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Police Discretion and Mentally Ill Persons c is oD By Linda A. Teplin t ho is and P b or e: C c ur o o s t ho P about the author n many urban centers, respond- Linda A. Teplin is Professor of and Director of the Psycho-Legal Studies Program ing to mentally ill people has at Northwestern University Medical School. In addition to her work on the criminalization of Ibecome a large part of the mentally ill persons, she has conducted research on the epidemiologic characteristics of function. adult jail detainees, delinquent youth, and the correlates of violence. Her current work involves Several factors have increased the the first large-scale, longitudinal study on psychiatric disorders, patterns of service use, likelihood of police encounters: and risky behaviors. deinstitutionalization in the 1960’s, cutbacks in Federal funding, and changes in the legal code governing patient rights and ment with mentally ill persons and ment or treatment. In addition, affirming the right of a mentally ill instruct police to initiate a psychi- many psychiatric programs will not person to live in the community atric emergency apprehension accept everyone, particularly those without psychiatric treatment.1 whenever the person is either considered dangerous, those who dangerous to self or others or is also have substance abuse disorders, At the same time, society’s tolerance unable to provide for basic physical or those with numerous previous of mentally ill persons in the com- needs so as to protect him/herself hospitalizations.4 (See “ munity is limited. Given the stereo- from serious harm. Enforcement Options for Handling type of mentally disordered people Mentally Ill Persons,” page 10.) as dangerous,2 citizens often call Although the law legitimizes the upon the police to “do something” police officer’s power to intervene, it in situations involving mentally does not—and cannot—dictate the Officer Decision ill individuals, particularly when officer’s response in any given situa- Making Regarding they exhibit the more frightening tion. As with all Mentally Ill Persons and disturbing signs of mental decisions, the police must exercise disorder.3 discretion in choosing the most The seminal study of police officer appropriate disposition. decision making regarding encoun- ters with mentally ill citizens was Officers who encounter an irrational The Police Role in Egon Bittner’s in 1967.5 Bittner person creating a disturbance have Handling Mentally Ill found that the police reluctantly three choices: transport that person made psychiatric referrals and initi- Persons to a mental hospital, arrest the per- ated hospitalization only when the son, or resolve the matter informal- Police involvement with mentally individual was causing or might ly. In making these judgments and ill persons is grounded in two com- cause serious trouble. Even so, in trying to calm situations on their mon law principles: (1) The power officers resorted to a mental own, the police are called upon to and responsibility of the police to hospital only in the absence of act as “street-corner psychiatrists.” protect the safety and welfare of the other alternatives. public, and (2) parens patriae, which But their options are, in practice, Almost 15 years later, a study by dictates protection for disabled citi- limited. Initiating an emergency the author of this article found zens such as mentally ill persons. hospitalization often is fraught with that little had changed. In 1980, bureaucratic obstacles and the legal Most mental health codes specify researchers began recording first- difficulties of obtaining commit- the parameters of police involve- hand observations about how police officers handled mentally disordered persons in a large north- ern city and how these interactions Officers who encounter an irrational person differed from interactions with people who were not mentally creating a disturbance have three choices: disordered.6 They found that police resolved transport that person to a mental hospital, situations informally in 72 percent of the cases, made an arrest in 16 arrest the person, or resolve percent of the cases, and initiated emergency hospitalization in the matter informally. 12 percent of the cases. (continued on page 12)

National Institute of Journal ■ July 2000 9 Law Enforcement Options for Handling Mentally Ill Persons Law enforcement officers have two around in circles.... The officer him into the mental health center basic ways to respond in situations and the sergeant got the man to because his behavior wasn’t that involving mentally ill people who stop spinning. They attempted to severe for the hospital to accept are causing a disturbance: formally question him, but the man was him. (either hospitalization or arrest) or completely out of it. He gave no Likewise, when an individual was informally. indication that he understood what defined as “too dangerous” by the was going on. He didn’t talk at all Officers’ decisions to hospitalize, hospital, arrest was the only alterna- during the encounter. The officer arrest, or deal with a mentally ill tive available to the officer: called for a wagon to take the man person informally are based less on to the hospital. A young man was banging on the degree of symptomatology than his mother’s door with a meat on the demands and constraints of Arrest. While arrest was not a fre- cleaver.... He was threatening to the situation. Officers’ first choice is quent disposition, the arrest rate for kill someone else and wanted to usually informal disposition. persons exhibiting signs of mental get into his mother’s home for a illness was greater than that of other gun. She wouldn’t let him in and Formal Options citizens involved in similar types of had called the police to get rid of incidents. Arrest often was the only Hospitalization. Police use of hos- him and/or to calm him down. step available to the officer in situa- pitals is limited by the number of When the police got there, officer tions where individuals were not suf- psychiatric beds in the community II decided the man needed to be ficiently disturbed to be accepted by and by the criteria for admission. hospitalized as he was dangerous the hospital, but were too public in Virtually every officer in the study to himself and others. So they their deviance to be ignored. was aware of the stringent require- called for a wagon to take the man ments for admission into the local It was common for an officer to to the mental health facility...but : Individuals had obtain a signed complaint in situa- they also wanted a complaint to be seriously ill—for example, tions where he or she thought an signed by the mother for disorderly be actively delusional or suicidal. individual required hospitalization. in case [the hospital wouldn’t take Police knew that persons who were The aim was to ensure the ready him]. It turned out that the hospital mentally retarded, alcoholic, or availability of an alternative disposi- would indeed not take the man, so categorized by hospital staff as tion—arrest—in the event that the he ended up being locked up for “dangerous” often were not wel- hospital found the individual unac- disorderly. come at the hospital, nor were ceptable for admission. The officers’ Ironically, it was precisely the persons with criminal charges apparent ingenuity was borne out of requirements for emergency psychi- pending, no matter how minor. necessity since hospital admission atric detention set forth in most criteria were so stringent. A typical Furthermore, handling mentally ill mental health codes—“dangerous example: persons was not regarded by officers to self and others”—that rendered as a “good pinch” and was largely The officer said this man had mentally disordered citizens unde- unrewarded by the department, fur- been on the street calling women sirable to hospitals and resulted in ther deterring psychiatric referrals. names, calling them whores, and their arrest. In addition, officers perceived the shouting at black people, calling Persons whose symptoms crossed rapid deinstitutionalization of men- them names and chasing them.... the boundaries of the caretaking tally ill persons as a personal slight A woman had signed a complaint systems met a similar fate. Mental on their and a sign of the for his arrest because he was both- health programs found persons with hospital’s unwillingness to “do ering her. The man sounded like a alcohol problems disruptive to the something.” paranoid schizophrenic.... He was patient environment and often would very vague about himself and who Still, occasionally the police did not accept them for treatment. he was and felt that people were take someone to the hospital, as Conversely, detoxification facilities out to get him.... When he was shown in the following scenario: felt they were not equipped to deal taken to his cell, he began with persons exhibiting signs of We were on the scene in less than shouting to be let out and he kept and would turn away a minute. The citizen in question shouting.... He was charged with persons with such mixed symptoms. was a black male, about 45 years . The officer In general, jail became the place of old, standing on the sidewalk with said there wasn’t enough to take his arms outstretched, spinning last resort. Because mental health

Keeping the Peace: Police Discretion and Mentally Ill Persons 10 and substance abuse systems symptoms is only one of the a “troublemaker,” hospitalization or tended to design their programs determining factors. arrest is very unlikely. Intervention as though clients were “pure in such cases is considered not types,” a number of people were Informal Options worth the trouble. An example was unacceptable for treatment in Informal dispositions require neither a woman rejected by the mental any facility. paperwork nor unwanted “down- hospital, who, “whenever she came into the station, caused an absolute The seriousness of an incident also time”—hours off the street. disruption. She would take off her helped to determine the disposi- Emotionally disturbed people clothes, run around the station tion. This did not always mean the who were likely to be handled by nude, and urinate on the sergeant’s seriousness of the offense. For informal means were categorized as desk. Officers felt it was such a example, situations in which the neighborhood characters, trouble- hassle to have her in the station citizen was disrespectful of the makers, and quiet, unobtrusive and in lockup that they simply officer were nearly always thought “mentals.” stopped arresting her.” to be “serious.” So were situations Neighborhood Characters. Neigh- that were public, offended “decent” borhood characters were persons Quiet, Unobtrusive “Mentals.” people, and had a willing com- whose idiosyncrasies were well Persons whose symptoms of plainant. For example, an elderly known to police in their precinct. mental disorder are relatively woman told police that a man Virtually any officer could talk unobtrusive are likely to be handled sleeping in a car behind her apart- about “Crazy Harry,” “Batman,” informally. They offend neither ment building had acted crazy the or “Mailbox Molly.” These were the populace nor the police with night before and had thrown rocks neighborhood characters who were obvious manifestations of their at the building. It looked as though defined by police as “mentals” illness, and their symptoms are the man had cut off all his hair, but who were never hospitalized not considered serious enough to injuring his head in the process, because they were known quanti- warrant hospitalization. Moreover, and he was disoriented and filthy. ties. Police had certain expectations quiet “mentals” are considered The police told him he would be regarding the parameters of their more disordered than disorderly and booked for damage and behavior. As a consequence, the so are unlikely to provoke arrest. probably disorderly conduct. police tolerated a greater degree of Through officers’ experiences In sum, the police resorted to arrest deviance from them. More impor- with neighborhood characters, in three types of situations: tant, officers’ familiarity with each they know just how to soothe the citizen’s particular symptoms emotionally disturbed person, to • When an individual was thought enabled them to “cool them out,” act as a “street-corner psychiatrist.” to be either unacceptable to the making an informal disposition that In this way, they help to maintain hospital or when his or her much easier. The following is a many mentally ill people within the symptoms made him fall rather common encounter of this community and make deinstitution- through the cracks of various type: alization a more viable public caretaking systems. There’s a lady in the area who policy. • When public encounters claims she has neighbors who Sources: exceeded the community’s are beaming rays up into her tolerance for deviant behavior. • Teplin, L.A., “Psychiatric and apartment. The officer said he Substance Abuse Disorders Among • When the police felt it was usually handles the situation by Male Urban Jail Detainees,” telling her, “We’ll go downstairs American Journal of Public Health, likely that the person would 84 (1994):290–293. continue to cause a problem if and tell the people to stop something were not done. beaming the rays,” and she’s • Teplin, L.A., Keeping the Peace: happy. The officer seemed quite The Parameters of Police Discretion In general, police made a formal happy about this method of han- in Relation to the Mentally disposition—hospitalization or Disordered, Research Report, dling the problem. He could do Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department arrest—when the situation, if something for the lady, and even of Justice, National Institute of unchecked, would escalate and though it’s not the same kind of Justice, April 1986 (NCJ 101046). require further police assistance. assistance he might give another • Teplin, L.A., K.M. Abram, and G.M. The large grey area between behav- type of situation, he could allay McClelland, “Prevalence of ior that is mentally disordered and the lady’s fears by just talking Psychiatric Disorders Among that which is merely disorderly to her. Incarcerated Women I: Pretrial Jail allows officers a great deal of dis- Detainees,” Archives of General Psychiatry 53 (1996):505–512. cretion in choosing the disposition. Troublemakers. If an emotionally The seriousness of psychiatric disturbed citizen has been labeled

National Institute of Justice Journal ■ July 2000 11 (continued from page 9) making mental health referrals, the Explanations for a police might see arrest as a simpler Since the study in the early 1980’s, Higher Arrest Rate and more reliable way of removing the author has conducted two sub- an individual from the community. Several explanations are possible sequent studies to determine the Those rejected as inappropriate by for the higher arrest rate among prevalence rates of mental disorder the mental health system must be persons who exhibited signs of in male and female adult jail accepted by the serious mental illness, including, in detainees.7 In the subsequent system, which does not have the part, that officers lacked knowledge studies, nearly 9 percent of male luxury of turning away clients. of the symptoms of severe mental detainees and more than 18 percent disorder. Many mental disorders are of female detainees met the criteria Consequently, jails and prisons associated with a number of discon- for a lifetime severe mental disorder may have become the long-term certing symptoms. Although some ( or major affective repository for people with mental symptoms, such as verbal abuse, disorder). disorders. (See “Many Arrestees in belligerence, and disrespect, are not Lockups Are Mentally Ill,” page 14.) A number of mental health profes- themselves against the law, such sionals have commented on what However, the criminalization behaviors may provoke an officer some observers believe is the “crimi- hypothesis has been based largely to respond more punitively. nalization of mentally disordered on intuition and casual observation. 8 Also, as a result of the severe reduc- behavior” and have speculated that Research is not definitive. Of the tions in mental health services— persons who previously were treated 1,798 citizens involved in the obser- both inpatient and outpatient— within the mental health system vational study of police-citizen the criminal justice system may have increasingly are being shunted encounters discussed above, 506 9 become the default option for deal- into the criminal justice system. (28 percent) were considered by ing with individuals who cannot or Perhaps in response to this outcry, the police to be suspects in a , will not be treated by the mental a number of professional organi- and of these, 148 were arrested. health system. zations—the American Associa- The probability of being arrested tion and the National Coalition for That the criminal justice system is was 67 percent greater for suspects Jail Reform, for example—sought to the default option is borne out of exhibiting signs of mental disorder develop innovative policy guidelines the common police practice of than for those who apparently were and/or alternatives to handle men- obtaining a signed complaint against not mentally ill. Fourteen of the tally ill persons within the criminal an individual thought to need 30 mentally disordered suspects, or justice system. psychiatric hospitalization so that 47 percent, were arrested, compared officers can arrest him if the hospital It is plausible to imagine that crimi- to 133 of the 476 other suspects, or finds him unacceptable for admis- nalization of mentally ill persons 28 percent. (See table 1.) Clearly, sion. It also is evident in the arrest may be occurring. Given all the mentally ill citizens in the study 10 of persons with mixed symptoms. bureaucratic and legal roadblocks to were being treated as criminals. Police officers often make the rounds of service agencies—from the halfway house to the hospital to Table 1: Relationship Between the Presence of Mental Disorder the detox center—before resorting and Arrest to arrest. Percent of Mental Disorder No Yes Total Implications of Arrest Criminalizing No 343 (72%) 16 (53%) 359 (71%) Mental Illness Yes 133 (28%) 14 (47%) 147 (29%) The that mentally ill persons are being criminalized is Total 476 (94%) 30 (6%) 506 (100%) of concern because the criminal justice system is not designed to Chi-Square = 4.801 with 1 degree of freedom be a major point of entry into the p < .05 mental health system. An arrest Chi-Square (corrected for continuity) = 3.936 with 1 degree of freedom labels a mentally ill person as p < .05 “criminal” and may doom that person to be arrested in cases of

Keeping the Peace: Police Discretion and Mentally Ill Persons 12 future disorderliness. And once their own disorder unless they need for referral and treatment incarcerated, jail hardly is an ideal commit serious . later on in criminal justice system processing—at a pretrial hearing, treatment center for mentally ill ■ Police officers must receive ade- during detention, or after release. persons. The cacophony of the jail quate training in recognizing setting works against even the and handling mentally ill citi- People with mental disorders must recognition of mental disorder. zens so that individuals who are not be criminalized as a result of If the criminal justice system has more disordered than disorderly inadequate funding for the mental indeed become the point of entry are referred to the appropriate health system. A long-term commit- for psychiatric treatment, budget system. The police also must ment to funding mental health cuts in the mental health area have a clear set of procedures to care is required so that the most simply shifted the financial burden handle such persons, including appropriate and effective treatment to jails and prisons. negotiated “no-decline” agree- programs may be provided within ments with hospitals. Such the least restrictive setting possible. agreements would give police a Many deinstitutionalized adults, Policy designated place to take appar- for example, can be productive Recommendations ently mentally ill citizens. These members of the community if they agreements also are vital for The findings that mentally ill people live in structured settings where establishing a successful liaison are being criminalized suggest the they are encouraged to take their between the police department need for several changes in both the medications regularly. Policies must and the mental health system criminal justice and mental health be modified and resources allocated and ending the refusal of hospi- systems: to see that the civil rights of men- tals to treat some people. ■ The public mental health system tally ill persons are protected, while must evolve to meet the chal- Although these recommendations providing the most humane and lenges of deinstitutionalization. require an increase in levels of fund- effective treatment available. Policymakers must recognize the ing, such a plan is likely to be finan- need for significant increases in cially prudent in the long term. NCJ 183455 funding for mental health ser- Certainly, deinstitutionalizing the vices in the community. The mentally ill with only the barest of Notes community-based support did not public mental health system 1. Cf. O’Connor v. Donaldson, 422 decrease the need for treatment.12 and the criminal justice system U.S. 563 (1976); Rennie v. Klein, We may simply have shifted the bur- must collaborate so that police 653 F.2d 836 (3d Cir. 1981); den (and the costs) from the mental officers have several alternatives, Rogers v. Okin, 634 F.2d 650 hospital to the jail. not just arrest or hospitalization, (1st Cir. 1980). when handling mentally ill Despite this trend, policies have 2. Shah, S., “Dangerousness and persons in the community. reduced both funding levels and Civil Commitment of the ■ A more integrated system of Federal involvement in providing Mentally Ill: Some Public Policy caregiving must be designed to funds for mental health treatment. Considerations,” American reduce the number of persons This has had serious consequences Journal of Psychiatry 132 who fall through the cracks into for the deinstitutionalized person. (1975):501–505; Fracchia, J., the criminal justice “net” and to It is likely that supporting mental D. Canale, E. Cambria, E. Ruest, provide effective community health programs at current levels and C. Sheppard, “Public Views services to persons who are will increase the probability that of Ex-Mental Patients: A Note arrested and released. mentally ill persons publicly exhibiting their disorder will be on Perceived Dangerousness and ■ The least restrictive alternative processed through the criminal Unpredictability,” Psychiatric should be used, and whenever justice system. Reports 38 (1976):495–498. possible, mentally ill persons 3. Bittner, E., “Police Discretion in with charges Some , however, are Emergency Apprehension of pending should be treated in a attempting to develop innovative mental health facility. The latter strategies to reduce criminalization Mentally Ill Persons,” Social recommendation is consistent of mentally ill persons and improve Problems 14 (1967):278–292. with that of the American Bar services for offenders in the com- 4. See, for example, Matthews, A., Association guidelines.11 In this munity. Some initiatives are “Observations on Police Policy way, mentally ill individuals designed to prevent arrest. Others and Procedures for Emergency would not become victims of address the mentally ill person’s National Institute of Justice Journal ■ July 2000 13 Many Arrestees in Lockups Are Mentally Ill

According to the Bureau of Justice Mentally Ill Inmates and Probationers Statistics, in mid-1998 an estimated 16 percent, or 283,800, of inmates Percent who State prison Federal prison Jail Probation in the Nation’s prisons and jails reported... were mentally ill. Another 16 per- cent, or 547,000, probationers also Mental or emotional 10% 5% 11% 14% were considered mentally ill. condition The analysis may actually under- Overnight stay in a 11% 5% 10% 8% count the number of incarcerated mental hospital mentally ill people since it relied Percent estimated 16% 7% 16% 16% on inmates acknowledging to an to be mentally ill* interviewer that they either had a * Persons who reported a mental or emotional condition or an overnight stay in a mental or emotional condition or mental hospital. had ever been admitted overnight Source: Ditton, Paula M., “Mental Health and Treatment of Inmates and Probationers,” to a mental hospital. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, Bureau of Justice Statistics, 1999 (NCJ 174463). State prisons hold most inmates, and mentally ill people in State prisons were more than twice as said they had been abused in the percent of these inmates in likely as other inmates to have been past. State and Federal prison and 41 homeless in the 12 months prior percent of the mentally ill in local Although prison and jail are not the to their arrest (20 percent versus jails reported that they had received best places to receive treatment, a 9 percent). They also reported far treatment for a mental condition— large share of emotionally disturbed higher rates of physical and sexual either counseling, medication, or inmates secured psychological treat- abuse; almost one-third of men and other services. more than three-quarters of women ment there. Since admission, 61

Detention of the Mentally Ill,” ing 2,122 citizens. Of the citizens would have been coded as being Journal of , involved in these encounters, 85 mentally disordered. However, Criminology, and Police Science in 79 encounters were defined similar behaviors exhibited on a 61 (1970):283–295; Bowden, P., by the researchers as mentally warm June evening by a group “Men Remanded into Custody disordered. of drunken college students for Medical Reports: The would be recognized as bizarre, The field researchers ascertained but not indicative of mental dis- Outcome of the Treatment the presence of mental disorder order. See Teplin, L.A., Keeping Recommendation,” British with a symptom checklist that the Peace: The Parameters of Journal of Psychiatry 136 listed the major characteristics Police Discretion in Relation to (1978):1045–1048; Kirk, S., of severe mental illness—for the Mentally Disordered, Research and M. Therrein, “Community example, confusion/disorienta- Report, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Mental Health Myths and the tion, withdrawal, unresponsivity, Department of Justice, National Fate of Former Hospitalized paranoia, inappropriate or Institute of Justice, April 1986 Patients,” Psychiatry 38 bizarre speech and/or behavior, (NCJ 101046). (1975):209–217. and self-destructive behaviors. 5. Bittner, “Police Discretion in The field observers defined a 7. Teplin, L.A., Karen M. Abram, Emergency Apprehension of person as being mentally disor- and Gary M. McClelland, Mentally Ill Persons.” dered if he or she possessed at “Prevalence of Psychiatric least one of these traits and met Disorders Among Incarcerated 6. Researchers observed 283 ran- a common-sense standard for Women: I. Pretrial Jail domly selected police officers in mental illness. For example, a Detainees,” Archives of General the large northern city for 2,200 streetperson who was found by Psychiatry 53 (1996): 505–512; hours over a 14-month period the police to be shouting and and Teplin, L.A., “Psychiatric during 1980–81. Excluding traf- running down the street naked and Substance Abuse Disorders fic stops, the data included 1,072 on a cold night in January Among Male Urban Jail police-citizen encounters involv-

Keeping the Peace: Police Discretion and Mentally Ill Persons 14 Detainees,” American Journal of Public Health 84 (1994): For More Information 290–293. ■ For information about officers’ alternatives to arrest, see Deane, M.W., H.J. Steadman, 8. Abramson, M., “The Criminal- R. Borum, B.M. Veysey, and J.P. Morrissey, “Emerging Partnerships Between Mental ization of Mentally Disordered Health and Law Enforcement,” Psychiatric Services 50 (1999):99–101. Behavior: Possible Side Effects of a New Mental ,” ■ For information about innovations in providing services to mentally ill offenders, see Hospital and Community Steadman, H.J., S.M. Morris, and D.L. Dennis, “The Diversion of Mentally Ill Persons Psychiatry 23 (1972):101–105. From Jails to Community-Based Services: A Profile of Programs,” American Journal of Public Health 85 (1995):1630–1635; and Catherine Conly, Coordinating Community 9. Rachlin, S., A. Pam, and Services for Mentally Ill Offenders: Maryland’s Community Criminal Justice Treatment J. Milton, “Civil Liberties Versus Involuntary Hospitalization,” Program, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, National Institute of Justice, American Journal of Psychiatry April 1999 (NCJ 175046). 132 (1975):189–191; Swank, G., ■ For information about innovative police procedures for encounters with mentally ill and D. Winer, “Occurrence of citizens, see Wellborn, J., “Responding to Individuals With Mental Illness,” The FBI Law Psychiatric Disorder in a County Enforcement Bulletin 68 (1999):6–10; and Zealberg, J.J., S.D. Christie, J.A. Puckett, Jail Population,” American D. McAlhany, and M. Durban, “A Mobile Crisis Program: Collaboration Between Journal of Psychiatry 133 Emergency Psychiatric Services and Police,” Hospital and Community Psychiatry 43 (1976):1331–1333; Whitmer, G., (1992):612–615. “From Hospitals to Jails: The Fate of California’s Deinstitu- ■ For more information on deinstitutionalization, police handling of mentally ill citizens, tionalized Mentally Ill,” American and services provided to offenders, both in jails and in the community, see: Journal of Orthopsychiatry 50(1) • Baker, D., “Special Treatment: A One-of-a-Kind May Offer the Best Hope for (1980); Morgan, C., “Developing Steering Nonviolent Mentally Ill Defendants into Care Instead of Jail,” ABA Journal 84 Mental Health Services for Local (1998):20–22. Jails,” Criminal Justice and Behavior 8 (1981):259–273; and • Patch, P.C., and B.A. Arrigo, “Police Officer Attitudes and Use of Discretion in Situations Lamb, H., and R. Grant, “The Involving the Mentally Ill: The Need to Narrow the Focus,” International Journal of Law Mentally Ill in an Urban County and Psychiatry 22(1) (1999):23–35. Jail,” Archives of General Psychiatry 39 (1982):17–22. • Wachholz, S., and R. Mullaly, “Policing the Deinstitutionalized Mentally Ill: Toward an Understanding of Its Function,” Crime, Law and Social Change 19(3) (1993):281–300. 10. Teplin, L.A., “Criminalizing Mental Disorder: The Compar- • Borum, R., M. Williams, M.W. Deans, H.J. Steadman, and J. Morrissey, “Police ative Arrest Rate of the Mentally Perspectives on Responding to Mentally Ill People in Crisis: Perceptions of Program Ill,” American Psychologist 39(7) Effectiveness,” Behavioral Sciences and the Law 16(4) (1998):393–405. (1984):794–803. Copyright 1984 • Lamb, H.R., “Deinstitutionalization at the Beginning of the New Millennium,” Harvard by the American Psychological Review of Psychiatry 6(1) (1998):1–10. Association. Reprinted by per- mission of the publisher and • Lamb, H.R., L.E. Weinberger, and B.H. Gross, “Community Treatment of Severely author. Mentally Ill Offenders Under the of the Criminal Justice System: A Review,” Psychiatric Services 50(7) (1999):907–913. 11. “Criminal Justice Mental Health Standards,” Washington, D.C.: • Steadman, H.J., S.M. Morris, and D.L. Dennis, “The Diversion of Mentally Ill Persons American Bar Association, From Jails to Community-Based Services: A Profile of Programs,” American Journal of Criminal Justice Standards Public Health 85 (1995):1630–1635. Committee, 1986. • Steadman, H.J., M.W. Deane, J.P. Morrissey, M.L. Westcott, S. Salasin, and S. Shapiro, 12. Bachrach, L.L., Deinstitutional- “A SAMHSA Research Initiative Assessing the Effectiveness of Jail Diversion Programs ization: An Analytical Review for Mentally Ill Persons,” Psychiatric Services 50(12) (1999):1620–1623. and Sociological Perspective, Washington, D.C.: U.S. • Steadman, H.J., J.J. Cocozza, and B.M. Veysey, “Comparing Outcomes for Diverted Government Printing Office, and Nondiverted Jail Detainees With Mental Illnesses,” Law and Human Behavior Mental Health Statistics 23(6) (1999):615–627. Series D, No. 4; DHEW No. ADM 79–351.

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