A Constructivist Approach to Developing Interactive Digital Technology for Musical Learning

Adam Matthew Hart A Constructivist Approach to Developing Interactive Digital Technology for Musical Learning A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the University of Salford for the degree Doctor of Philosophy School of Arts & Media University of Salford, UK September 2018 Table of Contents List of Figures vi List of Tables xii Acknowledgments xiii Declaration xiv Abstract xv 1. Introduction 1 1.1 About the Project 2 1.1.1 Overview 2 1.1.2 The Relevance of Constructivism 3 1.1.3 Validation and Dissemination 5 1.1.4 Limitations 6 1.1.5 Structure and Approach 8 1.1.6 Ethics 10 1.2 About the Researcher 10 1.2.1 Qualifications and Experience 10 1.2.2 Theoretical Orientations 11 2. Research Context 1: Constructivism & Creativity 13 2.1 What is Constructivism? 14 2.1.1 Overview 14 2.1.2 Emergence 14 2.1.3 Cognitive and Social Constructivism 16 2.1.4 Constructivism and Digital Technology 19 2.2 Constructivism and Music Education 22 2.2.1 Curriculum and Instruction 22 2.2.2 Musical Creativity in the Classroom 28 2.2.3 Supporting Musical Creativity with Digital Technology 31 i 2.3 Summary 39 3. Research Context 2: Environment & Interaction 42 3.1 Digital Technology in Creative Learning Environments 43 3.1.1 Visible Learning 43 3.1.2 Tangible (‘Hands-on’) Learning 45 3.1.3 Augmented Learning 48 3.2 Digital Technologies in the Music Classroom 49 3.2.1 Overview 49 3.2.2 Listening and Appraising 51 3.2.3 Performance 52 3.2.4 Composition 54 3.3 Learning from Games 56 3.3.1 Sandbox Games 56 3.3.2 Educational Applications 58 3.4 Summary 59 4. Methodology 63 4.1 Choosing a Methodology 64 4.1.1 Considerations 64 4.1.2 Software Development as Educational Research 65 4.1.3 Grounded Theory 67 4.1.4 Mixed Methodology 67 4.2 Research Tools 68 4.2.1 Programming Platform 68 4.2.2 Additional Software 69 4.2.3 Hardware 69 4.3 Research Model 70 4.3.1 Timeline 70 4.3.2 Data Collection and Analysis 74 ii 5. Phase 1: Initial Design 78 5.1 Defining the Activity 79 5.1.1 Overview 79 5.1.2 Experiential Composition 79 5.1.3 Expected Outcomes 81 5.1.4 Domain Knowledge and Data Structures 82 5.2 Initial Development 84 5.2.1 Glossary 84 5.2.2 A Note on the Programming Process 85 5.2.3 Sequencing in GEM 86 5.2.4 ‘Painting’ Sound 87 5.2.5 Scale and Register 89 5.2.6 Dynamic Patching 89 5.2.7 Remote Communication 90 5.2.8 Designing Voices 91 5.2.9 Expanding the User Interface 92 5.2.10 Alternative Models 93 5.3 Summary 93 6. Phase 2: Development 96 6.1 Exhibition at University A, September 2015 97 6.1.1 Context 97 6.1.2 Method 98 6.1.3 Results 98 6.2 Exhibition at University B, November 2015 101 6.2.1 Context 101 6.2.2 Method 102 6.2.3 Results 104 6.3 Focus Group at School A, January 2016 105 6.3.1 Context 105 6.3.2 Method 106 iii 6.3.3 Results 107 6.4 Scaffolding with Simple Structures 111 6.4.1 Tune-blocks 111 6.4.2 Editing Tune-blocks 113 6.4.3 Other Developments 114 6.5 Focus Group at School A, May 2016 115 6.5.1 Method 115 6.5.2 Results 116 6.6 Summary 119 7. Phase 3: Application, Refinement, Expansion 124 7.1 Refinement of the Interface 125 7.2 Storyboard Composition at School B, June 2016 127 7.2.1 Context 127 7.2.2 Method 127 7.2.3 Results 129 7.3 Melodic Composition at School C, July 2016 140 7.3.1 Context 140 7.3.2 Method 140 7.3.3 Results 141 7.4 Performance and Composition with iPads at School B, December 2016 146 7.4.1 Context 1 146 7.4.2 Method 1 148 7.4.3 Results 1 152 7.4.2 Context 2 155 7.4.3 Method 2 155 7.4.4 Results 2 158 7.5 Sound Objects and Keynote Sounds 164 7.6 Storyboard Composition at School D, March 2017 172 7.6.1 Context 172 7.6.2 Method 173 iv 7.6.3 Results 174 7.7 Performance and Composition with iPads at School C, June-July 2017 184 7.7.1 Context 1 184 7.7.2 Method 1 187 7.7.3 Results 1 187 7.7.4 Context 2 190 7.7.5 Method 2 190 7.7.6 Results 2 191 7.8 Theoretical Summary 197 8. Conclusion 199 8.1 Summary of Outcomes 200 8.1.1 Practical Outcomes 200 8.1.2 Theoretical Outcomes 200 8.1.3 Other Outcomes 202 8.2 Research Questions 202 8.2.1 Question 1: Interactive Digital Technologies and ‘Musical Behaviour’ 202 8.2.2 Question 2: Sandbox Environments 205 8.2.3 Question 3: Constructivism and Design 207 8.2.4 Question 4: Creative Expression and the Musically Untrained 208 8.2.5 Recommendations 210 8.3 Critical Evaluation 211 8.3.1 Scope 211 8.3.2 Methodology 212 8.3.3 Design and Development 213 8.3.4 Application 215 8.3.5 Originality 216 Bibliography 217 v List of Figures The following is a list of the figures contained in this document. At the head of each chapter is a figure which serves to represent, in some way, the portion of the narrative which it introduces. All other figures are illustrative of points within the text, and are referenced therein. Unless stated, figures (including screen recordings) are created by the author. Clip- art images are all public domain. Permission has been sought for any images which may be subject to copyright restrictions, and every effort has been made to credit the original sources of images. If you see any material which may be subject to copyright or uncredited, please contact the University of Salford Institutional Repository at www.usir.salford.ac.uk 1. Introduction 1.1 – Word cloud generated from the text of chapter 1 as an indication of the themes of the project 1 2. Research Context 1: Constructivism & Creativity 2.1 – Photograph of a child’s toy building brick, a symbol of constructivism and creativity 13 2.2 – Kolb’s cycle of experiential learning. Adapted from Kolb 1984 18 2.3 – Describing a square in LOGO. Retrieved 14 November 2015 from www.teacherlearnstocode.com/2014/10/13/logo-something-to-get-excited-about/ 19 2.4 – Bloom’s 21. Retrieved 10 October 2016 from www.plpnetwork.com/2012/05/15/flipping-blooms-taxonomy/ 24 2.5 – Exploding Art jam2jam. Retrieved 14 October 2015 from www.explodingart.com/jam2jam/jam2jam/Home/Home.html 32 2.6 – Drumsteps. Retrieved 14 October 2015 from www.bbc.co.uk/music/childrens/games/drumsteps/ 32 2.7 – Yelsi AG eJay 35 3. Research Context 2: Environment & Interaction 3.1 – Touchscreen tablets in a classroom music environment 42 3.2 – Generating a spiral structure in Scratch. Retrieved 20 September 2017 from www.makelearn.org/2015/04/08/kids-and-coding-what-might-seymour-papert-say/ 44 vi 3.3 – Bloom 50 3.4 – Ars Nova Practica Musica 51 3.5 – Rising Software Auralia 51 3.6 – The sequence of progression in Charanga Music World, alongside the sequence of musical development. Adapted from The Sequence of Musical Development: A Study of Children’s Composition by K. Swanwick and J. Tillman, 1986. British Journal of Music Education, 3(3), p.331. 52 3.7 – Assistive tools for composing and performing in Charanga 52 3.8 – Home Concert XTREME for iPad. Retrieved 19 December 2014 from www.itunes.apple.com/us/app/home-concert-xtreme/id443017184?mt=8 53 3.9 – Yousicion. Retrieved 03 September 2017 from www.youtube.com/watch?v=nlAXGJ8LuwM 53 3.10 – Synthesia. Retrieved 03 September 2017 from www.voicesinc.org/yousician-vs- synthesia/ 53 3.11 – Avid Sibelius Ultimate 54 3.12 – Arranging clips in GarageBand 54 3.13 – Arranging drums in GarageBand 55 3.14 – Morton Subotnick’s Pitch Painter. Retrieved 19 December 2014 from www.itunes.apple.com/us/app/mort-subotnicks-pitch-painter/id519738403?mt=8 55 3.15 – Impromptu 55 3.16 – Sim City. Retrieved 18 August 2018 from www.gambitmag.com/2016/10/simcity- buildit-adds-lakes-rivers-forests-oh/ 56 3.17 – Minecraft 57 3.18 – Victorian House by Planet Minecraft forum member Paul_zero. Retrieved 07 August 2018 from www.planetminecraft.com/project/victorian-hospital-4091132/ 57 3.19 - A class of children, potentially across multiple schools, explore a teacher-generated world in MinecraftEdu. Retrieved 19 December 2014 from www.mrsboothsclass.weebly.com/building-bridges-minecraftedu/week-1-minecraftedu 58 4. Methodology 4.1 – Cutting cogs from coloured card 63 4.2 – Gantt chart of phases 1-3 70 4.3 - The research model for data collection, analysis and application. Studies across phases 2 and 3 are indicated, along with the emerging data types 73 vii 5. Phase 1: Initial Design Note that most of these figures are screenshots of Pd patches from the earliest stages development. 5.1 – An early design sketch from my notebook, 22 April 2015 78 5.2 – An example of graphic notation, where symbols represent musical dimensions. I frequently used this particular example as a music teacher 80 5.3 – A suggested initial framework for mapping musical dimensions to graphic notations 81 5.4 – Data structures in Pd 82 5.5 – Solitude by Hans Christoph-Steiner.

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