Research-Based Wordly Wise 3000® 3rd Edition Books K–12 Kenneth Hodkinson and Sandra Adams (Books 2–12), Cheryl Dressler (Books K–1) By Lee Mountain

For young children, one of the most effective ways to learn new words is to listen to read- alouds. Older children, on the other hand, learn many new words through independent . Whether children are pre-readers or already reading independently, there is a growing consensus among educators regarding the need for direct teaching of academic vocabulary in a systematic program. In fact, recent research has shown not only that it is important, but that it is important much earlier than was previously thought. This is especially true for children who come from disadvantaged backgrounds, many of whom enter school knowing far fewer words than their middle class peers.

The words in the Wordly Wise 3000® series will expand the and minds of today’s students. The Third Edition, which extends from kindergarten through high school, Wordly Wise 3000® is a kindergarten provides teachers with effective research-based lessons for direct instruction in vocabulary. through grade 12 vocabulary series that includes reproducible tests and Today’s educators are becoming increasingly aware of the benefits of a structured vocabulary curriculum. Thomas Gunning, author of Creating Instruction for All an online test generator. The entire Children, calls a planned program of vocabulary development “highly advisable,” and he program introduces over 3,000 suggests that a certain amount of time be set aside each week for vocabulary instruction: words, and exercises become more “A planned approach ensures that vocabulary instruction is given the attention it deserves. challenging for upper grades. Important words and techniques for learning words are taught systematically and in depth” (2003, p. 236). Research studies have established that even though children learn many words incidentally, they also need and profit from the direct teaching of vocabulary (Curtis, 1987; Petty, Herold, & Stoll, 1968). “It is important that teachers provide explicit and direct vocabulary instruction for all students” (Vacca et al., 2003, p. 308).

Andrew Biemiller, of the Institute of Child Study in Toronto, recommends an increased emphasis on vocabulary instruction. With respect to the earliest grades, K and 1, Biemiller maintains that an exclusive emphasis on decoding without concurrent instruction in challenging vocabulary results in difficulties in the middle elementary years. For all students, Biemiller suggests “a teacher-centered and curriculum- structured approach to ensure adequate vocabulary development” (2001, p. 24). Wordly Wise 3000 embodies this approach.

The Gap in Vocabulary Instruction

The well-documented research of Hart and Risley (1995, 2003) points to a significant vocabulary gap among various groups of children by the age of three. This gap reflects how much parents talk to their children, with children of professional families having a working vocabulary of 1,116 words, those from working class families, 749 words, and those from lower socio-economic level families, just 525 words. Although the need to remedy this early gap has been apparent for many years, a series of recent studies finds that the gap is not being adequately filled. “The findings suggest many districts could be performance on state and national assessments. at a disadvantage in meeting the increased The Wordly Wise 3000 series was designed to requirements for vocabulary learning from the include a large percentage of words drawn from Common Core State Standards (CCSS), said a variety of standardized tests in order to help study co-author Susan B. Neuman, a professor in students succeed. educational studies specializing in early-literacy development at the University of Michigan in Ann The standards movement—especially the Arbor. Common Core State Standards—has raised the bar for all students, making vocabulary ‘Vocabulary is the tip of the iceberg: Words instruction essential, beginning as early as reflect concepts and content that students need kindergarten. Expectations are higher, and the “We have to stop thinking of to know,’ Ms. Neuman said. ‘This whole common curriculum is more challenging (Wixson & Dutro, vocabulary as a supplemental core will fall on its face if kids are not getting the 1998; Editorial Projects in Education, 2001). activity. We must put it where kind of instruction it will require’ (2013). The need is greater, therefore, for vocabulary it belongs, at the very core of the instruction for the many students who are curriculum.” In the past, vocabulary was often addressed struggling to pass the high-stakes tests based indirectly through a core reading, arts, on the new standards. Wordly Wise 3000, Third or spelling program. Moreover, researchers in Edition, has been correlated with the Common the last century, such as Thorndike (1921, 1944), Core State Standards. Rinsland (1945), Fry (1957), and Dale & O’Rourke (1981), developed word lists and teachers’ word The research of the late Jeanne Chall and her books, suggesting which words to teach within colleagues showed a pressing need for direct these programs. Even today, word-frequency vocabulary instruction for many children. Those research is a building block of textbook programs researchers pointed out that, even after strong (Steinmetz, 1999; Harris & Jacobson, 1982). instruction, children who are not exposed to broad vocabulary outside school No longer, however, can vocabulary instruction declined in reading comprehension between be treated as merely a subsection of reading, grades 3 and 7 because of their vocabulary language arts, and spelling programs. The limitations—the limits of their language (Chall, National Reading Panel (National Institute of Jacobs, & Baldwin, 1990). But research has also Child Health and Human Development, 2000) shown that those limits can be extended: Stahl identified five pillars as the basis for reading and Fairbanks (1986) established that direct instruction: , phonics, vocabulary instruction can significantly improve , comprehension, and vocabulary. Among comprehension. In fact, vocabulary knowledge these topics, vocabulary is unique. The other is the most important factor in reading topics involve learning a finite number of skills comprehension (LaFlamme, 1997). or suggest a finite amount of practice. Only vocabulary acquisition is ongoing throughout life Better comprehension is one of the primary (Stahl, 2004). “Word knowledge is not known or benefits of the vocabulary curriculum of Wordly unknown as a letter name is; rather, knowledge Wise 3000. But the other benefits extend into about words and one’s ability to use vocabulary all areas of oral and written communication. is acquired incrementally (Dougherty Stahl, 2011). Vocabulary is also an avenue to better (Tompkins, 2003). Students are led to use the Vocabulary knowledge is essential for success on featured words from their Wordly Wise 3000 all of today’s high-stakes tests. Even if teachers lessons in their writing, as well as to comprehend do not emphasize word study for its own sake, them in reading. they are held accountable for their students’

2 eps literacy and intervention According to Kenneth Hodkinson, the author Many of the words chosen are more of Wordly Wise 3000, Books 2 through 12, sophisticated words for known concepts, such “We have to stop thinking of vocabulary as a as release (let go), leap (jump), and delighted supplemental activity. We must put it where (happy). Other words, such as nation, decay, it belongs, at the very core of the curriculum” and reflect, name important new concepts. (2002, p. 4). In addition, because “A person with a larger vocabulary not only knows more words, but Choosing Words and Designing also knows more meanings for many words” Instruction and Activities for (Qian, 1999; Vermeer, 2001, as cited in Stahl & Wordly Wise 3000 Nagy, p. 13), Wordly Wise 3000 Books K and 1 introduce children to the notion of multiple Active participation in... Books K and 1 meanings. Thus, multiple meanings of familiar words such as row, ring, patch, trunk, and store discussions promotes the As noted above, children enter kindergarten with a are systematically taught. learning of vocabulary. wide range of vocabulary knowledge (Hart & Risley, 1995). For children who enter school with smaller Books 2 through 12 vocabularies, Wordly Wise 3000 Books K and 1 ensure exposure to a core of high-utility vocabulary When Kenneth Hodkinson speaks to teachers used frequently across domains. For children with around the country about his Wordly Wise 3000 larger vocabularies, more challenging words are series, he frequently gets inquiries about how he taught through a supplementary Extend and chose the words and what he considers important Challenge activity. In all cases, children learn words in vocabulary exercises. His answers show both his that are both developmentally appropriate and research orientation and his creativity. important for content-area reading comprehension Hodkinson’s starting point was the research by in later grades. Harris and Jacobson (1982) on word frequency in school readers and the grade level of a Cheryl Dressler has chosen the words for Wordly word’s first appearance. For example, consider Wise 3000 Books K and 1 in consultation Hodkinson’s reasoning regarding the words with two major references: The Living Word enormous and gigantic: “Enormous occurred Vocabulary (Dale & O’Rourke, 1981) and The two hundred times and first appeared in most Reading Teacher’s Book of Lists (Fry, Kress, & third or fourth grade readers. Gigantic occurred Fountoukidis, 2000). The Living Word Vocabulary fifty times, and in the majority of readers did not provides information about the grade levels at appear until fifth or sixth grade level. Enormous which a given word is known by most children. is in Book 2 of the series, and gigantic appears Following current research guidelines for several books later” (2002, p. 13). Other vocabulary instruction of kindergarteners and first factors that Hodkinson considered in the choice graders (Biemiller & Boote, 2006), Dressler has of words were usefulness (thereby favoring selected words that are known by most children arduous and eliminating aardvark), number of in fourth grade and that correspond to the meanings (including mammoth, as both noun conceptual level of development of children in and adjective, and rejecting mermaid), and kindergarten and grade 1. The Reading Teacher’s correlations with the SAT and various high-stakes Book of Lists provides words that appear in upper tests (2002, p. 14). elementary science and social studies texts, as well as frequently used descriptive adjectives and Hodkinson maintains that questions of all kinds, adverbs. Most words in Wordly Wise 3000 Books even multiple-choice questions, can be engaging, K and 1 appear on one of these lists and meet challenging, and creatively designed. He gives The Living Word Vocabulary criteria. this example:

eps literacy and intervention 3 Which of the following is ancient? the middle grades (Stahl, 1999). While working with struggling readers in the eighth grade, Beers (a) a joke you’ve heard before (2003) determined that 20 words per lesson were (b) last year’s calendar too many. She suggested a more intense focus on fewer words. (c) an Egyptian mummy

(d) a dinosaur bone Research-based Structure of Lessons in Wordly Wise 3000 “More than one answer may be correct, which of course makes it harder. An Egyptian mummy and Children learn words best by meeting them many a dinosaur bone are obviously ancient, while last times in many different contexts. The structure Multiple exposures help year’s calendar may be out-of-date but is hardly of lessons in Wordly Wise 3000 helps retention, a child learn a word. ancient. But what about a joke or an exciting bit since repeated engagements with a new word of news you’ve heard before? A typical response can lead to deep processing of the meaning (Dole, might be, ‘Oh! That’s ancient!’ using the word Sloan, & Trathen, 1995; Rosenbaum, 2001). colloquially. Is that a correct answer? Opinions could differ” (Hodkinson, 2002, p. 10). Differing Throughout the Wordly Wise 3000 series, opinions make for lively discussions of words. students receive multiple exposures to each Active participation in such discussions promotes word. They meet the word again and again in the learning of vocabulary (Carr & Wixson, 1986). the lesson (and spiral through subsequent lessons and reviews) in a variety of listening, reading, and Organization and Progression writing situations. Estimates of when mastery of Wordly Wise 3000 of a particular word occurs differ, since children learn words in stages (Graves, 1987; Dale & The progression through various levels of the O’Rourke, 1971). So while researchers differ on Wordly Wise 3000 series is developmentally the ideal number of exposures, ranging from two appropriate (Mountain, 2000). Books K and 1 to a dozen (Beck, McKeown, & Omanson 1987; focus on oral presentation of the words, with Stahl & Fairbanks, 1986), they agree that multiple clear, colorful picture support. Pictures show the exposures help a child learn a word. action of each story and are used in the activities that follow. Picture and Concept Cards are also In Wordly Wise 3000 Books K and 1, lessons used to introduce children to the words and to begin with an oral and visual presentation of the present background knowledge. Book K features words, followed by a read-aloud. The read-aloud 12 lessons, and Book 1 features 15 lessons. stories describe the adventures of three children Books 2 and 3, each comprising 15 lessons, as they enter kindergarten and progress through also use pictures to enrich definitions. Books K first grade together. Lessons in Books 2 and 3 use through 3 feature 10 words per lesson; in Books definitions, parts of speech, and a sentence using K and 1, they are introduced over a two-week the word as starting points. Books 4 through 12 period, 5 words per week. The manageable add pronunciations. These lessons quickly branch numbers of words and lessons incrementally lead into activities in which the students encounter young students into awareness and appreciation and use the words, culminating with a passage of vocabulary as an ongoing part of their where all the words appear in context. This elementary curriculum. methodology is supported by the studies of Stahl and Fairbanks (1986) and Stahl (1999), which Books 4 through 12 feature 300 words each. recommend that direct instruction include both Research indicates that 300 words (20 lessons definitional and contextual knowledge. of 15 words each) is a realistically achievable number to be taught through direct instruction in

4 eps literacy and intervention The activities also encourage students to use the by looking at pictures in the Student Book. words in their own writing, as recommended by The word compass appears in the following Beers (2003). sentence: “To make Jordan feel better, Chris showed him how to use the compass All lessons in Books 2 through 12 also offer his dad gave him.” The accompanying entertaining and informative commentary on illustration clearly shows Chris showing Jordan word histories, homophones, derivations, shades his compass. of meaning, roots and affixes, word relationships, and extended meanings, in a section called Fun & • After the teacher asks questions to clarify Fascinating Facts (Fun Fact in Books 2 and 3). understanding, the children respond to a question about the word, circling the compass Active participation in... Additional reviews come in the form of hidden in the Student Book story picture. message puzzles and crossword puzzles. discussions promotes the Thus, study and game playing combine for • When the story is reread, children are asked learning of vocabulary. reinforcement (Mountain, 2002). to touch their nose when they hear the word compass. In-depth Learning of Words in Wordly Wise 3000 • Children cut and paste (Book K) or number (Book 1) story pictures to put them in the “Knowing a word is more like being able to use correct sequence. Then, using the pictures a tool than it is like being able to state a fact” as cues, children retell the story using the (Nagy & Scott, 2000, p. 273). In the Wordly vocabulary words. Children then do a series “Knowing a word is more Wise 3000 series, students truly learn to use the of activities in their Student Books in which like being able to use a featured words “like tools.” they color, match pictures, or choose pictures tool than it is like being from a group to identify words such as compass. Books K and 1 Many vocabulary words also reappear in review able to state a fact.” activities and subsequent stories. How can you teach the meanings of new words to children who are not yet independent readers—or Because studies have shown that hearing a story even readers? In Wordly Wise 3000 Books K and several times results in better vocabulary learning 1, initial instruction takes place primarily through than hearing it only once (Senechal, 1997), each the medium of spoken language, followed by story in Books K and 1 is read aloud on three Student Book activities that invite children to circle, different occasions. Each reading involves the connect, cut and paste, color, draw, and discuss. children in a different manner. During the first This lesson structure ensures that children interact reading, children point to illustrations in their with each word in a variety of ways across multiple Student Books that correspond to the story being contexts that highlight different dimensions of the read; during subsequent , they listen for word’s meaning. To illustrate, let’s follow the word specific words and put a finger on their nose to compass, which first appears in Book 1, Lesson 2, indicate when they hear them. “Camping at the Lake,” through a typical course of instruction. Books 2 through 12

• The teacher introduces the word compass Like Books K and 1, these levels follow a using the Picture Card and provides a similar plan for interacting with a word in brief definition and description. several contexts. Throughout these levels, the first exercise in each lesson focuses on word • The teacher then reads the story “Camping meanings, and the last exercise requires students at the Lake” aloud as children follow along to write answers to questions about a passage in

eps literacy and intervention 5 which the words appear in context. The activities 1B Just the Right Word demonstrate the shades of meaning of each Improve each of the following sentences by word. Students form a network of associations crossing out the bold phrase and replacing it and connections with a word when they identify with a word (or a form of the word) from Word its synonyms and antonyms, determine whether List 1. it fits certain contexts, encounter it in an article, and answer questions that make it clear that the In English, the letter “c” stands for two different comprehension of the material depends upon sounds. word knowledge. Each word in the Wordly Wise 1C Applying Meanings 3000 series is taught thoroughly and memorably. Circle the letter or letters of each correct The curriculum of the Wordly Books 5 through 12 feature more intensive answer. A question may have more than one Wise 3000 series is closely work with synonyms, antonyms, analogies, and correct answer. aligned with the national images. The efficacy of such word work is well Which of the following represent other standards of the National supported by research. Stahl (1999) places the teaching of synonyms and antonyms first on people? Council of Teachers of English, his list of things a teacher might do to provide the International Reading definitional information. Tompkins (2003) sees (a) state senators (c) storekeepers Association, and the Common the study of synonyms and antonyms as an (b) taxi drivers (d) lawyers Core State Standards Initiative. effective route to the thesaurus. The benefits of instruction in analogies carry over into the content areas (Glynn, 1994). 1D Word Study Let’s follow the word represent through a typical Synonyms are words that have the same or series of exercises in Book 4, Lesson 1. First, similar meaning. Big and large are synonyms. students see the dictionary definitions of the Both words have to do with great size. word. Then they meet the word in a variety of exercises and contexts. Circle the two synonyms in each group of four words. From Word List 1 repeat utter represent say

represent v. 1. To stand for or in place of. Note: Books 2 and 3 feature a slightly different re pri zent' Three dots represent the grouping of activities which are age-appropriate; letter “S” in the Morse code. Books 9 through 12 also feature some more challenging activities suited for those levels. 2. To act in place of. Each state in the U.S. elects Passage, Questions, and Fun & two senators to represent it in Fascinating Facts Congress. Students read a nonfiction passage in which 1A Finding Meanings the lesson words are used in context. Then they write answers to questions about words, such Choose two phrases to form a sentence that as represent. For this Third Edition, all passages correctly uses a word from Word List 1. Write have been assigned measures using The Lexile each sentence in the space provided. Framework® for Reading. The Fun & Fascinating Facts section concludes the lesson with interesting (a) stand in for him (c) To represent facts about words and their histories. or her. someone is to (b) invite him or her. (d) To recommend someone is to

6 eps literacy and intervention Review and Reinforcement passages at each cumulative, midterm, and final testing point. Within and beyond each book, students have even more opportunities to encounter each featured Technology word. In the case of the word represent, for example, students are questioned about it in a Students who struggle to read and comprehend passage in the Book 4 Midterm Test 1 (covering can be helped by listening to text as they read Lessons 1–10). This test appears in the Teacher’s it. For these students, audio support promotes Resource Book: both retention and fluency. Recent research has provided evidence to support the effectiveness Nadia Comaneci, a fourteen-year-old gymnast, was of audio support while reading (Balajthy, Throughout the series, students representing Romania at the Olympic Games. 2005). This research indicates that many types of learners can be helped by audio support, learn multiple forms of each word. The Teacher’s Resource Book also offers a feature including older struggling readers (Elkind, 1998; called Lesson Review Exercises, which appears in Wattenberg, 2004) and those suffering from reproducible form. These cloze exercises (one set attentional difficulties (Hecker, Burns, Elkind, per lesson) can be used to solidify and reinforce Elkind, & Katz, 2002). learning or as assessment. They can also be used as an alternative to the open-ended questions In order to provide this support, as well as to following the Passage. Using them might be facilitate independent practice, Wordly Wise suitable for students who are challenged by 3000 now has three additional resources: open-ended writing. Audio CDs for Books 2–12 Assessment These allow students to listen to words, Wordly Wise 3000 Books K and 1 feature definitions, and reading passages being read oral assessments, both formal and informal. aloud as they follow along. This provides a way Reproducible checklists for each lesson make for teachers to differentiate instruction for the keeping track of student progress easy and needs of individual students. The word list for convenient. every lesson is available and includes definitions and a bonus quick-check comprehension Reproducible tests are available for Wordly Wise question to ensure that students understand 3000 Books 2 through 12 in the corresponding word meaning. Teacher’s Resource Book. Tests contain multiple- choice questions for every word in formats • Modeling of correct pronunciation of all words resembling those of standardized tests. In is featured. addition to being effective for high-stakes test • All reading passages are read aloud with preparation, the Wordly Wise 3000 tests also fluency. reinforce the application of word knowledge • All vocabulary words are used in context. in new contexts because context is the most frequently invoked aid to comprehension (Allen, Free Online Web Resources 1999; Alvermann & Phelps, 1998; Nagy, 1988). Go to WordlyWise3000.com to find: An online Test Generator offers teachers another choice, providing the flexibility of testing only • Word lists and definitions with downloadable those words they choose or of grouping words MP3 audio to promote independent study as they see fit. The Test Generator provides three • Interactive vocabulary games times as many items per word as the printed • Graphic organizers reproducible tests. It also includes a choice of

eps literacy and intervention 7 Wordly Wise 3000® Online of the International Reading Association and the National Council of Teachers of English The entire program is now available in an online (1996) and with the newer Common Core format for Levels 2 through 12. All the same State Standards. The alignment of Wordly content as Wordly Wise 3000 Third Edition is Wise 3000 with the former is evident in the available in an interactive format with full audio inclusion of nonfiction passages on a wide scaffolding, making the program accessible to variety of topics in both the lessons and tests. students who struggle with reading and for The standards emphasize the desirability of English Language Learners, as well as providing range, variety, and diversity in students’ reading. motivation for today’s tech-savvy students. Additional standards focus on reading and writing strategies. These standards point out For more information, go to the importance of context and knowledge of epsbooks.com/WW3000online word meaning, as well as the use of vocabulary in effective communication. The Wordly Wise Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies™ 3000 series relates writing, as well as reading, to vocabulary study. The series also addresses Wordly Wise 3000, whether Print or Online, is language conventions and figurative language. a general academic vocabulary program, one that teaches the kinds of words students need With the adoption of the Common Core to achieve in school. But students also need State Standards Initiative (CCSSI, 2010) and of to understand the domain-specific vocabulary national efforts to reform education and prepare of content-area subjects, particularly the students for college and career, the importance challenging terms they meet in science and social of vocabulary instruction receives new validation studies. Wordly Wise Science & Social Studies is at all levels, and Wordly Wise 3000 meets these an online program for Grades 4 through 8 that standards. With young students, for example, the focuses on these content areas. The Common second grade standards require students to “use Core State Standards state that students words and phrases acquired…including adjectives should be able to “Determine the meaning of and adverbs” (p. 27). At the uppermost levels, in general academic and domain-specific words grades 11 and 12, students must demonstrate and phrases in a text relevant to a grade [level] ability to “Determine the meaning of words topic or subject area.” (2010, p. 14) Used in and phrases as they are used in text, including combination with Wordly Wise 3000, Wordly figurative, connotative, and technical meanings” Wise Science & Social Studies provides a rich, (p. 38). In addition, comprehension- and wide-ranging vocabulary curriculum. writing-related standards are directly based on the assumption that students have developed Alignment of Wordly Wise 3000 with substantial word knowledge to support their NCTE/IRA and Common Core State reading and writing. For more information, go Standards (CCSS) to epsbooks.com/commoncore

The standards movement has set higher goals for Conclusion all students, including those from disadvantaged backgrounds, English Language Learners, and The research-into-practice aim of the standards struggling readers (Stotsky, 1997; Biemiller, movement parallels the aim of the Wordly 1999). These students need a vocabulary Wise 3000 series. The lessons in this series give curriculum to help them meet these goals. specificity to the standards and put them into teachable form for teachers facing the perennial The curriculum of the Wordly Wise 3000 series problem of too much to do in too little time. is closely aligned with the national standards “Given the pressures of extensive curricula,

8 eps literacy and intervention limited time, and a wide range of student Lee Mountain is Professor of Curriculum abilities, teachers need vocabulary strategies that and Instruction at the University of Houston can yield the greatest benefit in student learning in Houston, Texas. She is the author of many with the least cost in planning and instructional books, including Early 3 Rs (Erlbaum, 2000), time” (Alvermann & Phelps, 1998, p. 261). The Math Connections (Barrett Kendall Publishers, Wordly Wise 3000 series is a time-saver in that it 2001), the Heritage Readers Series (Jamestown/ provides teachers with an organized vocabulary Wright Group/McGraw Hill, 1997), Strategies for curriculum that has sequence, structure, and Guiding Content Reading (Allyn & Bacon, 1995), research-based strategies for instruction. and Vocabulary From Classical Roots, Books 4, 5, and 6 (Educators Publishing Service, 2006, Kenneth Hodkinson has taught English 2007). Mountain has also written numerous to elementary, junior high, and high school journal articles published in English Journal, The students in the , Canada, and Reading Teacher, and the Journal of Adolescent England. A playwright who studied at the & Adult Literacy. With degrees from George Yale Drama School, Mr. Hodkinson has had Washington University in Washington, D.C. and several plays performed, and is also a poet from Pennsylvania State University, Mountain and an inventor of games, including “The has extensive teaching experience. In 2000, Reading Game.” His puzzles have appeared in she received the National Freedoms Foundation newspapers and books, and he gives workshops Award for contributions to education. Her on vocabulary development to teachers, textbooks have received both the McGuffey students, and administrators. Award (Uncle Sam and the Flag) and the Texty Award (Pocketful of Posies Primer). She Cheryl Dressler is a literacy consultant is a Fellow of the Text and Academic Authors who has taught English in Switzerland and Association, a member of Phi Beta Kappa, and the United States. Dr. Dressler received an recipient of the Distinguished Career Award at EdD from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, where she assisted in a longitudinal, the University of Houston. in-depth study of vocabulary development. She has published articles in Reading Research Quarterly and Learning Disabilities Research & Practice, as well as, with coauthor Michael Kamil, “First- and second-language literacy,” in August, D. and Shanahan, T. (Eds.) Developing Literacy in Second-Language Learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language- Minority Children and Youth. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2006.

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eps literacy and intervention 9 References

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