course. able types of learning and reading problems I faced some problems I had not anticipat- in English. I soon found that although someed. As students came to know and trust me,

..35.. they began to tell me things that I was notwork and could not afford to acknowledge comfortable in hearing. I became sort of atheir inability to do so. father confessor for a chronic shoplifter and Some parents could not help their chil- was uncomfortable in the role. One studentdren with school work unless they could told me that she couldn't stand to hear herread. Several admitted to me having shouted baby cry, and she beat it whenever it did. Sheat or even hit their children when badgered real:zed that she needed help. and I suggestedto help them do their school work. They did how she might obtain it. Many of my studentsnot want the children to know they couldn't had few people with whom they could talkread. so they yelled things like "Do your about their lives and frustrations. so theyown damn homework" or "You gotta learn would come to me using some element ofto do your own work, you lazy good-for- their work as a pretext, but they would thennothing!" Giving their children a hard whack divert our conference into something notimmediately diverted attention from the par- related to the course. At times this robbed meents' inability to read to the injustice of the of the opportunity to give other students thepunishment and to their children's reaction kind of individual attention they required. Ito it. soon had to learn how to get our conferences Assumption 6: Every adult can read to back on track without alienating students whosome extent. Although this assumption wanted to tr "- about their problems. Althoughproved largely true, I found that two of my I had no ov discipline problems with theseAmerican-born students initially were virtu- two classes. I had to assert my leadership toally unable to deal with the written word at keep some elements of the situation fromany level. To try to understand how they deteriorating to the point that learning wascoped and how they projected the impres- affected adversely. sion of being able to read, I thought hack to Assumption 5:These students will have athe time I had been in a small town in Japan. positive attitude toward school. This general-I could read no Japanese. and the English- ization was true for about half of my students.language assists I had depended upon in The other half were school dropouts whoseTokyo and Kyoto were not available to me. I memories of school were unpleasant. Any-had to depend on nonprint clues for all the thing that reminded them of their past schoolinformation I processed, and I quickly be- experiences stood in the way of their learn-came expert in using every nonprint source ing. For this group. I had to create learningavailable so that I could function in that situations that were far removed from those Imilieu, in which I found myself to be an would have sought to create in my regularilliterate. teaching position. Adult students with nega- The two students who seemed to be virtu- tive attitudes about school are better atally unable to read were far from stupid. They obscuring them than high school students are.had honed their senses to the point of being but the attitudes can exist, nevertheless. Iable to extract meaning from every nuance. found as I came to know my students wellfrom every nonprint source. and they were that many of them had had to work hard toable to function pretty well as long as they overcome their negative attitudes before were not called upon specifically to read. In enrolling in the course. Several had enrolledteaching them. I had to start from point zero because they were called upon to read atas far as print media were concerned. but

/11 their maturity level was high. so we couldsee whether they have kept pace with the have mature discussions. I showed my gen- reader on the tape. uine respect for their intelligence. It took Similar Assumptions great tact to lead them into reading while never acknowledging to them that I knew People who teach reading to adults com- they could not read. Other nonreaders canmonly make assumptions about their students read words but read so slowly and with sosimilar to Mark's. Often it takes only two or mush difficulty that they cannot comprehendthree class sessions for them to realize that and are, therefore, dependent upon nonprinttheir initial assumptions are not all valid. sources for their information. Certainly those who teach reading to adults. Assumption 7: If I can find interesting;most of whom have fragile egos and are hooks. I can teach anyone to read. The prob-ashamed at not being able to read easily. have lem word in this assumption is hooks. Peopleto recognize the assumptions and prejudg- with reading problems equate books withments they have made about their students. They have to be vigorous in challenging these defeat. I soon learned that I had to use every assumptions and prejudgments as they face means available to me to get students to read the realities of the adult classroom. Resear- from sources that enable one to absorb infor- chers in the field constantly challenge the mation without realizing that actual reading is same sorts of assumptions in order to point taking place. Because they abound in non- the way to new and better ways of dealing print clues. I found signs. advertisements, cat- with adult literacy than have emerged from alogs. automobile repair manuals. cereal the old assumptions educators and the public boxes. cans of fruit and vegetables. and other have held. Encouraging headway has been such props good starting points for readers made in such programs as The Adult Perform- who are severely disabled. ance Level Project (APL), sponsored by the I soon learned that my students succeeded U.S. Office of Education in the 1970s. best if several of their senses were simultane- Freire. long an advocate of the oppressed. ously engaged in the reading process. I dis- considers illiteracy to be "one of the concrete covered that if students could listen to a tapeexpressions of an unjust social reality.- He of someone reading. could follow the printedcalls illiteracy "not a strictly linguistic or text of what the person was reading by run-exclusively pedagogical or methodological ning their index finger along the lines of theproblem [but rather] political, as is the very text. and in time could come to read alongliteracy through which we try to overcome with the person on the tape. they were chal-illiteracy- (1985. p. 10). Undeniably. literacy lenged by what they were doing. The situa-has generally been defined in our society to tion was a competitive one. but students were suit political ends. Yet. as Kazemek and others competing only with themselves, and theyhave pointed out, it is difficult to speak cate- rose to the challenge. A more advanced stepgorically about what illiteracy is ( Freire, 1970, in this process is for indi idual students to 1985: Kazemek, 1985a. 1985h: Levine. 1982). play the tape for the first paragraph or two. then to turn the volume all the way down andFunctional Compelenc continue to read the text for two or three para- The Ail. Project concluded that the notion graphs before turning the volume up again toof competency, broadly speaking, is meaning- less unless it is placed within a cultural con- Kazemek insists that adults with literacy text. The project discovered that functionalproblems do not become literate in 6 months. competency is bifurcated: it involves a set ofHe reminds his reader that Goethe at the end skills such as reading or writing and a knowl-of his life still considered himself to be en- edge base as well, such as legal or medical 0:gaged in learning how to read, indicating that financial knowledge. Certainly the latter ofGoethe's definition of literacy was quite dif- these two branches in essence represents theferent from most definitions today. philosophical stand of Hirsch in Cultural Literacy: What Every American Needs toAn inner Struggle Know (1987), which has stirred such heated Probably no level of reading instruction is controversy. more engaging and rewarding than that The APL Project found that adult compe-found in adult reading classes, with their tency has as much to do with social require-highly diverse populations of students who ments at a specific time in the development ofrealize more fully than almost anyone else in a society as with the individual abilities of itsour society how important it is to be able to populace. The project also discovered thatread. Most of these students have not had "functional competency is directly related ineasy lives. They risk a great deal when they a mathematical sense to success in adult life."come to an adult reading class. They are will- Northcutt calls this "an operating assumptioning to do so, however, because they are con- which underlies all APL research activities" vinced that learning to read will provide (1975, p. 3). and this conclusion seems indis-them with the means for a more fulfilling putable when one considers that functionallife. As adult students, they come out of the literacy is measured most frequently by threecloset, as it were, because many of them criteria: level of education, annual income.have been masking their illiteracy or limited and occupational status. literacy for a long time, and going to classes Levine insists that no empirical measure-like Mark's exposes it. ments exist for deciding which standards Sometimes the first meeting of such a class might he used to define functional literacy foris the culmination for them of an inner strug- whole societies. He contends that functionalgle that has gone on for years. The teacher literacy "seems to require a preexisting notion who realizes the social dynamics at work in of functionality" (1982. p. 260). classes of adults who have reading problems Another misapprehension about adult liter-is in an admirable position to give these peo- acy is that it can develop quickly given theple the encouragement they need to he more proper circumstances. Kazemek, questionsaccepting of themselves and to he more pro- this assumption: "Admittedly. a 30-year-oldductive in society. Teachers who build on brings a tremendous amount of world knowl-what their adult students know and on the edge. language facility, and so forth to thegreatly varied life experiences they I Ting with reading and writing processes that a 10-year-them will help their students to develop and old does not.- But "learning to read differentbuild on their strengths while they begin texts for different purposes and learning tosimultaneously to pay less and leas attention play the whole range in writing take time.to their weaknesses. In time. throuvh effec- experience, feedback. and devel.ping aware-tive tutelage, adults who want to become effi- ness" (98.5b. pp. 332-333). cient readers will do so. but often not within the time frame they anticipate or we expect. Kaiemek. F.E. (1985b. January). Functional litera- The key to helping these students learn how cy: is not enough: Adult literacy as a develop- to read is to allow them their dignity at all mental process. lourna/ of Reading. 28. 332- 335. times and to respect the aspirations that have Levine. K. (1982. May). Functional literacy: Fond brought them into a setting in which many of illusions and false economics. Harvard Edu- them initially feel terribly threatened. cational Review. 52. 249-266. Cervero reminds his readers that adult "lit- Northcutt, N.W. (1975). Adult functional literacy: A summary. Austin. TX: University of Texas. eracy is not something that can he measured in an absolute sense, such as body weight" (1985, p. 50). He concludes that "the effort to achieve a common definition would not he a technical process aimed at discovering the Theoretical and objectively best definition of literacy. Rather, it should be viewed as a clash of competing Organizational value positions. ideologies. and power struc- Issues tures" (p. 54). It cannot be denied that adult literacy is, as Cervero and others cited in this article attest, a politically charged issue. The realization of Adult Literacy in this fact, however, cannot he the excuse for us to forget that those who try to teach adults to read are dealing with individuals whose need Rural Areas is great, whose motivation is real. In the last analysis. what Eugene O'Neill designates "the human equation" will count for them SUSAN T. FERRELL more than an element in their learning of the AIN11-,:k.: HOWLEY skills we need to teach them. FEBRUARY 1991 References Cervero.R.M. (1985. Fall). Is a common definition of o.dult literacy possible? Adult Education Quarter /ti, 36,50-54. Adult illiteracy is a persistent con- Freire. P. (1970. May). The adult literacy process as cultural action for freedom. Harvard Education- cern, but one that varies with the al Review, -JO. 205-- 225. economic and political climate. In Freire. P. (1085). The/nil/tit A Of Cd/W(//ion:Cuhurc. the United States. policymakers ponce. and liberation. South Hadley. NIA:express greatest concern when the need for Garvey. economic development or recoupment seems Hirsch. E.D.. Jr. (1987 ). Cultural lite, (lc\II hat most pressing. A similar response occurs in every American need% to know. Boston. NIA: Third World countries. There. an even more Houghton Kaiemek. F.L. (1985a. October). An examination direct link is made between economic pro- of the Adult Performance Level Project and its ductivity and literacy. effects upon adult literacy education in the Since many pflicymakers identify adult Stales. !.i/elonc i.cm-Hinv. 0, 2.428. literacy as a condition for economic develop- ment, their concern is often directed towardtoday similar results are expected from pro- the literacy skills of a nation's most impover-grams that prepare rural workers for the ished citizens, those with the most visible"information age." Throughout their history, need to improve their economic well- being.such literacy efforts have emphasized one Although many such citizens live in inner-outcome: improved rural economies (Aken- city neighborhoods, many others live in re-son. 1984). mote rural communities. In the U.S. as well Another goal of literacy effortsparticu- as in numerous Third World countries, thelarly in the Third Worldhas been to sup- rates of adult illiteracy are highest in ruralport political reform or national unity. Muller areas (Behrstock, 1981: Hunter & Harman.(1986) cites developing, nations in which 1979). For a variety of reasons. however, lit-governments have used literacy initiatives eracy programs may he difficult to sustain inas a way to instill citizens with a sense of rural areas. national identity. The work of political ac- This article examines the current status oftivists like Brazilian educator Paulo Freire adult literacy programs in rural areas. Relyingcharacterizes this approach. By enabling primarily on works that consider two topics,peasants to give labels to their feelings of adult literacy and rural adult education, theoppression and anger. literacy campaigns of article synthesizes the issues that confrontthis sort involve citizens in the determination rural literacy workers. We examine four keyof their own political destinies. Recent argu- questions: (1) What goals do rural adult liter-ments (e.g.. Aronowitz & Giroux, 1985) sug- acy programs espouse? (2) What are thegest that such efforts might improve the needs of adult illiterates in rural areas? (3)plight of the underclass in more highly devel- What types of programs are reported to beoped nations as well. effective? (4) Which conditions supportor Closely allied to the political aim of litera- limitthe widespread influence of effectivecy work is the goal of promoting social equi- programs? ty, a goal that faces a particularly troublesome challenge. Literacy workers have noted that Goals of Adult Literary Programs the nation's poorest citizens, whether rural or Why do educators, policymakers, andurban, are those least likely to participate in political reformers all stress the importance ofprograms (Quigley. 1990). Consequently. lit- adult literacy? According to Knox (1987).eracy efforts may actually widen the gap be- adult basic educationincluding, literacytween the haves and the have nuts. According instructionserves one of four purposes: toto some writers, this effect does not occur promote economic productivity, to under-ofteneven the poorest citizens acquire write political change. to effect social equity,incremental benefits as a result of the or to enhance quality of life. increased literacy of their more fortunate In the U.S., literacy efforts On behalf ofneighbors. Cameron (1987) reasons that rural citizens most frequently address the first"both participators and nonparticipators gain of these purposes. Akenon (1984) traces thiseconomically. As programs prepare better theme in his comparison of the Southern Lit-qualified and motivated people for occupa- eracy Campaign (1910-1035) with currenttional advancement, lower level jobs become efforts in the rural South. "Industrial efficien-available for less skilled or less experienced cy- was a watchword of earlier programs:workers- ( p. 175). A final perspective on adult literacy, how-(Butterworth & Dawson, 1952). Conse- ever, rejects this logic. Proponents like Kozolquently. rural adults may lag in the basic (1985) see literacy as a worthy end in itself.skills of reading, writing, and mathematics They interpret literacylike oral language(compare to Noor, 1982). as the birthright of all humans, and they stress Rural adults also have access to fewer the role of literacy in cultivating human po-community services (Bhola, 1981). Because tential. From this perspective, all political,of their lower tax base, rural communities economic, and social improvements dependhave fewer resources (Sher, 1978); but be- on universal literacy. cause of the poverty in many rural areas, such communities actually need extensive ser- Literacy Needs of Adults vices. In addition, geographical constraints in Rural Areas make it difficult for rural residents to make Though educators attempt to draw a pro-use of services that are available (Bhola, file of the adult illiterate, generalizing to all 1981). The rural adult who maintains one and such members of the population is unwarrant-sometimes two jobs has time constraints that ed. Just as communities vary, so do the needsmake it difficult for him or her to travel to of the people within those communitiesurban areas where better servicesincluding both rural and urban. There ale, however.educationmight be found (Treadway, some recurring characteristics that can be 1984). used to describe the rural adult learner in con- Considering these general characteristics trast to an urban counterpart. of rural adults, what factors should be consid- Rural residents often do not value formal ered when developing a literacy program in a education (Theobald, 1988). These prevailing rural area? Numerous authors (for example. attitudes originated at a time when the localsee Hunter & Harman, 1979; Lucas, 1985; economy required that even relatively youngTreadway. 1984) have concluded that rural children be available for work on farms.adults need a program based in the communi- in fisheries, and in the mines (Butterworthty. A program of this sort is self-generated & Dawson. 1952; Duncan & Moyer. 1981).and -sustaining because it depends on the Moreover, the curriculum offered in schoolscontinuous involvement of the individuals was not perceived as a means of attainingwhom it serves (Noor, 1982). A community- more desirable forms of work or of improv-based program is owned by its participants ing work skills (for example, see Duncan &and is responsive to their needs. 0 Moyer, 19811. Even today. when rural econo- Not only do rural adults want to be involv- mies are considerably more complicated.ed in planning and directing education pro- rural residents sometimes overlook the bene-grams. they want education to he relevant to fits of formal education. their situations (Noor, 1982). In most cases, As a result of the place accorded formaltherefore. they need programs that go beyond schooling in many rural communities, ruralbasic literacy to provide continued job train- adults usually have spent less time in schooling and retraining. Without extensive practi- than their urban counterparts (Behrstock.cal training, rural adults may continue to lack 1981; Sher. 1978). They have completedthe skills necessary for access to economic fewer years in school and these years likelyand social opportunities within the communi- have contained fewer required daysty. Moreover. some rural residents want corn-

I.. 46 munitv-based education programs that givegrains, therefore, provide instruction that may them access to opportunities outside of theiror may not have an academic focus. communities. Optimally such programs A variety of postliteracy opportunities sup- ensure some measure of job security byplement and enhance the effectiveness of the increasing the competitive advantage of ruralthree basic types of literacy programs. Post- residents (for example, see Nickerson, 1985). literacy programs offer those who are newly Rural Programs to Improve literate the chance to continue their educa- Adult Literacy tion, practice newly acquired skills, and effect positive changes in their lives (Ouane, 1982). Literacy programs in rural areas vary in Such programs are extremely important for accordance with the definitions of literacy sustaining literacy gains in rural areas, espe- they adopt. Chall, Heron, and Hilferty (1987) cially when limited economic opportunities identify three types of programs that define keep literate adults from applying their new literacy in different ways. Volunteer programs skills in more challenging jobs. When adult work mainly with illiterate adults. These pro- grams address the needs of adults who readstudents see literacy as worthy in itself, they below the fourth grade level. Competency-may be more likely to maintain and develop based programs work with adults who alreadytheir literacy, whatever the local economic have elementary reading skills but who needsituation. to acquire more advanced academic skills in Recognizing that technology increases the order to be functionally literate by modernpotential to reach adults in rural areas, pro- standards. These programs tend to definegrams both in the United States and in the functional literacy as the minimal skill neces-Third World attempt to incorporate out-of- sary to receive a high school degree or itsschool strategies using media films, news- equivalent (for example, the GED or Generalpapers, radio programs. records, audiotapes, Equivalency Diploma). periodicals, and satellite broadcaststo reach Fingeret (1984. p. 23) describes programsthe target population. In addition, some litera- of these first two types as "individually ori-cy and postliteracy programs have direct ties ented." She faults them for approaching adultto business and industry, and others make use illiteracy as deficits of individual persons.of resources available in two- and four-year These programs, she claims, offer instructioncolleges (Chall, Heron. & Hilferty, 1987: that emphasizes reading skills in isolation Hone. 1984). from their meaningful context. Rural literary projects in the United Both Chall, Heron, and Hilferty andStates. Among adult literacy programs in Fingeret distinguish the first two types of pro- rural areas, some offer a single service (Lucas. grams from community-oriented programs. 1985). Alaska's CentralLecl Correspondent These seem more consistent with the needs,Studv Handbook for Grades 1-12, for exam- that rural residents express. Rather thanple, provides the framework through which ascribing value to just one kind of learning,rural residents can complete correspondence community-oriented programs assume thatcourse work at no charge. Teleteacher, a adults can determine their own learning needstelephone-based system in Virginia. enables based on the norms of the communities inrural residents to have access to academic which they live. Community-oriented pro-assistance 24 hours a day. 47.42.. Other rural literacy programs provide a(Fisher, 1982). Programs such as ones in variety of services (Lucas. 1985). AnIndia and Thailand focus particularly on edu- Alabama program uses a statewide educa-cating rural women (Naik, 1982), but many tional television network, learning centers,programs that serve women have limited and home tutors as three different ways toeffectiveness. Social conventions in some reach adults in rural areas. A weekend pro-countries restrict women's access to educa- gram in New Jersey offers a variety of coun-tion and narrow the range of instructional seling services, sponsors independent studyoptions available to them (Clark, 1983). projects, and administers subject area exami- Delivery systems vary among regions and, nations. within a region, from country to country. Some extensive projects offer a wide rangeAmong such programs, there is use of both of services to a large clientele (Lucas, 1985).trained and untrained teachers, use of varied Project Communi-Link, for example. reaches sites including private households and learn- 26 selected rural communities in 14 westerning centers, and inconsistency in conducting U.S. states. An inter-organization linkageprogram evaluations. In some instances there system, this project works to help rural com-is reliance on technology, as with Pakistan's munities improve the social and economicfunctional literacy efforts. well-being of residents through expanded op- One major problem of literacy programs in portunities for Adult basic Education (ABE)the Third World is the difficulty in selecting a and GED preparation. Two Pennsylvania pro-specific language for literacy instruction jects, Regional Utilization of Resources to(Noor, 1982). Many countries have as many Aid Literacy (RURAL.) and Grass Roots Alter-as 300-400 different languages in use. When native Diploma Study (GRADS) also exempli-the program imposes instruction in a language fy this approach. that differs from the native language of its I.,ternational projects. Though interestclients, it may be perceived to be irrelevant in promoting literacy is gaining momentumorin some instancessuspect (Ouane, in the developing world, such efforts vary 1982). widely in scope, content, and ideological The hope that improved literacy and post- purpose. Noor (1982) claims that many ofliteracy skills will eventually lead to a change these programs have a single focus: they arein attitudes and a change in living and work- designed to fulfill particular objectives ofing conditions remains part of most pro- their sponsorsreligious institution, employ-grams. According to Muller (1986), countries er, or public service agency. He describescommitted to bringing about change in their other programsthose directed toward asocioeconomic system (for example, Viet- mass audienceas nationalist in focus andnam, China, Cuba, Burma, Tanzania, Ethio- dependent on the support of the politicalpia, and Iraq) are more likely to develop and hierarchy. offer successful postliteracy and continuing Literacy programs range from beginningeducation programs for newly literate adults. literacy training to postliteracy and continu- ing education. The majority of students areConditions for Effective Programs from among the rural poor. They are often Literacy programseven those claimed to malnourished, have high fertility rates andhe effectivehave had a limited influence on short life expectancy, and are in poor healthadult literacy rates in rural areas. Some condi- tions limit the scope, and sometimes threaten References the survival, of such programs. InadequateAkenson. J.E. (1984, November). The _Southern Literacy campaign 1910-1935: Lessons pr funding reduces the possible impact of litera- adult learning in an inlOrmation society. Paper cy initiatives (Kozol, 1985). The funding that presented at the National Adult Education does exist may be divided among a variety of Conference. Louisville. KY. (ED 252 726) Aronowitz. S.. & Giroux. H. (1985). Education agencies. all competing for a share (Chall, under siege. South Hadley. MA: Bergin & Heron, & Hilferty, 1987). These agencies Garvey. base their claims on the superior effectiveness Behrstock. J. (1981). Reaching the rural reader. of their own programs (for example, see Kitt, Journal of Reading. 24(8),712-718. Bhola, H.S. (1981). Planning rural vocational and 1988). This competition makes it difficult for adult education: A multiframeork megamodel. such agencies to coordinate their efforts and, l'iellpoints in Teaching and Learning. 57(3), on occasion, results in one agency attempt- 91-101. ing to undermine the efforts of another (forButterworth. J.. & Dawson. H. (1952). The modern rural school. New York: McGraw-Hill. example, sec Chall, Heron, & Hilferty, 1987: Cameron. C. (1987). Adult education as a force Taylor, 1989). toward social equity. Adult Education Quarterly. Moreover. the implicit goal of many rural 37(3).173-177. Chall, J.S.. Heron, E.. & Hilferty. A. (1987). Adult literacy programsto increase the economic literacy: New and enduring problems. Phi Delta productivity of rural regionsposes a threat Kalman. 69(3). 190-196. to even the most effective programs. Despite Clark. E.J. (1983, March). Improving the status of this implicit goal, these programs tend to women in the Third World: A challenge to adult educators. Paper presented at the Annual Con- define their effectiveness in terms of in- ference of the Comparative and International Edu- creased literacy, not economic improvement. cation Society. Atlanta. GA. (tp 235 349) If the advertised economic benefits fail to Duncan, J.A.. & Moyer, H. (19811. Agricultural. social and educational change in rural Wiscon- develop, these programs may lose the support sin /953 -1973. Madison. WI: College of Agri- of their external funding sources. culture, University of Wisconsin-Madison. (ED In spite of difficulties. however, some rural 205 339) literacy programs manage to persist. TheseFingeret. A. (1984). Adult literacy education: Current and future directions. Columbus. OH: programs often share certain features. Hone's ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult. Career, and (1984) analysis of effective rural programs Vocational Education. (ED 246 308) suggests some reasons why: effective adult Fisher, E.A. (1982). Illiteracy in context. Prospects. programs address local needs, satisfy the /2(2). 155-162. Hone. K.A. (1984). Serving the rural adult: Inen- expectations of their clients, entail coopera- tor.v of model programs in rural what Postsec- tion among agencies, and advertise their ben- ondary education. Manhattan, KS: Kansas State efits in clear language. University, University for Man. (ED 256 527) Hunter, C., & Harman, D. (1979). Adult illiteracy Several authors (e.g., Kozol, 1985: Noor, in the United States: A report to the Ford 1982) emphasize an additional source of suc- Foundation. New York: McGraw-Hill. cess. Involving community members in the Kit/. W.R. (1988). Adult literacy: A review of the development, promotion, and evaluation of past and a proposal for the future. Remedial and Special Educatton. 9(4). 44-50. literacy programs gives rural residents a stake Knox, A.B. ( 1987). International perspectives on in making these programs work. adult education. Columbus, OH: (;Ric Clearing-

4 house on Adult, Career, and Vocational Educa- tion. (ED 290 931) Theoretical and Kozol, J. (1985). Illiterate America. New York: New American. Library. Organizational Lucas. G.S. (1985). Non-traditional community- based GED programming outreach efforts. (ED Issues 254 678) Muller. J. (Ed.). (1986). Learning strategies for post literacy: The Tanzanian approach: A read- er. Bonn. Germany: German Foundation for International Development. (ED 276 842) Views of Personal Naik, C. (1982). Education for rural development A portfolio of studies. volume 2: Education for disadvantaged women. New York: Unipub. (ED Literacy Within a 13! 567) Nickerson. R.S. (1985). Adult literacy and technoi- o;_zy. Visible Language. /9(3), 311-355. Prison Population Noor. A. (1982). Managing adult literacy training. Prospects, 12(2), 163-184. Ouane. A. (1982). Rural newspapers and radio for post-literacy in Mali. Prospects, /2(2). 243-253. T. STEVENSON HANSELL Quigley, B.A. (1990). Hidden logic: Reproduction JEAN A. VOELKEL and resistance in adult literacy and adult basic education. Adult Education Quarterly. 40( 2). MARCH 1992 103-115. Sher. J.P. (1978). Revitalizing rural education: A legislator's handbook. Washington, DC: Nation- al Conference of State Legislators. While educational researchers Taylor. D. (1989). Toward a unified theory of liter- continue to study the problems acy learning. Phi Delta Kappan.71(3), 184-193. Theobald, P. (1988). The ideological foundations of associated with learning to midwest rural education. (ED 308 035) read, there is little information Treadway, D.M. (1984). Higher education in ruralavailable about how incarcerated adults, who America: Serving the adult learner. New York: are not trained in the field of education, view College Board. factors related to their own literacy levels. The population in U.S. prisons represents the single highest concentration of nonproficient readers from among the general U.S. popula- tion (Kozol, 1985). Rosenthal (1987) estimat- ed that 50-65% of the prison population was functionally illiterate, in contrast to 10% of the general population. In 1983, an estimate of US$6.6 billion was given as the minimum annual cost of prison maintenance for an esti- mated 260,000 inmates (of the total 440,000 imprisoned in the U.S.) whose imprisonment has been correlated with functional illiteracy (Kozol, 1985). Functional illiteracy among juvenile offenders in1987was even greater atwith individual instruction. The community 85% (Rosenthal,1987). tutors had been trained with Laubach materi- The number of years spent in the educa-als and a variety of other approaches. tional system varies considerably between the Of the voluntary survey participants, I6 prison population and the general population.were enrolled as students; 16 were serving as In1987. 75%of all U.S. prisoners had nottutors. The student group had a lower level of completed high school (Rosenthal, 1987), asreading ability than the tutor group, as indi- compared with only 25% of the general popu-cated by standardized test scores. The years lation. This suggests that research is neededof schooling completed ranged from 7 to 12 about the roots of illiteracy and the schoolfor students and from9to15for inmate dropout rate among prisoners. tutors. The age range was 19 to 52. The Much research has attempted to explaingroup's racial mix was 72% African Ameri- the process by which humans learn to read,can. 25% Caucasian. and 3% Hispanic. On define the factors that influence this process.the day of the survey, the ratio of Caucasians and identify factors that retard literacy. Majorto other racial groups among the inmate tutors investigations have centered around four vari-was 3:1. Childhoods were spent in various ables of education: (1) nonschool environ-parts of the U.S.; one man was from Mexico. ment, (2) school environment, (3) the learn- The survey (see Figure 1) was prepared to er's physical characteristics, and (4) theaddress four areas, namely educational, envi- learner's psychological characteristics (Harrisronmental, physical. and psychological vari- & Sipay.1980).These four were also the cen-ables of reading as prisoners remembered ter of our own analysis. them. The survey consisted of 20 statements Our study examined the opinions of twoto which inmates responded -yes" or "no." groups within a prison population regardingFigure 2, which sums up the responses, also their personal literacy development. Weshows how the survey statements relate to the addressed two questions: four categories of variables. The number of 1. To what factors do the male inmates of aitems for each type of variable was reason- clo e- security correctional institution in theably balanced apart from a stronger emphasis midwestern U.S. who are enrolled in a prisonon psychological variables. literacy program attribute their current read- The statements used as survey items were ing levels'' phrased in nontechnical. nonthreatening lan- 2. Do inmates who serve as tutors for otherguage to encourage participation. Because the inmates view these factors differently fromtest group included low-ability readers who those who are students in the program? may or may not have received assistance in reading the survey, we tried to use words that Two Types of Prison Inmates were easy for adults to read. The Fry Read- We studied a group of 32 male prisonability Scale indicates that the survey had a inmates who voluntarily participated in thereadability level of fifth grade. The state- Chaplains' Literacy Dynamics Program. Onements, as well as a final comment that respon- morning a week. seven community tutorsdents were asked to complete, were formulat- provided aid. supervision, and tutoring sup-ed to collect personal opinions according to port for up to 25 tutor inmates who simulta-the respondents' perceptions and memories of neously supported up to 25 student inmatesinfluences on their current level of literacy. Figure 1 A Survey About Reading

I am in the Chaplains' Literacy Dynamics Protiram. am a student tutor. (Please put .v in the correct blank.) I have finished the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 II 12 13 14 IS 16 grade. (Please circle the correct number.) This is a survey about you as a child. It's about what you remember about learning to read. It's about your family. It's about what you remember about school. Your experiences as a Child were different from those of the others who are taking part in this sur- vey. So your answers will he different. There are no right or wrong answers. Choose the answers that show what you think. Some sentences are listed below. Read each sentence. Then think about yourself as a child. If the sentence is true for you. put .v in the blank beside "Yes.- If the sentence is not true for you, put .v in the blank beside "No." If you would like to tell more about your answer. you may write in the space below the sentence. What I remember about when I was a child 1. My parents wanted me to do %\ ell in school. 31 Yes I No 2. Someone in my family read to me. 18 Yes 14 No 3. My teachers liked me and thought I could do well. 27 Yes 5 No 4. I liked to go to school. 17 Yes 15 No 5. I tried hard to do my school work correctly. 24 Yes 8 No 6. Someone helped me when homework was hard. 22 Yes 10 No 7. My friends wanted to do well in school. 23 Yes 9 No 8. I watched television a lot. (If yes, what did you watch?) 25 Yes 7 No 9. I felt tired and sleepy in school. 19 Yes 13 No 10. I missed school a lot. 15 Yes 17 No 11. The other students learned faster than I did. 23 Yes 7 No 12. I felt dumb in school. 13 Yes 18 No 13. There were many books I could read in school. 24 Yes 7 No 14. Reading aloud made me feel scared and nervous. IS Yes 16 No 15. The books were dull and boring. 11 Yes 20 No 16. The words in books and writing on the chalkboard were hard to see. 7 Yes 24 No 17. It was hard to hear the teacher. 3 Yes 28 No 18. It was hard to understand the words when the teacher talked. 10 Yes 21 No How I feel as an adult 19. I read as well as I want to. 17 Yes 14 No 20. I want to read better than I do now. 30 Yes I No Please complete the following sentence: I think I read like I do because

If you would like to sign your name, it would help the volunteers of the Literacy Dynamics Program to know you better. No one else will see this paper. If you do not want to sign your name, that's OK. Thank you for sharing what you think about learning to read. This survey was administered to prison inmates in November 1989. Figure 2 Prison Inmate Responses to 20 Survey Items by Category Survey Number of responses "Yes. Types of item "Yes- variables number Students Tutors "No"

Educational variables (4) 3 15 12 6 I1 11 10 13 10 14 7 15 5 6 20

Environmental variables (4) 1 16 15 1 i 12. 6 14 7 14 9 9 8 14 11 7

Physical variables (3) 9 11 8 13 16 5 24 17 3 0 28 Psychological variables (7) 4 10 7 15 5 16 8 8 11 14 9 7 12 6 7 18

14 II 4 16 19 6 11 14

20 16 14 1 General statements (2) 10 8 7 17 18 9 21 N = 32 prison inmates (16 literacy students, 16 tutors). One inmate tutor responded only to items 1-10. Items 1() and i8 (general statements) fit more than one category of variable.

The final comment gave them an opportunitywere on the hack of the page). Although no to express their opinions in their own words. provision was made for an answer of "I don't We administered the survey at the begin-know." Respondent 1 (a student) wrote, "I ning of a literacy session, in late autumn. Be-don't know" as an answer to statement 15 cause of time and personnel limitations, tutorswhich asked if textbooks were dull and boring. and students completed their surveys indepen-Question 1: Attributions dently, following brief instructions. Tutors To address the first research question (To helped latecoming students, who missed thewhat factors do these male inmates of a close- instructions, to complete their surveys. security institution attribute their reading lev- Each survey was given a respondent num-els?), overall scores and open-ended respons- ber for tabulation purposes. Respondent 18. aes were examined by category. As might he tutor, neglected to answer questions 11-20expected, no one area (educational. environ- and to complete the final statement (thesemental, physical, or psychological) seemed to

03 Figure 3 Responses to Survey Items Showing Substantial Agreement or Clear Split Number of Types of Survey item responses variables number Statement in survey item "Yes- "No" Statements most inmate respondents agreed with: Environmental My parents wanted me to do well. 31

Psychological 20 I want to read better than I do now. 30 1 Physical 17 It was hard to hear the teacher. 3 28 Educational 3 Teachers liked me and thought I could27 5 do well. Environmental 8 I watched TV a lot. 25 7 Physical 16 Words on the chalkboard were hard 7 24 to see. Statements to which responses were split: Environmental 2 Someone in my family read to me. 18 14 Psychological 4 I liked to go to school. 17 15 General 10 1 missed school a lot. 15 17 Psychological 14 Reading aloud made me feel scared 15 16 and nervous. Psychological 19 I read as well as I want to. 17 14 N = 32 male prison inmates (16 literacy students. 16 tutors>. One tutor inmate responded only to items 1-10. predominate for the total group. In the groupditions might have hampered learning (see of items where most inmates answered "yes."Figure 2). all variable areas were represented. However. However. more frequent responses from where responses were evenly split, the itemsthe student group included missing school. related most often to psychologicaariables.not liking to attend school. and feeling ner- as shown in Figure 3. vous or scared about reading aloud in school. Up to 10 of the 32 respondents may haveThese responses suggest psychological as had physical limitations. Three reported thatwell as environmental and physical influ- it had been hard to hear the teacher and sevenences. This interpretation seems supported by responded that it had been hard to see thethe general agreement that "teachers liked me words on the chalkboard. Furthermore, alland thought I could do well" and by the free three of those who reported hearing problems response statements. which are reported in and five of the seven who couldn't see theFigure 4.. It is clearly possible that the inmates chalkboard were in ths: student group. Thisresponded that teachers liked them because suggests that half of the 16 students mightthey had accepted the societal view of them- have had a physical basis for learning prob-selves as less valuable than authority figures. lems and that environmental classroom con- It also seems possible that these incarcerated

't1 Figure 4 Prison Inmates' Open-Ended Responses About Their Reading Ability

Responses to statement "I think I read like I do because..."

Student inmates' responses I. 1 try to read fast and lose track of what I'm reading. 2. reading haven't never been a problem just math. I guess since I have been out of high school so long! 3. I don't understand big words. 4. of missing days in school also not completing my education. 5. because, I am not able to read English as was I want to he able to. 6. I didn't take school as serious as I want to. But now I'am in school taking care of my reading problem. 7. I need help. 8. I need more help. 9. growing up I didn't take it seriously. 10. I didn't take time to read. 11. I do not read that much. 12. I like to read some. 13. 14. I am learning from my tutor. .15. slow learned 16.

Tutor inmates' responses 17. I've continued to read and feel the more that I read. th. better I'll become at it. 18. 19. because it enhances my ability to comprehend and understand. 20. it is best for me in the world today. Besides that I love reading God's Word daily. 21. there was a lot of interesting hooks and I love reading I couldn't get my nose out of a hook. 22. I like to spend as much time reading as I can. 23. of all the hard work and the help I had while growing up.

24. I have good reading comprehension and I spell words e \cellontiv : also. I git c ;effort to the reading task. 25. of my attitude toward reading. 26. 1 read books as often as I can. 27. as I grew older in life I started to enjo.v reading. This made me want to read any thing that I could put my hands on. 28.1 enjoy reading. 29. Now I understand the importants of reading and vsh, one should read none. 30. 1 finally applied myself to learning to read. 31.1 trvcd to read and got better. I read a lot better today than I did in my ounger da s. 32.1 strive to achieve perfection in an!, and all social and/or informal. formal endeavors I prsue.

All response,. git en are shottn. men had had higher priorities than learning toclear differences of focus. Student responses read while of school age. dealt primarily with the past while tutor re- Question 2: Students is. Tutors sponses reflected current purposes and intent. A few student statements clearly indicated The results of the survey were analyzed by personal causes for inadequate reading skills: means of the chi-square statistic through the 1. I try to read fast and lose track of what sAs computer program to determine if inmates I'm reading. who served as tutors viewed these factors dif- ferently than (lid those who were students. 3. I don't understand big words. When we used the 0.05 level of significance 4. of missing days in school.,.. (95(%i of the samples drawn from this popula- 6. I didn't take school as serious as I want tion would furnish the same result), items 2, to.... 7, 14, and 19 (discussed below) showed sig- ID. I didn't take time to read. nificant differences between the responses of 15. slow learned tutors and students. However, item 7 ("NIx friends wanted to do well in school ") had few- These statements reflect the psychological er than five responses in the negative cell and factors only. Physical factors arc not men- was therefore incompatible with the chi- tioned. square statistic. In light of current criticisms of educational Surprisingly. on item 2 significantly high-institutions, it is interesting to note that no er numbers of students (12 of 16) than tutors comments degraded teachers, materials. or (6 of 16) said that someone in the family. read the general environment. Again, this is pos- to them. One interpretation is that studentsibly because these men iew themselves as inmates responded to the recent past ratherbeing in a position from which they cannot than the preschool frame intended by the sur-denigrate authority. Comments from tutors vey authors. Students also responded w ithsupport this emphasis on personal responsi- significantly more "yes'' answers to item 14bility with added emphasis on having clear about being scared to read aloud-11 of 16purposes for reading: students marked "yes- to this item while only 4 of 15 tutors did. This result Is not sur- 17. I've continued to read and feel that the prising. Inmates who accepted the role of more I read the [letter become at it. tutor would prohahly feel more confident 2)). it is hest for me in the world today. Be- about reading than those w ho elected to he sides that I love reading God's Word students. Similarly. for item 19 it is under- standable that significantly ;mire tutors than 21. there M, as a lot of in. teresting butik,, and students felt that thet read as well as they loge reading and couldn't get my wished. lit NC out of a hook. Interpreted this way, we get little nisiLlit 32. I,stril.e to achioe perfection in aio, from the "yes or no- responses intoat-rabies and all social and or intormal, formal that may hat e caused differences between endear ors I pursue. the two groups. As [WIC(' in Tine 4. how e`\ cr. student responses to the open-ended ques In response to our firt research question (ion "I think I read likeI do he arise...show ft, what fachus do male inmates (II a security correctional institution attribute theiron their individual memories of childhood current reading levels?"), the data provideand school experiences. This sample is not interesting insights. Figure 2 shows the rangenecessarily representative of the entire popu- of responses by the total group. clustered bylation of the institution or penal system. the type of variables involved. These men have chosen to participate in the Figure 4 presents the full list of free-literacy program and their attitudes may have response statements provided by the men atdiffered from those of the general prison pop- the end of the questionnaire. Our interpreta-ulation. Therefore, caution should he used in tion of these fruc statements is that those men interpreting the survey findings to the general in the student role discussed the past and population. dealt with problems (e.g.. "I didn't take much A variety of causative factors in the respon- time to read." "l don't understand big words"). dents' backgrounds could have influenced Tutors. on the other hand. focused on the pre-their responses. Accuracy of memory should sent or future ("I enjoy reading,- "Now I not he discounted; Factual information regard- understand the importants of reading'' anding literacy development and background of on purposes for reading (enjoyment. improve-the inmate participants was not studied. Given ment, understanding. and salvation). the high percentage of nonproficient readers among incarcerated persons. it would seem Beller Readers time a Purpose that more extensive research and intensive 'ro judge from the results of this survey, it instruction in this area would be beneficial. appears that those inmates who have devel- While no specific causal factors can he oped proficiency see reading as having a pur-isolated through this study. it seems safe to pose: they feel competent enough to enjoyconclude that better readers in this population reading. or they feel they can learn abouthave a clearer sense of the purposes of read- themselves and the world through books.ing. Better readers read for a reason while Those inmates w ho did not dev clop profi-poorer readers do not see through the trees ciency may have been influenced by physicalof words to the forest of gaining knowledge or ens ironmental liabilities. They reportedor enjoyment. Teachers and administrators that they did not read as well as they wantedmight use this information to find methods to and that they did not work at learning toand materials to encourage student enjoy ment read while in school. Perhaps they did not tryand sense of purpose. because, as reported. they felt nervous about reading aloud. 1 he anal may have carried user into all reading. Furthermore, it seems Reference. likely that that anxiety w as based on aware-Ilartt,. A.. & Sipa. E. ( //ttlt mete he ness that in fact they did not read as\I,CH as t7th cd.t. White Plain,. Ni: their classmates. I _oilman. Kt,/01.J. (I t)Xct Mitt rate tractit (idrilen Answers to this survey reflect theopinions 's'i of the adult male prison inmate literacy pro- ktienth.11. N. t 19ST t.1 t (1, It\or+it one to tdel gram participants on a particular day. based (' Oa% RI Assessment

cc I uderstanding is not cued knoll ledge: performance is never the sum of drills: problems are not exercises; mastery- is not achieved b the unthinking application of algorithms. In others words, we cannot be said to understand something unless live can employ' our knoviledge 99 fluently', flexibl, and aptly in particular and diverse contexts.

\s, 1993,R200

In his review of assessment, .1olinston Mg. Ash reports on a Al.1-year project 10 (Wal- (1984, issued conclusions that still holdlkill' the te. is used in a large-.scale meritsss- true. lie complains that, even thoughtem. Murphy et al. provide a test designed fin. recent researc.11 has tended to emphasi:ehealth-care professionals to use to identifY process over produc t, educators and re- low literacy levels in patiews. Padak and searchers persi.st in depending on the morePadak provide guidelinc.slOr adult literacy conveniently obtained product data. the arti-program evaluation in the Calegorie) of per- cles in this section address process as Well as )01(11,pMgrahilltillic. Mid eNtertlili JaCtor). proillat. MCI: Cite) prOgratil.1 that attempt Gareia and Pear)011 (199/ i hold as a bash ilhernatiVC a%)e))1tICItt with Udall). Pailak, thesis that the keys to meeting the its)C.))111C111 1)at'iii)oll, alai Pachlk detail easy-to-use nerds ()la diverse Ankle/it population are a strategies for inlormal assessment. [ inlayflexible approach to as)e))111elli and a dra- matically1.'111)1'01yd teacher knowledge haw. and Ilarrison discuss .standardi:ed tests Ver- .1 he article.% in this nonIetWililyen, ,ntr- ,s1t)crunpetency-based assessment. Fargo and t, cn,,e fle.tibilit in assessment. And educators Collins started out looking for answers on who internah:e literature of this type do have luny to e, aluate adult beginning readers and. at least a .solid beginning ttmard establishing in the pro, ass, Icarnecl how liberating the a snowg knowledre base Odd interview questnais can be. tom/Itw\ to letlf,it,'Ii reseelft il ill 11101,..les,, anti del Ct. (1t1111t1, (1 1 , 1l1'1 \,.11. I)I"91 1I hl 1,41 t.t (Ipril I ratter fill',ertWWII til Ririe I'1111(I'M'h- t11.`1', q! Pg. a .1,1! if 11 l' I 11,1 rEd. I. Literacy for a diverse society (pp. To further complicate matters. some pro- 253-27S). New York: Teacher., College Pre.1.%. grams are lear-r centered. some competency JOI111.011. P.11. (1944-1).-1s.se.ssment in readint;. In based, and some job centered. The instructors P.D. Pearson (Ed.1.Handbook of readinv. research (pp. 147 -1,4? ).White PlainA, NY: may be found anywhere along a continuum Longman. from volunteers, who have received only a W)gginA. G. I 1993. November). Asst. ..% few hours of training provided by their spe- cnnre.tt. and validity.Phi Delta cific program, to certified professional adult Kappan. 2(10-214. educators. How does one assess literacy under such circumstances? It is very difficult to develop standards when adult learners' needs are so dissimilar and the programs are so varied. One common goal is that the Assessment assessment procedure used should integrate both curriculum and student-identified goals and needs. Jeanne Chall states that "there are few tests specifically meant for adults and Issues in Adult there seems to he a hesitation in using them" (see French. 1987. p. 7). The commonly used Literacy Assessment Test of Adult Basic Education (TABE) until recently was normed an c hildren. Most normed and criterion-referenced tests are scored using grade level equivalents similar ELIZABETH METZ to those used for children. French calls this a MARCH 1990 "legacy from our definition of literacy as a level of achievement'' (p. -10). There are few research-based models avail- able for assessment of the many different pro- Avast arra), of adult education pro-grams. French (1987) suggests that informal grams are offered across the testing would be one direction to folkm which United States and around theould allow for a more personal perspective. world. There are programs offeredIn informal testing the learner can he actively through state education offices and publicinvolved in his or her own assessment. While school districts. Other programs are providedWere are a number of viewpoints about adult hv volunteers through Literacy Volunteers ofliteracy assessment, no one perspective seems America. Limbach Literacy International, andto dominate the field at this time. public libraries (Gaughan. 1986: Literary: The Key toSit(ee c. 19881. The U.S. go% em- Reprsentathe Programs inent pros ides literacy programs tied to the The ('enter for Literacy in Philadelphia. Job 'I raininr Partnership Act and through thePennsykania. Imo\ ides a curriculum based on Departments of Arriculture. Defense, Healththe indkidual learner's goals, interests, and and Human Sep. ices, Interior. Justice. andneeds. Their underlying assumptions arc that Labor (Nev, man, 1086). PrO, ate industrl, alsoliterac is social and that the learners come otters literacy classes. with their WA n goals and objc..ctit,es. The 51, Center for Literacy uses planning conferencessided problem. Since each adult had his or during the intake session and every 6 monthsher own reasons for coining to a literacy pro- for assessment. Items such as the learner'sgram, these reasons rarely match up with the everyday life, reading and writing strategies.skills measured on standardized tests. Com- interests. and goals are considered. A portfo-petency-based programs also have a similar lio of the learner's accomplishments and cur-problem. In such programs, competencies rent work is also kept (Lytle. 1986). tend to be imposed on a learner rather than The U.S. federal prison system readingthe learner choosing competencies that match programs use standardized tests. Each inmatehis or her goals. takes the Adult Basic Learning Examination Assessment of the adult learner can be (ABLE) on entry. Although ABLE is used by theconducted on an informal, nonthreatening prison system, each institution may developbasis. The cultural, physiological, psycholog- its own basic education program (Muth,ical. and educational characteristics of the 1988). Project LEARN, in Cleveland. Ohio,learner can he noted through a series of infor- uses volunteer tutors trained in the use ofmal interviews over a period of several ses- Lauhach literacy materials. Assessment ofsions. Learner interests and goals can be dis- learners begins at the intake interview, andcussed on an ongoing basis by the tutor and progress is closely monitored in the earlslearner. Reading level can he determined lessons. Project LEARN also uses the Widethrough an informal reading inventory and Range Achievement Test (wRAT) (Pasch &the learner's reading strategies can be Oakley. 1985). assessed using miscue analysis. Comprehensive Adult Student Assessment While these methods of assessment may System (('NsAs) is used in all California pro-take more time than a standardized test and ,Tiams that receive U.S. Adult Basic Edu-formal intake interview, more appropriate cation Act funds. Assessment is linked direct-information can he obtained. Rapport would ly to a list of identified competency statements. he built between learner and tutor, the self- Materials used in the program are coded toimage of the learner would he enhanced as this list. When learners first enter the pro-the program would he learner centered, and gram. their needs and skills are assessedthe goals and needs of the individual learner through an interview. The program has hadwould he met. Success would be built into the difficulty in record keeping and plans to use aprogram. Progress would be noted as each computerized management system ( Rickardgoal of the learner is reached, and new goals Stiles. 1985). Given the range of assess-would he established as part of an ongoing ment tools highlighted above, field-basedassessment program. personnel continue to note limitations of References these instruments and suggest changes. French, J. (1987). Adult literary.1 .iouc«r hook and en flIC. lieu York: Garland. Toilards Allenialke ssessineill Gaughan. K.K. 1195(1). I.ilerac> projects in I t that both standardized tests and libraries. 131n in- I .?5, 277-291. competency-based assessment poorly serve 1. !term y: The des to..11( (TA.111(1ruethum/book. ( 1988 2nd ed.) Utica. NY: Mid-York Lihrar) the adult learner. Standardized tests are often System. 1) 1)303 Imo related to former failure in school, arc intimi- I, !, tie S.I(1986). Literary theorl in brie tire: dating. and give a one-sidediew of a multi- cinr: lirere inlint; un I wrilint; of ow-literate adults. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Assessment San Francisco, CA. 65 pp. 1ED 278 6751 Muth. W.R. (1988. September). Federal prison sys- tem reading programs. Paper presented at National Adult Literacy Symposium, Washington. DC. Newman. A.P. (1986). An evaluation of the impact Exploring Reading of the Advertising Council' .s "l'oltuneer Against Illiteracy" campaign on public awareness of and resources devoted to adult literacy for 1985. with Adult Beginning Bloomington, IN: Indiana University. 677 pp. [ED 293 9791 Pasch. M.. & Oakley. N. (1985 )..4n evaluation of Readers Project: i.E.ite.%. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Chicago, IL. 25 pp. [ED 255 7591 Rickard, & Stiles. R.L. (1985). Comprehensive NANCY D. PADAK Adult Student Assessment System (cAsAs) JANE L. DAVIDSON design for effective assessment in correctional education programs. Journal of Correctional GARY M. PADAK Education. 36, 51 -53. SEPTEMBER 1990

Helping adult basic education learn- ers become competent, avid read- ers is a major challenge facing ABE teachers and tutors and a major goal for most ABE programs. Under- standing these adults as readers is the first step toward meeting the challenge and achiev- ing the goal. Most ABE programs rely on standardized tests to yield information about reading abili- ty. However, both standardized testing and the results it yields have limitations that restrict its usefulness for ABE instructional planning. Many learners are intimidated by standardized testing, perhaps because they arc reminded of unpleasant prior experiences. Moreover, test results do not provide infor- mation for planning instruction. An adult who scores in the 5th percentile on a standardized test may indeed need assistance in reading, but the test score does not provide specifics. Does the adult enjoy and value reading'? Read

iJ ..56.. for meaning? Have a workable strategy fordoing. An adult who believes that "saying identifying unknown words? the words" is the goal, for example. will These problems with standardized tests areprobably approach reading differently than aggravated with adult beginning readers, whoone who believes that "getting the message" are even more likely to fear formal testing sit- is the goal. Furthermore, mistaken notions uations and to score poorly. Furthermore,may impede the teacher's efforts to help the test-taking fears may counteract attempts toadult grow as a reader. Interview questions create the positive initial experiences sothat explore the adult's notions of the reading important to retention in programs. Fortunate-process ;Ind awareness of reading strategies, ly, several alternatives to standardized testingcan provide useful instructional insights. can yield diagnostic insights. This article will Questions like these can be useful (Burke, explain several strategies for exploring begin-1980; Padak, 1987; Wixson, Bosky, Yochum, ning adult readers' perceptions about reading& Alvermann, 1984): Who's the best reader and their abilities. you know? What does this person do that Exploring Ideas About Reading makes him or her such a good reader? How would you explain readingwhat would you An intake interview of some sort is usually say that it is? What should readers do? Why part of registration or an early instructional session with the adult beginning reader.do people read? Do you think that you're a good reader? Why? What's the best way to During these interviews, teachers typically ask about background, interests, and goalsbecome a better reader? Why? (Davidson. Padak, & Padak, 1989): Tell me The adult's awareness of reading strategies about your family. Where do you live? Wherecan be explored through interview questions have you worked? What are you interestedsuch as these: What do you do when you in? What do you do in your spare time? V/hycome to a word that you don't know? How do are you interested in this program? What doyou try to figure it out? What do you do if you hope to accomplish? that doesn't work? Do you ever find that you Discussion surrounding these questionsdon't understand something that you've read? provides the teacher and adult with opportu- What do you do to try to figure it out? What if nities to learn about each other and beginthat doesn't work? What do you do when you establishing rapport. Additionally, informa-want to remember something that you've tion shared about interests and backgroundread? How well does this work? can be useful in planning instruction. For In evaluating responses to these questions, example, Ray told his tutor that he'd probablyit's important to differentiate between strate- miss a session in the spring because he hadgy awareness and strategy use. An adult attended every Cleveland Indians home open-might mention context as a means to identify er for the past 25 years. Knowing about Ray'sunknown words, for example, yet show no interest in baseball helped his tutor select in-indication of using context while reading; the teresting materials. reverse may also be true. Nonetheless, the Questions about reading should he askedadult's awareness of his or her options as a during intake interviews as well. What read-reader, as well as ideas about the process of ers do during reading is determined, at leastreading, can provide the teacher with useful in part, by what they think they should be insights for planning instructiDn.

..57.. Exploring Comprehension Abil0 about what may be presented next and to Knowledge about the learner's compre-explain why they think so. Two questions hension ability is critical: after all. compre-typically facilitate the discussions: What do hension is what reading is all about. Twoyou think? Why do you think so? infOrmal strategies for gaining preliminary Responses during a Dt.-TA can be analyzed information about strengths and weaknessesto formulate preliminary hypotheses about in comprehension are described in this sec-comprehension. Three aspects of the respons- tion. The strategies are based on text read toes are important: willingness to predict and the adult, rather than reading he or she doesevaluate, plausibility, and demonstrations of independently. text understanding. Willingness to predict and Although listening comprehension andevaluate provides an indication of the adult's reading comprehension abilities may differ, understanding of the reading process. That is, they also share important features. Both adults who predict and evaluate freely most involve sampling, predicting, and confirming. likely know that their thoughts are important Both depend upon inferences that are basedto reading and listening, while those who hes- on the adult's prior knowledge and informa- itate may not. The plausibility of predictions tion presented in the text. As such, knowledgecan be determined by judging whether the about the adult's ability as a listener can be aideas are possible, given information provid- useful source of hypotheses about his or hered in the text. Finally, demonstrations of text ability as a reader. Besides that, if the adult understanding are frequently shown in state- cannot read independently, we cannot exam-ments such as "I think ,because 51 ine reading comprehension directly. it said (1) Active readers make predictions about (2) Analyzing an adult's retelling is a sec- what they expect to read and then confirm orond way to explore his or her listening com- refine their predictions based on evidenceprehension ability. After an unfamiliar text from their reading. This process allows thehas been read to the adult. the teacher can reader to construct the author's message, toinvite retelling by saying "What was this all comprehend. These same thinking processesabout?" or "Tell me everything you remem- are involved in listening to an unfamiliarber about what I just read." After the adult 'text. One way to explore listening compre- has completed an initial retelling, the teacher hension, then, is to ask the adult to make andcan ask for further response: "OK, what evaluate predictions about'a text being readelse?" or "Good. What else do you remem- to him or her. ber?" Prompts such as these encourage elabo- The Directed Listening-Thinking Activityration without providing clues to text content. (DL-TA) (Davidson. Padak, & Padak. 1989: The teacher should make extensive notes Stauffer, 1980) is an instructional techniqueduring the retelling or tape record it. Either that works well for this diagnostic purpose. Inway, analysis of the retelling should be based brief, the DL-TA involves asking listeners toon several guidelines that involve judging the make predictions about text content and pro-extent to which the adult understood what vide reasons for their ideas. A portion of thewas heard (Padak. 1987): text is then read, and listeners are asked to 1. How fluent was the retelling? Did the evaluate their predictions in light of what they adult retell freely or was a great deal of have heard. They are then asked to speculate prompting necessary? Was the retelling well

..58.. 6 3 organized? Good fiction retellings recreateintake session, for example, could easily form the plot in the sequence presented. For non-the basis for dictation. Next, the teacher asks fiction. maintaining the author's sequencethe adult to summarize by providing informa- might not be as important as other aspects oftion to be recorded on paper. Each statement organization, for example, recalling whichshould be recorded exactly as spoken, details belong with which major topics. although standard spelling, capitalization, and 2. How complete was the retelling?punctuation should be used. Here is Will's Excellent retellings need not be verbatimdictation, taken during his first session in an accounts of the textrote memorization is ABE program: seldom, if ever. a goal for either listening or I'm pretty nervous about corning back to school. reading. Instead, the teacher should analyze It been a long time, and I wasn't so good at it the retelling to determine presence of main before. I didn't have no luck in school. I figured ideas and significant supporting details. I was pretty dumb, but now Iin not so sure. To a certain extent, teachers need to keep Well, I can give it a try. open minds when analyzing retellings. Since comprehension depends heavily on the listen- After the dictation is complete. the adult er's or reader's prior knowledge. the teacher'sis asked to read it aloud. The teacher looks notion of what's important may not alwaysfor ease and fluency and notes the words correspond to the adult's. Nonetheless, ana-read successfully. After the adult has read lyzing retellings for fluency, sequence, andhis or her dictation, the teacher directs atten- breadth can he helpful in understanding antion to words correctly identified and asks adult beginning reader. the adult to say each word. Words identified quickly and accurately are sight words. Exploring knoll ledge of Words Later in the initial session, or at the next ses- Dictation by the student (Davidson. Padak.sion, the adult is asked to read the dictation & Padak, 1989: Stauffer 1980) is an excellent again, this time silently. and to underline all diagnostic tool for exploring the beginningthe words he or she knows. This process is reader's abilities as a reader, including his orcompleted twice. Finally, the teacher asks her knowledge of words. The advantages ofthe adult to say each underlined word. An dictation over other means of diagnosis, suchindication of the adult's ability to learn new as word lists or standardized tests, are many.words is given by comparing these respons- Understanding is ensured, and meaning ises with initial responses. This procedure can inherent in the learner's dictated accounts ofhelp teachers determine the extent of an experiences or ideas. Moreover, since dicta-adult beginning reader's sight vocabulary tions are recorded verbatim, vocabulary andand his or her ability to learn new sight language patterns will also be familiar to thewords in the context of familiar material. Of adult. Finally, the diagnosis should be con-course, it's unlikely that working with one ducted in a supportive atmosphere, and work-dictation will tell the whole story. If addi- ing with dictations creates a supportive atmo-tional information is needed before instruc- sphere. tion begins, the entire process can be repeat- The first step in taking dictation is to facili-ed with another dictation. tate discussion about a topic. Discussing It's fairly easy to form hypotheses about responses to interview questions during thepossible word identification stmtegies during

..59.. work with a dictation. Making note of thethen be easily plotted, shared, and discussed adult's reaction to problems is probably thewith the adult learner. As teacher-tutor and best way to do this. Does he or she seek help?adult learner gain additional insights about Try again? How? Does the adult try to usethe adult as a reader, these insights can be context? Phonics? Sometimes the reader real-recorded and dated, thus providing an ongo- izes that there's a problem. but doesn't knowing means of justification for instructional what to do about it. If so, a quizzical look or adecisions and activities. comment ("That's not right") may be the clue All instructional activities need to be both to understanding. In cases like this, it's usual-meaning based and learner based. The most ly helpful to seek additional information:effective activities are those based on learn- "You look puzzled. What's the matter?" Ob-ers' strengths and needs that represent a high serving reading behavior, with particulardegree of authenticity. Adult learners must be attention to attempts to solve problems, canactively involved in highly personalized liter- help teachers form hypotheses about theacy instructional programs. They must have adult's reading ability and repertoire of read-critical roles in the instructional decision- ing strategies. making process and in recording progress Making Instructional Decisions toward their own goals. After all, they have a Diagnosis involves asking questions andlifetime of literacy ahead of them. looking for answers. As questions areReferences answered, a picture of the adult as a reader Burke, C.L. (1980). The reading interview. In B.P. begins to emerge. Data and anecdotal infor- Farr & D.J. Strickler (Eds.), Reading compre- mation collected from all sources need to be hension: Resource guide. Bloomington. IN: consolidated in order to clearly see the pic- Indiana University Language Education Department. ture. What is now evident about the adult'sDavidson, J.L. (1990). Holistic reading and writing reading performance and what is not assessmentfin. adults.Monroe, NY: Trillium evident? Press. Holistic Reading and Writing As,sesstnent Davidson. J.L.. Padak. N.D.. & Padak. G.M. (1989). far Adults(Davidson. 1990) contains sets of Reading. writing. thinking Pr life, teacher's continuums in the following areas to think manual (Level I. Set 1). Monroe, NY: Trillium Press. about in making instructional decisions: read- Padak. N.D. (1987). Reading placement and diag- ing for meaning, using functional strategies nosis: A guide for elementary teachers. for word identification, vocabulary-concept Springfield. IL:Illinois State Board of development, fluency, self-esteem related to Education. reading, values related to reading. Stauffer. R.G. (1980). The language-experience Information collected about an adult's approach to teaching reading (2nd ed.). New overall reading performance is recorded on York: Harper & Row. Wixson. K.K.. Bosky. A.B.. Yochum. M.N.. & appropriate continuums, thus allowing for Alvermann. D.E. (1984). An interview for progress to be plotted, over a period of time, assessing students' perceptions of classroom on the assessment sheet. Instructional deci- reading tasks.i he Reading Teacher. 37. sions and information about progress can 346-352.

GO An examination from a United Kingdom Assessment perspective of the background and nature of provision and curricula, as well as considera- tion of what is meant by success and the means of assessing it. may help us decide. Measuring "Success" Are there research results which confirm whether or not Adult Basic Education(ABE) in Reading in Adult tuition in reading is successful? Who judges successstudents, tutors, or others? How is success currently being assessed? What is Basic Education: A being assessed under the broad heading of reading. and are current methods appro- United Kingdom priate? Background Perspective The first major impetus in the United Kingdom for adult literacy, asABEwas then called. did not occur until 1975 with the ANN FINLAY establishment of the Adult Literacy Re- source Agency. now superseded by the Adult COLIN HARRISON Literacy and Basic Skills Unit(ALBS(.`).With NOVEMBER 1992 so brief a history it is not surprising that assessment philosophy and assessment tech- niques specific toABEare still in their infan- cy when compared to other areas of educa- Whick of these quotations gives tion. the most accurate picture of the DuringABE'Sbrief existence, changes have degree of success of adult liter- occurred which affect the nature of provision acy tuition? Or are both true? and curriculaconcerning what is offered The majority of adult literacy participants do and the way it is delivered. Two of the more not accomplish meaningful. practically signifi- significant changes are the move away from cant reading improvement; and leave training predominantly individual tuition to group without haying achievedfunctional literacy. (Diekhoff. 1988, p. 625) tuition and the inclusion of numeracy with the traditional reading. writing, and spelling The finding that the majority of learners enrolled originally offered, At first most tuition was in literacy schemes in the period in question ere evidentl making progress in their acquisi- carried out one-to-one with volunteer tutors tion of skills related to reading and writing, and (as a result of which the term tutor rather than that the majority of tutors and learners were sat- teacher is common inABE).As the movement isfied s; ith the rate of progress being made, gained strength and more paid staff were appears to pros ide further es idcncc of the bene- recruited, an increasing number of students ficial effects of the initiatives that have been were directed to group tuition inABEclasses taken in recentears toextend and improsethe pros isions made for the teaching of literacy instead of being offered tuition in either their skills to adult students. (Gorman, 1981. p. 198) own or the volunteers' homes. Volunteers are

..6 1.. , still encouraged in many classes, and individ-Assessment ual help is usually available when necessary. Although this article is about success, Changes in curriculum, together with aassessment forms a large part of the content, move to using more paid staff instead of rely-as without it, how can success be demonstrat- ing so heavily on volunteers, may haveed? It is needed so that progress may be mon- delayed the development of an establisheditored and the achievement of goalsthe assessment code of practice inABE.The lackessence of successrecognized. It is in the of statutory minimum training or qualifica-interest of all involved parties, students, tion requirements for paid staff may also havetutors, funders. and so forth. Any method of implications for the assessment issue. assessment incorporates assumptions about In the past 10 years. various government success. and as different parties in the success initiatives from the Department of Employ-deb: - will have different criteria of success, ment in the United Kingdom have had an one would expect any assessment method to impact on the provision ofABEclasses, which reflect the criteria of the person making the have become associated with Employment choice. Training, the Youth Training Schemes, and If it were simply a matter of transferring the Training and Enterprise Councils. Thisthe criteria used to judge the success of chil- adds further complexity to the great variety ofdren's reading to adults' reading, there would provision available, which is generally basedhe less of a problem in defining success and around projects and classes funded by localin agreeing on ways of assessing it. Charnley government, and taught in schools or furtherand Jones (1986) maintain that many tutors education colleges (which are similar to U.S. andABEorganizers are former primary school junior colleges). In addition, there are otherteachers who to some extent assess and judge specialized areas such as English as a Secondsuccess by virtue of their capability to remem- Language and centers for those with learningber approximate measures of reading age and difficulties,. and special provision offered in to apply them to their adult students. But prisons and the armed forces. Owing to theearly on in the success debate there was a potentially conflicting criteria of successgeneral feeling that this was an inappropriate way to test adults. particularly as students had among these very different reference groups. by definition already failed at school and discussion of success within this article will were not inclined to view testing hivorahly. he limited to the most common type of provi- Furthermore, no widely used adult read- sion: for example. that provided by theing tests were in existence in England. BeiTidge Centre ( 1990): although individual organizations some- Nouindiam.iareEdukation Authorit pro\ ides times produced their own schemes. For comprehenske ser\ice lor adults \\ ho need to example. the 'Warwickshire Literacy Place- imprme their skills in reading. writing. spelling. ment Guide (Mowat & Nicholls. 1976) was math. and Fitglish fur speakers of other Ian intended to help in forming an initial assess- naves. It eaters fur people ii the beginning ,tact, to those \\ ho wish to brush tip then skills ment onls . The result of the absence of a to preta SI tan eammation taken at the end it nationally recognised test, together svith a compulsor\ education in ruglandle \ el ha- dislike of formal testing, led to the view that v. oft stud or persimal interest. subjective judgments by tutors and students, rather than formal tests, were the acceptable(erredpe of assessment on the formal-infor- face of assessment. mal continuum. Charnley and Jones (1986) give an Standardized Assessment As a account. based on a survey of tutors' and stu-Measure of Success dents' observations. of typical tutor and stu- dent perceptions of success couched in these A key assumption behind standardized terms. Their exploration of the concept oftesting is that success in reading can be success for ABE students not only rejected for-reflected in test performance. Success is thus mal tests in favor of subjective judgments.judged on cognitive rather than affective or but introduced affective and cnactive criteriaenactive grounds. The assumption as far as as well as the more usual cognitive ones asso-enactive achievement is concerned is that ciated with standardized testing. They werecognitive gains will be transferable to enac- not the first to suggest informal methods withtive situations with the concomitant implica- this group of students. Kohl (1974) hadtions for "functional literacy" that this already advocated using this approach andassumption makes. For the reasons given had drawn up sample assessment forms to aidabove. standardized testing of reading has tutors and students come to joint agreementsbeen little used in ABE in the United Kingdom. on initial and ongoing assessment. but in the United States a different attitude Unlike Kohl. Charnley and Jo- .!s do notprevails. It is worth considering U.S. testing provide an assessment method. Their contri-methods and contrasting these with those bution lies in their analysis of the collectionused in the United Kingdom. of responses made by ABE participants during Current U.S. attitudes and tests in use in th research. The resulting classification ofABE programs are described by Sticht (1990). responses into cognitive. affective, and enac-In his report. which also covers testing and tive categories attempts to show that achieve- assessment methodology, Sticht quotes the ments in the affective domain arc more val-Ad' .t Education Act which requires U.S. ued by students than any other kind. Theiradult education agencies to collect standard- findings have been influential in givingized test data as part of their evaluation activ- acceptability to the school of thought whichities. Some freedom of choice is allowed in uses affective achievements as a major mark-that the tests chosen may be norm refer- er of success. enced. criterion referenced. or competency The strengths of the above approach do not based, but whichever type is used, it must he mean that it can he uncritically accepted. Abased on a systematic sampling of behavior, range of assessment methods might havehave data on validity and reliability. be ad- varying degrees of formality. One may think ministered and scored according to specific of the assessment situation as a continuuminstructions, and he widely used. No such with standardised objective testing at one end requirements exist in the United Kingdom and informal subjective assessment at thealthough in a recent paper AI Hsu (undated) is other. A variety of opinions ma\ he found inexplicit about the importance of monitoring relation to different positions on ihe continu-progress in evaluating effectiveness. How- um. It would also he interesting to investigateever. this advisory document down no whether the degree of success claimed forguidelines as to how success in reading xuli teaching correlates w ith the writer's pre-should be measured or defined other than to

..G3.. c.) say that it should be recorded on a regularminimum achievement level of third grade is and systematic basis. equally significant, considering that ABE In Sticht's report (1990), four ABE tests inclasses cater to beginner readers and upwards. the United States suitable for both initial and It is these beginner and struggling readers, ongoing assessment are reviewed by G.rather than those students who attend to brush Jackson. He selected ABLE (Adult Basic Learn-up their English skills, with whom tutors tend ing Examination. 1967-86, The Psycho-to he most concerned. logical Corporation, Order Service Center. CASAS is reviewed less positively than PO Box 839954, San Antonio. TX 78283-either ABLE or TABE_. as, although the test is 3954. USA) and TABE (Tests of Adult Basicadult in tone. the specified competencies are Education, Forms 5 and 6, 1957-87, Pub-measured by an insufficient number of items, lisher's Test Service, rrn/McGraw-Hill. 25(X)For example, the competency "identify Garden Road, Monterey, CA 93940. USA)months of the year and days of the week" is because they are the most widely used, groupassessed by only two items. This makes it administered, norm referenced tests of adultunsuited to specific competencies. How much basic skills: CASAS (CASAS Adult Life Skillsthis is a drawback depends on how one inter- Reading, 1984-89. cAsAs, San Diego, CA,prets, "functional literacy." Does one take a USA) as an example of a group administered general or specific view of competency-based competency-based test and READ (Readingteaching? This is an issue to which we shall Evaluation Adult Diagnosis [Revised return. 1972-81 Literacy Volunteers of America, Some American mu schemes, like British 5795 Widewaters Parkway. Syracuse, NYones, use volunteers as tutors, instead of pro- 13214, USA) because it is used by volunteerfessional staff. The READ procedure, ), hich adult literacy groups for individual testing inwas developed for use by volunteers, might one-to-one teaching situations. appear to he particularly suited to the United ABLE and TARE receive some criticismsKingdom. IA hich still relies on volunteers to from Jackson: for example, the reading com-some extent. However. criticisms made by prehension subtest in .ABLE is criticised on theJackson (in Stiehl. I990) and Fox and grounds that it demands inappropriate back-Fingeret (1984) cast doubt on its reliabilit), ground knowledge and the TABE on theand validity. The procedure is also described grounds that the lowest level of the test willas awkward to administer. he daunting for students with les, than Grade Are these U.S. tests indeed capable of 3.0 skills. The background knowledge issue isdemonstrating success in North American arguably a particularly important one for dis-ABE. programs'? The ideal v ay to show this, advantaged readers, since their lack of famil-either by pre- and posttests or by obser iarity with print makes it likely that they haveprogress at intervals. is made difficult by the missed out on the sheer quantity of knowl-attrition rate within programs. Darkens', aid edge fluent readers have access to. and Valentine (1955) report that a number of The situation is analogous to the Matthewfollow-up studies have been unable to secure effect (Stanovich. 1986) as regards the differ-response rates equalling 40t .r or more of the ences in volume of material processed byoriginal sample. This makes it difficult to skilled and less skilled readers. The criticismasse,s pograms. effectiveness. of the 'LABE regarding it, only assessing a Where follow. -up studies havebeen carried La

out, they typically report increases of approx- pretest than the posttest. He attribute,. this imately 1.5 reading grade levels per year negative gain- to various causes ineluding Iiiekhof, 1988). 'Fins may seem a respect- guessing, regression tit the mean, itml change able rate of progress yy hen one considers that in test performance strategy, which ironically this is a faster than aYerage rate of increase may lead to the use of a poorer strategy. for school children in lull time education. It Another consideration the titit:stion of this IA' 01.10CITOM.' 11.t.i.r. to be kept lip, con- the !'gays infortnatitm from tests is presented as sitlerable gains would be made, but as most reading ages Of grade le\ els. Y% ith the asstimp students only remain ill programs for lesslion that one can generalise froth pet or than IN months t Darken!! ald & Valentine. Milne 011 a te'.t to perfornutnce in a real. life 1 9N5 1. total gains are not great. If impow e- situation. Fhringhous (991)) points out the inem,. in re:tiling grade leYek alone are the impoi ranee of ecological1rillidity and its fele- criteria of success. then according to 1)1(4,11011 % ance tor functional literacy il',',e,,,0111:111. 19X8 I\III .0.001 being' ler!, successful rIlleY, testing takes this into account. how. i4eitstiiis for 1(111)1111g or 1?eleclIng can one he .use that the adult w ill perfoint in SIiimlattilitql 'tests real life in the sank way dm' she or he per bin's (luting it test" \Allen the cllects of con The e \istence anditlelocad the in the titletwe un twilormance me also taken into III1111."0' 11011 it is possible to both de% ise and administer stair acct milt. it seems possible that significantly dardt/ed tests in spite of the (link:tittles. ed pi:dolman( e tot tasks that induct to ('ritici,ms made of the in ,i, I11)%e hit\ e not pre fill' ',Indent trio~ occur and so the rclati ely ented their use. This does not necessarily small gains made in tirade loci might mask. mean that they are desirable, and toactition- larger gains /0 teal le1110, 1 Isel Iti6.01. lit (11e01 !!IIIIII1 '1.11k lead to the Yiew that despite the in the literature. 1./esigners Ina \tail to take lack of evidence from test data. 'du program, account tit subjects' lechmts about !eq., and are in reality Kilbe\ t1 O 'SIin it the Meet tit thi matter hot% K. snb, showed Mal the iikscase in read dc,aght:(111ohia cogniti perspectiYe age that occulted twer 1 year was ion, (est h, it %Yin fail to gise an accurate lute it panted by an increase in ct int oletice. Ii is the human soloed isn't in a fit state to take it. interesting that he used a littlish test designed Sochi II 'AM) ilium,. out tit ha': Mall% 01t 0.for children t Neale sis of Heading Ii.t e everience(1, namely. that new students and bound :1 '011111:11. rt..1..' ill read Jae often iwr.tois in a first meeting. This an MI?. aver f 14? ears) to that made in I '.5. stud iety, may ey ere, may be aggiaated usiin: te..ts Itir adults. by their unpreparedness bit- test-taking strate- \lore theoretical support for the armrest gies.. \ rellt the\ ma\ \Cill J Llaiht that ,tatidat(11/,_(1 pretest. \\ hen posttested then gains may test-design philosophy assumes an 111,11,101- appear create) than they really arc bet_ittise 111 lale model Id 1 1111 '0.110:11 to Caulihat ity and iis'.1)(.1,tictl ;eta \ anon liae .\1,1', test', IMO. Ito! he !.stele V. hat is a: lu,tllt contribute(' to iniploycd pet Itionant.e. 0.110111 11111 Father hilt is in Merit', tam!lit to lintlwr (loud the ',site. say,- that !..1.1( II draV,hati.. till 1110.1.111e,t1oll 111:' k_1,11111

111 '01\III hell eltill OW 111.0 110.n. .110 Old(' It, .It, 111,101%

Awr tlernonstrate the success or failure of tuition llill and Parr11t1KSI hal. e used Street', in reading b> testing. theory to support their +.iew that stimtlardi/eil Support for the suggestion that tests usedtesting is unsuitable for \tin students. The on adults are based upon an mmpropriate t \In in particular is singled out b> them as an model of text them> comes from idenceunsuitable test for assessing adult reatling assembled Street II 9'84s.kho proposesprogress, and they maintain that an alterna- that Western ci, iliiation has traditiimalltive to standartli/eil tests is a necessity. One iewet1 text as I. this he meansweakness of nsing Street's argument as a red that text itself, unlike speech. is ;iewed asson for abandoninget:Ittiln t!,11e, in test's 1, independent or the situation in which it isthat Ilthu mph it could IX' used toitistil> reiect- proiluced. II is as it the to \t producer had aing reading comprehension testsin Lkhush liadd scatter in mind VI, In' hist c,c111 onl:, one right iiGiswer is acceptable, it could ed all possible t\ pes of reader. One couldhe used as an arrument lot replacing them inter Irom this, divot` that the inotlel LieLLs with word recognition tests, and not testin:e ally one textIts a v.iitiny tomprehension all.I he isqu here is partly

111L' inch nib(d' elated to wilts of Ian-one of gent:tali/ ; It seems that for a and not iii toncepts or ideas. further 11 111()C1 ofIt.',1,011s It IS !little With. tilt Ito more. correct readini! is not di finguished establish Mid relierali/ trot)) comprehension in that the model :01011> nl te,as. ul Ilit 'Ott'stipulation. Onerest implies that the stir lots(' ,.(11c11.11t: and deep softfur tuts iuia'. rial laiil!t 1)1 ,1111L1tIre ,Ile identical has kylittilltts of OW Incontrast hi the autonomous inoittel. littitillalt111, Lshtrh I" l'el-

Street ploposci, an ideological model in !anti!,,21C.111:1'(hall 1,OW L; Ill) `.1111411 s.1,1111,11 more (11,111 one \ inlettirelatit tit &Ilk, hitt' %%11011111W Mann ilk'II leattlIn2 tests a lest( ina> he made ,iectirtlim.7 to the context LL ere Lk in v.hich the text Isread Oraccording to the 14elated to this isat 1, thii (ilkshim of Ills' bai..kffolind know ledge tit the reatler.Simple literao, needs tit each student The plet.ailin!, to philosoph> in the kingdom is that an tIlItt)Iitnilltils 111/01 1t, Wk. 001cl,, ca hstntlent negonattis a 11(.1,1 Mal L icv.et1as Illettlat`2,1L',11,I he ale bette anti it ras)11.11 asst'sment pit Ihum inc Lissimiptions lit the aubilionnius model are Mtn.", and L'stilnales `-.1.11/4.%.*L'ss1.5 Ill ttn that e%til> leader %kill noel wet the text in an the naiuuYeol the student's, specilic instinc- v,,o,it 'die iii' he is reading it ciir tion. and w nether one a student pc, tl> and that all rcatl,ii, '0,11111,211.111:'thehi, external criteria or estimating how v,cll sine strateg>. ,,tud.at has m.t lit, or her tsv, 11 criteria of \II tout tests re itsks.eLl hs.tat 1.,,..011 I its rnicial tit this is the issue of fun:bona! .,tit.'111.1 'PH 11 readnii L omptchen slim pa -sat...es lor part of test mak:FIJI and aW.011W I tuft111111,11 4111111111'11-1- that 111.: ;IIIItt111,1111111', art,tle, /11 Itt,11. iiiiSf'd III,Itt'lt,11 .11Itt that L..tonntl ill the, IP. to - tr..T.,)11,11c, ss.1111 it ,110,011,h, multi t 'Wm ts 1.t1; 111..c 00.11 ii- t Tl'',11111:11 t,111.111 f'It'tl tit iii: !hat a -iltdcrit ing for help %% ith reading is pros ided as far asfunctional literacy needs may he quite differ- possible %kith custiimized reading materials.ent from those assumed in the production of Fev, students are complete beginnerthe common functional literacy package. If a readers. Most hake some reading expertise.common package is in use, then it is possible but it is Insufficient to meet the demandsto produce a standardized test such as CAS V., made on them, hence ('harnley and Jones'sor Vordpower iity and Guilds. Foundation definition of the adult illiterate as "an illiter-Leel. 199O) to measure progress in acquir- ate adult is an adult who thinks he has a read-init what is taught, but if each student is pur- ing or writing problem" (1986. p. 171 ). Forsuing his or her midi syllabus, such standard- example. a gardener might ask for help inized methods c. ill be inxolid. Instead. reading hinticulturalocabulary, in order tocnstonnzed tests to match customized tuition cope better w ith his work t..), en though heare needed. already has some reading ability. ('an such customized learning and assess- It students we' e beginner readeis, whenment wink in pioetiee'.' I lay es and Valentine first enrolling, initial and subsequent assess 11989). in a comparison of the sell-reported ment would be a different matter. liut the dif-needs and selfreported learning gains for fering degrees of competence of new studentsfunctional literacy tasks, indirectly answer tombined with their ditfering needs makes athe question ol hoc. closely student needs fun, Banal approach the ideal, and it maycorrelate with the offered tuition. [hex took therefore he helpful to consider success in21) items typical of functional literacy tasks, functional feints, specified uniquely It fin example. reading mail, or reading and idual students. II tutors claim they ateruler using road maps, and asked students how me functional literacy tuition but in practice mud) they needed to know about each, using XL' 011erIllr a 11101C syllabics, thew4-point, Likert-type items to format the Wray he 1.,,hat is said httask`.. From this data, mean item scores were be offered and what in fact takes place. Incalculated fin each lunctional literacy task ..ucb a case Ma\ notand the tasks were ranked in terms of sample

IA in0 asses~ 11,1131 means 11,1s been taught but not %%hat has been want .11ter 6 months' tuition, Mill\ idual items t'd 1 his LiinItision oei delnutions of func-were ranked again, 11,,Inr the same methods tional filet is described by Valentine aspie% iota*. according O& in tthili who distinguishes between the1tua mina' competence. When the two ranks it:gum:mous of functional literacy based onwere compmed. the stud% did not demon she needs id the Lommumt and 11111,6011Astrafe the agreement which orie would expect ha ,,cd tin the needs ol the mill it tutors had successfully pro\ idAl instruction (11,0142,01a, cOn11.1se in accordance Y, itll ,,tudents' need, .For ;Ire tr,t1.1lb. cetncc nti,itn, I11 the hit mei andexample. the three selieported needs tasks

r lh tanked 1.'2. and 1 ate ranked IQ. 15. and lea litneyn.1 to 1c.i.it linktionalhl: to ely, in terms ''I self -iepoiti.dt. but th,.. Fyn .1inne that this mean-, pie Vne areue that sonw aft t2,j,R1' a p.1_ 0,,'L *,1 tti,11,.11,11 IL,' di/ It' inipio.0,C !ALM 1011::1 bill iti.cut ,FC13,1n, oi,td the f Lind 1:011i, 1,114M1V. vnt \.'IC,It 01.0

, 1I elude that tutors were not successful in leach- Success on \Vordpower depends on com- ing the students what they needed. If successpleting the tasks and acquiring the certificate. in such cases is to he measured by perfor-not necessarily in making progress. It pro- mance on a standardized test for general liter-s ides the opportunity for sonic students who acy, such as the r \ BF. or on a measure ofwould not otherwise be able to do so to obtain c(immon functional literacy. for example thea qualification, but it is not a measure of competency-based cAriAs, then such a rank- progress in reading ability. It is geared ing may not he important. bin if success istowards common functional needs. not spe- defined in terms of meeting the students'cific one,,, althourli 'hew is some leeway for needs, then the Hayes and Valentine studytutors to orient material tow arils students' shows hots a program may he failing to pro- areas of interest. s ide the students \\ oh opportunities to In the United Kingdom, those student... not become successful in areas important tos*. (irking tov.ards a qualification has c general- them. ly been assessed by the combined subjective One may conclude that increase in compe- judgments of tutor and student. a procedure tence in carrying out functional literacy tasks, hick has oh ious weaknesses. Holland lun.ke\er defined. is a pod' of instruction, and I Q89) reports that the combination of 5131 . &Jinn einem i1 competency in carry ing out practitioners' e pressed needs for a model of such tasks is one Illeil',11re of success. In the assessment and the assessment and account- absence of standardized tests of functional competence, the introduction of a nationallyability ethos id the It/Mk prat ided the motif e recognized cectiti,:ate requiring only a low for the des elOpillellt. I).1111S1. of its'Proogle,s Joel ot literacy, Is seen by sonic as a 111C,111, Pointe- which seeks to pros irk a structure gi\ ing the possibility nl q:Ct.',' to students, tor informal testing. This profileincorporatesi i.%%ell as pros iding information for employ initial and ongoing assessment together v. ith ers. 1, ho would °them ise \ e only theira strategy for planning and implementing a own and their tutors' intormal assessments onstudent-negotiated syllabus, It allows for spe- recind. cific functional literacy to he taught and ThisI-.the belief underlying theassessed. compet,mcs -based \ordpow cr. the Cold' An objectc element Is to ,..orne\tent cute 111 ( 11111111111.1Cal11111 ',.14,11'dedjOlntly included, in that the student and tong- may set by the City and Guilds of LondonInstitutesrcific goals. The student then acts as the and .st fist and first introduced in 19;o). It isarbiter of success by decidingit iegular inter currently being (dieted at classes of \ herCi1110111s she of he is on a continuum rngland with \ dry mg degrees of enthusiasm.ranging from e started" to confident NIthough the higher stages require one to he aabout this n, Support to justify the priori- coiniktent reader, for e \ample. able to lead aty ems en to specific tunctional literacy minim, newspaper. at Ioundatn,n level the studentt.exemplitied in the Progress Poitile approach, required to cope only with simple text. Volt'\ et general literacy conies 11'11111 Stijl( the Iirst the tutor is instira, led to11985. p. 33(,r transfer from cpcciticlit- pro\ lilt h arc -no more than oneerally tiainmg to general lueraeabilits is paialapli, Lorin,' win, 'front. phra :icatei than the transfer twin general literaz. training to speLiti, htrac,,tall

I -) , if I.. Fox. B.J.. tt Fingeret, A.11984). Reading evalua- Con tion adult diagnosis I re ked ). laurna/of There is no simple answer to the problem Readine.2S(3).258-261. of defining success in m._ Two groups ofGorman. T.P. (1981). A sures of attainment and stand init. First. does one take a formal progre..s of learners in adult literacy schemes. cognitive stance and interpret success purely Educational Reward', 2.4(31,190-198. in terms of an increase in reading tests scores. lla es. R.. Valentine. T. t 1989). The functional or is an informal affective approach accept- needs of lov. -literate adult basic education stu- able. with the students' feelings of increased dents .1thth /-..,114anon Quarterly...W(11, I -I4. ulscAonent: confidence a sufficient marker? Second, how I hil. (' .(1; Parr. K. I I988). Reaaine Attioniquou., and prat:man( 14144W1t 111'1414 y should assessment in Atii- take account of the (1.(' Report 88-2). New, 'fork: Columbia functional or general content of the curricu- UM\ ersit., Literde!. ('enter, Teachers. College. lum and the resulting implications lOr relating llidland. D. 11989). lhe proerevv pro/i/e. assessment to what has been taught? These .144e41/01.01ol \indent pr,.:1.( 4% III 041111! issues have had their effect on practice in the !FinalReport ). Nottingham: l'nkersit of United Kingdom to such an extent that the Nottingham. Department of Adult Education. current situation is a confused ()lie. 111th Kilbe . K. t 1985 )..-1 prethttool of OM, ow, C: tutors and organisers havinggreat degree of 1)9(11441m..1, tll Hit c11;,411414411 IWO t Of:111MT WO lreedom in choosing for themselves, with the 011(1 live del pturn/ within the tram( I orl, l'npublished doctoral only regular guideline given them being that adult literalprol /won. dissertation. UniLeisit of Aston, Birmingham, record keeping and assessment are in prinel- l'.K. He desirable. Kohl, II. (1974) Rathne /1014 /0. London: st, krferi.tices Penguin .Adult LitertiLl; ;Ind lids». Skills Undated I. Stant». ich. 1956) NlattheLL efte4.1. in reading: haittattPly t(ft, (114'ht,,1 11) (1(11111 1114'1 tit1. 1110 Sonic C011segliellieS of Indl ideal dilterCilee`, in 1,ti1l.1n +a leo Good Practice Document the acquisition of literac . Rethhhe Ke boreh I onion Author. ()mon 2114),360 lien nice Centre 119901..1411111 14,114,1

. t1: Jones. 11 . \. (1986). /114,,,,h,pr ('11.1111IL! IL, ('N11:011011)1CPress. I Ntv 1/4 111,1,1111!hr, 'a,II 1)11thill F.G. t1999). It stem;11nJu11e1101401 in adult Valentine. 1 . 11085titit Darlscnv. Ad, (i.(i.. 11uon and I n1;11411 111 1 1le( Mid/an - comes of participation in adult basic skills edu- prol:ram.San Diego. ('A: Applied Lotion 14(11,:tt; \51. r.22. I. ognitke Sciences. u o 317 867) 1)(Ah1lf (I.N1t 1988)..1n appraisal of adult liforti Bella\ 'oral Sifeet, 13 1I 14:.11.Luc; tit thcoo and poll ru t'. L pogroms: Reading betv, cell the lines..lowntil (,./ Read/tie...17i 7 ). 621-10(1. Cambridge Camhridgy I 'tiiLersit. Pre,- 1:hringliaus. (' ('t 19991 Function...1 literac Valentine. T. 11986) Adult tunctionol literact assy.sinent14,sues of interpretation1,/t/// 1).11()1 instruction1t101t /dru anon Oliot 1.. /du, l),41,1, 41%.111141. 106 36414.11)5111 unteers of New York City. We were inspired Assessinent by reading about classroom-based research and were spurred by the need to solve a prac- tical problem in our adult literacy organiza- tion. We focused on the problem of how to Learning from effectively evaluate the progress of the adult beginning readers with whom we work. Researching: Literacy We undertook the project to get informa- tion for dealing with this specific issue. However, it turned out to be a rich learning Practitioners and experience in many ways, by (1) giving us insights into designing and carrying out Assessment of Adults' research in general, (2) broadening our under- standing of the way students learn about the Reading Progress learning process, (3) enriching our everyday teaching and interaction with students. and (4) helping us view research by others in a new light. JEAN E. FARGO Identifying the Research Problem MARILYN COLLINS The development of effective assessment NOVEMBER 1989 procedures has concerned our staff for a num- ber of years. We had worked on procedures to supplement standardized tests, but either they proved inadequate or were never fully devel- Enthusiasm about teacher or class- oped. This time. rather than exploring such room-based research has been in theideas piecemeal, we set out as a team, in a air for well over a decade now. More carefully organized way, to develop and test and more educators arc syste- a comprehensive assessment tool. Basic to the matically exploring questions that haveeducational philosophy of Literacy Volunteers evolved from their own teaching and learningof New York City is the view that students situations (Queenan. 19871, and discussionshoull take charge of their own learning. has emerged about the ways teachers best fitAlong with this, some of us had become con- into the research process. Many in the fieldcerned more and more with ways students' (for example. Patterson & Stansell, 1987. andlearning is affected by their perceptions of the Goswami & Stillman. 1987) are strong advo-learning process and the ways they think cates of the teacher-researcher role. Othersreading and writing should he taught. Our (fOr example. Applehee. 1987) view teacherscurrent assessment procedures. however. as valuable partners in research but questionhave not reflected these concerns and values; how far that role should extend. rather. they have been shaped by state require- ['flaw are of these differences of opinionments fur standardized test scores and by lim- about the teacher-researcher role. we ciriedited stall resources. 'these evaluations. which out a small research project at Literacy Vol-arc carried out after every 5(1 hours of tutor- ing, consist of administering standardizedcross-section of our student population. The silent reading tests and having brief confer-interviews averaged 1l'A hours each. ences with students and tutors to discuss Looking at the Data these tests and other ways in which students feel they are progressing. The purpose of our project was not to test Our first task was to reconfirm the goalsany particular hypothesis or to make a com- of the assessment tool. It would need to lookparison with other data. We would examine at the ways students viewed the readingthe content of each student's response in process. probe the strategies they were usingorder to discover: "What was the response to and the ways these were changing, andthis question mostly about?" and "Were the actively involve the students in the evalua-responses to this particular question useful?" tion process. Once we had the broad view of We worked on this separately and then the assessment goals, we zeroed in on thecompared our results. Having two people specifics of the tool itself. We knew weworking on this task turned out to be espe- wanted the major evaluation tool to be ancially helpful in providing a good system of interview, with discussion between a studentchecks and balances. Working alone gave us and a staff member using a consistent set ofthe space to think out our own conclusions. questions. At this point our main concernComing together to compare and revise our became: What questions should we be askingwork helped us to step back and be more in the interview to get the information weobjective. An interesting phenomenon com- wanted about each student? We decided toplicated this process, however. We found we fieldtest a set of interview questions and seehad already begun the process of assessing where that led us. We would: (1) develop thethe responses as we listened to the students questions, (2) ask them of a representativeduring the interviews. We had begun to make sample of students, (3) record the responsesimmediate, impressionistic judgments that verbatim, (4) review and categorize thesometimes got in the way of our later work. responses. and then (5) generalize about As practitioners who are usually immersed what kinds of responses were elicited by ain responding directly to our students' learn- specific question. Those questions thating needs, we were drawn toward thinking proved to elicit information that would helpabout ways to handle the issues raised in the in accomplishing the assessment goals wouldstudent responses. The structured process of become the basis of a regular assessmenthaving to classify responses according to interview-discussion. their content helped to move us into another The interview we developed contained 30mode of thinking. We had to step back from a questions grouped into categories such asmore immediately responsive and intuitive "Other-than-school knowledge," "School"teacher style," to a more removed and ana- experiences," "Perceptions of self as a read-lytical "researcher style." The process of er," and "Perceptions of ways adults shouldidentifying the content of each response was he taught to read.- We viewed it as a firstinteresting in another way. The original cate- draft of the interview we would eventuallygories into which the questions were grouped carry out regularly. The fieldtest involvedhelped us identify the main thrust of a stu- interviewing 16 students, who represented adent's comments, but at the same time these categories would also bias us as to their actu-responses, however, we could not help think- al content. ing beyond the content to how the students For example, one of our main concernscame to answer in the ways they did. What was to discover which interview questionswe began to look at were the different ways would help us learn if a student's view ofstudents described their reading process and reading was based more on seeking meaninglearning process. Following are the responses or more on reading words correctly. Theof five different students to two different questions that we felt would give us thisquestions. They show a range in perceptions information were those we grouped under the of and ability to discuss these processes. headings "Students' perceptions of the read- Can you describe what you do as you read? ing process" and "Ways students think adults Carl (below Grade I reading level): I got should be taught to read." We examined the to go over it about ten times before I know responses to these questions most closely for what the page means. this information. It was not until we decided Dwayne (below Grade I level): I take the to examine all the questions for information whole word apart piece by piece, letter by let- on meaning-based modeis of reading that w,eter. Then I piece each letter together. Then found that nearly all the advanced students sound each letter out and put it back together. brought up the issue of meaning ,,hen they And sometimes I can figure it out. answered one of the questions in the category Geraldine (Grade 1 level): If I don't have a "Perceptions of progress," specifically "How lot on my mind, I read better. If the teacher is will you be able to tell that you are a goodhere every time, I read better too. I can spell re ade now. I couldn't before. Further, in reviewing the data, we found Peter (Grade 2 level): I try to read my les- that we had been somewhat inconsistent in son. Make out the words. Break them down. asking the questions precisely as written. Robert (Grade 3 level): I read the story. I This, of course, affected the reliability of ourunderline words I don't know. I look up the findings. It brought up an important issue,words in the dictionary. I reread the sentence. however: that practitioners will not alwaysI break the words down. I use the letters to ask questions as formulated, particularly ifhelp me. If I can't get it, I ask someone. they do not seem appropriate for a specific situation. This would always be a concern,What would you do in a lesson if you were whether we were doing individual studentteaching a beginner how to read? assessments or trying to compare responses Carl: First teach ABCs. Then get a book among a group of students. The variations inlike an ABC book. A for apple, B for boy. data resulting from the personality and styleTeach them how to spell, like car, cat. of interviewers is a problem that may not be Dwayne: Start from scratch. Start with solvable, but we may be able to find ways toABCs and spelling words. It would he like a minimize or identify these variations. format. Geraldine: I would teach them to read one Learning about Students page till they got it good. I would give them The goal of this research project was tohomework. Give them a word and have them determine the usefulness of a particular set ofspell it and write it down. I would see if they interview questions. As we reviewed thecould write things out of their head and spell

7 ..72.. things about that subject. I would not havetioners. The question was: how could we them jump from page to page. The studentorganize the interviews so they would be should read a lot. The tutor should be theremanageable timewise and also fit into the often. rhythm of the educational program? This led Peter: I would do the same things [as myto our first major revision in the assessment teacher]. The way my teacher is helping me. procedure resulting from this researcha Breaking down words, syllables, in different restructuring of the interview process. ways. Rather than one long interview every 50 Robert: I would give them easy books. Ihours, we decided on a series of short ones. would read it to them. I would help them readThey would take place: ( I) when a student it and help them with the hard words. I would entered the program, (2) after the student's have them listen to it on tape. I've beenfirst few weeks, (3) when specific student- through the process. I think I could teachrelated issues emerged (such as attendance someone. problems or difficulties in getting along with One reason for these differences could heother students or staff), and (4) during period- the student's general articulateness and ability ic evaluations (every 50 hours of tutoring). to describe what he or she does. Beyond this,These interviews would have different focus- however, it seemed to us that such differenceses, based on student and staff concerns most also likely reflected the opportunities these relevant at that time. adult beginning readers had had to discuss Observations about students' limitations in their learning process and to learn the lan-describing their learning process led to a sec- guage that describes reading and writing. Inond major change in the assessment proce- many cases, students may not have even con-dure. which coincided with the first. Along sidered that they should have a role in look-with revising the timing and focus of the ing at the ways they learn. interviews, we reorganized the original ques- tions and added new ones to help students Revision (luring Researching look more closely at their own learning and As we carried out the research itself, ques-give them greater responsibility for evaluat- tions emerged about the timing and integra-ing it. For example. in the. interview that tion of assessment into the educational pro-would take place after a student had been in gram and about ways to facilitate students'the program a few weeks, we decided to taking a directive role in the assessmentinclude such questions as: "How will you he process. During the early stages, we took forable to tell that you are a good reader'?" granted that the new interview and discussion "When you come to a difficult word how do would simply be integrated into our currentyou figure it out?" "What are some things procedure of regular 50-hour tests and confer-you can do to help yourself in learning to ences. Further, we assumed that asking stu-read?" "What do you hope to accomplish in dents about their reading process, in itself,the next few months'?" After 50 hours of would cause them to assume an evaluativeinstruction, we would follow up with such role. questions as: "In what ways do you think The amount of time involved in interview-your reading has changed since you took your ing became a major concern. Lengthy inter-last test'?" "When you come to a difficult views would not he practical for busy practi-word when you are reading, what do you do to figure it out?" "What are you doing now tosponses to the preclass questions provided help yourself learn to read? "What have youquite general information. One student wrote: accomplished in the last few months? How"I never been in a school. I didn't have a do you feel about that?" chance to go to school...." Another: "I look at We also made another revision to the pro-the word and say the word." And another: "I cedure. We developed a set of questions towould try to give you the sound of the word use during ongoing teaching. Here our goaland the pronunciation of the word." [Original was to help students look at learning as it wasspelling corrected.] taking place, rather than doing this only every I was rediscovering what we found in the 6 months or so and separately from the read-original research projectthat adult begin- ing and writing experience. These includedning readers often know very little about the such questions as: "What do you think aboutways reading and writing are learned and what we are doing? What is the most helpfulthus have difficulty discussing their learning or interesting or difficult?" "What are somein ways that are immediately helpful to a questions you have about what we have beenteacher. Well, I thought, it will be interesting doing?" "Do you have any ideas about whatto see how each student's ability to discuss we should do next?" such questions changes. The responses also Bringing Research to Our Teaching made me wonder whether or not these were the best questions. Did I need to be more Because we were literacy practitioners,specific? elements of the research experience spilled In the first few weeks of the class, I taught over into our teaching in a very immediatethe students two different spelling strategies: way. Some of this was by design. some wasone emphasized hearing sounds; the other anticipated. focused on visual memory. During the next Jean Fargo's experience stage I planned to have students identify pat- In the midst of our researching students'terns of errors in their own spelling and work perception of their reading process, I initiat-on their particular needs. Before we went on ed a spelling class with a small group ofto this step, I decided to ask another set of adult beginning readers. Being immersed inassessment questions. This seemed a natural thinking out the evaluation process and thetime for an evaluation, and I was curious to ways to draw students into that process, Isee how the students had intearated the strate- thought it only natural to try it in a real teach-gies into their thinking about spelling. They ing situation. were asked to write about what they had My plan was, at the first class session. tolearned and ways their ideas about spelling ask students a few questions about how theyhad changed since we began. thought spelling should he taught. and after My expectation was that they would several months to ask these same questionsdescribe ways they were successfully using again. The assessment research project pro-the strategies we had worked on together. \ ided a source of ideas for possible questions. Instead, even before writing. Amelia began to The questions I asked were: "Have you triedtalk about her constant spelling preoccupa- to learn to spell in the past? What happened?"tion"I still can't hear the sounds." Dora and "If you were me [the teacher] how woulddefended her tutor's insistence on interrupt- you teach a spelling class?- The adults' re-ing reading to look up words in the dictio-

,61 nary, "I fiend that I sitilll look up w[ordsl inher how she thought she was doing. "I'm the d[ictionarja. That hope me." More rele-learning a lot, a real lot." was her reply. vant was Ajka's response. She wrote describ-Instead of patting her on the back and leaving ing that she had begun to think about spellingit at that, as I might have. my experience with during her reading: "Wen I reding. I se thethe research project prompted me to ask, wort so meni tiem and I luk at [them aloft"What do you mean?" She then told me, This wey I thenk I go to remember it." I was "Well, now I write stories I never wrote disappointed. Struggling to find a positivebefore. And now I read books. I hadn't picked response. I pulled back a bit. Then, withoutup a book in years. And sometimes I read to consciously deciding to do so. I found myselfmy son. And I'm going for help now for my beginning to create a mental chart for catego-stress, so I can concentrate better on my rizing each student's responses. learning." Later I went over their answers carefully, This experience helped me realize that the having learned that first impressions are oftentype of questions we had been developing in inaccurate. I found that Amelia did mentionour research took the power out of the ques- the visual memory strategy and that Dora did tioner's hands and gave it to the student. We note hearing sounds at the beginning. middle.were asking questions that would help them and ends of words. But most important. theythink through and gain insights into them- were discussing spelling in an informed andselves as learners. It's likely that Dawn, her- focused way. self, hadn't realized the breadth of the changes While I certainly espouse that teacherscaused by her new reading experiences until should always look at the pmcess of their stu-she was given an opportunity to articulate dents' learning rather than the procliuand them. try to practice this, the student research expe- Now. rather than asking. "Did you do your rience was providing me with additional toolshomework?" I ask. "How do you figure out to do so. words when you're working at home? What kind of homework really helps you learn? Marilyn Co llis's everience What can we show you that will make home- This research project gave me a new view of the ways questions can be liberating.work easier ?'' This process was gratifying because I saw There's so much students have to tell us about how they learn. how they feel about howhow this style of questioning was becoming a part of my ongoing work with students. I have learning is going for them. and what works for themif we only give them the chance.found that students enjoy answering questions about learningit brings to light for them This was demonstrated to me by a new stu- things they have never realized before. dent at the time I was involved in the research. Students often ask me to give them my opin- ltays research strateg'ic's can aid teachini; ion on their progress. This time it was Dawn Practitioners traditionally see the purpose who approached me with "How do you thinkof research as providing a body of new data I am doing?" Because r had not yet had athat helps answer a particular question. But, chance to obsery e one of her lessons (she iswhen the researcher is also a teacher, the taught by a volunteer tutor I super\ Ise), I toldresearch everience can make another valu- her I didn't really has e enough information toable contribution--providing a framew ork give her a good assessment. Instead. I askedthat affects one's helm\ ior during teaching.

.. 75.. As described earlier, we found that this: revised question. and that question may lead to more data gathering. which in turn may require Creates an environment that fosters further revision of the question. keener observation of our own teaching. Trains us to have carefully thought out In our case, our first question "What infor- questions in our heads as we teach. help-mation does a particular question elicit?" kept ing us to better catch key information. being transformed from "Which questions Provides a strategy for revising our prac- should be used?" to "When should we ask tice in an informed way, using an order-this question?" to "How can this question ly. analytical. methodical eye for gather-change the student's role in the evalution and ing data, and standing back to organizelearning process?" and finally analyze it. As the research proceeded. that is, as we Infuses our everyday work with newlearned from it, a new vision of our needs energy through the joy of discovery. emerged. This led to taking action through revising our practice. We decided that student Learning from the Research centered, process oriented assessment needed Connunit to he integrated into everyday teaching. It Once we had become immersed in thealso raised the need for more research to research experience, we found that we readdetermine if these revisions were indeed tak- research reports by others in a new light. The ing us in the direction we wanted. Odell puts distance between ourselves and these authorsit this way (p. 158): diminished. Their work became less theoreti- As we continue to do research, we continue to cal and abstract, we found more ways to grow. We continue to learn. Our work cannot make use of their ideas. and we began to feel become stale. because we are continually redefining it. And this process of continual part of a larger research community. redefinition and renewal helps us retain the The ideas of Odell (1987) and Applehee. enthusiasm and commitment that brought us especially, immediately touched our experi- into this profession in the first place. ence. Odell because his work supports and illuminates the discoveries we made about Learnilif; frHIIIAppiebec our research process. and Applehee because Applehee has important questions about he raises questions about the kind of role wethe role of teachers in resean h projects. He took on in our research project. points out (p. 6) that: Learning from Odell Though the knowledge that teachers bring to Odell's article "Planning Classroom educational research is different from that Research" helps us see our own experiences brought by researchers trained in the %anon, more clearly. His description of developing academic discipline.. we often treat it as though the research question ( p. 130) isespecially it otouhi author's emphasis) he the same.... relevant: Rather than encouraging systematic reflection on the special expertise that teachers has.e, this Ni' one can predict exactly when or how we puts the focus instead on the methodological v. ill arm e at the final .crsion of a research and disciplinary skills they don't has e. and question.... Research questions usually arise don't need to has e in order to he excellent from a complex reciprocal process in which Ihr teachers Instead of a powerful model in which collection and analysis of data may lead to the research is enriched by the differing esper- else of the participants. sse have akl,yakened emerged during the research as chal- model that inadvertently undercuts the contri- lenges to take on and solve, rather than bution that teachers can make. as shortcomings of the research that might detract from its value. We agree with Applehee that we must he concerned with the roles and expertise of Apply our findings immediately to our teachers who carry out research. We felt we educational program. could have henefitted from more knowledge of experimental research. We especialy need- We found this teacher-researcher project ed information about scientifically soundcomplex and rewarding. We learned more strategies for determining a research sample.about research. about our students. and about improving reliability among researchers col-our teaching, as well as about ways to carry lecting data, and creating research designsout assessment. In describing our research that allow for replication and for comparisonexperiences. we have tried to discuss some of across studies. the advantages and limitations of this Further. we should he scrupulous inapproach. Literacy practitioners come smack acknowledging what we are capable of.up against tough problems each day and are Rather than try to imitate experimentaleager to solve them. We discovered that a research. and do it poorly, we should find outmodest teacher-researcher project can be an v. hat we can do well because of our particulareffective approach to finding answers. position, immersed daily in the learning- teaching situation. References Applebee, A.N. (1987). Musings...Teachers and the We discovered that because we were teach- process of research. Research in the Teaching of ersthe agents of changewe were able to: Ingli.sh. 21, 5-7. Carry out a research project that could Goswami, D., 6:: Stillman. P.R. (Eds.). (1987). meet current needs. without spending Reclaiming the clio.%room. Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann. precious time waiting for funding or Odell. L. (1987). Planning classroom research. In searching for outside researchers. D. Goswami P.R. Stillman (Eds.). Reclaiming Redesign aspects of the research while the elan room. Portsmouth, NI-I: Heinemann. it was in progress, shaping it to our Patterson. L.. & Stansell. J.C. (1987 ). Teachers and researchers: A ness mutuatism. L anguage Arts. emerging knowledge and re-vision of (4.717-720. the iss"-. Qucenan. M. (1987). Teachers as researchers? View the problems and new issues that English Journal. 70. 88-90.

..77.. Assess) 'len t had reading grade requiremilits that were nominal ( for example. sixth grade or below). especially for service (for example. animal care) and lo -level maintenance jobs. Reading Difficulty of In fact, a major reason for undertaking the project was the perceived danger of adverse impact by the tests. The reading le% el of Tests for Job employment selection tests should he a hit lower than the job's educational requirements Placement so that the applicant can concentrate upon the test's content. Readability is an important factor in any written test, because of its effect on test relia- bility. but measurement of the reading diffi- PHILIP ASH culty of merit system tests may he affected by APRIL 1992 the use of _jargon (usually common words used in bureaucraci,::s, trades, and professions with special meanings). Jargon increases reading difficulty. especially in fields in Evaluation of the reading difficulty of testsincluding cognitive testswhich common words have been redefined for special purposes. In L )mputerete. the with high verbal loadings, personal- ity and attitude inventories, andmeanings ofsuch words ashut:, mow. virto. similar questionnairesalthough not muchand hit, to name a few, have little relation to attended to, is an important as[ect of test their everyday meanings. validity. In both employment selection and Checking on the reading difficulty of tests educational placement. a significant discrep-and inventories that purport to assess the indi- ancy' between the reading level required tovidual's qualifications is important. We must succeed on the job or in the educational pro-ensure that the measurement instrument gram and the reading demands imposed byimposes a reading requirement upon the testing instruments can result in misplacing orexaminee that is commensurate with the read- screening out otherwise qualifieo students oring requirements of the tasks or assignments job applicants. and might also lead to chargesthat individual will later face on the job. of discrimination against minorities. (Information about the 6-year project men- Colleagues and I. during the course of a 6-tioned here can he found in Philip Ash. "'The year project to evaluate the tests used in aReading Difficulty Of Merit System Tests,- major statewide merit system in the UnitedProccedino (1tae /973 Ameri«In P.m.ho- States, evaluated about 200 of the system's loc;ical As.cociwton Convention, Wa,,hington, tests. We found that many of the tests thenDC: American Psychological Association. used had reading (educational attainment) 1974: and Philip Ash. N. Taylor. and L. lel. els appropriate for high school or high"The tvssl: Update a Merit S, stern.- Colletx school graduation, w hie (h- position,, formu/ 1 'niversity Personnel 5(0 hilion whic't they were u ,ed to evaluate applicants.1011111(11, 23(4). 197'. pp. 21 «3 ..71 eIIt 1),tta from the 1:111:lis,11 1.a1Iyttage Assess 1)1 Stild1 11.S. 1)epartment of Com 'tierce, Itureau of the Len,ti.,, 198,:),.) and the 1(Ist) l'.S ',11.L.ri,1 that a ark' of patient,. eared tot in Iluhhr health chit- Rapid Estimate of Illot 11111> liteldit'. one 01 the authors, IcIQ, I rel,caled low Iliecao hi rearlinr el l), patient. in,CChil t lime. 111I Otii,ian I 11)a\ t!I al., (Y)1/ t. These ludic, confirm and \tend pre$, lull, Medicine (RE 1111): lindings ()oak et al., 1()K5: Itr8S: /nal 11)89 that paticin education Quick Reading. Test brochttr,,, health quesaionnaire ., and ciahent ham,. ti.ed in public chnic,, are V. intim on a 10 el 1,1I oh111t,' the a% er,ti.e lead for Patients t >t public clinic patient,, Landte., ,11,,11 confirmed pre\ iotl, tindifir, that

patient educational ,latip I, not a), PE(;(;\\. N11'141'1141 Itidit:otol out rearlow (1)0% 1,, it al., TERRY C. 1) NV'S 1)1wak el al..I wi5; Jact,01), l)a% lianardather. Gann. 1991 ). Patient,. In S.1N1)14 k VV. I,0(; thee .tudte, read lour to to,',rade ROBEU1-1. JACKSON the v.r.ttle la.t attended. 11:110.118.1 C. 1)1.;(1:11( 1)trect it the ino.,1 reliable wi.1\ bit ()CTOBER 1993 health Lire pito, ale', to identit ti itienk \\ tilt reatling ,.1011L,Doak it al.,111 5 ). health care poi), i&r, are l'e,111/111!: the 1111piillillICe of ,cret'rliit patient,. tor low pl'ul1011ill,in health care ,,etting. readitir le% el-, Lai that education material, and of,en ii.'.urne that patient, ate able hipre), ention pwri.,ini can he retle,inetl to read the thudl cdueational brochure,.. oiLTI their neetk. In addition, in \ written iibtruction.. con,,ent (orm., 1'ecc It ice upport from the Nation,d ln,,tituteN pre,cription labek. and health que,tionnatre,,.of I lealth for conuntinit, pre> ention pkijeck Hoe er, adult patient,, with ho., literac% &Jai 0,1 ,,tech arbject, foil leading ,kill, often tr, to hide their readinr dein:len- t 1)r ti,alt Natitaial I heart, eie. La) potential problem, with patient under- I Alm: Mood 111,41411e, National lwaitutes of tandirT are not recogniied il)aN i., (-hint h. !lean. perqinal communi,...ation. September Wilk, Miller. ,.',Almlehou, 1090, troak, PHA, 27. I 99()). & Root, 1 t)85 ). The dkercpanc \ hell:, cell I Late proley,ional, lia%e lool,..1.1 to patient reading akin\ and ICildill'illl% 01 med- the held of education lor in,,tritment, to teal it-Omit-ninon can he a crucial laLtor in ssciecn patient abilit. I low.e% cr. Ow patient health tare compliance. p,iiticipati,,il -aantlattli/et1 decoding and compie- in pre% entil.e care, and clinical reL,earch hethitiri re Mine te are not prat:Oval for in hint printar,,, ..iire and public health sot alli1111e, shOillt1 Ma's

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1).,01(11nr.' like the 'tt,IIIV, hid) ht selettiii !.!v. ord. It, tin education niateriak saillreekt read cord., aloudin icitation.at.' tincl form,. tited In the Look tuna State nrciliclorill adultt.nit er,it) hopital clinicCriteriont.aliclitt reiddiiie tut..h readingrectviition idenced ht high correlation\hem een tItt not nied,tireitconyrchcnsim),but the PI\I \I anti the -R (.1)(h,'' < n(M)11. the t11,2 tlo alertlicAlth cure pro ', der.to pdtienk R(.97.p < .0001).and the tt tt \t (.88. t'. ho hate reddine. p ,:..0{1111 1. (See Fitnire nt.tl to he ;m are that patient.. tthohat. e "I he 19. tt%1ako appears to hat,c toutl tier nonlife pronoun ord it ninth- ealuated 11!, ,ttall, and idde let el V. III prolialilthate dil patient reccpti% U\ .to the te,4 and itapplit_a- contpichentling most patient education bilits. 'twilitII ,ettitu!,. (Aruktasi. tudArtial I lealth care pot\ utlrl, perecno! the te.t v. ord.,

Contctitalitlik tt ahull( into the tit 1 toherelatedto health(We. Idministration and tinning the patient is unable to pronounce any addi- The patient is asked to read orally from ational words correctly. laminated copy of the REALM. while the exam- The testis scored by placing a plus by each iner record . responses on an individual testcorrect response. a check by an incorrect form. Patients begin by reading the firstresponse, and a minus by any word not words on ListI and continuing until all listsattempted. The REALM scoring uses a dictio- are completed. F..e seconds are allowed fornary pronunciation guide (Gore. 1981). Raw pronunciation of each word before the patientscores are determined by adding the number is asked to go to the next. After reaching aof correctly pronounced words. These can point where no additional words can he read.then be converted to grade range estimates: patients are asked to look over the wordsthird grade and below, fourth to sixth grade. remaining on the lists to see whether they rec-seventh to eighth grade, and high school ognize any of them. Testing is stopped when Figure -1-t.

Figure 4 REALM Grade Esthmte

Rim score Estimated grade range and practical meaning

(1-18 Third grade and below These patients may not be able to read most educational materials and probably can- not c.en understand simple prescription labels. Repeated oral Irish it.tions will he needed to enhance compliance: the doctor cannot simply write a prescription or give standard lovels of instruction and expect compliance. Materials. including simple id.:o and audio tapes. may he liclpful if a lwalth care worker is present during their use and is aailable to answer questions. Repeated oral instructions will he the key to establishing long_ -term compliance.

10 14 Fourth to sixth grade Tremendous potential for improvement exists in this group They should respond well to direct instruction by health care providers and should he able to read and compre- hend materials written on elementary school levels. Appropriately written materials may still require one -on -one counseling for adequate understanding.

45 --N) S,:senth to eighth grade These patients will certainly benefit from appropriatel:, written materials. but material iboth oral and w ritten ) should not he too simple t for example. first grade) or too com- plex. Material written for a fourth- to sixth -grade lex e! may he appropriate.

(IIW, Ninth grat'c and above Thesereale!, can undo stand much high school lesel material presented to them: therefore. current. educational brochtuos he et fecti.e. These indo.iduals should also be able to cons elseith then phy sicians about matters of litest.1e. . . Practical Application grade level probably can use standard written The REALM is a practical tool for busymedical information (most are written on the public health clinics. All patients can he11th- to 12th -grade level, as assessed by the given this screening instrument during theFOG readability formula). Patients who read standard intake procedure. The REALM takesbelow the 9th-grade level will need materials about 2 to 3 minutes to administer and score.adjusted to meet their needs. For example, Physicians, nurses, social workers, researchpatients reading at the 3rd-grade level or assistants, office personnel, and other healthbelow will need simplified written instruc- care professionals can be trained to adminis-tions in large print, with liberal use of cultur- ter and score the test. It can then he placed inally sensitive pictures Lad, if possible, audio- the patient's chart to alert medical personnelvisual tapes. (4) After individual patient to adjust communication with the patient toreading ability is determined, appropriate a level commensurate with his or her read-educational programs can be developed for ing ability. When physicians have estimates identified groups of low level readers. of patient reading grade ranges. they can adjust their patient interaction language toImplications appropriate levels. They can also s-lect or Traditionally, nurses have been responsible design more appropriate written pat.,,c edu-for patient instruction, but the medical com- cation materials. munity now recognizes the need for educa- Currently. the REALM is being used rou-tors to work with medical personnel to pro- tinely with more than 1,000 patients per yearvide knowledge about reading and assessment in a preventive medicine clinic at Louisianamethods. Educators have skills needed to State University Medical Center inimprove the health education of patients with Shreveport. Information thus obtained onlimited literacy skills. Educators may be patient reading levels is proving useful inasked to help develop patient education pro- directing patient-physician communicationsgrams, including composing health instruc- and appears to reduce errors due to physi-tions, brochures. and questionnaires. Collabo- cian assumptions that patients understandration between educators and health care commonly used oral and V. ritten medicalprofessionals may enhance communication information. between patients and health care providers. Conclusion improve overall health care. reduce the occur- rence of acute but preventable disease. and Experience with the REALM (Davis et al., ultimately lower the cost of health care. 1991: et al., 1993; Jackson et al.. 1991) suggests several conclusions. (1) The REALM References is useful in medical settings as a quick identi- Anastasi. A. (1988). Psych,' logical testing. New fier of patients who have less than high school York: Macmillan. level reading abilities (Davis et al., 1991). (2) Davis. T.C.. Crouch, M.A., Wills. G.. Millet, S.. & The REALM has identified more than the Abdehou. D.M. (1990). The gap between patient reading comprehension mid the readability of expected number of patients who may have patient education materials. Journa/ of Family difficulty with all forms of patient-physician Practir;:. 3/. 533-538. interaction because of their limited readingDavis. T.C., Crouch. M.A., Long. S.W.. Jackson. ability. (3) Patients who read above the 9th- R.14.. Bates. P.. & George. R.B. (199 1). Rapid

rj 0 assessment of literacy levels of adult primary care patients. Family Medicine. 23(6). 433-435. Assessment Davis T.C.. Long. S.W.. Jackson, R.H., Mayeaux. El, George, R.B.. Murphy. P.W.. & Crouch. M.A. (1993). Rapid estimate of adult literacy in medicine: A shortened screening instrument. Famil Medicine, 25. 391-395. What Works: Adult Doak, C.C., Doak, & Root. J.H. (1985 ). Teaching patients with low literacy skills. Philadelphia. PA: Lippincott. Literacy Program Gove, P.B. (Ed.). (1981). Webs-ter' s third new international dictionary of the English langua,;c unabridged. Springfield. MA: Merriam- El aluation Webster. Jackson, R.H.. Davis. T.C.. Bairnsfather, L.E., & Gault, H. (1991). Patient reading ability: An overlooked problem in health care. Southern NANCY D. PADAK Medical Journal. 84(10).1172-1175. GARY M. PADAK Powers. R.D. 11988). Emergency department patient literacy and the readability of patient FEBRUARY 1991 directed materials. nmas of Emergent y Medicine, 17,124-126. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. (1982). English language proficiency valuation appears to he a particular- study (H.Ps-43-15-82 559-010/551. Washington. ly problematic aspect of adult litera- DC: U.S. Government Printing Oftke. cy programs and services. Three Zion. A.B., & Aiman, J. (1989). After office hours. Level of reading diffir:ulty in the American recent statewide surveys in the U.S. College of Obstetrics and Gynecologists patient have concluded that evaluations are either education pamphiets. Obstetrics and Gyne-seldom undertaken or are reported in ways cology. 7-1(6). 955-959. that make meaningful interpretation difficult (Bear, Ferry. & Templeton, 1987; Knudson- Fields, 1989; Steele. 1989) The haphazard state of program evaluation has led to a "mis- interpretation that 'everything is tine' in adult literacy" (Diekhoff. 1988, p. 629). Certain evaluation difficulties may be a function of the design of adult literacy pro- grams. For example, many programs adopt open-entry policies or employ volunteer tutors to accommodate as many learners as possible. Open-entry policies may exacerbate evaluation problems. however, because sev- eral aspects of a program must he evaluated. Attempting to account for attendance differ- ences when reporting achievement data. for example. requires sophisticated statistical procedures. These may not be easy to applyFields, Hull, & Sechler, 1987; Gadsden, 1989; nor appropriate when qualitative or holisticRoyce, 1981; Samuelson & Faddis, 1986). measures of growth are being used. Categories of Program Effectiveness Open-exit poses a related evaluation prob- lem: Are achievement data about "persisters" A list of evaluative criteria used to deter- a true picture of a program's effectiveness?mine program effectiveness was created from Differences in volunteers' understanding ofan analysis of the 19 program descriptions instructional principles and practices alsoand research reports. We then grouped indi- may cause difficulties in evaluating a pro-vidual items into broader categories that cap- gram's success. Finally, when evaluations aretured typical aspects of program effective- tied to requests for funding, natural tenden-ness. Three broad categories (each with cies to highlight the positive and downplaysubcategories) emerged: personal factors. the negative may overstate successes andprogrammatic factors, and external factors. obscure the program's weaker aspects. Figure 1 shows the sources for each category Despite these difficulties. evaluationand subcategories. serves at least two critical purposes. At the The personal category included measures individual program level, future planning canof effectiveness directly related to adult learn- be based on a careful evaluation of presenters. One subcategory addressed adults' practices. Moreover, if we seek to ihiprovegrowth as readers in academic terms. Here practice, we need to know what v% orKs so as the most common form of achievement data to "identify and eliminate the barriers towas learners' gain on standardized tests or effective programs" (Diekhoff, 1988. p. 630).success rates with the General Educational Both researchers and practitioners in adult lit-Development test (GED), although Borei and eracy education could therefore benefit fromShively (1981) noted that a significant num- increased attention to program evaluation. Aber (45%) of the 523 programs they surveyed first step in this endeavor is to determine andemployed informal assessment of learners' evaluate criteria typically used to demonstrateacademic progress as well. program effectiveness. This article presents Another personal subcategory focused on results of a research review designed to fulfillchanges in the quality of learners' lives. this purpose. Learners reported changes in self-esteem, in We searched for program evaluations orrelationships with others, and in literacy- research reports referenced in three major datarelated or general self-confidence, and in bases (ERIC. Psychological Abstracts, andsome cases these factors were used as indica- Dissertation Abstracts) and in IRA'S AM/Haitors of program effectiveness. Learners' per- SUMMary of Investigations Relating to Read-ceptions of their own growth as readers and ing (1980 to 1988), seeking information aboutwriters or of progress tow,Td their own goals criteria. The search yielded 65 citations,were considered occasionally to assess the which were then read to determine their perti-strengths of a program. nence for our purposes. In all, 19 program The second broad category of evaluation descriptions or research reports provided datacriteria was related to program structure Or for the study. Eight of these reported on morecontent. Such factors as success in recruit- than one program (Balmuth, 1986; Borei &:nent and the number of adults who enrolled Shively. 1981: Clark, 1986; Delker. 1981;and regularly attended programs were cited Figure 1 Categories for Determining Program Effectiveness

Categories Sources Personal factors Academic achievement Borei & Shively. 1981: Clark. 1986: Delker, 1981: Fields. Hull, & Sechler. 1987: Gold & Johnson. 1982: Lafayette Parish, 1987: Royce. 1981 Quality of life Borei & Shively. 1981: Delker, 1981: Diem, 1986: Jones & Charnley. 1977: Lafayette Parish. 1987: Royce, 1981: Topping, 1985. 1986 Programmatic factors Program structure Balmuth, 1986: Jones & Charnley, 1977: Lafayette Parish. 1987: Meyer & Keefe, 1988: Pasch & Oakley. 1985: Samuelson & Faddis, 1986 Proi-iram content 13almuth. 1986: Gadsden. 1989: Gold & Johnson. 1982: Hutchinson, 1978: Jones & Charnley. 1977: Manning, 1978: Meyer & Keefe. 1988: Pasch & Oakley. 1985 External factors Context-based Clark. 1986: Fields. Hull. & Sechler. 1987 Financial Fields. Hull, & Sechler, 1987: Royce. 1981

as support for effectiveness. Program contentemployees (Fields, Hull, & Sechler, 1987). factors clustered around instructional meth-Another report included an assessment of ods, staff quality. and the availability of staff- financial savings to the community, with data development activities. about program costs and estimated savings Finally, some programs relied upon exter-from, for example, persons no longer needing nal indicators of success. The subcategory ofpublic assistance (Royce. 1981). context-based external factors involved With rare exceptions, program evaluations assessment of changes in learners' behaviorwere based on more than one criterion, often or attitudes by persons who were not associ-from more than one category, but a great deal ated with the literacy programs. For example.of variation was evident within categories prison guards might assess changes in learn-and across programs. Some of this variation ers' trust in or respect for others (Clark.may be a function of differences in program 1986): job supervisors might assess changesmissions or goals. That is, one expects an in learners' interactions on the job or theirevaluation of an industry-based program to performance of job duties (Fields. Hull. &differ from that of a community program. Sechler. 1987). Still, our results tend to support the charge Financial factors were occasionally used tothat American adult literacy program evalua- determine program effectiveness as well. Antion is haphazard. Fortunately, the results can industry-based program was evaluated byalso form the foundation for developing more comparing learners' earnings to those of othersystematic approaches. Guidelines for Program Evaluation Figure 2 Guidelines for Adult Literacy Program Adult literacy program evaluation can be Evaluation improved by following several important guidelines (highlighted in Figure 2). I. Base evaluation on the program's stated The most important is that evaluation must goals. focus on the extent to which program goals 2. Make the evaluation comprehensive. have been met. In other words, evaluation 3. Make the evaluation systematic (not anec- guidelines should he established when pro- dotal). 4. Use a variety of assessment forms, both quali- grams are planned, and the program's goals tative and quantitative. should direct the nature of evaluation. Such 5. Review the evaluation results in terms of the an approach also assures that the evaluation three categories of program effectiNeness: will be comprehensive, which is another personal factors, programmatic factors, exter- important guideline, and it facilitates the later nal factors. use of data to identify aspects of the program 6. Use evaluation data to identify parts of the that need to he strengthened. program that need strengthening. These notions lead to another important guideline: Program evaluations should be systematic. Anecdotal information, whilegram effectiveness.- Although the research often interesting, rarely provides the kind ofliterature indicates that many programs con- evidence needed to determine if goals haveceive of literacy learning as "reading only." been met or to direct program improvementdocumentation of writing growth is equally (Bear. Ferry. & Templeton, 1987). Evaluation important. data may take a variety of formsformal or Documentation should take se,'eral forms. informal test results, results of interviewsMost programs evaluate academic achieve- with learners or staff. information gleaned ment by reporting results from standardized from observations hut whatever the source measures. Growth of 1.3 to 1.5 grade equiva- of information, it should he gathered and lents after several months of instruction is reported in a systematic manner. typical and might he used as a benchmark Diversity in the focus of evaluation is to he to evaluate programs expected. due to differences in programagainst which goals. However, as most programs' goals(Diekhoff, 1988). However these data cannot stand alone to revolve around aspects of the three categories evaluate learners' literacy achievements. presented in Figure 1, evaluations should as Standardized test results. for example. pro- well. Questions related to these categories. then. can provide the framework for compre-vide no evidence of increased fluency. of ability to solve problems encountered during hensive. systematic program evaluation. reading or writing, or of the functional use of Personal Guru t h reading and writing. Thus, program eval- Evidence of learners' growth in literacyuations based solely on results of standard- must he a part of program evaluation. Aslied tests may underestimate program effec- Diekhoff (1988. p. 627) has noted, "Anytiveness. evaluation that fails to document reading Informal measures of literacy achieve- improvement has failed to document pro-ments. coupled with interview data from

..89.. *),1 learners and teachers, can complement stan-their own reading and writing abilities might dardized test data to provide a more completealso be probed. view. Topping (1985. 1986). for example. Royce (1981. p. 151) has suggested that a asks learners to select a hook, read a page orprogram is effective to the extent that it two aloud, and retell after reading. Miscuesmakes "a contribution to the lives of its stu- are noted (and later analyzed) and fluencydentsEvaluations should address the extent and the retellings are evaluated qualitatively.to which these contributions go beyond acad- Likewise, informal evaluation of learners'emics, growth in writing can he done through holis-Program Evaluation tic evaluation of writing samples. These pro- cedures, which can he conducted at the begin- Evaluations of program structure currently ning and end of each program cycle. provideinclude demographic information about information about reading and writing abili-adults served, numbers and qualifications of ties that cannot he measured through stan-staff members, and typical instructional dardized tests. An additional benefit is thatblocks (for example, times and lengths of ses- sions). This sort of information adequately each yields useful diagnostic information for describes the structure of a program but offers establishing goals for individual learners. Interviews, too, with learners and stafflittle about its worth. Is the structure of members can provide evaluative data.Program A more effective than the structure of Program B because Program A served Learners should he asked to evaluate their more adults? It seems clear that &seriph% c own progress. As Jones and Chun ley (1977) information that also allows evaluative judg- note. growth that seems minimal when mea- ments might provide preferable data. sured by a standardized test may seem Advice abounds about the program struc- remarkable from the learner's perspective.ture that best supports adult learners' growth. Moreover, routine self-evaluations encourageInstructional atmospheres described as ownership in literacy learning and metacogni-secure, comfortable, convenient. and infor- tive analysis of reading and writing. Teachersmal are said to be related to program effec- or tutors might be asked to share their percep-tiveness (see, for example. Fields. Hull. & tions of learners' academic growth as well. Sechler, 1981: Mikulecky, 1986: Royce. Although academic achievements are an 1981: Topping, 1985. 1986). If programs aim important indication of effectiveness, pro-to achieve this sort of environment. one goal gram impact on other personal factors should for evaluation should he to determine the also he evaluated. Participants' evaluations ofextent to which the aim was met. Interviews progress toward their own goals. for example,with adult learners and staff members can may yield perceptions and opinions beyond ield information, as can observations of their growth as readers and writers (Delker.instructional sessions. 1981). Changes in self-confidence or self- 'The qualifications of program personnel esteem or perceptions of improved relation-may also be reported in program evaluations. ships with others are logical quality-of-lifeKey indicators of staff qualifications might factors that might he evaluated through inter-include educational experience generally and \ iew,. or conversations v% ith adult learners.tral,ling and experience in adult education Learners' comfort with and confidence inspi cifically. Adult learners' perceptions of

t) k.) Figure3 Questions to Guide Program Evaluation

Personal:

Academic achievement To what extent have learners grown as readers and writers? To what extent have learners achieved greater fluency in their literacy? To what extent do learners and teachers feel that progress has been made toward academic goals?

Quality of life To w hat extent has learners' self-confidence as readers and writers increased? To what extent have learners achieved their own goals? To shat extent has learner self-esteem increased?

Programmatic: Program structure What arethe qualifications of program personnel? What is the quality of recruitment and retention practices? To what extent doe; the program structure meet learners' needs? To what extent does the program show evidence of coordination or collaboration ss ith outside a:/en- cies and constituencies'? Program content What theoretical principles about reading. writing, and learning underlie program content? To what extent dues the program content meet learners' functional and academic needs and interests? To what extent do learners participate in establishing instructional goals and evaluating progress tow and them? What is the quality of the social context for instruction (interactions between and among learners and teachers)? What are teacher perceptions of program effectiveness?

External:

Context-based What is the rate of participation? To w hat extent does the program meet needs identified by external groups (such as the community or joh supervisors)?

Financial Toh it ex:cm has learners' earning power increased? To w hat extent doe, the program show a return on in\ estment (savings to industry. persons off pub- lic assistance t?

iL their teachers' strengths and weaknessesucts can he examined to learn about the should also be sought. Further, comprehen-nature of instruction. sive and systematic staff development pro- Finally, program goals and procedures can grams are offered in the most exemplary pro-be compared to advice provided in the profes- grams (Samuelson & Faddis, 1986), sosional literature and to published descriptions program evaluations should include dataof the reading, writing, and learning process- regarding staff perceptions of inservice offer-es. Such a comparison can he used to evalu- ings and any other indicators of effective staffate the validity of program content. development (for example, observed changes Evidence of the program's impact in a in instruction). broader context may indicate its effective- Program content is a critical focus forness. Links with public schools or other com- evaluation. Above all. literacy instructionmunity agencies and services suggest effec- should he grounded in current theories abouttive programs ( Royce, 1981; Samuelson & the reading and writing process (Gold &Faddis, 1986; Villa, 1986). Documented Johnson, 1982; Meyer & Keefe, 198). Pro-efforts at coordination with outside agencies grams that are atheoretical or rooted only incan he included along with other indicators of traditional wisdom will have limited potential increased community involvement (for exam- for effectiveness. They will also he difficultple, students obtaining citizenship or register- to evaluate. ing to vote). Evidence that learners and teachers collab- Members of the community might provide orate in establishing and assessing progresstheir assessments of a program's impact by toward instructional goals provides a strongwriting letters or consenting to interviews indication of program effectiveness (Borei &(Royce, 1981). In addition, members of the Shively, 1981; Royce, 1981: Samuel son &local literacy council might be asked to Faddis, 1986). Curricula developed to meetobserve and evaluate the instructional envi- learners' interests and functional literacy ronment. needs are further indicators of the likelihood Finally, some have suggested that effective of program effectiveness (Fields. Hull. & programs should be able to show clear finan- Sechler. 1987; Jones & Charnley, 1977:cial return on investment (Fields, Hull, & Samuelson & Faddis, 1986). Teaching tech-Sechler, 1987). Such data as change in learn- niques. as well as program content, must heers' employment, earnings, or need for public designed to meet learners' needs (Gold &assistance may not be directly attributable to Johnson, 1982: Mikulecky, 1986). literacy programs, but they can offer some Data about these aspects of the programevidence of a program's financial effects. can he obtained through interviews with teachers and learners, by analyzing instruc-The Need for Evaluation tional documents, by observing class ses- Program evaluation data should strike a sions, and by reviewing professional litera-balance between quantitative measures and ture. Interviews with learners might focus onqualitative assessments of program impact. their own needs and goals. as well as theirNumbers alone, whether counts and demo- interest in sessions and their sense ofgraphics about adults served or results of progress toward goals. Instructional materi-tests, cannot reveal the depth and breadth of als, lesson plans. or student-generated prod-program effectiveness. Moreover, since the

..92.. J7 literacy learning that takes place is intendedGold. P.C.. & Johnson. J.A. (1982). Predictors of to have practical applications for adult learn- achievement in reading, self-esteem. auding, ers, some effort to evaluate this external and verbal language by adult illiterates in a psychoeducational tutorial program. Journal of impact is also warranted. Clinical Psychology, 38. 513-522. "An effective evaluation will assist in Hutchinson, L.P. (1978). The relationship between future planning,...will help to improve pro- expressed interests and reading achievement in gram offerings for students, and will insure functionally illiterate adults. Reading Improve- the accountability of expenditure of federal. ment/5. 203-207. state. and local dollars" (Willing, 1989, p. 4). Jones, H.A.. & Charnley. A.H. (1977). Adult litera- Questions to guide effective evaluations are cy:A study of its impact. (ID 199 473) Knudson-Fields. B. (1989). A study of adult litera- provided in Figure 3. Systematic, comprehen- cy service providers in the state of Idaho. sive evaluations based on program goals can Dissertation Abstracts International. 49,10. provide information with which to judge indi-Lafayette Parish School Board. (1987). Lafayette vidual program effectiveness. Such an Parish cooperative jail project-1.Pc1P. (Pt) 290 approach to evaluation can also help the adult 877) literacy community answer the broader ques- Manning. D.T. (1978). Everyday materials improve tion "What works?" adults' reading. Journal of Reading, 2/. 721-724. References Meyer, V.. & Keefe. D. (1988). The Laubach way to Balmuth. M. (1986). EAsenti... characteristics of reading: A review. Lifelong Learning. 12, 8-10. cif 'cc/ ire adult iiterac.v Pro,L:rams: A review and Mikulecky, L. (1986, December). The status of lit- analysis of the research. (iip 273 823) CraCy in Our society. Paper presented at the Bear. D.R., Ferry. C., & Templeton. S. (1987). meeting of the National Reading Conference. Projectnct: A team approach to community lit- Austin, TX. (H) 281 182) eracy. needs assessment. (Fp 291 057) Pasch. M., & Oakley. N. (1985. April). An evalua- Borei. S.H.E.. & Shively. J.E. (1981). Appalachian tion study of project LEARN. Paper presented at adult literacy programs survey (.11.P.O. Final the meeting of the American Educational Report. (H) 211 671) Research Association. Chicago, IL. (H) 255 Clark. C. (Ed.). (1986). tscx final reports: Third 759) series. (H) 277 378) Royce, S. (1981). Adult educator exchange pro- Delker, P.V. (1981, January ). State of the art in gram, PA 310 project. final report. (H) 215 226) adult basic education. Paper presented at theSamuelson, J.A.. & Faf'dis. C.R. (1986). The National Adult Literacy Conference. Washing- Indiana adult literoinitiative replication ton. DC. (Fp 241 698) guide. (H) 268 225) Diekhoff, G.M. (1988). An appraisal of adult litera- cy programs: Reading between the lines. Journal Steele. H. (1989). Illiteracy then and now: North of Reading, 31, 624-630. Carolina and Wake County. 1900-1980. Diem. R.A. (1986). Microcomputer technology in Dissertation Abstracts International, 49, 7. educational environments: Three case studies. Topping. K. (Ed.). (1985). National paired reading Journal of Educational Research. 80, 93-98. conference proceedings (2nd). (E0 285 1251 E.L.. Hull. W.L.. & Sechler, J.A. (1987). Topping. K. (Ed.). (1986). National paired reading Adult literacy: Industry-based training pro- mierencr proceedings (3rd). (1:0 285 126) grams. Columbus, OH: National Center for Villa, N. (1986). Statewide asse, sr-tient of ABE in Research in Vocational Education, The Ohio South Dakota. Dissertation Abstracts Inter- State University. 0-.0 284 9811 national. 47, 5. Gadsden. V. (1989). Adult literacy learning and Willing. D.C. (1989). Program evaluation as a strat- instruction. Dissertation Abstracts International. egy for program improvement in adult basic 49, 12. education. Lifelong Learning. 12, 4-9. 23. General Teaching Methodology

In the last analysis, vi hat Eugene O'Neill designates 'the human equation' i1 ill count for them more than any element in their learning the skills we need to teach them.

SHi mAN, 1989,P.353

his section provides a variety ofsional tutors: and Best with tips for corivd- methods Jeer use with the adult learn- big a(1111 SiltdClifs writing errors. Interesting- er. most of which are grounded in ly, two of the piecesthose by Conniff and "the human equation- referred to above.Sias.: and their respective oauthorsfocus Keefe and Meyer provide instructional sug- on writing with women. gestions specific to adults at di] lerent levels of The use of cooperative learning and otter literacy. Following pieces are Biggs on bridg-group work described in many of these arti- ing the literacy goo for African Americans: les represents a departure from perceptions Mocker on cooperative learning; Austin- that the adult student prefers to hide his or Anglea on word banks: Danielson on pictureher literacy difficulties and to work alone. hooks: Ford on storytelling: Hill andMeloth (199/I warns us that cooperative ort high interestlow readability tasks are. by their very nature, high in ambi- hooks: Kazemek and Rigg 00 the reading ofgllity and risk. For example, concrete prod- poetry. followed by Conniff. Borth'. and ucts of disc u.s.sion.sFlirty 1101he easily identifi- Joseph on writing in this genie: RoSOW oil able. If goals and strategies are obvious, consumer advocacy: and Schierloh on classic students may he able to easily accomplish a novels. Several piece's Pews on writing: Pates task independently. but if tasks are overly and Evans on writin,s; workshops: Stets:,complex, it may be difficult Jew the group to Schwarz:, and Weeden on oral history; Sole recogni:e what they must do. As such times. on student journals in the workplace ksi. the likelihood that students will simplil'y the classroom: D' Annuli:1'0 with language expe-task inc.reases. Some group IlleiliberS May be rience for LA students guided by nonprofes- uncomlOrtable with any ambiguity and may 99..94.. Ai

orient the ,group's discussion to a comfOrtable General let el.l'hus, effective cooperative tasks are /Ig constantly in danger of being transformed Teachi into low-level procedural ones that May not Methodology help students improve their reading. Wit!: this in mind, it is interesting to reflect on whs. the cooperative projects in these Profiles of and pieces were successful. Descriptions of the -trust engendered through equal participa- Instructional tion of all" described in Pates and Evans' writing workshops, the creative freedom in Strategies for Adult the painting studio atmosphere described by Disabled Readers Sias: and colledf.;UeS, and the comfort fi)r Lst. students in working with bilingual nonprofes- sinal tutors in the D' Annuli:le program sup- DONALD KEEFE port a sociocognitive rationale for the pro VALERIE MEYER frets success. In such a view, attention is paid APRIL 1988 to the social purposes to which the literacy skills are being put (Langer. 19911. The varied methodology described in this An adult literacy tutor asks. I've been working. with Marty for 8 section's articles provides a iyalth of solid months now. He tries really hard, options from which educators can choose in remembers to brine his books, and Weal'ing lOgelher a prOgralli appropriate 1(11' is faithful about meeting me at the library for our weekly sessions. I keep wondering their own situation. though. it's like I'm not sure if he's making Refrretices that much progress.... He rubs his eyes a hit. Langer.I.A. i/99/1. 1ii Eli. IliebertcU ). Literac, and sometimes I have to repeat directions. I for a di% erse society (pp. 9-27LNew York: thought Marty would he doing much better Teacherc by now, maybe even reading the newspaper

Meloth, M.t1991 J. Enhancint; literacy throm;11 What can I do to really see where Minty is cooperative learmni;. In Ell. 11 iebert cEd.t. and where he can go'? Literary for a dk erse society (pp. /72- 153 This type of question is common for us. .Vet Tea( hers PreA.s. we've been working very closely with adult Shuman. R.B. cl9Rclt.Some aA.sumption aboutliteracy volunteers for the last few years adult readiniz ingruttimi.Journal of Reading. (Meyer. Keefe. & Bauer. 1986). We suspect 31..;-/S-354. the question is not an unusual one. perhaps asked by hundreds of volunteer tutors acrossstrategies for which we have been provided America who have responded to state andfeedback about effectiveness by adult literacy local appeals to assist adult new readers involunteers, ABE instructors, anthe students. learning to read. To date, the Literacy Prescription has pro- This article describes findings for a pro- vided complete diagnostic reports for 106 cli- ject called "The Literacy Prescription,-ents. An analysis of the data from the re- which has been funded since 1986 by theports established five separately identifiable Office of the Secretary of State and Illinoisgroups of adult disabled readers. The remain- State Library. The project grew out of earlierder of this article outlines these five emergent research by the authors on adult illiteracygroups and describes what we consider to be (Keefe & Meyer, 1980). As project directors,optional instructional techniques for each. we wanted to provide a unique support sys- To organize our data, we simply labeled tem for volunteer tutors and adult basic edu-our adults as Groups 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4. A sum- cation (ABE) instructors. The Literacymary of our project findings appears in the Prescription provides individualized diag- figure. nostic testing and offers instructional sugges- tions. Our diagnosticians included currentGroup 0 and former graduate students who majored in This is the lowest reading ability group reading. In addition to expertise in reading,and constitutes slightly less than 10% of the many of these diagnosticians had t-ddergrad- population we tested. Adults in Group 0 can- uate teaching majors in fields such as speechnot read the simplest preprimer text and at and hearing. special education, and educa-most can read only a few words. such as their tional psychology. names. When text is read to them, they can The diagnostic tests varied, but generallyunderstand up to the 1st or 2nd grade level. they included the Keystone School VisionWithout exception, this group had extremely Screening Test (1972). the Wepman Auditorylimited general knowledge and were unable Discrimination Test (1986), the Basic Read- to repeat short sentences, could not add single ing Inventory (Johns. 1985), the Burke Read-digit numbers. and had difficulty copying ing Interview, and the Slosson Intelligenceshort paragraphs. Approximately 78% of this Test (1984). (The Slosson was used to deter-group have language disabilities. 89% have mine general strengths and weaknesses invision problems, and 78% have auditory dis- academic areas rather than as an IQ measure.) crimination problems. A series of screening tests based on Jordan's Literacy coordinators and ABE instructors Dyslexia in the Classroom (1977)was admin-should be cautious about assigning volunteer istered as appropriate. tutors to work with such persons. The volun- Prescriptive instructional suggestions teer tutors or Al3E instructors who had worked came from a computer data base of 126 strate-with learners from this group often worked gies developed by the authors. About one-for two or more years and saw very little pro- third of the shategies in the data base are tra-gress for their efforts. Limited experiences ditional approaches such as the language(possible borderline mental retardation), mul- experience approach, VAKT, and Anthonytiple physical disabilities. and severe lan- Manzo's Re Quest procedure (Harris & Sipay.guage disabilities made these clients difficult 1985). The remaining two-thirds are originalif not impossible to teach.

1 L: 1.9(i.. Overview of Adults Tested*

Group 0 Group I Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 n = 9 n= 14 n = 31 n = 20 n =32 Reading levels Independent 0 1.0 1.6 1.7 5.2 Instruction 0 1.2 1.7 3.0 7.0 Frustrational 0 2.1 2.1 4.2 8.1 Listening 1.5 2.6 5.6 6.2 9.5 Have vision problems" 89% 78% 68% 65% 5354 Have auditory discrimination problems 78% 57% 45% 40% 31% Views reading As "sounds" )(4 71% 58% 55% 50% As "words" 22% 14% 26% 25% 22% As "meaning" 0 0 3% 20% 25% Have a specific language disability 78% 50% 55% 30% 31% Last grade omplctcd 6.7 8.5 7.0 9.1 10.6 Age 40 36 38 36 32 Sex Male 56% 68% 604 47% Female 44% 79% 409 53% Data do not include a category called "Other in = 5) and do not include adults tested for vision or hearing only. All adults who owned glasses wore IfIC111 during testing.

If Group 0 clients are assigned a tutor. weetc.. or I like candy. I like apples. etc. Invite recommend the following. strategies: the student to complete the stems, using his or .Make a book using a photo album in her own words. which you place environmental print words your student can rein 't the advertisements Group I . out of magazines and newspapers with words Group I adults had more capacity, fewer such as Coca Cola and McDonald's Place physical and language disabilities than Group these pictures on one side of a page. On the0, and could read "just a little." Thcir estimat- other side of the page, print in large letters theed capacity to read was suggested by their lis- words taken from the logo or ad. These wordstening capacity score on the Basic Reading are often a part of most adults' sight vocabu-Inventory (see figure) and was somewhat bet- lary, even if the learner is not aware that thister than the very low range of Group 0. This is "reading." Stress that, indeed, your studentgroup could answer questions relating to their can read something. age and birthdate, name the days of the week, 2. Find highly predict. ')le stories with pat-and perform simple computation. In all prob- terns that lead the reader to "read" the text. ability, Group I adults should be able to read 3. Write sentence stems such as "I cansimple texts with individualized help. or "1 like ." I can walk, I can talk, We recommend the following types of strategies for Group 1 students. Strategiestheir low reading level. With a tutor's help, from the previous groups should be used ifadults in Group 2 can read the newspaper. the learner is virtually a non-reader. Recommended sample strategies for Group I. Language experience stories are appro-2 include previously mentioned strategies, if priate. Student talk about meaningful eventsappropriate, as well as the following: in their lives should he written down exactly 1. Readers often will read a sentence with as said. read, and re-read to them, and thenno idea what it means. They are processing read by them. These stories then should hesounds and words but not meaning. We rec- taped so the learners can listen to and readommend Silly Sentences. Make up a sentence them at home. in which one word is silly and does not make 2. Since more than 70% of the clients insense: for example, "I smell with my knees." this group stated they thought reading wasAsk the learners to figure out which word is sounding out words rather than "makingsilly. forcing them to look at meaning rather meaning." we feel tutors should st.ess thethan sounds. "meaning making" nature of reading. Learn- 2. Written conversation is an enjoyable ers should he encouraged to skip unknownreadingwriting activity for this group. words and continue reading to gain meaningInstead of talking "out loud" about some- and self-correct miscues. If no self-correctionthing. the conversation is written. Write about takes place, and the miscue is significant.a specific event, your feelings about home. work with the learners to figure out the wordchildren, etc. The conversation is started by rather than correcting the "error" during firstthe tutor. who briefly writes down what she reading. The latter assistance may includeor he wants to say. The conversation contin- "sounding it out." ues, always in writing. Go hack and forth and 3. Encourage learners to take risks andkeep it simple. without concern for spelling make guesses. Group 1 adults are low risk or grammar. takers with debilitating reading experiences 3. Flash card directions force word callers from their earlier lives. They worry aboutto read more than one word at a time. Place a making errors and usually have "their brainsfew words of direction. such as "Put your tied up in knots." Encourage them to guesshands on the table," on a card. Flash each and think. For example. give them a popularcard, asking the learner to do what the card advertisement torn into five or six pieces. En-says. Often the learners will read only the courage them to guess what the ad is. Stressfirst word. Encourage "chunking" all the that they can figure out a lot if they try. ',vords in one glance. Flash the cards again. Explain that they must read all the words in Group 2 one quick glance. It may take four or five Group 2 adults had a significantly higherflashes for the learners to understand and do reading capacity as determined by the listen-what is directed on the card. Explain that ing score on the Basic Reading Inventory thangood readers see words in meaningful the Group 1learners, even though they could"chunks" rather than individually. After the not read much better at initial testing. A highlearners have mastered the one-direction flash percentage of them had language and physicalcard, use cards with two or more related disabilities which may have accounted fordirections.

13..98.. Group 3 and stops. The students then read on, contin- Group 3 adults were characterized by auing the sentence. After the learners have higher instructional, frustrational (2.0 vs.read a phrase or part of a sentence, the tutor 4.0), and listening capacity level than Groupinterrupts and quickly reads on again. 2. Like Group 2 adults, they viewed readingStudents are encouraged to keep up with as a "sounding out" or "word calling" activi-their tutors, read faster, and model them. This ty, and tutors must work continuously to dis-technique forces learners to look at complete pel this "misnotion." Group 3 had consider-phrases and anticipate whore their tutors are ably fewer language disabilities than Group 2going to stop or interrupt. and progressed more rapidly in learning toGroup 4 read. These learners worked well with begin- While Group 3 learners often were in ning tutors. Adult Basic Education programs. Group 4 Group 2 strategies might he used with this adults were usually found in GED programs. group if appropriate. The following also are They had a listening capacity which suggest- suggested: 1. To dispel their misnotion of reading. talked that they might he able to read at the high about the characteristics of a good readerschool level, appeared to have average range (Cooper & Petrosky, 1976): intelligence, and expressed far fewer lan- Good readers bring what they knowguage and physical disabilities than the other about the topic to the print on thegroups. Group 4 learners had completed more page. They are active readers. schooling, usually 10 years, and 25C/ of them Good readers take chances: they riskperceived reading as a "meaning making" being wrong. process. They were strong candidates for GED Good readers guess at or skip wordsdiplomas and benefitted from work with vol- they don't know and read on for help. unteer tutors. Good readers expect the material to The following strategies are appropriate make sense. for Group 4 adults: Good readers try not to read too slow- I. Key-word predicting activites are par- ly. ticularly powerful with this group. The tutor These five characteristics need to hefirst selects a story. a chapter, or an article discussed every session until they are demon- and notes 10 "key words" from the selection. strated. These words are shared with the learners, 2. Instead of looking up unknown or diffi-who are asked to predict the piece's content. cult words in the dictionary or asking some-The learners must make "sense" of the 10 to one what they mean, we suggest these readers 15 "key words.- This predicting activity pre- jot down difficult words on blank bookmarkspares readers for meaning. Next, they should titled "List It and Skip It." Upon completionread the piece to discover if predictions were of a passage. they can return to the bookmarkright or wrong (confirm or disconfirm). list to see if the difficult words were solvedAdults like this activity. Key-word predicting through the use of context. works well with Groups 2 and 3 if easier and 3. "Alternate model reading" requireshighly predictable pieces are selected. learners to read faster. The tutor quickly 2. "GIST- 'flaking requires readers to reads a phrase or longer part of a sentence reduce the first sentence of a passage to 3 or 4 words, then the first two sentences to 5 or have the most disabilities were tutored 6 words, three sentences to 7 or 8 words, an average of only I 'A hours per week. etc.. until a paragraph is reduced to 15 or so Almost all activities suggested for our words that reveal the "gist" of the paragraph. five groups center on the notion that the This activity requires readers to "make brain must he activated in a search for meaning" and determine their own "key meaning. We favor activities which words.- force disabled readers to use intuitive 3. Prepare directions for playing a simple knowledge of language and the world card game, leaving out a crucial instruction or instead of emphasizing phonics, word explanation. Ask the readers to try to play the attack, and isolated comprehension card game with these directions. Ask the drills. learners to determine what missing direction or explanation is needed to play the game. References This activity introduces the notion of critical Auditory Discrimination Test (2nd ed.). (1986). Los Angeles, CA: NV.stem Psychological Services. reading. Basic Reading Inventory (3rd ed.). (1985). Coficlusioil Dubuque. IA: Kendall/Hunt. Cooper. C.R.. & Petrosky. A.R. (1976. December). This article has described five emergent A psycholinguistic view of the fluent reading groups of adult disabled readers. Patterns and process. JournalReading. 20, 184-207. problems are evident for those involved in lit- Harris. A.J., & Sipay, E.R. (1985). How w increase eracy projects. reading ability (8th ed.). White Plains. NY: Longman. Of the III adults tested, 42% had hear-Jordan. D.R. (1977). D ysle via in the classroom ing problems (most often auditory dis- (2nd ed). Columbus, OH: Merrill. crimination) and 66% had vision prob- Keefe. D., & Meyer, V. (1980. Summer). Adult dis- lems. Of the 66% who had vision abled readers: Their perceived models of the problems, 63% had near point vision reading process. Adult Literacy and Basic Education. 2. 120-124. problems. The need for vision and hear- Keystone School l'ision Screening (1972). Dav- ing screening in adult literacy projects is enport, IA: Mast /Keystone. evident. Meyer V.. Keefe, D.. & Bauer, 0. (1986. March). Almost half the adults in Group I and Some basic principles of the reading process required of literacy volunteers. Journal of more than three-fourths of the learners in Reading, 29. 544-548. Group 0 were referred by literacy volun- SW. son Intelligence -rest (1984). East Aurora. NY: teer projects. Adults who appeared to Slosson Educational Publications.

5

..I00.. Americans achieved in the face of unrelent- Genera l ing social, economic. and political harriers T e a c h in g (Biggs. 1992). Me th odology '11w Gap When Cook (1977) traced the decline of illiteracy in the United States from the late 1800s to 1970, she noted that while the avail- Building on Strengths: able figures can be misleading, literacy rates improved over the years for both white and non-white populations. She also noted that Closing the Literacy when literacy was defined as the ability to read and write. illiteracy rates for whites Gap for African dropped from 12% to between 1870 and 1959. for non-whites from 80'to 8%. When literacy is defined on the basis of the Americans number of school years completed, the gap continues to he evident. Earlier in this centu- ry, fewer years of schooling defined what it meant to be literatecompletion of fourth SHIRLEY A. BIGGs grade, later eighth grade. later still high school graduation. Recent census figures MAGI 1992 describing high school graduation rates show the percentage of whites aged 25 years and °Icier completing high school to he 70.5% in To understand and ultimately address 1980 and 77.7% in 1988: completion percent- the problems o; the literacy gapages for blacks of comparable ages were between African American and51.2% in 1980 and 63.3% in 1988. Despite European American adults, it is nec-the fact that both groups made significant essary to examine the context in which itprogress in this area. the gap is evident (U.S. occurs.i nat context shapes ourperceptions Bureau of the Census. 19891. about the gap and affects the manner in which National Assessment of Educational Pro- we use our energies to address it. gress data reveal a similar gap among each of One aspect of the context is the data that isits age cohorts which includes young adults available about literacy achievement, much (NAEP, 1981. 1985). However, in each of the of which is "unreliable, unrepresentative. orexamples cited here, the gap appears to he noncomparable over time" (Stedman & Kaes-closing, with blacks showing the largest de- tle, 1987, p 10). The data must he interpretedgree of positive change. Still, the challengeof with its flaws in mind. Literacy achievementthe 1990s and beyond makes it increasing- must also he seen in its historical contextly important to eliminate the gap for blacks while most groups in America have madeand other minorities at risk and to aim for remarkable progress in achieving productivehigher, more complex literacy achievement levels of literacy over the years, Africanfor all groups.

..o ..1 Cd. 6 Closing the Gap Another assumption that undermines liter- If those of us who are responsible for liter-acy efforts for minority and other learners is acy education are to close the gap. we must the belief hold by some that illiteratesare act quickly to begin to reclaim the losses thatnecessarily unintelligent or unwilling to accrue when any group is kept from function- invest their time and energy in learning. ing at its best. An important first step is toFingeret (1990) reasoned that: "Like mem- rethink our literacy improvement efforts by bers of all oppressed groups, adults with low raising, and thoughtfully answering questionsprint literacy skills have had to invest far like the following: more energy in eaderstanding the ways of What kind of assumptions do we makemainstream culture than is true in the about African Americans and their ability to reverse.... They must anddoparticipate in a learn and become more literate? Where have wide range of literacy practices on their jobs we invested our research. instructional. and and in their communities- (p. 27). support efforts? Do minorities play signifi- We have long been concerned about litera- cant roles in these efforts? To what extent do cy. However. we have tended to focus our we use what has been learned to make a posi-efforts on variables that are difficult if not tive difference in closing the literacy gap'? impossible to change. This tendency to dwell One assumption made by the uninformed on those things not likely to produce positive to explain the gap has been that Africanchange has led to another assumptionthat Americans place little value on literacy and little progress can he made even when great on education in general. Statistics are citedeffort is exerted. Pollard (1989) suggests that that indicate that. even though moreyoung there are variables amenable to change that blacks than ever are attending and completing could positively affect achievement in indi- high school, fewer are attending college. Also viduals from the group she describesas the fewer are completing General Equivalency underclass. Diploma (GED) requirements (Baldwin, Pollard studied those who achieved acade- 1990). Since these trends are reflected in the mically and identified seven areas of promise general population ('!.S. Bureau of the Cen-that those responsible for literacy instruction sus, 1990), they may he more a result of lim- for African Americans may find productive. ited finances than lack of interest. Further. The areas include: there is historical and research evidencesug- 1. Social Attitudesabout education,race, gesting that African Americans have andcon- and individual success tinue to place a high value on literacy and 2. Self - Perceptions of Abilityincluding learning (Engs, 1987: Smith, 1989). Forex- self-concept of ability and perceptions ample, Engs argues that: of school performance Beginning around the turn of the century and 3. General Social Supportencourage- continuing to this day, blacks began to pursue an unarticulated but discernible strategy that ment from others included two primary thrusts. First, blacks left 4. Teacher Supportencouragement...and the South in huge numbers in search of better help from teachers opportunity in both employment and education. Second, they attacked inadequate and discrimi- 5. Parental Influencesincluding parental nator education for blacks whereer it existed support and parental educational aspira- (p. 16). tions for their children

.. 102.. 6. School Involvementinvolvement withdetermined effort. When adults firs. realize peers and in activities in school that they can control their learning through 7. Active Problem-solvingthe degree totheir own efforts, their attitude can be altered. which the child sought help from othersWhen educators, particularly teachers. realize for problem solving and the child's per-that the stereotypes do not reflect the reality ception of the effort used to solve prob-and that their level of expectation plays as lems. (pp. 304-305) much a role in their students' achievement as their knowledge of strategies for teaching Taking Action reading and writing, attitudes can then be Individuals responsible for teaching. estab- altered. lishing curricula. and general program devel- One approach is the use of teacher anec- opment may find opportunities to implementdotes that reflect a positive African American activities based on Pollard's seven variables.presence in the society. As analogies are Following are examples of action that can bedrawn to illustrate points in the text to he taken using just three of the variables. read. positive experiences can be shared kindnesses shown by African American One alterable variable is social heliet:c. A growing number of social scientists (forneighbors. intelligence evident in a black TV example. Christmon. 1989: Fordham &character, resourcefulness reflected in the manner in which a local hero has solved a Ogbu, 1988: Howard and Hammond. 1985) practical problem. suggest that the issues of social attitudes and A second approach is to use literature writ- self-perception of ability are intricately relat- ed. They propose that the perpetuation often by or about blacks that reflects not only the contributions that they make but the unexamined or distorted beliefs about African diversity in the nature of those contributions. American ability led the general public, edu- ie literature also demonstrates that African cators. and African American learners them- Americans can and do achieve. Brooks (1985) selves to accept the stereotypes as reflections of reality. The achievement gap reinforcedand Pugh and Garcia (1990) provide exam- ples of such literature and offer suggestions those beliefs. for using it. Educators were affected by the beliefs and responded with lowered learning expecta- Another alterable variable is support fin- stu- tions as additional proof that they lackeddents.Researchers have concluded that ability and responded to efforts to teach themthroughout the school experience, African by giving up at the first sign of difficulty.American studentsparticularly males The preceding scenario reflects the impor-receive less attention and more nonconstruc- tance of addressing a combination of twotive criticism than other students (Bridges. alterable variables if academic success is to 1989: Calvin. 1988: Cazden, 1982: Rowan, he achieved(a) attitudes about learning.1989). Teacher can alter such negative race. and success: and (h) self-perceptions ofbehavior and express support in a variety of ability. ways. What can he altered is the knowledge that Examples of productive teacher behaviors academic achievement is possible. Africaninclude making comments that acknowledge Americans have achieved in the past againststudents' productive efforts, providing oppor- great odds. They continue to achieve withtunities for students to demonstrate newly

0:3 6 acquired skill and knowledge, and assisting with other test take!for program account- students when they experience difficulty as ability purposes. While test manuals often they struggle to learn. suggest that the tests can he used diagnosti- A thirdvariable that can be effectivelycally, to help the teacher make instructional decisions, many tearthers do not in fact have addressedfi-African American students is access to such information. Even if they did, that of providing instruction that addresses the information may not reflect the test taker's the importance of problem-solving in learn- actual reading ability and use of underlying ing.Studies describing classroom instruction strategies (Sternberg, 1991). and achievement reveal that instruction for A better approach. authentic testing students perceived as less able differs in char- (Wiggins, 1989), differs in terms of structure, acter and quality from instruction for those design, grading and scoring standards. fair- perceived us more able (Allington, 1983: ness. and equity. The information gained can Applehee. Langer. & Mullis, 1988). Further he applied dire to instruction. The test instruction for less able readers is often taker reads more realistic. challenging. con- focused on a series of unrelated exercises that textualized materials. The reading may take purport to build skills of questionable value. place over several sessions so that patterns of Little attention is given to the application of what the student does well and not so well school-based learning to the life of the adult. can be determined. The student is also asked African American adult literacy students to participate in interpreting his or her own are likely to have experienced a great deal of reading and writing behavior. During the frustration as school children. Since few process. the student is informed about strategies were offered to them in their early strengths as well as problems to be solved attempts to become literate, they come to liter- through instruction. acy courses reluctantlyfearing repeated fail- African Americans have been ill-served by ure in what they may feel is their last opportu- the negative comparisons that grow out of nity to become productively literate. Without normative testing. Such testing has failed to guidance in the use of problem-solving and reflect the context of the performance and the critical thinking skills, they may give up strengths that could he used as the basis for before they have allowed themselves a chance instruction. Thus, while it may be important to learn. practice. and apply literacy skills. to document a certain type of achievement Teachers of African American adult litera- with norm-referenced tests for accountability cy students may benefit from the results of purposes, it is also critical to provide assess- research indicating that instruction in prob- ment that informs and enhances instruction. lem-solving and critical thinking is likely to Second, literacy instruction for African make the study of other school subjects more American and other minority adults needs to successful (Howard & Hammond, 1985: he pragmatic in that it assists them in meeting Ross & Ross, 1989). both personal and societal goals (Park, 1987). Finally, two major strategies can help close For example. a large part of the comprehen- the gapauthentic assessment and pragmat- sion instruction offered to adult literacy stu- ic instruction.First, standardized tests used to dents requires that they read and identify assess adults are designed to generate scores main ideas in written material. A common that compare a specific reader or test taker format for response is multiple choice.

j104.. While skill in responding to multiplelion (interactions between and among learn- choice items is useful in school and standard-ers and teachers)? ized test environments, it has little use in day- 5. Real-life contextTo what extent does to-day life where people read to get the gist the program meet needs identified by external and communicate that they got it in a waygroups (such as the community or job super- appropriate to the context. Such a skill hasvisors)? real-life valueit allows an adult to under- If we are to close the gap in school achieve- stand the joke told in a social gathering, toment between African Americans and Euro- explain a concept to one's child from a news-pean Americans. we must rethink our assump- paper or TV report. to provide bottom-linetions and set about making sure that they information to colleagues at work, and tohave merit, are supportable. and contribute to share important events with a loved one in asolving literacy problems for all who need letter. assistance. Thus. the role of instruction is to provide Further, we need to look to the manner in learning, practice. and application opportuni-which we apply our efforts and resources to ties. Pragmatic instruction goes beyondmake positive change in literacy. We must achieving traditional classroom goals: it mustask ourselves to what extent we are working address the adult student's work, social, andon areas less likely to be productive. Attitudes family goals. about African Americans' ability to learn. On the basis of a careful review of suc-instructional encouragement and support, and cessful adult literacy programs. Padak andthe inclusion of problem-solving and critical Padak (1991) recommend guidelines andthinking curricula are variables that can he related questions to he used in program eval-changed to assist student achievement. In uation. Those listed below reflect the alter-addition, inviting participation in the form of able variables discussed above and are partic-planning and evaluating from those who are ularly important if authentic assessment andserved in the programs is likely to enhance pragmatic instruction are to be provided forthe chance for closing the gap. Finally, re- African American learners. Effective pro-thinking the nature of classroom assessment grams address (p. 378): and instruction and implementing authentic 1. Academic achievementTo what extenttesting and pragmatic teaching can go a long do learners and teachers feel that progress hasway in achieving this goal. been made toward academic goals? References 2. Quality of lifeTo what extent have Allington, R.L. (1983). The reading instruction pro- learners achieved their own goals? To what vided readers of differing abilities. Elementary extent has learner self-esteem increased? School Journal. 83(5).548-569. Applebcc, A.N., Langer, J.A.. & Mullis, I.V.S. 3. Program structureTo what extent does (1988). Whoreads hest? Factors related to the program show evidence of coordination reading achievement in grades 3. 7. and I I or collaboration with outside agencies and (Report No. 17-R-011. Princeton. NJ: Educa- constituencies'? tional Testing Service. 4. Program contentTo what extent does Baldwin. J. (1990. September). Gmprofiles: Adults in transition. GEDTesting Service of the Amer- the program content meet learners' functional ican Council on Education. and academic needs and interests? What is Biggs, S.A. (1992). African American adult reading the quality of the social context for instruc- performalce: Progress in the face of problems.

105 0 In A.M. Scales & J.E. Burley (Eds.). Per- reading over /inr national aAsessments. / 971 - spectives from adult literacy to continuing edu- 1984 (Report No. 15-R-01). Princeton. NJ: u- cation. Dubuque. IA: Brown. cational Testing Service. Bridges. R.E. (1989). Black male development:A Padak. N.D.. & Padak. G.M. (1991). What works: broken model. Paper presented at the annual Adult literacy program evaluation. Journal of conference of the National Black Child Reading. 34(5). 374-379. Development Institute. Miami. FL. Park. R.J. (1987). Three approaches to improving lit- Brooks. C.K. (Ed.). (1985). Tapping potential: eracy levels. Educational Ilori:ons. 661 1 ). 38-41. English and language arts for the black learner.Pollard. D.S. (1989). Against the odds: A profile of Black Caucus of the National Council of academic achievers from the urban underclass. Teachers of English. Urbana. IL: National Journal of Negro Education. 58(3). 416-429. Council of Teachers of English. Pugh. S.L.. & Garcia, J.G. (1990). Portraits in Calvin. S.B. (1988, April). Creating effective learn- black: Establishing African American identity ing environments fin. disadvantaged learners: through nonfiction hooks. Journal of Reading. Implications for the design of educational pro- 34(1), 20-25. grams. Paper presented at the annual meeting ofRoss. R.R.. & Ross. B.D. (1989). Delinquenc) pre- the American Educational Research Association. \ention through cognitive training. Educational Neg,,. Orleans, LA. llori:ons, 67(4). 124-130. Carden. C.B. (1982). Contexts for literacy: In the Rowan, J.L. (1989). The effect of ,gender on the non mind and in the classroom. Journal yfReacling promotion of black males. New York:L.RIC Behavior. 14(4h 413-427. Clearing House on Urban Education. (ED 313456) Christmon. M. (1989). Black students: Self-esteem Smith, A.W. (1989). Educational attainment as a and achievement. New York:FRI('Clearing House on Urban Education. (ko 314 511) determinant of social class among black Cook, W.D. (1977). Adult literacy education in the Americans. Journal of Negro Education, 58(3), United States. Newark. DE: International 416-429. Reading Association. Stedman, L.C., & Kaestle. C.F. (1987). Literacy Engs. R.E. (1987). Historical perspectives on the and reading performance in the United States, problem of black literacy. Educational llori:on.s. from 1880 to the present. Reading Research 66(1), 13-17. Quarterly. 22(1). 8-46. Fingeret. H.A. (1990). Who are illiterate adults?Sternberg. R.J. ( 1991 ). Are we reading too much Adult Learning, 1(6), 27. into reading comprehension tests? Journal of Fordham. S., & Oghu. J.U. (1986). Black students' Reading. 34(71, 540-545. school success: Coping with the "burden of act-Wiggins. G. (1989). Teaching to the (authentic) ing white.- Urban Review. 18(3), 176-206. test. Educational Leadership. 46(7). 41-47. Howard. J.. & Hammond. R. l 1985. September). L'.S. Bureau of the Census. (1989). The black popu- Rumors of inferiority. NewRepub/ie. /92,17-21. lation in the United States: March 19,59 (Current National Assessment of Educational Progress. Population Reports. Series P-20. No. 442). (1981). Three national assessments of reading: Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Com- Changes in perfOrmance. 1970-1980 (Report merce. No. I 1-R-01). Denver. CO: Education Commis- U.S. Bureau of the Census. (1990). United States sion of the States. population estimates. by age, sex, race, (Ind National Assessment of Educational Progress Hispanic origin: 1980 to 1988 (Current Pop- (1985). The reading report card. progress ulation Reports. Series P-25. No. 1045). Wash- toward excellence in our ("tools: Trends in ington. DC: U.S. Department of Commerce. General activity with a greater amount of experience from which they can relate new experiences Tea c hin g and (2) they enter with more specific and immediate plans for applying newly acquired Methodology knowledge. Knowles (1970) extended this idea when he identified the assumptions on which adult education is based: (a) his (adult) self-concept moves from one of being a dependent person- Cooperative Learning ality toward one of being a self-directing human being: (b) he accumulates a growing Process: Shared reservoir of experience that becomes an increasing resource for learning: (c) his readi- ness to learn becomes oriented increasingly Learning Experience to the developmental tasks of his social roles: and (d) his time perspective changes from in Teaching Adults to one of postponed application of knowledge to immediacy of application. and accordingly his orientation toward learning shifts from Read one of subject-centeredness. Because adult education is based on a dif- ferent set of assumptions than education of children, writers in the field have suggested DONALD W. MOCKER that teachers of adults should acquire special MARCH 1975 knowledge, behavior, and attitudes. This posi- tion is summed up in Fay's (1966) statement: "Once we recognize the major psychological characteristics of adults, it is not difficult to Most educators involved in teach-adjust teaching methods and approaches to ing reading to adults realizethe learning situation so that they are effec- that procedures used in teach-tive with adults.- ing children. although frequent- Directed reading activity is a standard for- ly used with adults, do not serve the bestmat for teaching reading to children. Class- interest of the adult student. If the methods,room procedures and the use of basal reading materials, and approaches used in instructionseries all reflect the teacher's commitment to ieflect the characteristics and needs that makethis approach. Emmett Betts (1946) outlined the adult different. adults will not only learnthe format: more but will also realize greater satisfaction The authors of basal readers are in general in learning. agreement on these basic principles and as- The Commission of Professors of Adult sumptions regarding directed reading acti\ ities. Education (1961) indicated two significant First, the group should he prepared. oriented, or made ready. for the reading of a stork or selec- differences between children and adults as tion. Second. the first reading should be guided learners: (1) they (adults) enter an educational silent reading. Third, word recognition skills and comprehension should he developed during failing to allow the student to select what is to the silent reading. Fourth, the readingsilent or he read. In addition, this approach is highly oraldepending upon the needs of the pupil teacher directive in nature. should he done for purposes different from those served by the first, or silent reading. Fifth, The cooperative learning process borrows the follow-up on the "reading lesson" should he from both of these approaches but is more differentiated in terms of pupil needs. than a modification. In addition to the student playing a new role by virtue of sharing res- This approach does an excellent job ofponsibility for learning, the pathways of inter- establishing a student-teacher and teacher-action between the teacher and student are student line of communication, but, in itsgreatly altered, and the approach defines a application by teachers and through basal new role for the teacher. In this role the teach- readers, fails to deal with the followinger no longer functions as the "all knower," or aspects of adult learning: (a) establishing awhat Freire (1972) calls "bankers,- but func- student-student line of communication, thustions as a guider or planner. not recognizing the experience and knowl- edge which each student brings to class; (b)Cooperative Learning Process placing responsibility for learning on the stu- The first item in cooperative learning is to dent, thus not helping the adult to becomehave the students select the material which more independent, and (c) teacher acting as athey want to learn how to read. That is, have co-learner, thus giving the student the ideathe students select a problem which is of con- that the teacher has all the answers. The verycern to them. This relates to Knowles' fourth name, directed reading activity, impliesassumption. since a teacher can have unlimit- teacher direction. ed resources. modern facilities, audiovisual The directed reading activity has beenequipment and the latest material, but without extended in recent years by Stauffer (1969)the adult being motivated, little will happen. with his modification, "the directed reading-Weinstein (1970) identified the source of thinking activity.- Stauffer sees pupils settingmotivation: "Concerns, wants. interests, their own purpose and places major emphasisfears, anxieties, joys, and other emotions and on the thinking process. He suggests that pur-reactions to the world contain the seeds of poseful reading, like problem solving, has 'motivation'.- This is the first attempt at get- three phases: (1) confrontation by a problem,ting the students to interact with each other (2) readi.-g, to find a solution. and (3) findingand to place a portion of the responsibility for tie solution or failing to find it. These phases learning on the adult. Bergevin (1965) made are translated in the three major steps in thethis point when he stated: "We do not learn to directed reading-thinking activity; (1) declar-he responsible participants by merely hearing ing purpose; (2) reasoning while reading: andour responsibilities described. After we know (3) judging. what responsibilities are involved, we really Although this approach does emphasizelearn by practicing over a long period of the problem solving and critical thinkingtime.- aspects. it falls short in meeting two of the Selection of material is the student's right special requirements of the adult student.and responsibility. The discussion can he ini- First, this approach fails to recognize the stu-tiated by such questions as "Select your main dent's right and responsibility for learning byproblem.- "What could you learn which you

4.1 08.. I. o could use to help your child in school?" or Next, concentrate on developing compre- "What problem did you have today?" Onehension and interpretation. Here the teacher cautiona student's ability to verbalize is again has the opportunity to establish student- often closely related to his ability to read.student interaction. Rather than asking a com- Therefore, other methods may have to heprehension question per se, the questions can developed to elicit this response. Studentshe structured in the form of a problem which can he encouraged to bring into class thethe adults must solve. An example of this "thing" which they would like to learn toprocess would he for the teacher to ask the read. Creative programs (Freire. 1972) useclass, not any single individual, to list on the pictures of the "things" which are pressing hoard possible alternatives for the outcome of community problems to stimulate languagethe story. As the class begins to identify these development. alternatives, the teacher lists them on the In addition to being involved in the selec-hoard. After the class is satisfied that the list tion of the material. the learner must also heis exhaustive, then the teacher can respond involved in deciding the purpose for readingwith another question such as "What are the the material. It is here that the teacher as apossible consequences of these alternatives'?" "guider" can help adults "...recognize that asAgain, the teacher records the responses as men they have the right to have a voice"the students interact. The teacher may then (Freire, 1970). want the class to rank the alternatives in the Since the adult has helped set the purposeorder which they think is most plausible. for the reading lesson, it is not necessary to Through this approach, adults are encour- restate the purpose prior to beginning the les-aged to process concepts which are not dealt son. However, it is important to begin the les-with in theveryday life. The process of son with the adults verbalizing why this les-languaging continues. son (content) is important and what it will Little change can he made from the tradi- mean to each one of them so learning will hetional format of teaching word skills except personal. During this part of the lesson, theto point out that we are now teaching them in adult, through interaction with other students. the context of a problem which has been will gain insight into her or his own behavioridentified by the adult student. The teacher is and feelings. It is at this point that the studentusing the material which the adult has select- will learn to move from reading to action.ed as the basis of his instructional program. The teacher can begin the discussion withAgain, the notion of the learner's responsibil- "How will you be able to use this informa-ity is reinforced. tion'?" or "How can this information make a During oral or silent rereading, techniques change in your life'?" such as role playing and simulation can he Guided silent reading should he used firstused to encourage interaction among stu- to get the "total picture" of the story. to stimu-dents. The teacher can pose a question to the late interest, anti to develop the practice ofstudents. The students can create a role play- reading for a purpose. As in the traditionaling situation where they begin by reading the approach, careful attention to reading prob-points of the story which they feel are impor- lems must be observed. Watch for suhvocal-tant to the question. They then role play to the ization, finger pointing, and showing signs ofconclusion of the question. Again, we have general physical discomfort. returned to a problem solving situation with

.. 109.. ; .14. 4 the responsibility for solution on the part ofal. The general reading level of the material the student. should he low enough so it can be easily react Mastery of skill is not the product of follow-by all students. The issue here is not one of up activities per se. Rather one should attemptreadability, but one of relevance and what the to create a means for the adult to transfer theteacher and students do with the material. classroom skill into a life skill. It is one thing If many problems are identified as material to teach the skill of reading, and quite anotherstudents want to learn, it will be necessary to to get a person to read. In elementary educa-establish priorities. Responsibility for learn- tion, when a skill is taught. the pupil is forceding is again placed on the learner. to use that skill because he is a child and in As we begin to involve the adult in the school. Failure of this process usually resultsselection of what is to he learned and why it in poor readers. However, an adult who isis to be learned, and as we reinforce student- illiterate, by definition, does not have to fol-student interaction throughout the reading low this process. and does not have built-inlesson. concluding by helping the adult to see reinforcement. Special attention must hethe application to his life. then the coopera- given to the adult who wants to "practice" ative reading process can he a potent technique newly acquired skill. in adult basic education. Maintaining the integrity of a systematic Classroom Format approach but accommodating for adult learn- Joyce ( 1966) conceived of school curricu-ers' characteristics will improve the reading lum as having three levels, or what he referred lesson format so that it will create a more to as "tiers or modes." The first level is made powerful impact on the life of the learner. up of those skills which are generally accept- ed as the essential building blocks of intellec- References tual development: reading. writing and arith- Bergevin. Paul, & McKinley. John. (1965). Pardo- metic. The second level consists of pation training fim adult education. St. Louis, MO: Bethany Press. developing latent talents and abilities of theBelts. Emmett. (19-16). Foundations of reading learner. The third level is what he calls instruction. New York: American Book "group-inquiry" curriculum, and is organized Company. around social issues and problems which con-Commission of Professors of Adult Education. cern the individual. It is in the context of (1961). Adult education: A new imperative for Joyce's third level that the cooperative learn- our times. Washington, DC: The Adult Education Association of the U.S.A. ing process is most appropriate. Fay. Jean B. (1966). Psychological characteristics Beginning readers (0-3). because of their affecting adult learning. In F.W. Lanning & special needs in language development, W.A. Many (Eds.). Bash education for the dis- should he taught as a separate group. No advantaged adult. New York: Houghton change in procedure is required except that Freire, Paulo. (1970). The adult literacy proces, as rather than using a "pre-written" story or arti- cultural action for freedom. Harvard Educa- cle, the teacher should develop a story using tional Review. 40. pp. 205-225. Freire, Paulo. (9172). Pedagogy of the oppressed. the language experience approach (Hall, New York: Seahury Press. 1972). Hall, Mary Anne. (1972). The language experience Advanced readers (4-8) can work as a sin- approach for the culturally disadvantaged. gle group using the same instructional materi- Newark. DE: International Reading Association.

1 r ...1 10.. Joyce. Bruce R. t 1966). Restructuring elementary SampleWord Bank for the Topic education: .4multiple leannito;sy.s tents "Gardening" approach. New York: Teachers College. Knowles. Malcolm. (970). The modern practice ofplant weeds tree adult education. New York: Association Press. tomato plant dig hole Stauffer, Russell G. ( 1969). Teaching reading as a shovel rake lawn mower thinking process. New York: Harper Collins. weeder air blower sweep Weinstein, Gerald. & Fantini, Mario D. (1970). hose fertilise seeds Toward humanistic education: A curricuhun ()/' corn clippers pruner alkc.t. New York: Praeger. carrrot onion tulips lettuce hoe chives rocks grass sod rototiller axe renting hu ing dump toolshed General plastic bags equipment goggles Teachin g Methodology skills. In addition, it is an excellent warm-up activity before reading or writing, assessing and enriching the student's prior knowledge Word Banks for Adult of a topic. The procedure is simple and adaptable to both tutoring and classroom settings. Select a Literacy topic related to either a story to he read or an interest of the student (such as gardening). State "When I think of gardening I think of plants. What do you think of'?" Record both LYNNE AUSTIN-ANGLEA your response and the student's response, and DECEMBER 1990 continue until your word hank includes 20-50 words, depending upon topic familiarity. (See sample word hank.) Once the list is complete you have a sup- Aword bank, in the traditionalply of words to use in a variety of language sense. is a list of words that have lessons: been accumulated to build sight 1. Build critical thinking skills by looking

vocabulary.However, my adultfor clusters of words that belong together. My new readers combine the word hank with thelist contains clusters under the titles "Kinds of language experience approach to create a ver- Seeds." "Gardening Tools.- and "Gardening satile tool for vocabulary learning. Jobs" and can easily take the form of a seman- Because it uses the student's own vocabu- tic map. (See sample map.) lary. a word hank can become an endless 2. Add prefixes and suffixes to words in resource for building vocabulary, practicingthe word hank. Build uponseedto create spelling, and developing critical thinking seedling, seeded,andseeding.Build upon Sample Semantic Map for the Topic "Gardening"

Gardening Gardening Jobs

fertilLe ..aid create fertile, inPrtile. fertili:er, over-fertilLe, fertilization,Prtili:ing, etc. General Discuss how changing the form can change Teachin g the meaning of a word. 3. Focus on spelling by calling attention to Methodology the root words and affixes like those used above. Practice syllabication, and your stu- dent will he amazed at how well she or he can spell lengthy words like fertilization and transplanting. Picture Books to Use 4. Plan a writing exercise using ideas from the word bank. Determine a pattern of organi- Aith Older Students zation according to the purpose of the writ- ing, whether it's a how-to (chronology), a personal experience (narrative), or a descrip- tion (topic characteristics). 5. Use the word hank as a prereading exer- KATHY EVERTS DANIELSON cise to anticipate what a story will he about. MAY 1992 Prediction increases the interaction between reader and text and improves reading com- prehension. 6. Add new vocabulary words to the word picture hooks, in the hands of a skilled bank as they are discovered through reading language arts teacher are a medium and conversation. for all ages. Some quite recent pic- 7. Keen a collection of word hank pages to ture hooks have special uses for a illustrate your student's growing vocabularymiddle school or junior high or high school on a variety of topics. teacher working with developmental readers 7 .. I12.. and with linguistically and culturally diverse As they write stories that have characters students. from different areas, they can add dialect or Teachers willing to try using picture hooks slang to enhance characterizations and set- with older learners should know that the prac- ting. tice has been documented as successful. Parts of Speech Picture hooks are often motivators. since they are both beautiful and charming while theyA Cache of Jewels (Heller, 1987)Collective present human experiences in microcosm. nouns (in rhyme) They have been used to enhance fifth graders' Merry-Go-Round (Heller, 1990)All kinds visual literacy and the critical thinking of of nouns (in rhyme) junior high students. They give opportunitiesMany Luscious Lollipops (Heller, 1989 ) for integrating reading and writing and for Adjectives (in rhyme) developing even high school students' vocab- Kites Sail WO( (Heller, 1988)Verbstens- ularies. They often fit well into a social stud- es, irregular forms, moods (in rhyme) ies course, bringing variety to a topic. Extra activities: Students keep notebooks or Here are several recent picture hooks that I add to charts interesting or descriptive nouns. would recommend. grouped under headingsverbs, or adjectives. They use these charts suggesting potential special uses, with extrawhen revising their own writing. activities noted. All the hooks are visually attractive. Faithful Elephants (Tsuchiya. 1988) Write Dialect and Character Development a journal entry from the zoo keeper's or Mirandy and Brother Wind (McKissack, the elephant's point of view. 1988)American southern black Alligator Arrived vvith Apples (Dragonwagon, Hanna's Hog (Aylesworth, 1990)rural 1987). Anitnalia (Base, 1986), Alison's American Zinnia (Lobel. 1990), Ellabet (Yolen, /va Dunnit and the Big Wind (Purdy, 1985) 1990), The Z Was Zapped (Van Allsbur2, American old west slang 1987) Students car do their own alpha- The Tale of Meshka the Kvetch (Chapman, bet hook after reading these alliterative 1980)Yiddish dialect versions of alphabet books. Charlie Drives the Stage (Kimmel, 1989) Step into the Night (Ryder. 1988), Mocking- American old west slang bird Morning (Ryder, 1989). Under Your Jargon and Lingo Feet (Ryder, 1990), Apple Tree (Parnall, Frank and Ernest ( Day. 1988 ) -1u nch 1988), Winter Barn (Parnall, 1986), The counter lingo Rock (Parnall. 1991). Woodpile (Parnall, Frank and Ernest Play Ball (Day, 1990) 1990) Examine the ordinary to find the baseball terminology extraordinary. Extra activities: Students collect other jargonExtra activities: Students write about some- or lingo (interview a coach or player. read thething seemingly common and notice the sports page). Students add to class chartsdetails surrounding it. about slang or dialect, or listen to note lin- Students keep learning logs of plants, guistic differences in everyday language. rocks, or trees that they sec every day to

it ..I1 3.. enhance their observational and descriptive Dickory Dock (Aylesworth, 1990) writing skills. Parody TheFrog Prince Continued(Scieszka, 1991), Extraactivities:The format of other tradi- 'Tway the Night Before Thanksgivingtional poems could be used to get students to (Pilkey, 1990).The Completed Hickorywrite their own parodies.

Some Suggested Picture Books Aylesworth. J. (1990).The completed hickory dickory dock.Ill. by Eileen Christelow. New York: Atheneum. Avlesworth. J. (1988). Hanna's hog. 111. by Glen Rounds. New York: Atheneum. Base. G. (1986).Animalia.New Yor:, Abrams. Blos. J.W. (1987).Old !lorry.Ill. by Stephen Gannw.11. New York: Morrow. Chapman, C. (1980).The talc of Meshka the Kvetch.III. by Arnold Lobel. New York: Dutton. Day, A. (1988).Frank and Ernest.New York: Scholastic. Day. A. (199(1).Frank and Ernest play ball.New York: Scholastic. Dragonwagon. C. (1987).Alligator arrived with apples.III. by Jose Aruego & Ariane Dewey. New York: Macmillan. Gerrard. R. (1990).Mik' s mammoth. NewYork: Farrar. Straus. & Giroux. Heller. R. (1987). Acache of 'jewels and other collective nouns.New York: Grosset & Dunlap. Heller. R. (1988).Kites sail high.New York: Grosset & Dunlap. Heller. R. (1989).Many lu.sciotts lollipops.New York: Grosset & Dunlap. Heiler. R. ( loom.Merry.,w_round.New York: Grosset & Dunlap. Kimmel. E.A. (1989).Charlie drives the stage.Ill. by Glen Rounds. New York: Holiday House. King. L.L. (1988).Because ollo:o Brown.Ill. by Amy Schwartz. New York: Viking. Lindbergh, R. ((990).Johnny Appleseed.Ill. by Kathy Jakobson. Boston, MA: Little. Brown. Lobel. A. (1990). Alison'A :innia. New York: Greens', illow. NIcKissack, P. (1988).Mirandy and brother wind.III. by Jerry Pinkney. New York: Knopf. Parnall. P. (1988).Apple tree.New York: Macmillan. Parnall. P. (1991).The rock.New York: Macmillan. Parnall. P. (1986).Winter barn.New York: Macmillan. Parnall. P. (1990).Woodpile.New York: Macmillan. Pilkey. D. 11990). 'Tagsthe night befOreThankst;iving.New York: Orchard. Provenson. A. (1990).The buck stops here.New York: Harper & Row. Purdy, C. (1985). /eaDuluth and the big wind.Ill. by Steven Kellogg. New York: Dial. Ryder, J. (1989).Mockingbird morning.Ill. by Dennis Nolan. New York: Four Winds. Ryder. J. (1988).Step into the night.Ill. by Dennis Nolan. Ness York: Four Winds. Ryder. J. (1990).Under our feet.Ill. by Dennis Nolan. New York: Macmillan. Scieszka, J. (1991).The frog prince continued.Ill. by Steve Johnson. New York: Viking. Scieszka. J. (1989).The true story of the three little pigs.Ill. by Lane Smith. New York: Viking. Tsuchi,.a. Y. (1988).Faithful elephants.Translated by Tomoko Tsuchiya Dykes. Ill. by Ted Lewin. Boston: Houghton !Mifflin. Van Allsburg, C. (1988).Two bad ants.Boston. MA: Houghton Mifflin. Van Allshurg. C. 11987).The .7 was :ripped.Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin. NVahl J. (1990).Dracula' s cat & Frankenstein's dog.Ill. by Kay Chorao. New York: Simon & Schuster. Yolen. J. (1990).Elfahet.III. by Lauren Mills. Boston. MA: Little, Brown. Books are illustrated by the author unless ojherwise noted.

.. 1 1 -1.. Sources of Activities Using Picture Books General Barton, B., & Booth. D. (1990). Stories in the classroom: Storytelling. reading aloud, and Teachin g roleplaying with children. Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann. Methodology Beckman, J., & Diamon, J. (1984). Picture hooks in the classroom: The secret weapon for the creative teacher. Eng/ish Journal. 73. 102-104. Storytelling for Adults Flatley. J.K.. & Rutland. A.D. (1986). Using wordless picture hooks to teach linguistical- ly/culturally different students. The Reading Teacher, -10, 276-281. Graves. D. (1989). DiAcover your own literacy. PEGGY FORD Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann. Johnson-Weber. NI. (1989). Picture hooks for MARCH 1992 junior high. Journal of Reading, 33. 219-220. Polette. K. (1989). Using ABC hooks for vocab- ulary de\ elopment in the secondary school. Engfish Jnut nul. 7S'. 78-80. Storytelling for adults'? Whoever heard Rutland. A.D. (1987). Using wordless picture of such a thing! It will become a turn- hooks in social studies. History and Social off! It will he received with cries of Science Teacher, 22. 193-1%. protest! Nonsense is what I reply. Stewig, J.W. (1990). Choosing the Caldecott win- For me. storytelling has proven to he one ner: Fifth graders give their reasons. Journal of the most effective means to :Mare the joys of Youth Services in Libraries, 3, 128-133. of reading with avid readers, to stimulate good but lazy readers, to encourage reluctant readers, and to introduce or perhaps reintro- Because of Lo:o Brown ( King. 1988), Oldduce) poor readers to the world of print. Henry (13los, 1987), Mik's Mammoth Students in my reading classes range in (Gerrard. I 990)Complete plot told inage from I 7-70. with reading levels from rhyme. grades 3-20. I have students who have never Extra activities: Students write their own sto- finished middle school, students with mas- ries told in rhyme. ter's degrees, students who are required to Johnny Appleseed (Lindbergh. 1990). Thetake the course, and those who elect to take Buck Stops Here (Provensen. 1990) the course. While the hulk of their semester's Extra activities: Instead of a traditional report. work is of the individual prescriptive type. a rhymed poem about a famous person. when it comes to storytelling, the students True Story of the Three Little Pigs (Scieszka.become one big car tuned into the Adult Story 1989 )Wolf's point of view, DraculdsHour. Cat & Frankenstein's Dog (Wahl, 1990). When one-third to one-half of my students Two Bad Ants (Van Allshurg. 1988) indicate that they not only do not like to read Extra activities: Students can write storiesbut also that they hate to read. I pull out my from different characters' points of view. trusty file of paperback books and spend a

..1 15.. 1 classtime or two telling them stories. Becausedren's, young adult. and adult literature. As my major goal is to create in students thethe advertising slogan goes, "Try it, you'll desire to read, the subject matter of my sto-ies like it!" And so will your students. is as varied as my students. For 1 hour and 20 minutes the students lit- Rooks for Storytelling erally sit mesmerized visualizing characters. My listeners travel vicariously first to one Arnow, (1954).The dollmaker.New York: country and then to another; out of one era Avon. Buck, P.S. (1931).The good earth.New York: and into another: visit with the poor and the Harper & Row. rich alike; become acquainted with the DeBlasis. C. (1978).The proud breed.New famous and the infamous: experience joy or York: Bantam. sot-row, delight or disdain. Lewis. C'.S. (1950).The lion, the witch. and the The best part for me occurs when story- walrobe.New York: Macmillan. tellingtime is over, because then the spell is Marshall, C. (1967). Christie. New York: broken: thestudents come hack to the reality McGraw. of the classroom with an interest in reading a McCulloueh, C. (1977).The thorn birds. New particular hook, or they remember a hook York: Harper &Row . they have read, enjoyed. and want to share Michener. J. (1959). //await'. New York: Random House. with the rest of us. Owens,J. (1976). Jesse: The numwho outrun Questions come fast and furious. "What /fitter. New York: Faucet(. was the name of the hook where such or so Peck. R.N. (1972). Aday no pigs would die. happened?" "Dowe have that book upstairs New York: Knopf, in our library'?" "Do you have a list of thus' Rawls, W. (1961).Where the red fern ,i;rows. books you talked about'?" "Can we do this New York: Doubleday. again next classtime?" Questions are fol- Schlisscl. L. (1982). It onten..sdiaries of the lowed by positive comments. Sixteen years of westward journey.New York: Schocken. storytelling has yet to yield a negative reac- Speare. E.G. (1958).The witch of Blackbird tion. Sometimes we teachers do have to prime Pond.Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Tisha: The story of a young the pump a little to receive the productthe Specht, R. (1984). teacher in the /Walker wilderness.New York: product being students who want to read. Bantam. I keep a long list of books for my story- Ten Boom. C.. & Scherrill. J. (1984).The hiding telling. I find that I run out of classtime long place.New York: Bantam. before I run out of subject matter. The main Thompson. T. ( 1976).Blood and money.New ingredient for a successful storytelling time is York: Doubleday. being an enthusiaqic. well-read instructor. Tolkien.J.R.R.(1966).The hobbit.New York: Enthusiasm is an extremely contagious con- Ballantine. dition, and it is one that is easily transmitted. Wilder, L.1. (1953).Farmer boy.New York: The following list of titles is representative of Harper & Row. Wilder. L.I. (1953).The long winter. New York: hooks that I have successfully used during Harper & Row. storytelling. Titles include those from chit-

1..1 16.. Adult Basic Education (Am) students rather General than Est. students, its interesting to note that Teaching two of the series described below are books about immigrants. Many ESL teachers are Methodology looking at high-low hooks as another source of comprehensible input for their students. People of all instructional philosophies agree that in order to become good readers. High Interest-Lon people need time to read. Books should be accessiblewithin the reading ability of the reader, well written. and engaging. The books Readability Books for need both to tap our students' experiences and interests and to describe the experiences Adults of other people. The following is a list -,)f son-le series of hooks that we've found to he particularly good. SARA LOUISA HILL. DAN RABIDEAU nigh Readability Series SEPTEMBER 1992 AnAmerican Family.Peaty)) Education carol). Janus. (hwrcus, 500 Harbor Blvd., Belmont, CA 94002, USA; 800-877-4283). During the past 15 years, we have Reading level 4.5. seen the development of a new Eight 80-page historical fiction hooks genre of literature, high interest- including stories from the settlement of the low readability hooks for adult North American colonies through the post- new readers in the United States and Canada. World War I era. Some are quite good. When people encounter these hooks for the Lifetimes I and II.Fearon Education. first time. they are frequently surprised that Reading level 2.0-3.0. high-low authors manage to write such engag- Two wonderful series of 7 hooks each. ing stories in such a few pages. (They don't with adult themes at a manageable reading call them "high interest" for nothing.) In level. addition, student writing is being commer-Hopes and Dreams.Fearon Education. cially published, especially through publish-Reading level 2.0-3.0. ing efforts based in literacy programs. These Written by the same author as the Lifetimes materials are especially engaging for adult lit- series, these 10 hooks introduce adult eracy students. beginning readers to U.S. history throurh It is worth mentioning that many English fictionalized accounts of the experiences as a Second Language (Est.) teachers working of various immigrant groups. with students at an intermediate level areKaleidoscope.New Readers Press (Depart- finding that their students enjoy these hooks ment 92, Box 888, S'vracuse. NY 13210, USA; as kvell. Although the books are written for800-448-88781. Reading level 1.0-2.0.

..I17.. An easy-to-read series of 16 hooks at two Publications of Student %%riling levels with interesting stories for begin-Opening Doors Books. Series I. Opening ning readers. Doors Books (Box 379, Bristol. l'T 05443, Fastback books. Fearon Education. Reading USA: 802-453-3459). Reading level approxi- level 4.5-5.0. ',motel V 3.0-5.0. Several series of iligh interestlow read- A collection of 6 books written by adult lit- ability fiction. Series include romance. eracy students in Vermont. Some very mystery, sports, spy, and horror. good stories with adult topics such as rape Flashback Series. Fearon Education. Reading and child abuse. level 4.0-5.0. New Writers' Voices. Literacy l'olunteers of Fictionalized characters in the backdrop of New York City. Reading level 1.0-5.0. historic events, war, sports. and disasters. A collection of 12 books written by stu- The disaster series describes historical dents at i.vNyc. Some are anthologies events such as the sinking of the Titanic, around themes such as work and health: an earthquake in Mexico. Mount Saint some are stories written by individual stu- Helens volcano. etc. dents. Fitting In. IVeli Readers Press. Reading level Voices: New Writers for New Readers. 1.0-2.0. Lower Mainland Society (9260 104th Street, These 8 hooks are similar to the Hopes andSurrey. British Columbia. V3R 2B4 Canada: Dreams series, because the stories describeavailable in the United States through lOices the experiences of individuals from differ-Magazine, Delta Systems Co.. Inc.. 570 Rock ent immigrant groups as they settle in the Road Drive. Unit H. Dundee. IL 600/8 -9922, United States. The stories deal with moreUSA: 708-551-9595). recent immigrant groups such as South and A Canadian periodical containing writings Central Americans and Southeast Asians. by students in ABE programs in Canada and Very well written stories. the United States. Sundown Books. New Readers Press. Read- ing level 3.0-3.6. Anthologies for New Readers The stories have a lot of human interest.More than a Job: Readings on Work and and even more advanced students enjoySociety. New Readers Press. Reading level them. 3.0-5.0. Writers' Voices. Literacy101unteers of New A collection of readings revolving around York City (121 6th Avenue, New York, NY the theme of work. Includes chapters from 10013, USA: 212 -925- 3001). Reading level novels by well known authors, poetry, and 3.0 -6.0. song lyrics. Each title includes an unedited selection Words on the Page. The World in Your Hands. from the original work as well as a sum- Books I, 11, and Ill. Hamper & Row ( Perennial mary of the hook, a short biography of theLibrary. 10 East 53n1 Street, New York. NY author, and a list of thought-provoking 10022. USA). questions about the material. The publisher Rather than write abridged versions of tries to provide readers with enough back- texts at an elementary level, these editors ground information to make the unedited have contacted contemporary authors for text more readable. permission to print some of their works.

. 1 1 8. 3 Other authors wrote pieces especially forsnippets of language they display are almost this anthology. In the words of the editors,always bereft of verve or grace. "Rather than 'writing down' to their read- We think that poetry offers a gold mine of ers, the distinguished authors in the Harpermaterials for adult literacy students. In this & Row Collections have writtentothem."article we describe four poets whose work we The result is a three-book anthology. have used with literacy students, and we report on the basic techniques of using poetry. hy Poetry? There are several reasons for using poetry General with adult literacy students. First. it opens a Teaching world, or a view of the world, that has been closed for many of them. Our adult students Methodology tell us that the writing assignments they had in school were always what Britton (1982) callstransactional,that is, using language to get something done. Typical assignments Four Poets: Modern sere filling in blanks, underlining subjects and verbs, and drawing lines from words in a list to definitions in a parallel column. Some- Poetry in the Adult times they wrote book reports, and at least once a year a report on their summer vaca- Literacy Classroom tions: but these assignments too were transac- tional. The reading materials they typically han- dled were either content area textbooks, FRANCIS E. KALEMEK rewritten and simplified versions of literature, PAT RIGG or short stories and texts written for the DECEMBER 1986 "reluctant reader." Because the adults that we work with had low grades in English classes, they were never assigned to the higher track nor given creative writing assignments and really good literature. As teachers and tutors of adults who As a result, many of our students expect to are becoming literate, we haveuse reading and writing to get better jobs or been quite concerned with findinglook better in their children's eyes when they materials for these people. Mosthelp with homework assignments. but they commercial materials focus on such "func-don't see literature that they read or write as tional" literacy skills as reading want ads anddoing what Gardner says it can: "True art filling out .joh applications (Rigg & Kazemek.clarifies life, establishes models of human 1985). which are restrictive in at least twoaction, casts nets towards the future. carefully senses: These materials narrow rather thanjudges our right and our wrong directions. enlarge a student's view of literacy: and thecelebrates and mourns" (1978. p. 100).

..I W.. ti. tir Reading and writing poetry opens our stu- Poetry written in familiar language or in a dents' eyes to what literacy can mean; it helpsvernacular is usually easier than poems in them see the difference between knowingstilted or archaic "literary" language. Rhymed how to read and wanting to read to under-poetry is often the only kind that many adults stand themselves and their world better. consider to be real poetry. Yet rhyme is not A second reason for using poetry withnecessarily an element of predictability: the adults, and an obvious corollary to the first, isuse of a particular rhyme scheme often results that the material intrinsically motivates read-in unusual diction or twisted, unnatural syn- ing, writing, and talking with others in andtax. Any rhymed poetry therefore needs close out of class. When adults use language inexamination before it is used in the literacy what Britton calls the poetic mode, they are classroom. able to "take it up as it were in the role of spectators- (1982, p. 37). They are able toFour Poets observe and explore their own past lives. Here we briefly discuss four poets, much imagined futures, and to dream of impossibleof whose work can be used with adults at all events. Poetry allows adults to participatelevels of literacy development. Carl through metaphor, dream, make believe, andSandburg, Lucille Clifton, William Carlos symbolism skillfully used in that which makesWilliams, and Langston Hughes are all human life an intellectual and imaginativeAmerican and all contemporary. We have adventure. selected them as models because of their A third reason for using poetry with adultsgenius with language, their wide range of who are beginning to read and write is that, ifthemes and ideas, and because their work is carefully selected, poetry is easy to read andreadily available, relatively inexpensive in write, often easier than the practice job appli-paperback. and in most public libraries. cations in the literacy textbook (Weibel, We hope. of course, that reading their 1983). The ideas and images of poems arepoems leads to further exploration of other readily accessible to adults, or can be if the poets' work. poetry is chosen to fit the students. Carl Sandburg Characteristics to Look For Sandburg's poetry is rooted in the com- Poetry for adult beginning readers andmonplace; he writes of everyday themes and writers is easier to read when it is predictable.everyday people. The colloquial language of both in ideas and form. Poetry which con-his poems has a rhythmic vitality. Often they nects in some real way to the adult's lifesound like the people who, Sandburg said. poetry which, as Emily Dickinson said."sometimes talk poetry without writing it. but makes one feel as though one's head willthey don't know they are talking poetry" explodewill be much easier to read than(195x. p. 14). Sandburg's humor, wit, and fe- poetry that does not. Poetry that deals withquent irony all help to make his poetry espe- familiar themes or ideas, has clearly devel-cially appropriate for use with adults. The oped patterns and sequences, uses repeatedpoem "Buffalo Dusk" from Ear /v Moon words, phrases, or lines, and employs an(1958, p. 45), an inexpensive paperback identifiable rhythm or meter (not necessarilyselection of Sandburg's poetry. This elegaic rhyme) is generally the easiest to read. poem captures the sense of irretrievable loss

.120.. that comes with understanding that a particu- they don't fit into little lar creature and, indeed, an entire way of life petty places. these hips are free hips. are no more. Sandburg's use of simple but they don't like to he held hack. eloquent repetition heightens the underlying these hips have never been enslaved. pathos of the poem. Every adult has longed they go where they want to go for a time that is no more: this poem speaks they do what they \N ant to do. to that longing. these hips are mighty hips. these hips are magic hips. The theme of "Buffalo Dusk" can elicit a i have known them wide range of response and discussion, from to put a spell on a man and a political exploration of the past and present spin him like a top! plight of Native Americans, to a considera- (Reprinted by permission of Curtis Brown, Ltd. tion of some more personal loss. The lan- front two-headed woman. 019H0 h) the guage helps make this poem predictable. both University of Massachusetts Press.) in its vividness and in its repetition. The everyday language and the repetition In another poem. "Soup," in the same col- help to make this poem appropriate for many lection (p. 97), Sandburg explores the nature of fame and power. The simple declarativeadults, but it is primarily the theme that makes it one literacy students read with ease and language and syntax of "Soup" make it acces- eagerness. The sheer celebration of one's sible to the beginning reader. The theme is body and sexuality gives the poem an energy sure to engender discussion of the lives of the that moves the reader, and it is this feeling rich and famous. Literacy teachers can use that we want adult beginning readers and this poem as a catalyst for further explorationwriters to experience from the start of their of power, fame. and everyday life. literacy instruction. This poem helps them Lucille Clifton understand that "being literate is just more A quite different collection of poetry isfun, more joyful, than being illiterate- two-headed woman (1980)by Lucille Clifton,(De lattre, 1983, p. 54). poet and author of many children's books. In Since writing must be an integral part of this particular collection. Clifton celebratesliteracy instruction (Kazemek, 1984), poems the joys. beauty. pain, and love of being awhich serve as models for students' own woman, a black woman in particular. Shepoetry can be especially useful. Clifton's speaks as a mother, a daughter. a lover, and a"homage to my hips" can serve as a catalyst person deeply concerned with spiritual andfor a variety of adult "homages" to eyes, religious questions. While her poetry willhands, hair. and so forth. In fact. Clifton appeal to most people, it speaks most directlyseems to have been inspired to write a com- panion piece. "homage to my hair" (p. 5). to women because of its themes and celebra- tions of womanhood. In "homage to my hips- homage to itt, hair (p. 6). for example, Clifton sings of her big. when t feel her jump up and dance powerful hips with a gusto that swings the i hear the music! my God poem off the paue and readers off their feet. Cm talking about my nappy hair! she is a challenge to our hand these hips are big hips. Black man. they need space to she is as tasty on our tongue as move around in. good greens Black man. I have eaten she can touch your mind the plums with her electric fingers and that were in the grayer she do get, good God. the icebox the Blacker she do he. and which (Reprinted by permission of Curtis Brown. Ltd. ou were probably fronttwo-headed woman. 01980 by the saying University of Massachusetts Press.) for breakfast Forgive me Clifton's poetry doesn't use standard punc- they were delicious tuation or grammar. It can help adults appre- so sweet ciate the vitality of language well used and and so cold the vigor of dialects: it can also help adults (FromCollected Earlier Poem,.©1938 by begin to explore conventions of grammar. William Carlos Williams. Reprinted by permis- sion of New Directions Publishing Corporation.) spelling, and punctuation in print. The rest of the poems in this collection are equally appro-We think this poem can he used to show adult priate for use with adult literacy students. literacy students that a famous American poet 'W imam Carlos Williams uses language that is not unlike theirs. It can In his poetry William Carlos Williamshelp them to see the value of everyday lan- tried to capture what he called the "Americanguage that they hear. use, and understand: it idiom" the music and vitality of Americanhelps take the mystery out of what many adults fear as the most mysterious kind of speech. Accordingly. many of his poems read like prose that simply has been broken at cer-languagepoetry. tain points to give it the look of poetry. But Several of Williams's "object- poems can also be used to help adults see how everyday that is only how they look: Those poems that most seem like prose move with a rhythmlangauge can help us focus closely and imagi- natively on the most common things of life. and a sharpness of image that enable the read- The poems are demonstrations of using writ- er and listener to see and to feel the world dif- ten language to see the world more clearly. ferently. with more clarity and intensity. "The Red Wheelbarrow" (1966, p. 21) not Williams was a practicing medical doctor only makes us see the wheelbarrow but also most of his life. Many of his poems are rela- requires us to consider its significance in the tively short, like lines jotted between house world. calls or office visits. This brevity, together with the condensed American speech that so much depends Williams used and the everyday nature of his upon themes. make many of his poems appropriate a red wheel harrow for adults who are just beginning to see them- glazed with rain selves as literate. In his NA. e 1 1 known "This is just to say." for example, we see how water beside the white Williams is able to celebrate something as chickens. common as plums with a sharpness of FromCollected Earlier Poem.,. 01938 b imagery and a seeming simplicity of lan- William Carlos Williams. Reprinted by permis- guage (1966. p. 331. sion of Ness Directions Publishing Corporation. )

. 122.. This kind of object poem lends itself to theate the beauty of his poetry and his skillful exploration and composition of object poemsuse of language. Moreover, Hughes' poetry written in class. Language experience strate-often inspires exploration and discussion of gies modified for adults can he used quitethemes that are important to all of us, such as effectively with this sort of poem (Rigg &love, friendship, and ethnic pride. An exam- Taylor.1979). ple is "Poem" (1959. p. 12), one that we like Finally, poems like "The Thing"(1966, p. and have used successfully with adults: 50)are appropriate for the kind of language play that we think is necessary for all begin- loved my friend. He sent a% ay from me. ning readers and writers, whatever their age. There's nothing more to sa. Each time it rings The poem ends. I think it is for Soft as it began me but it is I loved my friend. not for me nor for (From The Di cam Keeper and Other Poentv by an one it mercy Langston Hughes. ©1932 by Alfred A. Knopf. rings and se Inc.: renewed 1960 by Langston Hughes. sen.e it bitterly Reprinted by permission of the publisher.) together. theand I ( From Collected Earlier Poem c. (01938 by The simple. declarative nature of this William Carlos Williams. Reprinted h permis- poem, the repetition of the line "I love my sion of New Directions Publishing Corporation.) friend" and the almost haunting. largely This kind of language playusing languageunexplainable pathos that it evokes in most for riddles, jokes. interesting juxtapositions. readers all serve to make this a poem that can paradoxes, pleasing sound arrangements. and be used over and over again with adult stu- so forthnot only helps the beginning read-dents. As one of ours remarked. "Yeah, that's ers and writers feel at home with the Ian-just the way it is. That's what happened to me gauge in its written form, but also helps themand one of my friends." to better )nderstand its almost infinite possi- "Dreams"(1959. p. 7)appears in numer- bilities. ous anthologies and can he found in some Langston Hughes basal readers, but we think that it is most appropriate for adults who have lost dreams. Langston Hughes was a prolific author and an articulate. impassioned spokesperson for Hold fact to dreams black people. However, his poetry, stories. For if dreams die plays. and essays, whether they are written in Life is a broken-1. inged bird black English vernacular or in standard That cannot fly. English, have a universal character that make Hold fast to dreams them meaningful and memorable to both For M. hen dreams go Life is a barren field black and white, to young and old. Frozen with slum. We believe that Hughes' early poetry, (From The Dream Keeper and Other noemA 1). especially the collection The DrCalli Keeper Langston Hughes. C01932 by Alfred A. Knopf. and Other Poems(1959).can he used effec- Inc.: retie ved 196(1 h Langston Hughes. tively with most adults to help them appreci- Reprinted hy permission of the publisher.)

- ..123.. -L. The images are sharp: Life is a broken-Techniques for t'sing Poetry winged bird; life is a barren. frozen field. We have referred throughout this article to The two ballad stanzas state the same cause-poetry writing and have mentioned a few effect relationship, so that the repetition oftechniques: language experience, oral history, structure and phrases contributes to its effec-group collaboration. Because we focus on the tiveness and predictability. This poem leadswork of four American poets and how that into class writing, both individual and groupwork is appropriate for adults who are begin- collaborative poems. ning to see themselves as literate people, we Hughes is widely known for his prose sto-will not go into specifics of writing instruc- ries and his narrative poetry, often written intion in the literacy setting (see Kazemek, black English vernacular. His use of this 1984, for suggestions). Three techniques that dialect shows how important to Hughes ishelp adult literacy students read poetry are each individual (because he lets each individ-reading aloud, rereading. and discussing. ual speak with his or her own voice) and the Reading aloud. If you introduce a poem to individual's life, stories, hopes, and dreams.your students by reading it aloud yourself, "Aunt Sue's Stories" (1959, p. 65) begins: you are doing three things. I. You are giving the poetry some of its life Aunt Sue has a head full of stones. that is often hidden when the poem lies flat Aunt Sue has a whole heart full of stories. Summer nights on the front porch on its page. Aunt Sue cuddles a blown-faced child to 2. You are making it easy for your students her bosom to read the poem when they see the printed And tells him stories.... copy. ( From Selected Poem., hy Langston Hughes. 3. You are spinning a thread hetween your- 0)926 by Alfred /%. Knopf. Inc.: renewed 1954 self and your students, making a bond. Item by Langston Hughes. Reprinted by permission three is as important as one and two. of the publisher.) We talked earlier about how poetry can help us know ourselves, but it can also help Aunt Sue goes on to tell stories of slavery us know each other. When we read "homage and stories "right out of her own life." to my hips" to our students. we let our enjoy- All of us have stories that come right outment show; when we read Hughes's "Poem" of our own lives. Most of us never get thosewe give it the thoughtful silence afterwards stories, those lives, on paper and somethingthat it deserves. Our students see and hear by important in the world is lost. Adults with athe way we read them aloud that the poems history of failure in school and with readingspeak to us, and that we delight in sharing and writing almost certainly have not evenwith our students something that we feel is begun to put their stories, their lives, onterribly important and something that we paper. We believe that poetry like "Aunt love. Sue's Stories" can get adults to talk, write, Rereading. We read the poem again, this and read about their own lives. The oral histo-time while our students have copies in front ry and interview techniques demonstrated inof' them. Why again? Most poetry is tightly The Foffire Book (Wigginton, 1972) and dis-packed expression: unlike reading a newspa- cussed by Rigg (1985) offer the means to getper report, we don't get the best of a poem by these stories down on paper. skimming and scanning. We don't mean that

..1 2-1.. our students plod through line by line. That Good Collections of Poetry for Adult destroys both the poem and any interest in it Literacy Students that we or our students had. Clifton. Lucille. (1972).Good news about the But rereading a poem that we enjoy two or earth.New York: Random House. three times gives us and our students more Clifton, Lucille. (1980).to wonm. than one chance for the poem to live for all of Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts us. It's a little like making a friend: If you Press. give a poem the sort of glance that you give Hughes. Langston. (1959).The dream keeper strangers on the street, the poem will stay a and other poems.New York: Alfred A. stranger. and you won't even remember its Knopf. Sandburg, Carl. (1958).Early moon. NewYork: face. Rereading also makes the poem more Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. readable for the adults who are just beginning Sandburg, Carl. (1960).Harvest poems 191 0- to see themselves as literate people. /960.New York: Harcourt Brace. Discussionis the third technique we use Williams, William Carlos. (1966).The William constantly. After rereading, we often invite Carlos Williams reader,edited by M.L. comments. We don't try to tell our students Rosenthal. New York: New Directions. what any poem means, since it will mean Williams, William Carlos. (1962).Pictures from something different to each person. We have Brueghel and other poems.New York: New had quite interesting discussions about the Directions. poems we've brought to our students that were as intense and intellectually stimulating as any we've sat through in graduate Englishonly readable by adult beginning students of literature seminars. These discussions came reading and writing, but is more readable than about through our listening to the students'many of the commercial materials available. comments and directing their questions toAnd it's much more fun. each other and the group as whole, rather than References trying to answer those questions ourselves. Britton. J. (1982).Prospect and retrospect: Selected \lore Readable and More Fun essay.v of James Britton(G.M. Fradl. Ed.). Montclair. NJ: Boynton Cook. The work of Sandburg, Clifton, Williams, Delattre. E.J. (1983). The insiders. In R.W. Bailey and Hughes contains many poems that we R.M. Fosheim (Eds.).Literacy Pr life: The believe can be used with adults at all levels of demands for reading and wt iting.New York: literacy development. (See the accompanying Modern Language Association. Gardner. J. (1978).On moral fiction.New York: list of other collections by these four poets.) Basic. There is a common assumption that poetry Kazemek. F.E. ( 1984, April). 1 wauted to be a is only for those who have already demon- Tencra to help penp to I ______: Writing for strated their literacy competency in some adult beginning learners.Journal of Reading. way: we believe that this is a misconception. 27.614-819. We have used the poems we've mentioned Rigg. P. (1985. February).Desert wind:A fresh breeze in Indian education.Journal of Reading. here and many, many others with adults who 28.393-397. swore they could not read a single word. Rigg, P., & Kazemek, F.E. (1985. May). For adults The result of our experience is that we only: Reading materials for adult literacy stu- strongly believe that this sort of poetry is not dents../ourna/of Reading. 28.726-731.

..125.. iu0 Rigg, P.. & Taylor. L. (1979. March). A 21-year-that are increasingly sensitive to the interests old learns to read. English Journal, 68.52-56. of the public at large. In the words of Gerald Weibel, M.C. (1983. October). Use the publicGraff (1992), the leading historian of the pro- library with adult literacy students. Journal of fession, the departments are clearly feeling Reading. 27. 62-65. Wigginton. E. (Ed.). (1970. The fovfire hook."an obligation to do better than we have in Garden City. NY: Anchor. clarifying the implications of our work to stu- dents and other lay audiences" (p. 356). In the Dayton (Ohio) Literacy Project, we have been developing strategies to fulfill this obligation by applying the resources of the General University of Dayton, especially the various skills of faculty and students in the Depart- Teaching ment of English, to improve literacy in the Methodology local community. At the same time, and even more fundamentally, we have tried to demon- strate that the most traditional of English departments can redefine itself, and restruc- Poetry in the Adult ture its curriculum. in terms of community needs. In the process. we have learned that even those skills that are usually assumed to Literacy Class be especially esotericlike the reading and teaching of "great poetry" can. in fact, be used to address the most urgent literacy issues. BRIAN CONNIFF Our program began in the fall of 1992. CHAD BORTLE with the aid of a University of Dayton Urban MATTHEW F. JOSEPH Fellowship received by Brian Conniff and DECEMBER 1993JANUARY 1994 Betty Youngkin for the purpose of integrating direct literacy work with more conventional coursework. During one meeting each week. lasting 2 hours and 45 minutes, University of In a recent review of new hooks on litera-Dayton undergraduates act as literacy men- cy, Patricia B izzel I (1991) writes thattors for women who are enrolled in Adult many faculty in American uni;ersit Basic Education (ABE) classes in the city of English departments are currently "talk-Dayton and receiving Aid to Families with ing about literacy because we are having aDependent Children. collective identity crisis about being English All of the participantsABE women. teachers" (p. 316). Faced in recent years withundergraduates, and facultytake part in a a series of budget cuts and a wide range ofvariety of activities involving the reading and attacks from within (Bic, )m. 1987: Kimball,writing of different literary genres. including 1990) and without (Bennett, 1984: Cheney,poetry, short stories.horror stories, autobiog- 1990). many English departments have foundraphy, children's literature. and group stories. themselves explaining their missions in termsThe activities are designed to introduce the

1 12(i.. ABE women to a great variety of literary gen- Eleanor was horn on March 25,1941. in res, so they can begin to reconceive literacyNatasulga. Alabama to a sharecropper. in the broadest possible terms, and to provideRobert. and his wife, Addie. She was the them with frequent opportunities to expandsixth of seven children in a poor but loving their own writing skills. At some point infamily. and she was usually the one who kept each exercise, the undergraduates providethe peace between her siblings. One of her individual tutoring. older sisters taught her how to read and write. At a separate session each week, the under- When Eleanor was 16. her parents separat- graduates and faculty meet to discuss theed, and she went to live with her mother. week's literacy work, as well as assignedBefore long, however, her mother had prob- readings on literacy and related issues. Ourlems making ends meet and sent her to live first semester's assignments included Liveswith her older sister in Dayton, Ohio. It was on the Boundary by Mike Rose (1989). Illit-at this time that Eleanor stopped going to erate America by Jonathan Kozol (1985). Or-school in order to watch her sister's babies ality and Literacy by Walter Ong (1991). andwhile her sister was working. Women's Ways of Knowing by Mary Belenky By 1959. at age 18. Eleanor was married. and her associates (1986). The class discus-working, and raising a son of her own. In sions are wide ranging but always attempt to1964. her marriage ended in divorce, and she relate academic readings to the students'retained custody of her son. She was laid off direct work as literacy mentors. In addition.in 1982 and has been dependent on welfare undergraduates and faculty collaborate onever since. research projects directly relevant to the Today. Eleanor is a single mother with a ongoing literacy work. second child. a 14-year-old daughter. living at The overall goals of the program are tohome. She is active in her church and is final- build the ABE women's self-esteem, especial-ly getting a chance to continue her education. ly with regard to reading and writing: to helpShe has high goals for the future: She would them develop strategies for coping with real- like to marry again, raise a family. earn her life literacy problems like taking the GeneralGED, go to college, and get a job that will Equivalency Diploma (GED) exam and pass-allow her to support herself and her daughter. ing a driver's test: and to introduce them to In Eleanor's first written exercise. a life the world of literature. story composed during the first 2 weeks of our program, her writing was full of organiza- Eleanor tional and grammatical problems. She demon- One ABE student who demonstrated a sig-strated little ability to organize her writing in nificant level of improvement in her writingany way other than chronological sequence. skills over the initial 12-week period of ourand even within this basic narrative frame- literacy program was Eleanor Simpson (notwork, she seemed to have no clear sense of her real name). Alter interviewing Eleanordeveloping conflict or resolution. Her para- and reading the life story she wrote during thegraphs typically consisted of two or three second week of our program. we were able tosentences, with little command of the sen- assemble a brief biography that provides atence as a unit of thought: sense of the difficulties and motivations that I got married and got a job at 19ears of age brought her to us. had a bah ho, name James. I staed married

.. 127.. -`) ') for 5 vearc got a divorce and I've been single know how to treat a husband they do not since 1964. In 1978 I got Pregnant with my come with instructions.- daughter. tri. son 21 year older than she is. Despite all her writing's surface errors, and 1 got laid off from work 1982 that when I got no matter how difficult the events she de- welfare and still there but I knoss some dav scribed might seem to have been, her life story will a job to he self sufficient. never lapsed into remorse or resignation. In Her difficulties distinguishing compoundthis sense, she was able to exert a high degree wordslaidoff and some daysuggestedof control over her story: her problem as a that she was composing from rememberedwriter was that this control was not often speech rather than reading. When the separa-exerted at the level of conventional grammar tion of words could not be determined byor academic rhetoric. soundthat is, when two words had been%lolling with Poetry heard together so often that they seemed to he The actual complexity of Eleanor's lan- oneshe would write them as one. A single guage became more apparentand her abili- word that was likely to be spoken more slow-ty to use her writing as an instrument of ly, or with some separation for emphasis.reflection reached a new stagethe first time would probably he written as two. we worked with poetry. During the fifth week Even though our prewriting exercisesof our program, we read aloud Wallace constructing collages from magazine clip-Stevens's "Thirteen Ways of Looking at a pingsinvited each ABE student to envisionBlackbird" and examined a few of the ways his or her life "as it is now" and "as you see itin which Stevens suggests it is possible to in the future," Eleanor's narrative focusedlook at a blackbird: as "the only moving exclusively on her past. When her story reach-thing- amidst "twenty snowy mountains." as ed the present. it came to an abrupt end.a metaphor for a state of mind, as the moving though not without a closing declaration ofedge of "one of many circles," as the source faitl in her eventual triumph: "I know oneof musical "inflections" and "innuendoes," day I will have victory in the things I wantand so on (Stevens, 1982, pp. 92-94). out of Life a family a home, a car and Love Next, we exercised our own abilities to this is my Life.- view an object from many perspectives. We Regardless of all its departures from stan-placed an abstract metal sculpturea collec- dard written English, Eleanor's story was intion of mostly triangular shapes. bent in many other respects highly sophisticated. Through-directions and playfully paintedin the mid- out, it involved a high degree of moral reflec-dle of the room. Orally, we practiced "ways tion. Early on. she told how as a child sheof looking at a work of art.'' The .-Xl3t: students was the peacemaker in a troubled family, andwere immediately engaged: They saw the near the end she explained that she views hersculpture as a group of whales diving into the religious faith as a call to share the one thingocean. a tropical island with palm trees, a she always has. "not a lot of money but my tidal wave, a pile of junk from the city streets. salt'" At times, Eleanor also demonstrated a Finally, each of us wrote an imitation of striking ability to control the tone of her writ-Stevens's poem. using the method for teach- ing with wit: "Is./1y marriage didnt go verying "great poetry- to children described by well but the next time I get married I willKenneth Koch in Rose. II*hereDid You Gel

13.. 128.. That Red? (1974 ).We began with a "poetry scene. All color has unfolded and idea," the kind of suggestion Koch used to its time to go and rest. We encourage his students to write "poems of all need a rest from our labor. their own in some way like the poems they The trees are so different in the rver.e. studying" (pp. 3-4). For "Thirteen fall, the wind blov,ing leaves On the ground. Oh what Ways," we took our poetry idea directly from Beautiful colors all around. Koch's hook: "Write a poem in which you look at the same thing in a number of differ- Her finished poem shows remarkably little ent ways" (p. 116). We placed no limit ca theevidence of revision, only a couple of correc- choice of subjects: we merely provided as ations of subject and verb agreement and a starting point a fill-in-the-blanks formula:correction of or to our in the middle stanza Ways of Looking at a and these minor changes were the only stages Eleanor entitled her first draft "5 Ways ofin her composition in which she seems to looking at a Piece of Art." She finished onlyhave received any help from the college stu- the first two ways: dents. The first and third stanzas were written 1) On the edge of the water front I saw twoin a single draft, with no revision. whale tails one small a one large The various poetic techniquesrhyme. 2) 1 saw the spinning top on the other side stanza. repetition, parallel construction, excla- The "whale tails." like the "Piece of Art"mationhad no sources in "Thirteen Ways of in her title, were taken directly from the classLooking at a Blackbird" or in our group dis- discussion. Below this initial sketch, shecussion. They were Eleanor's own attempts to made a brief try at a third way"I was inmake her writing "poetic." Most impressive, 3"which she then crossed out. Next, sheperhaps, was her use of stanzas to move from tried revising her first way. apparently forthe first person singular, focusing on personal more poetic phrasing: "On the water frontlonging: to the first person plural, suggesting looking into the water/ I saw two whale."an identification with the flower and a univer- Before long. however. she blackened out bothsal need for rest: and finally to the apparent the beginning and the end of her title, "5 third person speaker of the last stanza. helping Ways" and "Piece of Art." In effect, she man-to create a sense of losing the self, and the aged to revise her way back to the start: Allburdens of labor. in the beauty of nature. she had left was "of looking at." In a more conventional basic education Then Eleanor turned to a new page tosetting., this shifting focus might be viewed begin a new poem. This time. all she man-and, if it were written in prose. it certainly aged was a title: "4 ways of looking a life."would be viewedas grammatical inconsis- Again, she turned the page. tency, or as a lack of coherence. But within On her third try, Eleanor finally arrived atthe stanzaic structure of Eleanor's poem, it is the topic that wouil result in a completeclearly something more important. More than poem: anything else, the achievement of a universal Three ways of looking at the Autumn.- voice, "we all need a rest from our labor," is 'Fite moon is Orange and bright. the beginning of an attempt, on the one hand,

Is under where you are tonight. to remove herself from the tyranny of the that's hoseI feel under the har est moon. pastthe past she never really escaped in her The flower shows its last life storyand, on the other hand, to see her

.. 129.. 34 struggles as eery much like those of every-Toni Cade Bamhara herself, Eleanor's was body else. particularly revealing. She thanked Bambara for coming, added that she had told her chil- :111 of E s Are Ilriters dren about the visit, and mentioned that the Eleanor's variation on a "great" poem. likequestions asked by the students "didn't seem so much of our work with ABE women. hasto come out just right." confirmed many of our hopes for our pro- But far more importantly, she wrote. "We gram. At no time was this confirmation moredidn't know we were writers until you told us clear than in the third week of our program. (smile)." when Toni Cade Bambara came to the univer- Perhaps that is the best explanation for sity as guest writer for our Scholars program.how poetry has worked in our literacy pro- The week before her arrival we read and dis- gramand how it should be able to work in cussed the short story "My Man Bovanne" many others. ABE instructors and other litera- from her early collection Gorilla. A/1y Lovecy volunteers should not give in to the tradi- (1981). Then. we arranged for Bambara to tional belief, held most of all in the university. visit our literacy project in the spare hourthat poetry is a particularly elevated literary between the arrival of her plane and hergenre, above and beyond the comprehension scheduled dinner. of ABE students. Eleanor's poem demon- For their writing assignment that week. strates that poetry can enhance the reading with the help of the college students, the ABEand writing skills of lower level readers. at women had prepared a list of questions to ask the same time that it helps them develop the the "real live author" when she arrived.confidence with language necessary to Eleanor's questions were typical. Mostly. become better readers and writers. they focused on the process of becoming a Poetry can provide a rare opportunity for a writer: How old were you when you started student like Eleanor to act like a writer. When writing? How much of you is in your stories? she wrote a poem of her own. she put in Who has inspired you to put your experiences rhymes and stanzas, not because they were in into writing? the model we provided. and not because she When she arrived, Bambara told our group was instructed to do so. but because that is about the first "real writers" she had met as a child in Harlem: her neighbor Langstonhow she imagined a poet is supposed to work. Hughes, who would sit in the children's sec-And so she assumed a control over her lan- tion at the public library and talk with theguage that could no longer he considered local kids, and Gwendolyn Brooks. whoremedial. At least for a while, she allowed came one day to read at the YMCA. Then sheherself to be a poet. told us that we. too. all of us, are writers: in References our spare moments, at least, we all compose Bamhara. T.C. (1981). Gorilla. my love. Ness York: stories of people we see riding the bus, doing Random House. laundry. walking down the street. Belenky. Xt.. Clinehy, B., Goldberger. N.. & Eleanor never did ask her questions, Tarulc. J. ( 19861. Womcn'sWayS Ofknowin,Q. New York: Basic. though several of the other ABE studentsBennett. W.J.( 19841. To reclaim a le ca( V. asked similar ones. But the next week. when Washington. DC: National Endow meat for the one of our assignments was to write a letter to Humanities.

..1 :3().. Bizzell, P. (1991). Professing literacy: A review essay.Journal of Advanced Composition. 2. General 315-321. Bloom. A. (1987).The closing of the American Teaching mind.New York: Simon. Cheney. L.V. (1990). Tyrannical machines. Methodology Washington, DC: National Endowment for the Humanities. Graff. G. (1992). The scholar in society. In J. Garibaldi (Ed.),Introduction to scholarship in modern languages and literatures(pp. 343-367). Consumer Advocacy, New York: Modern Language Association. Kimball. R. (1990).Tenured radicals.New York: Harper. Empowerment, and Koch. K. (l 974 ).Rose. where did you get that red?: Teaching great poetry to children. New York: Vintage. Adult Literacy Kozol. J. (1985).Illiterate America. Nev.York: New American Library. Ong, W. (1991).Orality and literacy.New York: Routledge. Rose. M. (1989).Lire.% on the boundary. New LA VERGNE ROSOW York: Penguin. Stevens. W. (1982).The collected poemA. New DECEMBER 1990JANUARY 1991 York: Random House.

4 his woman used hairlong pro- 6w vitamin lotion. She used because she think her hair it is grow in just one week. For me it is falsehood so miny people buy this prod- ucts theirs are think this produts it is good in my opion it not good." As she critiqued a nationally distributed ad for a lotion that claims to give "lovelier. longer, fuller hair in just one week," Maria (proper names of all students have been changed). who aspires to beauty-shop owner- ship, was changing her outlook on how she should advertise some day. She looked criti- cally at the content of an ad that called for US$6.95 to make a wish come true and began to identify a kind of victimization with which she wanted no future association. By analyzing an ad she had selected, arri\ ing at her own conclusions, and expressing

.. 131.. 1 3 6 them in her own words, Maria was gainingRationale for Implementing the power through literacy that would not haveProgram been possible by means of a traditional. The lack of teaching materials available to teacher-centered writing assignment. She was me led most directly to my decision to use engaged in a series of exercises that employads and promotions to teach my students. But the learner as critic. it seemed to me that in this case necessity Because the media tend to repeat conven-generated an effective teaching device. tional ideology (Brookfield. 1986) rather thanThrough the use of junk mail. I was able to raise questions about it. and because commer-instruct my students not only in English but cial promotions are designed more to con-also in the basics of consumer advocacy and vince than to inform, consumers like MariaAmerican civics. need to learn how to ask their own questions. Upon reflection. I realized that teaching They must be given the power to analyze the consumer advocacy fit in well with current information that influences each day they livethought on learning theory. in a literate society. Indeed. consumer educa- 1. It addresses the affective domain by giv- tion must be part of education for all citizens. ing credit to the learner for all she or he Maria was a student in my night class ofbrings to the fore. multilingual multicultural teens and adults. 2. It employs background information in all at diffe,it levels in learning English.the grounding of a new literacy activity. There was official set of civics books as- 3. It starts at the level of the learner, allow- signed for use in class only, but it was beinging for the assimilation of new information used by another teacher in another building.(Krashen. 1985a). The students were free to buy their own 4. It is relevant and useful in content copies but the shipment had not yet arrived at(Eskey. 1986; Krashen, 1988: Smith. I986a the bookstore. That left an expensive, skills- 19864 based English grammar workbook. owned by 5. It gives meaningful. useful thinking strategies that will outlast any formal class only a few students. as the sole possible class ( Eskey & Grabe, 1988: Freire, 1984). text. 6. It encourages the risk-taking that is Analysis of television programming essential to cognitive development (Good- seemed like a good way to promote critical imin, 1986; Harste. Woodward, & Burke. thinking, so I signed up for the school's 1984; Rosow. 1988 & 1989). media services. Then I found that video 7. It allows learners to structure responses equipment in operating order was not evenand to use words that express what is impor- available to instructors. The time-consumingtant to them. That's empowerment! process of trying to make poorly maintained machines run and tapes turn was frustratingTeachhig Consumer Literacy for students and teacher. My change of attitude from needy to In a desperate attempt at giving my stu-endowed caused an undeniable change of dentssomethingto analyze. and as a way ofluck. Free teaching aids suddenly began to awakening consumer advocacy. i began toarrive from all over the country. Among other introduce newspapers and junk mail promo-things. I received a mailer telling me that I'd tions in class. won a car and another terrific prize (though the fine print stated "one gift per vehicle").Should I write my congressman, the Better All I had to do, according to the congratulato-Business Bureau. the Chamber of Commerce, ry letter, was go to a villa resort (3 hours fromor the police? I was prepared to follow the my home), hear a 90-minute sales pitch, takeadvice of my students. a tour of the resort with an authorized repre- The purpose was not to get even with the sentative, "meet the conditions of eligibilityresort for wasting my time: it was to give my listed on the enclosed," and then turn in mystudents an inside view of active, critical, lucky number. empowered citizenship. They were not ready I called to verify that I'd won and recordedfor action. They told me to throw the trash in the conversation for my students to hear thatthe trashcan. night. I photocopied material, enlarging the This exercise proved to be the start of an fine print I'd discovered on a very small pieceincubation period. A week later the class was of paper that was tossed in the envelope. given a variety of Ty guides and grocery store It took a number of replays of the tape fortabloids from which to select and cut out ads my students to understand how, throughto critique. The object was to empowerand carefully worded dialogue and skillfullyat the same time to gain the language and mumbled phrases. I had not only been led toskills that come from reading interesting think I'd won the car but also US$5,000.materials. Together we read and scrutinized the letter. This was no trick. Mahon (1986) suggests Several times I was asked if it was real. if Iexplaining theory to learners. At least once a really had won the car, if I might not lose myweek I explained the graphs in a Krashen chance by telling what happened. Clearly.study or discussed a Frank Smith quote. And there was some doubt about my ability tomy students were reminded regularly that read English! Through this process, I washigh interest reading leads to painless learn- able to introduce to the class the notion ofing of vocabulary, spelling., and punctuation consumer advocacy. (Krashen, 1985b). We discussed the natural trust many people put in a celebrity or other. familiar person. WeCritiques and Changing Attitudes sidetracked into why incumbents win elec- As critic, the learner engages in a deliber- tions, regardless of record. We talked aboutate process of questioning textnot idly ask consumer fraud. mail fraud, misrepresenta-ing does it want me to think?" but tion. rights. freedoms. and honesty. We lookedrather "What do I think about it?" and "What up the 1.vords jive.winner. eligibility,andnullis missing here?" This can provoke a shift of and void.We talked about what a time-shareattitude and prompt action. For discussions "investment" really means. (Time share wasof literacy and power, see, for instance. what was really being promoted in the mail-Kozol, 1985: Luke, 1986: McLeod, 1986: ing i received.) Rist, 1970: and Rosow. 1989). Though math was not in my curriculum. Ellie. a farm worker, selected a quarter- we worked out the cost per week for a "mini-page ad, most of which was filled with a mal" investment. And, using the enlargedclose-up photograph of a slim, trim, barely copies of the fine print, we were able toclad female rear end that ostensibly promoted examine the odds of ". inning anything desir-a cellulite-reducing cream. "It's a fraud and able. (The odds on the car were 1in 100,000.) lie." she reported. She knew someone who had spent hundreds of dollars on the US$10 ation articles I bring in for him each week. jar product. Though he believes the translation he does of The notion that consumers should activelythem is teaching him English, I'm hoping the respond to being cheated had sent her beyondtheoretical messages will begin to impress the dictionary and into the thesaurus. I %, ashim. I believe that understanding the theory unable to collect that assignment from herbehind schoolwork encourages the student to because she was still expressing her opiniontake an active part in the learning process. when it was time to leave. Tired though sheThis is not underhandedI told him what my was every evening, she wanted to take thismotivation was. home for further work. Of a lottery ad, he wrote. "When I read this Lee, a meat cutter who hates his work.anounces ofert this information I thing is selected an ad for a psychic astrologer whoposible what existing person credulity and promised to assist people with "money superstition yet. I'm sceptic. I thing is imposi- health- love" problems. "I think this kind ofble get money and happened playing lotto ad: it is the last way to solve these problems and other sistem aparently easy. Only work- and the most wrong way by telephone.- ing and learning we are happy.- Weeks later he gave a more elaborate cri- Though these students are still struggling tique of a product: "I found something wrong to learn English, they are not without the cog- for the consumer in this add if someone buys the cassette player. They warranty the moneynitive potential for analyzing text. What back in 15 days if no satisfied bat is it not theworked for them was finding authentic text thru because we recibe back only a credit.- material that was familiar to them and held Miguel, a teenager with a troubled past oftheir interest. (No two students worked on the military activity. is eager to he part of a coun-same ad.) Fortified with a notion of what cri- try in which the government does somethingtiquing was about and free to write as much to safeguard its citizenry. Of an ad thator as little as was needed to express their promised riches from the California lotteryopinions, they surprised themselves with their for just USS9.95 he wrote, "This add talkwork. about how can be rich sending name, birth- 1 Different Exercise date, and S9.95. Here in California there are many ads of that way like it mislead. The Even though most of these adult students government of U.S. should take all misleadwere usually very tired by the time they got to ads to not involved the citizen because no isclass, each was encouraged to identify a prod- right.- uct or service she or he might try to sell some Another teenager. Joseph, was always thetime in the future. The task was to write pro- first to want to know more about court casesmotional materials that were both honest and and legal definitions. Of an ad for an as-productive. Those who were comfortable trologer who takes payment via credit cards.attempting full sentences were free to elabo- Joseph w rote. "NI, opinion in this ad is: thisrate: those who wanted to fall hack on simple people are trainig to get victim and misleadphrases or single words could also complete them.'' ads. As always. they were free to refer to ear- George, a milk ersil!, -trained artist. eagerlylier lessons, ads, the dictionary, thesaurus. or uvaits the photocopies of language acquisi- amother reference source they could find.

139.. 1:i 1.. Though these ads documented linguisticdocument. they participated actively. Text advancement. most of them lacked polish:analysis provided an avenue for ongoing self- they were dreadfully honest and flat. Still.teaching that could be done long after the these students were advancing on multipleteacher and the school were out of the picture. fronts simultaneously. They were reading in When one man, who was often absent English, interpreting not only the languagebecause of his work and had to return to but legal and ethical implications in ways theyMexico before the end of the term, came to had never done before. and they were writingsay goodbyt . he wanted me to know that he about new ideas. using new vocabulary. had begun to spend 10 minutes of his lunch Part of the moral here is that educationeach day reading the paper. Remembering takes time: when things don't develop onthat I regularly asked for input on what was schedule, they may need more time (Krashen.working in class and what wasn't. he wanted 1982). And that applies to nearly every stu-me to be sure to keep reminding students to dent nearly every term. Only by an occasionalread 10 minutes a day. "It's good," he told tluke do arbitrary timeframes fit individualme. "It's help me a lot. It's some mislead. but learners. I thing it's good.- Fortunately, in many adult education class-Empowerment Doesn't Just Happen es, the disempowering process of grading the students' products has been discarded. Empowering attitudes must he discovered Obviously, grading products of the cognitiveand rediscovered. I'm not trying to peddle process teaches nothing. discourages risk-tak-these particular activities: they were right. at ing. and insults both the learner and the educa-this time, for these learners. It is up to each tional process. People want to learn as muchteacher to determine anew what will work in as they can: no external motivators are neces-each situation. to the maximum benefit for sary or even beneficial. Judging from the level each class. of interest and the peer support that was devel- Asking the question "Why am I using this oping for even the least vocal students in theparticular lesson?" can help stave off inappro- class. I believe that 2 more weeks of analysispriate. restrictive programming. I had begun of good ads could have fostered a verbally and this term intending to use Tv analysis as a ethically strong corps of entrepreneurs. method of instruction. I had to meet anew the As it was, the thinking had moved fromtruisms that again seem so clear: Much of buyer to seller. from passive to opinioned.what we do as educators is designed to fit The students now understood that they hadstereotypical formats, rigid timeframes, fa- unique and valuable perspectives on themiliar assignments, and limited. disempower- world and began to view themselves asing expectations. It took the serious notion of bringers of change. personally. and publicly. authentic text application to make me see a new level of potential in my students. Empovwring 111iludes Outside the Of course, the experiment could have Classroom failed. It was risky to move away from safe. I eventually had to fall back on the cheap-controllable. rote drills and contrived pattern est of texts: newsprint. When my studentspractice into exercises in applied citiienship. saw that I expected them to behave as think- But, viewing the classroom as an experimen- ing. literate adults who had important ideas total stationa safe haven w here people can

..35.140 think things through without getting, hurt andhard-sell demonstration that had taken place can express opinions freelyfosters confi-under the guise of winning a surprise trip, she dence in both teacher and student. had not bought the USS1.500 vacuum clean- In the protected environment of the class-erand I don't think she plans to be on the room. we can take risks in teaching that allowbus tour to Las Vegas either. our students the latitude to take risks in think- References ing. When we share our own reasons and re- Brookfield. S. (1986). Media power and the devel- servations, we allow our students to see that opment of media literacy: An adult educational the solutions to problems are always tentative interpretation. Harvard Educational Review. and that we must work cooperatively to suc- 56(2). 151-170. ceed. The learner who assumed the job of Eskey. D.E. (1986). Theoretical foundations. In F. Dubin, D.E. Eskey. & W. Grabe (Eds.), critic also assumed the position of authority. Teaching second language reading for academ- We thereby give our students the power to ic purposes. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley. develop independently by resisting the urge Eskey. D.E.. & Grahe. W. (1988). Interactive mod- to control how much, how fast, and in what els for second language reading: Perspectives on direction that development will go. Power is instruction. In P.L. Carrell. J. Devine. & E. Eskey (Eds.). Interactive approaches to second having the strength and ability to design language reading. Cambridge, England: questions from conventional givens and the Cambridg.e. University Press. courage to let the answers change over time. Freire. P. (1984). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New Only educators who have power can give York: Continuum. power. Those who are able to take risks and Goodman. K. (1986). What's whole in whole lan- to challenge the obvious must define and guage. Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann Educational. Harste, J.C., Woodward. V.C.. & Burke. C. (1984). redefine the line between caregiver and liber- Language stories and literacy lessons. Ports- ator. For those who are up to it. for those who mouth. NH: Heinemann Educational. discover how to give power away. there is aKozo,. J. (1985). Illiterate America. New York: limitless supply. There is enough power for New American Library. every student every day. Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in ACC- mul language acquisition. Oxford. England: Postscript Pergamon. Krashen. S. (1985a). The input hypothesis: Issues Over the holidays. I was invited to the and implications. White Plains, NY: Longman. home of one of my students. When I arrived. Krashen. S. (1985h). Inquiries and insights. a vacuum salesman was ending what must Hayward. CA: Menially. have been a very long pitch. A tower of mer- Krashcn. S. (1988. Fall ). Notes from University of chandise was piled in the livingroom. Then Southern California lectures. Luke. A. (1986). Linguistic stereotypes. the dix er- my hostess was offered her choice of five gent speaker and the teaching of literacy. sealed envelopes. Hers contained a coupon Journal (I'Curriculum Studies, 18(4). 397-408. for an overnight bus tour to Las Vegas. In Mahon. I). 119861. Intermediate skills: Focusing on complicated language the fine print said par- reading rate des elopment. In F. Dubin. D.E. ticipants had to restrict their holiday to the Eskey. & W. Grahe (Eds.). Teaching second casinos assigned by the tour company. language reading for academicpterpo5e5 Reading. NIA: Addison-Wesley. After the salesman left, she explained to McLeod, A. ( 1986). Critical literacy: Taking con- me "Is mislead. He sa, no sell nothing...he trol of our oven lies. /Auteumx Arty, 63(I t. say no time...he mislead.- After an extensiveRist. R. (1971)1. Student social class and teacher 141 1:;() expectations: The self-fulfilling prophecy in materials published for adult basic education ghetto education. Harvard Educational Review. (ABE) students are hits and pieces selected to 40(3). teach specific reading skills such as finding Rosow, L. (1988). Adult illiterates offer unexpected cues into the reading process. Journal ofthe main idea. recognizing details, and under- Reading. 32(2). 120-124. standing inference. ABE teachers who want Rosow. L. (1989). Arthur: A tale of disempower- their students to read whole books of fiction ment. Phi Delta Kappan.7113). 194-199. have a problemnot much is published for Smith. F. (1986a). Insult to intelligence: Thethe mature adult reading at third-, fourth-. bureaucratic invasion of our classrooms. New and fifth-grade levels. So what are ABE teach- York: Arbor House. Smith. F. (1986b). ers to do? Hillsdale. NJ: Erlhaum. Benefits of Reading Good Fiction Of course some may ask, "Why should ABE students read fictiongood. bad, or indifferent? How will reading Charles General Dickens's Great Expectations. for example. help students read medicine bottle labels, job Tea c hin g training manuals. and tax forms?" Me t h o do logy One answer to this legitimate question is to look at the reasons why adults enroll in ABE classes. In 325 face-to-face interviews with randomly selected ABE students across Iowa, Beder and Valentine (1990) identified 10 rea- Using Classic 'Novels sons why U.S. adults participate in federal adult basic education programs. The four fac- with Adult 1\eyv tors ranked most highly were (1) educational advancement ("I want to prove to myself that Readers 1 can finish school"). (2) self.- improvement ("I want to feel better about myself," "he more intelligent"), (3) literacy development (read- ing, writing. and speaking skills), and (4) community and church involvement ("1 want JANE MCCABE SCHIER1,OH to be able to read the Bible better"). MAY 1992 The seventh ranked factor was diversion, which was rated most highly by older stu- dents. In Beder and Valentine's view "this factor...suggests that some learners participate Whole language proponentsin ABE, not for its instrumental value. but argue that students with mini-because it represents a constructive way to mal literacy skills should hespend one's time." reading whole selections of The implications of this study are that \ni well written literature, not "bits and pieces"students have much broader educational ((tmdman. 1086). 1.1(m el. er, most readinggoals than day-to-day survival or job readi-

I 17 142 ness. Reading literature can benefit studentsWhen the center was set up as an experimen- who have diverse goals. It is essential fortal ABE program in1985with startup funding those who choose to finish school by passingfrom local foundations and the Cleveland the General Equivalency Diploma (GED) testsPublic Schools, one of its major goals was to (indeed, one of the five subtests of the GED isoffer ABE classes specially tailored to the called Interpreting Literature and the Arts).needs of students who had completed a Reading literature also can help students feelbeginning adult literacy course called the better about themselves. Additionally, it de-Laubach Way to Reading (Laubach, Kirk, & velops their reading and writing skills,Laubach,1981).Those of us who designed improves their ability to read the Bible, andand taught the classes saw our role as helping most assuredly it provides diversion. adult new readers make the transition from Most important, reading, fiction is justone-to-one tutoring to small group instruc- plain fun, especially when the experience istion, and from primarily controlled-vocabu- shared with others. This is not a minor point.lary reading materials to uncontrolled-vocab- If reading is not enjoyable, students do notulary pre-GED materials on fourth- to read (Allington, 1977). And if they do noteighth-grade levels. read frequently, they do not become fluent, Naturally I became concerned when I skillful readers. noticed that a disproportionate number of stu- Advocates of literature-based instructiondents at lower reading levels were dropping point out other benefits of reading literature.out of classes. I suspected that the reading It can teach critical thinking (Commeyras.materials we were using were too difficult for 1989).It can be a natural springboard to writ-adult new readers. My observations of their ing (Atwell, 1987). It can help students devel-oral reading convinced me that they needed op background knowledge. particularly in theconsiderable practice reading materials at social studies (Brozo & Tomlinson,1986). third- and fourth-grade levels with uncon- And finally, as this article will show.trolled vocabularies in order to gain fluency. mature adult students should read wholespeed. and the confidence to take risks in pre- hooks of well written fiction because they dicting unknown words. have the capacity and experience needed to Unfortunately, we lacked a variety of well relate to the universal experiences captured inwritten materials appropriate to their needs great classic literature. Although their literacy and especially their mature interests, so I skills are limited, their life experiences arebegan a search. I found very few books of deep and sophisticated. interest to adults. Most books were aimed pri- marily at adolescents. They featured fast cars Problem > Idea and sports stars. But few of our students were Like many instructional innovations. thisyoung people. Most were in their 30s and one began in response to a problemtoo40s, and a sizeable number were retired men many students reading at third- and fourth-and women in their 60s and 70s who showed grade levels were dropping out of An classespolite indifference to much of the fiction and in our reading center. nonfiction geared to young people. The Downtown Adult Reading Center is a After extensive searching I noticed some program of Project: \RN, an adult literacyattractive adapted or abridged versions of organization located in Cleveland. Ohio.classic noels. My first reaction was positive.

4 3..1 38.. Some of these little books were interestingone student said, "Once in a while you lose and readable. But my second reaction wasme, but in a few seconds I find whereyou negative. They came close to being simplyare.- plot summaries, the type high school and col- We were encouraged by this development lege students use who want to pass a testbecause when students listen to a teacher without reading the assigned novel. The char-read aloud. they become actively involved in acters were rather flat and one dimensional.language at its best (Trelease, 1985). Fur- Out of necessity. the writers had omittedthermore, they see a skillful reader modeling some of the authors' themes in order to reducefluency. phrasing, and dramatic expressive- the 400-page novels to 100 pages or less.ness. Sadder yet, they had been forced to sacrifice There were a number of scenes in Treasure much of the authors' rich, powerful language.Island (1947) that lent themselves well to oral For example, the passionate love scene inreading. One that held us in the grip of excite- Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë that has stirredment and fear was the scene in which Jim, the the hearts of millions of readers was reducedyoung boy who narrates this pirate tale, is to "I love you, Jane. I love youonly you.attacked by Israel Hands, one of the pirates, And I shall love you forever." and fights desperately for his life. The scene Suddenly, it struck me that if I read aloudbegins like this: to students short excerpts from the original Perhaps I had heard a creak. or seen his shadow novels on which the adaptations were based, I moving with the tail of my eye: perhaps it was could give students at least a taste of the read- an instinct like a cat's, but sure enough. when I ing experience in store for able readers. Ex- looked round, there was Hands, already halfway cerpts could be chosen that would add the de- toward me. with the dirk in his right hand. tails necessary to make a character come For a few minutes all of us were that ai to introduce or develop a theme, or to illustrate the language of the writer anddefenseless young boy facing a pirate with a demonstrate its power to move the reader. "If"bloodstained dirk" in his upraised hand. reading aloud to children is so effective." IOnly our wits could save us from a violent death. reasoned. "why not read aloud to adults?" Seeing that I meant to dodge. he also paused: Classroom Experiences and a moment or two passed in feints on his My colleagues and I began the experiment part and corresponding movements upon mine. using an adaptation of Robert Louis It was such a game as I often played at home Stevenson's Treasure Island (1973) with about the rocks of Black Hill Cos e: but never before. you may he sure. NN ith such a s ildly three groups of 8 to 10 students each. At the beating heart as no%% close of the first class session, we asked stu- dents for their suggestions. They said that Students who tended lu read a word at a they preferred to have copies of the excerptstime were pulled along by the teacher's in front of them so that they could read alongvoice and forced to read in rapid fluent with the teacher's voice. phrases. and those who read in a flat monot- The second day we followed up on theirone without attention to meaning learned suggestion. Our concern that they wouldn'thits a good reader translates print intoan he able to follow along Foxed groundless.As exciting experience.

..I: 144 My other concern about asking students toto Treasure Island, we decided to try an adap- read a 92-page novel was the problem of con-tation of Jane Eyre (1987). Jane Eyre was an tinuity. Because of our open enrollment poli-even greater favorite. The abuse Jane endured cy, new students enter the class continually.as an unwanted child in her aunt's home Furthermore, because of illness, family prob-touched their hearts. They were curious about lems, and financial needs, students are fre-the unfolding mystery of the screams in the quently absent. Would students lose track ofattic, and they were moved by the passionate the plot, become discouraged, drop out oflove story of Jane and Mr. Rochester. They class? got into a lively debate about whether Mr. Quite the contrary: students becameRochester should have concealed from Jane intrigued by the unfolding story. It was ratherthe fact that he was already married. The like watching the soap operas on television.debate resulted in some interesting pieces of One could miss an episode or two and still writing. remain involved with the characters and plot. Our next choice was an adaptation of And as with the soaps. one could becomeCharles Dickens's Great Expectations. Our addicted. For instance, we noticed that somestudents identified with Pip's desire to escape of our books were disappearing. One particu-from the working class to become an educat- lar day students had to share copies of theed gentleman in London. Several African- book because five copies were missing. PatAmerican women in their early 70s had spent T., a woman in her late 20s, came late tomost of their lives cleaning buildings at night class, slipped into her seat, and sheepishlyand caring for their children during the day. pulled a copy of Treasure Island out of herThese children, now grown, are teachers, hook bag. "I'm sorry." she said, "I just had tolawyers, and business people. Other students know how it came out." in their 30s and 40s were trapped in dead-end To solve our continuity problem, we bor-jobs that required back-breaking labor. And rowed an idea from the soaps. We began eachsome of our students could no longer work class with a brief review of the plot to date.those back-breaking jobs because of back This brought on board students who had been injuries, heart trouble, and high blood pres- absent as well as students who were new tosure. All of these students believed, like Pip. the program. It also refreshed the memory ofthat education is the way out of poverty. those who were in class the previous session At the same time, however, they foresaw in a way reminiscent of the introductory syn-the hazar6 of this climb from one social opses used in 11: serials. class to another. "Money changes people," As the weeks went by, we slipped into athey said and shook their heads sadly when comfortable routine that accomplished somethey read that Pip became ashamed of the of our reading objectives: (a) quick review ofgood people hack home who loved him for the plot, (b) silent reacting of a chapter. (c)what he was, not for what he had. This major discussion, (d) pronunciation of unfamiliartheme led to a discussion on the problems as words, (e) oral reading and discussion, (f)well as the benefits of improving one's edu- reading of an excerpt from the original novel.cation and socio-economic status. (g) discussion of a writing question, and (h) "Some people 'get theirs' and never look writing. hack." some said. "They think they're better Encouraged by students' positive reactionsthan other people...

145..110.. "But you can't blame them for wanting toGuidelines for Selecting Adapted get out of the ghetto,- others countered. Nolels One day we read the episode in which Over the past four years my colleagues and Pip's stepfather Joe explains to the boy whyI learned some things about selecting success- he never learned to read and write. We hadful adapted novels. We learned to reject some to abandon the lesson plan that day becauseadaptations on the basis of a single reading. one student after another shared personalSome books force the reader to move too stories of why they hadn't learned to readquickly through complex plots. In others, the when they were children, how they copedcharacters are not developed enough to inter- with their handicap, and why they wereest the reader. or the new characters are intro- grateful for their literacy skills. Threeduced so rapidly that the reader cannot African American women in their 60s andremember them from one page to the next. 70s recalled picking cotton on farms in Here is a passage from a book called King Alabama. "We picked from sunup.- saidArthur and His Knights (1988) that intro- one. and "to sundown!" answered the otherduces seven characters in the first two para- two in chorus. "There wasn't no time forgraphs of the book: school,- they said. A 35-year-old white man asked, "Why are Many years ago Ether fought to make himself king of all England. Tv.o true friends helped people afraid to admit they can't read? It's not him. One was wise Merlin, the famous magi- a shame to admit you can't read. I used to he cian. The other was a great knight and fighter shy to admit it. I was afraid they'd laugh at named Ulfius. At last Ether beat his enemies me and say, 'How did you graduate ?' Now I and became king. tell them the truth and they tell me, 'That is Then Ether married Igraine. a sk idoc.v. She the best thing you can do.' I'm very happy had three daughters. Elaine. Margaret. and Morgan lc Fay... Morgan lc Fay could do more with myself, and now I can read a little better magic than anyone but Merlin. The girls soon than before.- married three kings who had made friends with When we finished the last page of Great Ether. Expectations. one man in his late 30s breathed a deep sigh of satisfaction. "This is the first This is information overload for ABE teach- book I ever finished.- he said. Most of the ers as well as ABE students. students in the group agreed that reading a We had to reject some adaptations because hook from cover to cover was a new experi-they appeared to have been written according ence for them. to a formula for sentence length. Their short. Our plan had been to recycle the hookschoppy. monotonous sentences made com- with new groups of students every year orprehension difficult. The passage from King two. However, so many students stayed inArthur and His Knights above illustrates this our classes for 2. 3, and even 4 years that weproblem. found it necessary to offer additional titles Sentences do not have to he uniformly such as an adaptation of H.G. Wells's scienceshort to he accessible to an adult new reader. fiction classic The Time Machine (IgfiO) andNotice the easy natural flow of the sentences Robert Louis Stevenson's Dr, Jekyll and Mr.in the opening paragraph from an adaptation Hyde (1(P45). Not all adapted novels workedof Kim; So/onion'A A/life\ by 11. Rider out well in the \BF. classroom. however. I laggard tI 976 ). Some Classic Novels 'Used with Adult the hook. The second half proved to be New Readers much more difficult, however, because stu- Bronte, C. (1987). Jane Eyre. Adapted and dents needed to know the complex histo- abridged by S.E. Paces. Belmont, CA: David ry of Bonnie Prince Charlie and the politi- S. Lake. cal intrigue among England, Scotland, and Bronte, C. (1975). Jane Eyre. New York: France. The teacher found herself attempting Oxford. to teach Scottish history to students who had Dickens. C. (1987). Great Expectations. not yet learned to find the United States on a Adapted and abridged by T.E. Bethancourt. world map! Belmont. CA: David S. Lake. We learned that teachers must consider Haggard, H.R. (1976). King Solomon's Mines. Retold by J. Oxley. New York: Oxford. students' background knowledge when select- King Arthur and His Knights. (1988). Adapted ing, a novel. In fact, we found it wise to ask by W. Kottmeyer. New York: Phoenix. several typical students to read the adapted Stevenson, R.L. (1985). Dr. Jekyll and Mr. novel under consideration and to share their Hyde. Adapted and abridged by T.E. reactions with us before we made a final Bethancourt. Belmont, CA: David S. Lake. selection. Stevenson. R.L. (1988). Kidnapped. Adapted and abridged by W. Kottmeyer. New York: Guidelines for Selecting Excerpts Phoenix. We also developed some useful guidelines Stevenson. R.L. ( 1947 ). Treasure Island. New for selecting excerpts from full-length novels. York: Grosset & Dunlap. We found that passages of dialogue were eas- Stevenson, R.L. (1973 ). Treasure Island. ier for students than passages of description. Adapted and abridged by J. Gray. Belmont. The sentences in dialogue passages are short- CA: David S. Lake. Wells. H.G. (1986). The Time Machine. Adapted er: the vocabulary is simpler: and the emo- and abridged by T.E. Bethancourt. Belmont, tional intensity carries the student over a mul- CA: David S. Lake. titude of reading difficulties. Excerpts of scenes involving exciting action are effective. For example, in Treasure Island students enjoy the dramatic scene in It is a curious thing that at my age. and I shall which the pirates attack the stockade. No never he silty again. I should he starting to ,.'e a hook. I %sunder kx hat sort of hook it adapted version can match Stevenson's he woen I have finished, it i ever come to the description of the pirates climbing over the end of 't! (p. wall of the stockade, their daggers in their teeth. Our students do not find such sentences diffi- Excerpts yielding deep insights into a cult. Notice also how the beginning of thismajor character can bring life to otherwise novel arouses the curiosity of the reader. flat characters. A good example is Miss Even adapted novels that pass a firstflavisham's repentance scene in Great inspection can turn out to he a disaster in theExpectations. In this scene. Miss Havisham, classroom. We gave a high rating to an adap-an elderly half-mad woman who has never tation of Kidnapped by Robert Louisrecovered from the shock of being abandoned Stevenson (1988). As we had anticipated,by her fiancé on her wedding day. regrets her the class thoroughly enjoyed the first half oflifetime of bitterness and revenge. She sees

A "I .I 12.. ALi; ( how her selfishness has hurt the two people Brozo, W.G., & Tomlinson. G.M. (1986). Lit- she loves, and she cries repeatedly. "What erature: The key to lively content courses.The have I done? What have I done ?" Reading Teacher. 40.288-293. Commeyras, M. (1989). Using literature to teach We discovered that excerpts need to be critical thinking.Journal of Reading, $2, brief and to be read with as few explanations 703-707. as possible. Since students have already read Goodman, K.S. (1986). 11:har's t/70/ein whole Ian. the adapted versions of the episode, they can izttage?Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann. handle limited exposures to sophisticated Laubach. F.C., Kirk, E.M.. & Laubach, R.S. (1981). The Laubach way to reading. Syracuse. NY: reading material. These readings also provide New Readers Press. an opportunity to teach students that a goodTrelease. J. ( 1985).The read-aloud handbook (rev. reader does not have to know all the words in ed.). New York: Penguin. order to enjoy a story. \o More Snippets Adult new readers and other adult students with minimal reading skills deserve more General than the snippets of storie,, ordinarily served up for them. Unfortunately, however. there Teaching are not enough whole selections of well writ- Methodology ten literature to meet their needs and interests. This article has presented one solution which has been successful with ABE students at Project: LEARN in Cleveland, Ohio, for the Writing Workshops: An past 4 years. It has described how teachers can use adapted or abridged classic novels such as JaneErre,Great Expectations. and Experience from Treasure Island if they' enrich them by read- ing aloud to students short passages from the British Adult Literacy full-length novels. By reading silently along with the teacher's voice, students see good reading modeled and experience the novels that more literate readers have read and ANDREW PATES loved. MAGGIE EVANS References DECEMBER 1990JANUARY 1991 Allington, R. (1977). If they don't read much, how they gonna get good?Journal o/ Reading. 21. 57-61. Atwell, N. (1987).In the middle: I) rittni; readur4. The Foxfire Project in the United and learnon; with adolesient.Portsmouth. NH: States has demonstrated vividly that Heinemann. oral history can he a powerful tool Beder. II.. & Valentine. T. (1990). IV/kitmoth we.% adult 10 partu tour or the lderal adult back in writing education (Thompson. cdu«Ition 01;1 ant Moines,IA: Iowa 1988: Wigginton, 1988). Writing workshops, Department of Education. which developed in Britain in the 1970s.

.. 1 13.. 148 exploited this potential of oral work by plac-weekend in 1976. The model was repeated ing participating students in the roles of bothand reformulated by many other groups subject and writer. Little has been written.nationally and regionally. however, about this recent experience (see, Writing workshops developed in a variety however. A1.13St.'. 1983: Gardener, 1985). The of ways according to local circumstances, purpose of this article is to describe the phe-needs, and resources. Many groups organized nomenon of the writing workshop as it devel-their own writing days or ran classes as a oped in the early days of the British adult lit-sequence of connected writing sessions. eracy campaign. These led to the production of a vast array of writing, which was sometimes published in History semicommercial format but more often pro- A writing workshop is essentially a groupduced on duplicators and photocopiers by the of learners and tutors coming together for an learners during the workshop. intensive period (day, weekend, or series of The material produced by these groups regular sessions) to share writing as a groupoffered things for adult learners to read process. Usually a printed version of the work(answering in part the frequent plea for rele- is produced. vant reading material for adults) and was a Writing workshops developed in Britain asspur to learners to produce their own reading adult literacy workers explored ways of teach- matter: if other students could do it. why ing people in an adult, nonpatronizing, andcouldn't they? Some educational organiza- relevant way. Many were influenced by Thirdtions and publishers developed their own lists World educators such as Freire and echoedof student writing (Basic Skills Unit. undated dissatisfaction with remedial models of educa-a. undated h, 1980. 1982a. & 1982h). tion expressed by Kohl (1974) and others. The model of writing workshops gradually One influential group founded a nationalcame to he used in other adult learning pro- newspaper of student writing called Writegrams, especially those which were con- First Time. produced quarterly from 1975 tocerned with reawakening learners' self-conti- 1985. (Back issues arc available from Avanti dence and self-esteem. They were particularly Books. 1 Wellington Rd., Stevenage. Herts.effective for work with older people in remi- England. Avanti also produces a subject list-niscence groups (Lawrence & Mace. 1987), h.q.: of student writing. publications on run-unemployed people (Replan. 1988). women's ning writing workshops, and numerous othergroups (Solity. 1985). and a range of commu- adult literacy publications.) This publicationnity development activities where the writing provided both a focus for writing activity and provided both a focus and a method for local influential exemplars: it offered an opportuni- groups to gather and work together. ty for students to write for print and to he Between 1982 and 1984 writing work- involved in the editorial and productionshops became well-established activities. A processes. Because it was circulated nation-survey found that in 154 adult literacy pro- wide. it invited emulation: students couldgrams. 60 produced hooks and magazines, 27 produce one issue of the paper or organizeorganized writing workshops. 25 held writing their ow n local publications. weekends. 22 had regular writing groups. and Write Firt 'lint' also pro ided a tocuk forI8 were invoked with Write /- ior Time the first national writing workshop residential (Herr'. 1988 ). Hon a 11riting Bent IIorks that learners' needs are properly accounted for and that professional staff become accus- Writing workshops acknowledge that liter- acy students will usually be as fluent orally as tomed to different ways of relating to the their teachers and, as oral historians havelearners. demonstrated, uneducated people can master Planning does not so much mean preparing very rich spoken language. Furthermore, it isthe program in great detail as it means paying this spoken language that is used by learnersattention to overall structure, roles, resources. in their real lives: "The oral traditions reign ingroup processes. and planned outcomes. The the ghetto. for literate and nonliterate alike-program needs to allow choices so that peo- (Fingeret, 1983). ple can work together in ways that are com- The features of successful writing work-fortable for them, including individual or shops seem to be that they: (1) start with the small group work. students' concerns and needs: (2) value the Group forming: The first essential of the learners' mastered language (spoken or writ-workshop is that the people attending should ten) and use it as a basis for further learning: gel as a group. This must start with everyone (3) generate trust through equal participationgetting together for a welcome session to of all present in all group processes: (4) useacquaint them with what's going to happen. discussion as a medium common to all: andto explore expectations. and to get started. It (5) turn discussion into writing as appropri-is important that all participants say some- ate. There is a sequence of stages throughthing so that they can feel part of what's hap- which a writing workshop moves. based onpening and initial barriers can be broken. experiences and emotions individuals share.They' may just introduce themselves, or they discover, and create together. Although nomay choose to say a few words about how two workshops are ever the same, the Wow-they are feeling at that moment or what they ing description is based on the sequence thathope to gain from the workshop. workshops typically pass through. This minimal input can be turned into the Phiniii/N: Planning ahead of the workshopfirst writing as someone writes down what is essential. This is the time to identify rolespeople ha\ e said on a flip chart or transparen- (tutors as well as students need know whatcy so that the message that speech can he is expected of them). Roles may involvewriting is explicit from the beginning. There facilitating groups, providing technical helpcan he an audible expression of astonishment ith reprographics. scribing tv riting clownas someone ventures "I don't know what I'm people's words individually or in groups ),doing here" or "I can't wait to get started'' and providing help with editing or otherthat is immediately translated into writing aspects of manipulating language. By allocat-open to all. ing roles, tutors will not only he able to fit in If the output of the workshop is to he a easily but will also ha\ e time to participate asprinted booklet or magazine, these introduc- writers. tions will also he the first item to he typed TI,is stage allows the group members toread) for printing and can provide a fresh. become comfortable with each other and pro- vigorous introduction to the finished publica- vides time for checking that all the resources tion. needed ale available. The invol merit of par- ,-1,tfenda setting: The large 12ifiup can't ticipants in the planning group means both function productively for long, so it will soon

1, 50 be necessary to divide into smaller groups or Working:Writing then starts in earnest and pairs for further introductions and to begincarries on until the end of the workshop. It setting agendas. In this smaller setting. indi-happens with groups, pairs. and individuals viduals can formulate what they want to say, working on the agreed themes or on their own with space for everyone to contribute. This topics. may be the time for ice-breaking exercises. Some participants will be entirely indepen- which are time consuming in a very largedent; others will want help, maybe with group. proofreading or scribing. (The use of scribes Discussion of possible agendas for theis a supportive way of getting writing mov- workshop may encompass what to writeing, and it is not "cheating" as some people about, what sort of material to produce. and think. After all, few business or political lead- how to work. Some organizers provide a listers put pen to paper themselves; they use of topics for writing. but this is superfluousscribes called secretaries. Many go further in since people's experiences form their subjecthaving letters, papers. or speeches drafted for matterand these are also related to theirthem.) reasons for wanting to write. Other media:Photography and other Groups just asked to write commonly usemedia may contribute substantially by pro- the same themes: their feelings about beingviding further stimuli for the writing. For asked to write; the process of writing; theexample, one group may form round the environment they are presently in; their fami-video equipment and write a documentary; ly. home, relationships, and work: or some-others may write a radio program for sound times an imaginary situation used to distancerecording or a drama script for live perfor- themselves from the immediate situation. mance: others may do a photography project They may write a poem, a letter, or a shop-with commentary. If other media are used. it ping list. is good to have an experienced person on The agenda setting therefore need not hehand to act as technician, if not tutor. about topics for writing so much as about the Media may simply provide an extension of stimuli necessary to get everyone working.writing (for example. as illustration) or may One option is to ask participants to bring offer a way of working in their own right. The something to the workshop about which theyexperience of developing and printing pho- can talk and writeperhaps a photo or othertographs can be as much a revelation to peo- memento. ple as is seeing themselves in print for the Another approach is to use the environ-first time. ment itself. In England, many workshops goium:': About halfway through. it take place in historic houses that have beenis advisable to h. lye atoiew session with the converted to residential adult education cen- whole group. This involves reviewing ters. The history of the house. surroundingprogress, dealing w ith problems. sharing the village, countryside. or the local economycurrent mood, setting sights on finishing, and may offer a topic. Country house aren'tfacilitating any necessary changes. Changes always available (even in Britain!) but thein mood, confidence, and writing will he evi- environment is never neutral; familiar sur-dent by now. roundings can he seen through new eyes by Afore work: Mush writing %%ill have 1,,.en sharing writing. done by this stage. As it progresses. pieces

151.. may he shared, for example. by display on aOrganizational Concerns pinboard. But writing is never finished. The Venue:It is possible to hold a writing processes common to all good writing come workshop anywhere. (It doesn't have to he at into their own at this point, and there will bean elegant country house.) However, the much changing of drafts. editing. proofread- experience of staying somewhere comfort- ing, sharing, and critical discussion. Although able. for people who often haven't been away trepidation was apparent early on in the for a residential activity' before, can be pow- workshop. the mood now will be one of con- erful. A residential program also means that centration and perhaps anger over being dis- daily distractions are removed and an atmos- turbed during periods of intense writing. phere for concentration is provided. On the Merging into pro(hwtion:As projects near other hand, working_ on home territory completion. sonic writers w ill have moved demonstrates that the people are the funda- into production. They may have been is ping mental ingredient and that anyone can partici- or wordprocessing their work from the begin- ning. but if not. it now needs to be turned intopate. It may also ease logistical and resource a format that can he reproduced. problems. While some tutors may has e been assigned Pwticipants: All participants should have the role of helping with production, thisequal status. Observers often comment that process also involves learners in criticalthey cannot distinguish tutors and students ways. The experience of typing their ow na sure sign of a successful workshop. This is work and photocopying. duplicating. or print-achieved by sensitive management (how are ing it themselves is an essential part of thepeople introduced -as tutors. as students. or process of demystifying print. and leasesby names?) and by tutor participation. Writing writers with confidence about their ownershipis difficult for everyone, and it is salutary for of their tinished work. Not all jobs are com-students to see tutors struggling alongside plex. C'ollating and stapling can he done bythemselves. Childcare may need to be writ- every-one and offer a last intense burst ofni/ed, but children may want to take part in teamwork. the workshop: that can lead to some rmerful Theether again: The IA hole group canfamily education. come together again for a farewell as maga- .Vtu An effectise mix of people /tiles in. booklets are finally stapled togethernecessitates at least 12 participants. Any or for a more le.igths session ss here out-number can be accommodated, dependent on comessuch as dramatic productions orthe phy sisal capacity of the building. but a s ideas-are presented to the rest of themaximum of no more than 60 still allow s group. This opportunity for goodbyes is anpeople to get to know each other. important part of a process in Vofilches ci s 'technical help:The use of ts, pew riters or one has been so chisels ins olscd lit -.haling a ord processors can facilitate the creatts c task. process as well as the preparation of materials .1ftevivards That mas be the end or lustfor production. The word processor has been the beginning: it mas lead to an occasionalone of the big equalising forces in adult liter- get-together or to a regular group meeting.acy work because it allows students to write The printed product will he in es idenee for amore easily and fork:es tutors to V.nrrs obout long lime. mastering the teelmologs

.. I I-I.. 1 5 2 Facilitating techniques:The facilitator issomeone to write, someone highly educated to not passive in the group process. The keywrite a book. It's been a real boost for me" technique is talk: Everybody can do it, it gets(participant in Eden Grove Women's Writing ideas going. and it makes people relax. TheGroup quoted in Solity. 1985). most important thing for tutors is learning to 3. The experience of students controlling let go and not to feel the need to controltheir own learning is another powerful by- everything that's happening. "The conversa-product of writing workshops, an experience tions themselves are the educationalthat can be transferred fruitfully to other processexchanging ideas, sorting out ourlearning. opinions, building on our knowledge and the In sum. the work starts where the learner knowledge others have passed on to us"is. The writers write what is important to (Solity, 1985). them and thus invest the task with a rele- OutromeA:People like to take away a tan-vance, immediacy, and potency which dra- gible product. It's preferable that participantsmatically enhance their motivation and com- take home a simple duplicated booklet rathermitment to mastery of writing. than having to wait for a glossy printed publi- 11:s Con!MS! cation (though that may he the outcome for workshops working over a period of time). This approach contrasts starkly with cur- The outcome can also be something morericulum models that advocate the teaching of intangible. If a group that has been meetingadult literacy as a means to remediate a lan- regularly has a writing weekend together, itguage problem inherent within the individual. will certainly he reflected in the way theIndic idual learning programs are devised to group works subsequently. rectify this "problem." first by diagnosing the language deficiency and then by putting into Implications practice a series of tutor-led activities con- Two features make writingb, orkshops acerned with solving the problem. The rela- powerful educational tool: the articulation oftionship of the student to the proct' ,s is con- students' ow n voices reinforced by seeingtrolled by the diagnostician. WriL.ng is used theimelves in print and the sharing of experi- to highlight the deficiency: the learner may ence and problems possible when working inbe asked to do a piece of writing in order that a group. There are. however, three otherthe tutor may spot spelling errors. Various important features that make writing work-activities designed to teach correct spelling shops attractive as a means of instruction: may follow but the s alue ofriting as an I. The writing workshop facilitates work at impetus for learning is ignored or missed. di fferent le. els. There is no reason w byThis reinforces v ithin learners a sense of beginning and advanced w riters shouldn'tdeficiency. and this position is validated, orga- work alongside each otherith equal power.nized. and reinforced by the diagnostician. This allows for a continuous focus on the dif- ['sing writing as a vehicle for promoting ficulty ever> one experiences in v. learning enables tutors and learners to he free 2. Students see the power of print in a new of a belief in deficiency models. Writing p,Ispective v. hen they learn that they too canworkshops do init. however. supersede other be pblislwd. that they can be writers. "This isapproaches -- rather. they complement them. a real achievement. I thought you had to heThey can act as a catalyst for other learning 153 and assist in such practical matters as com-References pleting applications or writing resumes. MAISIE:. 1 19831. Write away from it all: guide to writing groups. London: Author. Process Plus Outcomes Basic Skills Unit Student Writing. (undated a). / wanted to be a mechanic. J. Coronas (Ed.). Writing workshops are as much concerned Sheffield. England: nstkow. (Out of print.) with process as with outcome. The process Basic Skills Unit Student Writing. (undated b) offers the chance to explore oneself and one's started work. R. Merry (Ed.). Sheffield. relationship with language, and to experience England: us( :/cots. (Om of print.) the power that comes from sharing and creat- Basic Skills Unit Student Writing. II 980). Deaf out. P. Ruddock (Ed.). Sheffield. England: ing printed expressions from common experi- ust:/cow. (Out of print.) ence. Their power is %veil summed up by the Basic Skills Unit Student Writing( I9S22a1. Brat es experience of one writing group: am! hoots. T. Leonard (Ed.). Sheffield. England: list /tort. (Out of print.) Many students caner particularly to read and Basic Skills Unit Student Writing. (1982b). Not a Write, to enable them to participate more fully bed of roses. Sheffield. England: us) /con . (Out in society. The v.riting is cons ersational in of print.) sty le. %%riling from the personal. the personal Chisman. E.P. (1989). Jump start. The federal role being the political in that they gained control in what literacy. Final Report of the Project on user their m1/4 n lises and independence. v. hilst Adult Literacy. Southport. CT: Southport at the same time inspiring each other. Writing Institute for Policy Analysis. in a v. orkshop or cullecltse group is an opposite Ftngeret. A. (Spring 1983). Social nemork: A nest experience to a process of ss ruing done in perspectke on independence and illiterate adults. painful silence and isolation. The support and :)chit Education Quarterly. 33(3). 133-145. nurturing in a group alloys, indo.iduals to clari- Gardener. S.S. (1985 ).Con% ersations with fy their opinions. lest knots ledge and gain extra strangers: Ideas about %kr:fling for adult students, knots ledge. It often results in a more forntulat- London: Write First Time / \tlist'. id of shat the learners scant to say. hots Kohl, H. (1974) Reading: How ui Ilarmonds- and v.here she or he scants to say it.It may also \with. Middlesex. England: Penguin result in richer more s aried sty les of ss riling Last renee. J.. & dace, J. (1987). Remember /ire in (Soho 198s) i;r0111)1. hfrtt born re ntlni«vii r and (Olaf liter kI ondon: \ploring Isis lots Nlemori' So. in the end. writing sk orkshops have a Oral Ilistory Society. political dimension about oneself in relation Nlerry. R. (1988). Nlore than reading and %%riling: Literacy schemes and other act's. tiles. In J. to education and one's dad\ life. N1cCaffery & B. Street (Eds.), Liter(/' y rewari h A recent report on American adult literacy to theiAdult and silr,oper Tel used the title Jump Start to highlight the fact I.ancaster, England: RaPAE. that programs needed external energising, not Replan. 110881. Worktm; tbrom:h mods Report of least through funding Kinsman, 1989). To he an arts education protect in Li% erpool, L.-ester. England. NIACEIReplan. et fedi c. however. adult literacy courses also i;olit...11. 11085). It in ktng i lots 110/MM. 11(1 id( need the in olsement of students. Writing ,lint PUN! Master's dissertation. t'Illscr.ft orksh, ,ps are a verx effectis e %%a% of molt% at- of London Institute of Education. London. qudent. to articulate their needs and make England. demands..\ii alternatke metaphor fur success Ihompson. P (1988). /in i01/1: the' past(teal blq(91.aid ed P.Wool England: Uxtold in adult literacy t mi. might he -Kick Start" eisity Press M, Inch epitomites the self-generated energ% , ig:lin(on. E. (198S) Agent ttl111 5 ,1 \him o, Pit liccdl for ctlecto.e hirward momentum. Nev.

. II). 154 Despite all the apparent similarities to other General ABE programs, this particular class is some- Teachin g thing new. The adults are mostly women who work in animated groups while their children Me t h o do logy color and eat crackers. There is no easily identifiable instructor, but a number of younger college students dressed in jeans and T-shirts sit at the tables. talking and laughing with individuals and small groups. When one Wiling Our Liles: An young woman gets up to sneak a cigarette in the ladies' room, her exit is greeted with the Adult Basic Skills hoots and howls of the college students and other mothers. There are no workbooksjust piles of Program paper and coffee cans full of pencils and pens. There doesn't seem to he any particular curriculum in place. Rather, one is reminded of a painting studio or a craft workshop: there BIRD B. ST :1S% is an easy atmosphere and sense of communi- RoGLR G. SCFMAR 1 t) here that belies the seriousness of the task 1RED C. WLEDLN at hand. SEP I EMBLR 1991 These mothers, most of whom are with- out high school graduation diplomas. are working on a booktheir fourth. in fact that will chronicle their lives and ideas. The scene is familiar: adults sitting at They plan to send this latest effort to the tables with sheets of paper in frontpresident of the United States to show him of them. arduously w raking on com- exactly w hat transpires in this Head Start posi lions. struggling sigh theprogram. There is no end to their confidence mechanics of language. searching for theand their energy. appropriate words. The room is like all the rooms across the United States that house luIttimalhe 111PrOat'll Adult Basic Education I ;BF.) classes. Depend- What has been described thus tar is an ing on the economy and the as ailahility ofinnovative adult basic skills class that is being space. the classes occur in firehouses. familynun through a community Head Start program counseling centers, cons erted garages. andin conjunction w kb a federally. sponsored chuich basements. Student Literacy Corps grant through Hobart To the casual observer, it is a wonder thatand William Smith Colleges in Geneva. Nev. the lure of education is strong enough to cap-York. I lead Start. a federally supported pro- ture es en an hour out of the lives or busy mengram for underpmileged children. sponsors and women, never mind the si \ -how-a-Weekparent-im oh. emelt' meetings. The purpose commitment that most states requiic of stu-these meetings rs to encourage parents to dent', who enroll in their programs. hecome active in Start and to learn 1.1`,C-

I5 ' -'" ful skills for themselves and for their chil-way for these adults to improve literacy skills dren. Literacy is an important topic here, for was for them to use their own language. write parents and children alike. The more literatetheir own material. and structure their own and aware the parents are and the more they educational experience. This makes sense read to or with their children, the greater their iven what we know about the aaracteristics children's chances for success in school. of typicalABEstudents. The purpose of the Student Literacy Corps In general, ABE students are individuals for is to put college student volunteers into estab- whom the educational experience has been lished adult literacy programs. The students confusing and alienating at hest. Education is are trained to tutor or assist adults in learning often understood as an external structure cre- to read and rite. ated by some "mysterious other," far remmed To promote literacy among Ilcad Start from the life experience and needs of students mothers, the program's staff had at first sug- (Hunter & Harman. 1985: Metirow, Darken- gested offering a traditonal (11.0 (General wald. & Knox, 19751. These adults have Equi alency Diploma) class. A survey of theexperienced programs where students have to parents shim ed little enthusiasm, however, run someone else's ideas in someone else's and the idea was dropped. At about the same language through their own heads, where the time, a group of college students completed a language is foreign and the ideas so remote seminar with Jonathan Koiol and were excit- and strange that it sometimes seems as if stu- ed to put some of his ideas into practice with dents and teachers occupy different times and a grassroots literacy project. spaces. They approached the I lead Start policy It would seem then that a class designed council, which is composed of mothers withand orchestrated by the students themselves. children in Head Start, with the idea of get- conducted in their own language. and produc- ting a parent group together to s rite a hook ing material that chronicled their lies and for their children about their own childhoods. ideas would he successful where other more This was the start of a Iwo -year literac, pro-traditional programs had failed. ject that had far-reaching effects for the lives of a group of Head Start mothers and the stu- The Project's Basic Niethotiolop dents who worked with them. The basic methodology for the Gene a The conceptual underpinnings of this pro-project combines the whole language ject lay in what we know about the wit,. adultsapproach st, ith the writing process and oral learn. File overarching principles are that history techniques. Whole language is under- adults do hest v.hen IIr the educational ewe stood to he teaching reading in as holistic a rience is designed from the hom)in up. t2r the fashion as possible. Learning to read is not responsibilik for the class rests with the stu- broken dow n into isolated skills: rather it is dents and not with the instructor. and (3) stu-seen as an organic process that giov,s nak dents and staff helie\ e that all students. the v, at a garden does. regardless of academic !eke'. can he sell- The approach makes sense v. hen we con- directed learners (Cross. 19S I: Knowles, sider how readint!e operates in our Ides. We IWO use print to explore.\pant', and mAe sense To translate these clin;epts into practice at of our 10. es We read in order to make h.- Ihi[lead Slain site decided that the hest utou ll. sserts. pay our ilLoule Lykes. and lull 156 . . our children to sleep. We read to sing the "What are some of the things you remem- praises of heroes and heroines and to cele-ber that vou loved best?" brate or grieve the viscissitudes of life. We Annie and Matthew then explored the rarely learn to read or process print in a neat.sounds, shapes. and smells of her childhood. sequential orderit is a much messierEach idea or image was carefully recorded by proces, than that. especially at the adult level. Matthew until the list tilled the page. At some Adult learners in an ABE or (WI) settingpoints he would ask for more language or have already completed a number of yearsprobe for other ideas to help him understand of school. As readers, they have strengths andwhat Annie wanted to say. Those responses weaknesses. The whole language approachwere added to the page. allows adults to use their strengths and Then Annie and Matthew began to orga- improve their weaknesses because the processnize and reorganize the phrases and ideas on relies on using print to give voice to theirthe list and turn them into paragraphs. They individual ideas. talked about what made sense where, what As a consequence. the learning of skillsideas were most important. and what ideas becomes a natural outcome of the processhelped fill in the holes. itself. Rather than listening to a lecture about What actually took place within this essay main ideas or textual organization in isolation framework was a great lesson on paragraph and then doing a series of exercises to rein-organization and main ideas. The end result force the rules. the learner works with thosewas an essay that captured the tone. imagery. ideas w ithin the context of whatever i,. beingand %allies of life in a small Louisiana town. read or written. The need to know dries the We got to meet kindly neighbors, such as lesson and is a logical outcome of the readingthe woman w ho "if y on did a chore for her she paid you a quartet.- We learned the mean- process. ing of self-sufficiency: sing Oral %sitSpringboard et> tillds had it large amount of land around Annie struggled for days with a story their house ',there tau thd gardening. rai.ed about her childhood on a farm in the chickens. duck. Ana rcose much - American South. Iler use of language was thinp .% e needed was right there We bad tig., red.. he,. apples. and a cherr tree. The big tree lonely, and the piece v. as full of images of v. as so large it split in hall during a hurrwane folks fishing on a dike by the bayou and mak- ing fig preserves. and of gumbo cooking in a ,\s a result of this process. Annie was able pot on her mother's stove. Despite her bestto help other students with the notion of main efforts. how e\er. the work just didn't soundidea. She described it as "how would on tell right. Entails in exasperation she threw downy our mama w hat this story was about i I ,ou her pen and paper and announced to any onev.ere calling her long distance.- who would listen. "I'e had it.I can't do OW, Peter Elbow tI )73i stigests that writing any way... is a studio craft and should he treated as At this point. Matthew. an maiot. such. Just as an intik idual learns to he a ambled os et table and sat dow nwatercolorist 11s watching, listening to. and /Wit to ht'l. "Talk to me. Annie. about thispracticing with an accomplished painter. the place ,.on' re v. ritmg about.- adult v. liter 'cams to %%ite by Olsen, ing and 1\ ell. IL- v.h..ac I !'rev. up.- practii ingith other v. Hier,. 1 lie classroom becomes a studio, the members are partici- grandmother v. ouldn't let me keep snakes, pants in a workshop. Stories, articles, and because m) mama is afraid of them. poems are written, often shared with the group. and rewritten. The emphasis is on The stories can he intergenerational, such as a collection of tales about grandmothers. writing as a process of musing, discussing. writing, and rewriting. Writing becomes aOral histories can cover almost any aspect of community life from the demolition of build- way for participants to recapture a slice of their lives, articulate ideas, and frame aings to harvesting techniques to playground greater understanding of themselves andgames. An oral history can focus on a single inch \ idual or he a collection of rhymes or their world. superstitions. The point is for adult students -Oral history is the reminiscences and rec- to explore their own world and capture the ollections of living people concerning the spirit and language of that world in print. past. These recollections may he passed down orally from one generation to another or may Outcomes he the oral memories of an individual who One of the most visible outcomes of this ryas present at a specific time- (Beck, 19851.particular project is the four hooks that the Oral history gets adults involved in the prac- mothers have published. They range in con- tice of literacy. tent over a series of stories about their grand- The key to using oral histories as a teach- mothers. a hook of family histories and ing tool is the ability of the tutor to establishrecipes. a children's play, and a historical rapport v ith the adult students and tease outaccount of Head Start in this community. The narratives. In our Head Start program. thebooks were displayed at the public library. adult learner and the college student workfeatured in the local newspaper and distrib- together to record these narratives, smoothuted among the Head Start families. Copies out the rough edges. and produce a piece ofwere sent to U.S. senators and to the Presi- writing that el, eryone is proud of. dent, all of whom hay c taken the time to write The end result of the project is a collectionhack to the authors directly. These letters are of adult narratives that are bound togethertrained and hang on the parent-room wall as and published as a small book. The publica- recognition of these mothers' expertise as tion is seen as a way of legitimiiing and cele-authors and asalidation of their experience. brating the learners' work. \ es have changed. Two mothers returned Oral history projects can he on \ irtuallyto school to get their tit os. One has gone on any topic and of any duration. They canto a community college to train to be an ele- include reminiscences from childhood about mentary school teacher. Many of the mothers simple events. Annette. for example, v. rotenow read routinely to their children: others ah(an a \\ilk around a lake: feel that the educational system isn't so for- I lb a aa, so beautiful' .1. grandmother %%diked eign .ind scar.. us around the Like to Rot to the other sidetiti Without question. the effect of publishing the c. mei% sh; hooks for community consumption is an to,ift and C1111101.%cring experience for the mothers who man,. 1.; ondortul thin'.,qi could put m pot, In participate. ho v. ere silenced ItsM.Q And (-11 Lill, I1!),.,C11. ,0,111111:.,h..cp Lr.tv,let. like !..:1,1s, because of their sex, class, or kick of lan- hue., guage skills suddenly has c a loom) to present

.. ;..158 their ideas and record their lives. Women who Rosa described a scene from her life in felt that they could not write suddenly find Puerto Rico: themselves the authors of lyrical and poignant At this date. I did not hasea washing machine stories, stories that are valued, read, and and had to %s ash the clothes in the no ine or the reread. Women who have been in the shad- riser. In order to dr) them we had to la!, them ows of a middle-class city find themselves on the grates of the .e ire fence. This time I dried quoted and photographed in the newspaper. in clothes like I alssa2..s had. but with had luck. There %sere hulls in the field. When I returned Hispanic women, whose language has always for nr. do clothes. sshih to m) surprise were set them apart. find their stories translated scattered in the field and some of the hulls had into English and read with pride in their chil- nnclothes on their horns. Tears came to in dren's classrooms. Heady stuff. ees, in this moment, for I had lost my clothes. A less obvious Outcome of this project But later I laughed to see the hulls running in the held ssith clothes hem een their horns comes from the interaction of middle-class resembling small flags. college students and Head Start mothers. The students begin to see life through different There is little question that this event eyes. They learn to listen and respect the livesbelongs to the author. No one knows more and language of women far different fromabout this subject than she does. She is the themselves. expert. and her expertise gkes her ownership One t oung college student was surprisedOf the information. to find that the favorite childhood stories of a Ownership is the crucial ingredient if stu- Head Start mother were the very same storiesdents are to he empowered by their learning. she enjoyed as a child. By the same token, the When one is an expert on a particular subject, mother was surprised to find that the specialone has the power of that information: with things she does with her children are not sothat power comes confidence and self-esteem. different from what the student recalls about Rosa is not writing and reading about a dis- her own mother. The Head Start womentant place: she is communicating a slice of learned that these bright and imaginativeher life to a group of other women. She is no oun,. people arc lull of possibilities andlonger outside the learning loop: she is a hopes. not unlike the young et erg where.major placr. Their dreams for happ!. lives are not that far This program represents a fine marriage from the dreams the mothers have for theirbetween the best of communitv-based own children. current theory. and instructional practice The two groups learn to exchange ideas.and the best of volunteerism. The successes support one another, and build reading andand glitches of the program belong to he t. riling skillsall without a professionalparticipants. The hooks are testimony to their instructor or outside curriculum. Each oneaccomplishments and to the taliditx of their acts as both tea her and student regardless of experience. Their language has become the academic expertise or socialqithh. fabric of their education. The t olunteers Filially, the most profound change comeshave learned how to become comfortable in the mothers' view of knowledge and exper-in a collectie project where, despite their tise. lit i real I:Fein:all sense. theseV,tvIllell ()kiwis talents. the\ act as facilitators rather lit:Canty the t redo,' know ledge tFreire.than lecturers. Thehat e learned the mean- 1970. POI.the!. are the experts. ing of (half Tue.

1.. 1 5

4 References Beck. J. (1985 ). On my own The tradition.% of General Dai.sv Turner. Nloilpelier, VT: Vermont Folk Life Center. Teachin g Cross. P. (1981). Adults as letlnerS. San Francisco. CA: Josse -Bass. Methodology Elbov., P. 119731. Writing without teacher.. Nev, York: Oxford Tniversity Press. Freire. P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppre.s.sed. Ness York: Continum. Freire, P. (1973). Education forritica/ «niclotty- Using Student ness. New York: Continuum. hunter, C.. & Harman. D. I 1985). .-Iduit illite,au V Journals in the in the United States. Netk York: McGray.-hilt. Kruw. les, NI. (198(1). The modern practice of adult education. New York: Cambridge Universit liorkplace ESL Press. Nle/irov., J.. Darkenv.ald. G.. & Knox. A. (1975). Last t;andlle on education. Washington. DC: Classroom Adult Education Assodation of the USA,

Dowyrin' DEcEmitER 1990-JANUARY 1991

/n art. sometime'. the most threatening request a teacher can make is to ask stu- dents to draw a picture on an empty page with no further instructions. What is true for art. I ha\ e noticed, holds for language as well. I teach fsi both to graduate students at the Univer.ity of Cincinnati and to employees of a large local firm as part of an e\iensie alter hours training program offered hy the com- pany. The graduate students express them- sekes quite freely in 'Journals, once they ha\ e realised that they w ill not he penaliied for technical errors. Although they still hae trouble communicating in Lnglish. they intu- itkely recogniie the benefits of writing. Their _journals arc w at ni. c.ocatit e. and interesting.

15511.:1 r1).t) The workplace ESL students are different.tions to issues as complex as crime preven- Although the group I teach already speakstion. The finest journals result when I use the relatively fluent, albeit incorrect. English. readings and class discussions as a LEA or lan- their first reaction to the journal assignmentguage experience base to which the students was a mixture of horror and terror: "Youcan relate and react. know I can't write- was a general lament, and Now, as the last activity, I ask a series of some of the journals were returned empty. specific id/ questions based on the theme of 1 was introducing journals as the lastthe class. For instance, after readings and dis- activity of a 2'/: hour class. The first time Icussion about American education. I asked handed out the little empty notebooks. Ithe class to comment in their journals about asked them to write their reactiorP, to thetheir own schooling. I put a series of ques- class. ask any questions. or make any com-tions on the board: Where did you go to ments they wished. The writing would not heschool? What did you like the best in school'? judged for technical competence: this wasWhat irritated you the most? Why did it irri- personal mail between them and me and Itate you'? Who was your favorite teacher'? would answer accordingly. But my students What was so special about him or her? wrote very little. I told them that not all of the questions had I then turned to a model described by Joy Reid at the Ohio Trsot Fall Conference.to he answered. but to begin writing. A mira- 1989. As a metaeognitive exercise. I askedcle occurred: the entries jumped from short. my students to think about the class and liststiffly composed paragraphs to two-page w hat had been easy or difficult and what theyemotionally charged, coherent accounts of had learned. Given a specific task. and havingtheir childhood and school experiences. The already experienced my reaction to theirwriting had()ice and meaning. entries, the workplace itst students began to Evidently workplace list. students who feel write mote. But the writing was still choppy.the support of a well defined springboard will and monotone. find it easier to get started and are able to Finally I decided to make the e\er,..ise fardraw on a wealth of ideas they consider wor- more personal. Most of my classes arethy of committing to paper. Journal writing arranged around a general theme. We haveseems less painful. maybe even pleasurable. dealt with matters as simple as planning aca- and reading the journals is a joy.

161 Using educationally naive bilingual tutors General and a combinatory instructional format Tea chin g (described in more detail in what follows) may prove to he not only pedagogically Methodology sound but also cost effective. and can even encourage these refugees and immigrants to take more initiative in working out their edu- cational destinies. londirecth e Specifics of the Project The objective of our adult English as a Combinatory Model in Second Language t FS! ) proposal, funded through a grant from the Pennsylvania State an Adult ESLProgram Department of Education, was to determine the instructional effectiveness of a combina- tory model in an adult Est. program. The combinatory model included the use of a modified [Tv in the initial phase of learn- ANTHONY WANNUNZIO ing to speak and read in English. The modifi- NOVEMBER 1990 cation consisted of using virtually untrained Cambodian and Hispanic bilingual tutors to accept dictations given in the students' native language and immediately translate these into n metropolitan areas containing largeEnglish. after which standard 1.LA procedures populations of immigrants and refugeeswere followed. with limited English proficiency.. the typ- After this initial phase of the model w as 1ical t norial programs cannot con-le nearcomplete. students were introduced to indi- to mectinp students' instructional needs. Thevidualized reading and expressly c writin:J. problem is aggravated by the fact that tofew The procedures were nondirective in the instructors have fiat professional training. sense that they required the student to take However. after a short training period.the initiative in the pursuit of speakim read- even pedagogically unsophisticated bilin-ing. and writing competence in English. guals can become effective tutors and trainers Two groups of approximately15 of other tutors. Employ ing a LanguagenonEnglish-speaking Cambodians and one Experience Approach ft f vt and indiv Wid-class of approximately 15 nonEnglish- i7ed reading as the mainstay of instruction.speaking 1iispanics received a maximum of bilingual tutors may break the chain of heal v 111 hours of instruction per week. Local social reliance upon professional intervention. Theservice agencies referred the student popula- three bilingual tutors used in the projecttion. with an age range of 17 to O. to the pro- described here were only high school gradu-gram, These agencies provided space for ,ites: the assistant tutors had not even attainedclasses in their own buildings. or in the case this milestone. and yet they became veryul the Ilispanics. in a room in a neighborhood ell cctiv c instructor.. public library. The Cambodians were recent arrivals toand promotes reading as a byproduct of their the United States who had endured unspeak-thinking aod oral expression. Also, .1:A allows able hardships and had not. with few excep- for one-on-one, personalized learning situa- tions, received any formal schooling in tions. Cambodia. The level of education in the t st. adults w ith negligible proficiency in Spanish-speaking population was also low. English frequently exhibit stilted syntax and few students having completed secondarylimited vocabulary in their dictations. For school in their native lands. these cases, attempts have been made to mod- Pretest mean scores on the Basic Inventory ify- certain aspects of LEA (Nloustafa. 1987: of Natural Language MINIrevealed that allMoustafa h Penrose, 1985). With individuals the Cambodian students performed at thewho arc nonEnglish-speaking. however. lit- NonEnglish-Speaking level. The Diagnostictle 'ias been done to incorporate the benefits Reading Scales I oi4s) produced no pretestof the format. The use of bilingual tutors scores, while the Wide Range Achievement was an attempt to overcome the difficulty of TestRevised (Word Recognition Subtest )using HA with a nonEnglish-speaking popu- R produced a mean of pre-first grade. lation. The pretest mean for the Hispanics was One Ilispanie and two Cambodian bilin- also nonEnglish-speaking on the whilegual tutors were given two training sessions the DRS was less than first grade. The mean on the use oft LA. For the first week of instruc- level of Mtaiilltent in w(Ard recognition wastion. the tutors took whole class dictations. 3.5. The averare length of stay in the tutorialeach student being encouraged to provide a program yy as 4.5 months. Very few of the stu- sentence or Mu on a class-selected theme dents were able to attend dailythe average (Figure It. After each contribution to the story w as between 2 and 3 lb\ s per week. 2 hours had been translated into English by the tutors. a (la\ standard H procedures were followed. Cell log Started A week of group itallowed the students to become familiar ss ith the prot.eilures. Alter The use of t twithist adults in the initial the first week all the students were introduced phase of the c(unbinatory model is based to individual dictations. As each studeni relat- upon the following assumptions (Ben-Barka. ed a personal,1(11.\ 1982: Cohen, 1981: Dixon & Nessel, 1983: in Khmer or Spanish to the Cambodian or I lispanie hit Nessel &Jones, 19811: rgual tutors, the latter immediately transcribed it into I 111.,i hie e areH rs:r,onal English (Figures 2 and 3). value and are rwaniin21111 The tutors then proceeded with the stan- 2I earning tai read t eaNie,t and ino,t dard tt x procedure (Cohen. 1981: Rigg \Olen wadinl: material, match path. in,and Teakinl: To\ lor. 1979: Schneiderman. 1978: Stauffer 198()). The tutor pronounced and pointed to 4 Vo hen alttw ed L. lake ,e11-iiiiao: and Icariiini: are each word as it was written. eventually read- ntlti ol ing the entire selection to the student. The tutor net t pointed lo each v.g,rd. pacing the In addition. the p1),,,k,se,, some student as they read the story together. At this 1. hen LIc(1 in adult t st pro- iurn lure. the student returned to his or her ffarn11 makes u e ot the adults' ellit.rivia.c-.eat and attempted to read the story silently.

63.I :WI.. L Figure 1 became a personalized record of words the A group story taken during the first week of student had learned. The word hank was used class to allow the students to become familiar as the basis of a variety of word recognition ith the procedures: activities, including the development of visu-

Why I Came 1(1 ClaA.N al-auditory discrimination skills, finding "I came to class to learn to speak Enghsh word families, composing sentences, and so because I am afraid to answer the phone. It might forth. Group activities, where students he an American who does not speak Spanish.- worked together to construct sentences. ask said Rosa. "I came to class because I am afraid to questions, identify the words in written con- go out in the world and cinninumcate w ith some- texts such as hooks or magazines. or develop one who only speaks English. I ant shy." said Lydia. Marko] said. "1 feel timid and afraid to sentences and stories, provided the greatest speak to someone in public because I do not aitl to word recognition. know if I might say the wrong thing.- LEA stories carried over into group activi- ties that provided the opportunity for verbal interaction in English. These included show- During the rereading. the student under-and-tell and group t.F.x stories that were dic- lined each word that 1k as reeot,rzed. This is atated with a view to dramatizing them for the positive approach to word recognition sinceclass. Individual t.F.\ stories were frequently the emphasis is upon what is known. Becauseread to the class. the words are of the student's choosing, there is a greater likelihood that she or he w ill rec- Figure 2 ognize them in the translated account. When the student later reread the dictated An indis idual dictation spoken in Khmer and .instated by the tutor: story to the tutor, he or she was again asked to underline any words recognized. If 2_ or 3 It by Sok Kong days later an underlined word \AU', recognized I think no one likes war. War can kill people. ithin the context of the story, the word was The soldiers work hard. The life of a soldier is printed by itself on a separate sheet. difficult. When there is war. no one works in the rice fields. There are many sick people during The next day the tutor used a window card thear because they don't has c enough to eat. to determine ease and accuracy of recall. Words thus recognized in isolation provided the deposits for the student's word hank. Figure 3 Every word recognized in this fashion was printed by the tutors on an index card and An inditidual dictation spoken in Spanish and placed in random order in the student's small hanslated b the tutor: index box. When the word hank exceeded 3t cormn...: tingi.,/, by Juan I3crrios words or so, the student v, as introduced to I would like to learn English so that I ant able to alphohetizing and then to the dictionary. express my sell better with others. When I need The word bank prov ided one of the most to talk to someone. I don't want someone else to valuable sources tot the development of word speak for mc. I would like to speak for myself. I 'eel had. rek o,!111111)11 'Alif- and sight %%ord.,. and

.. 164 Although hints were given by the tutors.comprehension, and providing individualized many group activities were self-directed.instruction in areas of weakness. The tutors Words from the students' word banks weretried, under the continuous guidance of the constantly being compared, traded, and usedreading specialist, to have a minimum of two for window card recognition games. Theto three conferences per week. classes bustled with paired and group interac- These adult Pa. students made many false tion. The encounters among the students hadstarts, attempting to read hooks that were too a tone of helpful comradery. with the moredifficult, but quickly learned to select hooks seasoned frequently assisting the newerthat they could manage. Some soon became arrivals. avid readers, completing two or three books a week. Adults need reading strategies that Skills Begin to Develop enhance self-esteem by showing practical Once the immigrants had acquired someresults in a short time (Schneiderman, 1978). fluency in reading their dictated stories andAlthough there was a great deal of variation. had accumulated approximately 50 wordthe students began to use English more and hank entries, they were introduced to indivil-more frequently, especially during the indi- ualized reading by the tutors, under the guid-vidual conferences and group actkities. The ance of the reading specialist. As is the casetutors encouraged this by using English as with LEA, individualized reading is a basically much as possible. nondirective procedure. Through self-seek- As the students engaged in individualized ing, self-selection, and self-pacing, the adultsreading they gave IIdictations much less were allowed to take additional initiatives andfrequently. but continued their story-telling thereby continue to increase their self-esteem. through expressive writing. The basic The Spanish class was housed in a branchassumption here was that the most efficient of the Free Library of Philadelphia: the twomeans of developing written expression v. as Cambodian classes were within a block ofto write and writethe more the better (Blot another branch. As individual students were& Davidson. 1984: Parry & Hornsby. 1988: deemed ready for individualized reading.Rockcastle, 1986). The point was to encour- they were taken to the library to becomeage the flow of written expression so that the members. students naturally acquired syntactical facility After hooks were selected and read. theand attempted to use more sophisticated con- tutors were given demonstrations on how tostructions. They received continuous feed- conduct an individual conference. Individualback and developmentally appropriate mini- and group conferences provided the tutors an lessons during this stage of instruction. opportunity to observe the students' reading At one point during the natural devehT- interests and skills in word recognition, com-ment of facility in writing, for example. a stu- prehension, and oral and silent reading. It wasdent attempted to use quotation marks. how another opportunity for personal instruction.ever inappropriately. The student expressed a guidance. and support, and conferences fre-need, and a minilesson on the use of quota- quently led to warm personal communicationtion marks was in order for this student. The between the tutors and the learners. Tutorstutors were guided the wading specialist spent time discussing current reading choicesinto making only tho,e corrections on ;I com- and what progress was beitw made. checkingpleted story that were compatible with the

1G I GO tr.

student's loci of %Lining competency. Sill- Figure 4 dent' frequently read their productions aloud ('realizewriting by a Cambodian student atter 3 to the tutor. to a group, or to the entire class months of instruction: ftigure 4. Some of the students became pi oficient /kr \nos, t l'a Minn t'm Catnhodian. I hake liked in America for nn: enough in English to become tutor aides ilnd henthe v, inter comes my health ...,1%.iy s v.eie paid for their seri, ices. They kelC par chances. This year. I lime a had Loul.,.11 WhenI titularly useful in taking II t dietations. With uotthard, I aizzazstough. the continual Iltm ut nets, students sent to us Asian people dislike the climate in linemo by the contractual agencies, they helped Iveattse they haw tai snots in their countries acclimate 1101 alTiVilk to Shill might other- Aim kali kids like snots,. ise hake been an intimidating situation. hen tilt noiA hills dodo at and I 10,4. The combinatory es,pressike instructional Through the v. indov tt st ciuts like itday appioach included on emphasis on elle011rilr,- he seen i111,, the students to express themselke,, I dont like the41111.!, 1),'L'allm I and MI ft-wit to ItStiujie pople dont liketinIltitt through class presentations. It should be kept in mind that hulk iduallied reading. and cretin% e riling are in dictum:Re'. (!\1111e,',1\ in nature, The students easily mu\ ed into ()Mei e \piessie dies. such as readim. k% it NI kk as at the beginning of the third their i stories to other classmates, relating glade. %%lido their !cattily ytt'illt1111,111t:eon the experiences. storytelling, skits. and draman totes;nitanerd 1(1 the .1.7 grade !eke!. for the rationsall in Imglish. Nlo.st of these itch\ 1- Hispanics. the posttest IA or(I recognition tics %%ere suggested it, the tutors Isthe ..ttlk Limed to a mean of (,.1, \k ink' their read students iii' mean Ineleased -1r nil It-'.u11. V.Cle LItt,t1111.'d 'I lie Program P141%04 de,plte the fa rthat inslructltinal 11111L' Fur both the c'ambodi.in and ',twit.] he wean len;.11) ul std!, in the populations. the posttest scores on the 5.5 month,. hit the Cdinboilidn, and 10,1 %%CP: '0.111,4,111011111 higher them their pretest th.in -I month, for the} 11 h 11111sltllh'lll' per lormance. The Cambodian students' posttest pert ormance re \ caled that the> products wine\ ed a mean score in the Fluent Aside from their role as instiuctors.the Speakinir category. roughly comparable to ahilinFual Mans scri.eilother essential func- ty pica! A int. rican fourth-grader. c tions that may e contributed to the stu- ti nsidered e \1/4..ebent for speakers comingdents' rapid gains in speaking. reading,antl from a totalk rani-chic(' language back %%nom:. se they shared the sane back- ground, The Hispanic popola.ion kt, ith the relur!ces amt h111111 rants. adk once(' to the Fluent Speaking cat 1)11111!111,11 (E) epiry, roughly comparable to a tk pical 11()11111(11111dAlli1 :itiniAllicre that lilt_ teased .1ineriL an Wilt grader the ,.tirtlents' desire to remain in thepro\ null The meanp1,-,tte,t v. ,,k1 I he (i.e i'l suth nondirecti L'

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4 riling ensured a high degree of pers(mal J.I., (N: Bel/, I 9S5 t. P%)chological interaction among; the student,. tutors, and harrier, to learning: Approach to group treat- ment. .Stturti (.;toup iichat tor. kilt)), 525- 533. professionalNta It.The pedagogical and tnoti- (*illicit. J.II 9S II.1 tort/Me tin./ ntirtnepr,.t;ratli t atiunal advantages of such personal int olt c: if0111;lairt,TaLTewer It nt e (1111i,111: Inrnthate been (lenionstrateLl t liot d 1(I III Sthittr%Nt J bath (11101.1)n,Q1,11;1 Martin, 1984: Clabl), Johrhon, ad111101)11, . ()Meetd OL'ationalanti Nliller et al., 1()85). AdultPthwation. Since It A.in iduali/ed readinp, and or,int. R. (11)79). Cutrt pts, ItPea,ocl.. e \tilting tosteret1 the (liscloNme trkt.:noth 111,1dine ,t/c. /of, .).Itg,t(I ). Montore,. personal e\ivriences tt inch ret valet! the inti- CA CIII/NIc( ir,o.t. 11111

Witte Intl:ft:Si'', and concerns of the 1)1\ttn. ('.(N. I).t 19S 1I. 1.anguat.te (yen- 'student~, the interaction bettt eel] them and appruaLli to reaclim4 talk.]1%11111Q.! /. the tutors became, through inset% ice demou /,//if :/h /1,'4tt /'grit H I I 11i1Se, (Old l,irr- strations, a 1

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i it middle-aged man Ilales to his friend across the street. 'I'm going for p computer lesson now,' he shouts as he enters the public library, In fact, he is learning basic reading skills i ith a tutor: in his mind, lmmer, he is learning a modern skill that Will help him retrain for the changing, job market,

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Calitlillii I., Eiffel EithIll 111dellIS a licti list 41h4(11.t 111 ollIc (11 ti 4/154 It

t'll 1.fr. IC.1111. 41 II 11 1 hal It th 1101 441 III(' tillit 111)/I', 4,1 /Whit 1 in Ei

(11411101;1i' 1'' Iltr41 ell 111CM 4)110 ,) flir !acidic airiEthri. st1111 r

0,1 '('c haditli1111. I thin rtpliiii s Mr iii', Olt p1'ot1(1111171 111414 011 and (1.

1'1 ( f'1111,11(1.1% In (ifilill 110141( %l)i e.'I iiIPP,It 11111 rtilr dull It-Whiled 145 114 iTcPtIf /lb 111 fo itt!ti C ItI)1.'s ptCt C. v. lift 1/ 11 111(11 /454th, /1E110 Ittt E,1 I Ile% fat t1,11(1..:C., (1,1,1 tI1\t.1(1, tittl(P'C', ,,f !OUP,' 14111 'En 11,11111 tric, If ill ;.tir 1'' list m ,,, I, 1 P/11,01111 IN / P t titbit! It l lI tit I I I A 4/1/4/ Etrl..11lilt

t ph ,t Hita Mat, r 1. o,1 at I fliabit%,offv, (for at,,' I,,41:E.5(so.;,1 hsp, toot!! joilirit4It', it,hifol'N',..', or flo 047/ a', 44/ 114111 h kyle, pm 14,

1A.,.1l A ( ( I , , PPII thE 11,111. ,,,t 11:ttiP1I le s1,1 r-ohli ptibli f "1,.')411.411

,If'..,i ',.. '.t. It ,0 .'1,,...il, El .. e is :IL", .t,:, A.: echnology Turner. I989). but the follow inn list offers summary.

Privacy. ()ill, the adult and the teacher or I sing Computers in tutor need to know the actual le\ el at v.hich the !earlier is working. Once the adult student dolt Literao learns ho',', to operate the computer, she or he can work inilepentlentl v ithout an!,oile )other than the teacher or Rat }mom, ing the Instruction piol.rain's It...1.cl of difficult>. InArtivtimi t an tai Rued to the' ',Rink student's needs rather than to those of a group.he teat:her can huh\ lulu El NICE N. ASKO\ Alit. not mil% the pace of teaming but also the Crsim ,J() ti.Rk content and piesentation to suit the needs and NIARCII 1991 interests of the student, b curate eam. A number of research studies Mier demonstiated that students make honer-than-iicage '11.111, through use of tech mon v.a\c..1iii.nolop, A11, in,..110,1,,,,,,,,oh.,11,.i.i.1,111r.mr. lit \ Itii",7; Macho. tki...1,-km. 1087, 14)8Ni 1,.1 Intl tiIIIII1111el IL,-n11 Ini1.`,... lit' Although Clink I loSkicatitions that achie c- Alindioc...wetiiliollt,. as Ile ell(t.'1, the pith! it mem gain, nia. not lie telatet1 to the inetlitini libritr>. In tact. tic is leartimg 1,,isic leading of InsItudion hill instead to Lontent. adoption s,ills w ith a tutor: ill his mind. littwe% et, he isof compute' technolog!. t .111', '' ledlIWIN Io It:inning a niodta ii skill that vi ill help him rethink the 1:1If flt:011.1111, %%Anil) Is d 1111,1lik,C ictlain for the ellaiwing. job triar.t.t t Finkle, s.lci) and I 0;- It',nodal-h.. a single mother of retrial 111,11).1,-!taniii-,,Doter \Villmmson,

1,4,t11q! children 1, leCeP.111r, liteLIC!. inAlliC It..\11.11, t. 111111 he CIIIiirltel, Olt at theclime oldie 11,'Vtlfe(it CM %t e 41100' t,lit... to t,I. ai.quil mg, the I, Lit. skills of read t,.11 it MI tithArl teclinolt;. and literae!. ito.... w ruing. and math ,.,, hide pieparim: toter Ilas teeealetl thin instrucht %loth t:oinput- enter hi %,,t,itl-pro,..c,,Ing. training. tut,:ratii. ci, is no more etpetisi than liatlitional .1111lotig.li learim: to read lt, her children is of mstriwtion II urner lox71. In ad- paramount importimc,..7 to her at this tune, she dition. a Id, numbei nI tmlent can he c%eintialb, want , II, tier a Lit:yrII t.aic,...,, and .et) u in ,,nth. h.L%-1111:! L'11 -411T,1111111'.: In.)] UtinilinIc1,k OAthe ,C Altlit ',1tIllt.'111 AIL.,), \dup. 01.1,Ln!.. y.totiti

0-11, It. I..',1111, A V4,1',111,11.,, .1- Ilt li ,1%,.111AbleIt, III \ tr kiln!. 1111,111t,11 01.111 A'-, 'WItl tblidlc11..V.1...111LWc-.and tit, 11111.' 1,1111111,n V. t 44

.1t1'.,:10.1'..'.'.-1/1LtnIri,111t_'111.1,:'il 111 ,I111Ilt.11 1.11AltLrC In the ii intitudt:, ditto!, 11.1',,,LP.'11,:ntinr.:h0.,:r.1,:1,,!._,..1.,1,,:t..2t V.H ck, thm, h__,J1 t_9ment....,11A4.ii, I Go .1(,1 13 rim n,I 1sti; Lev. i, I 188 I. Controlling atit stilly. are Ct gunles ;described conputer seems II) ledi.1 to a sense of empov. - hetv, ) helps identir> soh v., are app,1priale for el mem for loo- literate individualsho prior en computer. to instruction otter feel that the> hale little C'ost used to Ile a major 1),11rier to controlIAcf. their (mil lit es. puriliasint! computer,. tor 41AI-tit:film. Forum Elciihatty Iles( It( While thetkc atel>, co,ts hint e come Llov,n, makiny. com- of olniptIletk, Ina> noteili11111;0the nerd pute', al fortlahle to iuu,t Iilrraiprtqtrains. for primp instinct:ion, it can otter opportuni- Makr ties (or instruction in a studnt'', open num for C111111)(lier, C11111V'N 110111 an tine slot, something particularly impor. peeted %%Indian administrant!, must often tam tor aLlidts tt hit multiple lc'. -use itk`llt)4,12 Il."Inean careful 11011 4lb11111C',. plan,, v-hitshotild picode pnrcha,(1, fWi'S. ?pn \\ Ink' classes ina\ theIIRI tall pre> to ,1 sharp salesperson \tilt, opciate on a reridal ,clicdule, it is common (kw, mit ilk 11,1% e tllr be,1 interests ot stir. tot adult .tudent, racedline Ile .1,10-. in timid. Instructional use of computer, enithles, t(.ittt /.(i, 1. ft/ c litrtit A ltdilleti rt'stglICC ,el cc,. am! 1111411, (41 ,1,11'1 hew ,I4141e111, le.1C n nerd, to IL' It,ulahle ((I set up th.' equip III!, ',it 11111c lor 4.".(1.,,III10. SW ment, to I I\ minim ins \\ (tell the\ (lent lecold tan lit e,t,11 4.1tIred oll occur, and, most important. to train teaLlicrs 111, a t onlitklitial ,1111.1kAiii%eilient 4,1 and tutor, in the use of Ihe uomputer. 11H,, W1,41111114! ,11141011 (hid. ,it-11 10 k:ep op v. ills v. hat is

1 /41441 4 It1,o ci%tr, 11 happennu... not mil> in (impute' techni,11, 1111.1lIttI11/1111! the 1', (II lindt.'0, but also nl adult literal: \, so that equipment 111(11.1.lf?, and lahor ot:,.iiii/ations look to lei. 11 and soltv. ate till tipriaded iitTia,le %,.01 kers' skills. ,t taith M 0,/ introit:t illeirttmatcl, t\ hen pro le,..11144,1410 ("4.4,1,11411w WI /*It'll( 11111In t 11111 C, 41,1111,4411111111,11.,4144- dc4.141:. to ,114111 t.441,11)41(er, lul 111.4(14.1141111 the 1 hick tin help dthill students it% e hardy, are ,111,1 111,111:gild, Utrt vino& h I 11 ( )1(c14 41 i, Mier 114111,11 dr !IR ot 11,1,1c iI ev,1-.. not ,1)11v"ile Repealed use ot rcd,I,, ,.oinitiityi 4,141ir site iii,tdc 04,11 (tit' 4(11411111,41,01q lc,11- Iii rat. t mid riot. itle, ,,t I, 1/c,111,Ille,I, lieu, ,11111141/ 411, need ti, he trained lush'', Mon Instead 01 Elamite;' hone the insn.p. it I. olien alit atic:itho:11111 inti/TA 1"? lilt, Mgr lit 01.11 \10,1 IL:L.1111,10o constanth 11011,1I '0,)10.% ark: I, LIVqille(1 -,late Oh: .111" el al ,!% Cr, 111alr, prOgrallls ma> he adapted lot 1),,k, ith it;1411('. ItAle t",.eft,',1 in Ilia Oryla1111;.: ereplc:NCII(Cn. 111,111.11.111111,11 :.',unto, c:,111 c.1 tcLhiii114,n list It, 1411(.1 11,,:t1 ti WI! 11'li Ilk pin* 1)11dHli

:/t Ap)/, 41,7)/rilti 'Tr, IA. I_1,1 /11 \0 11 ,IHrc11,) Atilt thni,11 It idc.10111_,Ottli codw lie produk. moic 11_, t.1 A111''44.,111,1(t. -11.1:1e 41014,4411 I %,(1,11t to t1, 1 tr.

1:1 tf in making, the needs of their students Isnon.%nneeded for the particular target group. For to \ e ample, some programs can he customized Cur/ u/n mice/a/ion. It takes nine for %ith % ()tabular!, and sentences relating to an innovation to he adapted and nalopteil in aparenting or to V. ord-processmg for the imam local program. As such, use of a no'. technol- mother oil plinliCils'skianCe. Our middle -aged tly. i' 'Alen ICV.t.'ll as a special event ratherman preparing list a 110.1. more mo- than part of the ongoing curriculum, "leacher,tivated to learn %%lien technical % ocahular, must 1-neconic so familiar NI, tth the instruction needed For a toh-trntining program is included at materials offeredis the computer that in the sott%% are. Our %%misplace literacy pro these materials can become part of the routinegranl that prepare,. state transportation laur- of Ms(' action, els for the Commercial Vehicle Drkers I /bile t /Iiinvc. When stuilcni use compact cense cram uses lion/Attu( I Pink to teach en, and ha\ e control ok Cr their learn technical \ !instead of inn, nigenalas. they hs.conne more independent.such as in t %%Inch is in the general pro- Sometimes teachers anal Rums tee! displacedgram). V. tae V. ere aide to teach wuenno and ll% the technolon. Training can (licit:lune I On/ /c in conteonall% tele% ant mluenci... these ant displacement anal in,tructois an important role In instruction(tut tuntlinSoll%$iire 1.Iriln1 Our imfenl in pre',Villing %%a'. not (0 L't triahly of the S4) V. are packages. Rather, %%e intended to Computers are finding their n.n.nl> into adult athgl 11'101111y Main N. that teachersIo prorrini,, pes. Sometime,. 'cc at a n.nlance hots, ,,p1.'Llfit: L:0111111grClidsoft inne.n.cer, Me,: ate not heing lased to lulltap,'.V, arc programs vita!, lie tt,eil. We sun,et that city. A [MUM' 1111111 ;cachets Is the teachers request pre\ neis copies heime mak. I,Itl, int appo Nor!Inv, di,. purchni,es to dilemma.. it the plogiann One resource Is the(hilt Hien atandapplicable to then students andIfIt is of .111 Fes lanoling l'enninte's pop' nate qualip Nen, coil...less. %%e Iha\e iden- onn-niter Co. line IiishopI)1lte, tulleIdle(' .1 101, outstanding progralft, liasedtin 107 San Ranann. ('A 0-1583. -1 I 5.83n- the (tuella of useful in iihnuction .1.:001, %%Inch otters annual soltv, ann.' and least dilltildt to use. These proinramsare imam!..ntoilcs and gum nem. .letter.Thenotev.orth% for Iht11 design and lie \ project ako sponsors an annual cintterenie atand \Olne otter the ITtitm of tenth; input %%kit the 1110-a reicnt is displayed /min u/uu/c:ct/ /es A min, .atinhoning Anollien lc-an:nice is the inde \ n, s% stem s teachers to create their in%% n hate created as an aid to teachers of adult,computer of print actin. ities Set oral %%Ian [wed to identil% nelati % Incipi insp. e pied'. of ',Mitt are 'Alin this Capacity are f.-/. sulk% arc for use v. ith 'carious I'ii itII .liftloilt17. In ~petit urs. Mc mato 1,,,,, n:3,, nit /, rls. frit, /iv, (rrti,,,, I 1, ',:int/.:t t. and \Vc partii Wad% I.Itur ult%%are that tan io.(1t./)/i/r;//,1/0/1//e/. cniioninzed (PI th.il PHIL nlc. 1111III-011Pillirmilt... /,.; tibt!hit' casts nn/g 1,t ',/)11%.%ale Wal:11/,I diV, ale V. Oh non the 1.0'0.. C11tr:1 fl.1t1/111' 111,11:'mat Hac.e lOcrat, pr,,ii,m1 !1'1:01 ado antage. Customiiing also alloy,. for indi- left. The next column. Teacher/Tutor Tools, % itluali/ation of the course ci intent to the stu- indicates v, hether the program can he cus- dents' goals and needs. Our selection includes tomifed or v, 'tether it has a mini-authoring ('mate Le %. ky I at thulary (iameA. '.\ .tens: custonnied programs alloy, teachers Penn State Adult 1.iterat s C'oursevivre,!,quare to insert special % ocabular in an alread.s,, l'airs. to( abv!ary and Lt on/At- established program such as an electronic tack game of hangman: mini-authoring s, stems tt Adapted v.ord-prlicessing or alit teachers to de% ise their ov,ri lessons, silltiAare can pro\ ale student,. V. Ilias in the bk/ivii/tr,t/i7cc/./m/y ( 'enter sof t- real V. riting experiences, such a' letter writ- xi. are xxhieli prox ides on-screen prompts. to ing or keeping journals or logs. With fern help those t', ho hate no programming expe- State ltlulll /tow( I Caul' wts ale and .Strcuet rience. it Hit tt tittrie, the teacher k able to tiecco, the 'I lue next column. Assessment 6:: Skills. student.' files to read journal entries and indicates, the .kill, assessed or taught. The make comments, Iluth skats. Math exercises are most rcle, Content column is subdi% ided as follows: \ant and ul %%hen the students are %%of k I. General basic skills content is basic ing tt, ith actual problems, such as those from skills material that possesses a literac, or the %,,orkplace or those 'elated to life skills. A inforinatiurnll C011telll, rather than content ke. to null% ming students is. to prox ide te- deri% et! from a specific occupation. le% ant and real prol)leins. 11 he 1 ollo%% 2. Workplace basic skills refer to oho, programs are possible selections: (*eller) taught in the context t)I a job. A kcal her might

ltrtlanrtit.( and Bali's:: Set 1')i.- gi% e the ,-1,4,4( tdrura/.%loth 1utnr to students ,,ot (atonal .tlath Revicti Stith qr inteic.sted in farming-related occupations. lull moth I.It t lath tans. and .thith rather than encouraging those adults to learn (*elf 0'110'1 S. from an application that pro% ides onh, gener- leachers 1111,...111 softv.are ref icIA al basic skill. content. these progiank, keeping in inind that no soft Ji,h-doinam related skills relcis to con- %%ale pit Irl';1111 %kill he useful to es er, student tent related to a job or profession that is not or all literak: piograms. NVe hay e chosen to ficiessaril basic skills material. such as tp- t'o'ot sold!, on instructional arc pro- ing skills for clerks and knov.ing hod!, parts III tin, 'HAIM; ,1111111C for healthcare %%orkers and rules of the toad database. and preadsheet programs can also for truck dike's. he used to (allot instruction to the needs of The rest 01 the categories should he self nth% Ulna] students. publicatio'n's.tich as et (dent. The numbers in the far right column poll,tt, Rot(lim, tt ritim: letu he r'% tt ord indicate here the softy. are prligrallis cant he l'rof (l)moriti,,It 1I 4-IN9 1. Itle obtained and respond ft, the numbers on teacher, in lima. to use tools in adult lit- the list of publishers in Figuic INiite: These crac adiresses v. ere current as tit Mall h 19911 Ili'.. Nliiiti When using this gunk. lister automancial- III time 111,1111%. the HOC,. t.1 (Ile ,,()Ittt I% thegilid Itecausi: elf possibk IlroC.r.tro', in the on the far '..1.1c11 as file follivAin,:

. , Figure 1 Adult Softliare Publishers/Distributors (U.S.)

I. 11\ 1%1 11 1)esign Ware (,1:445-2690 1ht.' National 111,41tute for 185 Berry St. P). Institute lor the Study of hi.11uition.tl Nlatenak San Francisco CA 9411)7 Adult Literacy 120 Driftmier ngineering 00-571-7767 Penn State tnil,ersity ( 'tr. 11 iltteationdl Acii plies, Inc. College of FAItication Athens G 30602 PO Bo\ 392 204 ('older Suite 209 40-1-5-12-2586 Freeport NY 11520 Stale C.)Ileve PA 16801 1hC1,11/ 8111).645 1719 514-863.3777 Publications 12. Filth:animal TeLlutologies. 'I)Island Sothk are 20 ConiniciLial BR& Inc. Ho\ 300 No% ato CA 94919-6191 1007 Whitehead Rd. F.\ t. GroN e NY 1 1755 ti(H1-421-7149 renlon NJ 08618 516-555-3755 \t( eaten, International 6119-882-2668 21. Learning I 'nlimited Corp. 1'0 Ilo\ 128 11 ulture.Ines 6512 Haunt Dr., Nu. II Indian Rot L, Reach 11. 1 ycate Pl./.t Klueo We TN 37919 34635-0128 Suite 505 5(5) 251(71'? 500 135-2614 Dubuque IA 521H11-9990 22. Nlar,Imiediii I.III Inc. 51in-553-485S 2501 I ;Bike fill PO lip\ 5052 14. I%it Puhli\hing Wilmington 1)1 I9';10 Shawnee N1i,su in KS Changim: Times Education 110-5.15- 7766 662(15 5 Career . \i Is 516-5211959 3(V) York 20417 Noirdholl St 2. . k.11 St. Paul N1N 55101 1)er. 7.9876 800 128. 115, 3.101) Le noon .1e N. CliatNy. orth CA 91311 St. Paul MN 55126 15. Fo,ti, \104.11a. 815-341-'515 612-451-3500 539 Stot.a0 \ e. 6. ('onduit 13(e,, 565 24. Micro Pov,er (I. Light Co. 111,2 Iona Garden Cu% NY 11530 12511) I fillcrest Rd. ()Adale C;impus 80(1-645-8'459 Suit: 120 lov.a City IA 52242 16 11,11110., ('Dorsett die, Inc. 319-135-4100 21)1111:2.111 1.17l,6,: 1-11)\ -111) 7. Collo% LI 2-i. Milliken l'iihlhinr 1,1) lio\ 155 1)iiriondolc N11 455'1 I )11 Research (hero \VI 54963 MO -17 -11'11 PO I30x 21579 414-685-5707 17. I Ioughton Mil (lin St. Louis NI() 63131-0570 5 Continental Pre-., PO 130v 681 520 East liaiiihridge 5t. 11 no\ er NI I 113755 1.11,,Ilicihnl; n j),.\ 17022 60.1 --145- 26. IN . 'INI -233 -07"1 IN Ideal I caininr, 111,- Fduc.!nonal 1)1\1,,ion '/.14.0.1(lson earc.,. 5005 Royal Lane I )e(it. 1). 3444 1)undee Rd. No0111,1(14 II. 6(4)62 31 35 kashit.,- a St. Suite 1311 5041-221-055-1 ()rhino: C.%1)11511-; Ir% mg! 7511))

21-i 92') 3201 p (I 1,011!11

1. 3 Figure 1 Adult Software Publishers/Distributors (continued)

27. N1ornitv Star .11. Sot Iv, liter. Development 35. Teach Yourself 11) PO Box 5364 Corp. Computer Sol-mare. Inc. Nladison WI 53705 4718 Ilarfoid Rd. 349 W. ('ommeicial St. S00.533-0445 Baltimote MI) 21214-9%8 Suite 1000 Optuntim Re.rrnRC. lnc. 8(H)-451-5726 I.Rochester NY 11445 10 S4010111'1. 32. South-Western 716-381-5450

Norfolk CT 06058 5101 Madison Rd. 36. Teacher Support Sod t m. are 800-317-1473 Cincinnati OH 45227 P() Box 7130 29. Queue. Inc. 800-543-7007 Gaines\ ille Fl. 32005 -7131) 562 Huston 33. Spin-A-Test Publishing Co. 800-228-2871 Bridgeport CT 066 I)) 3177 Hogarth Dr. 37. Ventura Educational 800-231-2 "4 Sacramento ('A ')5827 30, Scholastic. Inc. 916-369-1032 344 Brokenhill St, PO Bo\ 7502 34 Sunburst Communication, Nev.bur) Park CA 0 I 320 2931 East N1cCart) St. 39 Washington t \. e. 805-499-1407 Jellerson Cu) MO 65102 Pleasank ille N1 10570. 800-541-5513 22498 800-431-1934

Nladt for LhildrenA,, long tv, the pro- RyfereficeN gram k not insulting or childish, it canAsko\ 11980). l.tuluutlron «,niplitcr he used succe41111,r. II 'WS e We frrl what I( 111%,111( 11011 tit rl (01 I rr ltnrtrrl Nt iFinal Report ). A grade level too high Man> UM), cr,it) Park. PA: Institute tor the Stud) of show that ,,tudenf-, can read technical or Adult laterac). Penii,!.b.ania State work-related material at several grade 1,10o,F. N., firm n. t 1988 ). Attitudes of above their tested abilitY, (Diehl & adultlitera).) students and their teacher, tov.ard Nlikulechv. I940). computers for instraction liefore and atter use. Generic in content--Before deciding e(1111(11)1( the AMC! 4.r rui R(4.1(11/11; 11/1"11M. Muncie. IN: Ball State er.at:, againq a pat..ka!N, try to determine Nlacla). 131\1". Il. (1987 /. if it can he customised to .tudents need. Pc/in Soh adirti //tcr-m \ ,( %i to (//Vat Ion hy inserting eciali/ed vocabulary and parrnIc and children I Final Report ). Trio. ersit) content. Park. P.\. Iii,titutc Our the Stud) of .1 dull later- \Ve hope that Iiusing this guide teacher. ac). Penry,)ania State ersity. will (Ike(' er that computer ,..oftv, are can he E.N.. /X: Turner. T t11):--,9) Lomputer, an cllective tool for enhancing in.truction. fur teaching basic skills to adults. /.//cforre 1.«I, /216), 28 31 This matrix v. di enable adult literacy practi- LX: Asko, (1088). HI r1/11/1//1(') - tioner, to receive the bc.t value from the Lott- 1111( lIr 110,1 ntill(Itptrir t II '; are purchased. tedlol'el I Final Report). l'imer,11) Park.

..(0.. 1 7 4 PA: Institute for the Simi) ol Adult Literal:). Papagiannis. C'.. Williamson. N.. & Penns)1\ania State Cnix ersit). LeN1on. R. (1987). htforottmon re( hno/01;% (du/ Clark. R.E. t 198:34 Reconsidering research on edit( alum: 1 twill( anon% for the(/ (*seal ( h. learning from media. Revtets ft/ Lim at it,it and plarth e. ()ttay.a. ON: International 1)e)el- Research. 5314, 345-459. opment Rt.,earch Centre. Diehl. W.A.. iNIikuleck, L. (198(11. The nature Pollak. P.11959). 'Thu uadint; writim; nth ol reading at %tinr6. Itturttii/ tt/ Reath ftli;. 24, tiord it MII;(o/Up/Moll.1.'ni)ersit) Pad. , 221 227. l'A: Institute tor the Stud) of Adult I iterae). 1.et.t.iN, I.1 19581. Adult', and 1.1)11111(liel an\ Penns)kania State Uni)ersii). Fact or tiction.'/J/c/ont;etirninct, //tIo. Turkic, S. 1 1984. l ilt \e, Not, 1 ork 12. Simon & Schuster. Nlacla). ('.N1 ,/Askm.. I. N.11957). ('oirmtitel- aiLlcd instruction for Mom aitd 1)ad. Roc., tn'turner, T.C. 119584 An to. co, ol computers in N, lh r Whi -111 I. 55 92. adult literacy pro..trants. 1,11Cittlf1; Leal Nlacla). ('.N1.. ston., E.N. 11985). Computers MS,. 9-13. and adult hcginning readers: An inteigenera- 'I urn r. T.C., Stockdill, S.11. tF.dsi (19871 /in tional /if( font? /.ctirmite, /RS). 23 2'3, lechttit/ot; V /Or /./frititp/ )/(Tt It a/Ili/Min St 15. Paul. N1N: St. Paul Foundation.

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II., 4 / ' ' . N . ...t. / ' 1 0 _i !- 0 I I II. ""t 1 0 II II I 1I I rotmitelr Ta'tutor ola kowornefil & ',kills ... CoT)teril..... - In9 IfutliOri MOliltd rIstorri floquirernto19 V,orkplm 4. & loth% of ...... %dolt 11.1,4ii Likill% ., '7 4 a e Llfitvart. AmilIMINIMMIIIIIIIIIIMINII 1 . I 401 1 ! 1 . . . ft410 , 40lb 40 C 01 ...._...... 1 $,,. 40 i lb -- IP Il Olt c...... YIP - -1 0 ...-....4 0 410 ....I I'd _ 0 ' . 40 , 44 40 III , 40 II iill III 06 ID; I'vo:ttpr e. !,1611,4 Cows ni IfLi Irticliori it, lot Ascrs!)ffiptil . Mpg' od t;yslem Floquirements Irdo. ()I ef. . . , VIII-1..plat l' , . . AtItil! liar le !,1,1114 1,(Iflwate , . ... ' ' . A 0 1 * Ill V , : . i , . . ' 0 I , ill! --, , : I J t I - 1. 0 0 0 I ...._, MI II eli 1 A...4 an... ._. 1111 I el ' ' ' : e II f , . II I, I1.1 ...... a I I 'al I teacher rotor Assessment & Skills ,-.-, Content Instruction Method System Requirements , ..1.2g1L...... F. .. , :6 1 dull 13 Workplace & Index, of I( .,1,111s . , . ..- ,, .! A Software .- '. sf ; .4 ' 0 I I 1111IIIII 'MC 2lc ) 0 fl. 1 16 .... IDfra .....,...... lo:6 ,..,. , ,, , , 0 ...... _ ,. n; ;!'.! .1 J;! tr)ri IIIi5 Pe, '1 SI tt,, tremendous benefit in the learning of lan- Technology guage processing in reading and writing. The urgency for print literacy today is unique in that approximately 70(.'( of content- p()rary jobs require literacy. Furthermore. at Adult. Literao in a the rate that information douhle, today (every 20 months) and the rate it is projected to dou- Multi literate Sociel) ble by the year 2000 (every 20 weeks), print literacy will he a necessity for mere survival. For adults who are Illiterate or semiliterate. the computer has many advantages for im- proving abilities that could later he transferred SHERRY HILL HOW, IE to paper and print. With the goal of transfer- JANUARY 1990 ence in mind, there is no justification for fear- ing the demise of the book for primary them- e>. In a multiliterate approach. the objective islearning through a variety of ways. There are those who t that ours is a postliterate society. They fearThe Differences in Technologies that hooks are heing replaced by The technologies of the hook and paper technology and media. They be-and pencil appear to differ from the computer lie\ e such intimations as computers w ill re- in the ways they require users to think and place the need to read books to gain informa-to solve problems. Print offers activities of tion and to learn. Just as in thePhocdriodeductive reasoning that have the reader pro- Plato feared that the invention of the paperceed from general ideas to details in a linear. and pen to record ideas would destroy thesequential manner. Such reasoning is pre- oral literacy tradition, writers such as Neilscribed by an author and is restricted to the Postman (1985) fear that the inventions oflimits the writer sets. On the other hand, tele\ ision and computer., will destroy ourNorton (1985 ) argues that certain software print literacy tradion. offers the opportunity to think in a different We once were predominately a preliterateway., one that may he closer to the way adults society. but with the invention of the printinglive and solve problems day by day. Problem- press, we became primarily literate. Thesolving software asks a user to reason induc- availability. of the computer today is changingtively by experimenting and asking "what if" its into a multiliterate society. one in whichto a problem rather than using "if-then- as in we learn and take in information in many dif-cause and effect sequencing in a linear hook. ferent w ays. The experimenter hypothesising "what if- Instead of fearing changes and decrying!mikes mistakes and learns from them. Seeing the passing of traditions. perhaps it is w iser topatterns and creating patterns and connec- understand technological innovations andtions allow the computer user to employ syn- prudently use them to facilitate and perutu thesis. to determine probabilities. and to use ate theattics Se believe in. InI ether er ),),ords, intuit i\ e reasoning. The user operates in an computers as language processors can he ofopen system that he or she creates rather than

.. 1.18 in one set (low n in black and white by the Figure 1 author. l'I Int-oriented COMpliter-OriClifed An example of such a software program atilt tire.s tit lil ine.1 would he It herein the 11I.is Carmen if-then SA hat if ,Sandiet;o:'by Broderbund Publishing. In this deductiN e inductke simulation, one that semiliterate adults could linear, sequential patterns and enjoy with help, the user becomes a sleuth connections tracking criminals across the world to specific closed s\ stem open s\ stem geographic points During the chase, the user tictie inieracti% e refers to an almanac of facts to uncover infor- .\daptetl from Norton II YK$ I. pp. 36 411. mation about the clues that are provided to the w hereabouts of the criminal. The paper hound almanac included with the programsolving tasks and may reinforce each other in has facts on flags, coins. goYernments. and allhelping people become literate. The kinds of else the sleuth v ould need to look up. Thethinking and problem soh ing they elicit from user formulates patterns to the criminal'sa user are not exclusive. but perhaps develop- heha ior. s)nthesizes information from amental. That means that if a computer pro- \ ariet\ of .Nources (bothideo and book), andgram provides an experience in problem solv- makes decisions based on inductive logic.ing that is preliminary to actual reading (a The program is recommended for groups ofproblem-solving process). then the experi- adult learners of varying abilities, so thatence may transfer to the actual literate experi- using it becomes a social experience as well. ence with print in the hook technology. The tw o systems of thinking are not the Using certain problem-solving software dichotomies that Norton (1985) presents. Athat pro\ ides this experience can aid an adult reader of hooks in the process of readingin becoming literate. Certainly. the software asks questions that are "what if.'' not solelyprogram described earlier offers the opportu- "if-then,- A reader searches for patterns tonity to think and solve problems preliminary the text that exist and s) nthesites informa-to reading. but it also provides a relevance tion. A reader makes guesses and uses intu-and a necessit\ f reading a hook (the ition to arrive at solutions to the problemsalmanac) to find information in order to solve the print poses. A reader tests hypothesesthe problems posed. and makes mistakes. correcting as more con- text becomes available. The reader reliesNeeds of Adult Learners finally on personal experience and back- The ability to read has a functional pur- ground knowledge to compose the meaningpose for adults. of course, in their jobs, in the text suggests. Perhaps the theory shouldmaking decisions on consumer products. in he that what Norton suggests as computer-reading safety and health warnings and direc- oriented actkities are actually ones that occurtions. and in assuring their rights as citizens. during a reading process and then are yalidat- Such functional competencies have been ed by engaging in the print-oriented actis.ities.detailed in the 1980 Adult Performance Level as shown in Figure 1. Study (Ail) out of "lexas ( Korol. 1985). and The point is that technologies of both hookthey do lime their place in teaching literacy and computer are compatible in problem- to adults.

1 8 7 .. 182.. Beyond just functional purposes, though.programs and tutorials that provide practice is the need to ''perpetuate an ongoing com-and drill in skills already taught. munication with life.- as Wolf (1977) con The second caution is related to the first: eludes from his survey of elderly adults. Heremember that the computer is not a substi- found that print literacy serves lifelong pur-tute for good teaching and does not replace a poses and fulfills specific needs in the lives ofgood teacher. An effective teacher prepares aging persons. Reading satisfies needs forplans. selects relevant materials, and proceeds entertainment. curiosity, cultural develop-to teach with educationally sound methods. ment. and companionshipnot only for theThe selected software should facilitate the older adults. but for people of all ages. Wolfplans and be part of a lesson being orchestrat- found. too. that reading was a w ay to main-ed by the teacher. w ho operates from a clear tain spiritual and community interests. Manyphilosophical approach (Howie.1988). adults needed to read in order to read the One approach, then, is the skills approach. Bible. Many wanted to read about oems andAnother is a problem-solving approach to people in communities where they lived. teaching literacy using such software as The most important purpose for print liter-simulations. text adventures. and problem- acy, though. is that it has a social functionsolving programs. Teaching literacy as prob- among adults. Individuals who read do notlem solving requires a student to hypothesize. isolate themselves socially (Steil-rg. 1972).predict, make guesses, and realize patterns to Wolf ( 1977) found that the adults exchangedreading and writing (Howie.1989).These are hooks, discussed them. and built social con-all mental processes of the mature reader who tacts around sharing ideas they gained fromfocuses on understanding and composing reading. Such adults were more active and ideas in text. This approach to teaching read- involved socially than those who did not read. ing is also based on a definite philosophy and Kozel (1985)eloquently describes this socialis one that is superior to the skills approach need of adults in his poetic definition of a lit- with adults. erate human being: "One soul, reaching out Figure 2 gi\es a limited list of current of the loneliness of the human condition toproblem solving programs that are suitable findthrough love another" (p. 162).and recommended for teaching reading to Books serve to fulfill life needs, not only ofadults. adults but of the young as well. Another caution to heed is that skills and ways of thinking on the computer do not au- Cautions in Iinthe Cifinpu ler tomatically transfer to hooks. The transfer has There are cautions to using the computerto be part of the teacher's plan, and the stu- to teach literacy to adult learners that have todents must he made aware of this goal of their he heeded before one may begin to considerinstruction by computer, not just left to infer the computer's adNantages. it. Good instruction, therefore, will focus on One caution resides in the area of selectionthe transference of problem sok ing, was of of the software itself: the teacher must havethinking, and acquisition of literacy skills, software that is compatible with the overalland will integrate the two technologies for the / teaching approach. For example. if one takes elopment of"print literacy. strictly a skills approach to the teaching of A final caution is that the teacher must he reading, then one will select drill-and-practiceaware of the effects of the software program Figure 2 Another student may learn best through lan- Software for Adult Use guage experience and would learn most with Simulations a word processor. Taylor t 198th described the trews frailNIFCC variations as Tool, Tutor, Tutee, and Toy. the Lemonade-- NIECC functions of the great array of software pro- Pres/dew Elect MicroMedia grams available. Problem solving Another advantage is the sensory involve- II here in the It aria 1.\ Carmen Sanaietti,:' ment provided on the computer. Instead of --Broderhund being entirely visual, as is a hook, software tl here in the I.'S,1 /A Carmen Sandiego:' can he tactile, visual, and even aural, if one Broderhund uses a voice synthesizer. People have differ- Memory Mateh---Hartle, ent learning modalities, and a multisensory Moue\ ' Money!--Hartley approach would benefit the majority of learn- Mem/A Bui/dim; 8/ockASunhurst ers as t.'T.ir learning strengths. Drill and practice If one ascribes to the theory of hemispher- Dr. Pcet's ic dominance- -that the right side of the brain That'sMyJabHartley is primarily visual and spatial while the left Word tlttackDavidson & Associates is predominately verbal and linearthen one may see that the computer would accommo- date hemispheric needs in its graphics nod text displays. on the learner, both affectively in meeting the Incontrast to the static hook, most soft- learner's needs for self-esteem and cognitive- ware programs are interactive with the learn- ly in developing thinking abilities and literacy er. The student has the opportunity to ask the skills. Usage of the computer should have aprogram questions. respond to it. and get positive learning effect. Not every adult will immediate feedback. Another advantage is he willing to use machines. particularly com-that the learner may control this interaction. puters. and they should never be forced to do its rate and repetition. through self-pacing. so. Most adults. however, will find using aThus, the learner may interact continuously computer a matter of prestige and a boost to with the program until mastery' is achieved their esteem and confidence. and feelings of confidence are given a boost. Continuous and timely feedback may he a Specific .1thantages tremendous aid to learning. A hook or a test Because of the tremendous variety of soft- in a class cannot give this kind of feedback: ware. the computer offers a wide variation in too frequently it is delayed for days so that techniques that appeal to different ways oflearning from mistakes is impossible. Be- thinking and learning. Each individual hascause of the interaction possible on the com- learning styles that vary but may he accom-puter, learning from mistakes and subsequent modated through the variety' of techniques thecorrections is a strong advantage. software offers. from drill and practice to A word processor provides excellent simulations to word processing. For example. advantages over using paper and pencil or a one adult student may learn hest throu''h role typewriter. Writers are freed to concentrate on playing and would benefit from a simulation.composing. knowing that they may easily

1 3 9.. scroll hack through their manuscript to re- screen's output and read at the same rate. This shape and edit their ideas later. Revision isis in contrast to a hook that is smaller and is simple %y ith a word processor. phy sically inaccessible to a group whose Adult learners will come to appreciate the members may not read the same page at the ephemeral nature of writing that appears on same pace. an electronic screen. with the realisation that it may he rethought and changed at any time. 11otkaliunal Technolo* No longer will language appear unmanipulat- The computer has many ad\ antages over able or unchangeableall one needs to do istraditional technologies in learning, thinking. push the delete key or move and replace text and problem solving. It still is highly molt a to change ideas. Language thus becomestional because of its novelty. It' reading and usable, mutable, and dynamic to the adultwriting are taught as thinking processes akin learner. to problem solving, then skills and experi- Probably the best advantage of the com- ences acquired on the computer should trans- puter resides in its social possibilities for fer well, with guidance. to the hook. Our goal learning. Current research in cooperative is literacy development with adult learners learning and grouping on the computerand, in a multiliterate society, we need to use reseals that learning is significantly enhanced technology wisely to perpetuate our values of w hen two or three students are grouped toprint literacy. The technologies now available share language and experiences in learning are compatible with and mutually supportive (Carrier & Sales. 1987). In such grouping, of the overall goals. students use language to generate ideas. become teachers to each other. and enjoy References their experiences more. Certainly, groupingCarrier. C.A.. & S,iles.CI C. 11987i.Pair verNus could also fulfill adult longing for social individual ssork on the acquisition of concepts in a computer-based instructional lessim.I Mr. interactions with other adults. Such grouping IhdfCompitter-Bwed Instructhm. 1-1(1). !I-17. counters a sense of isolation and anxiety I hm ie. S.H. (1988). Soils% are es aluation based on regarding formal learning. Furthermore. reading theory. i t,'Computer Using Educators' grouping deals with necessary aspects of .Ven %Leiter. lo(5). adult learning outlined by Mocker (1975) that I loss ie. S.H.(19891.Readini!. and oimpuf- differ from such aspects of children's learn- t lot- tmeeration. Needham Heights. MA: Ails n Lk.: Bacon. ing: (1) providing for student-to-student com- Kivu!. J. (19851. /Hite, ate Imeri( etNess York' munication that recognizes the experience Ness American Library. and knowledge of each: (2) placing responsi- Mocker.D.W. (1975).Cooperatise learning bility for learning on the students to foster proves,: Shared learning esperience in teaching independence: and (3 ) having the teacher adults to read../imina/,,fReadme. IS. 449-444. ilY41111t the rule of colearner rather than con- Norton. P.I985). Prohlem-solsing actisitie in a troller of all knowledge. computer environment: A different angle of Cooperative learning may he the best /://uratumo/ Ic(itniiitio. 25, 36 41. Postman. N. (1985). .-1mucim; (lunch c to death. method to meet learning and social needs of Ness York: Viking. adults. The computer. v. ith its screen at a Steinberg. II. (1972). Books and readers as a sull- conilortahle distance. aflords this possibility ied of research in Europe and Anemia. Inferno- to a group of people who may share a single Itonal So tat rein, e .1(mrnal, 2-1,753, 190 Tamar. R .II )'m. 1/homputer in the little training who are usually encouraged to 10,1. !tiler Nev. 'fork: Teacher, College use only their sponsoring agency's materials Pre,. (Hunter & Harman. 1979: Rogers. I 987). Wolf. I 197' e. \\ilia is reading good for' Per- spectie, ior %,,..11,01.011,01.,. If ;10 /hi/ kethioi!:. This article offers a more modern alterna- 21,15 I. tive for adult literacy instruction, one that \ keep the adult returning for learning-- computer- assisted instruction (.\1 which provides a pragmatic way of developing the emergent literacy skills of adult readers and o e rItit I0 g y writers. When computers and appropriate software hi.!%.! been used v. ith adult learners, both increased achievement (Askov & Turner. 1989; Wangberg, 198(,) and higher atten- Interacthe Computer- dance (Turner & Stuckdill. 1987) ha%e been reported. In one program at an urban adult lit- Assisted Instruction eracy center. evaluation revealed that com- puter instruction was no more e\pensiv... than traditional instruction, and that more than the with Adults anticipated number of students were served t Turner & In this article. we will first discuss types of cm formats that engage adults in holistic, ROSLYN FINNE(;1s4 concept-driven instruction. thereby providing RICHARD SINARA meaningful and useful literacy situations. OcronER 1991 Next we will describe specific software pro- grams useful for adults functioning at three diffeient lock of readin4 proficiency.

Adub literacy programs face a mul COttiptilers Meet %dulls' Needs titude of problems: in the (Trilled Modern (' -\I programs engage students in a States they attract less than 7r'r ofvariety of reading and writing activities. usu- the illiterate population and theyally centered on themes of high interest and must provide for widely differing reading ley wide social applicability. The inherent priva- els among their adult students (Park. 1987):cy of computer use allows adults to work at they suffer from lack of both funding (Asko%their ow n !eve) and proceed at their own "rumen 1989 and age-appropri ate materi-pace. als (Vangberg. & Reutten, 1986): their tutors, Specific needs of the weakest learners can though dedicated and well intentioned, oftenhe met through computer programs that use lack the skills necessary to leach and moti-language experience II LA). I Itcan he used vate adults (Rogers. 1987): and the drop -outinitially to create holistic. age-appropriate rate is esareniel. high, ranging from 50'; totext based on the learners' experiellUts and

1W i (Pal , 1987), "lotemer. instruction is language patterns. The use of their ow n oral strongly skill-based, presented by tutors withlanguage facilitates leading of text,while

.191.. content based on their own experiences pro Adults weak in literacy are denied access to 'ides immediate interest. familiarity. and ulti-so much of the world. and they may he under- mate success. With LEA. reading and writingstandably anxious about computers. Once are depicted as meaning-making experiences.they experience the case of using a computer, so adults change their concept of reading andthey are eager and highly motivated to con- writing as the learning of discrete skills.tinue learning. Furthermore. computer know- Skills can he taught as the need arises, natu-how provides opportunities to explore and rally and within the context of students' self-upgrade job possibilities (Askov & Turner. generated texts. 1989). This knowledge is useful in daily life In one functional literacy program, the useas new technology changes everyday func- of software based on the language experience tions, from using a hank machine to search- approach with adults reading at abrmt the 5thing through a library's computerized card grade level resulted in an merage I -year gaincatalog. in ability after just 22 hours of instruction. Lle \ en adults in the control group completedBenefits of Holistic C11 the same number of hours of instruction with- Computer-assisted instruction is not de- out microcomputers and showed no grade-signed to take the place of the teacher or of le \ el increase in reading (Wangberg. 1986). group learning. Computers and software are Some software programs allow for branch- effective when they are integrated into a more ing to differing ability levels, so students are traditional instructional program. Preparatory not totally reliant upon a teacher or tutor toand follow-up lessons are pertinent to the ulti- check their work before they continue (Askov mate success of CAI. For best results, teachers & Turner. 1989: Turner. I988). Other pro-and tutors should receive training in the grams provide correct answer, to preventspecilics of a given program and also in ways frustration. while others sill not proceedto integrate programs into job- and life-relat- unless the student inputs the correct answer. ed language activities. In both cases, the student is prevented from Computer-assisted instruction can take proceeding with faulty information and incor- a \ ariety of formats. Unfortunately, much rect assumptions. This is an extremely valu-educational software is based upon miscon- able feature. for it prevents the reinforcementceptions about the reading process. Many of misconceptions (Sloane. Gunn. Gordon. & software developers adhere to a bottom-up Nlickelson. 1989). approach to reading instruction and produce One of the most significant features ofsubsk ill-based programs and reading activi- using computers in adult literacy programs ties that focus solely on literal comprehension is the sense of empowerment theyprovide(Reinking. 1988-891 and decoding. These (Turner. 1988). The adult has control ()I' his orprograms often employ a drill-and-practice or her learning, and accomplishments becometutorial format pros iding the same sort of more meaningful. lay accepting responsibilit\ reading activities that these students have for educating themsek es and by controllingfaced in skillhooks. Instruction that focuses the pace and lc \ el of program accomplish-on islated skills taught out of meaningful ment. adults become empowered to succeed. contexts may not only frustrate adult learners Learning computer skills also brings thebut w ill reinforce erroneous beliefs that read- adult learner into the kk urld of the future. ing is the abilit \ to sound out words. rather 192 M7.. than a meaning-making process (Jones,1981: they are similar to film and television because Nickerson,1985). they draw the student into an alternate reality, The software formats which we will nowsimulations have the added feature of involv- describe engage adult learners in more ho-ing the student as a participant. not strictly as listic literacy interactions while promotingan observer. They are also an excellent means higher level thinking skills. Adults becomeof fostering group interaction (Balajthy, engaged with program scripts and use lan- 1984). guage to discuss, plan. and solve problems Simulations generally provide background (Bork. 1985). Such holistic, concept-drivenknowledge for the learners, but they require formats are ideally suited for an adult literacystudents to read carefully and to make deci- program that uses computers. They capitalizesions. They foster prediction and evaluation on adults' extensive vocabularies and wealthas students examine the outcomes of their of background experiences, and providedecisions. In one program, students became learners with a purposeful context in which toso fascinated with simulated worlds that they learn. These programs construct meaningdid not realize they were reading (Willing, within the contexts of both verbal and non- 1988). verbal messages, develop higher level think- Databases, spreadsheets. and graphs are ing skills through language activities that nur-tools to manage and organize information. ture discovery and creativity. and showYates and Moursand(1988-89)say these pro- reading and writing as meaningful modes ofgrams provide learners with alternate ways to communication (Sinatra, 1987). represent or solve a problem. Adults discover how the representation of information chang- C.11 Formats That Enhance Instructiones one's perspective. In an adult literacy pro- Interactive fiction and interactive storygram, these tools can he used for a multitude collaboration involve readers in programs by of practical purposes, allowing for easy trans- allowing them to discover various twists andfer. Used in small and large groups. they pro- endings for the same story. Students' choicesvide much interaction among students. drive the action, thus fostering motivation. Databases can he used to store such things Interactive story collaboration allows the stu-as word banks, traveler's tips, and movie re- dent and the computer to form a composingviews, and to chart individual progress. For partnership. The computer presents the storyinstance, students can access a database file to structure, and the student, as reader andsee if anyone in the class has visited a particu- writer. composes and alters the final product. lar area. After reading the traveler's tips, they Text adventures engage students in a story,can write a note to the traveler (using the word game, or simulation. The student must useprocessor) requesting more information. reading skills to locate information in a refer- Spreadsheets can he used to assist adults in ence hook and input the correct answer, or the budgeting their household expenses. Although adventure cannot continue. Because studentsthe computer performs the numerical compu- are focused on completing the text adventure,tations. students must grasp the underlying they perform the tasks eagerly. (Broderbund'sconcepts of mathematical formulas. popular Carmen Sandicgo series, for exam- Graphs allow students to see familiar pat- ple, uses this text adventure format.) Simula-terns so they can determine problem-solving tions model real and imaginary worlds. Whilestrategies (Yates & Moursand, 1988-89).

193'..t88.. A word-processing program is a most ally literate"for our purposes, those operat- valuable asset in the adult literacy classroom. ing at about an intermediate-grade level of Word processing enriches LEA by providingreading (Grade 4 or 5). These adults can read the instructor with a tool for taking dictation and write with some success, and when chal- while producing highly readable text. Within lenged with interesting material, they quickly minutes of dictating a story, the adult is pro-become more proficient. The software at the vided with the written account. Additionalthird level is useful for adults who are quite copies can be used to create sentence strips. competent but who cannot meet the require- Incorporating writing into an adult readingments of advanced schooling or of a techno- program capitalizes on the strong relationshiplogically advanced marketplace (particularly between reading comprehension and written in the area of written organization). composition while accessing the adults' Especiaily at the beginning level, we wealth of information, interest, and experi-include only those programs that do not ence. By using word processing (and perhaps demean or embarrass adult students. Since desktop publishing) to integrate reading and these programs were generally produced for writing, adults become adept with the new young novice readers, it is their adaptation for technology in a creative atmosphere. Theadults that provides the key to successful nature of both word processing and desktop implementation. Figure 4 (at the end of this publishing programs alters adult learners' article) provides sources for obtaining the spe- views about writing. They learn to focus on cific programs [current as of October 1991] as the process. not the product. With the com- well as details on the compatibility of the soft- puter as partner, writing becomes a painless, ware with various computer sy:lems. recursive process, since the word-processing Beginning-level software. Word-process- format allows the writer to revise and evalu- ing programs (with and without graphics) can ate work in progress. The learner becomes farhelp new adult readers build a sight vocabu- more comfortable with actual composing and lary, practice new vocabulary, and use context thinking because the software is responsible to read fluently. Although many good word for the mare mechanical aspects of writing. processing programs are available, the Language Experience Recorder (Language Sofhs are for Levels of Experience Primary series) provides the Learners teacher and student with an analysis of each After successful work at the St. John's story written with it. This includes the num- University reading clinic with adults func- ber of words and sentences used, frequency tioning at differing reading levels, we haveof repeated words, and the readability level. an-anged ('Al programs into three general lev-This information can he used in planning off- els. (The levels correspond roughly to threecomputer activities and charting student levels of reading and writing achievement progress. The stories can also he printed in demonstrated by adults during diagnostic large type. intake.) "Beginning-level software" includes The same series' Make-a-Flash program programs appropriate for adults traditionallyallows a teacher or tutor to create individual- considered "illiterate"those scarcely able toized printed flashcards to reinforce quick read or write. The second level encompasses recognition of sight vocabulary. In addition, software useful for those who are "function- the computer acts as the teacher by testing

189..19 4. and evaluating the student's knowledge ofture. enriching both her comprehension and specified target words. word reading. Sentence Starters and Great Beginnings, Monsters and Make-Believe gives the illit- also of the Language Experience Primaryerate adult an opportunity to use vocabulary series, use pictures to aid the reader's inter-as body parts are chosen to create a monster. pretation of text. With Sentence Starters, theThe adult can then write or dictate a story student inputs words to complete simpleabout the monster, which can he printed nd sentences on related topics. After choosing alater read aloud to the learner's own children. topic through a picture clue in Great Begin- Snoopy Writer contains a simple word- nings, the student is shown several relatedprocessing program that offers the student the words that will be used to generate sentences.option of choosing an illustrated setting along Both programs allow students to choose pic-with a sentence starter to begin the story. tures to illustrate their sentences, and the fin-Stories and graphics involve the familiar ished product can he printed. Synthesizedcharacters from the Peanuts comic strip. speech is an option for the entire series: this The Explore-a-Story series, ,Story Maker. can help students with limited sight vocabu-and Once Upon a Time help extremely low- functioning readers develop a sight vocabu- lary to work independently. lary. Learners select words to name objects Story Builder is a multilevel program that on the screen. They can also input text to label uses an interactive tutorial format to teach objects. form sentences, and create ongoing sentence elements and the relationship of stories. As students become more capable. sentences within a paragraph. As the student they can create elaborate scenes using a vari- selects elements to form an initial secnce, ety of pictures. Such scenes can serve as the graphics are added to illustrate it and provide impetus for writing descriptive text. Figure 1 a setting for a developing story. shows how our 19-year-old student created A number of programs designed for chil-two lines of text to accompany her picture dren. such as Story Maker. Once Upon a story. Time, Monsters and Make-Believe. the As their sight vocabularies improve, adult Explore-a-Story series, and Snoopy Writer.beginning readers will enjoy using The Se- are nonetheless well accepted by beginningmantic Mapper (Package B). which is specifi- adult readers and will help them become cre-cally designed for these learners. This pack- ative writers of stories. These interactive pro-age aids teachers and students in the creation grams also allow for the creation of text fromof semantic maps for individualized areas of graphics and the matching of graphics withinterest. Student. will learn to organize their text. Thus, in addition to providing experi-new words according to central topics and ence in writing extended. illustrated stories.subcategories. these programs on a simpler level can help Thinking Networks for Reading and Writ- adults lacking sight vocabularies match anding also uses the concept of semantic map- label concepts to a visual representation. Forping to develop reading, writing, and thinking example, one 19-year-old student in our clin-skills through high-interest narratives. After ic did not know the meaning of the wordreading a short story on a text card, the stu- barn. When she ty ped in the letters of thedent helps build a semantic map of the story word. Once Upon a Time provided the pic-by choosing the title, major events, and sup-

1 Figure 1 Using Software to Build Sight Vocabulary and Comprehension

It

III

I SEE THE CHICKEN IN FRONT OF THE BARN. THE CHICKEN IS ORANGE.

Screen from Once Upon a Time reproduced b permission of the publisher. Compu-Teach. 'The technolo- gy has been updated since this illustration.]

porting details in sequential order. As the stu-tunity to use the new words in a doze pas- dent makes correct choices, each event is sage. During the"Author's Apprentice" and recorded in its proper slot in the map."Creative Writer" program segments, stu- Through the use of the map configuration, the dents are asked to retell their original stories student learns a format for narrative storyin their own words or to compose new stories structure. which will help later when students using the skeleton map as a visual guide. Any write original stories with the program'sword processor can then be used to create and "Creative Writer- portion. revise students' compositions. The "Word Challenge- section of the pro- Intermediate-level software. The Story- gram helps students develop vocabularyteller, TalesofMystery, TolesofDiscovery, understanding through context, offers prac- and Tales of Adventure are of the interactive tice in remembering new vocabulary through fiction and story collaboration type of soft- a tachistoscopic flash, and provides an oppor- ware. They provide high-interest stories with

..191.. 196 multiple twists and endings, chosen ny thery. Both programs develop critical thinking student through regenerative branching. skills by asking the student to choose provi- Because the student innuts his or her namesions and map routes for the long trek across and that of a friend to provide names for theuncivilized land. This approach requires stu- characters, the stories are personalized. Theydents to consider potential consequences are humorous and engaging, and students willbefore they act. want to plot their choices so they can pick Scholastic's Microzine series provides alternate branches when they return to thestudents with a variety of programs of differ- program. ent styles. Each edition in the series includes The Playwriter series also allows the stu-one or more simulations plus exercises in dent to collaborate with the computer to cre-other formats such as interactive fiction. ate stories. In answering open-ended ques-electronic billboard. word-picture process- tions, the student may select from prepareding, games. and introductory programming choices or input several lines of text to form atechniques. more creative answer. All answers chosen or Grolier produces a group of programs that created are intertwined in a continuing storyinstruct students in the use of management to form chapters of a hook. tools, followed by practical and creative ap- Treasure Hunter and The Secrets of Sci-plications of the tool. They are well planned, ence Island, two text adventure programs. re-effective programs and would be an asset to quire students to use context clues to locatean adult literacy program's software library. information in accompanying high-interestGraph Master teaches the use of picto- reference hooks. Correct answers increasegraphs, bar graphs, and pie graphs. Students scores and allow text adventure games to pro-can compare the representation of data in ceed to higher levels. While some adults maydifferent graphs: in creating graphs. they not find the game approach particularly chal- learn the relationships between verbal and lenging, they will enjoy searching throughnonverbal representation of data. I nfor reference materials and reading nonfictionMaster teaches the uses of databases simply passages. and effectively. The practice section offers Mystery Mazes is a fun simulation thatmultitrack branching, and allows students to asks students to become detectives and usesee if they have mastered the concept. The clues to find a master criminal. As studentslimited number of fields demands careful read selections to build background informa-decision making. as students choose the per- tion, they learn to extract pertinent clues.tinent classifications of data to include in a They then write these clues in their detectivegiven file. Both programs allow printing of notepads, ,o he used for decision making. finishc j products. .Super Solvers Midnight Rescue is another Thinking Networks for Reading and challenging simulation. This program re-Writing offeis another level of programs quires reading from literary selections, res-using semantic mapping in conjunction with ponding to clues, and answering comprehen-informational reading (generally pertaining sion questions. to science, health. or social studies). The The Santa Pc' Trail and The Oregon Trail"Theme Programs,- consisting of reading allow the student to experience the hardshipsselections ranging from 3rd to 9th grade lev- of life in the United States in the 19th centu-els, model a visual representation of ideas 197 . 1<92.. found in expository reading. The map is de-tion relates superordinate, subordinate, and veloped when the adult selects correct answerscoordinate ideas. based on the text reading. Following up with the "Author's Appren- The map displays the main topic of thetice" and "Creative Writer" routines of the reading selection in a large center box. Theprogram, the adult uses skeleton map outlines four categories of information relating to theto plan and write thematic reports. The woid- central topic appear in smaller boxes branch-processing component helps the adult com- ing out from the center box, and the subordi-plete the reading, composing, and writing nate information within each category iscycle and transform the visual-verbal map linked to the appropriate category box. Onceinto a well-developed, organized essay. the adult has worked through the program he The Children's Writing and Publishing or she begins to see how expository organiza- Centeroffers a menu-driven, desktop pub-

Figure 2 Desktop Publishing

REAL ESTATE NEWS Real estate is a great business where you can make a lot of money. One of the pleasures of being in real estate is that your routine changes. You meet new people everyday. You meet new people when they want to list their house for sale, or when they want to buy a house. You get tosee new properties and you never get stuck sitting in your chair.As a real estate salesperson, you have more freedom thanother ,jobs.Real estate agents' responsibilities are showing people houses and Icoking for properties to sell.They tr--1'co get the seller and the buyer to come to an agreement. They try to ee tthe seller to fix all the problems in the house before

Screen created usingThe Children s It and PuhliAhing Colter.Reproduced by permission of the publisher. The Learning Company.

19:i 198 lishing program that is ideal for both childrenOpinion Paper provide extensive practice in and adult new readers. Adults can create andstrengthening the elements of writing with illustrate newsletters, reports. stories, and let-various types of texts. Writing an Opinion ters by choosing from many type styles andPaper has some word-processing capability, sizes and from over 150 pictures. The pro-allowing students to complete an outline of graro can also import graphics from severaltheir first draft on the computer. Figure 3 other published sources. Figure 2 illustratesshows how one adult organized the compo- how rewarding this simple-to-use programnents of a paper on a controversial topic. can be for the adult who is developing litera- What Do They Do in Ougadougou is an cy skills. Benjamin began in our reading clin-engaging program in game format. Through a ic some 7 years ago as an adolescent with avariety of cultural, geographic, and economic third grade reading level: he is now a youngclues, students learn about the similarities and adult searching for career possibilities. Hedifferences of life in other countries. Under- collaborated with his tutor to write, select clipstandings of people from various cultures are art, and lay out the visual presentation ofenhanced, and adults learn information on 20 "Real Estate News," the first page of which iscountries. shown. Farewell Alaska and Hospital are text Advanced-level software. viticc's interac-adventures that require students to locate tive writing tutorials Writing a Narrative.information in the Encyclopedia Americana. Writing a Character S' etch, and Writing anResearched information is then entered to continue the text adventure. Each program contains 20 high-interest episodes that focus Figure 3 on the exploits of four characters. Outline for an Opinion Paper A number of simulations involve adults in Topic: different levels of decision making and are Coiarolling drunk driving excellent for individual or group use. Annam asks the student to become the ruler of a Various aspects: The government should pass tougher laws to mythical Third World country and make diffi- punish drunk drivers. cult decisions affecting personal popularity People who allow drunks to drive should he and the military. The adult has the opportuni- arrested. ty to view the U.S. from the perspective of a developing nation. Question: Should the government pass tougher laws to Lincoln's Decisions and Washington's punish drunk drivers? Decisions draw the student into a historical context. The student must "become" each Opinion: president and make difficult decisions based Tougher laws are needed to punish drunk drivers on the social. economic. and political influ- and prevent accidents. ences of the time. The programs are challeng- Reasons for opinion: ing and informative and require thoughtful Most car accidents are caused by drunk drivers. reading. Most accidents are caused by people who have The Colonial Merchant transports the been stopped many times for driving drunk. adult to the explosive years before the Too many people drink and drive! American Revolution. In his or her role as a

19 9..194.. merchant, the adult experiences the econom-can work together or individually to create ic frustrations that the British imposed onnewsletters, reports, advertisements, personal some of the North American colonies in theletters, flyers. and invitations. By determining 18th century. page layout, graphics, fonts, md text, stu- Note Card Maker and The Americanadents learn to create documents with profes- Topic and Research Finder guide studentssional flair. through some of the essential steps in orga- Many more sophisticated word-processing nizing data for research papers. With Noteand tool application programs (Word Perfect, Card Maker, students learn to create a bibli-Appleworks. MacWrite, and MacDraw are ography and individual note cards. Thejust a few of the good ones) are available for Americana Topic and Research Finder aidsadult learners to use in a literacy center or at the student in choosing a topic for researchhome. However, even highly literate adults and then teaches the necessary steps in focus-often need to take courses to learn to master ing on and organizing a paper. After finishingthese programs. the program. the student has a working out- C011ipti ers Pro% ide Possi bi i t ies line and a list of sources to examine for fur- ther research. Understanding the special characteristics. Edu-Cal is an excellent program forneeds. and interests of adult learners is a nec- teaching the uses of a spreadsheet. Althoughessary component of a successful literacy it is more complicated than any of the otherprogram. Interactive computer-assisted recommended software, it would he of greatinstniction is not only conducive to providing value to adults and could be taught and prac-a holistic, meaningful approach but is also ticed in a group setting. In selecting the texttailormade to fit the many needs of adults at for the rows and columns of a spreadsheethome, in the community, and in th.. work- and by deciding which mathematical formula place. to use, adults are involved in determining It is dot necessary to stock each literacy relationships between items and using appro-program with all the software recommended priate problem-solving strategies. in this article. Even a single program from WordbenchStudent Edition is both aeach category will provide many reading and sophisticated, menu-driven word-processingwriting opportunities for learners. A simple program and an organizing tool for writing. word processing program or one desktop Outlines, note cards, and bibliographies canpublishing program can provide a myriad of be created with the software: the outline and instructional activities, limited only by the note cards can be merged into the text of acreativity and ingenuity of the instructor. document, providing the basis of a roughModern cm formats can transport emerging draft. Four brainstorming techniques areadult readers from print impoverishment to available, as well as a thesaurus and spell-an enriched world of communication. checker. Wordbench offers a lot of power for References minimal cost. Asko\ E.N.. & Turner. T.C. (1989). Using com- Publish It! is a sophisticated desktop pub- puters for teaching basic skills to adults. Life- lishing program. Icons and pull-down menus long Learning: An Omnibus of Prailice and Re- search. 12(6). 28-31. make the program visually appealing, and a Ritlaith. L. (1984). Computer simulations and tutorial is included for new users. Students reading. The Reading Teacher. 37. 590-591

2 Ci 0 .. 195.. Bork. A. ( 1981 ). Learning with computers. Bed- Mickelson. V.S. (1989). Evaluating educational ford. MA: Digital Press. software -A guide Pr teachers. Englewood Bork, A. (1985). Personal &minuet-x.1i. education. Cliffs. NJ: Prentice Hall. New York: Harper & Row. Turner. T.C. (1988). Using the computer for adult Hunter. C.. & Harman, D. (1979). Adult illiteracy literacy instruction. Journal of Reading. 3/. in the ('nited States. New York: McGraw-Hill. 643-647. Jones, E.V. (1981). Reading instruction for theTurner. T.C.. & Stockdill. S.H. (Eds.). (1987). The adult illiterate. Chicago, IL: American Library leelo1010.1U .1.01. literacY project evaluation. St. Association. Paul, MN: St. Paul Foundation. Nickerson. R.S. (1985). Adult literacy and technol- Wangherg, E.G. (1986). An interactive, language ogy. Language. 19. 311-355. experience based microcomputer approach to Park. R.J. (1987). Three approaches to improving reduce adult illiteracy. Lifelong Learning. 9. literacy levels. Educational 11 ori:ons, 66, 8-12. 38-41. Wangberg. E.G.. & Reutten. M.K. (1986). Whole Reinking. D. (1988-89). Misconceptions about language approaches for developing and evalu- reading and software development. The Com- ating basic writing ability. Lifelong Learning: puting Teoher, /6(4). 27-29. An Omnibus of Practice and Research. 9(8). Rogers. J.J. (1987). Readability as a source of per- 13-15.24-25. ceived failure in adult literacy instruction. Life- K.R. (1988). Computer simulations: /low Learning: An Omnibus of Practice and Re- Activating content reading. Journal of Reading, .vearch. /0(4). 26-28. 31, 400-409. Sinatra. R. (1987). Holistic applications in comput-Yates. B.C.. & Moursand, D. (1988-89). The com- er-based reading and language arts programs. puter and problem solving: How theory can sup- Computers in the ,Sc hools, 4(1). 95-107. port classroom practice. The Computing Teach- Sloane. H.N., Gunn. C.. Gordon. H.M.. & er, /6(4). 12-16.

Figure 4 Sources (U.S.) and Compatibility of Software Program Publisher Compatibility

Beginning level Explore-a-Story series W. Bradford Publishing Apple 11 family 310 School St. Acton MA 01720 800-421-2009 Language Experience Primary seriesTeacher Support Software Apple II family (Language EAperience Recorder. PO Box 7130 Make-a-Flash. Sentence .Starters. Gainesville FL 32605 and Great Begim(ngs) 800-228-2871 Monsters and Afake Believe Queue. Inc. tum 338 Commerce Dr. Apple II family Fairfield CT 06430 Macintosh 800-232-2224

(continued)

201 Figure 4 Sources (U.S.) and Compatibility of Software (continued) Program Publisher Compatibility

Once (Ipon a Time Compu-Teach Educational IBM (and MS-DOS) Software Apple II family 78 Olive St. Macintosh New Haven CT 06511 Tandy 800-448-3224 The Semantic Mapper (package B Teacher Support Software Apple II family (see Language Experience Primary series) Snoopy 13'riter American School Publishers Apple II family PO Box 452() Chicago IL 60680 800-843-8855 Story Builder American School Publishers Apple II family (see Snoopy Writer) Story Maker Scholastic Software Apple II family PO Box 7502 2931 E. McCarty St. Jefferson City MO 65102-9968 800-541-5513 'Thinking Networks for Reading andThink Network Inc. Apple II family Writin,g (Narrative levels 2 & 3: PO Box 6124 Theme level 3) New York NY 10128 201-613-8977 Intermediate level

The Children's Writing & The Learning Co. most IBM (and Nis-Dos) Publishing Center 6493 Kaiser Dr. most Apple Fremont CA 94555 most Macintosh 800-852-2255 most Tandy Graph Muster Grolier Educational Software Apple II family Sherman Turnpike Danbury CT 06816 800-243-7256 brforMaster Grolier Educational Software Apple II family (see Graph Master)

(columned) 2 0 2 ..197.. Figure 4 Sources (U.S.) and Compatibility of Software (continued) hogram Publisher Compatibility Nlicrozine series Scholastic Software Apple II family PO Box 7502 H3M(from edition 27 on) E. McCarty St. Jefferson City MO 65102 800-541-5513 Mystery Ma:cA Educational Activities. Inc. Apple II family PO Bo: 392 Freeport NY 11520 800-645-3739

The Oregon Trail NIEcc Apple II family 3490 Lexington Ave. N. II3M (NIS-(X)S) St. Paul MN 55126 612-481-3500 Playwriter series Woodbury Software Apple 11 family 42 Nikki Court IBM Morganville NJ 07751 Commodore 64 908-972-9695

71w Santa Fe Trail Educational Activities. Inc. Apple (see Mystery Ma:es) 11351 Tandy. The Sec ret.% of Science Aland Houghton Mifflin Co. Apple 101 Campus Dr. Princeton NJ 08540 800-257-9107

The Storyteller Educational Activities. Inc. Apple H111114 (see .Mystery .lict:e.% I

Super .Solver. Midnight Re.scue The Learning Co. ((3M (and \1S -O((5o (see The Children' .s Writing Tandy & Publishing Center) Tales of...Adventure Scholastic Softw are Apple (see Microzine series) IBM Mies ofDim.m.cry Scholastic Software Apple II family

(see Microzine series) 113%1 Ta/es of,14.vstery Scholastic Software Apple II family (see Microzine series)

Ic ant nued 203 ..198.. Figure 4 Sources (U.S.) and Compatibility of Software (continued) Program Publisher Compatibility Thinking Networks for Reading Think Network, Inc. Apple II family and Writing (Narrative levels 4-6: PO Box 6124 Theme levels 3-7) New York NY 10128 201-613-8977 Trea.sure Hunter Houghton Mifflin Co. Apple II family (see The SecretsofScience Island)

Advanced level The Americana Topic and Grolier Ed,cational Software Apple II family Research Finder Sherman Turnpike Danbury CT 06816 800-243-7256

:1 nnanr Educational Activities. Inc. Apple PO Box 461 Commodore Coram NY 11727 TRs-80 516-223-4666 The Colonial Alerchant Educational Activities. Inc. Apple II family (see Annum) Edo-Calc Houghton Mifflin Co. Apple 11 family 101 Campus Dr. Princeton NJ 08540 800-257-9107 Farewell /Alaska Grolier Educational Software Apple II family (sec The Americana Topic and Research Finder)

)spital Grolier Educational Software Apple II family (see The Americium Topic and Research Finder) Lincoln A Decisions Educational Activities, Inc. Apple (see A /man/ ) IIIN1 Macintosh

Note Card Waker Houghton Mifflin Co. Ili NI (see Edu-Cale) Apple II family Commodore

204 (COntlinted) ..199..

or Figure 4 Sources (U.S.) and Compatibility of Software (continued) Program Publisher Compatibility Publish It' Timeworks Inc. Apple 444 Lake Cook Rd. 113N1 Deerfield IL 60015-4919 Macintosh 703-948-7626 Washington's Decisions Educational Activities. Inc. Apple (see Annum) 113N1 TRS-80 What Do They Do in Educational Activities. Inc. Apple Ottothntgou (see Annum) IBN1 Tandy Wordbench (student edition) Addison-Wesley Publishing Co. Apple II family Reading MA 01867-9984 IHN1 617-944-6479

Writing a Character Sketch N11-1C C Apple II family 3490 Lexington Ave. N. St. Paul MN 55 126 612-481-3500

Writing a Narrative NIECC Apple II family (see Writing a Character Sketch)

Writing an Opinion Paper NIECC Apple II family (see Writing a Character Sketch)

2 0 5 Tutoring

cc It is time to stop liming literacy as merely decoding graphemes and learning facts through text.. Literacy should be seen as learning to decode andaccommodate multiple levels of meaning through a complex system of social relations.

-NIcCoit NI, 1991, 119

Tutors collie with many educationaltional therapy model with Chad. a first-gen- philosophies: they also come in manyeration Italian American: and Meyer et al.'s ,cruises. Purcell-Gates, Meyer andstory of Norman, a 4-I-rear-old described in colleagues. and D. Annun:io all write of col-school as "slow.'' I found myself analyzing lege literacy centers in which literacy instruc- these four studies for keys to success. A11 the tion is provided by either graduate soulents in students learned after establishing a personal reading or undergraduate students. Nickse, relationship with ci tutor who worked hard on Speicher. and Buchek describe an intergener-bolstering the student's self-esteem: all ational beginning literacy program for par-showed great persistence: most learned hr ents and their children. Scoble,Topping, andfocusing, at least initially, on deficits or mate- Wigglesworth use family and friends of adultrials identified by themselves. Arthur reached literacy students. Regardless of the model. alla 61h- or 7th-grade level by starting with a tutors in these articles were in the literacygreat desire to learn to use a microcomputer, field or Invived special training. finding a personal friend in a tutor wholike Tutoring of illiterate or low-literate adultshimselfwas a black male in his 30s, and is perhaps best examined through case stud-participati»g in varied methods in 180 hours ies, and four are included here: Gipe et al.'sof instruction over 3 years. Jenny, over a 2- story of Arthur, ci nonspeaking adult male with year period, learned through the use of a cerebral palsy: Purcell-Gates's ethnographicjournal that she could write and read her own study of Jenny. an Urban Appalachian moth-words. Through an acceptance of her ''coun- ci: Scully and Johnston's use of an edited. trified words." the tutor was able to help 206 Jenny move to a level of functional reading. As with the history of methods studies (see, Chad was allowed to begin as he wanted to:for example. Bond & Dykstra. 1967). these with "sounding out and vowels.'' Over fifteenthree case studies do not point to a single 90- to 120-minute sessions of educational"correct.' method. They do, however, fit in therapy, he established a personal relation-nicely with some of Cambourne's (1988) on- ship based on trust with his therapist.ditions for learning. Aiways present were Following work on phonics and sight vocabu-serious attention to student choice, expeta- lary and more than 10 hours 0 week of inde-tions for success, and ample opportunity to pendent practice. Chad's anxiety was relievedapply skills. and, with that, he was able to read his own References mail, a series of short stories, and more. Bond, & Dykstra. R. (19O7). The cooperative Norman. as opposed to the other three, was research program in first-grade reading instru- tion. Reading Research Quarterly. 2. 5-142. never asked to memorize sight vocabulary. Cambourne. 19SS). The whole story: Natural His tutor approached instruction from a learning and the acquisition of literacy in the classroom. Richmond Hill. Ontario. Canada: whole language theory base. In less than one Scholastic -t year Norman moved to a 6th- or 7th -tirade .t11Collunt. P. (19911. Cros.%-cultural perspectives level and to reading 7 to 12 hours on his own On classroom discourse and literacy. In Ell. Iliebet (Edi. Literacy for a diverse society (pp. each week. 108-1211. Nev York: Teachers College Press.

207 Tutoring procedures were nonintrusive in the sense that they encouraged the learners to take con- siderable initiative in their pursuit of reading and writing competency. These were com- bined with the pervasive use of nondirective College Students as counseling procedures in an attempt to estab- lish an experiential, meaningful, whole-per- Tutors for Adults in a son learning situation. The adult learners were encouraged to set their own goals and determine how they should proceed. As is Campus-Based consistent with experiential learning, the tutors maintained a nondirective stance of Literacy Program unconditional positive regard in their partner- ship with the adult learners. Specifics of the Project The course, called Literacy Training and ANTHONY D'ANNUNZIO Participation, was limited to 15 undergradu- MARCH 1994 ate university students and was offered once each year for 3 successive years by the Department of Psychology/Sociology/An- thropology. The tutors, from second- to fourth- The Pennsylvania Literacy Corps,year, included a roughly equal distribution of under the auspices of the Pennsyl-academic majors with both sexes about equal- vania Department of Labor andly represented. The offering was a standard, Industry, has provided 3 years of10-week credit- hearing course in which 3 funding to 13 competitively selected collegeshours were spent in a classroom and 3 hours and universities throughout the state towere devoted to volunteer tutoring each week. develop innovative literacy projects involv-The Center For Literacy (cll.), the neighbor- ing college students as tutors. These effortshood literacy provider that offers a range of needed to include the development of part-literacy services throughout the greater Phila- nerships with local literacy-providing insti-delphia area, was selected as the Drexel part- tutes to offer standard credit-bearing coursesner since its own pedagogical philosophy was on literacy for volunteer college students andalso nonintrusive. to provide classroom and tutorial space on The cll. arranged to have 15 adult learners campus. come to Drexel for tutoring. Over the 3-year Within this mandated structure, Drexelprogram the learner population consisted of University, located in the city of Philadelphia.inner city African Americans. ranging in age developed a model literacy corps program.from 17 to 82, with both sexes about equally Salient features included the use of three non-represented. They were mostly working in intrusive instructional procedures. the lan-low-paying jobs that required few academic guage-experience approach (Ii individual-skills. They came for tutoring to "learn to ized reading, and expressive writing. Theread and write- and "better themselves.-

.203..2 0 8 After the Drexel tutors were interviewed torendition of each tutorial session as well as determine what sort of learner they'd prefertutor thoughts and reactions to each week's to work with (age and sex), each tutor wasencounters with the learners. tentatively matched with an adult learner Tutoring Gets Underwm whose own preferences had been determined during an admission interview conducted by After the two training sessions, the tutors the CFL. and students met twice each week for 1.5 The first 3 weeks of the course were devot- hours of tutoring. The pairs were encouraged ed to presenting the CFL'S standard tutor andto meet, at least initially, in a student lounge learner training program. During the firstwhere the project director was available to classroom session, only the tutors came. Theyprovide assistance. In many instances the were given an overview of selected chapterspairs continued working toward the tentative in a CFI. handbook (Pomerance, 1988) dealing goals they had set in the two training ses- with the discovering of student goals. usingsions. The tutors were encouraged to plan a the language experience approach (LTA).part of every lesson reviewing the adult learn- using individualized reading, and facilitatingers' interests or goals. expressive writing. For the duration of the 10-week tutorial During the second week, after the tutorsprogram, the tutors attended classes with the and learners were paired and had gotten ac-project director. During these classes the quainted, the CFI. staff guided the pairs throughtutors were given thorough exposure to the each chapter's procedures by demonstrationLEA, individualized reading, expressive writ- and actual tutor and learner practice. The set- ing. and nondirective counseling. Also, dur- ting of learner goals and use of the LEA were ing each college class, the tutors reviewed the completed. week's tutorial sessions. Discussions, demon- During the third session, the pairs werestrations, and comments concerning the pro- exposed to individualized reading and expres-cedures and tutorlearner interactions fol- sive writing procedures. Each of the steps inlowed. During a class segment the tutors took the individualized reading format was prac-turns presenting their journal summaries of ticed by the tutors and paired learners. Thisthe weekly tutoring sessions. This was fol- was followed by a get-acquainted introduc-lowed by class discussions during which the tion to expressive writing, including antutors asked the project director for additional suggestions and demonstrations on the use of attempt by the tutors and learners to set down a topic of their choosing in writing. Thosethe four nondirective procedures. More will he said of these sessions later. learners who did not feel comfortable writing Examples of tutoring sessions and the pro- were encouraged to copy the LEA story they cedural steps that were followed with three had just dictated to the tutors. different learners are provided to exemplify Finally, both the learners and tutors were the idiosyncratic nature of learner needs and introduced to the keeping of portfolios and interest. journals. Samples were provided. Each tutor was encouraged to use the portfolio, contain-The first learner. The learner in the first ex- ing all of the student's dated work, as theample. J i m was raised in a sharecropping basis for a weekly appraisal of learner perfor-family. At age 82. he had never learned to mance. The tutor journals contained a shortread. He quickly relayed to the tutor how 203 important the Bible was in his life and howdetermining his goals, significantly enhanced wonderful it would be if he could read it. Jimhis learning efficiency and self-image. brought in his Bible and the tutor read Once Jim was able to recognize 50 or so requested stories from it. words at sight, he was encouraged to select a The tutor asked Jim if he would like to dic-book he might be interested in reading, which tate his favorite stories. This introduced LEA introduced him to individualized reading. Jim (Cohen, 1981: Schneiderman, 1978: Stauffer.and his tutor met at a neighborhood public 1980). After Jim had dictated a story, the tutorlibrary where Jim became a member. Finding pronounced and pointed to each word as ita number of hooks relating to the Bible, he was written, reading the entire selectionleafed through each hook to determine which aloud. The tutor next pointed to each word.he would read, selecting one that did not pacing Jim as they read the story together.appear "too hard.- Jim read it to himself. At Jim then attempted to read the story to the this point the tutor engaged Jim in an individ- tutor while Jim underlined each word thatual conference, which gave the tutor the was recognized. During their next session.opportunity to observe Jim's skills in word Jim reread his story and again underlinedrecognition, comprehension. and oral and words he had recognized. Any word that wassilent reading. Within a week Jim selected recognized on two occasions was printed byanother hook and presented it to the tutor for itself on a separate sheet. a conference the following week. At the next session, the tutor used a win- The conferences provided the opportunity dow card to determine the ease and accuracyfor instruction in areas of weakness, as well of recall. Words recognized in isolation pro-as for guidance and support. Jim's tutor spent vide(' :he deposits for Jim's word hank. Eachtime discussing current reading choices and word was printed by the tutor on an indexthe progress being made. As is the case with card and placed in random order in Jim'sthe LEA, individualized reading is a basically index box. When the word bank exceeded 30 nondirective procedure. Through his self- words or so, Jim was introduced to alphabet-seeking, self-selection, and self-pacing. Jim izing and then to the dictionary. His wordwas allowed to take additional initiatives, hank was used as the basis for a variety ofwhich continued to increase his self-esteem word recognition activities, including theand academic progress. development of visual-auditory discrimina- The second learner.Another learner. Frank, tion skills, finding word families, composingbrought in maps of his statewide truck routes sentences with the word cards, and so forth. the first time he met alone with his tutor. The I.EA possessed some distinct advan-After spending some time with his tutor on tages for Jim. It made use of his own experi-map interpretation, Frank dictated a story ence and promoted reading as a byproduct ofconcerning the difficulties he had in access- his thinking and oral expression. Readinging unfamiliar truck routes and vocations. became easier and more enjoyable since theFrank knew most of the words in his experi- reading materials matched his language pat-ence story at sight. Frank had already, during terns and speaking vocabulary (Ben-Barka.the two sessions with the CR. staff, selected a 1982: Dixon & Nessel. 1983). This one-on-hook to read. He took it home to read, and a one personalized learning situation, in whichconference was conducted by the tutor at the Jim was permitted to take the initiative innext session. Having joined the public library,

.205.210 Frank brought a completed hook each week Frank and his tutor also continued their for a conference. During this time, he contin-map reading, and within weeks Frank report- ued to give LEA dictations. ed that he was having less difficulty using The tutor asked if Frank would like tomaps to find new locations. He continued write his own story, thus continuing Frank'sreading one, and sometimes two, books each storytelling through expressive writing. Theweek, with reading conferences during and at basic assumption here was that the most effi-the end of each hook. During the conference cient means of developing written expressionthe tutor spent time discussing current and was to have Frank write and write, the morefuture reading choices, reviewing. Frank's the better. The point was to encourage thereading records, checking comprehension of flow of written expres;ion, unhampered bysilent reading, and providing individualized spelling or correct English usage, so thatinstruction in reading skills (Spache & Frank would naturally acquire syntacticalSpache, 1986). Here too, developmentally facility and gradually attempt to use moreappropriate minilessons were given as the sophisticated construction (Blot & Davidson,need for them arose, including lessons on 1984: Parry & Hornsby, 1988: Rockcastle,such thinking skills as getting the main idea, 1986). sequencing. noting detail, summarizing, and Frank enjoyed rereading his initial para-so forth. graph-length stories aloud to his tutor. He didThe third learner.The learner in the last not write in sentences and his spelling showedexample, Louise, could read and write with phonetic guessing. As Frank read his storiesfair proficiency. She readily admitted to her the tutor would point out that periods shouldtutor that her major problem was herself. be placed whenever he came to a natural haltNow in her early 40s. Louise saw little hope in his oral reading. thus providing a quickof ever getting out of her present rut, having mini lesson. Developmentally appropriatebeen a cleaning lady in a business office for minilessons continued as Frank rapidlythe past 15 years. At the instigation of her gained in syntactical facility. At one point. fordaughter, she finally decided to "get some example, Frank attempted to use commas: hehelp with my reading and writing so maybe I expressed a need, and a minilesson was incould get into a business school and do good.- order. She was never a success in school and "just In college class sessions, of which stillgot passed along and graduated.- She was more will be said later. the project directorquite apprehensive about coming to a tutor. guided the tutors in making only those cor- believing herself to be out of place. rections on a student's written story that were Through nondirective, incidental counsel- compatible with the level of writing compe-ing, Louise was provided the opportunity of tency. It would have accomplished little toventing her personal problems in a safe and give Frank a lesson on quotation marks whenaccepting milieu. The tutor was able to enter he could not yet write complete sentences.into Louise's phenomenal world. It became Correcting all of his mistakes would haveclear that Louise was suffering from a pro- been overwhelming. Within 8 or 9 weeks.found sense of inferiority concerning acade- additional minilessons were given on com-mic pursuits and needed to establish a trust in pound sentences, quotation marks, and soher own experiences in the tutorial setting forth, as he continued to progress. (Rogers, 1983).

211..20(i.. It seemed important to the tutor that Louise that was unnecessarily probing or interpre- be given the opportunity to experience imme- tive. diate success in reading and writing. To this 4. Completely trusting the learner's end she was encouraged to dictate the feel-resources for self-understanding and positiN, e ings she had expressed about schooling to herchange. tutor. This became the basis for an experience 5. Allowing the learner's experiences to he story. She continued giving dictations for the the tutor's for a moment, and feeling what it next 2 weeks and then decided to write downwould he like to live the experience of the her feelings on her own. learner. Developmentally appropriate minilessons During the remaining sessions the tutors were given by the tutor whenever the needpracticed nondirective counseling with each arose. although Louise exhibited well-devel- other and with their literacy students during oped writing skills. She continued her writingtutoring. Rather than being superimposed. until the seventh week when, accompaniednondirective counseling was a natural out- by her tutor, Louise became a public librar growth of the intensely interpersonal relation- member and selected an easy book to read. ships between the tutors and students, fos- tered by theLEA,individualized reading. and Conferences revealed that Louise read with expressive writing. Each learning interaction little difficulty. She stated that she would try became, in effect, an incidental nondirective to "read something harder.- By the last tutori- counseling opportunity where the learners al session, Louise decided she would enroll in were able to vent their personal problems a General Education Diploma program as asafely. The pedagogical and motivational refresher and then enter a business school.advantages of such personal involvement "Talking out my problems.- she stated,have been demonstrated (Boyd & Martin, "helped me gain more confidence." 1984; Clabby & Be lz, 1985; Johnson. 1985). Tutors in the College Classroom Another class presentation to the tutors In addition to monitoring the progress be- included the use of the Fernald-Keller approach (Fernald, 1943; Wilson & Cleland, ing made in these tutoring sessions and offer- 1985). Students who made little progress after ing suggestions and demonstrations on how a trial with the LEA were introduced to theLEA to proceed methodologically, an important combined with visual. auditory. kinesthetic classroom task for the project director was to and tactile (vAKT) stimulation. With this non- engender within the tutors an attitude of em- intrusive technique,LEAprocedures were fol- pathetic understanding and genuine. unpos-lowed, but words with which the learner sessing caring. This was attempted by high-experienced continued difficulty were printed lighting the following (Corsini. 1979; Rogers,on paper and traced by the student as each 1970): syllable was pronounced. Wilson and Cleland I. Understanding the world of the literacy(1985, p. 222) have defined theVAKTproce- student as he or she sees it. dure. Finger tracing the word while pronounc- 2. Avoiding any behavior toward the stu-ing its syllables was repeated until it appeared dent that was overtly or covertly judgmental. that the word had been mastered. The student 3. Avoiding any behavior toward the learn-was then directed to reproduce the word with- er that expressed approval or disapproval orout the copy, while again pronouncing each

_207..212 syllable. Since this is a whole word technique,instruction such as interactions between the student neither spells the word nor sounds learners and tutors? What theoretical princi- out the letters. Four of the adult learners, whoples about reading, writing, and learning continued to experience unusual difficulty inunderlie program content'? What are tutor acquiring a basic sight vocabulary in the con-perceptions of program effectiveness? text of their LEA stories, were introduced to The Drexel program's effectiveness was this procedure and began to make slow butevaluated under these three rubrics. certain pr-ogress. Academic achievement. Weekly observations Class time was also devoted to presentingand analysis by CTL supervisors and the pro- the Laubach (Meyer & Keefe. 1988) methodject director provided increasing evidence of literacy training to the tutors to interfacethat the learners were making substantial aca- with their nondirective reading formats. Thedemic progress toward their stated goals. As Laubach method is fundamentally different, asuggested by Biggs (1992), this monitoring "bottom-up" approach in which reading isfocused on an analysis of learner reading per- seen as a series of steps beginning with theformance and writing samples, as well as letters of the alphabet that stand for specificlearner portfolios and tutor journal entries. sounds. These letters and sounds are put The learners were also asked to participate together to form words. Words are practicedin the evaluation by interpreting their own in short sentences and paragraphs emphasiz-reading and writing behavior each week with ing phonic regularities. Reading is viewed astheir tutors: "I think I cat. now use periods in essentially a process of phonics mastery andthe right place," or "I see now that I have to the learning of specific skills. read something easier." Learners were asked to evaluate their own progress since routine The Program's Effectiveness self-evaluations encouraged ownership in lit- Having carefully reviewed 19 successfuleracy learning (Padak & Padak, 1991). The adult literacy program descriptions, Padaklearners were continually informed about and Padak (1991) provided questions to guidestrengths and weaknesses through confer- program evaluation. These questions wereences abort their reading and writing. In this paraphrased under six rubrics, three of whichway, as suggested by Padak and Padak (1991), were particularly relevant to the Drexel pro-assessment both informed and enhanced gram (p. 348): instruction. 1. Academic achievementTo what extent Another indication of the extent to which do learners and tutors believe that academiclearners and tutors believed progress was progress has been made? being made was obtained through question- 2. Quality of lifeTo what extent hasnaires and interviews. Staff, learners, and learners' self-confidence as readers and writ-tutors completed a questionnaire developed ers increased? To what extent have learnersby the Pennsylvania Governor's Office of achieved their own goals? To what extent hasCitizen Service (PennSERVE, 1991) to moni- learner self-esteem increased? tor the qualitative and quantitative progress of 3. Program contentTo what extent doesliteracy programs funded by the Pennsylvania the program content meet learners' function-Department of Labor and Industry. al and academic needs and interests? What Over the 3-year period, more information is the quality of the social context forwas obtained through term-ending 2-hour

213_208.. discussions with the learners and 2-hour dis-TestRevised (wRAT-R) word recognition sub- cussions with the tutors, conducted by twotest. Posttest scores improved to Grade 4 in CEL supervisors and the project director. Ancomprehension (setts) and to 5.6 in word analysis of their audiotape responses revealedrecognition. These results were contrasted that the tutors and the learners were unani-with a typical growth expectation of 1.5 read- mous in stating: ing grade levels per year, cited by Diekhoff that learners had made considerable(1988) and based on a follow-up study of lit- progress in working toward their statederacy program effectiveness. It should be noted that many of the learn- goals, ers did not remain in the program after the that their collaboration in assessing10-week period, having stated that they were progress provided learners with continu-reading and writing well enough to go direct- ous feedback. ly into a GED program. Thus those students that the learners' interests and functionalwho made some of the most rapid academic literacy needs were met as a natural out-strides were not available for the I-year post- growth of the nonintrusive learning pro-testing. cedures, and Quality of life. An analysis of the question- that rapid progr,:ss had been made innaires and audiotaped interview data con- reading and writing. firmed what the tutor and staff observations had discerned during the program: a dramatic Many learners believed their academicincrease in learners' self-confidence as read- growth was so obvious that "anyone can seeers and writers, as well as their self-esteem as it." For many, progress in reading and writ-persons. The maim reason given by the learn- ing was so rapid that it could not heers for this positive attitudinal change was the explained along the lines of skill enhance-climate of acceptance and tutor willingness to ment. Although the majority of the learnerslisten and encourage the learners io talk out initially claimed that their reading and writ-their personal problems. The majority of the ing abilities were nonexistent or marginal.learners and all of the tutors expressed the their performance, as their self-confidencebelief that using the LEA, individualized read- became enhanced, belied their initial self-ing, and expressive writing fostered a high depreciation. degree of personal involvement. Since 10 weeks did not provide sufficient The tutors were unanimous in stating that instructional time for an evaluation by stan-the nondirectiveness of the tutor-learner dardized test performance, such testing wasencounter was instrumental in increasing the conducted on those learners who continuedeffectiveness of instruction. This aligns with with the Drexel tutors and remained for atReder (1992), who stated that program least 1 year. This included 5 students from thedesigners and policy makers should carefully first year (1989-1990), 6 from the secondconsider whether participation in activities year, and 7 from the third year. Combiningbesides formal course instruction facilitates the 3-year totals for the 18 learners revealed a literacy development. mean pretest level of first grade on the The majority of the tutors noted that the Diagnostic Reading Scales (DRs) and a 2.1 learners had more or less accepted distorted grade level on the Wide Range Achievement beliefs about African-American ability to

..209..214 achie\ e academically. Biggs (1992) offeredexpressed the desire to continue as volunteer that African Americans accept this stereotypetutors. Records kept over the 3 years of the as a reflection of reality. When interviewed.project revealed that of the 11 tutors from the the learners admitted to this perception offirst year who could he reached. 9 were still themselves but had begun to positit ely modi-engaged in some tutorial capacity. For those fy this self-image. The learners cited the per-college students who began in the second and sonal involvement with their tutors thatthird years of the project. responses accumu- encouraged them to discuss their needs. inter- lated thus far revealed much the same reten- ests. and problems. as the most conspicuoustion rate. Many of the former project tutors feature of their image modification. expressed the belief in year-end question- The tutors were unanimous in stating thatnaires that their continued tutoring effort the nondirective, incidental counseling skills added a new dimension to their lives. one of that they had developed encouraged them to responsible service to those in need. listen to their learners in a more intense and empathetic way. And this empathetic listen- References ing had an unexpected carryover into all of Ben-Barka. A .C. (1982). Itas a methodology Pr their interpersonal encounters. Ilse with semi-literate ',cu. adolescents. ease study LA thesis report). ).Rte En 239 510. Program content. An essential beginning Biggs. S.A. (1992). Building on strengths: Closing point for program development was to have. the literacy gap for African Americans../ourna/ as Padak and Padak (1991) have suggested, a of Reading. 35. 624-628. clear focus of what constitutes learning. Any Blot. D.. & Davidson. D. (1984). It from the detailing for the design of practice needs to start. New York: Newbury House. begin with such a focus (Lambert. 1986). The Boa d. R.D.. & Martin. L.G. I I984). A methodology for the analysis of the psychological profiles of program exemplified what Rogers (1983) I a literate adults. Adult Education Quarterly. called experiential learning. Such learning 3-1( 2 ). 85-96. has the quality of personal involvement. isClabb. J.F.. & Bel/. E.J. (1985). Nchological bar- self-initiated, is pervasive, is evaluated by the riers to learning: Approach to group treatment. learner, and has meaning as its essence. The Small Group Behavior. 16(9). 525-533. learners established their own instructionalCohen. J. (1981 ). .1 rcadiagand writing program goals and continuously evaluated their using language i'Veriellee Methodology among progress. This helped assure that the program adult 1 Si. students in a basic education program. Washington. DC: Office of Vocational and Ad- content met learners' functional academic ult Education. needs and interests. The social context forCorsini. R. ( 1979). Current psyc hotherapies. Itasca. instruction was one of complete openness and IL: Peacock. unconditional positive regard. As Padak and Diekhoff. G.11. 11988). An appraisal of adult litera- Padak (1987, pp. 495-496) stated, "Effective c programs: Reading hem een the lines. Journal adult reading programs address literacy in o1 Reading. 3/. 624-630. light of learners' cognitive, affective. and Dixon. C.. & Nessel, D. (1983). Language experi- social needs.- ence reading for second language learners. In C. Dixon Ed.). Language experience approach to A major objective of the project was the reading tand writing). Hayward, CA: Aleman). involvement of college students as adult liter- Fernald. G.M. (1943). Remedial techniques in basic acy tutors. In their questionnaire responses school \objects (pp. 320-329). New York: and end of program discussion, all the tutors

215' ..2 10.. Johnson. P.H. (1985). Understanding reading dis- ability: A case study. Hari ard Educational T u io r i n g Review. 55(2). 153-177. Lambert, H.M. (1986). Engineering new designs for school psychological service delivery. Pro- frAsional School Psychology. 1. 295-300. Meyer. V., & Keefe. D. (1988). The Limbach way An Intergenerational to reading: A review. Lifelong Learning, 12. 8-10. Padak. N.D.. & Padak, G.M. (1987). Guidelines Adult Literacy Project: and a holistic method for adult basic reading programs. Journal of Reading, 30, 490-496. Padak, N.D.. & Padak. G.M. (1991). What works: A Family Intervention/ Adult literacy program evaluation. Journal of Reading. 34. 374-379. Parry, J.A.. & Hornsby. D. ( 1988). Write on: cop- Prevention Model /.erence approach to writing. Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann. PennSERVE. The Governor's Office Citizen Service. (1991). Harrisburg. PA: PennsIvania RUTH S. NICKSE Department of Labor & Industry. ANN MARIE SPEICHER Pomeranee, A. (1988). Center For Literacy basii PAMELA C. BUCHEK training handbook card ed.). Philadelphia. PA: Center For Literacy. APRIL 1988 Rcder. S. (1992). Research raises several important issues. Mmair: Research notes on literacy. 2(2) 3 -4. Rockcastle, V.N. (1986). Nothing succeeds like Several theorists and observers in the succession. Science and Children, 23(7). 20-21. Rogers. C.R. (1970). Carl Rogerencounter field of adult literacy suggest the gr011p.S. Ness York: HarperCollins. importance of an intergenerational Rogers. C. (1983). Freedom to learn. Columbus, instructional approach (.Fingeret. OH: Charles E. Merrill. 1984: Fox, 1986; Harman. 1987; Sticht. Schneiderman, P. (1978). Active reading tech- 1983). Descriptions of creative programs niques systems (ARTS): A method for instruction of functionally illiterate adults. Urban Edm-a- which combine adult and children's literacy tion. 3, 195-202. efforts are entering the literature (Nickse & Spache. G.D.. & Spache. E. (1986). Reading in the Englander, 1985, 1986). And the federal gov- elementary school. 13oston: Allyn & Bacon. ernment of the United States. alerted to the Stauffer. R.G. (1980). The lan,guae-experience possible connections between adult and child approach to the teaching of reading (2nd ed.). literacy, has attempted to influence adult and New York: HarperCollins. Wilson. R.M., & Cleland, C.J. ( 1985). Diagnostic child literacy policy by introducing Even Start and remedial reading fOr clasAroom and ( legislation. Columbus, OH: Charles E. Merrill. Adult literacy programs that are combined with efforts to improve early childhood litera- cy are overdue and gain support from several complementary lines of current research: con- cern with parental roles in schools and school- ing (Cochran & Henderson. 1986; Lightfoot.

..2 1 6 ..2 I 1 Figure 1 Parents' Effects on Children's Reading Achievement

Research Topic Authors Summary of Findings A. Home Chandler et al.. 1983 Availability and range of materials in home are environment Chall et al.. 1982 important; ("everyday print,"labels. magazines, Heath, 1980, 1983 newspapersnecessary; many ways parents can Hewison & Tizard. 1980 arrange for children to come into contact with Smith. 197 i print: homes devoid of hooks and lacking curiosity Male, 1978, 1986 about world inhibit child's enthusiasm for learn- ing in school.) B. Shared Chall et al., 1982 Parents' reading to children is important; being reading Chomsky, 1972 read to is fundamental to early literacy develop- activities Clay. 1979 ment; demonstrates concept of print. books, Sunlit, 1971 reading. and form and structure of written language: Taylor. 1983 is major correlate with language maturity and Teale, 1984. 1986 reading achievement: creates shared bond as base for positive literacy experiences in home which support reading and writing practices. C. Parents as Chall et al., 1982 Parents are child's first and most influential reading Duff & Adams. 1981 teacher: parents act as models for reading behavior: models O'Rourke. 1979 "printvorm- parents' children test higher in word recognition and reading comprehension; early read- ing preparation and supportive home environment promote reading as natural life process; children of mothers with higher literacy levels outperform children of non-reading mothers at 6th-grade level. D. Parents' Anderson & Stokes. 1984 Parents' aspirations and attitudes toward children's attitudes Chall. 1979. 1982 education create positive environment that toward Coleman, 1966 supports literacy development: parents with high education Durkin. 1964 expectations more likely to have children who Laosa. 1978 achieve; as children grow. parental expectations Lengyel & Baghhan, 1980 have greater impact: positive parental behavior encourages children's school achievement; non- literate parents can he aware of importance or lit- eracy and supportive because of constraints of limited literacy in own life; one mother became role model. improving own basic skills and teach- ing them to child; mother's education related to how she thinks about and behaves toward her children. which affects their school achievement; educated parents provide more materials and activities which promote literacy and become more involved in children's school instruction.

217 ..212.. 1973: Sinclair et al.. 1980): the importance ofyears, more than50undergraduates super- family literacy in preparing children to readvised by graduate students and faculty from (Heath. 1983): parents' roles in encouragingthe School of Education have been trained. school achievement (Clark, 1983): and find-paid, and have received optional academic ings that adults in tutoring programs h credit for work as literacy tutors. They have have children in school tend to stay longer inprovided reading instruction to more than tutoring programs (Heathington.1984).The 150 ethnically. educationally, and socioeco- research suggests that further study would benomically diverse urban adults in a part-time. fruitful to determine whether a literacy pro-intergenerational, one-on-one tutoring pro- gram aimed at parentsandtheir children gram. would improve literacy for both groups. In1986,the Boston University project Reading aloud to children is the single mostbegan collaborating with the Boston Public important factor in preparing them to readSchools to identify and focus recruitment on (Anderson,1985).yet millions of parentsparents of Chapter 1 children in a comprehen- with poor reading.kills cannot engage in thissive adult literacy intervention prevention effort because of their own reading deficien-model. With a grant from the Office of cies. and millions of others have neither the Educational Research and Improvement, the knowledge of its importance nor the skills tostaff is exploring the effectiveness of this read to their children. intergenerational approach to family reading The short-term effects of the illiteracyinstruction. A brief literature review, the cycle are felt daily by individuals and fami-design of the study and some preliminary lies. The long-term consequences of this con-data follow. It is hoped that our experiences tinuing cycle include the lack of parental in this pilot program can guide others in simi- reading models, in-school reading problems.lar action research. and poor attitudes toward reading and educa- tion in general. The case for improving fami- Literature Reviel% ly literacy seemed sufficiently strong to war- At present, there is no coherent body of rant the design of an intergenerational adultresearch available that directly addresses the basic education and literacy program at intergenerational literacy instruction of adults Boston University. In 1983. at the request ofthrough the use of special literacy techniques. the U.S. Department of Education. NickseFigure 1 summarizes evidence from a variety (Nickse, 1985: Nickse & Englander. 1986:of research reports about parents' activities Staryos & Winig. 1985) developed theand home environment factors that seem to Collaborations for Literacy model. which impact children's reading achievement. seeks to develop a new format for adult liter- acy services, action research, and materials'the Stud development. It employed college students With a grant from the U.S. Department of as literacy workers and paid them throughEducation Office of Educational Research the Federal College Work-Study programand Improvement. the co-principal investiga- (Nickse,1984).The newly establishedtors (Nickse & Paratore) were exploring the Family Learning Center (1987) subsumes theeffectiveness of an intergenerational approach part-time program at a newly renovated siteto adult literacy instruction. Two research provided by the university. In 01.2 past 4questions were being examined: Does an 218 2 1 3 . intergenerational approach have a positiveof targeted recruitment: 40% gave "helping impact on adult beginning readers' progresstheir children" as a primary motive for enroll- and retention? Do children of parents enrolledment; 40% mentioned "improvement of their in an intergenerational reading project showown reading and writing skills"; and 30% gains in reading and language arts achieve-mentioned "self- improvement" as an impor- ment and improved attitudes toward reading tant factor in participation. and learning? Preliminary data on the first question are reported; the analysis of theIntervention Teclutiques effects on children were incomplete at this For the 1986-1987 year, the Family Learn- writing. ing Center staff incorporated several proce- Study subjects were recruited from a tar-dures to strengthen and support its basic geted pool of parents with children in federal-teaching curriculum. focusing on creating a ly funded Chapter 1 reading programs whosupervised, supportive teaching environment lived in multicultural, urban sections offor the adults while modeling literacy preven- Boston. A school-based coordinator, familiartion and intervention techniques for the par- with school district reading programs andent and child. The procedures in use during with the community, contacted parents and the weekly sessions follow: informed them of the purposes and require- 1. Tutors design lesson plans and use a ments of the intergenerational program. Thefour-step model (demonstration, guided prac- demographic profiles of the 30 adult partici-tice, independent practice, and evaluation) pants studied as of June 1987 are reported. identified as important to successful teaching These individuals completed 30.40, or 50(Rosenshine & Stevens. 1984). The focus is hours of tutoring in 2- or 3-hour weekly ses- on decoding (piionics or structural analysis), sions over 5-8 months and completed pre- vocabulary, reading and listening comprehen- and posttests on a standardized reading test. sion. study skills, and writing. Minority parents represented 83% of the adult participants (Asian, 1.3%; Hispanic, 2. Staff observe tutors and learners during instruction and provide weekly consultation. 23%; and black, 37%) and white parents the remaining 17%. Women participants (70%)Tutors model learning, activities for parents to outnumbered men participants (30%) moreuse with children and frequently design than two to one. Only 20% of subjects werelessons for parent and child: tutors model unemployed, but nearly three-fourths (70%)these lessons for the parent and observe the had dropped out of school before earning aparent teaching the child. Tutors encourage high school diploma. English was a secondparents to practice independently at home and language for 40% of the subjects. The 30 sub-demonstrate the advantages of shared parent jects had a total of 44 children of schooland child activities by taking field trips with age-59% of their children were in primary .;em to local libraries and area museums. school. Only a few subjects had preschool 3. The Center provides literacy events children: the remaining children were already( "socials ") for parents and children concern- in middle school or high school. Almost halfing shared reading and home activities (for of the adult program participants (47% ) wereexample, showing the Jim Trelease "Read between the ages of 35 and 44. Their reasonsAloud Handbook- movie or holding a Parents for program participation show the benefits and Children Reading Together Workshop).

219. 2 14.. 4. The Center provides weekly inserviceWhile tutors have considerably more training sessions for tutors on topics related to litera-than most volunteers, the 3-hour weekly cy, prevention and intervention techniques,instructional session is typical of many volun- and teaching strategies (for example.teer literacy programs. Teaching Basic Reading and Math Skills or Selecting Appropriate Life Skills Materials). Results and Discussion Preliminary data are reported on the effects Literacy Tutors of participation by adults (ii = 30) on two The tutors are the primary providers of in-dimensions: reading progress in vocabulary struction to adult participants. Boston Univer- and comprehension and retention in the pro- sity tutors are work-study students who aregram. Results to date seem to indicate that paid US$7 an hour. 12 hours a week for two reading gains (ABLE, 1986) on vocabulary and semesters. For 1986-1987, tutor retention forcomrrenension increase as a factor of the the 9-month academic period was 90%.number of hours of tutoring (see Figure 2). Tutors often return for a second or third year The lowest level learners are pretested on to their tutoring positions and may electABLE (Level 1) normed at the 1.0-5.3 level. If optional college credit. They are sociallythose learners score at a 6th level grade committed, mature, patient, and motivated toequivalent on the comprehension section, teach adults and children to improve readingthey are posttested on ABLE (Level 2) normed skills and attitudes. They are 19-23 years old:at 5.4-11.11. This change in forms may affect 92% are undergraduates; 8% are graduate individual scores and thus the averar:e gains. students: and 35% are education majors. Each work-study student receives aboutRetention 112 hours of training by professionals in Nationwide, only 30-50% of those in Ad- reading and adult education: 18 hours of ini-ult Basic Education (ABE) programs stay in tial training: mandated 2-hour weekly inser-the program for 1 year (Balmuth, 1985). En- vice training (for two semesters or 56 hours):rollment officially begins after the learner has and weekly personal observation and supervi-received 12 hours of instruction. For those sion (two semesters. 28 hours). Inter-"enrolled" in the program, the retention rate generational methods are stressed in all train-is 73.3%, Of the 26.7% who left after "enroll- ing and inservice. Tutors individually instructment.- 50% withdrew because they were able two adult learners in weekly 3-hour sessions. to find new or better employment (which cre-

Figure 2 Adult Reading Progress

Number of Number of SSs Vocubulary Comprehension tutorin2 hours (N = 30) average gain average gain

50-41 13 0.8 1.0 40-31 9 0.5 0.7 30-25 8 -0.2 0.5 Gains as estimated 1-1. the Adult Basic Learning Exam ( ABLE). Le). els 1 and 2: given as portion of a year in grade level.

_215..220 ated scheduling difficulties) or felt qualifiedthat parents were not reading to children, we to pursue more advanced ABE education orrealized our expectations were unrealistic, training. and we substituted an expanded list of litera- Learners in the study are parents of chil-cy-related activities. The results were excitinu. dren who already are identified as having(see Figure 3). Although in use for only reading difficulty: they have a high interest in6 weeks. the expanded idea of "reading" and concern for helping their children. Theseems to be both better understood by the program design fits individual needs and alsoadult learners and more within their capabili- stresses continued focus on activities relatedties and current lifestyles. Tutors who had to improving children's literacy. This obser-suggested activities on this list reported a vation seems to confirm that of Heatheringtongradual increase in these kinds and occur- (1984), that adults in tutoring programs whorences of home literacy events. have children in school tend to stay longer inConclusions and Recommendations tutoring programs. A number of parents This pilot study focuses on the improve- expressed pride in their children's progress inment of adults' literacy in support of their school based on teachers' comments to them.own improved reading skills and the subse- The parents attributed this growth to theirquent effects on their children who are in increased work with their children. Chapter 1 reading programs. The work is in A primary objective of the project is toprogress, and not all research results collected change behaviors to improve the literacy cli-have been analyzed. However, based on 4 mate in the home. The staff responds posi-years' experience using an intergenerational tively to progress by the adult and the familytutoring approach. some preliminary conclu- as a learning unit. Through direct conversa-sions can be drawn and several recommenda- tion. activities. and special events. plus posi-tions made. tive examples and modeling, utors let parents I. Support for the concept of intergenera- know they share their concern for improvedtional learning must be built and marketed in literacy at home. These factors also seem tothe local community through calculated and contribute to retention of adult learners in thedirect messages. Such targeted recruitment is program. best done in cooperation with local and pub- As a condition for acceptance into the pro-lic schools. gram, we asked parents to read to their child 2. At both national and local levels, policy for l() minutes a day. When tutors reportedshould stress intergenerational learning as an

Figure 3 Checklist of Literacy-Related Activities

Read to child Listened to child read a book Helped with homework Asked about homework Looked at homework Wrote note or message to child Bought a book Played a word game Visited a library with child Viewed iv together and discussed it Helped child write letter or .,end letter or greeting card Other shared activity Asked child abinit school or reading

2. 2 1..2 1 G.. intervention-prevention strategy, and suchadults in the population is so vast and com- programs should be funded. plex. 3. Intergenerational curriculum should be 7. The bonding relationship so valued mixed with personal and career-related tasksbetween tutors and learners has to stretch to and literacy events. Adults need to build self-include children and other family members in confidence through work on their own learn-order to improve the family's attitude toward ing agendas as well as improving their chil-reading. We have found that this is important dren's literacy. A mix of both kinds offor participant retention, motivation, and assignments will maintain adult enthusiasmshared reading activities. and provide an important social element. 8. A broad perspective on the concept of 4. Adults can model literacy-related behav-literacy and the home and school events iors only when they have been successfulwhich promote it is imperative. Attitudes and with these behaviors and feel confident thatvalues about education provide the context they can accomplish them in their currentfor basic skill improvement. They are not home environment. Their increased self-byproducts of instruction but the primary esteem as readers and improved shared activ-focus of direct instruction in families where ities in the home appear to them to transfer toliteracy is undervalued. their children. 9. In our experience, any instructional 5. Project experience has confirmed ourmodel relying on 2-3 hours of reading opinion that literacy is more than the teachinginstruction a week is insufficient for begin- of specific technical skills in reading, writing.ning or new adult readers. For measurable and math. Particularly in a multicultural com- reading progress in these learners, hours of munity context, where parental attitudes anddirect instruction must be doubled as a desir- values about literacy, schools and schooling.able minimum with daily practice. This is a and education in general are varied and whereconsiderable time commitment for busy discourse is limited and reading is not a fami- adults. ly habit, direct instruction in increasing litera- 10. While the phrase "the only degree you cy events must be accompanied by constantneed is a degree of caring" perhaps describes reminders and support by tutors for changedthe personal relationships so important in lit- parental behaviors. If they haven't been readeracy tutoring connections, its effects should to. children may reject parental overtures. pre-not be confused with the effects of skilled ferring to watch television: many parents needprofessional reading instruction. There are no modeling and coaching by tutors to help them"quick fixes" in literacy. This intergenera- know how to improve communications withtional project is a first effort in working at the their children before attempting to read to andheart of literacy improvementthe family with them. and its home. 6. Tutors need to be well-trained for one- References to-one and intergenerational tutoring. To be Anderson. A.B.. & Stokes. S.J. (1984). Social and effective in teaching reading to adult literacy institutional influences on the development and students, they must he supported and con- practice of literacy. In H. Goelman. A. Oberg.. & F. Smith (Eds.). Awakening to literacy. Ports- stantly supervised by professionals. There mouth. NII: Ileinemann. cannot he "too much training" when the Anderson. R.C.. Iliehert. E.11.. Scott. J.A.. & range of individual reading problems among Wilkinson. I.A.G. ( 1985). Becoming a nation of

..2 17..222 readers: The report o f the Commission on Read- Harman, D. (1987). Hi/ten/es.: A national dilemma. ing. Washington. DC: National Institute of Edu- New York: Cambridge Book Company. cation. U.S. Department of Education. Heath, S.B. (1980. Winter). The functions and uses Balmuth. M. (1986). Essential characteristics of of literacy. Journal of Communication. 30. adult literacy programs: A review and analysis of 123-133. the research. Unpublished paper. (ED 273 823) Heath. S.B. (1983). Ways with words: Language. Chall, J. (1979). The great debate: Ten years later life. and work in communities and classrooms. with a modest proposal for reading stages. In Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. L.B. Resnick & P.A. Weaver (Eds.), Theory and Heathington. B.S., Boser. J., & Satter, T. (1984. practice of early reading. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlhaum. February). Characteristics of adult beginning read- Chall, J., & Snow. C. (1982). Families and literacy: ers who persisted in a solunteer tutoring program. The contribution of out-of-school experiences to Lifelong Learning:The Adult Years, 7. 20-28. children's acquisition of literacy (National Insti- Hewison, J.. & Tizard. J. (1980. November). tute of Education Final Report). Cambridge. MA: Parental involvement and reading attainment. Graduate School of Education, Harvard Univer- The British Journal of Educational Psychology. sity. (ED 234 345) 50. 209-215. Chandler. J.. et al. (1983). Parents as teachers: Laosa, L. (1978. December). Maternal teaching Observations of low-income parents and chil- strategies in Chicano families of varied educa- dren in a homework-like task (`it: Contract #G- tional and socioeconomic levels. Child Develop- 80-0086 Technical Report). Cambridge. MA: ment. 49. 1129-1135. Graduate School of Education. Harvard Univer- Lengyel, J.. & Baghban. M. (1980). The effects of a sity. (ED 231 812) family reading program and sstt on reading Chomsky, C. (1972. February). Stages in language achievement and attitudes. (ED 211 925) development and reading exposure. Harvard Lightfoot. S.L. (1978). Worlds apart: Relationships Educational Review. 42. 1-33. between family and school. New York: Basic. Clark. R. (1983). Family life and school achieve- Nickse. R. (1984. September). The college w ork- ment: 14 hy poor black children succeed or flail. study adult literacy project: A survey by the Chicago. IL: University of Chicago Press. National Association of Student Employment Clay. M.M. (1979). Reading: The patterning of Administrators. complex behavior (2nd ed.). Portsmouth. NH: Nickse. R.. & Englander, N. (1985. Spring). At risk Heinemann. parents: Collaborations for literacy. Equity and Cochran. NI.. & Henderson, C.R. (1986). Family Choice. 1.11-18. matters: Evaluation of the parental empower-Nickse, R.. & Englander. N. (1985). Administra- ment program (Nit: Final Report: Contract #400- tor's handbook. Collaborations for literacy: An 76 -0150: Comparative Ecology of Human De- intergenerational reading project. Boston. MA: velopment Project). Ithaca, NY: Cornell Univer- Trustees of Boston University. sit\. (ED 262 862) O'Rourke. W.J. (1979. January ). Arc parents an Coleman, J.S. (1966). Equality of educational influence on adolescent reading habits? Journal opportunity. Washington. DC: U.S. Government of Reading. 22. 340-343. Printing Office. Rosenshine. B.. & Stevens. R. (1984). Classroom Duff. R.E. & Adams. M.E. (1981. January). Parents instruction in reading. In P.D. Pearson (Ed.). and teachers: Partners in improving reading Handbook of reading research. White Plains. skills. The Clearing House. 54. 207-209. NY: Longman. Durkin, D. (1966). Children who read early. Ness Sinclair. R.L. (1980). A two-way street: Home- York: Teachers !".'ollege Press. school cooperation in curriculum decision mak- Fingeret. A. (1984). Adult literacy education: Cur- ing. Boston. MA: Institute for Responsive Edu- rent and future directions. Colurnhas. 011: cation. Clearinghouse on Adult. Career. and VocationalSmith. C.B. (1971). The effect of ens ironment on Education. (D 246 3081 learning to read. Ness ark. D1'.: International Read- Fox. M. )1986). Personal communication. ing Association.

22 3 ..2 Staryos. M.. & Winig. L. (1986). Tutor's hand- book. Collaborations for literacy: An intergen- Tutoring erational reading projec t. Boston. MA: Trustees of Boston University. Sticht. T. (1983). Literacy and human resources development at work: Investing in the education of adults to improve the educability of children. Training Family and Alexandria, \'A: Human Resources Research Organization. Taylor, D. (1983). Family literacy: Young children Friends as Adult learning to read and write. Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann. Teale, W.H. (1978. November/December). Positive Literacy Tutors environments for learning to read: What studies of early readers tell us. Language Arts. 55.922_932. Teale. W.H. (1984). Reading to young children: Its significance for literacy development. In H. JOHN SCOBLE Goelman, A. Oberg. & F. SmithI Eds.). KEITH TOPPING Awakening to literacy. Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann. COLIN WIGGLESWORTH W.H.. & Sulzby. E. (1986). Home back- FEBRUARY 1988 ground and young children's literacy develop- ment. In Emergent literacy: li riling and read- ing. Norwood. NJ: Abler. The proportion of adults who are dis- advantaged in their daily lives by a lack of functional reading skill is alarmingly high. Yet the severe eco- nomic and social effects of this widespread problem rarely hit the headlines. In adults, illiteracy is the hidden handicap. In the United Kingdom. it is estimated that 1.3 million ad- ults (6(7c of the population) have difficulty in reading (ALBSU, 1983). In the United States. Hunter and Harman (1979) estimated that there were at least 23 million adult illiterates. while the Office of Education puts the figure at 27 million-20% of the population. Very few of these are ever recruited into adult edu- cation basic skills coursesin the United Kingdom the proportion is estimated at 15% and in the United States at 5%. Even for those enrolled in courses. owing to "the very part-time nature of the service. most students can only benefit from a severe- ly limited amount of tuition, despite the fact ..2l9.. 224 that many of them need intensive courses"competence of thetutor.Tutees can thus (ALBSU, 1986). Nevertheless, in a U.K. study select hooks and other material of high inter- it is reported that over a period of 3 months,est to themselves irrespective of difficulty. 25% of adult students made "rapid progress."The frequently reported problem of finding 50% made "measurable progress," and 25%appropriate reading materials for adult litera- made "no progress" (ALBst:, 1981). Studentscy students is virtually eliminated, since no commencing with higher levels of achieve-special materials are usually required. At its ment who were "well supported by family orsimplest, Paired Reading involves two phas- friends" gained most. However, no follow-upes. On sections of text that are difficult for the results are reported. so it is not known totutee. both tutor and tutee read out loud what extent gains endured in the longer term. together. establishing synchrony with prac- Although in recent years provision hastice. When the tutee makes an error, the tutor included the widespread use of volunteers.merely repeats the word correctly and greater variety in the type of remedial coursesrequires the tutee to do likewise before pro- offered, establishment of drop-in advice cen-ceeding. When the tutee has selected an easi- ters, packages for distance teaching. ander text that is more within her or his indepen- computer assisted learning, much of the helpdent readability level, the tutee can choose to available for the adult of low literacy remainssilence the tutor by a prearranged nonverbal very traditional in organization and method-signal. When the tutor becomes silent, the ology. Current approaches seem to hold littletutee continues to read out loud, until there is hope of solving this huge problem. Newa failure to read a word correctly within 5 directions and radically different patterns ofseconds, at which point the tutor corrects the service delivery are needed. For these. newerror as described and the pair resume read- techniques may prove necessary. ing together. Praise at very regular intervals for correct reading and specific positive read- The Paired Reading Technique ing behaviors is emphasized throughout. There has been a growing interest in theDiscussion of the text is an essential part of United Kingdom over the last decade in athe method to ensure tutee comprehension, variety of means for involving parents in thebut this flows much more naturally with high reading development of their childreninterest materials. The method is outlined (Topping & Wolfendale, 1985). Some of thegraphically in the figure. Further details of techniques articulated in this context haveits application in practice will be found in proved effective in the hands of other nonpro-Topping and Wolfendale (1985) and Topping fessional tutors, such as adult volunteers and (1986a). peer tutors (Topping, 1987a, 1987h). The Some of the features of the Paired Reading Paired Reading technique is probably the besttechnique are of course found in other ap- researched of these innovations, and hasproaches to reading which hear different demonstrated applicability and effectivenessnames, for example. Heckel man's (1986) with a very wide range of target children (see"Neurological Impress Method (NI Ni)," the the bibliography in Topping, 1986a). associated "Prime-O-Tec" strategy described In Paired Reading. tutees are encouragedby Meyer (1982), and the methods known as to choose their own reading material atany"Reading-While-Listening." "Assisted Read- level of readability. provided this is within theing." and "The Lap Method." However. the

2 2 J Paired Reading Procedure

Tutee chooses reading material within tutor's readability level

Tutor and tutee discuss hook initially (and throughout reading)

Tutor and tutee read together aloud at tutee's pace

correct reading any tutee error or no response within 5 seconds praise Correction procedure Tutor says word correctly (and may point to error word)

Tutce repeats word correctly

Pair continue reading together

Tutee signals non-verbally to read alone

Tutor praises tutee for signalling, then is silent

Tutee reads alone aloud

correct increasing span self- any tutee error reading of correct reading correction or no response of hard within 5 seconds words r Correction procdurc as aboveandpair Praise return to reading together

.. 22 1 ..226 value of Paired Reading is that within thistutor. The eventual main tutors comprised 4 technique many of the most valuable featureswives, 3 mothers. I daughter, and 1friend. of other methods are blended into a coherent In a group meeting, the project leaders package which permits widespread and suc-acted out "How Not to Do It," demonstrating cessful use by nonprofessionals. One possibleevery possible form of bad practice. The method of service delivery to adults of lowgroup was then told about the aims and meth- literacy is to use Paired Reading within a col-ods of the project, and the two phases of the lege of further education, utilizing able stu-Paired Reading technique were described in dents as tutors for adults involved in basicdetail and demonstrated via role play between skills courses. Substantial success with thethe project leaders. Questions were answered, deployment of Paired Reading in this form ofand diary cards for each pair to record their organization has been reported by Booth andefforts were distributed together with a pam- Winter (1987). However. the technique clear-phlet to remind them about the technique. ly has the potential to be deployed effectively It had originally been hoped that it might in open community settings. as has beenhe possible to have the pairs practice the tech- widely demonstrated in the case of literatenique under the supervision of the project parents working with their own children.leaders that same evening, but the group Thus. the organizational parameters for ser-members not surprisingly demonstrated little vice delivery of Paired Reading to low litera-enthusiasm for this. and this part of the train- cy adults in the natural environment wereing procedure was therefore omitted on this delineated (Topping. 19866), and after someoccasion. (For subsequent training meetings, weeks of discussion and planning. thegraduates of the first project would he avail- Ryedale Adult Literacy Paired Readingable to demonstrate the technique, live or on Project commenced. video, thereby creating a more relaxed atmos- Training Procedure phere in which new tutors and tutees would feel more willing to practice the technique.) Students who were already in some way in touch with the Adult Literacy organization inNionitoring the rural Ryedale area of North Yorkshire The pairs were asked to use Paired Reading were approached by their existing contacts to regularly for a minimum of 6 weeks, this see whether they would be interested in par-being the shortest time during which the pro- ticipating in the -experiment.- The impor-ject leaders felt that a discernible improve- tance of using existing relationships in com- ment might become evident. Of the 12 pairs, munication networks was therefore evident2 dropped out during the 6 weeks, in one case right from the start. As tutees and their poten-owing to the disinclination of the tutee, and in tial tutors were to be trained together, bothanother case owing to a more generalized dis- rieeded to attend the initial training meeting.agreement. Ten pairs thus completed the pro- Thtees were asked to bring along someoneject. All the pairs were visited at home at the they already met frequently, who would heend of the first and second weeks by one of prepared to help them with reading for a min-the Adult Literacy Organizers involved with imum of 5 minutes for 5 days each week dur- the project. In some cases more visits were ing 6 weeks. Twelve "pairs" attended, andmade. During the visits, each pair's use of the sonic tutees brought inure than one potentialtechnique was observed and praised or reme-

..222.. diated as necessary. Checklists of good prac-Macmillan Reading Analaysis (Vincent & de tice were used by the visitors when monitor-la Mare. 1985) was used as the "objective" ing quality of technique. General encourage-test, in parallel forms. This test has the advan- ment was given, and problems specific totage of reasonably modern text and illustra- particular pairs were discussed. tions, although the standardization proved to A number of problems in use of Pairedhave too high a floor for some of the students Reading were encountered. In some pairs itto register at pretest. For the 5 students who proved difficult to establish the required ratedid register on the scale at pretest, the average of praise, particularly for cases in which again in reading age was 10.4 months in read- wife was tutoring her husband. Some tuteesing accuracy and 13 months in reading com- became so engrossed in their chosen text thatprehension. For the students who did not reg- they forgot to signal for independent readingister on the standardization scale at pretest, it even when the text was well within theirwas more difficult to quantify the gains made. independent readability level. In these latterIn any event these were more erratic and not cases. the visitors suggested a variety ofquite so encouraging. although these students minor modifications in the technique (extrahad more domestic problems and their use of rules) to get around these difficulties. Itthe technique was less perfect. proved very difficult to find suitable reading However, all students made some measur- material for two students who were virtuallyable progress in either reading accuracy or totally illiterate, and this problem wasreading comprehension. though this was resolved by the tutor writing materials using asmall in some cases. These results compared language experience approach. favor ably with those of more traditional The tutoring was disrupted by the usualmethods of helping adults with reading diffi- round of domestic events, and thus one stu-culties. Furthermore, they were achieved in a dent had a 2-week holiday in the middle ofshort space of time. with a modest input from the project and had difficulty getting hack onprofessional agents. The cost effectiveness of task. while in another family a wife who wasthe deployment of the Paired Reading tech- tutoring her husband separated from himnique in this way was clearly substantial. towards the end of the project. (The latter stu- Tape recordings of students' pre- and post- dent subsequently reported much greater con-test performance on the Macmillan Analysis fidence levels and a determination to carry onwere available for 7 of the 10 participants. (It his reading on his own.) In many cases, how-is not always reasonable to expect adults who ever, the tutoring was going well and consid-are highly conscious of their reading difficul- erable enjoyment was reported by the pairsties to function remotely adequately in a test and, indeed, was evident during the visits. situation while simultaneously being tape recorded.) Using the miscue analysis cate- Elahlidion gories incorporated in the Macmillan test. 6 In addition to the evaluation of the processof the 7 students showed a striking increase in by observation in the home, evaluative evi-self-correction, and the overall proportion of dence was also available from pre- and post-self-corrections increased by an average of project norm referenced reading tests and115% from pre- to post-test. Of the 7 stu- subjective feedback from the participantsdents. 2 showed markedly reduced hesitations which was both verbal and written. The Newcoupled with markedly increased suhstitu- 228 ..223.. tions, suggesting that these participants hadinforming tutors as to what to do if the tutee greater confidence in guessing at unknownfailed to signal, for whatever reason. Some words. These results compare favorably withstudents had had difficulty in finding appro- those of Lee (1986), who found that self-cor-priate reading materials, and in two cases rections in his Paired Reading group of chil-these had been specially written. The opin- dren increased by 135% over a longer period. ions of the pairs on the usefulness of the diary cards were mixed, some feeling that Feedback they were a chore while others found them At the end of the initial intensive phase ofuseful. The group consensus seemed to be the project, tutors and tutees gathered togeth-that some form of recording was desirable er with the project leaders for feedback. Thebut that it should be done over longer peri- intention of the project leaders was not thatods rather than daily. Some pairs reported the pairs should see the project as having ainitial difficulty in establishing synchronous finite end after 6 weeks, but rather that thisreading together. but in virtually all cases intensive period of use of the techniquethis resolved itself with practice. should render them fluent in its use and able The tutees had a variety of opinions about to see some significant change in the readingthe impact their Paired Reading had on them. progress of the tutees which would motivateAn improvement in confidence when reading the pairs to continue using the technique inwas widely reported. as was increased incli- the long run. nation to read signposts and other natural At the feedback meeting. therefore, it wasreading material. For those who reported it. necessary for the project leaders not only tothe latter was a new experience. Some stu- thank the pairs for their cooperation anddents reported feeling considerably more flu- give them the highly encouraging resultsent when reading. and one tutee reported feel- from the reading tests (in terms of grouping more independent. In general. the pairs averages rather than individual scores), buthad got along well with each other, one pair also (most importantly) to solicit the viewsreporting being delighted with their joint of the pairs as to what improvements couldexperience. Pairs tended to wish in the longer be made in the way such projects were orga-run to find more convenient times for read- nized and to air questions of where the pairsing. and the intention seemed to he to fit might wish to go from there. Views aboutPaired Reading in even more easily with the relevance of the "How Not to Do It- roleeveryday life. play at the training meeting were various. The tutors were also asked to complete a some students finding the drama amusingquestionnaire about changes which they had and relaxing. others exaggerated and unreal-seen during the project in their tutee's reading istic, and yet others very pointed and elicit-performance, and 9 of the ID did so. All re- ing identification by members of the audi-ported their tutees were more confident in ence. Most students felt that the "How to Doreading, and 7 tutees were reported to he It" aspect was reasonably well presented.more willing to read and more interested in However, once they arrived home, a numberreading. Six of the tutees were reported to he had difficulty with signaling for independentunderstanding books more. enjoying reading reading. and it was felt that more attentionmore, and keeping a steadier flow when read- should he devoted at the training meeting toing. Five of the tutees were felt to he reading

220..22-I.. more widely: 4 of them were reading more in show continued though lesser acceleration in absolute volume. However, only 2 tuteesthe months following the end of the intensive were felt to he reading with more life andperiod (Topping, I987b). However. children expression. Of the tutors, 6 wanted to contin-are typically surrounded by books. at least at ue tutoring with the same frequency as duringschool. and enjoy continuing encouragement the project. while 2 wished to continue tutor-to read. This was not the case with the adults ing but with a lesser frequency. The remain-participating in the Ryedale Project, who ing 2 tutors wished to continue to tutor read-found it difficult to regain the reading habit ing but in a different way. A few (4) were alsoafter years of nonactivity. interested in tutoring in another area such as Follow-up testing was carried out approxi- math or spelling. mately 7.5 months after the end of the initial A simpler questionnaire was also complet-phase of the project. Continuing acceleration ed by the tutees. and all 10 of these werewas found in very few' students. The average returned, although in some cases they mustfurther gain in reading comprehension for the have been completed with the assistance ofstudents who had registered on the scale at the tutors, and therefore there may have beenpretest was only 4 months, while there was a degree of bias in the responses. All 10actually a slight decline in accuracy scores. tutees reported that they liked doing Paired(The results were skewed by one student who Reading. Virtually all reported that it wasdid particularly badly at follow-up.) The pic- easy to find a good time and place to do theture was even less optimistic for those stu- reading. All but 1 reported that they haddents who had not registered on the scale at improved their relationship with their tutor.pretest, although these results were more dif- Eight of the 10 felt their reading had improvedficult to quantify. Furthermore, the proportion and wished to go on using the technique.of self-corrections had shown no further Seven tutees said they would tell other peoplechange since posttest. about Paired Reading. However, opinions were more divided on other matters. Half ofContinued Use Imperative the tutees found it easy to learn the technique. The project demonstrated the feasibility of and half found it difficult. Half felt the recordusing the Paired Reading technique with non- sheet was a help. while half felt it was of noprofessional tutors who are in daily natural use. Generally, the tutees reported liking all contact with students in need of help with kinds of reading better, but this view was notbasic reading skills. Gains in reading ability unanimous. were evident in students during a period of intensive use of the technique as short as 6 The Longer Term weeks. In the long run, however, when use of Despite the good intentions of the majoritythe technique was not maintained, the rate of of tutees to continue doing Paired Reading,gain in comprehension declined markedly for the summer came, and the importance of thethe more able students, while accuracy did harvest in this rural area took over. Many ofnot improve. For the less able students, there the project participants did not do much read-was evidence of "wash out" of experimental ing after the initial intensive period. Wheneffects. It is clear that no matter how enjoy- Paired Reading projects are carried out withable the Paired Reading technique might be, children, it is usual for the participants toand however easy it is to insinuate it regularly

..225.. 230 and frequently into everyday life, neither fea-References ture guarantees that the technique will contin- Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit. (1981). A sur- ue to he used by students in the long term in a veYalattainment and progress students in adult literacy schemes. London: Author. way that sustains the striking gains which can Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit. (1983). Lit- accrue in the short term. eracy and nmeracy: Evidence from the Nation- For future projects. the importance of on- al Child Development Study. London: Author. going practice, perhaps 2 or 3 times a week, Adult Literacy and Basic Skills Unit. (1986). An- will need to he stressed and perhaps formal- nual report 1985-86. London: Author. Booth, S., & Winter, J. (1987, Spring). Peer tutored ized in some kind of written contract. The paired reading in a college of further education. continuation of some form of self-recording Paired Reading Bulletin. 3, 2-5. seems inevitable, although not favored by all Heckelman. R.G. (1986. March). N.1.M. re-visited. tutorial pairs. Gathering project participants Accukinic Therapy. 21,411-120. together for a booster meeting at regular in- Hunter. C'.S.J.. & Harman. D. (1979). Adult illiteracy tervals must also he tried. A more structured in the United States. New York: McGraw-Hill. Lee. A. (1986, Spring). A study of the longer term long-term approach is being adopted with effects of paired reading. Paired Reading Bul- subsequent groups of students. letin. 2, 36-43. The deployment of the Paired Reading Meyer. V. (1982. March). Prime-0-"Fec: A success- technique in an open community education ful strategy for adult disabled readers. Journal of format clearly holds great promise and merits Reading. 28, 512-515. wide dissemination. Paired Reading enables Topping, K.J. (1987b. March). Paired Reading: A powerful technique for parent use. The Reading anyone who can read to transmit their skill to Teacher. 40, 608-614. somone she or he sees regularly. Furthermore, Topping. K.J. (1986h, Spring). Paired Reading for it could he particularly useful in those innova- adults with literacy problems. Paired Reading tive programs that support parents of low lit- Bulletin, 2.44-52. eracy in their attempts to help their own chil-Topping. K.J. (1986a). Paired Reading training pack (2nd ed.). Huddersfield, England: Kirklees dren learn to read. The method may also have Paired Reading Project. implications for education services in ThirdTopping. K.J. (1987a). The peer tutoring hand- World and other developing countries. The book: Promoting co-operative learning. Lon- effectiveness of the technique even in its pilot don: Croom Helm. form compares favorably with traditional Topping. K.J.. & Wolfendale, S.W. (Eds.). (1985). methods in the adult literacy field. Methods Parental involvement in children's reading. London: Croom Helm. of service delivery can now be refined toVincent, D., & de la Mare, M. (1985). New make the use of this technique even more Macmillan reading analysis. Basingstoke. effective and efficient. England: Macmillan Education.

2 3 ..226.. been sent to school or taught any form of sign T utorin g language. When we met Arthur, he let it he known through his own personal alternative means of communicating, mostly gesturintt and Helping a \onspeakinganswering yes-no questions, that he wanted to learn to read and write. He also demonstrated %dull Male with a very independent attitude and maneuvered his wheelchair quite well. In addition. he came to the tutorial sessions with a great de- Cerebral Palsy Achieve sire to learn to use a microcomputer. Thus, it was determined that Arthur could he taught to Literacy use a computer. since he would be able to hit the keys with his left hand and his desire to leant was so great. In addition to noting his physical capabili- JOAN P. GIPS ties, we made an initial inventory of Arthur's CHARLES A. DUFFY academic accomplishments. He knew how to JANET C. RICHARDS print his name. knew his age. and could print FEBRUARY 1993 his birthdate in numerical form. He could identify approximately 60 single words (see Figure 1) but only if presented in all capital letters as they appeared on his communica- This is the story of how Arthur, ation board; thus he did not have a concept of black adult American with cerebralthese items as words. He had simply learned palsy, learned to read and write.each word's configuration and location on the Arthur was referred to the Univer-communication board. A well developed sity of New Orleans Reading/Language Artssense of humor was a strong indicator that Tutorial Center at the age of 33. It was notArthur was bright and that tutoring might be until this point in his life that someone finallysuccessful. recognized that Arthur was bright and could learn. As a result of cerebral palsy, he wasUnderstanding Arthur's Literacy nonspeaking and was confined to a wheel-Needs chair. Although he had some minimal sound Approximately 70'of persons with cere- production, those sounds were mostly unin-bral palsy do not develop speech due to se- telligible. On occasion one could hear hisvere neuromuscular impairments (Hagen. "thank you'' (that is. "ank ou-). Also as aPorter, & Brink, 1973). They are denied the result of the cerebral palsy. Arthur exhibitedpractice and experience necessary for the difficulty with fine motor skills and had nodevelopment of language abilities and effec- control of his right hand but good control oftive social interaction such as participating in his left. His vision was poor even with correc-a conversation with another human being. tive lenses. Up until the time he came to theCommunication hoards have provided some university tutorial program, he had nevermeans for two-way interaction (McDonald &

..227..2.32 Figure 1 Words as They Appeared on Arthur's Communication Board

ALARM SMOKE GAS USE SELECT HOLD PRESS THIS BUTTON WHICH CONNECT CONTINUE WAITING THANK NOT SAFE ATTENTION TURN DIAL CHANGE STATION ADJUST LOCK BRAKE SIDE FORWARD REVERSE COMPLETE OPEN DOOR OR WINDOW EXIT DEPOSIT QUARTER CALL GET REACH MICRO RANGE FAST SLOW BUY/BYE KEY ENTER PLACE WATER YES NO INCORRECT ADD ALL MORE TOTAL FIRST NEXT FLOOR ROOM HELLO

Schultz, 1973): however, in generalthese the print itself. The graphic symbols represent boards are limited to a finite number of words the relationship between the speech sounds and phrases. Newer devices dedicated toand the letters of the language. For the non- voice output communication. such as thespeaking individual, these three systems are PRC Touch Talker/Light Talker (1989.underdevelopednot because of any deficit Prentke Romich Company. Wooster, Ohio,in mental capacity but because of nonuse or USA), use pictures, computer technology, use of another necessary alternative or aug- and synthesized speech to allow an individual mentative means of communication (Lahey. to communicate in complete sentences.1988). Nonspeaking individuals have Nevertheless, nonspeaking individuals withreceived language input but have not been cerebral palsy have many more thoughts.able to produce language in a traditional ideas, and feelings that can only he further sense. As a result, they have not had opportu- developed by communicating with othersnities to use language structures in natural, through reading and writing. real life contexts or to experiment with lan- There are three systems of language criti-guage to discover its functions (for example. cal to reading and writing ability: the seman-getting things done. controlling others, main- tic, the syntactic, and the graphophonemictaining personal relationships. expressing systems. Briefly, the semantic system reflects individuality, conveying information, and the background knowledge. prior experi-finding things out [Halliday, 1975]). Such ences, concepts, attitudes, values, skills, and experimentation is what helps children form procedures a reader or writer brings to thethe basic rules of language structure (that is, reading or writing task. The syntactic system syntactic and graphophonemic systems), refers to knowledge about how the language works. Readers and writers use this knowl- Ihues Instructional Program edge of the meaningful an angement of words Inorder for Arthur to achieve literacy, a in sentences to help construct meaning in personalized way to develop his language text. The graphuphonemic system refers to abilities was needed. Since he v. anted to learn

233.228.. how to use a microcomputer, and because of writing is a reflection of the particular si- his physical impediment for handwriting. an tuation in which the learning is occur- IBM-compatible microcomputer was the basic ring. piece of equipment used. Because of his rela- Choice is an essential element for learn- tively good control of the left hand. a stan- ing; there must be opportunities for stu- dard keyboard was used. The microcomputer dents to choose what to read and what to was initially equipped with a speech synthe- write about. sizer to provide Arthur with verbalization of "Whole language" activities are those sounds; however, due to its robotic- sounding that support students in their use of all speech. Arthur preferred not to use it. Initially, aspects of language; students learn about a large screen display monitor was employed, reading and writing while listening; they but it was later replaced with a standard learn about writing from reading and (12 "/30 cm) monitor because the resolution gain insights about reading from writing. of the text on the large screen was poor and Our role as teachers is best seen as "lead- gave Arthur difficulty. A printer was attached ing from behind" by supporting the lan- to the system for printed feedback. The word guage learning capabilities of students processing software WordPerfect' (WordPer- indirectly through the activities we offer fect Corporation. Orem. Utah. USA) was them (p. 5). used by both Arthur and his student-tutors for text production. Arthur's Progress During the First Reading and writing instruction by under- War graduate student-tutors enrolled in a correc-Fall semester Upon entering the tutorial pro- tive reading course has been provided forgram. Arthur demonstrated strength in the Arthur 4 days a week. I hour per day for two semantic system through the auditory moda- fall, two spring, and two summer semesters,lity. It was evident that Arthur was able to totaling approximately 30 hours of tutoringunderstand spoken language well because he each semester, or 180 hours of instruction. Atwould respond appropriately (for example, he this writing. Arthur had begun his third yearwould laugh at jokes and indicate yes or no of the tutoring program. by shaking his head to questions asked). He The following beliefs. as delineated inwas also a successful participant in the Vol- It hole Lans;uage: Theory in Use (Newman,unteers of America Independent Living pro- 1985), have guided all the activities plannedgram. which meant that he lived in his OW9 for Arthur's instructional program. apartment and took care of all his personal Language and language learning arc needs such as cooking. To come to the univer- sity as well as to visit his doctors. he arranged social activities: they occur hest in a sit- to ride a bus modified for persons with physi- uation which encourages discussion and cal disabilities. a sharing of knowledge and ideas. Due to his clear independence. an instruc- Language learning necessarily insolestional program that used his strength in the the risk of trying new strategies: error isauditory modality and that focused on his life inherent in the process. experiences was devised to teach reading and Reading and writing are context-specif-writing. Initially. a language experience ap- ic; v. hat is learned about reading andproach was attempted. since it was apparent 234 Arthur had ideas he wished to express aboutpalsy or the nonspeaking. However, because the events in his life. The difficulty cameit is an informal instrument, modifications in because those working with Arthur could notits administration, such as those employed in understand what he was trying to communi-Arthur's program. are more easily justified cate. Since Arthur was never taught any formthan for standardized instruments. of sign language. he had limited means for Arthur's initial semester was spent focus- communicating his ideas. ing on sight vocabulary and basic concepts It quickly became evident during tutoringabout print and about the world. For example, sessions using the computer that Arthur alsoa calendar was introduced and holidays noted: had no knowledge of the graphophonemic sys-a personal dictionary of new words was tem, since he would not even attempt to pro-begun: signs labeling objects (for example, duce any of the letters in the words (for exam-"This is a red chair") were posted around the ple, invented spellings), nor could he identifyroom: and lots of language experiences were on the keyboard individual letters called outprovided and written about (for example, by the tutor. At first, he could only recognizecarving a pumpkin at Halloween, going trick- the capital forms of most letters but did notor-treating at Arthur's request, flying a kite. know their names. He could only respond inand visiting the university bookstore). It writing (typing) by answering yes or no ques- should be noted that Arthur worked extreme- tions or by being given multiple-choice ques-ly slowly because he was also becoming tions that were read orally, to which he wouldfamiliar with the computer keyboard. But type the letter of his choice. Through these yes there was progress. By the end of his first or no and multiple-choice questions. Arthur'ssemester, Arthur's listening comprehension tutors discovered his interests in sports. music,level was fifth grade and his sight vocabulary and cooking: they discovered he had no con-increased to 50 words. These results were cept of days, weeks, and months or that words encouraging. and Arthur was given some have spaces in between them: he had nevermaterials to work with over the Christmas experienced Halloween; he had no readingbreak. ability whatsoever; and he possessed a sightSpring AenleSiel: When Arthur returned to the vocabulary of four words (that is, his name.program in the spring, we administered the door. VCS. and no). 1985 Ekwall Reading Inventory. (2nd ed.) and When given the 1985 Analytical Readingthe 1981 Peabody Picture Vocabulary Inventory (3rd ed.). which was modified toTestRevised (PPv-r). With the informal read- questions in a multiple-choice format. Arthuring inventory, Arthur read silently and demonstrated a listening comprehension levelanswered questions modified to a multiple- of priiner. This was interpreted as revealing achoice format. On the word lists. he circled deficiency in understanding the task of listen- the words he could read. Arthur was unable to ing to a story and then listening and respond-demonstrate measurable levels for reading or ing to questions presented in a multiple-for sight tocabulary. His listening compre- choice format. rather than in his ability tohension le\was eighth grade. The l'I'VT understand the text. This interpretation should required no modification in administration he v linkedith some caution since this infor-because Arthur w aable to point to the pic- mal reading inventor` was not designed tures in the test booklet with ease. Results for specifically for use with perstms v ith cerebral the res ealed a mental age score of 12 Figure 2 Sample "Conversation" Between Arthur and His TutorFirst Spring Semester

Tutor: what happened to our work? Arthur: gone T: yes it is gone. I wonder what happened? we did not do it. A: do i no i voa T: do you mean do i know where the words went? A: Yf YYes T: no. I ne\er had that happen before and dr. gipe will think that we messed up. A: y3s T: what will we sa. happened? A: i do foot no T: oh well, we are writing now, right? A: yes T. what will you eat tonight'? A: hamb T: do you mean hamburgers? A: yes T: who will make them? A: T: yOU Will cook? A: es T: v. hat eke will you eat? A: i icecream T: v hat will you drink? A: it

years. The Language Experience Approachtures allowed Arthur to spell out what he was was continued. Emphasis was also placed onthinking. As he became more adept with his learning the graphophonemic system using a"signing." he was better able to invent multisensory phonics program (J.C. Richards. spellings, thus providing a written record of personal communications, 1989). his language and a source for reading materi- A breakthrough seemed to occur whenal. Written conversations were carried out Arthur's tutor created a set of key word cardsoften to give Arthur as much practice as pos- to use for communicating what letters orsible using real language in a social situation sounds he was trying to write. Thus. Arthur(see Figure 2). He was also instructed to read was taught a key word and signing methodalong while the tutor read stories aloud to that combined his ability to gesture withhim, in the style of the neurological impress words representing key sounds of the lan-method ( Heekelman, 1969). He especially guage (for example, a picture of a baby withliked material about dinosaurs. sports, and the word baby w ritlen below, accompaniedentertainers. by Arthur holding his arms as if to rock a Summer,wnu In his I irst summer semes- baby). Learning these key words with ges-ter, Arthur's tutor was a black male of 236 approximately his age. now 34. (All previous was continued and doze passages made from and subsequent student tutors were whitehis written productions. The emphasis was on females in their 20s). The rapport betweendeveloping knowledge of syntax and sight vo- the two men was wonderful, and Arthurcabulary. Directed Listening/Reading Think- made great progress. The instructional pro-ing Activities were conducted using folk and gram consisted of working on letter recogni-fairy tales, newspaper articles, dinosaur tion using his key word cards and gestures asbooks. and material on music and sports. well as emphasizing writing using complete Toward the end of this semester Arthur had sentences with attention to syntax, word end-some health problems and became somewhat ings. and parts of speech. At this point,depressed. As a result, his mental health Arthur's ability to use function words reflect-became of more concern than his academic ed that of a very young child (for example.program. The tutor helped Arthur tremen- "I. Arthur. go. LINO."). Although Arthur haddously by taking him to the gym for weight heard English spoken for 34 years and under-lifting and swimming and, in the evenings, to stood spoken language, when he was finallybasketball games. Arthur's mental health able to produce language himself he omittedimproved 100%. but there were no measur- function words as do very young children.able improvements in his reading levels. Fry's "instant words" (1980) were the sourceMore importantly, Arthur found a friend. This of function words used to write completetutor continued a personal relationship with sentences, and Arthur was given daily home-Arthur and got him involved in the national work to handwrite sentences using theseorganization for persons with cerebral palsy, words. The 1989 Informal Reading Inven-where he attended all the local meetings and tory: Preprimer to Twelfth Grade (3rd ed.)became a member of their sports team. the results revealed a listening comprehension Hurricanes (the team competed in such events as wheelchair races and boccie). level of llth grade and an instructional read- ing level of preprimer. Sight vocabularySpring semester. The second spring semester increased but was still not measurable using indicated considerable progress in all areas of the inventory. But now Arthur had a firmArthur's program. According to the 1988 basis for improving his reading. He was Basic Reading Inventory: Preprimer Through asked to continue reading hooks. given toGrade Eight (4th ed.) and the 1990 Secondary him as gifts. during the semester break. and College Reading Inventory (2nd ed.). Arthur's independent reading level was at the rthur's Progress During the Second 3rd grade, instructional reading level ranged Icor from 4thoth. and frustration reading level Fall semeAter. 'The second fall semesterwas 7th. His listening comprehension level revealed that Arthur had indeed practiced hisremained 11th. Arthur's sight vocabulary for reading over the summer break. The 1985words in isolation was primer. He had defi- Analytical Reading [memory (3rd ed.) results nite reading interests: he enjoyed legends.

in September. reflecting I year of instruction,fol k ta le s. animal stories. and articles and showed an instructional reading level of thirdhooks ahout sports. The emphasis during the grade, with frustration at fourth. Arthur hadsemester was on writing. specifically syntax mastered letter recognition for names of Id-and sentence structure. Edit inr was intro- lers but not for sounds. Language operienceduced using language experience prodtic- 01"4 ..2: Figure 3 Final Revised Copy of Arthur's Letter of Complaint to the RTA

[Home address] July 12. 1990 Regional Transit Authority c/o [addressee] 101 Dauphine St. New Orleans. LA 70112 Dear Ms. [name] I am very angry with the RTA. On July 3. 1990 I had to sit on the bus for four hours. Because the bus made me late, I had to miss school. I am not stupid. I have a good brain and I enjoy going to school. I am angered over hac ing been made to pay the one dollar fee for nothing! I would like my money hack. Sincerely.

!surname]

Arthur [surname] IRTA ID#1

tions. Arthur still relied on his key word cardsimproved to the point where he was spelling to help with that spelling. Spelling tests werewords well enough to make use of the spell- given often using words from his personalchecker function. This summer session was dictionary. another breakthrough in terms of Arthur's Summer seraeAter. The second summer ses-writing progress. He demonstrated under- sion show ed that Arthur maintained hisstanding of the function of writing to get reading levels while his listening compre-something done when he had cause to write hension level improved to college (1990a letter of complaint to the bus service that Secondary and College Reading Inventory,provided his transportation to and from 2nd ed.). Sight vocabulary improved to sec-school (see Figure 3). ond grade level for words in isolation. The PPYT revealed a mental age score of 20 years, Arlhur's Progress During the Third consistent with the listening comprehension)ear level. During this summer session. Arthurhill seine.% fer. When Arthur began his third wanted to focus on improving his spelling,year of literacy instruction, in his third fall so he was introduced to WordPerfect's -emester, his silent reading comprehension spell-checker capability. His writing hadability was assessed using the 1989 Analytical Reading Inventory (4th ed.). The multiple-and no knowledge of paragraph structure or choice format for comprehension questionspunctuation in his writing. He continued to was continued so that he would not have toexpress a wide range of reading interests, write out his responses. His writing abilityincluding the categories of mystery, comedy, was still not developed enough to warrant thesports (for example. basketball), history (for time and effort it would take to produce anexample, medieval times), fact, and fiction. understandable response. The multiple-choiceArthur believed that his major weakness was format, then, assessed Arthur's recognition ofin the area of writing. He was determined to a correct response. and not the generation of aimprove his spelling, and informed his tutor, response that might better reveal his ownin no uncertain terms, that this was what he thinking with regard to questions that requirewanted to work on that semester. With this integration of information. Nevertheless, thiskind of attitude and level of motivation, type of response format had been used previ-Arthur had the potential to continue improv- ously. so these results could he directly com-ing in his goal to achieve literacy. While com- pared to previous results. Arthur was able tomunication with Arthur remained difficult, demonstrate an independent reading level ofthis obstacle was being overcome through the 5th grade. an instructional reading level ofuse of Arthur's personal sign language, some 6th-7th. and a frustration reading level of 8th.minimal handwriting, and a computer system. His sight vocabulary for words in isolationThrough these means, Arthur was now able to remained much lower than his ability to readanswer and ask questions, as well as initiate words in context. His listening comprehen-conversation and express his opinions. sion level remained at the college level (1990 Secondary and College Reading Inventory.Computer Technology and Holistic 2nd ed.). Instruction Arthur's reading levels seemed quite The availability of computer equipment dependent on the content, or topic. of the pas-for experimenting with language provides a sages read. He had difficulty with narrativegreat opportunity for the nonspeaking person. passages such as the excerpt fromThe A wide variety of computer equipment is Incredible Journey(Level 4 passage) and theavailable for instructional use. While the bicycle race story (Level 5): however, he had speech synthesizer used by Arthur was cho- little difficulty with the expository passagesen because of its relatively low cost, the about Dr. Charles Drew and his work inspeech was highly robotic and its phonetic blood transfusions (Level 6) and the narrativeabilities were marginal. More expensive syn- passage taken fromThe Outsiders(Level 7).thesizers are able to produce more natural It is difficult to interpret these results othersounding speech (in both male and female than as they are related to the number of pas-voices) with enhanced pronunciation capabil- sages read at one sitting, or what may he more ities. Unfortunately, speech synthesizers. by likely, the presence of appropriate back-and large, do not work with graphic intensive ground knowledge or interest on Arthur's partor graphic-interface software. Use of newer for the passage's content. communication devices such as Touch Talker' Arthur still exhibited extreme difficulty may he a viable alternative. For persons with ,,pelling, even w hen copying from a mocjiil;cerebral pals, and little motor control. there He demonstrated little know ledge of ,,yrr4td(lire a number of alternate input devices. Keyboards can easily he remapped to per-and writing always had real purpose and a form as either left- or right-handed Dvorakreal audience (for example. to converse with keyboards (instead of the standard QWERTYthe tutor or to complain to the RTM. Through keyboard). Additionally, software can be usedthis holistic approach. Arthur's schemata which will either remap or substitute for key-about the world, along with his knowledge of stroke combinations that usually require twohow our language works, were expanded. For hands. Students with even less motor controlArthur. writing was talking, and writing. can make use of "sip and puff sticks" oralong with his gestures and grunts, was his thumb clicker devices for input. With themost effective and efficient way of communi- appropriate software. full use of the computercating. To conclude, there could be no pack- is possible. aged program that would have helped Arthur Working with Arthur afforded a perfectlearn to read and write. His level of literacy opportunity for providing holistic instructioncould only have been achieved in such a short through the use of computer technology. time by adhering to holistic beliefs. Many aspects of Arthur's learning could he observed and directly addressed. as the References semester his mental health became the pri- Fry. E.B. (1980). The new instant word list. The Reading Teacher. 34. 284-290. mary focus demonstrates. Arthur was always Hagen. C.. Porter, W., & Brink. J. (1973). Non- an active participant in his own learning. His verbal communication: An alternative mode of instruction was totally student centered. He communication of the child with severe cerebral learned to read and write using the computer pals. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders. just as a young child learns from interacting 38. 448-455. with print in his or her environment. Halliday. M.A.K. (1975). Learning how to mean: Activities were employed that incorporated Exploration in the development of language. London: Edward Arnold. his interests and events in his daily life (forHeckelman. R.G. (1969). A neurological-impress example. his first Halloween and the bus method of remedial reading instruction. incident). Academie Therapy. 4. 277-282. The graphophonemic connection to read-Lahev. M. (1988). Language di.sorde.s and tan- ing and writing had to he taught through the goatx development. New York: Macmillan. use of pictures. hand signals. and songs. All :McDonald. E.T.. & Schultz. A.R. (1973). Com- of these efforts showed Arthur that reading munication boards for cerebral palsied children. Journal of Speech and Hearing DiAorder. s. 38, and writing are meaning-based activities. He 73-88. read, or was read to. and wrote every day, but Newman. J.NI. (GIL). ( 1985). 11 loll goo not for some contrived reason. His reading Theory in use. Portsmouth. NH: Heinemann. respects the learners' language, experience, Tutoring and culture (Auerbach, 1989; Fingeret, 1991; Freire & Macedo, 1987: Kazemek & Rigg, 1985). This accompanies the parallel interest in meaning-based instruction for K-12 learn- I Ain't Never Read My ers (Calkins, 1986; Goodman, 1986: Harste, Woodward, & Burke, 1984; Smith, 1988). A Own Words Before developmental view of literacy is at the base of these practices, but we have yet to agree on ways in which to document growth. I describe a case here that supports the conclusion that involving learners in literacy VICTORIA PURCELL -GATES practices that validate their experiences and NOVEMBER 1993 language will move them toward full, con- ventional literacy more effectively than the more traditional skills-based, decontextual- ized instruction still found in most U.S. adult Learners are cultural beings; theyeducation programs. exist, move, relate, and make sense of their world within a specifiedThe Study culturalandsocialcontext This article comes from a 2-year ethno- (Ferdman, 1990). They develop literacy con-graphic study of Jenny and her son. Donny cepts and skills within their own sociocultural(not their real names), their community and frames. To better study and understand litera-culture, and the ways in which their becom- cy practices and learning, we professionalsing literate was influenced by their culture must acknowledge the link between literacyand vice versa. This is not a report of the development and culture (Ferdman, 1990). Ientire study. Rather, this piece focuses on prepared this report on Jenny with this chargeJenny's growth as a reader and writer as she in mind. I describe a woman. Jenny. whoinvested herself in literacy events directed at sought to learn to read and write within herconnecting her world and language to print. Urban Appalachian culture and the culture of Data for this article, as for the entire study. her home, where no one could read or write.were gathered through field notes recorded Her earlier attempts are viewed through aafter each interaction, audiotapes of most sociocultural lens, particularly the ways inmeetings that were transcribed and integrated which her language. her words. served bothwith field notes, collection of literacy artifacts to deny and then later to provide her access tolike writing and reading attempts. and struc- the world of print. tured and spontaneous interviews. Much of My second intention is to document care-the data was collected during Jenny and fully Jenny's growth toward conventionalityDonny's literacy instruction at the literacy through functional, holistic literacy practices.center of a large urban university in the mid- Many educators dedicated to improvingwestern United States. The center is the site adults' access to literacy have called for eon- for the practicum aspect of the graduate-level textuali/ed, meaning-centered instruction thatsequence of courses (m diagnosis and remcdi-

241 ation of literacy problems. Graduate students"home." While many descendants of this work one-on-one in the center with childrenpopulation have successfully assimilated into two times a week, each session lasting anthe mainstream cultures of the cities, a sizable hour. Data were also collected at Jenny'sportion have not, preferring their mountain home and during various shopping tripshomes and lifestyles. As a group, they suffer around the city. many illspoverty, poor health, low educa- tional attainment, and, to some degree, high Jenny and her World crime rates. When I first met Jenny, I was immediately One characteristic of the unassimilated impressed with her strength of character, herUrban Appalachians is their retention of char- forthrightness, her candor, and her determina-acteristic language patterns and usage. Other tion. "I cain't read,- she stated clearly and un-groups often use these language patterns to equivocally. meeting my gaze with her ownstereotype and make fun of the "hillbillies," a clear blue-eyed one. "It's hard not knowin'discriminatory practice that Appalachians and how to read. A lot of these women, you know,Urban Appalachians suffer nationwide. Jenny they think it ain't that hard to read. Just sitwas clearly aware of this focus on her lan- down and read.... It's not easy.- Jenny's hus-guage and by the time she was in her early band, she informed me, also could not read or30s (when I met her). she was fully prepared write and worked part time as a roofer. Sheto take the blame upon herself and her lan- had two childrenDonny, age 7, and Timmy,guage ..)r her failure in school: "That's why it age 4. Jenny worked part time as a house-was a little hard for me startin' to like...sound cleaner. my words out...'cause I talk different...'cause Jenny had applied for help for her 7-year-I'm, you know...countrified. And my words old from the university-based literacy center Idon't come out the way they're supposed to." directed. He was failing to learn to read in From the beginning of our association, I school. She asked if she could sit alongsideenjoyed and perceived Jenny's words as part him in the center to try to pick up enoughand parcel of the many qualities I admired in information to be able to help him with hisher: her ability to cut verbally to the quick of homework. I accepted her and Donny as stu-any situations, her honesty and her straight- dents, and she agreed to let me collect dataforward way of living and relating to people. for research as I worked with them both onher self-deprecating humor, and her strength learning to read and write. and grace as she dealt with one setback after Jenny is a member of the U.S. minorityanother in her attempts to provide for her group called Urban Appalachian. This group family. makes up a significant portion of the low- The reason I have made a point of this is income population of several mid-si/e tothat, as I begin to talk and write about Jenny large cities in the Midwest and Mid-Atlanticand her family. I find myself using her voice states. These people are migrants or descen-and her words as she did. I do this out of Inv dants of migrants from the Appalachianrespect for herher language is a part of mountains who came to the cities looking forher hut I am aware of dangers inherent in work, many times nut finding anv for whichthis. These Appalachian voices and words they were suited, and who for the most parthave been used for so long by bigots and eth- continue to regard their mountain origins asnocentrists for purposes of mockery and dcp-

.. -372. 4 2 recation that it is possible that when I use this Figure 1 language it will be interpreted as another NVords Jenny Copied off Items in Her example of this mockery. If this impression is Kitchen That She Felt She Could Read formed irretrievably then I will stop using her words and voice, but for me that will entail an incredible loss of the power of this story. k ¶ow Jenit 's Conceptual Skill Base Cost"cut t.r Jenny's initial desire to sit alongside while A scceecross; n.3 I taught Donny proved unworkable because C sco Donnv needed to do a great deal of listening to literature. exploring writing, and other self- pea n ufBuffer directed activities to build emergent literacy MakdellHouse. concepts. We weren't teaching Donny in any SELF RI SING n_ouR didactic way at that time, and Jenny's concep- tual level regarding reading and writing was FAtis beyond her son's. Jenny was typical of many adult low liter- ates: she had dropped out of school in her 7th-grade year after struggling with readingread to her children and a few reminders pen- and writing from the beginning: she had cre-ciled on the calendar on her kitchen wall. ated a life for herself in which print playedThese calendar notations consisted of num- few functions: she decided to try to learn tobers for the times of appointments and only a read when she became concerned about herfew letters which were usually enough to children's ability to succeed in school: andremind her of the nature of the appointments. she had attended various adult programs for As a teacher. I knew that she needed to several years (Irwin. 1985: Newman &read text in order to learn to read. but I could Beverstock. 1990: Northcutt. 1975: Sticht.tind no texts she could read. Since I was pri- 1988). Initial informal assessments revealedmarily Donny's teacher and could not attend that Jenny was not illiterateshe could readto her e\clusively. I had to think long and some things with a great deal of strugglehard for activities for her that would move but rather she was more nonl iterate in thather beyond the nonliterate stance she had she did not read anything. assumed. In Figure 1is a list of V. ords she copied off items in her cupboard that tit the criteria I set %dull Education Classes for her: Find words on labels in your house Jenny's experiences with adult education that you know you can read. When she readclasses were also typical of those of man this short list to me in the literacy center. shelow literate adults (Auerbach. 1989: Fingeret. struggled with each word. Aside from this, 1991: Irwin. 1985). She had been attending Jenny did notin her view. could notreadan evening adult literacy class for 4 Years. (in the sense of processing print for Meaning) bile she was determined to attend as often any thing in her in% ironment except for oneas she could, real life problems pre\ entcd her simple children's book she had mastered toIrom going regularly.

2 4 . .23u. . During the third session in the center. sheskills: she had never written anything for her brought a stack of materials with which sheown purposes in her life aside from her name. had been working at her adult class beforethose notations on her calendar. and her ad- she had to quit due to lack of transportation.dress on the few occasions she was required These were workbooks, with page after pageto do so. of short passages on a variety of topics fol- lowed by questions to test comprehension.Literacy Experiences in the Center Most of the questions called for filling in the Clearly. Jenny needed to engage in some blanks of sentences with words taken fromauthentic reading and writing. I suggested to the passage. Others called for choosingher that she write in a journal during her among several items for the correct answer. times in the center. telling me about her day There was no writing in themJenny saidor about anything at all that would help me they were supposed to write their answers on learn about her and her own thoughts and paperbut she said that she had learned tofeelings. I told her that I would type what she read these passages. I asked her to read onehad written and she could then read her own for me and she did with a great dea! of strug-wordswords she had written in the preced- glepausing often to try to recall a word as ifing session. She looked at me with an expres- from some sort of memorized list or spellingsion of stunned awareness. "Why. I ain't never it out to see if she could get it that way. When read my own words before!" she exclaimed she was finished I was truly surprised. "Yousoftly. "See. Icain't write!" can read!" I exclaimed, noting to myself that "Well. I think you can write more than this looked to be on about the 4th-grade level.you think you can," I said. "The writing She looked at mestraight in the eye aswill come...as you start writing your own usualand said matter of factly. "I can read thoughts and your own feelings down and not these words if they're in this book. after some- just copying somebody else's words." one helps me. but I cain't read 'em if they're anywheres else!" And this was true: none of Jenny shook her head hack and forth slow- this hard-won knowledge transferredany-ly as she acknowledged. "That's all I ever where. really did w as.(,)p.; stuff. you know, from a In terms of learning to write. the closesthook." Jenny continued to try to convince me her adult education instruction came to deal-that she was not up to this task. focusing on ing with this was the ubiquitous language artsher inability to spell. "See, I don't...the reason workbooks and lessons. as she showed meI blew up Irm not sure what this referred tol about 3 months after I began working withwas I couldn't spell stuff!" she insisted. Her her. When her family's truck was fixed andstrength and determination won the day. she began attending adult school again, shethough, as she finally agreed to begin the brought me the workbook she had beenarduous task of trying to record her thoughts assigned. The skills addressed included partsand feelings onto paper...in lice own won/N. of speech (nouns. erbs. adjectives, adverbs,She was amared. and continues to he amaied. pronouns. pre posi tk ms. etc.).paragraphingat my ability to read her writing that was (one idea per. and remember to indent), andfilled with so mane misspclIings. The basic punctuation cons entions. Jenny. how cker,concept that someone could read what she had little use for or understanding of these rote was completely new to her.

..23f2.41; As Jenny acquired a larger sight vocabu-of writing she did for me. This is ft four-page lary and accumulated time reading real textletter she wrote to me after I wrote to her for meaning from reading my typed versionsfrom my new home, asking about how she of her journal. I began responding to her indi-and her family wire doing and telling her vidual entries, providing her with her firstabout my new home and job. Over 2 years I meaningful text from an author other thancollected 22 journa entries and this one letter herself. Jenny was successful at reading thesefrom her. The remainder of this report is an entries from me, usually asking later for con-analysis of these writings and her reading of tirmaion on one or two words. Figure 2 dis-them. plays ole page of her first journal entry. My typed version with standard spelling andMow Tollard Conventional Writing punctuation constituted her first text. I always One can see by comparing the writing in had Jenny read the journal entry to me afterFigure 2 and Figure 3 that Jenny's writing she had finished so that I could rely on hermoved from very nonconventional to close to intonation for punctuation and the reading ofconventional text. This can be documented on a few of the words I could not decipher. several different levels. Figure 3 displays one page from the last piece First, because Jenny herself equated her inability to write to her inability to spell. I analyzed her spellings to check the impres- Figure 2 sion that she became more accurate as she Jenny's First Journal Entry continued to write and then to read her own writing and. later, mine. This analysis was cladray Luse. and based on the first 6 and the last 10 journal entries and the letter in Figure 3. Although I my gociand f ISQv/a5fr have my typed versions of journal entries

I tohelp me. Let 1,* du,ma- 7-12, Jenny's original drafts were lost during a long period of illness during which she took +17(r, e her journal home.

.../1isdoy . °Hoe. 5fie 1:s To analyze for an increase in accuracy from beginning to end. I averaged the percentage of .rn rr.0-1-iterin -0., words per journal entry (or letter) spelled con- Babe +Octh:r Cat Of Mt Cle.r,.r3 So ventionally for the first three and last three entries, which included the letter. Figure Jle c3 )A me on fusciaya S 3 e shows the results. There was a 24% increase ;owmuch r Cr3 lr se I in words spelled accurately. A more qualita- 'oJf,ir S ancv+ir y Sr, ci look at her move toward accurate spelling did indeed reveal a move, or process. First, the cod trscl./ entries reveal an increasing complexity to the cJiryr -.0.1nar ry e words she could spell (see Figure .5). The impression from her early entries is that she ;f vros GrinY --AssoThri had learned only a preprimer list of sight .7c. Jen /-:.4 ne,t i-owl 3 a.rS words. Over time, though, she was accurately to den encoding more difficult words.

5 _2-10.. Figure 3 Second, a process of increasing approxima- Jenny's Letter to Her Instructor after 2 tion shows in words that were initially mis- Years of the Study spelled but eventually encoded correctly. In Figure 6 is a list of those words, with her spellings in the order in which they -Reweaker is nice ,'T's no+ fo appeared over time. Also in Figure 6 is a list of words that she never spelled correctly in bof 40 andnal coia. I like I-I the entries I had available but that all

417 e way a- , +ke. cloys weather waS showed a move toward convention over time. This analysis confirms that as Jenny 67 4-o ni4 .50 sem eik:n9 your encoded her own words, read them in stan- dard form, and then read my words to her, weafher fl;ce. kavt women men 1-11e-i- she moved inexorably toward conventional work r kwe. one onFriday control of written text. I next looked at appropriate use of punctu- emel one on reordcy and file Act- s ation, a skill area she had repeatedly encoun- tered in ins-uction during her first 7 years in c.cil me when 411ay nod m e. When I school and 4 years in adult education classes

was work;no 'Par Sannay 1-11e. (see Figure 7). I again used the first three .., woman nil journal entries and the last three pieces. She doer sew me eienns-I-Le .4,4ow5 an 4 moved from the virtual absence of punctua- tion (8%) to a near-standard use of periods ske ask me ;I' -}het ,s allI c10 (94% used appropriately). In the first three :.5 wM 4.'5 I sod 'lcI do ine `kid entries, she used no commas at all, while in the last three she indicated a sense of the need ofc,,:I and so she. .,3 ask ni C +0 for a comma by using three periods where commas should go. Two of the periods used in the letter to indicate the end of a complete

Figure 4 Increase in the Correct Spelling Between Jenny's First Three and Last Three Writing Entries

Writing entry Number of words Number correct Percentage correct Mean percent correct

169 91 54(7( 158 97 61'. 3 156 89 57vr 57c 21 55 44 80(:( -71 77 60 71.1'r 374 316 84(,i il(*r 246 _2.1 I.. Figure 5 Samples Showing Increasing Complexity of Words Jenny Could Spell Correctly

First writing sample Last writing sample

I went to the new sent it's she had me some quiet sleep nice in and we house Literacy Center kids Out of day up hope off Spelling cans big do not called yet says my a bath home new met times is but he help much weather hot so on how helping cold way days mach an down mother women call working hard about asking door saw indows keep friend

sentence should have been question marks.basis of English spelling. When I examined Periods were the only punctuation marks sheJenny's misspellings for phonemic represen- used in all of her writing entries. tation. I found that WC"( had every single Given Jenny's ascription of her illiteratephoneme represented. Some of these are list- status to her "countrified words," which ined in Figure 8. The few inventively spelled her eyesand I suspect the eyes of more thanwords that did not have all of the phonemes one of her former teachersprevented her represented each contained over half of them. from learning to sound out words, I decidedas also illustrated in Figure 8. When I next to look at all of her misspellings for indica-looked at her misspellings for dialect influ- tions of phonemic awareness and influencesence. I found that exactly one third of them from her dialect. Phonemic awareness is thereflected her phonological system (Wolfram knowledge that English can be perceived at& Christian. l976). A selection of these spell- the level of the phoneme. roughly a letter-to- ings appear in Figure 9. So Jenny was .er., sound match. Adams ( 19901 has synthesizedgood at encoding language at the phonemic a vast amount of research which indicates level as she heard it. that learners must possess this knowledge in `loving to a different level. analysis of her order to become fluent readers but that manycomments during v. riting and the content of poor readers do not have this knowledge.her writing showed a shift in focus away from Without this knowledge. a reader cannota simple listing of a day's events to a struggle sound out words in print, the skill Jelin\ to romp ,s(' a representation of an event, com- reported she was unable to master. plete with tone and()ice. As this move One way of measuring the extent of phone-occurred, her journal entries began to spill mic awareness is to examine invented or cre-over from one da, to another so that the unity ative spellings. If indis idual phonemes areof the composition spanned so. oral entries.

represented in regular v. ay . then it can beI ler comments durinm and alter each v. riting said that the speller is aware of the phonemic episode changed froth the ''I %%rote nerything

1-)4 ..'2 12.. Figure 6 account of the terrifying night that the police NVords Showing Development of Jenny's broke into her apartment and arrested her Spelling over 2 years, in Order of husband for selling marijuana to friends. a Appearance fairly common practice in their mountain Vords Jenny eventually spelled conventionally communit). The typed version of that entry ahot. ;that > about appears in Figure 10. Comparing it to the first asting > asking entry (Figure 2) rek eats marked progress in Cold > called tone, voice. and compositional ded > did fried, firend > friend Touard Functional Reading hir. hr > her In terms of leading progress over this 2- ked > kid sear period. Jetiny moved from being a total kep > keep kies, kis, keit. > kids nonreader to a let. el of functional reading. Ink > look Soon after she began to read my responses in Ntuda, > NIoncho, her journals. I observed her attempting to pra > read environmental print for the first time. red > read She also began to puiile out more and more saleing > spelling of the notices that Donny brought home from soo, I. sol. soot > school school. I v. as soon able to lea% e her notes that tem. thin, thin} > them 1 knelt she could read and respond to. and dick > think after I Filmed. I v.rote her a long letter that tot! > told she read and responded to in sAriting------a big emen > %%omen in. v,en. Thin. v,en > hen inoe timard functional literati. v,indos > .4 DisclIssiOn v.int, v. it, v. Fit, v. int > %%cm Jenny's ease is not X111 Idlo.t neratic one. Worth still [nosingtonard conventional The let el of functional ill iteract amok! spelling adults is too hieh for an industrialised nation lees, hecols. he Lan., becols because such as the I:intent States. Stedman and sells Kaestle t 1987 concluded from a roles.% of Dabe. Dabhe Del.ite sewn different studies of adult litetact that Jula o.. Julio% a Jeho). a pepol. pop' people -abitut 20 percent of the adult p tpulat um, or (lett. gv,elt god' around 15 million people. have serious diffi- rember. renunhe 1,....m2mber cultic\ tt ith common reading taA" I p. rod. sired. strd. storded started All of these functionallt illiterate adults are trsila tusday Tuesdat cultural beings, and in more cases than not indla.. edn.....t.1.0. iheir culture's and mores diner from those of . the middle-class htlrcallcract of the schools uppio muted Hit lid not et that failed them. This Im 1. at Jell11% on the 11.1e nl entliti think oft%p: 0+11)11h:tits slid) pcople s Ior those of us %t ho ha% c

'...it's hard to satIt so that. it hl e It teall% been acute IIl proce.. .41I11 f v.as in regard to het ittstiticuon I.\ tv, litlehandt), itin";().

:! ; '' 1 Figure 7 Increase in the Appropriate Use of Periods Between Jenny's First Three and Last Three Writing Entries

Number of spots Percentage Mean percent Writing where a period was Number of periods appropriate appropriate elm-% appropriate used in those spots period use period use

1 13''r K W( 17 12'; K'

3 3 1(Xii; 11 5 5 HAW, 13 41 34 83'; 94'

Perid., were the only punetuation marks used in the writing entries.

Calkins. 1986: Cunningham, 1991: Cioodman, 1986: Rhodes & Dudley-Nlarling. 198K1, it is hard to beliet e that Jenny had neverin 7 Figure 8 Selection of Jenny's Spellings Revealing years of school. 4 years of adult school. and Phoneme Approximation 31years of life -never written or read her own tuck at the text level. Flow e% er. 2 Jenny's spelling Standard spelling years' worth of data collected on her validates Spellings in Nihich co phoneme was reprc- this statement. Many years of teaching and settled graphically research in schools lead me to suspect strong- r hour ly that the majority of literacy programs at the clening cleaning

elementary. secondary. and adult leels Oper-Los lea %Cs ate on a workbook level skills approach to lit- min mine eraLy learning. This. of course. needs to be mustak mistake rouNd inmed confirmed by research. out sitl outside should From a skills point of iew. Jenti parr paper hike been able to create her own text. gken rit right the amount of practice she reed ed working ming trying on the bits and pieces of the t,pe of idealiied ink Ioul language represented in the curricular materi- %%filch did not represent eNvo al.. But clearly she did not. SO Jenny v. as phoneme graphically right in a way. 11cr words did act as a wall Has baskets between her and funtlional litcrac.1 hat is 13,0, because her winds were ne%er acknowlcdged sled cleaned and all tuned. tie% er ed. Since people imb:. garbage think. conceptualue. and learn IA ith their Ian- \bib% Ionila% guage ...t111 then w. ools Jelin% was title c-

2.1 a..!, II.. Figure 9 to read were not real to her. Not only could Selection of Jenny's Spellings that she not relate to them on a content level, she Reflected Her Appalachian Dialect was so stuck at the word level that she was effectively paralyzed. She continued year Jenny's spelling Standard spelling after year trying to memorize words, trying to Athos Ethel's memorize rules, trying to memorize terms dines dentist like adverb and pronoun. None of these tamlee hand!, words. these rules, these linguistic terms. fir far were hers, related to her in any way, and thus hat have she could not succeed. hat. hair That she is beginning to read and write is, I ho tt hole masing messing believe, due to the fact that for the first time mustak mistake in her life she is allowed in: she is allowed rust rest access to the Literacy Club (Smith, 19881. sterl still She is acknowledged as a reader and a writer Char there with the tools to communicate through print. thin then These tools are her words, her thoughts. her war tt here needs to read and write. This doesn't make orsh wash her different from anyone else. We all learned to read and write using our words. our thoughts, our own functions for reading and ti'clv shut out ofthe literate world. The fact writing. that she was allowed to I ail year after sear Fingeret (1991i issues a powerful call for until she finally dropped out of the system in situating the practices of adult literacy pro- frustration is part of the immorality of thisgrams in the experiences and cultures of the story. participants: Jenny's world and Jenny's language did not fit with the language of the schools. When we must he k. fear that the construction of mean- my is the heart ut literac and it is tooted ut she tried to match her own phonological sys experience. culture. and language. Respect for tem to the one taught in the phonics lessons. ,ultural and linguistic background Is not sunpl, she failed, not because she could not hear the a matter of mon% ming. recruiting. or retaining sy stern at the phonemic base but because her students. It has to %kith dignit:.. er. strength. sy stern v. as different. Hoy. et cr. it is true that and authorit . Cultural and linguistic diversity must he celebrated. Fespeoed and incorporated eery one's dialect varies from the phonologi- into the tel ,111101V teachers and learn- cal sy stem inherent in phonik.. programs. eis We cannot separate Mcrae!, trom e %per I- Jenny needed to see that her %%olds did map ,:tilture. and naditions I p. 10). onto standard orthography just as others' do: she needed teachers to show her how thatThis storof Jenny 's perience and the happened. analysis of her des clopment as a writer and Jenny needed to read real test in order to reader illustrate the promise inherent in the hymn to read. I low es er, the texts Ili% en to her stalke Fingcret proposes. Figure 10 Jenny's Journal Entry Describing the Night Police Broke into Her Apartment

April 5. 1990 Vicki. I hope you do not think I'm a had person for what I'm going to tell you. Donny smokes pot. and he would sell some to his friends, and one night, the narcotic men came in. I was sleeping, and Donny until immy was sleeping: but big Donny was awake. The men came nmning in the living room. That is where we sleep: the bedroom is too cold to sleep in. Right then the men hollered some- thing. I do not know what they hollered. I cannot remember what they said, but I can remember hear ing the guns click as they came running in. They told Donny to get up and go in the kitchen. Donny. ss as sitting on the couch. watching v.i, on the pallet. A is oman told me to get up and come in the kitchen so I did. and I was so scared. That martNSas asking Donny where he had his pot at. Donny. told him. While he was talking to me and Donny, the other men stilt teal ing my house apart. There V. as nothing I could do but just sit at the kitchen table like they say. Donny had 3 hags of pot. I did not knots hots much pot he has. I do not pay attention to hots much pot he has because I do not ask him and he did not tell me nothing about it.I had told Donny many times to stop smoking pot. but he would not listen to me. So because of Donny's mistakes, I has e to pat for it too because. Ilit e in the same place, and I knots about him selling to his friends and him smoking pot. The lust sats tau can- not do that. When we went to court. Donny got 3 to b months in jail. Ile had stayed in the Justice ('enter for 2 weeks. and his lawyer got the judge to send him to a drug center. I hope that it can help bunny stop smoking pot because if he don't. I will lease Donny, I lose him, but I lose my kids and I tt ill not let that happen again because they can take my kids assay from me. Just because I knots about it. and I got 21) hours of 14orking for the city and had to go to a drug and alcohol and gist 5 years of probation for doing nothir,.., but knowing 1.4 hilt was going on. I do not smoke pot, and I do not drink. but they had made me go there. It was %cry embarrassing to me. And with Danny getting caught. he might see boss strong he is for doing shat he ttas doing. I hope so ant tt at . That is all I can talk about right now and I hope you don't get mad at me.

1401.1 VIIII's It .:lc/to,/ II OM I! t: 11051::Ncy, .11.1atti,.. N1.1t It/t)11)./it yummy 1,, itemI 1:aikttr,.: Ihrpt.1(()11111... and !to, NMI; tlhe,lit mr Cambridge, :11.\till jertiman, HI I')01))Litt'rdland i.ulturaltdenhts Press, //,t)l.ar(// Jtn(111t,1111 list iris 1;.I ringero, 11(1191 I Attt ell. N.1087/n (hrnuilic 44 thill11: Nietininr., and litei- Jut WO ha, NOP, us!tit st I ntPortsmouth. a,sthilt tin: 01. I, .1I I. sI m,etlu, D. I I'iti7I. R.,dine tt,,,d Heinemann reire. I'. & andIke ti ,.)-Id tioulh I ladles \. Auerb tell, I. 1<. 1 I t)Noi. rov.artl a o...1,11-..ontc \ltiat Gar.e approach to family literat. 11,1,I,ell tiJut a- Gooilmati. K. i1,1tif%). Ithat' s u !;a1( tt; II holt lan Rui co,I .5C181 l'orktittwth. NI II ILIIICI11.11111 Al,rllur:' liarlianas. (1,)89 1 J.I.1 !with kcadill :.is a so.ial I lactoonv, [mut): \\ hole I .0P:(1,1;,: I. hut ell. IINIL Namaia. ( lough ( on,tillanl la/, Ills 1231 Callan,. I. \I.I I 1:rtot Is& L'auherra..\ tttr.ilta i, I Deparr.inc.. litof l'411,111tooli.N1111,1,1,1.1111 I chi, i',11C,l1

1 1, 1 1 I t \l \I ( 0 5 ) a' , /, / / Y., a, l'uttrn.,tttli J oinilt% ard. . 11110,e. ( 'IIII ItAtItAtimIti 1r,1is.1' .1 ,'110(1. It Po.li!,- rtuttltuHt.litt. I' 1'0'11 rho ttest 1111.0.11, %/II It:111,111

25 I. Irv. in, 13.M.1 I 9N5 I..leluh literacy is sa, pr,,Qtaws, and options.Washington. DC: Education and Tutorin g Welfare Di% ision. Congressional Research Ser. ice. Issue Brief (Order ('ode 11385 I (17). Ka/cruel,. & Rigg. P. (1085, Aprih. Adult illiterac>--- America's.phoeni prohlern 'Occasional Paper'. Tucson, .Ai: Unif.erit% of The Use of an Ariiona, Program in Language and Literac>. Nesa.man. A.P.. &. Bet rstock, (.I 990 t. AcittitIir- era' ('"mtelt% ante hallemty% Nev. ark,1)14,: Educational Therapy International Reading Association. Northcutt, N. II 97C1.AdultInn,'tonal compete'', s. A summary. Austin, TN: Unitersati, of Tetas. Model an Rhodes. & Dutlles -Marling. C. II 0S8t. Reader% and itrt/ei tit'll' a ditterem e Pur(, mouth. Nil: Ilememann. Illiterate Wit Smith, F.1988 rtoininL! tub Portsmouth. Nil: SW1.1111,111.1-1).. I'1571. latcras.!. and reading pertor111.1110: in the [liltedState. NI 141 J. Sct 1,11 train !KIM to the present litad/tic Rite, rc Ciutisl(1PHLR I. JoirNs ON (Nat tc11%, 22. -I(). Sticht,T.(1. I 19XX). Adult literac:. education. ()c. omit 1991 Rutr, lies«n e1, in film on,,n. I5') 95 Wol(ram.SA ChflIiall. I).1197(1).Appdhi, ht,p) %INT( Arlillr.I1111, \'.\:('enter for .% pplied latigui 'tics TIre indkidual v.ho is illiterate is part of a so. stein %,t ithinthe l'a:niland societ and cannot he considered in isolation t % on liertalannly.I 9681. -that person has failed to learn to read. and am attempt to teach him or her mast address the failure and resulting an \iety and loss of sell esteem. What he or she e \pet fenced in attempting to learn to read. anspo:ial ethos that %%ere made to help the intik idual. hots the person has compensated for not being able to read. chat el torts %keie made to hide the inabilit to rt.ad. and hoes this allected the person's life acadernieall, socially, and emu- tionall are critical fa,..tor, in determining the ps.chological scars the huh% idual carries into adulthood hceau,e of the inahilth to read. fins l'ilM! '41.1(1 de',Criht.,hov,a function- all illiterate adultcoped tit tilt the disabling elf ects of not being able toread and hot'.. .,h, ., heV..'.no,olt ed in an edit a're'na' theta o r,, r) ,..t., r.

1 .. py program, the treatment influenced his atti- In addition to economic and social tude towards reading. his self-esteem, inter-cations, lost productivity. unrealized tax rev- personal relationships. coping strategies, andenues. welfare costs, and the bill for remedial actual progress in reading. This is a descrip- training in business and the military, there are ti:c study of an individual who had for mostpersonal implications. Functionally illiterate of his adult life developed coping strategiesindividuals often feel inadequate and ashamed that enabled him to function without learning (Richek, List, & Lerner. 1983). They cannot to read. While there is evidence that many look up numbers in a telephone directory. others like him have managed to function independ almost exclusively on label recogni- society without being discovered IFairser: is, tion. cannot travel freely, must always trust I986, much of the literature reports on adults others, and live in daily fear (Komi, 1985). who have not been able to enter the main- Living with anxiety, these individuals stream of society. Determining how an inch- develop strategies to hide their inability to : idual has managed to cope w ith and com- read. such as trying to act intelligently or ask- pensate for his illiteracy while remaining ing for the help of a trusted adult in filling out gainfully employed in responsible positions, forms. They tend to keep their disability hid- den from their children and are often unable what the impact has been on his self-esteem. and assessing his progress using an educa- to provide them with the early learning oppor- tunities that are a necessary preparation for tional therapy approach appeared to he topics school. In addition, even if these parents real- worthy of consideration. ize that their children are having difficulty. thedo not have the political powerbaseto The dictionary defines illiteracy as the effect a change. The problem then transfers "inability to read and v. rite.- However. in a from one generation to the next I Koiol. practical sense. people who cannot read and 1985 t.1 here is a consensus that a traditional v, rite suit wiently to use these skills to func- academie program built on a developmental tion in their job, in their family. and in society perpecti:e concernedOh normal growth of suffer the handicap with or IA idiom the Libel. the reading process should not be the focus of Thus the term functional illiteracy refers to instruction for reading disabled adults (Park. 1981: Richek. List. & Lerner. 1983). those inelo.iduals w hose reading and v. citing Remedial reading must take into account the skills are so minimal that their opportunities educational. psychological. social. colloi'. for finding secure and meaningful employ cognitive, and physical factors of the person inept are muted !Litman. 1986). Park (1987) in planning an individual program for each states thatis the level of proficiency required adult (I lams & Sipav, I18O,. to he literate has increased, more indk iduals are falling, into the categorof the lunctional Is LliCtiln standards range Because of the emotionalulnerabilit: of but an 8111-grade reading level appears twee.- the adult illiterate. a strictly pedagogik.al sat y now, to 1-PCIIMIII Iii OII 11111,) ificni,d apploach ha, generally not been effective. In set, ie c occupattons Walk. 1984B, thecontrast. an educational therapy model lon.. ludo, 'dual, not wathtul at a I :1'111 i7radsaddresses the rt..k:hohiric-al and edit dui mid level ma% be unable to function adequateb, : table- alfccong Op.! milt% 1.,dtkAnynal

,)"3 .2. Iii.. therapy is an approach to remediatin,,g. learn-or her problem, learns about his or her inter- ing problems through the establishment of aests. and develops a mutually agreed upon personal relationship between the therapistplan of action: (2) integration of the treat- and the individual with the learning problem.ment. during which the therapist evaluates the The strengths and weaknesso!.. of the individ- accuracy of the individual's perception and ual are considered in planning an appropriate develops strategies for integrating the remedi- program, and the client is directly involved inal and therapeutic techniques to deal with the that planning. Issues such as resistance andspecific problems; (3) focusing on the re- coping with the problem are dealt with as theylationship between the therapist and client, in occur (Johnston. 1986). V. Inch issues such as resistance to or avoid- Adults. even more than children, have ance of reading are discussed., and (4) "termi- experienced considerable failure in theirnation" in which the therapist and client deal efforts to learn to read. Strategies must be ss ith the issues of imminent separation. developed that reduce anxiety sufficiently to Adaptation, defense, mastery, and coping allow the indi s idual to focus on overcomingare critical concepts to understanding how the deficit. The establishment of the "thera- individuals function under stress. People de- peutic milieu" (Dreikers. Brunwald, &velop defenses to protect themselves against Pepper, 1982; Redl. 1966) helps relieve theanxiety, strive for mastery through successful anxiety associated with repeated failure. Thetask performance, and continue to develop des elopment of a therapeutic relationshipadaptive processes under difficult conditions allows the individual to begin to trust the per-(Hamburg. ('oelho. & Adams. 1974). They son with whom she or he will be working."cope, compensate. and conceal" while en- The therapeutic milieu is essential to theduring fear Of discovery and a constant feel- learning process. When the psychological asing of impending disaster (Janis, 197-h. How well as the academic needs of the individualthey pereeise and respond to the threat and are m focus, the emotional issues related tothe anxiety depends, in pail, on past the academic dilliculty can be 1,(.1(liessed, thus renew (('OCIht) & Adams, 1974; }Limburg. relies ing anxiety and freeing the indis idual to Coelho. & Adams. 197-1). Over time, hulk )du- focus nn remediation (Johnston. 1986 ). Theals develop mechanisms to deal with the dis- use of an educational therapy model helps tocrepancies between their assessment of them- accomplish this goal because it -Inv olves theselves and their environment (French. application of diagnostic results to specificRodgers, & Cobb, 1974). Defenses that block educational and therapeutic inters entions thatpainful emotions make learning all but impos- %.% ill enable the therapist to intervene moresible 1 Abrams, 1968). Withdrawal, denial. effectively with the psychological resistancerationahlation, and projection mav he used to emotional acceptance and understanding ofconstructively for a short time, but over a the disability which frequ,:ntly eineiges dui long period, there is the danger that the anxi- ing the a course of treatment" (Johnston,ety -provoking situation will not he reexam 1986. p. 72). tried and that a C11,11TC In more positie prob- IICR. are 1.1 will qill!t.", ins nls ed in the edu- lem-solving strategies may he resisted cational therapy relationship( II initial Lon- ILaiarns. As erill. & Opton, 1974). Si' zcecsful tact. v, hi n the therapist conies to under standadaptation involves compromise ss Ink pie- the nature of the indo. )(Judi', perception of his ,ers ing some 11,TFCC r II ittlit)11M11%or tit kihili ty of action (White. 1974) plus the ability toof the songs. Although Chad has never been focus on reality (Adams & Lindemann, 19741. married, he seriously dated a woman at one time. He felt she was too intelligent for him ludi%kiwil Case Stud because he could not read. Chad never told Chad was the functionally illiterate adulther this, although it was the reason he finally who is the focus of this case study. He was abroke off the relationship. first-generation Italian-American who went For the past 3 years, Chad had been em- to work immediately: after completing eighthployed as an assistant to eight physical thera- grade. Chad was 49 years old when he waspists at a suburban hospital. He used various referred by his super\ isor to the Center forstrategies to avoid having to read patients' Learning at National College of Educationnames, and initially no one at the hospital was now National-Louis university) in Evanston,aware of his difficulty. He would get the com- Illinois. because of an acute crisis in hisputer printout, go to the appropriate floor of workplace caused by his inability to read.the hospital, walk into the patient's room. There had been many other situations inmatch up the printout with the name on the which ('had changed jobs or refused promo-bed to be sure he had the right patient and tions because he was afraid it would be dis-then say. "flow do you pronounce your last cos ered that he could not read. Although hename'?" He enjoyed talkie z. to patients and was unable to read street ,1g11's, a restaurantthey really seemed to like him. One of the menu. or the name,, of patients on a computerpatients ss rote a letter to his supers isor and list at the hospital where he worked, he hadsaid. -He sure knows how to make an old des eloped numerous compensatory strategieslady feel like a spring chicken." ('had had 0\ er the years to conceal his disability, recently begun has ing difficulty getting along Other than family members, Chad did not ssith his supers isor because of a change in tell anyone that he could not read. Only oneprocedures that again threatened to e \pose friend of 2sears discovered that he couldhis inability to read. He had trouble sleeping not read and has helped him through the yearsat night and was irritable at work. He finally by tilling out forms for him. reading his mail.confided in his supers ism. ss ho suggested and helping him get a job as a salesman in athat he might be able to get help through clothing store where he worked for 13 years. National College of Education At this point Chad memorised the ss ords he needed tothe initial contact was made with the Center know h:fore he started the job, so that hefor Learning by Chad's supersIsar. Accordur would not has e to read. According to Chad,to results of the initial case study es aluation. he was say successful as a clothing s.,lesmanChad was unable to read eontfortably hey and and was offered the position of tnanaer atthe midprimary les el. Although he made another store. Ile knew he would not be able good use of context clues. sight vocabulary to handle the 11;t.'0,,,IF!.ss ritten reports. so hewas limited. and word attack skills were refused the promotion. Chad M 4ittv, almost nonexistent. Howes er. there were business as an entertainer for 7 y Cal's 551111 a good prognostic indicators: aserage intellec- well known singing group that traseled alltual ability. a high degree of determination user the t .1111Ct1 states. 1 le sang. danced and and molts anion, and no sights of oilskins per- played the trumpet. Although In: could notceptual deficits Chad appeared to be an emo- read, he V.,, able to nientim/e the act and alltionally stable. self-sufficient indisidual who

r* J l) 1(1' generally had a positive outlook on life. Heintervention procedures were often changed had good interpersonal skills and demonstrat- when it was apparent that he had a real need ed responsibility and sensitivity to others. at that particular time to work on other issues. although at times he had difficulty expressingFor example. when it was first determined his emotions. Chad had concerns for the that Chad had not developed any word attack future but felt that he could be successful ifskills, the plan was to emphasize sight words. he could osercome his disability in reading However, Chad wanted to learn "sounding and was willing to put forth whatever effortout and vowels." so the emphasis of instruc- was nece,sary if someone would just tell himtion changed to meet his needs. In certain \', here and how to begin. respects it was the therapy that gave Chad confidence in already existing abilities. Establishing Trust However, the educational program enabled Chad was seen for IS session, of 1.5-2him to integrate sound and symbol for the hours' duration oser 4 months. The treatment first time and provided considerable incentive was based on an educational therapy model. to continue reading on his own. which is an approach to remediating learning To provide Chad with a sense of indepen- problems through the establishment of a per- dence and relieve his anxiety at the same sonal relationship bets% een the therapist and time. hooks and words were taped so that he the individual with the learning problem. Thecould do his homework independently and strengths and weaknesses of the indis idual could organise his time in preparation for the are considered in planning an appropriate pro- following week. Although we used word gram, and the learner is directly invoked in sorts, word families, word lists, picture and that planning. Issues such as resistance ands owel associations, and oral reading in con- coping with the problem are dealt M. all as they text, the amount of time spent on each area occur in the remediation of the problem area depended in part on his interests and needs A personal relationship bused on trustduring that session. As personal concerns between the therapist and the client wasrelating to work. family. interpersonal rela- established gradually truer the time of the ini- tionships, or reading emerged during the edu- tial testing session. ('had was Milling to try cational therapy sessions. thewere dis- %%hates er w as asked of him because of that cussed. There v. erg often instances where an trust. In order to relies e the MIN let% associat- issue occurring in the instruction triggered a ed w ith reading. constant support was provid- memory that needed to be addressed at the ed so that he could feel successful and knowtime. It was important to help Chad under- he was not alone in his efforts to acquirestand how old tears di% crted so much energs haste reading skills. Verbal cueing, positive from the actual process of teaming to read. reinforcement. and help in generalizing from Sessions were audiotaped and transcribed. a familiar to an unfamiliar word were usedTranscriptions of the sessions, as %, ell as during es ef!, session to pros ide support andadditional inf urination obtained from the relies c anxiety. researehei 's journal, process recordings. inters iews w ith stall and a close friend, and a NirtliOdS questionnaire filled out II% Chad's brother Remedial strategies were des Aped based were used as data sources for trianulation. Itn initial testing. but in ,.es..ions v. ith Chad. I he data wen: then anal` it'd. 'Triangulation,

6 the corroboration of data sources, waspaperback novel. Far from avoiding reading. achieved by comparing information ChadChad started sounding out the names of shared during initial testing, the remedial ses-patients, almost had a car accident trying to sions. and during the final interview.read a street sign. began reading the newspa- Additional information was obtained as timeper and trade papers, read a letter from his went on. Some data on Chad's early historynephew. and generally approached reading were triangulated using information from hiswith enthusiasm. He put in significant brother's interview. For information concern-amounts of time during each week on home- ing the last 25 years. Chad's friend Lou waswork, generally from 7 to ID hours per week. the primary source. Staff interviews wereHe went so far as to put a "Do Not Disturb'. used to support data regarding Chad's readingsign from a hotel on his door so that he would difficulties, his self-esieem. and anxietynot he interrupted during his allotted study regarding the reading process. which hadtime. He asked friends to leave early so he been reported in the researcher's journal andcould study and kept a hook in the glove com- the initial testing and conference. partment so he could read in the car while waiting for a friend. Gaining Conliden Ce Chad's unsuccessful school history. hisMaking Progress varied but often self-limiting work experi- Because he was ready to lea, n and had ences, his previous attempts to get help indeveloped a therapeutic. trusting relationship reading. and the strategies he was forced towith the examiner, he concentrated intently develop to compensate for his inability toand was receptive to who was being present- read appear to he important patterns in under- ed. Although decoding was always a chal- standing his reactions as a functionally illiter-lenge for Chad. he worked hard in spite of the ate adult. Some of the strategies he developedfrustration he experienced and improved dra- included "forgetting- his glasses. elicitingmatically in his ability to decode unfamiliar sufficient clues to make an educated guesswords. The use of picture and vowel cards, about w hat information was contained inword family flip charts. and the word sort what he was supposed to he reading, gettingtechnique gave him the tools he needed to others to read for him without realizing what decode unfamiliar words. Chad's sight vocab- they were doing. memorizing his music,ulary improved not only because he was learning by watching and doing. and colorstudying a list of the IMOD nuist commonly coding equipment at IA ink. used words but because he was reading con- From the initial educational therapy ses-stantly and had always made good use of con- sion. Chad did not exhibit the exticme anxi-text clues. The more words he knew. the more ety that had been noted during the testing ses-easily he could read a story: and the more sions. As he began to gain confidence inexciting itss as to read. the more he read. himself and his reading skills. he was chal-Once he learned to decode words. he would lenged fr. the reading process and workedspend more than 10 hours a week practicing long hours to des clop his decoding skills.w hat had been mastered in the tutorial ses- Chad hecarne enthusiastic about reading. 1.assions. Hence the total time he directed highly moth, aged, andbegan to read for plea- toss ards learning to read was considerably sure. He especially enjoyed reading his lirstmore than the time recorded in tutorials. Pre- and posttests suggested that Chad had Chad admitted to feeling more "comfort- made significant progress in representingable" in those relationships once he had been short vowels correctly and marking longable to reveal that he could not read. He no vowels as well as being better able to soundlonger had to feel like a fake but could take his way through a word. In addition, he hadthe same pride in his reading accomplish- made significant progress in word recognitionments as he did in other aspects of his life. In as well as word attack. Chad self-correctedaddition, Chad developed a better working several times. Many of the words he did notrelationship with his supervisor. So what know by sight but was able to decode. Hefinally happened to Chad? When it became was very pleased that he was able to identifynecessary for him to continue his work with a correctly so many of the fourth-grade wordsdifferent tutor, Chad had some difficulty in that he had not n en attempted in April.making the change. Also, he felt he had made However, it was not the formal assessment ofsignificant progress in his ability to read and reading proficiency that was the real indicatorbelieved he could master more advanced of the progress Chad made in reading. Heshills on his own. He indicated that he could was able to read a children's hook, a series ofnow manage daily living activities more short stories tat the second-grade lnelt. hiseffectively because he could read street signs. first high-interest. low-vocabulary paperbackdecode simple directions, and--most impor- novel of over 250 pages. newspapers andtantderive great pleasure from reading pri- trade magazines. and his own mail plus iden-mary grade hooks on his own. He therefore tify patients' names. figure out street signs.left the center's program. Chad's progress in and generally challenge any reading task he his 15 sessions of educational therapy had came across. Although progress w ith wordbeen remarkable, and we believe that the attack skills had been slow by his standards.therapy model could he e'en more effective he had new tools for decoding unfamiliarif a long-term relationship between the learn- words and was no longer avoiding reading.er and the tutor could be sustained. 'this was what opened up new horizons for Chad. Imp licalions Chad had ; 'way s demonstrated a strength It would appear that the importance of the in interpersonal skills. He was an outgoing.therapeutic relationship has been validated in friendly individual. Although on the surfacethis stalk. In know ing an individual's pro- this did nut change. as Chad began to makecessing strengths and weaknesses. an appro- progress in reading. he began to share infor- priate remedial program can he developed. ation about being unable to read withbut unless a relationship is established in increasing confidence. He confided first towhich the individual trusts the therapist and one friend, and then to a few more, that hecan share his or her anxieties and fears, it will could not read and expressed amazementat be difficult to break through the a% oidance of their positive reaction. Comments like -Clod.reading and the anxiety associated with the you got a good -tart ---I give von a lot of cred- reading process..1addition. unless the learn- it" and "Anything we can do to help. Chad"er knows she or he is respected as an indiv id- enabled him to realize that his friends wereual regardless of the amount of progress not going to reject him because of his admis- being made. that there is someone IA ho really sion that he could not read. cares and is willing to listen as the individual ..25:;.. 256 shares his or her life and how traumatic it hasSuilima0 he -n to he unable to read, it w ill prose diffi- This study has important implications for cult to get beyond the past. Because it appears literacy programs for adults. Focusing on the that the person's self-esteem is so closelypsy chological aspects of reading and the linked to the inability to read and that this hasissue of proiding support for the functionally affected interpersonal relationships with sig-illiterate adult who is struggling to learn to nificant others in his or her life, the therapeu-read appears to he at least equal in impor- tic relationship becomes especially important. tance to whatever strategies and techniques :Methodology is one aspect of teaching read-are used in teaching specific reading skills. ing skills. but the process that emergesThe educational therapy model addresses between the educational therapist and thethese issues because it takes into considera- client is ertremely powerful and cannot hetion the emotional and psychological ele- ignored. There must be an acknowledgment ments involved in the reading process. Results of life history and the struggles undergone toof this case study strongly suggest that pro- reach this particular stage in the person's life.grams working with functionally illiterate Establishing a therapeutic relationship on aadults need to account for the psychological one-to-one basis during the initial stage,- toramifications of being unable to read. For allow for the development of trust. the desireChad. the acquisition of specific reading to please the "teacher'' and ultimately oneself.skills was only one aspect of his growth dur- appears to mandate this type of approach foring the educational therapy sessions. Of equal real. significant grow th to he achieved in aimportance was the des elopment of greater relatively brief time. From a pragmatic per-self- esteem and improved social relationships spective. group treatment might he consid-as he gained more confidence in himself and ered once the initial therapeutic relationshiphis abilities has been established during the first 8-10 ses- References sions. iI t)68). The tole of the peronalits de- AltImugh \A nil Chad lesson plans wore not tenses in reading.. In G. Natchei t Ed.), Chi/are/I rigidly adhered to, thew were some instruc- ((di/ reclaim; problem% (pp. 77-791. Ness York: tional techniques and materials that appeared Bask:. Lindemann. t Coping %%ith to he mote effective than others: picture and long-ierm tlisabilit. In (i.V. ('oelho. D.A. im el cards, surd family flip charts. w ord I lambut g. J.E. Adams a Eels.). (opito.; an(/ sort. and taped w ord lists and stories. Plans thiaphinou I pp. 127-138). Nev. York: Basic. VCRc changed based on Chad's needs and oelho, (kV.. tk.. Adams, 197-1). Introduction. interests at the time. ('had made considerable In (1.V. (Coelho. 1).A. Hamburg. N.. J.Ii. Adapts progress in reading achievement during the Id's.). Coon:: (mar (h/aph(H(m (pp. v.-ernt. Nev. York: Baste. 15 educational therapy sessions. The thera- 1)leikets. R.. lirtitmald. 14..(... Pepper. 1.I4)t'I. peutic nature of the relationship as v ell as the 4lattuarriole k tinily in the r 1,1%\ room (lavo,im instructional strategies and techniques used 12nd ed.) ('ambridge. contributed to that progress. Relic% mg an \l- '.1 1: Il.uprrt'ollnts hairsems. X1..1t 108b. Shrines et% appeared to be a critical Factor in breaking Illiterak.:. in wl-Ka //1(11 (Itrin (,)((o)/( ?h. 2. 1)4 though the years of failure he had e peri-I.rench. J.RIZoihiers. ('Cobh. S.I 197.1). eneed in his pre\ exposure to reading. Arliostinerit person-en% litIn

2-5 2 5 9 Coelho, D.A. Hamburg, & J.E. Adams ( Eds.). C//ping and adaptation (pp. 316-333). New York: Tutoring Basic. Hamburg, D.A.. Coelho. G.V.. & Adams. J.E. ( 197-H. Coping and adaptations: Steps toward a synthesis of biological and social perspectives. In C.V. Coelho. D.A. Hamburg. & J.E. Adams lorman: Literate at (Eds.). Coping and adaptation (pp. 4113-440). Ness York: Basic. Ilarman, D. (1986. Spring). Keeping up in America. Age 44 7/w Wi/mm Quarterty, 118-133. Harris, A.J.. & E.R. (198(1). How to Increase readIng ability (6th ed.). New York: David VALERIE MEYER Janis. I.L. (1974). Vigilance and decision making in SHARON L. ESTES personal crises. In C.V. Coelho. D.A. Hamburg. VALORIE K. HARRIS & J.E. Adams (Eds.). Coping and adaptation (pp. 139-175). Ness York: Basic. DA1 ID M. DANIELS Johnston. C.L. (1986). Educational therap> and SEPTEMBER 1991 pschotherapeutic treatment of the learning dis- abled. In A.R. Stiffman & R.A. Feldman (Eds.). Advance.% in adole.%( cut mental health (pp. 61-77). Greenwich. CT. JAI. Kofol. J. 11985). Illiterate America. Garden Cit. This is the story of a remarkable man. NY: Anchor. At 44. Norman decided he wanted Laianis. R.S.. Averdl. J.R.. & Opton. E.M. ( 1974). to learn to read and write. In less The pscholog.i, of coping: Issues of research than one year. he had progressed and assessment. In C.V. Coelho, D.A. Hamburg. from being a man who could not read or write & J.E. Adams (Eds.). Coping and adaptation (pp. 249-315). Ness York: Basic. his own address to a man who enjoys reading Park. R. (1981). A critical rei. ley, of des elopments the newspaper and social studies hooks. This in adult literacy. In NIL. Kamil & is also the story of a team of adult educators Boss; irk (Ed,..). Dire( firm.% in reading: ReAcarch and a Student Literacy Corps volunteer who .k- 1.m/ruction ( pp. 279-- 289 ). Washington. DC: nurtured, supported. and learned from National Reading Conference. Park. R. (1984). Osercoming the illiteracy harrier. Norman. /ranuni: and Development Journal. js. 77_80, To adult educators. Norman's history is Park. R. (1987). Three approaches to Inman. ing lit- familiar. He has a slight speech impediment erac\ Icyels. taiuccutona///on:on.i. bb. 38-41. and when he entered first grade in 1951, this Redl. E. (1966). It b/w ire deal with ( hadn't?.Nryy was mistaken for a learning disability. Within York: Free Press. weeks lie was labeled "slow." By second Richek, M.A.. List. L.K.. & Lerner, J.W. (1983). headore /no/demi. Dia-.;noit% and reit/edit/Non. grade. he said. "My teachers just gave up on Englewood Cliffs. NJ: Prentice I lall. me. No one even tried to teach me. They just

Non Bertalanni. L. ( 1968). Genera/ 11.1/ein theOry ignored me. They thought I was dumb.- ih 1elrrpnrent and dprinanon,. Beyond learning the alphabet. Norman did Nev. York: Hraiiller. not learn to read in school. He was taught to White. R.W.1974). Strategies at adaptation An work with his hands. He remembered making attempt at s:.stematic description. In COCII10. IlL111111t1Fg, J Adam,. (Lk. 01,111t.' pot holders and baskets. Ile now works Full (1(1,1111,111,qt I pp. 47 -6;-;I New York: Basic time as a meat cutter. as a janitor on week-

'255'2 6 0 ends, and also bales hay for local farmers into about sixth grade. Despite the problems the summer. posed by the diverse abilities of the class Norman is an industrious man and, likemembers. Norman and Sharon were deter- other illiterate or low-literate adults, he wasmined and persistent. ingenious in disguising his lack of reading Sharon recalls her first class with Norman: skills (Brozo, 1990: Johnston, 1985). HisShe read a story to the group about a woman wife, Colleen, occasionally read to him. Shewho received a promotion at work but was paid the bills and did all the shopping andvery worried that someone would discover other family tasks that required reading.her secretilliteracy. After the story the class Norman obtained his driver's license by hav-discussed how it felt not to he able, to read ing the questions read to him but, he stated,and how prevalent a problem illiteracy is. "I didn't travel very far from home withoutDuring a break, Norman approached Sharon. my wife or someone." He said he rarely real-"You know the story we just read and the ly tried to read. "Once in a while I wouldpeople you were talking about? I'm one of pick up a newspaper and act like I was read-them people. I can't read." Sharon was star- ing. The only thing I knew was to look at atledthe other class members ouh/ read at picture.- at least a basic level hut she maintained her Despite his unpleasant memories of formalcomposure and replied. "It's okay. I know education, Norman never lost his desire tohow to help you.- She says now that "my learn to read: "I knew there was something Ibiggest challenge was to build up Norman's was missing.- His desire centered on eco-self-esteem and confidence.'' nomic, family. and religious needs. His cur- There was a pile of old magazines at the rent job paid only USS8.00 per hour. with back of the room. She in ited Norman to flip few fringe benefits. He planned to pass thethrough the magazines and cut out ad'. ertise- GED (general equivalency dimploma) exam.ments for products he recognized. Environ- attend trade school, and become a machinist. mental print (Goodman, Smith. Meredith, & A new job would give him the economicGoodman. 1987) was the beginning. Sharon security he lacked. He also wanted to read toand Norman spent the evening cutting and his 10-year-old daughter. Sheila. who is in ataping the ads to blank paper (Figure 1). wheelchair and paralyzed from the waistSharon wrote the product's ramie or a descrip- down: and as a devoutly religious man hetion of it next to each ad and began to empha- wanted to read the Bible by himself. size to Norman that he could read some things (even though he was relying primarily The Beginning on familiar pictures). They reviewed the In September 1989. Norman enrolled in awords associated with each picture. local adult education program. Fortunately In the weeks that followed, Norman's for him, his first teacher. Sharon Estes, was;:nvironmental print hook grew larger w ith completing her master's degree with a majoradvertisements he added at home Sharon and in reading. Sharon's classroom, like those ofNorman spent many hours going through du, most adult education programs. was not thehook. attempting to build his sight 1,0eahn. ideal place for a man who needed as muchlark. Then the' began to drop the pictures and help as Norman. The class's 10 students hadtransfer the «onls toflashcards.Norman had reading levels ranging from below first gradecreated his first v.ord bank. II.'«us errs

0 C.',I G .L1.25(1.. Figure 1 in,tructor named Val Harris. Again, he was Environmental Print IFICW instructor \\ as also com- pleting a [mister', degree in reading. %%tiling alit! Itading Cart.'r ttr build on the success MPicAtot.11 Sharon had had with Norman, Althour h Norman had pre \ shied ttv.aI rum writinr, she urged him to trr,,. Vat stated, Aut cAeese knew he had to he in writiny he wa,, going to continue to make progres\." She began1,ti askim him to sti(111 Althotirli Norman could read \cry little little- pendently, hr v u, Mune' set, ill excited and called this his readiny, mato ial. Inen\irunnient Ihal encoto dyed risk Mk My. additionto en\ ironmental print and %AIM! I ).11 jullnlak(*IC added IC) Ilk \Vritinr did not come f'th> tor Norman. One hank,. tiornlan\\ a, introiluceil to lanruaye experience storie, t \'anlien, 1976). Ileul hi,Iirst independent ,torie, le\ cal, his, determination and frustration: "III had in\ emoei.1 basing these on his VV. tieanti family., life to Ike met I would he a prit)il reader and hie: "\\ hen I rot up this morniny the first youtl maili" I fe:ure thing I did wil eat breakfast. I had e,',:, and "When \\ e started tily.ethei.- \ ,,ausaye and toast and co ice, -filen I brushed -Noonan didn't like to triteat all'. Ile lust IT, teeth I wile and \\ cut w,ork." Sharon recall,: "We practiced reading Normans ,torie,..I hl, ya\ e Norman Mt [icy- Figure 1 hi, reading material. It \\ a, eas, for rillog Sample him to recorni/e and reinenibei n words. We added new v. ords to hisunrd bank and practiced them oil ten.- / Norman male great rain, &luny the111 .t r inotith,.. From Septenther until I teceinber, he ad \ anted from a nonreader to readiny .11 about the tir,t- ,,econtl-grade le \ el. Ili, curio,it\ and enthusiivan were infectnnl,. flc felt tree in Sharon', cla,-stree to e \pre,- hinr,elf. talk about hi, lite. and dictate

ii thought,. Ile hailLI baLk- ground know ledge to draw trom. Sharon -What I 'member moo ,shout Nut man 1 V. a., hi, genuine de .ire kali, to wad.- In 1.)cernher. Sharon lilt the Lonninniit.2, col- lege to con,Lentrine tm linishiry; her inatci devreeIn Jarman- Norman had a nett. did not .et see himsell it, a V. riter, lie k',111.111.1 literati tutors acre made at iiilable to the either cow, %%hal I v, rote or make hall-hearted cominunit college v. here Val iiorke(1. attempt,, at until one night in math Norman enthusiasticallt reipiested a tutor to class. Ile v.as ter,, upset, almirst in tears, It ork %% lilt him outside class. Thus, Dio. itl % as as it hi: needled to 0!cl ,,0111011111,2 oil' his I )aniels and Norman Il*2iin then relationship. chest but couldn't tell nu! face to I ace so he 1)a% id qated, -I had been introduce(' to a unite ll()V, II 111, ree1111''", \\'W.%IiourIii then itn v. hole laiqtuare diem , base and V, In, !.Hitt,! IN.Tan to impime.- Val continued V itll lots of red1.11111! sti utegics, so Itelt tea Nollni111%. CIIS.Iruntitentill print auti, dies and sonablt competent as a tutor. I lowid Norman began to include senile!, steins stlthto he the quintessential learner: he not old> a,. "I like to eat ,but I don't like to eat V. anted to read better. he kt, as cons. ince(' this and "I like till Ills pi//a, \Ai, possible. NI ion has been to ',upptirt lint 11e. V. IIC like, on her pi//a."Ilik.intention, con111a,slonatelt V. itli leatlinic' t, readim, dud piedictable stratcpies he tan adopt for and icp(ttioits.at ,tatcd. "Noilthiu Oho he v.it, reittline somettlienbetween

/two tied about Ins L,pellint,,I ..tistaritl, and third trade \ el ik icasqued Intl 111,0 luno, (Ailed Into thepICRIIV." ackeptahle, he biTati tit dire, inn Val and 1)as id %%oilied in tandem to en ,ell as a %%liter." IVCIItla lei111111't,' Val also read to No1111,111 intiodoecil t;1111.1.11Ill!, altei11,111111' IV.1111111' !Met et 44, Keck., loot)) V.C.111111/11',1111V.ICI.1).!c! deatied from .-1.1d eat,

NO1111/111 Cli'L 1 '4111'y iCat.1 of liemr it ploducto. e member of societ:$. ((1111A11110,. title it) his idlIrtIdy.t ".;iirinan JlltI ',al. id 14 q-uscd tilt leadiip: 'mac. rclIefick:',IN-R.,:olhelW1t,2-,It %;,I- rials selecteil b> Normantltines Not man simple I rpm a iicv, spaper. Huth ,ind decided needed ;Ind viinted to read 1)al. nl Norman hist read the material Hien recalled. "Noonan v. as able to dl,t of a ((find, read out loud in an ",t1tAliainu7!" in pint v, Inch he e et ;Ind those 0.1)(1111 leadin test link. ill scot. et les lick .111,0111'a! el.11,111!..11111 filen N111111.111 %%till'!" read '.1:1111.1CC 0r Mil, Id V, hal he knee.. I It didn't heel oldtg then Val in:,1111 Inn" N111111.111 ilr,1111.1.11C lito,t ed to ineininiit"line ii list of tI 1111, acllt II> V.11 11.1111,11sthool tor N14111,111 Y.,1- (q11.1"..!CLI tt1 4,1r V,()Itl, tic did Nornion. "I vointd t0 pro% ide him Y,1111 a not 1111111t.'diak*. ICLiigni/c anti (01,;:dt/101 con. '.ease I,I v, hat re.,itling should ,..ountl (CM clue,. \A Ilene% er he made an illtateLl Norman i..ontinited Ile priress V. !Ili Val.,ewe at a v.ord he did iiit hit iv,. I iak id's IC- el1C1,ural.7emeilt. lie prai. need at home and sp1,11,C V. "DOC., It Intake sense tot oil ' enlisted the suppoir, of In, ho Don't tr-,, to ph:A,: sill' It ,oiti hi hint ,Aith ,A LIM incamitr that made .eiisc. (iriRlualld con' ii.lence lu Licit:(1 as hi: tealitc(I fn 111111) 7\wiin,tti out to, limbelt, c% nitth. tmr.t...1\ti% ',Ail twin ',ft 111(.1t1t1;_11 icadntc le.

,..!1 I s.,111111,111. !Catlin!: Y . 10' 1 1 ; 1 1 1, V. I .1111 !.11. Omit,!ild, titnamed 1,i111C,1 1C.1.1,11!%,1110,111 ullt,1.111% enjoyed article. f rum the local nem.spaper and Figure 3 L`.S. tahlithk. He .elected a .\ Brainstorming Map headline that intere.ted him. Ile then \vas encouraged to we\; hat the article miyht he .1hout. Finally. he %%mild read the article to determine the'1 cif ACt.'1,1tIIII! I() Id, -The Ilit)hl Lint Ntratep used heron:. during. and atter each reading session v.a. to slip port, aye. and tilled hack to Not-mawin Y.s he Lieu'. !Acre !sincerethe progres. his hard y.ork 171(0w:ed.'. 1)tii My a period of appro.% imately one >cal.NO1'111iI11. III, III(' fr 1.0,11.111L'e of three 111(11% had pro- " 41 A I - !tressed Iron' a nonreatler V. ith little cord 1- deuce ty a111.111 V.111)disarmin!! optimism. I lis ;no.' recent v. ruin,: attempt. demolish died hi ability to generate "braillstOrnIlln!Map', Care I1 heCall 1.111 Io il.ilil and readIllr IlIticptlItIt'1111),.. Ws' CtiVIIIIILle IIIbombard Nor e's. Ulan V. Itll the 11 Made II 1111') 1111!.." ',Md. alititit nrlLiii senseand \II this has Kaieinek t 1991 has (Iscrih-Al .adult Incia- mode a dif fcrence Amy !Ault I1i,d.,..ici111111.1 cy instruction as a fieldpt),,,,,,,11q! a"inea!!er (it'll Lindturd I 'rule theoretical list'.. (Icahn!! V.lib rather prinw loday. ve estimate that Norman I. readin!! tic notion, of %%hat it means to he literate.. . at doti! the siNtli irstorics .ncli Nin manare not 0, ricatIII adult c(11 ...anon1.:,1% fic continue. to impio. Ile.. reading 712 1.11like% ITO). \1,, mil- on hI , I) CALI! 1 Cid\ 111 .ulllilll'n to tlilletcnt" First .Intl 1/4 reilit for Nor ,IIICI1d1111! MO It:1/4 man %, him and hr,trait 1111! Inuit !dual tutor III!!Recently, Noinian tote this stor. dinar!. determination. Perhap, a seclind rest -iin for hi..succe.s I. that his in,truction I,., 1 l',..1! reflected ,1 A, hole language theory in an adult ru- t L.A.! conte.0this theories -1 Caiiihouilw tIttitil. IF 11,, Smith t 1.085and Lioo(Innin et .11.I 19871 L'0111 htk), r` lc:A!\r1,1 11.1,1 hirer Vek: marnfc,l in 11(' H- Ilest. r ,f, ,t, t, tti r.0 iiotti 14 r1'0,.1% .1{it, r /.. 1,11.0 100, I, pilipost t"Ithin MOO r. iournal I II,It ,,, 1,.. real. he ii,ed it to evie

rl. : hi- loys his aurei. and hi. fc...lings 11,1111CFet1 nn 1.l11::11,1..!C ,11111 141111 11,)(1

,1111,111 !Wit, .!111'1,11:: 111.',IIHIW. 1111111

"1.1,11..arI Iii t 11,1e. IILI% H H fr'!iiii tt( " "l idt (1 rri, !or, ot dcmon.gration.,, of hon. lanc,,tuit:t. a V. ork in progress. allow progress, I.01- those Sharon, David. and Val constantly read and yyrestling v. ith the dilemma of confronting wrote to Norman. In doing so, they providedilliteracy. let us repeat Norman's hit of advice: him with rule ini,dels of leading and VAriting. "You gotta Kaye the 'want tar'en, it 3. Ihe t(Mit't ulNOrnitin.1 in.Sfrilt don't his e the 'y ant tt' y on ain't got mull- Away., included the cyci tation Mot he in'." As Norman will ieadily attest. "want to would be ,illesqul. The responsihility forgot", a long v. ay. Yarning was Away . in his hands. When Relervnn'ti Sharon Norman to cut nut a(1., he roe. gl. it'll.I . I I 1/1 a 11$111,111M 'of read ogniied, silt' stressed that ads are "real" it/tm 111tot,,tt lit, itiit l,r,', 1) '111) ing. She suggested to him that he :already had I tt:11.1. II.. (Mice vl the SeLit:Idi!. 4,1Slate, a thy mental word hank. By the time State labial!. Lik-1.1,1

1)..o. id[Vett!)yynrkiiic with hint, Noonan was SA (I I 111' /I) I1 !RIMY (,II! In Y.T4111(1.irt cony incekl he could he a better reader. ICIll 1. 111, ,r1,1111,. 111,111;f...14:1u1lIIIdh..'t",.- Not man, not his instructors. alv, decided 111110,RICI,iiiitti,11 r,l kehhili:, 4 i, 1? I4.'S M111)inIIIIC. II.I l'iNK)//le uhr,/i \(ttrit(ii what v.ould he read and what needed to he it di MIK,' UM/ lilt 111111111,P1 lit t(It 1,1 f written. 1(1, t I or Rill111101111 11111. ()num, ( sin,R1,1 i/pprottntarron ill PO/di/IC 51/.

WO it / Hint! It r, c !iferit'd anti arch Goodman. F. S',moll. I.li . . Ile v, WIC "I did Inning hut i.,ot mat." dman. ti.1 (14/8') tvi,/ Val iesponded to his anger. not his sp.ellior. lit It 1000,1 I u 11,41!ant:0111"r III I fl '.`4t,\ )4)14. 5. ,\011I14111 !WIC 1,4111,11M. III 14..;s1 ItCo. 4111 Ile IleCtillIC CI! ellrdiedin

, NI read first requested a tutor ", ' I because he v. .11111It011al 11111C IIIlearn K . I 1) 11)7 itv11,11 ki IC man hour,_ icadin!' indcpcndcittly. 11,i, it A Ori..c(1 th/t,:.;. \laity literacy \ olunteer ploto.t, pow nit,' only 20,.4()L. V(1 tut minute-. ..'. hour, ('I tutoring pc' vo..4.4. I 1 1,i,/111Shut I Icatttnc Ingo 1,/idt / t How ten,I 'Am 1. "I hut.le amount iii engaed ("..hr,o .1/ c time "..iirnian Tent Latino' tie irlioleit. I toil t',. 1I) Jarman,I I 'vitt)!

Non man as ne. t'1 a ked alt inemori/e .;...11, alt: .t11,1I high frequent .nc,thul, ( y words twin a litL..raturc.. cc \ h't - sight word Ile %t.iN \ ',Obit...deli to (OH rt \1.0110)04.- and skill sheets. Ills reading and V N KIL. I) 1',01I1 ; v ting w etc akal..." ill die contevt of hi, lite. r,, ttni. II.'1{ o.It III Ili,distussion ot adult !Herat!. instruction. I tqt.,411.111 (-.0111qi. l t,.' ,1 Ka /c'hic'k I It/4th Wc do not team IF'

othet too readik tp. 5,). Noonan', , / it'0 0 of Orr r fAo

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. it 1. Workplace Literacy

it; It tnittake seleral hundred hours of instruction before a ilorkerho can arel!I read a product label is able to troubleshoot using a manual tor computerized equipment.

-MIK( 11.(10 1991, v, Wi()

M,,st tall 1111,1It414.1'1141' 111C1411 % HI C 4110 SIN fill t 10%1. ibis/ Wilt 11'1 V till`

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li,oll. 'And II, 'Ill !oh Ii' 1111.1 111111111 t )1( aptl/11,11,, pith 4' II, 14141411W O. VIC( tllt Moil of

Witt, (it'll /4.rri I it tit stI tit( s /lit S 4 It 41114 1i irillifl HS 14/ Lb(' ill, I rfs I it ': It pith C //it/ 'PO/ I/ ft 41( Itt 1 ( 0 ) 1 1, 1 i /i t WO tt ',Hp/ I- tit t of iilt-Ili ttit Pliiip,il IIII111 tPL111:es 1%\lC III limit's ill ?lb ,'.1'El. II,/1I./thfit ,'111;111111;1111 If ti !111 t /ci Ili c pi cleft?? tiNi al: nilti I Ihe' f' WHIP q \ it, 'Mtlt, Ifti tilt ti's ,,,, It ,,I,I I ft", h eV, ti 1,,,'l l,') 1,11\lltt Ott( 1,, ft, pith Ililt', tit V f11 lir( ti I'l ;tiff tilt 1le',Cillt It lit t1 (Atli Pam E. _lout n,11 III Rcistlinr. til ti- thi It 7,111,,' It 0,I //qtr. C lilt Pelt4 pltPi C',', litt,t1 tit1 411 ii ilehbO'S1 /1!!'ilS (111147 t 1%. di ftirnomik:Ott',:f iicrilli.tibilit% Elialim- it \PC,/ Well\ ICS, till II its f ./ fit /licit tit,t /stet tit :%II tiltvie% III tilt Ri.fri it ttkt,itit t'.ciiinlItt,tt:11;t. itu.1I litt III-CriC qtr l4 N, t . R 0141 ith 11,1,111t1( t'/ 1: I' II I CI (lcl 1ratP1111%. tI r?,11k .fel/I ((t% f I Ii Al' i 11. ,'';ti I' /1"1, "". .' P"1, Ilf, I, / pitil ilift 'fit \II,irrrI II,. .t )0'11:0,1' Vidttin..... IIf ,v),1 ,,, ,n, ,tyl I, (phi Ili ,I111i id 1`-1144', 44 11114 41 I, /'i /

) f I I)te) the v.orkers %kilo potentially may join the pro. W 0rle pla ce gram, If the business or offering 1,1tera c y the program on -site and relea,.inr v.orkerN from theiriohs, on company time. the instruc- tor clearly has the business or industry partner a client...1 lotii th clientnaim.ly, the liter- ;icy orraiwation -may also he reliuirilie Ipproaches to (r..,essinent information in iesponsc to 'Anne IL-'rilatory or fundirip apeney tich as a qate 1ssessment department of education. \\That ale the assessment fulmination lorkplace 'Menlo need, of each client? The !cattle!, hake cry roah, for the literacy iioarue- tional ploriam that may (11 may not permit, Programs: Meeting theto then joh.. l'or nample, slu' i,i,orker may he Fulmar*. inteiested in leaf nim. to Needs of Ut the read the IIIiIC or nev.spoper and helium.: their cluILIkli hoinev.ork. III 4 %%dill 1(1 IIIThrot Iht it literacy'.ill. Clients '1) OW olip.mr, \Vorkers roak Sol the instruction al piorram must he assessed indo, idually. I IllsIN al:011111)11.110(1hest C11111idell \11 1, N.,V,KoN, HalOnteleill.1"1, 1993 I he second1:11C111, union. I* usually intere led in a,,,.e,sinent that lot:w.f.-, on the cliare and de% clot-intent (it the v. orker,. (Lineation Write) . tool; 'IIk`.(11.1,1,it'e litchley fsintinento (1/4: Kai, Itifgh. In tontia.t to the progiains must satisly multiple el y speed olijeLtics in the intli ulna! aakeholders or clients. each v. ith leaf nci. the union rria more rhillal Ae,,11),10(.1111 'rent intcre,ts in the I .1.0..,,n1,.. ,'oats for the v.(iikplaLe literacy pi ograni. (II the program; multiple approaL hes to such enmity. emir f.orkers to become in,lre il,t2ssIllt2Ill are necc,saiy to satisfy these i,ari- acti e decision makcis in the company. ous nil .imat,on needs, hi community adult.lssessinent for the union client should he life rack, programs .ill instructor (1,,t1i111% hats designed around the !finals of the union at the (MI!, one elicit.Ilie It:Miler.Ilt OW Lost.' (II pal tiL Lila'. oi kplaL V, kilirIA'c 1.11C1*.IL 1)1'0.11,111)N. 11(0ACCI. I\ \o The hu.ine,s or induar\ management ,i(lkIIIIiI/LII client, efIlLIlIC. 110t11:21%. (III' union client. on the other hand. usually tillers a I it one c \ kts i Lind the matia,,:ciiii,nt of ther,olkplace literary program, especially iiIt is (. outran% In die case 14 a unioniicil %cork- "on the clock" ion company timei out of con- tok:e. the union inira Iv ini,oh.ed from the cern for i.,,orkers' Waffle% NI li(-iftninii:. a. a (1(:. isiori maker reps' ....ntin, '1/41(dirci,I (.t9Ololiii..to11 PaL LI-,1iN7, I..., f .# 1)epartment of Labor and r.S. 1)epart- portray 1/4.d us on a continuum ranging from ment of Education. 19SS ). Sometimes nian- informal. qualitativ c assessment to formal. agenient to upgrade IA orkers basicstandardised testing that yields quantitative skills to enable them to do their current jobs information. Taken all together. the assess- better or to prepare them to use no% technolo- ment process becomes a holistic look at gy, such as computers. Assessment informa- learners' skills. abilities, and interests. The tion for the business or industry client should figure that f011ovvs is a graphic presentation of locals on jolLrelated basic shills. rho tools that might he used for the v arious lnally, the instriktor may have to satisfy clients in a workplace literacy program. funding requirements or state mandate,. Some states. for e \ample, require the use 01 Leitt'ner-CeliteUed Itisessilicifis a specific standardised test. Some programs Learners often have unique goals for enter- prohibit s,:-ry ing learners vv ho score above a ing a workplace literacy program ----goals that certain grade-equivalent level. The instruc- may or may not he similar to those of the tor may he required to assess learners v. ith aother clients. These goals nukt he determined standardiled test that is irrelevant to the cur- during the initial assessment process to make riculum and to the assessment information instruction inednitviul lo the lean rots. accolll- needs of the learners, the union. and the pikhilient of these goals should he reassessed company While those observations re- pei iodically. Learners also differ in prior present renerahiations. man% e \(..eptions know ledge, vv Inch at fccts their ability to learn ei.ist (Jarmo. 1(19l I. The intent is not to pre (Farr, ('ares, etc Tone, 1985: assessment of scribe but to suggest w hat Indy ht.' appropri- prior knov, ledge of occupational and basic ate to satisfy the information needs 01 the skills can also occur informally in indit dual various stakeholders in a workplace literacy intery s, Since most w orkplace liter& y program. programs are voluntary. even hen offered sse.isliwill Tools in 110I hpidn' on company time, it is important to meet Literac, Programs ilk-se unique needs along v. ith delivery ol the Nleeting the assessment ir.hnniation needs vvoikplace literacy curriculum. Periodic in- of the different clients'thin a workplace lit- dividual conferences are adv isable. during eracy prorrani requires different tools. Thevv hich the learner's goals and progress in needs of the various clients. in tact. could he meeting those goals are rev ievv ed.

NVorkplace Literacy Assessment Continuum

Informal qualitative Formal quantitathe

I ranter 'mon Nlan,q.!cnient ides L entered (..entered .entered centered Retn,,pc,11,,e Cuincultim -based (.10/Clest inter% icy, tottide Critoofn Sland,11111 led tests elerent. lost,

,(68 There are numerous alternative assess-result in improved job performance. While ments. One type that meets the information management and human resource personnel needs of the learners is portfolios (Tierney, frequently speak of grade equivalents when Carter, & Desai, 1991; Wolf. 1989), in whichreferring to workers' skillsfor example, a the learner's work samples are collected over customer service representative needs to read time. Approaches in which learners read a at an llth-grade reading level). grade equiva- variety of everyday for job) materials (Lytlelents do not easily translate into workplace (.k.: Wolfe, 1Q89). may also he useful to learn- competencies. In fact. Diehl & Mikulecky ers because these approaches emphasize 1980) found that workers can read at several learners' strengths rather than deficits. Partici- grade levels higher than their assessed read- patory approaches (Junin), 1991), in whiching levels (on standardized tests) when read- the learner and instructor plan together theing familiar materials such as those found in assessment and instruction processes, are also the workplace. appropriate. An instructional approach like Curriculum-based assessments ( Bean & the language experience approach may alsoLane. 1990; Fuchs & Fuchs. 1988). however. assess individuals' learning needs. especially can provide more meaningful assessment for those functioning at beginning readinginformation because they reveal the workers' ley els ( Frager. 1991: Soifer. Young. & Irwin, progress in learning the curriculum. These 1989! assessments, which are often in the form of 1 ointi-Ceillered Issessineills short check tests embedded in the instruction- al materials. serve as frequent gauges of learn- [Mons are concerned that learners' indi- ing as korkers progress through instruction. vidual needs be met. But unions are also con- Criterion-referenced tests (Popham, 1978) cerned about the general welfare and devel- also provide meaningful assessment informa- opment of the workforce as a whole. Workers tion by indicating mastery or nonmastery of in workplace literacy programs can be skills targeted for instruction. Criterion-refer- assessed for growth in positive attitudes enced assessments should focus on the toward further education and lifelong learn- skillsboth reading-to-do and reading-to- ing by using attitude scales (13rown, 1991. learn--that were identified as being essential Structured inter% iews should follow up writ- in the literacy task analysis and therefore ten attitude inventories to gain further infor- mation about the impact of the program. taught in the curriculum. such as job-related Retrospective interviews, in which learners ocabulary. While it has been reported that job-related state what they can do now that they couldn't do before the program. also provide informa- basic skills assessments (curriculum-based tion about workers' development. Similarly, assessments and criterion-referenced tests) self-rating scales of competence in Narious are becoming used inure idely in workplace work- and literacy-related tasks can indicate literacy programs (FIR Strategies. 1991) and grow tit. are now encouraged in the National Work- place Literacy Grant!, program, a concern Maiiiigelliefil-Cculrred lissessmeills exists about they Akin\ and reliability of Management is typically concerned abiwt these instruments. Potential legal problems mastery of job-related basic skills that w ill could arise if quantitative information is used 269 2fi without correct test development procedures(Scales. 1987), standardized achievement (Douglas & Williams. 1992). tests do provide useful information in work- One solution to this problem is to use stan-place literacy programs. Sticht (1990. 199h dardized criterion-referenced tests such aspoints out that standardized tests permit com- ( NSIS Comprehensi\C Adult Student Assess- parisons among workplace literacy programs. ment Sy stem. 1989), which tics workplacewhile curriculum-based assessments, criteri- competencies to criterion-referenced testson-referenced tests, and dote tests, being that have been validated and checked for reli specific to the content and joh tasks of the ability. Unfortunately. the (..vsAs tests do nutparticular workplace, do not. Pela% in Associ- measure the specific job-related vocabulary ates (1991) reports this as one of the difficul- and other skills needed in the workplace. ties in trying to evaluate the impact of work- place literacy programs. Prom ider-Centered AsSeSSMetils Standardized tests also offer another bene- Clore tests ( Dupuis, 1980: Jongsma,fit in showing the amount of transfer of learn- 1980). which are commonly used by class-ing from a joh-related curriculum to general room teachers, are becoming moreidely literacy tasks. Both Sticht (1987) and Brown used in workplace literacy programs. They(1990), evaluating different types of work- allow the instructor to assess quickly theplace literacy programs, report that job-relat- reading abilities of the workers in a work-ed basic skills instruction resulted in increased place literacy program by using materialsgeneral functioning in literacy skills as mea- from the workplace. The instructor is able tosured by standardized achievement tests. see w ho can handle materials from the job independently (independent level), with some 1 Final \Me help ( instructional level). or not at all (frustra- Looking at assessment from different tion level). Clete is particularly useful in iewpuints is not intended to he restrictive. workplace literacy programs that are open toFortunately, management personnel in some all volunteers. While some programs areworkplaces are considering qualitative infor- using doze tests as pre- and posttests for pro-mation from informal assessments. Educators gram evaluation, this use is inappropriate ifare recognizing the limitations and problems test reliability has not been established or ifof using grade equivalents from standardized during instruction learners use the job materi-tests. A holistic approach to assessment pro- als, from which the doze test is drawn. there-vides the most information. Furthermore. by invalidating the posttest doze score. assessment must be an ongoing process. While many literacy providers are usingWhile this discussion has focused primarily alternative assessments. such as the doze.on assessment for diagnosis and program Ehringhaus (1991 found that most programsevaluaton. the instructor should he collecting relied on the Tests of Adult Basic Educationongoing assessment information of interest to (1987 for assessment and accountability.all clients throughout the instructional pro- While the limitations of standardized testing rain, Assessment is crucial to the success of have been discussed 1Lazar & Bean, 1901:workplace literacy programs because only Tierney. ('arter. & Desai, 1991). and alterna-through accurate information can learners be tives for adult literacy that could he used intaught effectiely and they aloe of these pro- workplace programs ha \ e been suggested grams he demonstrated.

0 "' 11 Refert.nce., Johnston. W.B.. & Packer, A.H. (1987).W or 14 orce Bean, R.N1.. & Lane. S. (1990). Implementing cur- 2000: 11 ork and worker% for the 2l st ccntur1 riculum-based measures of Wilding in an adult Indianapolis. IN: Iludson Institute. literaeprogram. Remedial and Spec Ethi- Jongsma, E.A. (1980). Inwructhmreean h: c ation, 11(5),39-46. secondl(N.A.Ness ark. DE: International Brim n, 199(1). a/natio/Iot the I? (1 ,A.1)r., Reading Association. we ce.%. program.('niNersity Park. PA: Institute Jurmo. t 1991). nillerstanding lessons learned in for the Stud, of Adult Literac. The PennsI- employee basic skills efforts in the l".S.: No N ania State rniNersitN. quick fix. In Ni.('. Taylor. G.R. Lime, & J.A. CarneNale, A.P., Gainer. I..J& NIeltzer. A.S. Draper. IEds.1. Ado( \,(ills for the workplace ci:p. -84Toronto. Ontario. Canada: Culture (1 9 9 0 )Bo/kph/Ie ha k i c t h ec.% Nent nilstills Concepts. empl IN ers Rani.San Francisco, ('A: .1o,,c,- Laiar, NI.K.. & Bean. R. N 1 .t 199 II. Alter/alive Bay, (We% \Men/ FP/Cc/1fire err Mild( basic aline ComprehensiNe Adult Student Assessment S!, stem prosThIlllsPittsburgh, PA:Unisersit\ of «. Is Ns(1989).Emploability c ompetency %\s- Pittsburgh. Institute for Practice and Research in tem: ases.snient and curric ulnm niana Education. nu nt \\ stem lor t pr crQram.San Diego. ('A: 1. tic. & Wolfe. NI.1989 I. ..1dultbeaus t: San Diego Communit College District program evaluation and barrier assessment Foundation. (Information Series No. 3581. Washington. DC: Diehl. .. & NlikuleNk. 1.. (19s«). "I he nature of Office of Educational Research and ImproN e- reading at Rcadini;, 24. inem wt ((54 8121 221-227 PelaN in Associates. Inc. 11991 review of the Douglas. B.. & Williams. C. 1 1992r.Selected legal national sl ra.Cplac c lilt rats p1 ramWash- ()midanon:, re't;arc/inemployee /iterm rand melon, DC. Author. aptuude tr son; Dana.. TN: JacAmin &Walker. Popham..I.1 19751. Case for criterion-referenced Dupuis. 19801 The Hive procedure as a measurements. [dm anima/ Resear( her, '. predictor of comprehension inliterature. Jour nal Educational Rowan h. 27.33. Sarmiento. A.R.. sl Kos. A. t 199111.Worker- en- Education Writers Association. (1991). \1sth filS: teric' tt at-nine. uman guide to tt i/el./1/aieltt- Management and labor agree On literacy goals. rrah t. il,hillghbil. DC: Ai Human The !.circa,Beat. 4(3).1-4. Resource,. De\ elopment Institute. Ehringliaus. C 11991). Testin in adult basic edu- Scales. A.NI.19871. AlternatiN es to standardised cation...Id/OMAN Limani h1). 12-26. tests in reading education: C'ognitisc ...P, les and Farr. R.. ('are.. R., & "Fine. B. i 1910 i. Recent the- inlormal measures. /he \rgrn Lau(ational ir} and research into the reading process: Ret reit '31. 99 11)6. Implications for reading assessment. In J. Ss'iter. R.. Young. 1).1_ Irt.N in. NI. 9ri9). The academy: A learner-centered st.orkplace pro- OrasanutEd.i. Reading c amp/ mimi-Front gram. In A. Fingerer ckcP. Juan(Eds.), reran h tolira( trc e1pp.I 35-150 ). Mirth ipatnra literth t rain tittonSan Franck...is. NJ: Erlhaum. CA: Josses Frager. A.N1. t Ed.). 11991 t.Tea( him; adult be T.G. (1987i. Flan tit »WI a OM('111«.(ithqi. readers 1,rs'sh h them nut hand. 0\ford, It orkdrop resort!'( e notebook. San Diego,CA: Olt: The College Reading Association. Applied Beim\ wral & CognitiN c SelenLe. 1uchs. 1..5., & Fuchs, I). (198S), Curriculum-I-lased I A% inlable from [MN et:sky Park. PA Institute measurement: A methodolop for es aluating lor the Studs of Adult Fiterac!.. The Pennsyl- and improNinr. student programs. Ontemiaique. Nania State Lin% /-lt), 313. tineht,-1.0. I(in( IIieq/n); and as cutsinew in adult IiR Strategic,. (19911.Iltr I II? .Sflatec,.les mr- ham i dm citron and cisit onilIan - of human 1(''nruc t'Ire (i1-0.,..0 Pointe. etragr proetoM.,. S,in Diego.A: Applied Nil: Auth.,r. Bella\ ntral and Cognitie Sciences. T.G. t NY I 1. /WM/ ltOrAphlt and I devised a lesson plan format for two I ire rilf[71-ot:ratty+. El Cajon. CA: Applied major curricular strands: communications and 13eto.ioral CognitiNe Science,. math. The communications strand was based Tierney, Carter. M.A.. 6.: 1)e,fii. E.E. (1991 ). on an integrated approach to oral communi- PO1110110 AAC.s.s.IIICIII IIIthe truJut clasvoont. Norwood. NIA: ('hriqopher-(iordon. cations. reading. and writing. The plan pro- ..S. 1)epartfimit of I.,:thor and V.S. Department of \ ides for language and literacy activities, a Ldu,:ation. tI 988 ). 7/te hownn lln\ii. literacy skills section including metacognitive in the it orkpial r. Wa.liingtf in. l)(': Author skills. pre- and post-reading and writing \Volt. D.P. fI Otig Portfolio assessment: Sampling activities, and a section for both teacher and student v.ork. bins (atonal 4617 ). 35 39. student follow-up. "I he lesson based on this plan was a crucial component in the curricu- lar chain from the "diagnosis'' of literacy needs in a workplace to working with a spe- cific student. Workplace In our project, this chain began w ith a oAct \I (acronym for De \ eloping A Curricu- Literacy lum ) which was done w ith selected workers in the plant for the joh of All Purpose Operator (At,o). a new job configuration that \\ as called for by synchronous manufacturing Workplace Literacy of auto body parts. The oActM procedure icld . a series of "duties'' s hieh are then bro- Lessons: From ken further into component tasks, each of '.s high is mothered. Thus. at the very top of the lesson plan form (see figure) the omi'm Meru) Audit to Task Reference is entered to indicate how that lesson plan is clearly tied to an on-the- Learner joh task, not to some generic job skill as com- monly found in published material. After the oArt.m was completed. some of us did literacy task analyses of man\ of the duties re \ ealed by the o \i.:( NI. For each sub- JOHkNN kS. DES 11.4.1NO job within the vo category. such as packer OC I OBER 1992 (of auto parts). and for each job duo, (such as "pack parts'' ). the suhtasks were identified in a from-start-to-finish manner. For each sub- task, literacy skills embedded in the joh were n our w orkplace literacy program -a identified, including higher order metacogni- joint partnership how cen faculty and tis e skills. These skills formed the pool front staff of the College iii Education. the Ifich mot. pecilic skills v.cre draw n from Inland Fisher Guide di\ ision of General each lesson and written out in the "Skills Motors, and the hilted Auto Workers I7 nion highlighted- section. Local 969-- Sandra Print. Verna lerminello. To determine which emplo\ ees might hen-

< efit from instruction on the litc racy skillsactivities, and (3) learning materials(seefig- identified by the analysis, thc teacher con-ure). The objectives come from the teacher's ducts a diagnosis. After needs are identified.and student's know ledge of what needs to he plans are created by the teacher or collabora-accomplished by the employee. For example. ti\ ely by the teacher and student. At thetopperformance outcomes might be "parts packed of eachlesson plan are three categories: (11 w ill not he damaged and will he packed in learning objectives addressed, (2) learningproper alignment at plant.''

Lesson Plan Format for Workplace Communication Strand

Packer oxct Al task reference: 14.0 (pack products): 14.1 ( follow pack spec)

Learning objectives addressed Learning actin ities Learning materials Work conteNt--Gien X number of ReadingRead routing sheet and Routing sheet pans and packaging material spec sheet Spec sheet Highlighter Work taskPa. X number of parts Writing --See follov. -up Pencil Paper Performance outcomes-----Parts v, ill Oral languageDiscuss he quickly packed. not damaged. and in proper alignment at plant.

Skills/processes highlightedRecogni/ingkomprehendingahbre iation III A1.3-sets up packing routine. 3.3 ---packs parts): improk ing k (Tabular !. skills: improving metucognitike skills (promoting ay. areness of task of recogniiinIgundeNtanding abbrev iation, I

Before readingDiscuss: Why are abbreviations used? What are soni common abbreviations you use es ery day on the job? What are the abbre% halms used in the packer job?Else;; here? What are some problems abbrek iatIons might or do cause?limethey caused problems for you? I Setting pur- poses: antis ate schema: W-lat I ioum. What I don'tknov,

While reading- --Skim through the routing sheet and the spec sheet. Read through them again more slokk Is and highlight all abbro rations. I Stods mothod----to de\ clop metacognitke strategy assareness)

After reading----Discuss and v.rite out the m. ords the obbres iations stand fir. Arrange a key to the abbre% rations used. tin;, do the, help on the job?

Learner follom Instructor follrm -up Journal assignment For sot:rid day s. flw, lesson Next lesson keep a diary or all abhret iimons you (Mier lesson is done) (Atter lesson Is done) encounter at v.ork. in the home, and else;; here. Write dokk n the s; ords the alahrek rations stand for and explain ho;; %tin figured out the "codes- long range: Group creates ii glossary of plant abhi ek lotions.

2(41 For each lesson, reading. writing, and oral At the bottom of each lesson plan is a cm- language activities are created. These arecial section which not only provides for prac- based on job tasks, skills, and actual jobtice by the student, but also links the various materials revealed by the literacy task analy-lessons together into the larger unit encom- sis. These activities arc usually integrated,passed by the job itself and the skills needed often with the math strand, which has theto perform it well. The "Learner follow-up" same category in its format. The act iN itiesportion can he determined by the teacher emphasize self-questioning to promotebefore working with the student or in con- awareness of the reading process and on-the-junction with the student. It often includes job reading demands while the employee ishaving a student write in a journal and rewrite working with the materials. We also try tovarious job materials such as routing sheets include as much reading and writing of con- and sheets. It also can include practice tinuous text as possible, although some job actiyir 'uch as more reading of related tasks don't include continuous text. materials. The third part of the lesson plan may look After the lesson, the teacher fills in exclusively geared to reading, but it isn't, in practiceit just focuses the teacher's atten-"Instructor follow -up'' on the form. "This les- tion on these critical elements. The oral andson" is a place where she or he can critique written aspects of the communications strandand note the need for more work on a specific are integrated with reading at this point. Theskill or strategy. Und-!r. "Next lesson," the "Before reading" directions help the employ-teacher includes something that ties the ee activate schema to provide a cognitivelessons together into a coherent unit. This last framework for what follows, which is en-step is important to our emphasis on individu- hanced by the employee's knowledge of thealized educational plans for each student. job itself. This is accomplished in a variety ofThis format for lessons plays a central role in ways in our lessons where the reader inayour ability to deliver a quality workplace lit- skim. predict content, and so on. "While read- eracy program in a company that heavily ing'' is designed. in part, to help the studentemphasizes quality in all aspects of its manu- keep in mind the purpose for reading or writ- facturing process. I'd argue that such a format ing, to check predictions. and so on. "Afteris applicable to virtually an employment set- reading" is a crucial part of each lesson, ting, because it enables teachers and students designed to help the student employ a varietyto create a curriculum that can close the gap of strategies such as clarification, self-ques-between the demands of the jobs and the tioning. summarizing. and monitoring read-skills of the employees. ing strategies. This middle section looks quite different for lessons in the math strand. In-iVote: I would like to acknowledge the help of cluded there are identifying the purpo..e,the three instructors in our project. Janet selecting an approach. gathering needed dal Collins, Patricia Connor. and Margaret calculating. and checking the solution as theOrkin!, whose feedback and implementation steps in each lesson. were an important part of the creation process. Literacy instruction in English for Navajo Workplace Native Americans has been an ongoing chal- Literacy lenge that we have been fortunate to experi- ence. The approach to "literacy in the work- place" Lain we will describe here ins olves literacy training in the context of teacher edu- Navajo Head Start: cation for Head Start teachers. The results from this project replicate the approaches and findings of othershut in a context which is Teacher Training and substantially different from those where pre- vious work on adult literacy has been carried Adult Literacy In a out. In our work in remote areas of the Navajo Reservation in the southwestern United States. we hale observed that effec- Local Context tive schools and effectixe teaching depend on the specific local circumstances. In 1990 Project Head Start celebrated its 25th anniversary. In accordance with the con- MICHAEL C. ANZIANO tinuing effort to provide comprehen:ave child VERNA TERNIINELLO care to children of poor families. a mandate FEBRUARY 1993 was issued to all Head Start centers: In order to maintain U.S. federal funding. each class- room must have at least one teacher who has earned an Associate of Arts (A.A.) degree or One of the most interesting prob-a Child Development Associate ((DA) creden- lems in education is how to ensuretial by 1994. The coA credential is, 'fes- the transfer of skills from one situ-sional certificate awarded by the Council on ation to another. The question aris-Early Childhood Professional Recognition to es equally among single-language learnerspreschool teachers and child caregivers who and among bilinguals who are thinking andhave denim (rated their competence in work- working in a second language. And it appliesing with young children. This policy mandate to all sorts of academic skills, including theis critical, since federal funds for the pre- useful language skills of comprehendingschool centers will he tied to the teachers' what one reads and writing down what one credentials. thinks. While the issue of transfer of reading In the fall of 1989. San Juan College comprehension skills from a native languagereceived a grant from the New Mexico De- to a second language has recently been inves-partment of Labor- Job Training Partnership tigated by Royer and Carlo 11991). we haveAct OITA) to provide teacher training on the been working on a related problem: writing inNavajo Reservation which would prepare a second language when the writer's nativeHead Start teachers for the National co:\ language is based largely on an oral. ratherassessment process and to provide instruction than a written, modality. as is true for speak-in adult basic education (Am-) for teachers ers of No% ajo. whose writing skills had generally been ""7() 2 7 5 absorbed by an oral tradition. The project unteers, and one indi% idual had % idunteered began with 22 teachers. II front each of the for 9 years prior to getting hired as a teacher Eastern Na t, at() and Shiprock Agencies in assistant. The follow ing are characteristics 01 New Nit! ico. the tt..achers. then tamily en\ in mmems. and Each agency consists Ofa.t open spaces their lip inconditions. characteri/ed by rugged plateaus and high desert %dictation. Of the estimated 5.255 Teacher characteristics ur21 miles of roads on the reset% anon, only about Ethnicity: Na'. ajo Ii 27'; arc paved; the remainder are dirt roads Female 17 of vary ing quality. many of v. hich he Male S impassable in had «rather. Ihe Na'. ajo reser- Mean age 32.1 \ anon encompasses 26,OnD square miles in Mean years in t lead Start 4.5 Ariiona and NO% NIeNiell «ith an a% erase population density 01 5 persons per square background in 14 re,pondvo mile (Commission for Accelerating Nax ajo spoken at linnw l)e elopment Opportunities. I ()ti C u. One of EngliNh 1 711 the agencies we serk ed t1astern Na \ ajoi Navajo I 7'; e \tremely iailatcd w hit only 2.2 persons to Na'. au) and English 12 SW; the square mile. The Na \ ajo Nation reports leacher's utt n 110111e has an a% erage household site of 4.7 persons per electricity 12 86' household. compared to at national U.S. figure Icacher(0.\.n home has of 3.17 persons per household in 1988. The running water ti ;;7'; typical !king quarters are small and relati%ely Nlean household stir modest, and risk. factors for both teachers and (numberofpc' suns 4.67 children assoeititAl \\ ith living in geographic isolation are considerable (see An/iano. The majority of these ithrils speak 1991 Nioajo as their fist language. but in order to go through the co% assessment process. the\ Teacher Characlerislics were equire to document their work in The 22 Head Start teachers in our project English. For man% ho had been awa% from are Nati % c American men and v. omen v. ho lomat education for years. the requirement Ike and work in rural New Me \ leo. It rs brought tt , mind a set ies of negate'. interesting to note that these teachers grew up writing. Most were initially len- in the same remote areas and share the back- t ul of judgment 11\%et another ,:ritieal ground characteristics of the children they teacher. teach in I lead Start. Most of these intls iduals To assess the teachers' le \ els of reading were unsuccessf ul in school, and se \ eral and language proficient:\ in an academic con- v. ere high school dropoutt, ,,vho eventuall,- tert. we administered the -lest of Adult Basic earned a (a.1) The typical teacher in out pro- Education ( t\ it the start of the literacy gam comes from a low income family andprogram. Across the two agencies. 13 of 22 has children v. ho are or w ere student. inteachers were reading English at or below the head Start. Man\ (tithe teachers began their -Rh-grade I!I. el. and 15 (41.2 had I.nghsh ran associatimi with I lead Start as t.lassroomol- seines ai or below so, end, grade ( in the F.aslern Na). ajo i% genes, all those te.tcd198S; Smith, 1959. Since I leial Stait had scored belt, %),ses, end) grade in language. xx ithmandated the acquisition ()I the ( or an a mean grade le el ()I. 5.75).Thesescores A.A. degree by teacher,. the ts.riting context Intht 1),.. interpreted cautititi,,It. tiiflce theI leadIA a,. immediately meaninginl. hut an approach Start Ittlt:11CP, had.c!eiterall> 1)001) Out of !Uri.' to txriting lot indix iduals %%lin *Acre usedto sthoui formore than III y ears, anti notio olconxey ing information by speaking had to he them spoke English a. ht. 01 her first Ian de% elope(' 1 he livid section of this article g mtge. -Hie I \Ilt Reading and Linguage let d,.scribes the li)proes and Me stud). telling score means, and ,,tailt lard din lath T method used in the pn 'feet to encourage our the2 "people are as lollov.s. teachers to v. rite %I IIltt2fromi$M Eastern Navajo ,1gency Reit:law wore at or h,..110,, Since Il)7I, the credentialgigo"ram 711)-121,ide letcl 8 has 11.16.0t1r:10,121, ' 101 Prtrjed I lead Stall to Reading ,rule ahos.e the es. Altaic and improt e the .lalls leacheis In 7th grade let el laY400111S anti home-based program , to Mean grade le+, el 6,54iSI) 2,16)let:eke the (-1).%. a person must Loinhine acad- Lariguage score at or emic experience tn.uall> in the I orm tll college Linirsev. ork ), practical leaching expe- bel. 7th-grade let el ! .anplage score above the rience, and the ability to V. rite about one's 71h-grade les. el II ov.ri etleetixeness in sir general areas of

Mean language grade lex el5.75 (SD ) competence. hguie Igo. es the sir ciimpeten- cy goals tt high a presehool teacher Is ex aluat- Shiprock Agency in. II) et! against. Reading at or helot'. 7111-grade ley el Figurt 1 Reading score ablie the (.1).A Competency Goals fur Preschool 7th-glade Caregivers lean leading grade let el 91)4 SI) 3.23 r .ang uage at or helot). I.I o estahli.11 maintain a',ale. health 7th -Trade let el 4 learniiie en% ironment. Language score iihme 2. 'In adance phqt.',11 and intellectual conive- the 7111 grade let el 7 telll'e. sursilort social and emotionalde% elorment Mean language grade loci 9. I (SD _'.57) and pros, ide po.itie guulance 4.I () establish po.ato.e and prodtkais,e 'J.(111)11- It became clear to uthat the,,e inch% iduak. ,11111, %% WI tamilies. who Ina\ ha\r hero line practitioner.. '.).Quid S To ensure a V.C11-1- prorrain need a special lied approach to literacy in re,.pultsitI. to participant order torite about their teaching practices. (i.I n maintain a Loninutment Recent theoriiing and resealeh in adult litera _ . cy strongly suggest that literacy skills need to e lorinent !Me N.00,0,11 he taught v. !thin a CIPIOCXI that ( t al I 1:11, to the adult as ,der andHier (Coma, « NIL141+(,11'11,;:ttlink. OAIII47,11,11.1)C, 277 These so. yeneml ate ,.11hdi% 410 I into greatest obstacle to Nio. aiu teachers in the El specific FM' example. past. lite task of pro% itlifIV a 511 -pa rte polo-- under coal number 2, "To iab.ance [Physical 110 appeared insurmountable to many, (' and intellectual competence." the functionalthnuull the!. else CNA:client teachers and arca, are ph!. steal, cornito,c, ttnanunicanon,could easily demolish ate !heir competence and creatike. Under each functional ;ilea Ilk through their acti, kit-. with children in the candidate must demonstrate her or his com- classitmi. Writim, about their approaches to petence both in %I. riting and in action with !caching was lint .4)1110161)g ordinarily' expect- children. Fitt example, under -cmulitke" the ed in the pi imarth. ii ii ennui id tradition of teacher is expected to demonstrate e idencethe Na. ajo, Our approach to thk problem of pros. iding "opportunittc". hit children to ti;i drams nom disparote out and begm to understand Me relationship,. ornitim, e p Aeholoto. and time Namotmo trddi betv.ecn cause and click:C. or tohelp chit of dren under-amid concept, such pace, nine. ,1ccortlinl! to resedrchers nl m_,)mmito.e psy shape and qtranot." rc fit National ('teden- eindor),, v, hat %%e depends 1,11),T1,. upon haling Progt I ItSt.), One condition of v. hat e ahead> know (see. for example. level\ iii' the r then. is the teacher's Ault Anderson, !(tM)). I's choloyiqs use the idea ty to demonstrate competence in each of theof a seheIlla 10 represent an Mitten-hill/1.d, 13 functional areas before a re% iev. commit orrant/ed ',et tit kAperimccs. Schenhita tee of prolesional and patents. individuals tcm encode and relate col, liowc%et, the teacher 11111,4 also produce information to an existing has.' of hi. IA Cate!' of het or his comps. I of\1111ple. Millie who re.i title (roue in the form of a portfolio. The portfolio state, of Child deVelOp- contains an autobiography and it trseliption mem consider children between the itges of 4 of the teacher's proFqam setting I for examp'te, and 6 to he in Stage f 1, "Ono Iteeome, Sell- it center-based ILII Start classroom that Aw ae" %Ik.Cart, Itia. & Lynch, Irt;;2I. Ilere might he 30 miles trom the now c,t pared the child is e\pcled to become progressk cly road). In addition to (his. the teacher mustmore aw at: of the ens ironment through ski- ..rite entries v. hick describe her or his ov. nries told about the hogan, the elements. and competent planning and behax ior in each Mother Earth. The child corne:.. to appreciate Functional area. A total of 39 entries arerespectful relationships v. lib others and required V. hich state in detail what thenature. The teacher might use her or his exist- teacher does I for example. to promote cogni- ing. knowledge base to help in understanding tive de% elopmeno. it she or he does it that Erikson's (1 963) ideas about p,ychosocial way. and holt the materials. space. and rou- autonomy, shame, initiate. c, and gnilt. which tine, used are de% elopmentallappropriateeharacteriie the 4- to 6-t in Western for children between 3 and 5 years HI arc and European them-I/Mg, A total of about 51) pages of the teacher \ In a similar fashion, we encouraged the own original writior, is required for the port- teacher, to use their experience as the% folio, and num.., are lovishlt. illustrated withapproached the task of writing. Since the (I) \ photographs. examples of children's wt irk. or portfolio in oh es writing down what one lesson pimp, Im, the te.mcher. It is the doein the cla,,.rooin. \se asked teachers to writing prices ..itself which ha. presenf:d thedray. on the oral tradition of their culture b

1. 2 7 8 1e111111 ,11:1-les,111Cer., IIP191,1111tut t11,11 (thin,, the bailer, Illy !MY. Cr id their

11111111 In. Ines wl'w the I.4 v, (lot,file project then tie'. eloped I 1,.e. 1111101011,11 wIte.issII a tewliller 11 a, 4111e1!lil lit ncourare the trilh t1.1we11 do. 11,1 acik.e mititu,., her oi Iiinl to 11r.,114 1,01,u I. /hill Owl(/ ritrit: lap/,t I.I lie or he true, in a particular al ca -aid' a., the !tot kited the he ail% 11,,ten,. to the fea,14.1- teacher... liedd titait 1(1111, dud Y' (1(0.1,11 1.411,11 'silt' (IF ile 11,111(111e' non and I cedliaL. Ion, but a!,o held the Ile',11111111111 11,1(4 -1 1111'. ce1.14 y,ritinr 14111 f.,Ilnp, nil 1'aI11pti

(Irak of a poi t f oho entr,, 1 11. rote dov, fuel v. dti the tea,...lier, rod) Lout ,1111for n11 I 2 lit 'oftit 1111111111111 e1111.1(.s. I III, Foal the. caudidatc / Siii/1//qt Hilq. I I ICA I1(.1,1C111'1, acce knot% loke act! ere treated aL. our Iaiultl for itinctionai diva, like I he 1.1itko, 11111,1 11101, emnitpt, 11(11101' 1.% Ill IL.'.111)1),1.1. 1101C 11(1 IA."I 11111erll the pnlee, .111 (112'0,1111111111. did li',1c11(.1. (Mlle 111 4w.IItle e,lt h 11111('C'w 11111111, .(11(1111,11,1 t,lelhtale 1.111(lAst1.111(11111.! III I.\ I Ile hit that 111,4) ilict the le 111(111114 111 ei. Ilt, ISI11,111, Ininn el', al the 1le,l,l !..(1,111 (1,1'.'1(,11111,. 1111 the t:`121

I lie 111(1111a 1111,11. il 1,11114,int %MIMI C I e : I t ( 1 1 a ' s e l l ' s ( '1 ' 1 h u tIII II1,1t III(' (0(11,11111 Vi cludidong upon cwcii ,1111, 1,1)1 44 leak:hey,' 11,i:di I he Nddio led, ier.. v. ere emoorayeil

w 11'0,1L to'. lire tli,trlituun, of tidbit the\ (lid{ in diet! 4. /et './1/ J itlatti '4, We re 'pc., led l'1,1,`.1 1111111's 11111 the> 11,111 r 11. (11 tile *Mt I I C wid Iit:adieu... attempt, at vritnil,

(le',(Till11011', Milli!. 111 ( Ito: po,tpliniii,t. the correction of 1.1101,It 11,e pioce,o, ith the hatlitional oral ,..yanitiiar and 11,..1Iffil.! error,.\(11 a.4.0.1 wide anti to the wow 1111111 1111 .% Cw1C11 111111 \ 1(111,11 11) IVA Ill's 111I1C1 4t41r1, aloud

11111tIC. III one' 111-11111: If the V, 1 11111!' did lila Make hue ;V. (4,11.4 1 I trwiS 1 MIL 11 I 11(n.: mit ;1(14 O.f.r1,1,.e.41 her 111111111 lilt'1.t hitt 111114. re11ie1, the lead' I 111111ki111_1, but it,11'-.11 1:.ellehlte I III Ole' 111.1111'1'W "'hen 111.11 v. 11111(1.."I eslitlel, itleilliket1 error, in thlteS 1,1.11.It thr t 110 IIIthe thermatlt otTaniidtii n. ,Intl I4,111)

Cills-411111.11 41.114 (14) It (hat 45,14, the\ ()1)11 at thl, point %%mild the iith.i.or offer (11tell noted 4 111.1111)011, or mlttllealll'll, 111 Nli.2.!4S.nsti(MS It, ClIrleCt st[11(.111Fe Of 111 actiNities %% hid' the, kept a, plan.. to he carfr..il out in the future.. 'We tchtifistwivwfrilit';. tiiu,t' 111,111'w 111 the teach- hatl tiillliuIt> v, Iiltng a 'single our ,.ehenuita for theI1 11111( t1(111- I- al hied, 1111011 he 1.1111(...C1411,111/(1.1 ,entence. vo: Villketl ae ;Intl let4.3: about. appi op' Idle nc,. tut stimulate 1 or c \ample, the ledinirw chli(It'n functional died eletineel o a,k the teat:lief"What tlii tilralegivs lul 11111111g I)()%sn S1()Io4 %oil m 4 uur ifa, Avon' that

\vlit:,) the ( 11't,111 kor, beim] pruo. idet1 ens

1111;'. Oh' tea,...her,' oral rom:11 chiltlitt!" ()tit IC- 1.411ltit'tl It' 11C(.',1(1-e %%Ls (.'(/11in that these inch,. 'd- V, elk! tst,'!.:1111111:.: Illy` ual, ale better teachers IInY, than the, tide a (ICA( 9.1(11 Cad) the car at!ii t,lnnano, 190 I1, Inspired 1):i. the 11(0.1. it the theinsekc", Izained from lieu,.

)11 V, Wit' I cl., i,, anti more atL,11c nl it.',1(.11i11.'

(//,,.!tr \r, I /sr , sy, ii1(1110(1, (Ill(' it( It'111.011/11 till %Olaf the'.

111'dd s 1(I l'C',111111t1 tlo stit hildren. the feat het III lia%e unpin% ed.I lit-ir teachin!, practice, I(L';',111 pret'I`t'lt tin their (PA ri11,voine tunic deelopmentallt 'appropriate 0, hehat tor., it a response to the topic of the 'Lind .% rite about the need to

'Of V,( 11(11(1 a lne (hill at the pick..hool,- '.%o a pal tit tilar tictik it, to suit the tie% chili id the L1111(11'1:11 v.110 . areluli. led the c andidate thlnul'h aumental l'. 1)1(41(1C4' ,iii[ Ilk' 1st II,Ii, 111,1i if s.

1111',11 isfiT1,1111(IlliC(IIIIL's

V, 1101, v, 111.'1(', v, 11S,. ,111(1 1110 (11111ell',i1)11'.,I1 the I lead St,t(1 tcaLliet, ,tilt ilt )eliclItliii!! (111111i: of Ow Ina postproject Intel'. It's,%. 14 intlik i 111(11%1(111,11. s,s,C 11e1C1111illetl111.11,1, 1111.1(.111.411(0,,, (111.!1,, iclinmIct1 to a number of ql(A., It in the filainstollintw,Wine, (li \ did lc% Iin!' lit the riintliiho cnti ili't101111,11 C11,11)11.11 S,(1111 III(' 1" 111 It'sis(111,t' Iii this 111.1\!-A1l tat S.1....,(1 old telltale and ill+ 11111111(1110114 a IIIeat-iiItt male \\C ittiainine ttitli '2 Ilittit ItItt \ri A ilpi,C1 als, and th completet1 rt.dential at the ,"till LI 101111.'1 t'.1t1,,1111Ill 1 end Iii months. 1 success rate \ II Wall \ h.'11 L'IItIt1 .11.0111 IA 111111:: /Ind I!ICI. unheard i ii till tilt' Nai. din Rest.P. anon Flinn to ,l11111111,:NI, \`,I V kl1C 1cMCI, 111% ILIII,..1110 to Lalitt,1111.,I tit'. a 1,11,.!I,1. iii. this pion:Lt. Ili\ MI) cIttirk t()iii1L-11, 1,0 !LI I ,!,,,11,,,ti, o 1110(min:1i.! to i It it Ilia! tit Litt

II) t cal it' lvt% et' iii i!.2(1 I'. 1 III I 11\ attti Act! tit ,Naltitt !kali '". 1,11,11,1,1 Ill: It 1,01111 IA 110II: 1

icat:11.1 our tie%ii internal ciduation to t1.'a.11.1111,trcit Ilc!! proa,1 nl die [(WI( (1,111(1111,ited rim!. I!chi t th.itt lint 01 performance fat tors. Firm,: it tt 1. to1112 1..t,1.. tit' ,,,torattlat.. it,r Ili\ ithi (sir ,1 '11III,Irt gik es a strut.tme IIII ...sess in! the teacheis' 001,1, perlormance in the ()inject. \dulls %%lin can late Jinni! then compe `stl knit th d these Intlitlthl,11s icall/e that tense are more el Ictii% c leacher,. VritilIV. tho had the ahilit to v lite re,pet pnise, dhoti! 11101 the hot assn became f :[ter I lead Star leach- 1(10,11Idled111)111, 0.11,11heOr de111II. er, proces'. Nforet, er. these feathers 1.1.k1;_s tit Ili.: omit. anti \I it he lie nti\%, empov,ered ith the ..:,,nfittent:e to tint, it that V.,1%. IMF [;111th late. chow their skill, t%itil lithe! s. impintant 11111' the rroject titctime of this protect is seen 111 the an;..ctl, .T.11 int lcachei, IIIlea,t,11 Yellantic it Ili-, td tty,..ogId1;11;- parciw, supci%vaii,,. anti earl% t l,t11. "hell 11111 it.itclicr,, Figure 2 Evaluation of v orkplace Mcrae) program for Nils* Head Start teachers

ou1,..0111L. Purpi Strengths Teacher reaction: Nleasure teacher feelings I ..is to administer I fe2hel sclf-estekan about program/course: Pro,. ides inmicdiate feedback didn't know I hall it in inc.- (1ualitaike sultey data indicateon instructors You showed me I could do 10:11 loch. of teacher satisla -.111 ill this time I thought I Li, tion. improLed sell-LonfidenLe. reall stupid. but I wall!. Lan %%lite 'teacher learning: Measure the :annum of learn-Pro\ ides objectke data on the Writing ing that has occurred in a ik rtes, of training. 1. Knowledge of anise and program/course: I tam can he collected hetore person. I )ocumentation in the tom students leas. e training pro - 2 Journalistic .a le (who, v. hat. of the port lesson gram. ishere.tt1In.ttht.howI plans. Identilicanim of theme/topic 2. Distinct imprw.ementin Data Lan he used to further pro - 4. ()I-gam/anoniraroLluction, trainees' writing skill . gram goals. boLl!.. 1.1,11,1u-don. 1. teachers encouraged to Data can he used in hirmatiLe 5 Use of pictures and other teach others through this and summatke evaluation L aiLls to inspire writing approach. process. Llescriptke writing. 4 Improl,,.nraits in teachers' (). V14iting process: brain- knnv.led; e and confidence. Writing is iewed bt teachers storming, v. ming. le,. 'sing as purposefulThey wrote in ('hrotiological order. order to achioe specific goals. X I.esson plan itIgo ['sr nl reference materials 1( o I //andbook. curriculum CAI`,childhood .Ib' nt journals 1. Peer- and self eL ablation of Itritten work. 'minding 'eedhack sessions. Teacher performance: Measuri the transfer of ProL ides objective data on I. !Immo, ed writing and think- training: impact to joh situation. ing. 1.Oral tradition JP:t..omes dticu- Writing acts as a tool to stimu- 2. Improved teaching skills merited in written Friglish. late thinking about culI lOill1111 keipow erment to he t o, 2. Writing leads to improcd for children. ad isors LIotheis. teaching. Organization results: Nleasure impact of training Prot Ides ()hick:tit c data for I. Skteen teachers hate earned on organi/ation: }st/henel it anal,,sis and orga- alt credential. I lead Start Lhildi en's tinproLed nifational support. 2 Social lc diets recei .cd skills. attitude,

AdaptedIn-IIL.S. I )epoltinclit 1,1 'Ali nagnl. IS Dur I bott,m1/jilt,/4(1,1, \WI, Inunth.(1r krill, ashingt.m. 1)1'. 1(1 281 wrote domn what they do in the classroom, their words in print helped to validate for Workplace themselves the fine we k they are perform- Literacy ing. Sharing these practices with other Head Start teachers will he the next step.

References Anderson. J.R. 11980). Co.ipiiiivep.sv,ho/oi:y. San Using Annual Re ports Francisco, CA: WM. Freeman. Anriano, M. (1991). Approaches to earl) inters en- tion on th reservation.Early Educa!ton and for Adult Literacy Development, 2111.65. 76. Beers. C.D. 11989. March-April). Stor)telling and N.dic American CDA'Chat/re/1 Today. Improvement 24 -25. co.% National ('redentialing Program. (1988). Pres(lit id/co:yrs inrenter-hried proqram.% Washington. DC'. Author. Commission for Accelerating Naaio Development PHYLLIS A. MILLER Opportunities. (1988).Aavolo nation _fax: Wu- ahAtra(t.\\indo\i. Rock. AZ: Author. OCTOBER 1988 Cornell. T. (1988). Characteristics of effectic oc- cupational literac) programs. loto:tuil of Read- Iii;, ?/.65.1 -656. Erikson, E.H. (1963). Childhood and Aoctety (2nd )1- adults, the world of work involves ed.). Nev. York: W'. V. Norton. considerable and varied kinds of I 988 ). Writing across the curriculum. Gras. D.J. reading. Often people in job settings Phi Delia Kalman.69. 729-733. N1cCart>, T., Bid, F.. & Lynch. R. 11952).Title /l'- face reading materials unlike any 11 .Vavajo elopment punnet1. Rough they experienced in school. While it majority Rock. AZ: Rough Rock Demonstration School. of young adults have mastered the basic liter- Royer. J.N1., & Carlo. M.S. t 1991). Transfer of acy demands, for the most part they cannot comprehension skills from native to second lan- handle literacy tasks of increased complexi- guage. Journa/ Readint:, 45D -155. Small. s1. 11990).Cognitive development.New tythe type of reading needed in much of the York: Harcourt Brace. workplace (Kirsch & Jungeblut. 1986: Miku- Smith. F. 11989). Oserselling literac.Phi Delta lecky, 1986). Much work-related reading is Kappan,70,352-359. complex and requires inferential thinking and application of the information for decision making and problem solving (rvlikulecky. 1982. 1986: Miller 1982). Achallenge to educators is to help adult learners bridge the gap between competence with basic reading tasks and competence with more difficult and complex ones. Part of that challenge involves finding practical instruc- tional materials that require more than locat- ing and identil ing information. One such '282 material is the annual business report. An an- Prose literacythe literacy involved in nual report is prepared by a company for pub- using texts such as editorials, news stories. lic information. It gi an overviel. of that and so on. company during a particular year. This formal Documentliteracy the literacy required report to stockholders includes the general to locate and use information in forms. philosophy, business thrusts, and a financial tables, ;nd so forth. statement (certain disclosures are required by law). See Figure 1. Chwntilaf literm.ythe knowledge and skills needed to apply arithmetic opera- Iiks Ise Annual Reports? tions, either alone or sequentially, that are To bridge the gap existing for many adults embedded in printed materials. between levels of literacy competence, I have used annual reports as instructional materials Second, annual reports provide an intro- in reading improvement classes. The reportsduction to material that is not typical school are practical for several reasons. First. annualmaterial but is similar in nature to the materi- reports provide an opportunity to apply theal adults face in many work settings. Also. three distinct types of literacy characterizedbecause companies spend considerable sums by the National Assessment of Educationalon these reports for public relations purposes. Progress (Kirsch & Jungeblut, 1986): the reports look appealing and inviting.

Figure 1 Typical Content of Annual Reports Letter from the company chairmanTells how the company is doing and why that is so: gives the company's stance on economic, social, or political climates affecting the company: provides thoughts about the company's future. A review of operations--Often include. a statement of w hat is new in the business. Management review of financial conditions Income statementIncludes sales, cost of goods sold. expenses. and net income. Balance sheetGives assets (current and longterm operating assets), liabilities (current and lon..:tenn), and sto,:kholders equity (paid-in capital and retained earnings). Statement of changes in financial positionGives working capital, which is the difference between current assets and current Accounting policiesInclude a report of certified public accountants and any other accounting premises. such as whether the report refers to a family of corporations (in a footnote). Other footnotes or simply notesProvide other disclosures which do not tit in the main body of the report (they help explain profits): examples include maturity dates on loans, interest rates, the amount spent for research and development. any pending lawsuits, retirement plans, businesses sold or purchased. Comparison to earlier years (often in graphs) Officers of the company Note:The annual reports called 11)K reports. filed with the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission. may contain certain additional information. I rom Managing lour kraaing, copyright by Phyllis A. Miller, Littleton, CO: Reading Doelopment Resources. 1987, p. 134. t 'sed with permission. 283 27", Yet. while the look of annual reports is example. seeing the difference between nonthreatening. the contents provide a range the chairman's letter and any footnotes of difficulty levels and offer opportunity to which might try to downplay a pending teach varied reading strategies and skills to lawsuit). master more complex reading tasks. Some Comparing various parts of a report (or areas for instruction include: several reports) to reach a general under- Recognizing and using the structure of standing of the whole. material to gain an overview of its mes- Asking questions of the report. which sage. (The reports are generally consis- requires reading charts, doing arith- tent in structure and content. See Figure metic. and reading prose material (for example. is the working capital rising?). Establishing a specific reading purpose Building new vocabulary. to make the task more manageable (for example, to discover the areas of com- Adults in my classes give several addition- pany growth). al reasons for the appeal of these materials. Annual reports offer a broader look at a com- Developing a strategy for accomplishing pany or its competitors than an employee the reading purpose (a process important usually receives: they let people see large in dealing with many kinds of technical local companies in a new way: they provide a materials). perspective on national firms whose products Analyzing the position and bias of theconsumers buy: they allow people to analyze Nk riters and noticing how writing stylesa company in which they might want to carry out an apparent intent to commu- incest. In a nutshell. the reports open a whole nicate or to obscure information (fornew world of reading matter. Figure 2 Typical Structure of Annual Reports

An annual report is arranged in three basic partsa beginning. a middle, and an ending. The arrangement k predictable. as follows:

Beginning: Here are the chairman's letter. a general res iew of operations. and an introduction to what is new in each line of business. (Many reports begin w ith a summary of financial highlights.) Middle: The numbers and their analysis by management are here. Either may precede the other. Of the numbers ( financial statement), first is the income statement. It starts w ith sales and then lists the cost of goods sold and various expenses. ending with the net earnings. Then conies the balance sheet (a snapshot of the company at a single point in time (ss hich begins with the assets. On the top are the current assetsthings which can he quickly turned into cash. such as accounts receivable. Below those are longterm operating assets. such as property.or equipment (shat the company. owns). Next are the liabilities. including the current liabilities

(debts due inIy can and longterm liabilities. Follow ing is the stockholder equity section. Changes in financial position are in the middle. too. Ending: The footnotes are here.

From Manaeoil; )'nur 1?rtulint;. copyright by. Phy Ilk A. Miller. Littleton. CO: Reading elopment Resources. 1987. p. 135. l'sed ss ith permission.

279..28 4 Hon to Use .Annual Reports tent and structure of annual reports by review- To use the annual report as a teachinging a number of them. (See Figures 1 and 2 material with adults. I recommend followingagain.) Public libraries keep files of these these steps. reports (usually noncireulating, so you need I. Become familiar A ith the general con-to review them at the library), or the library

Figure 3 A Strategy for Reading an Annual Report

Get an overview. Know the general content and structure of the report. Decide purpose(s) and questions. Think about your purpose. Then get questions in mind to "ask" of the report. Included below are some pertinent questions to consider. Check terms. Look up the meaning of financial terms which might he unfamiliar to you. Start at the end. In a particular annual report. start your reading <

285 -2'").. will have information on where to write forhe a financial expert. When following the reports they do not carry. learning strategy fails to help me comprehend 2. Select a couple of reports in a similarsome part of a report. I tell participants and industry and compai,e thcro (for example. Ithen we analyze the difficulty. Sometimes I find publishing companies interesting). must gain more background. Sometimes I do 3. Pick a particular report and follow thenot understand a term or conceptual base. strategy in Figure 3. (I have learners do thisSometimes the writing is confusing or vague. once they are familiar with report content andTalking through my own process of trying to structure.) comprehend is in itself instructive. 4. Choose sonic reports to use with stu- The annual report can he used to build dents. Contact the company for your ownhigher levels of literacy competence among copy (try the public relations department).adults who possess the basic levels. Because it Often the reports are free or the small chargecalls for the three aspects of literacyprose. is waived if you tell the company you aredocument, and quantitative--its use is consis- using the report for educational purpose,. tent with the objectives of many reading edu- Depending on your request, sonic companiescators. Since the annual report is an appealing will give you a number of copies. and a relatively easily available type of non- 5. Build up a collection of annual reportsschool technical material, it is a practical yet to use with students. Keep old ones. (Thenvalid instructional material to use with adults you can compare a current year with a past in reading improvement classes. year or various companies within an indus- References try.) Kirsch. iS.. & Jungeblut. A. (1986).Lite, (//- : 6. Develop teaching plans involving the Profile nl Aincro soungadults.Princeton. reports. NJ: National Assessment of Educational As a consultant. I have taught reading class- Progress. Educational Testing Service. es within particular companies. Here are sug- Nlikuleeky. L. (1982). Joh literacy: The relationship between school preparation and v,orkplace actu- gestions which have worked for me as I incor- ality.Reudint; Research Quarterly.l7t31. porate the annual report as one of my teaching 490-419. materials. All the participants first use the Nlikuleeky, L. ( 1986, December). The status of lit report of the specific company. However, to crac\ in our society. Paper presented at the place the company within a broader perspec- National Reading Conferer e, Austin, TX. tive. I bring in reports of competitors or, when NI i 1 ler, P.A. 1 1987)..1/anam'to;your reading. Littleton, CO: Reading Development Resources. possible, of other local companies. I also tellMiller P.A. (1982, No% ember). Reading demands participants how to acquire their own copies of in a high-technology industry.Journalof reports. In using the reports, I do not attempt to Readinit, 21), 1W)- 115.

286

. 1. Citation Index

oh'111 I" hi] ItrA IFia page number Indicate, that the felerence ma!, be tumid in .1 ligure.

A Bean. R.\1.. 264. 205. 206 Ahdehon. 1) l ;.:3 13car. D.R.. 56. 50. 03 brain,, 1.02-40.234 lieL1.. J.. 155

Adams. J.F., 240.254.255 13eder. II.15, '1 .137. 143 Adam,. . 2121. 218 Beers. ('.1)., '74. 277 Adams. NI.1 . 242. 245 Behrstod, J.. 41). 41. 44 Adult Literao and Basle Skills 1'1m 65. 6'). Belenk>. !.1.. 127. 1311 144. 149, 210, 220. 226 Bell. T.. 6. 12 Annan. J., 70. 56 Bel/. Li. 162. 207. 210 40). Ben-Barka. A.C., 155. 162. 2115. 21(1 R 1.. 11)4. 103. 138. 143 Bennett. A .J.. 126. 130 AIN ermann. I) F.. 57, 60 Berge,. in. P.. 108. 110 Amoroso, , 25, 32.33 Berridge Centre. 62, 69 Atiasta.i. A., 53. 55 Belts. F. 107-10s, I hi Anders n. 212t. 217 Be% CP.4(4.1. C.. 235. 247 Anderson. JR.. 273. 277 lihola. U.S.. 3,2. 33. 41.44 Anderson. R C . 213. 217 lila. F.. 273. 277 Anor% e. R.. 10. 21 Biggs. S.A.. 1111. 105, 205. '10 Anth,no Al,. 271. 275, 277 13i.ler. 13., 164. 166. 169 Applebee.. .N.. 70. 70. 77, 1(14, 1)5 13i/,ell. P.. 1Th. 131 Arono..t it/. S.. 411. 44 Bloom. A.. 126. 131 1.11. p.. Blot, I). 160, 16'. '116. I() 163. 164. 166. 160. 170. (56, (5", 105 Blunt. I.. 28. 33 Amen, N. 135. 143. '46 Bond. (i.1 21)2 Irrihtot N 1),,, immorwror.1)(). 1111) 13ooth. S.. 222. 226 Auerbach. F. R.. 236. 235. '40 Bore). 5.1I.F.. 5'. 551. 02. 03 erill..1.R.. 240. 255 Bork. A.. 155. 106 A .,er. J.L. 14. 16 lioNer, J.. 215 13ols. A.B.. 57. (1) II Botkin. J.. 21 Bader. TA., 33 Bourdien. P.. 17. 21

Baghban. 51.. 2121. 215 Him ren. . Bairw.tather,1..1-1.. 70. 55. 86 Bo. d. RD.. 162. 207. 21)1 Ihilajilo.L. 188. 195 Bridges. R F.. 1113, 106 Baldv.in. J.. 102. 1115 Bunk. J. 227.715 Bahnuth. NI., 57. 881. 01, 215. 218 Britton. J.. 110, 120. 1'5 Bambara. IC.. I 3(1 Riooklield. S.. 132. 136 bn copal o/ \Wahl' I 111;;11(1,,,u 11:1\I 158. C.K., 1"-A, 106 161. 162 BrImn. A 1 32. 33 96.I IX /In Brov.n. . 165, 160, 264,165.'66 lialIC Skills Unit Student \\*Wing. I-14. 140 Brom. 11, 1..135, 1-13, '56.20)) 13,ites,1'., 70, 811. 55 Iiitinv.ald. . 730, 2:4 Ballet. 05, 11K1 But !moan. 211, 2.16

..283..287 BEST COPY AVAILABLE Burke. Cl.., 57. 60, 132. 136. 236. 246 Cornell. T.. 272. 277 Rorke Reatlititt Interview,96 Corsini. R.. 162. 207. 210 Bush. B.. 5. 12 Cross, P., 151, 155 Buttemorth, J., 4, 44 Crouch, M.A., 79. 80, 85. 86 Cunningham, P.M.. 244. 246 Cupuis, M.M.. 265 Calkins. LAI., 236. 244. '46 Call. in. S.B.. 103, 106 Camboume, B., 202. 259. 260 Darkerm ald. G.G., 17. 22, 64. 65. 69. 151. 155 Cameron, C.. 40, 44 Dat idson. D.. 160, 162, 206. 210 Caret , R., 263. 266 Dat idson. 57. 58. 59, 60 Carlo. M.S., 270. 277 Davis. N.. 29. 33 Carnes ale. A.P.. 262, 266 Davis. Ts'.. I), 85. st, Carrier. C.A., I 85 Data sou. H., 41.44 Carter. M.A., 264. 265. 267 de la Mare. M., 223. 226 Ca /den, 1(13, 106 (Maitre. E.J.. 121. 125 cox National Credal ialing Program. 273. 277 Delker, 87. 881, 90, 93 Cer ern. R.M.. 39 Desai. LE.. 264, 265. 267 Chal1.1.. 212f, 218 Diagnostic Reading .Stoles(httN), 162 Chan. J.S.. 23. 25. 26. 27. 28. 31. 33, 42. 44 Diehl. W.A., 170. 264, 266 Chandler. 1.. 212f. 218 Diekhoff. G.N1., 61.65, 69, 86, 87, 89, 93, 2(19. 210 Charnlet 62.63.67.69. 88f. 90, 92, 93 Diem. R.A.. 93 Cheney, 1...'..126.131 Dinnan. J.A.. 13. 16 Chisman, 149 Dixon, C.. 158. 162, 205, 210 Chomskt . C., 212f. 218 Doak. C.C.. 79. 80. 86 Christian. D.. 242. 247 Doak. E.G., 79. 80. 86 Christmon, NI., 103, 106 Douglas. B., 265. 266 Ciekholf. 69 Douglas, C.. 164, 170 Clabby. 162. 207. 210 Dreikers. R.. 249, 254 Clark, C.. 87, 88. $$f. 93 littmR.. 261 Clark. CI, 163 budley-Marhng. C.. 244. 247 Clark, El., 43, 44 Duff. R.E.. 212f. 218 Clark. R.. 2 1 3 .2 1 8 Duncan, J.1.. 4 I, 44 ('lark. R.E.. 164. 170 Dupuis. M.M.. 266 Cla>, M.M.. 2121. 218. 246 Durkin. D.. 212f, 218 Cleland, C.J., 207, 211 Dykstra. R.. 2(12 Clinehy, B.. 127. 130 Cobh. S.. 249. 254 Cochran. $1.. 211, 218 Education Writers \ siociation. 262. 266 Coelho. 6, V.. 249. 254. 255 Ehringhaus, C.C.. 63, 69. 265. 266 Cohen. J.. 158, 162. 205. 21(1 Elbov.. P.. 152. 155 Coleman. J.S., 212f. 218 Ehnandjra. M.. 21 Commetras, NI.. 138, 143 Englander. N.. 211. 213, 218 Commission for Accelerating Nasals f)c% elopment Eng,. R.E.. 1(12. 106 Opportunities. 271. 277 Erikson. .11,. _273.2_77 Commission of Professors of Adult Education Eskey. D.L. 132, 136 !ctrl 1.107, 110 Comprelienso. e Adult Student Assessment St stem F xs15). 265. 266 Faddi,,(' k .87, 88f, 92. 93 101, 106 . 24N,'5.1 Cooper. C,k., 100 Nil).. 11 1

288 .2" are

Farr. R., 263. 266 Gunn, C.. 187, 196 Fay. .).B., 107, 110 Guthrie, J.T., 14, 16 Ferdman, B.. 236. 246 Fernald, G.M.. 207. 210 H Ferry. C.. 86, 89, 93 Hagen. C.. 227, 235 Fields, E.L.. 87. 88, 88f. 90, 92. 93 Hall, M.A., 110 Fingeret, A., 18. 19, 21, 42. 44. 64. 69, 102. 106. Halliday, M.A.K., 228, 235 145, 149, 211. 218, 236. 238. 245, 246 Hamburg. D.A., 249, 255 Fisher. DI_ 13, 16 Hammond, R., 103. 104, 106 Fisher. E.A., 43. 44 Harman. D.. 13. 14, 16. 17. 19. 22. 33. 40 41, 44 Fordham. S., 103, 106 1 5 1 , 155. 186. 196, 211. 218. 219, 226. 248. 255 Fox, B.J.. 64, 69 Harris. A.J., 46. 52. 96. 100. 248. 255 Fox, M., 211. 218 Harste, J.C., 132, 136, 236. 246 Frager. A.M., 264. 266 Hayakawa, S.1.. 6. II. 12 Freire. P.. 12, 19, 21. 37. 39. 108. 109, 110. 132, Hayes, R.. 67. 69 136, 154. 155, 236. 246 Heaney, T., 19-20. 21 French, J.. 54. 55 Heath, S.B., 212f. 213. 218 French, J.R., 249, 254 Hcathington. B.S., 28. 29, 32. 33. 213. 216 218 Fry, E.B.. 232, 235 Heckelman. R.G.. 220, 226. 231. 235 Fuchs, D.. 264. 266 Henderson. C.R., 211. 218 Fuchs. L.S.. 264, 266 Heron. E.. 42, 44 Hewison, J.. 212f, 218 Hiebert, E.H., 3.4, 217 Gadsden. V., 87, 88f. 93 Hilferty. A.. 42.44 Gainer. 1..J.. 262, 266 Hill. C., 66, 69 Gambrel'. LB., 28. 29, 32, 33 Hirsch, E.B.. 9, 12 Garcia. G.E., 53 Hirsch. E.D., Jr., 38, 39 Garcia, J.G., 103, 106 Hoel, L., 78 Gardener, S.S., 144. 149 Holland, D., 68, 69 Gardner, J., 119. 125 Hone, K.A.. 42, 44 Gaughan. K.K.. 54. 55 Hornsby, D., 160, 162, 206. 211 Gault. H., 79, 85. 86 Howard, J., 103. 104, 106 George. J.B., 80 Howie, S.H., 183. 185 George. R.B., 79. 80, 85. 86 HR Strategies. 264. 266 Giroux. H.. 40. 44 Hull, W.L.. 87. 88, 88f. 90. 92, 93 Gold, P.C.. 881, 92, 93 Hunter, C.S.J., 13, 14, 16. 17, 19, 22. 33, 40, 41.4.4. Goldberger, N., 127. 130 151, 186. 196. 219. 226 Goodman. K.S., 132. 136, 137, 143, 236, 244, 246. Hutchinson, L.P.. 88f, 93 256. 259. 260 Goodman, Y.M.. 256. 259. 260 Gordon. H.M., 187, 196 Ilslcy,P.J., 11, 12. 17. 18. 19, 22 Gorman, T.P., 61, 69 Irwin. M., 264. 266 Goswami. D., 70, 77 Irwin, P.M., 238, 246 Gould. L., 28. 33

Gore. P.R.. 84. 86 .1 Grahc. W.. 132. 136 Jackson, R.H., 79. 80, 85. 86 Graff. G., 126, 131 Jackson, S.. 28, 33 Graham. C.. 30. 33 Janis, I.L.. 249. 255 Gray, DJ., 274. 277 Jarman. LT., 259. 260 Green, J.L., 246 Johnson. J.A.. 88f, 92, 93 Greenfield. I.., 14. 16 Johnson. P.H., 162, 207. 211 Johnston, A., 33 Lerner. J.W., 248, 255 Johnston. C.1... 249. 255 1.t.\ Me. K.. 38. 39 Johnston, P.H. 51 54 256. 26(1 Lewis, L.H.. 165, 170 Johnston. W.B., 262. 266 Lightfoot, S.L., 211. 218 Jones, E.V.. 23.25.26.27.28. 32. 33.188,196 Lind. A.. 33 Jones, HA.. 62,63,67,69.88f. 90, 92,93 Lindemann, E.. 254 Jones. M., 15$.162 Lindsey. J.D., 259, 260 Jongsma, E.A.. 265. 266 List, L.K.. 248, 255 Jordan. D.R.. 96. 100 Literacy: The Key to Success.ALiteracy Handbook.

Joyce. B.R.. 11 0 . II I 54.55 Jungeblut. A.. 277. 278. 281 Long. S.W.. 79. 80. 85. 86 Junno. P.. 19, 22. 264, 266. 263 Lucas. G.S.. 41. 42. 43. 45 Luke. A.. 133. 136 neh, R.. 273. 277 Kaestle. C.F.. 101. 106, 243. 247 Lytle. S.L.. 55. 264. 266 Kavale. K.A.. 259. 260 Ka . A.. 262. 266 Kaiemek. FE.. 26. 27.32.33.38.39.119.121. 124. Mace. J.. 144. 149 125. 236. 247. 259.260 N1acedo. D.. 236. 246 Keefe. D.. 28, 33, 88f,92,93.95.96.100.208. 21 I. Maelity. C.M.. 164, 169. 170 258. 260 Mahon. D.. 133. 136 Keystone .Sc poolirton Screening,96. 10(1 Malicky. (i.. 23. 25. 27. 28. 29. 32. 33 Kilbe. K.. 65, 69 Manua. M.. 21 Kimball. R.. 126. 131 Manning. D.T.. 88f. 93 Kirk. E.N1.. 138. 143 Martin. LG.. 162. 207, 210 Kirsch. I.S.. 14, 16. 277. 278. 281 Mayeaux. El. 80. 85, 86 Kit,.W.R.. 44 McCarty. T.. 273. 277 Knovdes. NI.. 107. III. 151. 155 McCollum. P.. 201, 202 Knox. A.B.. 17. 22. 40, 44, 151, 155 McDonald, E.T., 227. 235 Knudson-Fields. B.. 86. 93 McKinley. J.. 110 Koch. K., 128-129, 131 McLeod. A.. 133. 136 Kohl. H.. 63, 69. 144, 149 Meloth, M.. 94, 95 Kozol. J.. 17. 19. 22. 41. 44. 45. 52. 127. 131. 133. Meltzer. A.S.. 262. 266 136. 182.183,185.248.255 Meredith. R.. 256. 259, 260 Krashen. S.,132.133.135.136 Merry. R.. 144. 149 Meyer. M.M.. 29. 33 Meyer. V.. 28. 33. 88f, 92. 93. 95. 96. 100. 208. 211. Lafayette Parish School Board. 88f. 93 220. 226. 258. 260 Lahey. NI.. 228. 235 Nlezirow, J.. 17. 22. 151. 155 Lambert. H.N1.. 210. 211 Mickelson. V.S.. 187. 196 Lane. S.. 264, 266 Nlikuleck). 1... 90, 92. 93. 170, 261. 264. 266. 277. Langer, .I.A.. 3, 4. 95, 164. 105 281 1.aosa. 1 2121. 218 Miller, G.F,.. 162 Laubach. F.C.. 138. 143 Miller. P.A., 277. 281 Laubach. R.S.. 138. 143 Miller. S., 79. 85 Lawrence 1., 144. 149 Mocker. D.W.. 185 M.K.. 265. 266 Moore. D.. 14. 16 Lazarus. R.S., 249. 255 Nloursand. D.. 188. 196 Lee..A.. 226 Moustafa. M.. 158. 162 LeNlon. R.. 164. 170 Mowat, 62 Leng> el. J.. 212f, 218 Moyer, H.. 41.44

2 a 0..28G.. Muller. J., 40. 43. 45 Pollard. D.S.. 102, 106 Mullis. 104. 105 Pomerance. A.. 211 Murph. P.W.. 80. 85. 86 Popham. W.I.. 264. 266 Muth, W.R. 56 Porter. W.. 217. '35 Postman. N., 181. 185 w.R.. 13. 16 Naik, C.. 43. 45 Powers. R.D.. 79. 86 National Assessment of Educational Progress \ Pu2h. S. L.. 103. 106 101, 106 Nessel, D.. 158. 161 205. 210 Neu man. A.P.. 54. 56. 238. 247 Queenan. NI.. 70. 77 Ne \+ man, J.M.. 2'9. 235 Quigle. B.A.. 18. 21. 22. 40. 45 Ness ton. LS.. 32, 33 Nicholls. 62 Nickerson. R.S.. 42. 45. 196 Raisner. B.. 28. 33 Nickse. R., 211. 213. 218 Readence. J.E., I4. 16 Nogueira. F.. 14. 16 Readim; Aliwue In 24. 27 Noor. A.. 41. 43. 44. 45 Reder, S.. 209. 211 Norman. C.A.. 23. 25. 27. 28. '9. 3'. 33 Redl. F.. 249. 255 Northcutt. N.W.. 38, 39. 238.14'7 Reinking. D.. 187. 196 Norton. P.. 181. 182. 185 Replan. 144. 149 Reutten. NI.K.. 186. 196 0 Rhodes. L.K.. 244. 247 Oakle.. N.. 55. 56. $81.93 Richards. .1.C.. 231 O'Brien. Ni.. 29. 33 Richek. M.A.. 248. 255 Odd!. L.. 76. 77 Rickard. . 55. 56 ()gilt!. 103. 106 Rigg. P.. 26. 27. 3213. 119. 123. 124. 125. 126. Ong. W.. 127. 131 158. 162. 236. 247 ()pion, E.M.. 249. 255 Rist. R., 133. 136 O'Rourke, WI,. 2121. 21$ Rockeastle. 160. 162. 206, 211 OuaneA., 42. 43. 45 Rodgers. W., 249. 254 Rogers. C.. 206. 210. 211 P Rogers. C.R , 207. 211 Packer. A.H.. 262. 266 Rogers. J.J.. 186. 196 Padak. G.NI.. 57, 58, 59, 60. 105. 106. 208, 210. 211 Root. J.H.. 79. 80. 86 Padak. N.D.. 57. 58. 59, 60. 105. 106. 208. 210. 211 Rose. 51.. 127. 131 Papagiannis. G.J.. 164. 170 Rosenshine. B.. 214. 218 Paratore. J.. 213 Rosenthal. N.. 45. 46. 52 Paris. SO.. 29. 33 Roso%. 1... 132, 133. 137 Park. R.J.. 1(14. 106. 186. 196. 248. 255 Ross. B.D.. 104, 106 Parry. LA.. 16(1. 162. 206. 211 Ross. R.R., 104. 106 Pam . K.. 66. 69 Roy, 103. 106 Pasch. 51.. 55. 56. 881. 93 Royce. S.. 87. 88. 881. 90, 91. 03 Patterson. 1... 70. 77 RoN er. J.M.. 270. 277 Pearson. RD.. 53 Ryan. J.. 33 Pelavin Associates. Inc.. 265. 266 PennSERVE. 208. 211 Penrose. J.. 158. 162 Sales. C.C.. 185 Pepper, F.. 249, 254 Samuelson. J.A.. 87. 881. 9'. 93 Petrosk' . A.R.. 99, 100 Santanello, N.. 79 Pollak. P.. 167. 17(1 Sarmienlo. A.R., 262. 266 291 287 Satter. T.. 218 Taylor. N.. 28. 33, 78 Scales. A.M.. 265, 266 Taylor. R.. 186 Schneiderman, P.. 32, 33. 158. 160, 162. 205. 211 Teale, W.N.. 212f, 219 Schultz. A.R.. 228, 235 Templeton. S.. 86. 89. 93 Scott. J.A., 217 Theobald, P., 41, 45 Scribner. S.. 6. 12 Thistlewaite. L.. 26. 27 Sechler, J.A., 87. 88, 88f. 90. 92, 93 Thompson, P., 143, 149 Sher, J.P., 41.45 Tierney, R.J.. 264, 265, 267 Shively. J.E., 87. 88f. 92. 93 Ti7ard. J.. 212f. 218 Shuman, R.B., 94, 95 Tomlinson, G.M.. 138, 143 Sinatra, R., 188. 196 Tone. B., 263. 266 Sinclair. R.L., 213. 218 Topping, K.J., 881. 90. 93, 220, 222.2_25, 226 Sipay, E.R.. 46. 52. 96, 100. 248. 255 Treadway. D.M., 41.45 Sloane. H.N.. 187, 196 Trelease, J., 139, 143 Slossotn Intelligence Test.96, 100 Turkic. S.. 165. 170 Small. M., 274, 277 Turner. T.C.. 164. 165. 169. 170. 186. 187. 195, 196 Smith. A.W., 102, 106 Smith, C.B., 212f, 218 Smith, E.B., 256. 259, 260 U.S. Bureau of the Census. 79. 86. 101, 102, 106 Smith, F.. 132. 137. 236. 245. 247. 259, 260. 272. U.S. Department of Labor and U.S. Department of 277 Education. 263, 267 Snow. C.. 212f, 218 Soifer. R.. 264, 266 V Solity, J.L., 144, 148, 149 Valentine. T.. 64. 65. 67. 69. 137, 143 Southam News, 29, 33 Van Allen, R., 257, 260 Spache, E.. 206. 21 I Villa, N.. 92.93 Spache. G.D.. 206. 211 Vincent. D.. 223. 226 Stanovich, K.E.. 64, 69 von Bertalannly, L.. 247. 255 Stansell, J.C., 70, 77 Staryos, M.. 213, 219 Stauffer. R.G., 58. 59. 60, 108, 11 I. 158, 162. 205. Wade. P., 28. 33 211 Wangberg, E.G., 186, 187, 196 Stedman. L.C., 101, 106, 243, 247 Weibel, M.C.. 120. 126

Steele. H., 86.93 Weinstein, G.. 108. 11 1 Steinberg, H.. 183. 185 White. R.W.. 255 Sternberg. R.J., 104, 106 Wide Range Achievement Test-Revised (ti Rxt-k), Stevens. R.. 214, 218 162 Stevens. W.. 128, 131 Wiggins. G. 51 54 104. 106 Sticht, T.O.. 63, 64. 65, 66. 68, 69, 21 I. 219, 238. Wigginton, E.. 124, 126. 143. 149 247. 265, 266. 267 Wilkinson, 1.A.G.. 217 Stiles, R L. 55 56 Williams. C., 265. 266 Stillman. P.R.. 70. 77 Williamson, N., 164, 170 Stockdill, S.H.. 164, 170, 186, 196 Willing. D.C., 93 Stokes. SI. 2121, 217 Willing. K.R., 188, 196 Street. B.. 66.69 Wills. G., 79, 85 Sulzby, E.. 219 Wilson, RN.. 207, 211 Winig, L., 211 219 T Winter. J., 222, 226 Tattle. J.. 127, 130 Wixson. K.K.. 57, 61) Taylor. D., 44, 45. 2121. 219 Wolf. D.P.. 267 Taylor, L., 123. 126, 158, 162 Wolf, R.I.. 183, 186 292 . 2138 Wolfe. M.. 264. 266 Wolfendale, S.W.. 220. 226 Wolfram. W.. 242. 247 Woodward, V.C.. 132, 136. 236. 246

Yates. B.C.. 188. 196 Yochum, M.N.. 57. 60 Younz, D.L.. 264. 266

Zachariadis, C.P.. 19.22 Zion, A.B.. 79. 86

293 Subject Index \I follmxing a page number indicates that the reference may he found in a figure.

A .sot LT's: as learners. 107; literacy needs of. ABL.S'ec Adult Basic Education 182-183: reading stages, 22-27.241; reading Alm:. See Adult Basic Learning Examination studies. 23-24.27-33; rural. 41-42: as students. AcuiEvi-NENT: with computer.:. 164: through Literacy 38-39 Training and Participation course. 208-209 ADvocAcv: consumer. 131 -I37 TI-.S I S: Peabody Indic idual AI-RICAN ANIERIC.,,NS: literacy instruction for. Achievement Test-Revised (PtAi-to. 80: Wide 101-105.209-210; literac,,, instruction for non- Range Achievement Test (wRAT). 55: Wide speaking adult male with cerebral palsy. 227-235 Range Achievement Tesi-Res ised 80. ANNUAL REPORTS: 277-28' See also Reading tests: Standardized tests AvrnoLows: for new _aders, 118-119 .xcrivrnirs: literacy-related. 216.216f; print-orient- API. PROJECT. Sec AduIt Performance Level Project ed. 182.182f APPAL AcitiANs: lit( racy instruction case stud). Atwur BASIC Ent-cArioN (Am.): 56-57: background. 227-135 61 -62: categories of abilit> definitions. 13: APPI.EBEL, A.N.: 76--; 7 Geneva project. 150-155: programs. 56-57: AI-2 [IR R (case study): 227-235 reading assessment in. 61-69: retention. ASSESSNIENT: 53.62-63; ABE, 61-69; alternative. 55: 215-216; tests. 54.64.65-66.265 authentic. 104-105: competency-based. 66-68: .WLIT BASIC LLARNING I.XAMINFION ABM: 55.64 curriculum-based. 264; guidelines and questions ADC! 111 GINNING 1-(1...ADERS: reading education for, for. 105: holistic. 265: issues in. 54 -56: learner- 56-60 centered, 263-264: management-centered. \Dirt nisAnt.ho tamwizs: literacy instruction for 264-265: program evaluation, 86-93; provider- nonspeaking male with cerebral palsy. 227-235: centered. 265: representative programs. 54-55; profiles and instructional strategies. 95-100 research project. 70-77: standardized, 63-65; AIM. Ii.01-c.-yrios:: assumptions of. 1(17: classes. union-centered. 264: in ssorkplace literacy pro- 238-239. Sec also Literac instruction grams. 262-267 t..01 CATION AC r: 63 it.t.in.RAcY: definition of. 67: effects of. B 14-16: metaphors, 6-10. 10-12. Sec also BASIC Skit is ASSESSAII yrs: job-related. 264-265 Illiteracy BASIC SKILLS PROGRAMS: for writing, 150-155 AOF I,T ITIERAC) : assessment of. see Assessment: RLADI-RS: reading education for, 56-60 definition of. 39: language of, 4 -12: in local con- BLACKS. See African Americans text. 270-277: in multiliterate society. 181-186: BOOKS: high interest -low readabilit>. 117-119: pic- in rural areas. 39-45. See also Literacy ture. 112-115; for storytelling, 116 AM' F I rrt RACY AND BASIC SKIT t s yszrr I St list*); 61. BR INCIORAIIMI: 259.259f. 274-275 68 BRITAIN: See United Kingdom .111:R.,wy AND iLciiNui oGy pimp 166 \milt Ill R ACAI \S'I'RI ( "l IoN. See Literacy instruc- tion Tutoring cm. See Computer-assisted instruction SI MA< AC) RI.S01 RCE AGENCY (UK): ni c xmius-itAsi.0 iTrilt-xcv iRo0k.xxis: 203-21 AIWIT NONRLADI,RS SIi I)}27-33 C ARLGIA ERS: CD.A cot cpetency goals for. 272.272f

\D11.1 PERI ORM NCI II VIA( API 1 PROJI-C1 :1.4. 37. \s \s.Sec Comprehensive AdultStudent 38.182 Assessment S> stem RI \ ILDIAI RI ADLRS: literac> for. 12-16 nos. See Community-based organizations 2 9A. CENTER EoR LEARNING (National College of ('omPvTLR sorTv ARE: 166,167-169,1711-1801. Education. Evanston, ILL 250 189-195: advanced-level. 1941. 194-195, CENTER Eok LITERACY (CEL): 54-55.203 1991-2001: beginning-level, 189 -191. 1961 -1971; CENTER LITERACY EXpERIENCES: 239-240.2401 intermediate-level. 191-194.1931,1971-1991: Ii Si "}. I" 01100K I- me language experience (LEA), 186-187: problem- (;RI/n.s4LILL/1"/.1"kli(iLNP" . vni- solving. 181-182: publishers/distributors (U.S.). CEREBRAL PALSY: literacy instruction for nonspeak- 167.1681-169f; recommended. 166-167.183. ing adult male %A id). 227-235 1831; sources and compatibility of. 196f-200f CERTIFICATE IN CONIMUNICATIoN SKILLS (UK): 68 Cl NSUMER ADS OCACY: 131-137 cliAo (case studs I: 250-254 CoNSL MHZ LITERACY: exercises. 134-135: teaching, ctiAPLAINs' LITERACY DYNAMICS PRouRANI St 101:1: 132-133 46-52.471,481.491 CONVENTIONAL WRITING: moving toward. 240-243. CHARM-TER DEVELOPMENT: recommended picture 2411. 242f. 2431'. 2441.2451 hooks for, 113 CooPERATIVE LEARNING pROCESS: 108-110 CHILD DES ELoPMENT ASSOCIATE (CD.A1 NATIONAL (RI CRITERION-REFERENCED TESTS: 264.265 DENTIALING PROGRAM: 270-277.272.2721 CURRICULUNI-BASED ASSESSMENTS: 264 ctut.DREN: parents' effects on reading achievement. CURRICIT tat INTEGRATION: with computers, 166 212.212f: reading development stages. 23 CtRRICI LUNI NIODELS: 148-149 ci.Assic NoAlit.s: using. 137-143 ci.AssRoom FORMAT: or literacy instruction. 110 ci.tyroN. Lucti.LE: poetry of, 121-122 DACUNI. See Developing A Curriculum oAsaus. DAVID (tutor): 258-260 CLOLE 1 ES rs: 265 DAvros: (01110) LITERACY PROJECT: 126-131 COALITION OF ADULT :TERM N: 4 DESKTOP PUBLISHING: :931'. 193-194 COI ,LEGI- Si.' 'DI:NTS: as tutors. 203-211 1)1,AT:wpm A CURRICULUM (DACUM): 267 cotliNs. NtARHAN: 75-76 DIALECT AND CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT: recommend- COMBINATORY EXPRESSIVE INSTRUCTIoN Al. APPRoACII: ed picture hooks for. 113 157-162 DicrAitoN: by students. 59-60 commt.sacATioN DEvict.s: 234-235 DIRECTED LISTENING-THINKING AC1 INTry (DL-TA I: CoMNIUNITY-BASED ORG ANT/ATIoNS (C130S ): 19-20. 58-59 21 DIRECTED RE \DING ACTIVITY: 107-108 CoMNIUNTIY oRGANIZATIONS. See Communit -based DIRECTED READING-TIIINKING ACTIvITY: 108 organizations DISABLED READERS: literacy instruction for nonspeak- coximusaTY-cmiLs:ii PRoGRAms: 42 ing adult male with cerebral palsy. 227-235; pro- coNiPETENci-Bisr0 AssEssAti,NT: 66-68 files and instructional strategies, 95-100 Esxy-l/ AsED LITERAcy: definition of literac, DiscIntNE: assumptions about. 35-36 14 1)15c15s105: o' poetry. 125 coAtturt:NcY-n Awl) pRoGR \Nis: 42 IM -TA. See Directed Listening-Thinking Actkity comPETENcy GoALS: CDA, 272. 272f DOCUMENT LITERACY: 278 CoMPREHENSBIN ABILITY: exploring. 58-59 DowNTm1 N ADULT RI- %DING CENTER (Cleveland, COMPREHENSRE Atml."r sTrim.yr Assi-ss \il-N IS1 STI NI OH): 138-139 (CASASI: 55.64.67.265 DREXEl. UNIVERSI FY:LiteracyTraining and INSTRI CTION (CAI): benefits of. Participation course. 203-210 187-188; formats that enhance instruction. 188: holistic. 187-188. interactive. 186-200 compu-n-R-oRn-NTro Acrivrms: 182,1821 I DUCA1 IONAL1 IILRAPY: 248-250: case study. comPtTERs: 163. 164-181: advantages of. 164-165. 250-254: use of. 247-255 184-185.186-187: cautions in using. 183-184: ENIPM ERNIENT: 131-137; discovering. 135-136; out- cost-effectiveness of. 164; costs of, 165: disad- side classroom. 135 vantages of. 165-166: holistic instruction with. EVILISII LANGUAGE PR(111CIENCY STUDY: 79 234-235: possibilities , it h, 195 I.NSIRON.MEN 1St. MINI: 256.2571 ESL (ENGLISH AS A SECOND I. ANG1 AGE) PRoGRAxts: INTERGENERATIONAL ADULT LITERACY pnotEcT: nondirective combinator model. 157-162; stu- 211-219 dent journals in, 155-156 INTERGENERATIONAL I ITERACY INSTRUCTION: litera- ES rEs, SHARON (tutor): 256-260 ture re iew. 213; squdy of. 213-214 EVEN START: 211 INTERNATIONAL RURAL LITERACY PROJECTS: 43

F J FAMILY: training for, 219-226 JARGON AND LINGO: recommended picture books (or, FAMILY INTERENTION/FREVENTION \lima: for adult 113 literacy insletion, 211-219 JENNY (case study): 236-247 FAMILY LEARNIN6 CENTER: 214-215 JOB PLACEMENT TESTS: reading difficulty of. 78 FARGO. JEAN: 74-75 JOB TRAINING PARTNERSHIP ACI: 54 FERNALD-KELLER APPROACH: to literacy training, JONES'S READING STAGES: 23 207-208 JOURNAL WRITING: 155-156,239-240.240f. 246f. FICTION: benefits of reading, 137-138: interactive, 259 188,191-192 it SIP START: 149 FREIREAN LIBERATORY PROGRAMS: 19-20 FRIENDS: training for. 219-226 K FRY READABILITY SCALE: 46 "KICK START": 149 FUNCTIONAL COMPETENCY: 37-38 FUNCTIONAL LITERACY: 66-68: definition of. 14,38. 42; definition of literacy. 14 LANGUAGE: poetic mode. 120; reconceptualizing, FUNCTIONAL READING: moving toward. 243 4-12 FUNDING: SLIAG. 20 LANGUAGE EXPERIENCE APPROACH (LEA): 157: com- puter programs that use. 186-187; with ESL adult. GENEVA (NY) PROJECT: 150-155 158-160 GRADE-LEVEL EQUIVALENTS: definition of literacy, LAC'BACH LITERACY ACTION (LLA): 17 13-14 LACRACH LITERACY INTERNATIONAL: 54 GRASS ROOTS All ERNATIvE. DIPLOMA SI 1D1 (GRADS): LAUBACH METHOD: of literacy training. 208 43 LLA. See Language Experience Approach LEARNER-CENTERED ASSESSMENTS: 263-264 H LEARNING: cooperative process. 108-110; problem- HARRIS. vAL (tutor): 257-260 solving in. 104: as shared experience, 107-111; HEAD START: 270: Geneva project. 150-155: Navajo student control of, 164-165 workplace literacy program. 270-277 LESSON PLANS: for workplace literacy programs. HOBART COLLEGE: Geneva project. 150-155 267-269 HOLISTIC ASSESSMENTS: 265 I in: STORIES: writing, 150-155 HOLISTIC INSTRUCHON: computer-assisted. 187-188. LINGO: recommended picture books for. 113 '34-235 LISTENING-THINKING: directed activity. 58-59 HUGHES. LANGST0N: poetry of. 123-124 LITERACY: consumer, 132-135; definition of, 10. 12 -16. 37; distinct types. 278; document. 278; functional. 38.42,66-68; functional purpose of. UTFR \ CI: 5-6: definition of, 37. 248; war on. 8-9. 182-183; personal. 45-52: personal growth in. See also Adult illitcraQ, 89-90; prose. 278: quantitative, 278; and social iNcARcERAt ED AotLis: views of personal literacy. change. 20-21: workplace. 261.263. See also 45-52 Adult literacy INDIVIDVALIZATION: with computers. 164.166 LITERACY AUDITS: 267-269 INTERACTIVE Co:Mg-LER-ASSISTED INSTRIT-1 loN: with LITERACY IMPROvEMENH: annual reports for, 277-281 adUlts. 186-200 LITERACY INSTRUCTION: 25-27; for African INTERACTIVE LicrioN: 188.191-192 Americans. 101-106,227-235: assumptions IN I ER:WI s oRY coLl ION: 188,191-192 about. 34-39: case study, 227 -235. 236 -247;

296 classroom format, 110, combinatory expressie 510115 \ t c'H \185 approach, 157-162, computer assisted, 186-200 mil in Ft SO( If 11adult literacy in. 181-186 decision making, 60. for disabled readers 95-100 227-235 Geneva (NY) ploJects. N 150-155: holistic. 234-235: inappropriate. NATIONAL ADVERTISING COUNCIL: 4 165 -166: intergenerational projects. 211-219; NmioNAI. oi.E.DUCATIoN CENTER FOR LEARN- international rural projects, 43: for nonspeaking ING: 250 adult male with cerebral palsy. 227 -235: prag- NATIONAL-LOUIS UNIVERSITY CENTER FOR LEARNING: matic. 104-105: Ryedale Adult Literacy Paired 250 Reading Project, 222-226; strategies, 103-105: NATIONAL WORKPLACE LITERACY GRANTS PROGRANE training for family and friends, 219-226: work- 264 place. 267-269,270-277. See also Teaching; NAVAJO IlEAD START wORKPLACE LITERACY PROGRAM: Tutoring 270-277 LITERACY MENTORS: 126 NEALE ANALYSIS OF READING ABILITY: 65 LITERACY PRACTITIONERS: 70-77 NEW READERS: anthologies for, 118-119 LITERACY PRESCRIPTION PROJECT: 95 -100, 97f NONDIRECTIVE COMBINATORY MODEL: for adult Esi. LITERACv PROGRAMS: 17-22; campus-based. programs, 157-162 203-211: community-based organizations (citos). NoNLITERACY: 238 19 -20: community-oriented, 42; competency- NONREADERS STUDY: 27-33 based. 42: conditions for, 43-44; effectiveness NONSPEAKING PERSONS: computer technology and categories. 87 -88, 88f; evaluation of, 86-93: holistic instruction for. 234-235 Freirean liberators, 19 -20: goals of. 40-41: NORMAN (case study): 255-260 guidelines and questions for evaluation, 105: NOVELS: using. 137-143 individually oriented. 42; posditeracy, 42: resis- tance to, 18-19; rural. 42 -43: and social change. 0 20-21; structure evaluation. 90-92; values of. i..: "Planning Classroom Research." 76 17-18; volunteer, 17. 42, 54. 70 -77; workplace. OLDER STUDENTS: picture books for, 112-115 262-267.267-269.270-277. See also workplace OPEN ENTRY. OPEN Par: with computers, 165 literacy programs ORAL. IiisToRY: as springboard, 152-153 LITERACY-RELATED ACTIVITIES: checklist of. 216. ()RAI. READING MISCUE PATTERNS: 26f 216f ORGANIZATIONAL ISSUES: 3-4 LITERACY TRAINING: Fernald-Keller approach. 207-208; Laubach method, 208; VAKT technique. P 207-208 PAIRED READING: Ryedale Adult Literacy Paired LITERACY TRAINING AND PARTICIPATION COURSE: Reading Project, 222-226; technique, 220-222. 203-210 221f LITERACY TUTORS. See Tutors PARENTS: effects on children's reading achievement. LITERACY VOLUNTEERS OF AMERICA (I.VAi: 17,54 211 2121 LITERACY VOLUNTEERS OE NEW YORK CITY: 70-77 PARTIALLY LITERATEotTTs: oral reading miscue LI.A. See Laubach Literacy Action patterns, 26f kocm. comENT: workplace literacy in. 270-277 PARTS OF SPEECH: recommended picture books for. kvA. See Literacy Volunteers of America 113 ATtENTS: reading test for. 79-86 M PEARoov INDIVIDUAL. ACHIEVEMENT TESTREVISED MANAGEMENT-CENTERED ASSESSMENTS: 264-265 (1'IATR): 80 MATH SKILLS SOFTWARE: 167 I'ENNSYI vANIA LITERACY CORPS: 203 NLVITIIEW EEEErr: 64 PERSONAL GROWTH: in literacy. 89-90 MEDIA: for writing stimulus. 146 PERSONAL LITERACY: views of, 45-52 MENTORS: 126 PIATR. See Peabody Individual Achievement MODERN POETRY: using, I 19-126 Test-Revised molly Al loN: assumptions about. 35 ricit.RE BOOKS: using, 112-115

..293.. 2 9 7 S.,

-PLANNING CLAsSkooNI RI.SI. \RCII- (01)0.1.1: 76 imiloN.xt t"rit.i./ATIoN RE.Sot RCP, To Au) LITERA- notr.t RY: modern. 119-126: using. 119 -120, CY (RCRAE): 43 124-125.126-131.128-130: writing. 130 REMEDIAL READERS: literacy for. 12-16 Pokii-ot los: 264 REREADING: of poetry, 124-125 Post-Li rut xc 5 PR! GR \MS: 42 RESEARCH: assessment, 70-77 PRI,sctioot. CAREGIVERS: CDA competent:\ goals for. No.\ \ii.\"\.s-io 272.272f RESPECT: for students' \\ riling. 274 PRINT: en% ironmental, 256. 257f Rt RAI.. See Regional Utili/ation of Resources to Aid PRINT I ITERACY: purpose for, 183 Literacy miNT-okihN't -xcTRATIEs: 182.182f RURAL AREAS: adult literacy in. 39-45: literacy needs PRISON iNNt.vms St:mu: 46--52 of adults it). 41-42 mtvAcy: with computers. 164 Rtiot. 1.11 ERAcY PRoGR Ams: 42-43 [Tom I Si-sot SING: IN II. \It N1NG. 104: software for. RyEDAH.. A0111 I.IThR.\CY ',Amu) RI ADING PROJECT 181-182 (UK): 222-226 PRottRAst LtS H))\. 86-93: guideline,, for. 89,

89f. 105: need for, 92-93; questions to guide, S 911.. 105 RG, CARE: poetry of. 120-121 PROGRESS motit.t.: 68 snwpt-trsci: flexibilit) in. 165 PRoJECT CoNIMEN1-1 INK: 43 scilooTiNo vi ARS: definition of literacy. 13 rEtow.cT HEAD START. See Head Start Sit m-tt.o ThARNING EXPERIENCE, 07-Ill PRoJEct LEARN: 55,138 SINIPSDN. 1.1 I \NoR (Slit situ:NT): 127-130 Most- I T1ERACY: 278 SKILL DEVEI OPMEN1: combinator expressive instruc- PRoVIDER-CENTERED ASSESSNII s.Ts: 265 tional approach. 160-161: writing program. PUBLICATR)NS: of student Nriting. I 18 150-155 SKILLS ANSTSSMI NTS: job-related. 264-265 suit; nEtocat AM. Se(' State Local Impact Assistance ()CAN 111.5 I1 \ E HIER \(Y: 278 Grant program st.ossoN oRm. READisa; tiS*1-REVISED (SORT-R): 80 soct-St nutilrs: and literacy instruction. 1(13 RAPID ESTIMATE 01. AM LT TITTRAc N IN MEDICINE soctAt (Aiwa:: literacy and. 20-21 (REALM): 79-86 soil wARE. Sec computer software RE-St). Sec Reading E., aluation Adult Diagnosis sok r-1-2. See Slosson Oral Reading Test-Res ised RE \DING: ith adult beginning readers. 56-60: adult nonreader concepts and strategies. 28-29.30-32: sot-nu:RNLI-04z AcY CAMPAIGN: 40 development stages. 22-27: directed acti) it). SPEECH PARTS: recommended picture hooks for. 113 107-108: moving tom.ard. 243. 257-258: paired. svvrin7sinks: 234-235 220-222.221f. 222-226: with purpose. 52 S1 ANDARD1ZED ASSESSMENT: 63-65 RI 51)150 definition of literacy. 13: of prison STANDARDIzED TESTS: 64-68.265 inmates. 48 -51. 50f STATE Locm. IMPACT ASSISTANCE GRANT (SLIAG) PRO- RI MANG At.)) : of poetry. 124 GRAM: 20 READING ASSESSNIEN1. See Assessment StoRit s: interactive collaboration. 188.191-192: READING IS ADULT DIA(iNOSIS rcs isedl strategics for writing. 274-275 (RI-AD): 64 sToRN"rtmt.iNo: 115-116 to- \DING S: or patients, 79-86: Rapid Estimate s DicrATioN: 59-60 of Adult Literac) in Medicine 00- 51.51E 79-86: sTumN I JOURNALS. See Journal writing Slosson Oral Reading Test-Res ised (soRT-r). 80, STUMM LITERAcY coRPs: 150-155,255,258-259 82f. See also Achievement tests: Standardiied crumms: ch;.ing attitudes of. 133-134: control of tests learning. 164-165: as critics. 133-134: learning RI: xtnNo-ittiNtsivi: directed act') it), 108 about, 72-73: support for. 103-- 104 RI-. 11 NI. See Rapid Estimate of Adult Literacy in sTutn-.N I WRITING: publications of. 118: respecting. Medicine 274

295..294..

S NV [Sin-.See Te!-AilfAdult Basic Education W SR ON 11.1.11TANCY: 8-9 TI '11-.R-RUSEARCIIER Pkonicr. 70-77 "A"uslilkir LITERACY 11-ACHNIINI Grn:: 62 TRvis,rsc;: m local context. 270-277 551101.1-:Ava..AGE FIIEORY: 259-260 thAciuNG: general methodology, 94-95: productive v lW RAsok AcillEvtAti..NT TEST (v.RATI: 55 helm iors, 103-104: research applications, NAH)t. RANG!, msT-RlivisEn ( W

74-76: shared learning experience in, 107- III. 80 See also Literacy instruction 511.1.1ANts. wiLtAANIcARt Os: poetry of. 122-123 THitN01.0(iv: 163: differences in. 181-182: motiva- 11.11Am SNItTIt coLLEGE: Geneva project. 15(1-155

tional. 185 WORD BANKS: 1I f.1 11-112. 1121 TH.ETt.Aciii.R: 42 wow) KNowt.Encai: exploring. 59-60 TEST r 01. Antrr BASIC EDUr ATION (1 A 131-i: 54. 64 66. w( )RDPowhit 67, 68 265 woRD PROCI.SSiNG sorts'. ART PROGRAMS: 189. 1941, Ti acliies einem. 55. 80: Cloze, 265: criterion- 194-195,129 referenced. 264. 265: job placement. 78: reading, ssoRKPi ACt 1St. CLASSROOM: student journals in, 79-86: standardized. 64-68. 265 155-156 St. iss its: 3-4 otoot All- (ti FRAC): 261: assessment continuum. TRAM \<;: computer. 165: literacy instruction. 263: communication strand lesson plan format, 219-226: teacher. 270-277. See also Literacy 268: lessons, 267-269: in local contest. 270-277 training \voRK '(Actt rri.R.Ncv PROGRAMS: assessment TRUS1: establishing. 274 approaches. 262-267: assessment tools. 263: les- rtToRist;: 20 1-20 2: case studies, 227-235. son plans. 267-269: Navajo Head Start. 270-277 236-247, 247--255. 255-260: Literacy Framing NA R.', I. Sic Wide Range Achievement Test and Participation course, 203-210: for nonspeak- W RA r-R.SeeWideRangeAchievement ing adult male with cerebral palsy, 227-235..See Test-Revised a/so Literacy instruction itKM HIM Hill:144 t toRs: college students. 203-211: literac. 215: tics: identification of. 130 Student Literacy Corps 255. 258-259: training WRITING: about specific behaviors. 275: from experi- family and friends as. 219-226 ence. 272-274: journal. 155-156. 239-240. 2401. 2461. 259: of life stories. 150-155: musing toward. 240-243, 2411. 2421. 2431. 2441. 2451. t's;toN-cwri:RF) Nssiiss\ths.Ts: 264 257f. 257-258: of poetry. 130: recommended tNrri,o KimmoNt: measuring success in reading in picture hooks for. 113-115: respecting. 274: soft- adult basic education in. 61-69: Ryedide Adult ware. 167. 194. 1941: strategies for. 274-275 Literacy Paired Reading Project. 22?-226: writ- WRIIING ABILITY: definition of literacy, 13 ing workshops, 143-144 WRITING 1.vi:NTs: how they work. 145-147 \\tartv; xxi RUC nos:: Geneva project. 150-155 tNi ritsfry OF Nt-W ORLI' \NS RI ADING/I ANGUAGI. WRITING SKILLS PROGRAMS: 150-155 ARTS Ti.mittl.\l. ci.:s-rt.R: 227 URBAN APPALACIIIANS: literacy instruction case study. '

..295.. 299 Contributor Index

A Harris. Valorie K.. 255-260 Anziano, 'Michael C.. 270-277 Harrison, Colin. 61-69 Ash, Philip, 78 Heat hington, Betty S.. 12-16 Asko% . Eunice N.. 164-181.262-267 Hill. Sara Louisa, 117-119 Austin-Anglea, Lynne, 111-112 Howie, Sherry Hill. 181-186 Howley. Aimee, 39-45 B Biggs. Shirley A.. 101-106 Bort le. Chad, 126-131 Ilsley. Paul J.. 4-12 Buchek, Pamela C.. 211-219 J C Jackson, Robert H., 79-86 Clark. Cindy Jo. 164-181 Johnston. Christopher L.. 247-255 Collins, Marilyn. 70-77 Joseph. Matthew F., 126-131 Conniff, Brian, 126-131 K D Kazemek. Francis E., 119-126 Daniels, David M.. 255-260 Keefe, Donald. 95 -1(8) Danielson, Kathy Everts. 112-115 D'Annunzio, Anthony, 157-162.203-211 Davidson. Jane L., 56-60 Long, Sandra \V.. 79-86 Davis. Denise M.. 17-22 Davis. Terry C.. 79-86 I Decker. Barbara C.. 79 - -86 Malicky. Grace. 22-27.27-33 De Stefano. Johanna S.. 267-269 Metz. Elizabeth. 54-56 Duffy. Charles A.. 227-235 Meyer. Valerie. 95-100.255-260 Miller. Phyllis A.. 277-281 Mocker, Donald W., 107-111 Estes. Sharon L., 255-260 Murphy, Peggy W.. 79-86 Evans. Maggie, 143-149 N F Nickse. Ruth S.. 211-219 Fargo. Jean E., 70-77 Norman, Charles A.. 22-27.27-33 Ferrell. Susan 'F., 39-45 Finlay. Ann. 61-69 P Fin egan. Roslyn. 186-200 Padak, Gary NI.. 56-60,86-93 Ford. Peggy. 115-116 Padak, Nancy D.. 56-60.86-93 Pates. Andress , 143-149 Purcell-Gates. Victoria. 236-247 Gips. Juan P., 227-235 R

Il Rabideau. Dan. 117-119 T. Stevenson. 45.-52 Richards, Janet C.. 227-235

3 00..296.. Rigg. Pat. I 19- :26 T Rosow, La Vergne. 131-137 Terminello. Vern... 270-277 Topping. Keith, 219-226 S Schierloh. Jane McCabe. 137-143 V Schwartz. Rog.:r G.. 150-155 \'oelkel. Jean A.. 45-52 Scoble. John. 219-226 Scully. Mary J., 247-255 NV Shuman, R. Baird, 34-39 Weeden, Jared C.. 150-155 Sinatra. Richard. 186-2(10 Wigglesworth. Colin. 219-226 Sole, Dorothy. 155-156 Speicher. Ann Marie. 211-219 Stahl, Norman A.. 4-12 Stasz. Bird B., 150-155

3 CI 1

2 97.. ult iteracyis a collection of articles about reading instruction for adult learners com- piled from the award-winning Journal of Read- ing. Presented here are case studies, teacher research, and portraits of adult literacy tutoring organized into useful categories, including theo -1 retical and organizational issues, assessment, general teaching methodology, technology, tutor - ing, and workplace literacy. The authors address both the theory and practice of adult literacy instruction. The more than 45 articles offer sug-: gestions specific to teaching adults at different levels of literacy and tackle issues related to reading instruction programs in a variety of set- tings. The book will serve as a source of discus- sion among administrators, teachers and tutors, university students, and adult learners.

S8N 0-87207-122-7 0 0 0 0 >

9780872071223 MI 1 301)A