Community Flood Planning

Community Flood Planning:

An assessment of hazard and response in the Dawson City region, Yukon, Canada

Supervised Research Project In partial fulfillment of the Masters of Urban Planning Degree

Submitted by: Erica Beasley

Supervised by: Professor David Brown

School of Urban Planning McGill University, Montréal October 6th, 2010

Abstract:

The Dawson City region has a long history of flooding that extends beyond its establishment during the Klondike Gold Rush. Dawson has evolved into a modern settlement with infrastructure that is vulnerable to inundation. After a devastating flood in 1979, a dyke was built to protect the townsite which has helped to ameliorate the flood-threat; however, residual risks exist and development that has occurred on the Klondike River floodplain has placed newer subdivisions in peril. In this report, the structural and policy approaches implemented in the region are assessed. Information on hazards associated with climate change are synthesised and GIS is used as a tool for flood-simulation. Research findings point to deficiencies in local hazard information and the inefficiencies in land use that contribute to the encroachment of vulnerable lands. Recommendations are made for risk-minimisation, which hinge on strategic residential growth and the redistribution of essential services.

Key words: Dawson City, Yukon River, Klondike River, flood, hazard, climate change, GIS, simulation

Acknowledgements:

This research effort was made possible thanks to the knowing and patient supervision of Professor David Brown at McGill University, and to the enduring mentoring of Professor Frank Duerden at Ryerson University. Many thanks are extended to Ryan Hennessey (Northern Climate Exchange), Bill Kendrick (Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in First Nation), Ian Robertson (Inukshuk Planning) and Jim Regimbal (Dawson Fire Department) who shared their professional wisdom of the Dawson region with me. Special thanks also go out to Sarah and John Lenart (Rock Creek residents) who spoke to me of their encounter with flooding and provided the pictures that animate their story. The field work portion of this project would not have been a reality without the generous funding provided by the International Polar Year – for the opportunity to experience Dawson City, I am truly appreciative.

Table of Contents:

Chapter 1: Introduction...... 1

 Dawson study area...... 2  Adaptation planning for climate change...... 2  Research objectives and report structure...... 3

Chapter 2: Literature Review...... 5

 Floodplain management in Canada: from a structural to non-structural approach...... 5  Disaster Financial Assistance Arrangements (DFAA)...... 6  The “eco-system” approach to sustainable floodplain management...... 7  Defining risk, uncertainty and vulnerability...... 8  Integrated flood-risk management...... 9  Structural response to flood...... 10 a) Community-wide...... 10 b) Individual buildings...... 11  Non-structural responses to flood...... 12  GIS as a tool for flood-risk assessment...... 13  Community-level flood studies: perceptions of risk...... 14  Summary...... 16

Chapter 3: Methodology...... 17

 Phase 1: Background synthesis...... 17  Phase 2: Production of cartographic tools for analysis...... 17  Phase 3: Field work...... 18  Phase 4: Analysis and recommendation formulation...... 18

Chapter 4: Overview of Flooding in the Yukon River Basin...... 19

 Biophysical setting of the Dawson study area...... 20  Flooding in Yukon communities...... 21  Flooding in the Dawson study area...... 22  Climate change and hydrological response...... 23  Predicting future hydrological regimes through paleoflood study...... 27  Monitoring and emergency response in flood-affected communities...... 28

Chapter 5: Overview of the Dawson Study Area...... 29

 Historical context...... 29  Modern Dawson: life after the gold rush...... 30  Regional land use and morphology...... 31 a) Dawson townsite...... 31 b) Klondike Valley subdivisions...... 33 c) Other subdivisions...... 34  Experiences with flooding and structural response...... 34 a) Dawson townsite...... 35 b) Klondike Valley...... 37  Non-structural responses to flooding...... 39 a) Policy-based flood management...... 39 b) Disaster assistance...... 40 c) Formal emergency response...... 40

Chapter 6: Dawson City Flood Simulation...... 42

 Residual risk...... 42  Flood scenarios and GIS simulation...... 42  Impacts to critical facilities...... 43  Data limitations...... 45

Chapter 7: Discussion and Recommendation...... 50

 Informational deficiencies...... 50  Improving communication of flood hazard information...... 51  OCP re-visioning for long-term sustainability...... 52  Growth strategies for residential development...... 53  Zoning for the reduced vulnerability of critical infrastructure...... 54  Enhancing household capacity to deal with flooding...... 55  Summary of recommendations...... 55

References...... 56

Figures:

Figure 1: Integrated flood-risk management process Figure 2: Common engineering approaches for the protection and resiliency of structures Figure 3: Summary of work-plan, data sources and outputs Figure 4: Yukon River Figure 5: Frequent ice-jam locations on the Yukon River near Dawson Figure 6: Variance in flood limit identification in the Dawson study area Figure 7: Annual mean temperature and annual precipitation projections, 2041-2070 Figure 8: Spring break-up dates of the Yukon River at Dawson City, 1896 – 2010 Figure 9: December population estimates of the Dawson region Figure 10: Flooding on South Street just south of Queen Street, May 1979 Figure 11: Ice-pans on Front Street, May 3rd, 1979 Figure 12: Ice-pans on the Lenart farm Figure 13: Bridge on the Lenart farm displaced by flood water and ice Figure 14: John dislodging ice-pans in a blocked channel of the Klondike River Figure 15: Flood simulation results – sequence of decommission for critical facilities Figure 16: Critical facilities of the Dawson townsite Figure 17: Dawson townsite flood simulation, 1m water level Figure 18: Dawson townsite flood simulation, 2m water level Figure 19: Dawson townsite flood simulation, 3m water level and extent of the 1979 flood

Boxes:

Box 1: Spring 1979 – Extreme flood event, Dawson City Box 2: Spring 2009 – Flooding in the Klondike Valley

Appendices:

Appendix 1: Dawson study area Appendix 2: Dawson study area, facing east Appendix 3: Break-up dates of the Yukon River at Dawson City Appendix 4: Zoning of the Dawson study area Appendix 5: Morphology of Dawson townsite Appendix 6: Zoning within the Dawson townsite Appendix 7: Newspaper review of flood events in the Dawson study area Appendix 8: Historic photos of flooding in the Dawson townsite Appendix 9: Dawson City dyke Appendix 10: Flood-proofing measures in the Klondike River Valley Appendix 11: Flood simulation of the Dawson townsite

Chapter 1:

Introduction

Floods are a significant and widespread threat in urban areas, on a global scale. While flooding is a natural and ecologically important occurrence, the decision to occupy flood-prone areas can result in elevated risks to well-being, property and infrastructure. Settlements have historically evolved in proximity to water to facilitate transportation, sanitation and support for agricultural systems. Whereas the light urban-footprint maintained by early populations allowed for a certain level of resiliency, contemporary affixation of settlements with infrastructure has caused the potential for damage to grow incrementally over time. In the wake of disaster, the traditional response in Canada has been to implement structural protection measures – including dykes, levees, and flood ways – and to restore communities to pre-flood conditions. In many cases, these responses have developed and been institutionalized irrespective of their deficiencies in cost-effectiveness, social equity, and long-term sustainability (De Loe, 2000; Shrubsole, 2000).

In Yukon Territory, early settlers viewed floodplains to be hospitable locations for townsites given their offering of a level building surface and shelter from harsh climate provided by valley walls (Duerden, 1979). Without long-term record of hydrology and assumptions made of a steady-state environment, proximity to water became problematic for the communities of Mayo, Carmacks, Upper Liard, Old Crow and the Town of Dawson City which remain exposed to repeat inundation. Dawson is the territory’s most flood-affected settlement, having experienced some degree of flooding at least twelve times since its establishment in 1897. In this report, the Dawson region is explored as a case study example of land use planning and management within an ‘at-risk’ riverine environment.

Dawson study area

Dawson City is located central in the Yukon, within the traditional territory of the Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in First Nation (THFN). The town has national significance for the role it played as a hub during the days of the Klondike Gold Rush and has been subject to cycles of population flux and decline tied to global market prices for gold. Today, some 1,8001 people call Dawson home on a year-round basis (Yukon Health Care, 2009) making it the Yukon’s second largest settlement. Situated on a floodplain at the confluence of the Klondike and Yukon Rivers, the townsite is afforded the protection of a dyke that was built in 1959 and subsequently raised on two occasions. After a devastating flood in 1979 that damaged 80% of the town’s buildings (Public Safety Canada, 2010a), the dyke received its final upgrade which has since proven effective in times of high water.

The study area (Appendix 1 and 2) also includes neighbouring subdivision developments and communities. Within the municipal boundary of the Town of Dawson City, this includes the Dome, Callison Industrial Area, Dredge Pond and Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in subdivisions. The latter is managed by the THFN, though cost-sharing agreements with the municipality facilitate the extension of essential services to the site. Beyond the municipal limit, the study area includes the unincorporated communities of Rock Creek and West Dawson which fall under the management of the Yukon Government (YG). These areas are grouped herein for analysis, as they represent the functional boundary of the collective Dawson community.

Adaptation planning for climate change

Global environmental change is acknowledged as a factor that is likely to augment risks associated with natural disasters (Yukon Government, 2009a; National Roundtable on Environment and Economy, 2009). To help prepare for future climate conditions, vulnerability and adaptation research has been initiated in the Dawson region through the Community Adaptation and Vulnerability in Arctic Regions (CAVIAR) network, in partnership with the Yukon College Northern Climate Exchange (NCE). Funding is provided through the

1 Population based on Yukon Health Care Registration file.

International Polar Year (IPY). In 2009, CAVIAR and NCE released the Dawson Adaptation Plan (DAP) which is a resource document intended to support planning and decision-making processes in the Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in Traditional Territory.

Key findings of the DAP identify impacts to which Dawson is most vulnerable. These include permafrost degradation, forest fire and flooding. Recommendation is made for further investigation of the flood-threat, in particular, given the magnitude of damage that would result from the breach or over-topping of the town’s dyke (NCE, 2009). The topic was made additionally pertinent in light of flood events that occurred 237km downstream of the study area during the spring break-up of 2009. Water and ice pushed through the community of Eagle, Alaska (population 150) when an ice-jam gave way. Thirty homes, a medical clinic and church were swept from their foundations (Enns, 2009); two years later recovery efforts are still ongoing.

Research objectives and report structure

Since the Eagle flood, concerns have been heightened in Dawson about the dyke’s capacity to withstand an event of similar magnitude. The present research project is essentially an exploration of the impacts such an occurrence would bring to the community, and an attempt is made to:

 Review what is known about the current and future flood hazard in the Dawson study area at various geographic scales;  Simulate the manner in which flooding may occur within the Dawson townsite;  Assess the adequacy of structural, zoning and land use responses to flood-risk, and;  Recommend strategic growth options for the community, with special consideration given to risk-minimisation.

The report begins with a literature review that explores academic and informal sources of information pertinent to flood-study. This is followed by a detailed methodology that outlines the approach taken for the case study analysis of the Dawson study area. The subsequent chapters provide an overview of the Yukon River catchment, and local conditions in and around Dawson

3 are described. Past experiences with flooding are highlighted and the region’s strategies for dealing with the flood-threat are assessed. The report closes with discussion and recommendations.

The analytical tools featured in this report are produced in support of the ongoing climate change research and adaptation activities of the CAVIAR Dawson Project. Funding is provided through IPY.

Chapter 2:

Literature Review

This chapter presents a literature review that defines key concepts relevant to the study of flooding in riverine communities. An overview is provided of the trends that have shaped flood management in Canada during the last half century. The tools available to planners are described and community-level studies are discussed for the understanding they provide of risk-perception and local response. The articles, texts and websites reviewed in this chapter have guided the research question and methodology development phases of this project.

Floodplain management in Canada: from a structural to non-structural approach

Responses to flooding have evolved in Canada over recent decades from emphasis on controlling water through structural measures to policies that keep development away from hazardous areas (De Loe, 2000). In the 1950s to the 1970s, and to a lesser extent in the 1980s, engineering works designed to control and regulate hydraulic systems predominated as an ad-hoc approach to flood management. The federal government, in conjunction with the provinces and territories, allocated millions of dollars during this time to build structures such as dykes, dams and levees. While providing a tangible and immediate benefit, the cost-effectiveness of the approach came into question, since flood assistance payments also escalated for the same period (Environment Canada, 2009). Moreover, equity of the situation was questioned since the structural approach sees that the general public pays for the relatively few that choose to live in flood-prone areas (Shrubsole, 2000).

Extensive flood damage incurred in the early 1970s demonstrated that a new approach was needed. This led to the creation of the federal-provincial Flood Damage Reduction Program (FDRP), established in 1975 under the auspices of the Canada Water Act. The program placed emphasis on land use planning approaches for dealing with flood-threat, and consisted of the identification, mapping and designation of risk areas. Policy instruments, such as zoning, were applied to discourage development on vulnerable lands, and government financing for projects was prohibited in designated areas. Additional activities of the FDRP included establishing forecast and warning systems, as well as disseminating hazard information to the public, municipalities and industry (Environment Canada, 2009).

Prince Edward Island and Yukon were the only province and territory not to participate in the program. Hence, extensive mapping of flood hazard has not occurred for either region. In Yukon, this can possibly be attributed to factors such as unsettled land claim processes, decentralized approaches to data collection and fluctuating government capacity to undertake hydrologic studies. Respecting reserve lands and other lands set aside for First Nations across Canada, the departments of Environment and Indian and Northern Affairs signed a Memorandum of Understanding2 (MOU) in 1985 by which flood zone areas are not to be designated unless requested by the Indian Band (Shrubsole, 2000).

Disaster Financial Assistance Arrangements (DFAA)

Structural and land use approaches seek to deal with the threat of a flood, whereas other measures seek to deal with its consequence. The Canadian insurance industry is structured so as to exclude flood damages from coverage. Instead, assistance is made available through public grants and supplemented by private charity (IJC, 1997). Assistance is provided at the federal level when response and recovery costs exceed what municipal and provincial governments can reasonably bare on their own (Kumar, 2001). Monies are administered by Public Safety Canada through Disaster Financial Assistance Arrangements (DFAA) and paid to the province or territory – not directly to individuals, businesses or communities. Payment is awarded for

2 Memorandum of Understanding Respecting Flood Risk Mapping of Indian Reserve Lands and Other Lands Set Aside or Held for Indians

6 restoring public works to pre-disaster conditions and to facilitate the restoration of personal property, farmsteads and small businesses. Since inception of DFAA in 1970, more than $1.8 billion has been paid out in post-disaster assistance, approximately 75 % of which has gone towards flood recovery (Public Safety Canada, 2009). This sum represents only a fraction of the true costs borne by individuals, businesses, industries, and provincial and municipal treasuries.

Financial assistance is a common institutional response for recovery post-disaster and is viewed as a necessary tool. Without it, the financial burden of recovery would devastate victims and communities. Assistance is, however, also believed to exert some negative influence on flood management practices. Providing compensation can foster public expectation that governments will routinely pay for damages, thus discouraging improvement of hazard-management practices (Beatley, 1999). Additionally, by helping communities to rebuild in patterns similar to those pre- disaster, the motivation is reduced to redefine development goals in ways that greater emphasize long-term sustainability (Natural Hazards Centre and the Disaster Research Institute, 1999).

The “eco-system” approach to sustainable floodplain management

Losses from hazards result from short-sighted and narrow conceptions of the human relationship with the natural environment (Mileti, 1999). Sustainable mitigation requires a longer term view that takes into account the effect of practices on current and future generations. Sustainability is achieved only “when a locality can tolerate – and overcome – damage, diminished productivity, and reduced quality of life from an extreme event without significant outside assistance” (Mileti, 1999). Identified as the next evolutionary step in hazard management, the eco-system approach offers a framework that diverges from the idea that people can use technology to control nature. This calls for flooding to be considered in a broader context that better links natural resource management with economic and social resiliency. Non- structural solutions are considered in this approach to be more environmentally sound and are therefore desirable over structural measures that alter and consequently damage natural riparian environments (Askew 1991).

Defining risk, uncertainty and vulnerability

Decisions taken in floodplain management are based on expectations about the occurrence and probable impact of future events. Assessment of risk, uncertainty and community vulnerability are key components of ameliorative strategies. Risk is a measure of the probable frequency that an event of a given magnitude may occur. In many instances, risk can be estimated with a high degree of confidence, for example, when based on historic events. Uncertainty, in contrast, implies a much less clearly defined understanding of possible events and arises when risk cannot be ascertained. Classically, this occurs when there is no long term record of past events and therefore insufficient data for a reliable estimate. Vulnerability relates to the exposure of a population, or segment of a population, to risks and uncertain future events. This can be influenced by factors such as age, education, income, mobility and access to information.

Flood-risk management is based on the notion that “risks cannot be taken away entirely, but only partially, and often at the expense of other societal goals” (Klijn, 2009). The objective is thus not to eliminate risks, but rather to mitigate and reduce them to an acceptable level. In the land use development process, this acceptable level is referred to as the design level flood. The minimum criteria standard in Canada is the 100-year design level, which delineates areas with a one chance in one hundred of being flooded in any given year, irrespective of structural barriers. Development is discouraged in these zones, with certain exceptions of low-vulnerability land uses. In some provinces, standards are more stringent. Saskatchewan, for example, uses the 500- year design level as a benchmark, while in British Columbia the 200-year design level is used (Environment Canada, 2009).

An identified difficulty in establishing acceptable levels of risk is that, usually, this is based on record of past extreme events. For younger settlements, such as those in Canada which have only the past 200 years of experience to draw from, there may be insufficient record to fully capture the nature and potential of hazards. Properly evaluating future flood-risk within a changing climate adds complexity to existing uncertainties. While scientists have come up with a full range of possible scenarios, the global weather system is complex, and extreme and unpredictable events are possible. Slight changes in temperature and precipitation are believed

8 capable of affecting flood frequency and the magnitude of events in any given region (Brekke et al., 2009; Harris, 2002).

Integrated flood-risk management

Management frameworks for reducing risk should be “as dynamic as the problems presented by hazards themselves” (Mileti, 1999). Ideally, the decision-making processes should be integrative, providing continuous reappraisal of risk. This is based on the changing nature of the biophysical environment, and equally should reflect the changing societal values of populations affected by hazard. Basic steps in the integrative process are illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Integrated flood-risk management process. Source: World Meteorological Organization, 2008

In the first step, a comprehensive understanding of the problems at hand is reached through environmental assessment and review of historic events. In the planning stage, different alternative measures are analysed and compared, often using cost-benefit analysis. Once measures are selected and implemented, it is then essential to evaluate their performance and assess residual risks. These are the risks that persist despite implemented measures, which may offer only a limited protection value. Residual risk is addressed through the reinforcement of structures or by the pursuit of new options afforded by technological advances (World Meteorological Organization, 2007). Neglecting to reassess risks and management practices, while at the same time assuming that hazards are static in nature, can have costly ramifications (Marsalek et al., 2000).

Frameworks for reducing risk are most effective when they are inclusive of all affected parties. In Yukon, four main stakeholder groups can be identified and the involvement of each in the decision-making process is essential for developing locally-appropriate solutions. These groups include:

 Local government: hydrologists, engineers, town planners, housing and transportation authorities, environment and development assessment officers, compliance enforcers, building and technical service operators, building certifiers and local area representatives  Hazard managers: members of territorial and local disaster committees  Development industry: developers, real estate agencies and contractors  Floodplain occupants: residents and users of developments within the floodplain.

Structural response to flood

Structural measures to protect against flooding can be implemented at the community level and can also be used to protect individual property from damage. Both levels of response are observed in the study region and are explored next. a) Community-wide

The structural measures used to protect communities from flooding can be divided into two broad categories: flood-control and flood-protection works (Askew, 1991). In a riverine context, flood-control works include structures such as dams and reservoirs, which are designed to capture water and hold it so that it can be released gradually. Flood-protection works include dykes, levees and berms, which are designed to safe-guard settlement areas by blocking water from inundating low-lying areas. Typically, these structures are compact earthen embankments that are formed by using locally available fill. The waterfront street of the host community is often placed on top of the structure.

Structural measures are expensive to build and maintain and provide no sure guarantee against disaster. A concern identified throughout the literature is that, in the presence of structures, a false sense of security is often fostered because residents will tend to assume that

10 hazards have entirely been eliminated. This has the effect of encouraging further occupancy and development within the floodplain. When structural failure does occur, the inevitable flood is made additionally severe in consequence (Askew, 1991; Watt, 1995; Shrubsole, 2000). The potential for damage and injury can also be exacerbated by the presence of a dyke because of the high-flow velocity of waters as they breach or over-top a structure. This can limit opportunities for warning and evacuation (Kumar et al., 2001). b) Individual buildings

Whereas control and protection works are geared at safe-guarding extensive areas, efforts can also be made to protect private property and individual structures. The capacity of buildings and infrastructure to withstand inundation plays a direct role in determining the damages associated with flood and is an essential component of local resiliency. Figure 2 illustrates common engineering practices for reducing flood vulnerability.

Figure 2: Common engineering approaches for the protection and resiliency of structures. Source: World Meteorological Organization, 2008.

Municipal building codes are a traditional approach for embedding resilient design in construction practices and are effective when routinely enforced (IFRC, 2002; World

Meteorological Organization, 2008). Standards typically call for raised foundations above an established design level flood and additional flood-proofing measures can include:

 Sealing openings below flood level;  Surrounding buildings with flood-proof masonry, concrete walls or earthen berms;  Allowing the basement and first floor of a building to flood, while keeping habitable floors above flood level (known as “wet flood-proofing”);  Use of water-resistant and resilient building materials;  Use of one-way valves in sewer systems to prevent back-flush from the sewer lines;  Placing telephone and electrical systems above flood level. (Andrews, 1993)

Non-structural responses to flood

Structural measures are often limited in their protection value. The use of complementary non-structural measures is therefore a prudent way to maximize the effectiveness of structures and reduce damages in vulnerable areas. Non-structural approaches can include a range of regulations, policies and measures that are directed at keeping vulnerable development out of floodplains. In doing so, commensurate demand for disaster assistance can be reduced. The most common planning instrument used for the management of flood is zoning, which dictates the nature of land use and activity that can occur within an area. Zoning can be implemented to restrict new development within designated flood areas and limit their use to low-vulnerability purposes, such as open space, recreational space, low intensity agriculture and non-hazardous material storage. In this regard, a municipality’s OCP and its associated bylaws are powerful instruments for establishing development guidelines that are consistent with flood management directives.

Additional tools that round out the flood management toolkit along the land development process include:

Removal or conversion of existing flood vulnerable development through:  public acquisition;

 urban redevelopment;  non-conforming uses;  conversion of use or occupancy;  reconstruction of public facilities;

Discouraging development in flood-prone areas through:  dissemination of public information;  publication of warning signs;  tax-assessment practices;  restrictive financing policies;

Regulation of floodplain use through:  prohibition of specific land uses;  subdivision ordinances;  building ordinances;  reduction of population densities;  regulation of building material;  setting provisions for escape routes to higher places. (Andjelkovic, 2001)

GIS as a tool for flood-risk assessment

Geographic information systems (GIS) have become a powerful tool in the evaluation of flood-risk. GIS can enable urban managers to consolidate information from a range of sources and disciplines, including the natural sciences, social sciences and engineering (Mileti, 1999). The production of reliable and accurate floodplain maps can then be utilized to inform zoning and building standards, support infrastructure decisions and aid in the development of emergency response strategies. Floodplain mapping with climate change factored in will become increasingly important to land use planning, as development pressures cause the further encroachment of hazard areas (Birch Hill GeoSolutions, 2007).

Topographic data is a critical input for the geographic analysis of flood hazard. Information is required to establish water surface elevation, base-flood elevation and to define a hazard’s extent. Topographic data is expressed as the height in meters of a location above sea level, and can be obtained in the format of a digital elevation model (DEM) (Birch Hill

GeoSolutions, 2007). Structural elevation is also an important inclusion for flood-study, in the sense that vulnerability of buildings and infrastructure to damage is directly related to their location and the height of potential flood waters (National Research Council of the National Academies, 2009).

Community-level flood studies: perceptions of risk

Case studies that examine community response to flooding illustrate the complexities inherent in delivering consistent, equitable and sustainable flood management strategies at the local level. Research within the broader field of hazard-management has, to a great extent, has concentrated on how residents perceive risk and focussed on identifying the demographic characteristics which make communities vulnerable. Variables such as age, experience, length of residency and informational recall have all been found to play important roles in shaping resident decisions to continue occupancy in hazardous areas (White, 1945; Shrubsole and Scherer, 1996; Duerden, 2004).

Canada’s most significant and costly flood events have included the 1996 Saguenay flood in Québec, which cost provincial and federal governments upwards of $1.7 billion in response and recovery. This was followed just one year later by the Red River flood in Manitoba in 1997, which cost approximately $817 million (Natural Resources Canada, 2009). Contemporary hazard research in Canada focuses extensively on the populations affected by these events. Haque (2000), for example, examined Red River communities to assess how risk-perception, mitigation and preparedness are influenced by an individual’s previous experience in dealing with floods. He found that residents who lived through the 1997 event demonstrated a greater concern for risk and were more likely to take precautionary measures to protect their property and homes. Haque expresses the value of the public participation process as a mechanism for decision-makers to solicit resident inputs while, at the same time, disseminating hazard and preparedness information (Haque, 2000).

In the Red River communities of Ste. Agathe (population 500) and Emerson (population 655), Morris-Oswald and Sinclair (2005) similarly assess how local values influence key aspects

14 of the flood management decision-making process. Both communities were fitted with dykes after the disaster struck. Through semi-structured interviews authors identify how in the face of population decline, residents in both communities felt the viability of their towns to rest on the effectiveness of the structural measures implemented, and on outsiders believing likewise and therefore investing in the communities. The benefits achieved through new development within the floodplain were perceived to far-outweigh the risk of potential damages (Morris-Oswald and Sinclair, 2005).

In northern Canada, local-level analysis of flood and response provide understanding of hazard-management challenges in dispersed and isolated areas. Newton (1995) examines the community of Aklavik, NWT (population 594) where flooding has been a persistent problem since establishment as a permanent settlement in the 1940s. Located on a bank of the Peel Chanel in the Mackenzie Delta, severe flooding has occurred roughly once every ten to twelve years. Between 1958 and 1960, an attempt was made by the Federal Government to relocate residents through the construction of a new town (Inuvik), 50km to the east. Compensation for relocation was made available, though many residents opted to stay in their original homes. Of those who made the initial move to Inuvik, many filtered back to the Peel Channel where the community persists today under the local motto of “Never say die!” (Newton, 1995).

Attachment to place and strong social ties were, in this case, identified to be key contributors that led to the failure of the relocation attempt. The population of Aklavik is largely First Nation (92%) (Statistics Canada, 2006a) and the community is a place where land-based activities remain an important part of tradition, cultural identity and subsistence. These factors were observed by Newton to be greater valued by residents over the inconvenience of decadal flooding. The example of Aklavik helps to illustrate that in implementation, the relocation of an entire community can be a complex process that yields uncertain results. While it may provide the most sustainable solution with long-term cost savings, relocation is typically explored when alternative options have been exhausted.

Summary

This chapter has demonstrated the evolution of hazard-management practices in Canada over the last half century and pointed to its future directions. Most significantly, contemporary frameworks for managing hazard are increasingly embracing sustainability principles. There are multiple tools are at the disposal of planners to help in achieving sustainable development goals. Among them, GIS is suggested as an important aid for its potential in the delineation of hazard lands – once these are identified, policy instruments such as zoning can be exercised to manage hazards and guide development towards suitable locations. In particular, zoning can be used to enforce low-intensity land uses within floodplains and require that flood-proof design be integrated in the construction phase of developments. The extent to which these planning tools have been implemented in the Dawson study area are explored in the chapters that follow.

Chapter 3:

Methodology

This project’s case study assessment of the Dawson region was carried out in four overlapping phases. These have consisted of: 1. literature synthesis; 2. production of cartographic tools; 3. site visit, and; 4. analysis and recommendation formulation. The timeline of this research has spanned from January to July of 2010. In this chapter, the methodology and data sources used during each phase are described.

Phase 1: Background synthesis (January 4th – April 14th)

The initial task of the case study was to synthesis background information on the Dawson study area, its broader geographic context and the natural systems that influence flood conditions in the region. The goal of this phase was to identify global and local climate trends, along with their correlating implications for the hydrology of the study area. Information sources included academic journals, government websites and consulting documents. Archived newspapers and historic photographs were also retrieved to gain perspective on past flood events that have shaped responses in the region.

Phase 2: Production of cartographic tools for analysis (April 15th – May 4th)

In the second phase of the project, GIS was used to produce cartographic tools for analysis. This included aerial representation of the study area and a sequenced map simulation that depicts the possible inundation of the Dawson townsite. The purpose was to generate the

“walk-through” of a flood event for assessing impacts to critical facilities. Data inputs included a DEM file at a cell size of 16m, interpolated from the digital 1:50,000 Canadian National Topographic Database (NTDB) Edition 2. The DEM was downloaded from the Yukon Government Department of Environment website. (It should be noted that the file has not yet completed the Department’s quality assessment and control process; certain constraints in its accuracy are described in Chapter 6.) Shapefiles featuring road, highway, airport and water layers were also downloaded, and an orthophoto (QuickBird 2006, Klondike Mosaic) was provided by the Yukon Geomatics Department. The image was likely taken in September when the Yukon and Klondike Rivers are free of ice and water levels are elevated. The cartographic tools in this report were produced using ArcMap (version 9.3).

Phase 3: Field work (May 5th – 17th)

A two week visit to the study region was an imperative component to this research. It provided an opportunity to “ground-truth” information compiled during the synthesis and cartographic phases of the project. Most importantly, it was a time to gain insight through discussions with professionals working in the fields of planning, municipal works, emergency response, housing, hydrology, consulting, and municipal and First Nations government. Casual conversation with local area residents and passive observation also provided a sense of attitudes towards flooding, especially in this period which narrowly followed the Yukon River’s 2010 spring break-up, on May 3rd.

Phase 4: Analysis and recommendation formulation (May 18st – July 31th)

Information gathered during the first three phases of the case study formed the basis for analysis of potential risks, vulnerabilities and opportunities for improved flood management. An important component of this phase was to review Dawson’s OCP, which was issued in 1990 and has been amended several times since. Its review shed light on the policies instruments implemented within municipal limits to address flood hazard. Additionally, it provided insight into the community’s visions for future growth, both in terms of desired population and directions for land development. This information was assessed in the context of what is known

18 about flooding and potential future risks. Recommendations for improved hazard-management were developed based on the key findings of this phase.

Figure 3: Summary of work-plan, data sources and outputs.

Phase: Data source: Output:  Flood‐risk assessment considerations and framework  Academic journals  Climate change data

 Local newspapers  Description of past flood events 1. Background synthesis:  Description of local planning Jan 4th – Feb 28th  Government websites structure, facilities, services and emergency response strategy

 Consulting reports  Description of engineered responses

 Archived photographs from Dawson  Visual reference of flood impacts and Museum extent of past events

2. Production of  Yukon Geomatics Department  Orthophoto representation cartographic tools: th th  Canadian National Topographic April 15 – May 4  Townsite flood simulation Database (Yukon Dept. of Environment)

 Field observation  Description of local conditions 3. Site visit:  Insight on local responses, May 5th – 17th  Professional interviews perceptions of risk and development constraints

 Exposure identification 4. Analysis and recommendations:  All sources  Vulnerability identification May 18th – July 30th  Recommendations

Chapter 4:

Overview of Flooding in the Yukon River Basin

Understanding the environment of the Yukon region and how dynamics of flooding might change as a result of global warming is the first step in evaluating the future vulnerability of the study area. Local hydrology is influenced by conditions throughout the greater Yukon River catchment area, as well as by the global weather system. In this chapter, an overview is provided of biophysical components at varying geographic scales and the determinants of flooding in the Dawson area are described.

Biophysical setting of the Dawson study area

The Dawson study area is situated within the Yukon River Basin. The drainage area spans 854,700km2 and crosses parts of northern British Columbia, Yukon Territory and Alaska. The Yukon River is the basin’s primary channel (illustrated in Figure 4) which flows 3,300km north-westerly from the Coastal Range of British Columbia until it empties into the Bering Sea (Walvoord and Striegl, 2007). Located below the Arctic Circle at 64°04’ North latitude, the study area rests at an elevation of approximately 318m above sea level and is within the northern reaches of the discontinuous permafrost zone. Temperature can vary from - 60°C in winter to 35°C in summer months. Mean annual precipitation for the region ranges from 300 to 400 mm, much of which falls during summer months (NCE, 2009).

Figure 4: Yukon River. Source: Microsoft, 1997.

Flooding in Yukon communities

Communities within the Yukon Basin have experienced a long history of flooding. The territory’s dispersed settlements are affected by a range of flood conditions throughout the basin’s annual hydrologic cycle. In spring time, ice-jams can occur as the ice on rivers breaks up and flows downstream. Large blocks of ice known as ice-pans will occasionally become constricted at river narrowings and can cause water to back-up behind the blockage. A surge is produced which can inundate low-lying floodplains. Next begins the season for river-swells, which are caused by snow-melt in early June and produce open-water (meaning ice-free) flood events. Washouts caused by heavy rain storms can also be problematic throughout summer months and cause disruption to the territory’s transportation, power and communications networks. Additionally, glacier and snowfield flooding events can occur in late summer when long-lasting snow-pack in the mountains melts quickly in response to the on-set of high temperatures (Eamer, 2003).

21 Flooding in the Dawson study area

The Dawson region is susceptible to flood as a result of river-swells and ice-jams on the Yukon and Klondike Rivers. Ice-jam floods have been the more consequential of the two, having produced the most extreme floods in the town’s history. During an ice-jam event, floodplains can inundate quickly and more forcefully than during open-water events. Two distinct points of constriction exists on the Yukon River near Dawson, which are illustrated in Figure 5. Gauged data for the period Ice‐jam from 1898 to 2006 indicate that the probability of ice-jam locations occurrence is 4 to 5% in any given year. Detailed sediment logs of the past 2000 years indicate a slightly lower probability of about 3 to 4% in any given year (in other words, with a recurrence interval ranging from approximately once in twenty- five years to once in thirty-eight years) (Livingstone et al., 2009). Ice-jams are also known to regularly occur on the shallow and braided channels of the Klondike River, where numerous points of constriction exist along its course.

Because ice-jam flooding and, to a lesser extent, open- water flooding have historically been a significant concern in the area, considerable assessment of flood levels has been carried out in relation to the design of infrastructure. The literature is extensive, yet disparate, in its diagnostic of the extent to which flooding occurs for different design level events. This is possibly the result of varying statistical methods used for analysis and N data availability. Discussions with hydrology and consulting professionals confirm that inconsistencies have presented 2km challenges in the development of new subdivisions in the lower

Klondike Valley, and that confusion remains concerning the Figure 5: Frequent ice-jam locations on the Yukon River near Dawson

22 actual protection value of the town’s dyke.

In an analysis of ice-jam frequency and annual damages, McCreath et al. (1988) report the extent of the 100-year flood to reach the 320.4m elevation mark; the 200-year flood is reported to reach 321.1m. Orecklin (1981) reports the 100-year flood level to reach 318.3m. A more extreme variance is noted in the Gartner Lee (2007) site assessment for a proposed sewage lagoon on the Klondike floodplain south-east of the townsite. Flood maps depict the 100-year flood to reach 340m which, with circumspect, would inundate almost the entirety of the town’s built-up area and place its lowest lying portions under 20m of water. Janowicz (2002) presents cross section analysis of for the lower Klondike River floodplain with a focus on the Tr’ochëk heritage site. Results indicate that flooding of a fifty-year return rate resulting from ice-jam would reach the 321.5m level, and that maximum water levels are not expected to go above 323m. The study suggests that the extreme event of 1979 – during which flood waters reached an elevation of 320.6m – has a return period of 160 years. The variances of these reports are summarized in Figure 6.

Figure 6: Variance in flood limit identification in the Dawson study area. Study: Flood return period: Flood extent in elevation: Janowicz (2002) 50 year 321.5 m McCreath et al. (1988) 100 year 320.4 m Orecklin (1981) 100 year 318.3 m Gartner Lee (2007) 100 year 340.0 m Janowicz (2002) 160 year 320.6 m McCreath et al. (1988) 200 year 321.1 m Sources: McCreath et al. (1988); Orecklin (1981); Gartner Lee Consulting (2007); Janowicz (2002).

Climate change and hydrological response

Temperature and precipitation have an important influence on the hydrology of the Yukon River Basin and, consequently, on the nature of flood conditions in at-risk locations. In arctic and sub-arctic regions, slight variance within a degree of 0°C can alter the timing and nature of annual hydrological events linked to the freeze and thaw of river-ice. Precipitation is also affected by temperature, which can influence the quantity of water released within a system

23 and thereby the magnitude of potential flood events. For these reasons, climate change is considered to be an essential consideration in the assessment of hazard in the Dawson region.

Average global temperature has risen 0.74°C over the past century (IPCC, 2007). The national average temperature in Canada has risen by nearly twice that, increasing by 1.3°C (Yukon Government, 2009a). The greatest increases have occurred in the Yukon and Northwest Territories, and on a seasonal basis, increases have been greater and most variable during winter and spring months (Lemmen et al, 2008). Temperatures recorded in the Dawson region have also reflected this warming trend. As part of the CAVIAR project, projections of temperature and precipitation were generated for the Dawson area by the Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium and are depicted in Figure 7. Information is derived from the Canadian Regional Climate Model for 2041 to 2070, which incorporates information from global circulation models with local information on elevation, topography and other physical processes. An increased resolution of 45km2 is used with the A2 “business as usual” scenario for global emissions.

Figure 7: Annual mean temperature and annual precipitation projections (2041-2070). Source: Pacific Climate Impacts Consortium, 2008.

Results are represented as the difference from baseline data of temperature and precipitation collected from 1961 to 1990. Annual temperatures in Dawson ranged from -7.2 to -1.2°C, while annual range in precipitation was between 200 and 500mm. Over the next sixty years, Dawson is anticipated to experience an increase in annual temperature of 2.5°C to 3.5°C. For this same period, annual precipitation is projected to increase by 10 to 40%. Increases are projected to be more pronounced in winter months than they are in summer, marked by a 30 to 50% increase compared to a 10 to 30% increase, respectively (NCE, 2009).

Recent studies have associated changes in the stream-flow behaviour of Yukon rivers to warming temperatures (McClelland et al., 2006; Walvoord and Striegl, 2007). Some reported alterations of river characteristics that are likely to influence flooding in the Dawson region include:

 increased peak-flows of rivers due to melting glaciers in the Atlin/Kluane region;  increased river-flow during winter months, when large streams are fed by groundwater;  earlier spring break-up of ice on all rivers and tributaries;  earlier peak spring run-off of melting snow pack;  decreased river-flow during summer months when streams are fed predominately by surface water run-off;  increased winter flows in all zones;  increased thickness of ice at jam locations resulting from winter break-up and re-freeze.

Groundwater systems, which comprise almost one fourth of the Yukon River’s discharge into the Bering Sea, are particularly sensitive to changes in air temperature. The Yukon River Basin is laden with extensive permafrost that is degrading as a result of warming temperature and affecting below-surface infiltration. A trend analysis of long-term stream-flow records extending beyond the last thirty years indicates an upward trend in groundwater contribution to stream- flow of between 0.7 to 0.9%, annually (Walvoord and Striegl, 2007). While this has not translated into a significant change in the total volume of annual flow, it does affect the magnitude of water released during specific events throughout the river basin’s annual hydrological cycle (McClelland et al., 2006; Walvoord and Striegl, 2007).

Also of significance is the hydrological response to temperature change which has led to earlier break-up of river-ice in the spring of each year. Since 1896, Dawson residents have held a lottery based on the date and time of when the ice will flow out from in front of the townsite each year. This long standing tradition has meant that an extensive log of break-up dates has been maintained (see Appendix 3). A discernable trend can be observed in the data which leans towards earlier break-up dates in late April and early May (Figure 8).

Spring break-up dates of the Yukon River at Dawson City 1896 - 2010

01-Jun

27-May

22-May

17-May

12-May Day 07-May

02-May

27-Apr

22-Apr

1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020

Year

Figure 8: Spring break-up dates of the Yukon River at Dawson City, 1896 – 2010.

While it may seem contradictory, warmer winters are suspected to result in the thickening of river-ice and consequently increase the risk of ice-jams on Yukon rivers. Severe flooding along the Klondike River in the winter and spring of 2002/2003 provides insight as to why this might be true. In December, unusually warm temperatures resulted in the unseasonal break-up of river-ice. Ice-pans floated downstream until jamming in a shallow part of the Klondike River, approximately half a kilometre upstream from its confluence with the Yukon River. Broken ice piled up until the jam was nearly 3km in length. The Klondike River rose

26 briefly by 2m which resulted in the flooding of low-lying areas. As temperatures dropped, ice- pans in the blockage refroze and created a stretch of ice that measured 3m deep in some places. This was considerably thicker than areas upstream that did not experience the mid-winter interruption. When the Klondike broke-up towards the end of April, it caused a second round of flooding when ice congested again at the site of the December jam. Waters rose by 3m in the span of 24 hours, once again flooding low-lying residences (Eamer, 2003).

Predicting future hydrological regimes through paleoflood study

Challenges remain in terms of understanding future hydrological regimes in the context of a changing climate. River gauge data extends back only as far as the settlement of communities themselves. Thus, instrumental record can only yield limited information in terms of future trends. In this respect, paleoflood study can offer a broader temporal context for assessing the frequency and variability of ice-jam flooding. The approach relies on the chronological logging of sediments and radiocarbon dating of organic material deposited during flood events. Hydrologists use this information to reconstruct the behaviour of river systems under past climate conditions, which can shed light on how systems might perform under anticipated future warming.

Livingston et al. (2009) used the approach to reconstruct a 2000 year history of ice-jams for the portion of the Yukon River reaching from Dawson City to Circle City, Alaska. Logs were created for three sites located near Moosehide (5km downstream of Dawson), Fortymile and a site on the Alaskan side of the border at Slaven’s Roadhouse. Chronologies from the Moosehide log indicate that ice-jam frequency was higher during the Medieval Warm Period (approximately 1200 to 1500 AD) and decreased during the Little Ice Age (1500 to 1900 AD). Flood frequency dropped from once in every 20 to 25 years to once in every 40 to 60 years for these periods. It can therefore be assumed that a climatic connection exists between temperature and ice-jam frequency. The implication for the Dawson study area is that the risk of flooding as a result of ice-jams is likely to increase under projected warmer temperatures.

Monitoring and emergency response in flood-affected communities

The vicinity of Yukon communities to water has meant that monitoring of stream-flow volume and timing are of paramount importance from the perspectives of planning and preparedness. Year-round surveillance of precipitation and ice conditions – factors that predicate flooding – is carried out by Environment Canada’s Water Resources Branch (WRB). Three times annually, WRB publishes its Yukon Snow Survey Bulletin and Water Supply Forecast which provides a summary of winter meteorological and stream-flow conditions for the territory, based on observations at fifty-six measurement locations. The March bulletin provides an early indication of the amount of water likely to flow into Yukon streams; the April bulletin covers the time when the snow-pack is at its maximum; the May bulletin provides an indication of how quickly snow-pack is melting. In preparation for spring break-up, WRB additionally performs aerial surveillance and water-level monitoring in communities to allow sufficient lead-time for emergency measures (Environment Yukon, 2010).

During a disaster event, Yukon municipalities are responsible for implementing their own emergency plans. Should they feel overwhelmed, assistance is requested at the territorial level. The Yukon Government’s Emergency Measures Organization (EMO) is the lead agency for coordinating response to, and recovery from, crisis situations (EMO, 2010). In the case of evacuation, additional support agencies include: RCMP, Emergency Social Services and Emergency Health Services. On First Nations lands, the federal department of Indian and Northern Affairs Canada plays the lead role in preparedness and response. With the assistance of Public Safety Canada, First Nation communities are responsible for preparing, implementing and maintaining their own emergency plans (Shrubsole, 2001; Public Safety Canada, 2010). Common practice is for small aboriginal communities to have cost-sharing agreements for the extension of critical services from a neighbouring municipality.

Chapter 5:

Overview of the Dawson Study Area

Despite the association of flooding with damage to contemporary infrastructure, floods are hardly a new occurrence in the Dawson area. The impact and significance of flooding to local populations have, however, changed significantly reflecting the evolving nature of local occupancy, land use and ability to respond to intermittent hydrological events. This chapter provides an overview of the historic and present day context of the region, first by reviewing the population and development trends that have shaped modern Dawson. The nature by which the study area is affected by flooding is then explored.

Historical context

The Dawson study area rests within the tradition territory of the Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in Hän. Ancestors of the Hän were the first to inhabit the region and maintained a nomadic existence from the Yukon River valley to the mountains in the north and south. A seasonal fishing camp known as Tr’ochëk was the heart of this territory and was situated on the south- eastern floodplain of where the Klondike and Yukon Rivers intersect (Dobrowolsky et al., 2007). The impermanent use of Tr’ochëk – along with traditional knowledge of the area’s land and hydrology – meant the Hän were well equipped to adjust to intermittent events without disruption to camp life.

Occupancy and use of the Tr’ochëk site would change significantly with the discovery of gold on Bonanza Creek in August of 1896. The event sparked the largest gold rush in world history and attracted thousands of prospectors to the area from Canada, the US and around the world. Tr’ochëk was soon over-taken by newcomers and became known as Louse Town which served as the industrial suburb and illustrious red light district of Dawson City. The Dawson townsite developed across the Klondike River and quickly grew to become the biggest city west of Winnipeg and north of San Francisco (Gould, 2007). By June 1897, the area had a population of 4,000 people. The following year, this number swelled to over 25,000 people. Dawson was a fully serviced mining town with buildings, shacks and cabins organized on a grid network of dirt roads (Gould, 2007)

Modern Dawson: life after the Gold Rush

The population of the Dawson region has fluctuated greatly within its short history. At the end of the Gold Rush in 1899, the town’s size plummeted to approximately 8,000 people. In 1902, at the time of incorporation, less than 5,000 people resided in the area. This number continued to decline in the decades that followed and when large-scale mining ceased in the 1960s, the area’s population dipped to between 600 and 900 people (Government of Canada, 2004). While mining continues to be an important sector of the local economy, tourism has become its mainstay, with additional employment held in the town’s administration offices and through contractual labour (ICSP, 2009).

Figure 9: December population estimates of the Dawson region, based on Yukon Health Care Registration files. 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 1,999 2,123 2,114 2,059 1,953 1,882 1,857 1,818 1,788 1,811 1,827 1,859 1,879 1,923 1,873 Source: Yukon Government, 2009.

Over the past fifteen years, the community has stabilized at roughly 1,800 year-round residents (Figure 9) (Yukon Government, 2009b). Influx of tourists and seasonal staff cause this number to swell three-fold during summer months. A significant portion of the population is transient, with the 2006 census revealing that one fifth of residents resided outside of the municipality prior to the last five years. The community is also fairly young, with 37% of residents being under the age of 34 years (Statistics Canada, 2006b).

There exist potential stimuli for population growth in the short to medium term. A regional hospital facility is planned for the current Minto Park site in the southern end of town. The influx this would bring in terms of new staff and temporary patients is, however, likely to be inconsequential to overall population size. Rise in the value of gold would also attract an influx of prospectors and miners to the area. This cohort typically cycles out of the community when mineral prices dip and would have a minimal impact on long-term population.

Regional land use and morphology

The Dawson townsite and its neighbouring communities have distinct characteristics that are shaped by local variances in ground condition and historic use. Zoning for the region is shown in Appendix 4 and the unique character of each area is described next. a) Dawson townsite

Dawson has evolved from its rustic beginnings to offer the infrastructure and conveniences of a modern northern community. The spirit of the Gold Rush, however, is still very much alive and can be observed in the town’s unpaved streets and the architectural style of buildings, old and new. (See Appendix 5 for photographs of the townsite.) The town is characterised by a slope of increasing severity as one moves away from the Yukon River and towards the neighbouring hillside. The lowest elevation of the townsite is approximately 318m above sea level and increases to 340m at the eastern extent of town.

Preservation of historic character is viewed to be vitally important for attracting visitors and is as a key component for the community’s economic development strategy (Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in et al., 2009). Thirty-one historic buildings remain in Dawson and are concentrated in the area resting between Front Street and Fourth Avenue. The S.S. Keno – a retired steam wheeler – is beached at water’s edge and a few historic residences are located on Seventh and

Eighth Avenues. Newer developments in the downtown area are required through bylaw to be consistent with heritage style3.

The townsite is zoned to accommodate multiple land uses which closely reflect the distribution of current uses (see Appendix 6 for map). A Commercial Core (CC) caters to the tourism industry and is centrally located just off Front Street. The area is neighboured by Tourist Service (TS), Institutional (I) and Urban Residential (UR) uses (Town of Dawson City, 1990). Most of the town’s key institutional facilities are clustered at the southern end and entail medical, ambulance, daycare, assisted and supportive living, sanitation and energy facilities. Outside of this clustering are the Municipal Works and Fire Departments which share a location at the northern end of town. Residential uses occupy the eastern portion of the townsite.

The majority of dwellings in town are single detached units (69%) (Statistics Canada, 2006b) resting on lots that are typically 1,250m2. Housing stock is relatively old, with approximately 40% of dwellings having been constructed prior to 1980 (Statistics Canada, 2006b). Permafrost conditions prohibit the construction of basements in most portions of the town and many buildings are elevated from street level, in some cases by as much as four feet. The practice of introducing fill to lots and perching buildings on meter-high support frames serves a dual purpose. Elevated foundations help reduce heat transfer from buildings to underlying permafrost and additionally provide a degree of protection against flood damage.

Developable land within the townsite is at a premium due to the confinement of the hillside to the east and the Yukon River to the west. There are a number of vacant lots and derelict properties across town that have the potential for redevelopment. However, this would depend on the interest of private land owners who have not demonstrated the intent to revive these locations (Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in et al., 2009). Limitations in land availability have made it difficult for community members and potential residents to find affordable housing within town limits. First Nation and seasonal residents are particularly affected by the situation (Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in et al., 2009).

3 Enforced through the Zoning and Heritage Management Bylaw.

Pressures to increase housing supply have made subdivision development in fringe areas a standard alternative. This has led to the creation of outlying residential and service areas along the Klondike Valley, on the hillside behind town and on the western side of the Yukon River.

b) Klondike Valley subdivisions

For most of the twentieth century, the portion of the Klondike valley west of the mouth of Hunker Creek was dominated by mining. The remnants of these activities characterise the area’s landscape of raised tailing piles which can be observed in orthophoto representation of the study area (Appendix 1). As mining activities have given way to tertiary and residential functions, tailing piles have, in many cases, been levelled to accommodate population growth and to facilitate new uses. Today, the Klondike Valley supports an eclectic mix of transportation, housing, light industry, tourism and agricultural activity.

In its contemporary function, the valley can be viewed as the region’s link to the "outside world" in which highway and airport amenities are situated. The Klondike Highway provides a paved connection to the Alaska Highway, and is a vital transportation link to the territorial capital, Whitehorse. The Dawson City Airport is adjacent to the highway, approximately 12km east of town. Light industrial activity is located at the western end of the valley, as are tourist facilities. These include hotel, RV, gas and restaurant amenities, located mainly within a tourist service area near Bonanza Creek and in the Callison Industrial Area subdivision. Relatively recent residential expansion has also taken place in this portion of the valley with the development of the Dredge Pond subdivision and the more recent Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in subdivision in 2002.

Further east along the valley is the unincorporated community of Rock Creek. This informal and unplanned subdivision occupies the southern and northern banks of the Klondike River. Southern portions are at low elevations within meters of summer water elevations on the Klondike River. The area displays an assortment of housing types, which includes established homes and less affixed structures, such as cabins, trailers and equipment shelters. Several of the community’s north shore plots are used for agricultural purposes. The community is equipped with a volunteer Fire Hall, which is accessible from the highway.

33 c) Other subdivisions

Directly behind the townsite, paving of the Dome Road leading upwards to the Midnight Lookout has facilitated residential development in this area. The Dome is zoned for Country Residential (CR) use which supports suburban styled development. Some Recreational Facility (RF) uses are also present. Cul-de-sacs branch away from the route to provide access to large residential lots that are typically 5,000m2 in area – this is approximately four times the size of average residential lots found in the Dawson townsite. Housing consists of single detached dwellings.

Across the Yukon River, development has occurred in the West Dawson area which has a mix of residential and agricultural functions. The community is accessed from the west by the Top of the World Highway. From the townsite, crossing is by a ferry connection during summer months and ice-road in winter. For several weeks during spring break-up, access is entirely restricted. Discussions have been ongoing about connecting the Yukon River’s banks by an all- weather bridge. Feasibility study has been carried out, though no plans have solidified due to the insufficient justification of the estimated $25 million investment (2004 dollars) (Johnson, 2004).

Neither the Dome nor the West Dawson areas are considered to be at-risk locations to flooding; their inclusion in this study reflects their development potential for relieving housing pressures and accommodating growth in low-risk areas away from the floodplains of the Yukon and Klondike Rivers.

Experiences with flooding and structural response

Disposition to hazard in the study area is shaped by local experience with flooding. The townsite has the longest record of flood events simply because of its extended history, though construction of the dyke has quieted flooding in recent decades. In the absence of structural measures, flood encounters are more common to the communities of the Klondike River Valley. Experiences in both areas and responses for dealing with the threat are described next. (See Appendix 7 for newspaper review of flood events.)

34 a) Dawson townsite

Archival review suggests that since the town’s establishment in 1897, some degree of flooding has occurred at least twelve times. Flood years include 1898, 1902, 1905, 1906, 1919, 1925, 1944, 1947, 1957, 1960, 1966 and 1979 (see Appendix 8 for historic photos). The floods of 1925, 1944 and 1979 were the most severe on record and resulted from downstream ice-jams on the Yukon River. The remaining years resulted from open-water events.

Modeled as a mid-western townscape, early Dawson City did not enjoy the same resilience as the Hän fish camps which preceded it. The town’s founders were likely unaware of the incidence and magnitude of flooding, or thought it to be an acceptable inconvenience for the opportunity of fortune in the gold fields. As the town developed from cabins and dirt roads into a modern settlement, the costs and challenges associated with damage grew accordingly.

Reflecting the attitudes towards flood management that prevailed in the 1950s and 1960s, federal and territorial governments pursued a structural approach for addressing the problem. In 1959, Front Street was elevated by an earthen embankment to serve as the town’s primary defence against the Yukon River. The embankment was subsequently raised in 1968 (McCreath et al, 1988), but the new height was insufficient to protect the town against flooding which occurred in 1979 and remains the worst in the town’s record (see Box 1).

In response to the disaster, a new dyke was built on the river side of Front Street this time to an elevation of 321m (0.4m higher than the extent of the 1979 event). The dyke stretches from the town’s ferry landing to the point where the Klondike Highway enters the town. Lands resting directly adjacent are used as green-yards and have matured to become the focal point for a number of community events. The recreational amenity they provide, as well as their integration as a tourism feature, have helped gain acceptance for the dyke which many locals felt had alienated the town from its waterfront (CommonWealth, 2008). (See Appendix 9 for photographs of the dyke.)

A flood-gate located near Duke Street allows vehicular access to community docks on the dyke’s west-facing landing. Drainage conduits are also an important feature of the dyke’s design. Ten conduits operated by the City are aligned with the town’s east-west streets. This drainage

Box 1: Spring 1979 – Extreme flood event, Dawson City

On May 3rd, 1979, an ice-jam on the Yukon River resulted in the worst flood disaster in the history of Dawson City. When the town’s dyke breached, water rose across the community until reaching parts of Sixth Avenue. According to newspaper accounts: ice jammed in the afternoon; by midnight water reached the top of the dyke; forty minutes later the lowest portions of town were under 6 to 8 feet of water; by 5:30 am the water dropped 3 feet, and; by 9:30 am water had retreated to river level.

By one account “buildings were literally torn from their foundations, homes filled with water and trailers were turned upside down” (McGuire, unknown). Many homes were left unsalvageable, while others were left clogged with silt and in various states of disrepair. Some buildings suffered additional damage from the scour of ice-pans that surpassed the dyke and scraped against exterior walls. The flood’s Figure 10: Flooding on Front Street just south of Queen Street, estimated cost in damage was upwards of $50 May 1979. Source: Ken Faught, photographer, Dawson City million (1979 dollars) (McGuire, unknown). Museum archive, 1984.109.2

Clean-up and rebuilding was a slow process which took more than two years to achieve. Dawson’s population dropped-off to less than five-hundred people as some residents opted to abandon devastated homes. New construction began in the flood zone, this time at a metre and a half above street level for protection against future flood events.

Some residents took a more precautionary approach by relocating to higher ground on the Dome subdivision. The town’s historic buildings required extensive restoration, which was carried out by Parks Canada. A new dyke was built on the western side of Front Street and was completed in 1987. The structure has the capacity to withstand events of a magnitude similar to the 1979 flood. Figure 11: Ice-pans on Front Street, May 3rd, 1979. Source: Brian Reeves, photographer, Dawson City Museum archive, 1984.104.27

36 system was implemented in recognition that much of the damage caused in 1979 resulted from the prolonged exposure of buildings to entrapped flood waters. Conduits have a one-way valve feature at their base which allows for water to filter out of the townsite, but remain closed to block water and ice from channelling upwards into the community. b) Klondike Valley

Along the Klondike Valley, a different approach is taken to reduce flood-risk due to the unsuitability of dyking as a means to reduce water damage. This is the consequence of changes to floodplain characteristics that occurred during the corporate mining era. In the period from 1898 to 1966, dredges were used to carve fluvial soils from the floor of the Klondike River. Aboard these vessels, materials were washed and sorted for gold before being re-deposited to the river as loose tailings (Parks Canada, 2009). The process has led to an increase in ground permeability and loss of isostatic pressure in lower portions of the floodplain. As a result, areas characterized by tailings can be inundated from the ground-up since high river levels produce a corresponding rise in the groundwater table. This principle can be observed in the rise and fall of tailing ponds which correspond directly with the Klondike River (Inukshuk Planning, 2000).

The development challenges tied to ground permeability were recognised during the consulting and planning phases of the Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in subdivision (Inukshuk Planning, 2000). The site rests on levelled tailings on the floodplain close to the mouth of the Klondike River (see Appendix 1). To protect the new development, the possibility of a dyke was considered. However the protection value it would offer was viewed to be limited to blocking ice-pans from entering the site during a flood event. The cost of construction for this function alone was found to be prohibitive and a more effective solution was explored. In its final design, the grade elevation of the subdivision’s foundation was raised above the highest recorded water level at the Klondike River Bridge (Inukshuk Planning, 2000).

Elsewhere in the valley, the absence of formal protection works has meant that response to flooding occurs at the household level. (See Appendix 10 for photographs of household level responses.) Exposure to the late vagaries of the Klondike River make Rock Creek the study area’s most frequently inundated community (see Box 2). Predisposition to ice-jams and scour has led homeowners to take protective measures, such as raising foundations and incorporating “wet”

Box 2: Spring 2009 – Flooding in the Klondike Valley

Sarah and John Lenart are unlikely to forget spring break-up of 2009. The Lenarts own a farmstead on the northern shore of the Klondike River, and remember well the sound of trees snapping as ice-pans drove through their property.

From May 1st to 3rd, a series of ice-jams resulted in the overland flooding of Klondike Valley communities. Twenty-eight people were evacuated Figure 12: Ice-pans on the Lenart farm. during the events which left $1.2 million of damage in Source: Sarah Lenart their wake (Public Safety Canada, 2010c). Residents reported up to three feet of water on private property, and significant repair was required to local infrastructure.

For the Lenarts, cleanup was a laborious task. Ice-pans narrowly avoided their home, though a trail of destruction was left elsewhere on the farm. Wayward ice displaced a bridge and toppled vegetation. Damage was caused to a canoe, appliances, furniture and other household items.

When waters finally receded, the job of drying out belongings and cleaning after the flood’s silted remains began. The Lenarts are active in replanting trees along the river’s bank near their property, recognizing that this will be their prime defence against future flood events. Figure 13: Bridge on the Lenart farm displaced by flood water and ice. Source: Sarah Lenart

Figure 14: John dislodging ice-pans in a blocked channel of the Klondike. Source: Sarah Lenart

38 flood-proofing techniques into the design of dwellings. This includes the use of water-tolerant materials during construction and keeping the ground-floor free of valuables in times of risk. For other homes locally found materials, such as pipe scavenged from relict mining operations, are used to shield property from ice-pans. There is evidence of a rip-rap berm on private property on the north side of the Klondike River. Bio-engineered solutions are also observed, which consist of trees and shrubbery planted by the water’s edge to block wayward ice. These initiatives are generally implemented at the expense of property owners.

Non-structural responses to flooding

In conjunction with structural responses, some non-structural measures have also been implemented in the study region. These include policies that restrict certain types of land use in high-risk areas. Additionally, financing mechanisms and emergency response planning have helped to increase local resiliency to flood events. These responses are explored in the following section. a) Policy-based flood management To a limited extent, zoning controls have been implemented to encourage low-intensity land uses on the floodplains of the Yukon and Klondike Rivers. The OCP for Dawson identifies high-risk areas which are zoned for Public Open-space (OS) and are to remain free of development and infrastructure. These areas include:  the islands in the Klondike River;  the northern floodplain of the Klondike River east of the Klondike Bridge, and;  a 30m setback to be maintained on the Klondike River and all major creeks.

These policies mark the breadth of risk-minimization within the OCP. For a region predisposed to flooding, this might be considered a superficial treatment of the risks at hand. What is apparent in the current OCP, and in its former versions, is that development visions of the last forty years have been growth-centric. The document is geared at accommodating as much as a doubling of the area’s population. The strategies articulated for supporting this growth

39 entail infill of the townsite and extension of land development mostly within the lower Klondike Valley. Delineating hazard lands and restricting uses would have the effect of inhibiting expansion options – these types of policies were likely inconsistent with community visions at the time of the OCP’s implementation, over twenty years ago. b) Disaster assistance

Disaster assistance is made available to residents in the study area in the aftermath of flood events. Flood relief is administered by Yukon Housing Corporation (YHC) and consists of grants for the restoration, replacement or repair of principal residences. Dwellings used as temporary or seasonal residences, are not eligible for funding. A loan program with a 0% interest rate is also administered by YHC. Funds are available for the restoration, replacement or repair of existing recreational properties and outbuildings damaged by flooding. Loans are additionally provided to residents wishing to install preventative measures and make changes to structures or systems that minimize the potential of future flood damage. The financing limit is $35,000 and the loan is amortized over a twelve year period (Yukon Housing Corporation, 2007). c) Formal emergency response

While the potential of flood impacts to infrastructure, economy and property are high within the Dawson region, the threat to human life during a flood is considered to be low. No casualties resulted from the 1979 extreme event. The basic response of walking to “higher ground” on the hillside has been sufficient to ensure resident safety while awaiting evacuation assistance. Nonetheless, considerable emergency and preparedness planning has been carried out in the region. The Fire Departments of Dawson City and Rock Creek play the lead role in managing crisis situations.

Each spring, the Departments receive updates on the flood situation through the WRB Yukon Snow Survey Bulletin and Water Supply Forecast. Bulletins state if flood-risk conditions are perceived to be low, medium or high. This information is also available to the public through the WRB website. However, many residents in the Dawson region are either not active users of the internet, or are not connected to internet or phone services. For this reason, Fire Department

40 staff visit households in areas of potential risk to deliver information on how to prepare for and respond to potential events.

In the time leading up to spring break-up, the Fire Chief is responsible for meeting with the managers of institutions to review emergency procedures articulated in the Municipal Civil Emergency Plan (MCEP). The document outlines the roles and responsibilities of key agencies and facilities during a crisis event, which are further explored in the next chapter.

Chapter 6:

Dawson City Flood Simulation

As part of an integrative approach to risk-management, it is important to evaluate the performance of implemented measures, reassess changing hazards and evaluate the implications these could bring to the community. In this chapter, residual risk is discussed and GIS is used as a tool for assessing the impacts of flooding on Dawson’s critical facilities.

Residual risk

A significant problem associated with the structural approach to flood mitigation is the effect it has on local perceptions of risk. In the presence of a dyke, residents will often assume that risks have been dealt with entirely (Shrubsole, 2000). In reality, structural measures are designed to protect against events of a certain magnitude. In the case of Dawson, the dyke’s crown elevation (321m) corresponds with the extent of the 1979 flood (320.6m) – an event estimated to have a recurrence of between every 100 to 200 years. Lowered perception of risk is evidenced by the continued occupancy and development of the Yukon River’s natural floodplain within the townsite. The situation is complicated through the placement of critical facilities within this vulnerable area.

Flood scenarios and GIS simulation

It is important to recognise that extreme events which surpass those on record are possible in any given year. GIS was used to prepare a flood simulation of the townsite with the objective of representing sequential impacts of flood on Dawson’s critical facilities. Outputs were generated using ArcMap and then organized in the PowerPoint presentation featured in

Appendix 11. The presentation has served as a vehicle for discussion during community workshops held by the CAVIAR group in Dawson. It has additionally been used to elicit feedback during professional interviews during the field work portion of this research.

The simulation illustrates the course of inundation in the townsite, which could result from three possible scenarios:

 Scenario 1: breaching of the dyke, in the event that a structural failure occurs while Yukon River levels are below the elevation of the dyke;  Scenario 2: over-topping of the dyke, in the case that water levels on the Yukon River surpass the height of the dyke, or;  Scenario 3: scenarios 1 and 2 occurring respectively as the Yukon River rises to flood level.

A simple understanding of the model is to conceptualize the townsite as a basin rimmed by the crown of the dyke and its corresponding elevation on the eastern hill-face. Water entering the town would fill the basin’s lowest portions before rising incrementally. The speed of inundation during the 1979 flood provides a temporal scale of the rate at which flooding might occur; it was forty minutes from the time when the Front Street dyke was over-topped until waters submerging portions of the community by two meters. Witnesses reported that, at its peak, water rose at a rate of one third of a metre per minute (Locke, 2000).

Impacts to critical facilities

The MCEP identifies facilities that are considered to be critical in the event of a flood either because of their high priority for evacuation or because of their role in providing response and relief. There are also a number of facilities which are considered critical in that their decommissioning would have operational, health and/or environmental consequences for the community. Critical facilities were plotted within the simulation to assess the sequence by which they would be decommissioned. These include:

Evacuation of high vulnerability groups (children and seniors);  School

 Daycare  Seniors’ Residence

Emergency response (medical, fire and engineering);  Medical Centre  RCMP  Fire Hall  Ambulance  Public Works

Relief (rest facilities):  Recreation Centre  Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in Community Hall  Churches/Chapels  Ski Lodge

Sensitive infrastructure:  Sewage System  Reservoir Pump  Yukon Energy Hydro Station

Figure 15 summarizes the results of the simulation exercise and identifies the buildings that would be affected at each level of flood on a 1m basis. Discussions with the Fire Department reveal that once any level of water enters a building, it is no longer fit for use during a crisis situation. It can therefore be assumed that buildings are decommissioned prior to water reaching the 1m level.

Figure 15: Flood simulation results – sequence of decommission for critical facilities.

Facility: 1m 2m 3m 4m 5m 6m 7m 8m 9m 10m Municipal Works x Fire Hall x Community Hall x Community Chapel x St. Mary's Church x Recreation Centre x Robert Service School x Daycare Centre x Ambulance x Seniors' Home x Current Medical Centre x RCMP x Sewage System Construction x Future Regional Hospital x Reservoir Pump x Yukon Energy Hydro Station x

Critical facilities are plotted in Figure 16 and the first three levels of flood are illustrated in Figures 17 through 19. The simulation reveals that at the 1m (or below) increment, approximately one third of the community would be inundated. Nine critical facilities, including the site of the future regional hospital and the town’s most sensitive and potentially hazardous infrastructure would be decommissioned. These include the reservoir pump, energy station and site of the future sewage treatment facility. At the 2m level, an additional four facilities would be affected, including the town’s current medical station, the Fire Hall and Municipal Works building. Realistically, the latter two would be decommissioned sooner, as the course of flood water would pass through these locations en route to the town’s lower and more southern portions. At the 3m mark and thereafter, the facilities identified as relief locations, including the recreation centre and two churches, would be affected. The ski lodge relief station is not captured in the simulation given its strategic location in the Dome subdivision.

Data limitations

While the simulation is a useful tool for demonstrating flood impacts, it should be noted that certain limitations detract from its precision. These issues hinge on the availability of high

45 resolution data for the area. Because the 1m intervals of the DEM file are interpolated from 20m NTDB contours, the reliability of these measurements is put into question. A ground-truthing exercise guided by surveyed reference points helped establish confidence that errors in the data are not monumental.

Figure 16: Critical facilities of the Dawson townsite. Orthophoto: QuickBird 2006

Figure 17: Dawson townsite flood simulation, 1m water level. Orthophoto: QuickBird 2006

Figure 18: Dawson townsite flood simulation, 2m water level. Orthophoto: QuickBird 2006

Figure 19: Dawson townsite flood simulation, 3m water level and extent of the 1979 flood. Orthophoto: QuickBird 2006

1979 flood (320.6m)

Chapter 7:

Discussion and Recommendation

In the course of this paper, the long and persistent history of flooding in the Dawson area has been discussed in light global climate change. Approaches to dealing with the flood-threat have evolved from the community “bearing the cost” of damages to more proactive measures manifested in engineering, monitoring and emergency preparedness. In spite of this, limitations for hazard-management still exist, and centre on the quality and consistency of the hydrological data available for the region. Furthermore, it has been suggested that instruments such as floodplain mapping and zoning have not been integrated into the local planning framework to their fullest potential. This chapter discusses these unresolved issues and provides recommendation for the improved management of flood hazard within the study area.

Informational deficiencies

Hazard literature recognises that climate change is likely to compound land use and planning challenges in the Dawson region. Evidence suggests that the incidence of ice-jam flooding on the Yukon and Klondike Rivers is likely to increase as a result of warmer winters and more pronounced variance in seasonal temperatures. Compilation of sound baseline data is therefore an important and necessary exercise for the monitoring of potentially hazardous conditions and in the identification of vulnerable areas.

The simulation presented in Chapter 6 yields useful information on the flood exposure of the Dawson townsite. It also reveals that certain informational deficiencies exist which hinder

50 informed decision-making. Within small communities, slight variations in topography have implications of a proportionally large significance; thus, finely-scaled data is of the essence for realistic depiction of hazard events. Discussions with local professionals in the fields of emergency response, heritage management and community planning reveal that interest exists for the development of an enhanced model. For the simulation to have practical application by local agencies, higher resolution data would be required.

Light Detection and Ranging (LIDAR) imagery would be an ideal avenue for the acquisition of precision data that could be used for mapping and modelling purposes. Informational “piggy-backing” could also be explored as a cost-effective approach for data acquisition. The upgrade of municipal water mane and fire hydrant infrastructure is slated for the near future, which represents one potential opportunity. This work will require extensive surveying to be carried in the assessment of grade and slope. The resulting set of elevation records could be translating into a Triangulated Irregular Network (TIN) surface within a GIS platform and used to produce an improved simulation model.

The issue of data deficiency is not uncommon to the Yukon’s other flood-affected communities, and suggests that the establishment of a territory-wide initiative for floodplain mapping could be beneficial for reducing information gaps. Accessibility to reliable floodplain maps can help to reduce uncertainties and equip local decision-makers with essential information for precautionary planning. Objectives of the program should reflect those set by the now defunct FDRP, which had as its primary goals the identification of hazard lands and prohibition of flood-vulnerable development within them.

Improving communication of flood-hazard information

Discussions with residents living in the Rock Creek area reveal that formal communication of flood hazard is absent in the land acquisition process. In the Valley, it is very much a “buyer-beware” situation since no official designation of the floodplain exists. The accessibility of risk information is recognised in the literature to be an important factor for enhancing local capacity to deal with hazards and, ideally, should be available at all critical stages

51 of the property transaction process from purchase to project approval. In the Dawson region, establishing communication mechanisms to convey risk information would enable new residents to integrate flood-proof strategies into the design of dwellings during planning and construction phases. The Municipal and Yukon Government assessment rolls are potential mechanisms for implementation. Once again, obtaining the necessary information rests on the generation of reliable floodplain maps for the region.

OCP revision for long-term sustainability

The land use planning process can be viewed as the prime vehicle for addressing potential flood-hazard, and within this process, zoning serves as the chief land use control for achieving risk-minimisation. The OCP for Dawson is well overdue for revision and the review process is an ideal opportunity for Government, Town managers and residents to collectively reassess Dawson’s development goals for the next twenty years. The occasion should be seized to incorporate long-term sustainability objectives into the plan by setting provisions to steer development away from the floodplains of the Yukon and Klondike Rivers.

The objectives of the OCP should recognise that for Dawson, population growth is not a precursor for local viability – an influx of new residents would compound existing challenges of a tight housing market and create pressures for additional housing and infrastructure to be placed in flood-risk areas. From a hazard-management perspective, the stabilization of the town’s population over the last fifteen years should be viewed as a desirable trend and indicator for sustainability.

The public engagement activities of the OCP review process should additionally be seen as an opportunity for public education on the nature of risk in the region. Demographic data indicate that many residents (at least 60%) were not around to experience the devastation of the 1979 flood. This is because they resided in a different municipality at the time of the event, were born after the event or were born shortly before and are therefore unlikely to remember it in a significant way. As suggested by Haque (2000), past experience with flooding is an important determinant in a population’s awareness of, and concern for, hazardous events. For this reason,

52 dissemination of risk and preparedness information should be a vital component of every management strategy. The OCP review process is a time to engage the public in realistic conversations about flooding and correct misconceptions about the protection value offered by implemented measures.

Growth strategies for residential development

Typical ‘smart-growth’ strategies are not well suited to the Dawson region because of its predisposition to flooding. Contrary to the strategies suggested in the OCP and the ICSP, infill and densification of the townsite and the Klondike Valley should be kept to a minimum since these locations represent the study area’s most vulnerable lands. Development should instead be steered towards low-risk residential areas such as the Dome and West Dawson, which are more appropriate for infill. Increasing and diversifying the housing opportunities in these locations would help to reduce pressures for land expansion on the volatile tailings of the Klondike Valley.

In the Dome subdivision, several strategies could be explored for intensification. It is recommended that the City consider rezoning areas from the suburban-styled use of Country Residential (CR) to urban density residential zones that allow for Single (RS), Single/multiple transition (RT) and Rural Residential (RR) uses. Severance of lots and modification of zoning bylaws to allow for secondary suites on larger properties should be explored for densification purposes. On the Dome, where lots are typically long and narrow, reconfiguration may require that access roads be created to service newly severed land parcels. The development of low-rise multi-unit residences should also be encouraged to help satisfy housing demands. This style of accommodation would be particularly compatible with the needs of seasonal residents.

A similar strategy for infill should be explored for West Dawson, where the greatest impediment to intensification remains the lack of a permanent connection to the townsite. Until present, there has been insufficient justification to warrant the construction of an all weather bridge. This is based on the notion that the connection needs of tourists are satisfied by the ferry and ice-road crossings. Additionally, there has been some concern that a permanent structure

53 could have the impact of blocking ice during spring break-up. It is perhaps time to reopen discussions on the potential of a bridge for satisfying the development and hazard-management needs for the area’s local population. Further study into the feasibility of the project is recommended, and attention should be given to the impact it would have on ice flow.

Housing pressures could additionally be addressed through the development of an unused portion of land located directly behind the Tr’ochëk site. A former mining claim, the site lies above flood levels (at 340m) and is within the municipal limits of the Town. The site is zoned as Urban Reserve (UR) and has been explored in the past for its development potential. An estimated 107 residential lots could be accommodated, in addition to amenities such as green space and a sewage lagoon reservoir (Inukshuk Planning, discussion document, 2006). The physical challenge for the site’s development rests on establishing a suitable access route on the hill-face that descends from the site.

Zoning for the reduced vulnerability of critical infrastructure

Revision of the OCP should ideally entail the strategic re-zoning of areas throughout the municipality to reduce the vulnerability of Dawson’s critical facilities and emergency response network. The flood simulation reveals that in the event of the dyke being over-topped or breached, key response facilities such as the fire hall and ambulance station would be washed out within the first meter of flood. Equally, the town’s reservoir pump, sewage screening plant (under construction) and generator station would be awash in this first stage of inundation. As low-lying facilities reach the end of their useful life-cycle, re-zoning of selected locations would set the conditions necessary for the relocation of essential services to lower-risk areas.

The portions of the townsite that are at highest risk rest below the dyke’s elevation of 321m. As described earlier in this report, the town is shaped like a basin and buildings below dyke level would not only be the first to inundate, but would also have a prolonged exposure to waters entrapped between the dyke and the hill-face to the east. It is therefore recommended that critical facilities be located away from this area. Within town, the City should identify land

54 parcels above 321m which should be re-zoned from residential to institutional use. Construction challenges are likely to exist for larger facilities because of the hill’s inclined landscape. It is therefore also recommended that locations outside of the townsite be explored for the relocation of institutional and public buildings. In this regard, the Dome subdivision is a logical choice because of its relative elevation, and proximity to both the townsite and neighbouring subdivisions along the Klondike Valley. The homogeneous zoning of this subdivision for Country Residential (CR) use should be modified to allow for alternative uses.

Enhancing household capacity to deal with flooding

In light of climate change and the adaptation objectives set for the Yukon Territory, consideration should be given for enhancing the Yukon Government’s strategy for dealing with flood-exposed households in the Klondike Valley area. The traditional approach has been to provide disaster relief grants for the repair of primary residences after a flood event. Loans are also administered to assist homeowners with the implementation of protective measures; however, because these funds have to be paid back over a twelve year period, the incentive for pre-emptive action is reduced at the individual level. It is recommended that YHG explore grant possibilities in view that flood-proofing measures are a proactive way to reduce the compensation otherwise paid out in post-disaster assistance.

Summary of recommendations

Recommendation 1 A standardised mapping program for the Yukon should be implemented for the designation of flood-risk areas in communities across the territory. Objectives should be consistent with those established by the FDRP.

Recommendation 2 High resolution technologies should be implemented for finely-scaled analysis to help bridge informational gaps that exist within the territory (ie. LIDAR imagery).

Recommendation 3 Through comprehensive mapping, the extent of the 200-year flood should be firmly established and used as an enforceable and consistent flood-design standard for all new subdivision developments in the Klondike Valley.

Recommendation 4 Grant opportunities should be established through YHC to assist property owners with introducing structural and landscaped protective measure on private property in the lower Klondike River Valley.

Recommendation 5 Yukon Government, Department of Highways and Public Works should continue to explore the possibility of constructing a year-round bridge to connect the Dawson townsite to West Dawson. A bridge would help to direct new development to the western side of the Yukon River, on elevated ground away from the floodplain.

Recommendation 6 Municipal and First Nation governments, in collaboration with Yukon Government and local residents, should capitalise on the upcoming OCP review process to establish low- vulnerability visions for the community. Priority-making should be cognisant that the long-term sustainability of the community may rest on population stabilization and decentralised development.

Recommendation 7 Revisions to the OCP should articulate zoning that restricts development in high- vulnerability areas. Infill within low-lying areas of the townsite should be kept to a minimum, seeing as how this would place new development at risk in the event of a breaching or over-topping of the dyke.

Recommendation 8 Within the townsite, selected residential and country residential areas should be rezoned for institutional use in order to facilitate the relocation of critical facilities to ground above dyke level (321m). Rezoning should also occur within the Dome subdivision area for the relocation of facilities to this area.

Recommendation 9 Infill and compact development should be encouraged in the low-vulnerability residential areas of the Dome and West Dawson.

Recommendation 10 In partnership with the Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in First Nation and Yukon Government, the municipality should further explore possibilities for developing the site resting south of Tr’ochëk which is currently zoned as Rural Residential (RR)/Urban Reserve (UR).

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Natural Resources Canada (2009) The Atlas of Canada – Floods. Accessed online: http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/naturalhazards/floods/1

National Roundtable on Environment and Economy (2009) True North: Adapting Infrastructure to Climate Change in Northern Canada.

Newton, John (1995) An Assessment of Coping with Environmental Hazards in Northern Aboriginal. Communities. In The Canadian Geographer, Vol. 39(2):112-120.

Northern Climate Exchange (NCE) (2009) Community Adaptation Project: Dawson Climate Change Adaptation Plan. Accessed online: www.taiga.net/nce/adaptation/Dawson_Plan_Final.pdf

Orecklin, M. (1981) Dawson Flood Study: Ice Jam of May 3, 1979, 1980 & 1981 Breakup. Department of Indian and Northern Affairs. Whitehorse, YT.

Public Safety Canada (2009) Disaster Financial Assistance Arrangements – Revised Guidelines. Accessed online, March 23rd, 2010: www.publicsafety.gc.ca/prg/em/dfaa/index-eng.aspx#a01

Public Safety Canada (2010a) Canadian Disaster Database. Accessed online: www.publicsafety.gc.ca/prg/em/cdd/srch-eng.aspx.

Public Safety Canada (2010b) Emergency management. Accessed online: www.community.gov.yk.ca/emo/index.html

Public Safety Canada (2010c) Government of Canada assists Yukon with 2009 flood costs. Accessed online: www.publicsafety.gc.ca/media/nr/2010/nr20100428-1-eng.aspx

Statistics Canada (2006a) Community Profiles: Aklavik, NWT. Accessed online: http://www12.statcan.gc.ca/census- recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92- 591/details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=6107025&Geo2=PR&Code2=61&Data=Count&SearchText =Aklavik&SearchType=Contains&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom=

Statistics Canada (2006b) Community Profiles: Dawson, Yukon Territory. Accessed online: www12.statcan.ca/census- recensement/2006/dp-pd/prof/92- 591/details/Page.cfm?Lang=E&Geo1=CSD&Code1=6001029&Geo2=PR&Code2=60&Data=Count&SearchText =dawson&SearchType=Begins&SearchPR=01&B1=All&Custom=

Shrubsole, D. (2000) Flood management in Canada at the crossroads. Environmental Hazards, Vol 2, 63-75.

Shrubsole, D. and Scherer, J. (1996) Floodplain Regulation and the Perceptions of the Real Estate Sector in Brandtford and Cambridge, Ontario, Canada. Geoforum, 27(4), 509-525.

Simonovic, S. (1999) Social Criteria for evaluation of flood control measures – Winnipeg case study. In: Braga, B (ed.) Urban Water, Special Issue – Non-Structural Measures in Urban Flood Control 1(2), 167-175.

Town of Dawson City (1990) Official Community Plan. Dawson City, YT. Accessed online: www.cityofdawson.ca/Documents/Zoning%20and%20Historical%20Control/OCPAmendNo%205%20_novembe r_2009.pdf

Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in (2010) Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in eritage Sites: Yukon River Hydrology. Accessed online: http://trondekheritage.com/images/pdfs/hydrology_190603.pdf

Tr'ondëk Hwëch'in and City of Dawson (2009) Integrated Community Sustainability Plan. Dawson City, YT.

Vuntut Gwitchin First Nation (2009) Integrated Community Sustainability Plan. Accessed online: www.vgfn.ca/pdf/vgfn%20icspg.pdf

Walvoord, M. A., and R. G. Striegl (2007) Increased groundwater to stream discharge from permafrost thawing in the Yukon River basin: Potential impacts on lateral export of carbon and nitrogen. Geophys. Res. Lett., 34, L12402, doi:10.1029/2007GL030216.

Watt, W. (1995) The National Flood Damage Reduction Program: 1976-1995. Canadian Water Resources Journal 20 (4), 237-247.

White, G. (1945) Human Adjustments to Floods. In Geography, Resources, and Environment Volume 1 Selected Writings of Gilbert F. White. Vol. Volume 1, 10-25. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1986.

White, G. and Haas, J. (1975) Assessment of Research on Natural Hazards. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press. Cambridge, Massachusetts.

World Meteorological Organization (2007) The Role of Land-Use Planning in Flood Management: A tool for integrated flood management. Accessed online: www.apfm.info/pdf/ifm_tools/Tools_The_Role_of_Land_Use_Planning_in_FM.pdf

World Meteorological Organization (2008) Urban Flood Risk Management: A Tool for Integrated Flood Management. Associated Programme on Flood Management. Accessed online: http://apfm.info/pdf/ifm_tools/Tools_Urban_Flood_Risk_Management.pdf

Yukon Government (2002) Geoprocess File: Summary Report. Accessed online: http://ygsftp.gov.yk.ca/publications/openfile/2002/of2002_8d_geoprocess_file/documents/map_specific/105m.pdf

Yukon Government (2009a) Yukon Government Climate Change Action Plan. Accessed online: www.environmentyukon.gov.yk.ca/pdf/YG_Climate_Change_Action_Plan.pdf

Yukon Government (2009b) Socio-economic Web Portal: Dawson City, Population based on Yukon Health Care Registration file. Department of Health & Social Services and Yukon Bureau of Statistics. Accessed online: www.sewp.gov.yk.ca/data?regionId=YK.DW&subjectId=POPCOM&groupId=POPCOM.POP&dataId=YBS_HC RF_POP_AGE_SEX&tab=region

Yukon Housing Corporation (2007) Annual Report for the Year Ended March 31, 2008. Whitehorse, YT. Accessed online: www.housing.yk.ca/pdf/ar_2007_08.pdf

West Dawson  Dome subdivision Appendix 1: Dawson City (townsite) Tourist service area Road Tr’ochëk Callison Industrial subdivision Airport Dawson Study Area Former mining claim Dredge Pond subdivision Tributary Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in subdivision Rock Creek subdivision River and dredge pond 

Yukon River     

B o na nza Creek     River K londike

2.5 km

Prepared by: E. Beasley Orthophoto: QuickBird 2006 Shapefiles: Yukon Geomatics Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 346m Community Hall 28m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Appendix 2: Dawson Study Area, facing east from west bank

Tr’ondëk Hwëch’in subdivision Ferry crossing to West Dawson Dawson City (townsite) Dome subdivision Klondike Highway Tr’ochëk Former mining claim

Yukon River Klondike River Yukon River

N Appendix 3: Break-up dates of the Yukon River at Dawson

1896 19-May 1935 16-May 1973 08-May 1897 17-May 1936 05-May 1974 10-May 1898 08-May 1937 10-May 1975 09-May 1900 08-May 1938 12-May 1976 05-May 1901 14-May 1939 12-May 1977 07-May 1902 11-May 1940 28-Apr 1978 06-May 1903 13-May 1941 30-Apr 1979 02-May 1904 07-May 1942 06-May 1980 06-May 1905 10-May 1943 02-May 1981 08-May 1906 11-May 1944 05-May 1982 13-May 1907 05-May 1945 16-May 1983 01-May 1908 07-May 1946 09-May 1984 08-May 1909 11-May 1947 09-May 1985 16-May 1910 11-May 1948 12-May 1986 12-May 1911 07-May 1949 13-May 1987 09-May 1912 09-May 1950 10-May 1988 01-May 1913 14-May 1951 08-May 1989 29-Apr 1914 10-May 1952 12-May 1990 30-Apr 1915 03-May 1953 05-May 1991 30-Apr 1916 03-May 1954 12-May 1992 08-May 1917 15-May 1955 13-May 1993 29-Apr 1918 11-May 1956 07-May 1994 01-May 1919 11-May 1957 09-May 1995 30-Apr 1920 18-May 1958 04-May 1996 07-May 1921 12-May 1959 15-May 1997 04-May 1922 14-May 1960 04-May 1998 04-May 1923 10-May 1961 09-May 1999 08-May 1924 08-May 1962 16-May 2000 05-May 1925 09-May 1963 05-May 2001 08-May 1926 03-May 1964 28-May 2002 12-May 1927 13-May 1965 18-May 2003 01-May 1928 09-May 1966 11-May 2004 04-May 1929 07-May 1967 12-May 2005 29-Apr 1930 10-May 1968 09-May 2006 11-May 1931 11-May 1969 05-May 2007 04-May 1932 02-May 1970 11-May 2008 04-May 1933 09-May 1971 12-May 2009 03-May 1934 02-May 1972 11-May 2010 30-Apr

Source: Dawson City Visitor Centre, 2010 Appendix 4: Zoning of the Dawson study area

Appendix 5: Morphology of the Dawson townsite

Looking east on Duke St at Third Ave. The House on raised foundation at the Corner of town gently slopes up towards the hillside. Sixth Ave and Queen St.

Fill is used throughout the townsite to elevate A new home stands next to a decommissioned buidling foundations. residence near the corner of Sixth Ave and Harper St. Notice the elevated foundation and heritage design.

SS Keno and heritage building on Front St. Looking towards the Yukon River from above The Yukon River is to the left. Sixth Ave.

Cabins occupied by tourists and seasonal staff. The Medical Centre rests on a raised foundation at the corner of Sixth Ave and Mission St.

Heritage building in the historic district. Heritage building in the historic district.

Commercial street in the downtown area. A lot rests vacant in downtown.

Appendix 6: Zoning within the Dawson townsite

Appendix 7: Newspaper review of flooding in the Dawson study area

Non-exhaustive summary of flood events, various sources.

Date Location Description Response Damages Notes Source May 4, 2009 Rock Creek Ice‐jam on Klondike River. Statements sent to area residents Repair needed to CBC North, May 4, Water began to rise at 5pm on Friday; five advising availability of sandbags and to Rock Creek Road. 2009. hours later it was 46cm high over Rock have water on hand. 61 to 91cm (2 to 3 Creek Road; 61cm was extent on Saturday. 28 people evacuated. feet) of water Ice blocks as thick as propane tanks floated Klondike Valley Fire Dept and Wildland reported in homes. onto properties. Fire Mgmt monitored flood and Full damages not 3pm on Saturday, ice‐jam broke and water updated residents. reported. receded. Power shut off by Yukon Energy. Dept of Health and Social Services provided hotel rooms to three displaced residents. YTG recommended testing of septic and well systems before re‐use. May 6, 2006 Rock Creek Ice‐jam on Klondike River caused a surge. 12 residents evacuated. Worst flood in seven Yukon News, May 8, 2pm on Saturday, water started to rise to Power and telephone cut off for 24 hrs. years. 2006. 1.5m. Klondike Valley Fire Dept and Yukon Most subdivision Hwy Dept evacuated residents and homes built to with pets. stand flooding and Health and Social Services provided remained undamaged. temporary accommodations; most Concern for water people stayed with relatives and eroding ground around friends. power poles, causing them to fall over. April 27, 2003 Industrial/tourist Ice‐jam on Klondike River. Hendley’s used a loader and truck to Two houses and Second biggest flood in Eamer, Taiga Net, July area: Guggieville Result of mid‐winter break and jam that create a berm to redirect the water mechanical shop 40 years of record for 11, 2003. RV, Northern caused ice to break up, jam and then re‐ from their property. affected; one house Klondike River. Superior freeze to a thickness of 3m (much thicker Road closure by RCMP (10:20 am to 11 inundated by 2m and Mechanical, than up‐stream) am). lifted off foundation. Bonanza Esso and Guggieville campground, stretch of Several vehicles sunk. Bonanza Gold Klondike Hwy and nearby areas covered by Boat swept away. Hotel, stretch of 10cm of water. Clean‐up took more Klondike Water reached less than a meter below than 2 months. Hwy Klondike Hwy Bridge. Different areas affected as jam slowly made its way out. (Water crossed under the Hwy via a culvert, then back to itself). Boutillier Lane (low lying area on Dawson side of bridge) flooded affecting a few residents. Dec 12, 2002 Near Klondike Ice‐jam downstream from Klondike River Inter agency dispatch from local EMO Unseasonal thawing River Bridge Bridge. coordinator. and freezing of the Water rose 2m in 48 hrs. Klondike. Minor flooding at base of Dome Rd. June 19, 2000 Rock Creek Freshette flood. Road to YTG campground, by airport, Freshette season comes Davidson, Klondike Heavy winter snowfall, followed by warm closed on Wed. after breakup; late this Sun, June 23, 2000. weather and rain caused flooding. EMO circulated a notice of flood year; early June is Waters varied from 0 to .75m in danger Thurs afternoon, advising what normal. subdivision. to do and where to go in case of need. High water for a Shallow flooding in several areas: entrance Warning of water contamination and freshette flood; to campground and Rock Creek blocked by possible evacuation. generally water rises swift flowing stream; Klondike Hwy from low ground and entrance to Klondike Valley Fire Dept. then ebbs away. May 8, 1998 Dawson City As ice began to move out, waters rose; Evacuation of a family on Sister Island Klondike Sun, May 15 river peaked at 2pm, 3.5m above normal (downstream). 1998. spring levels. Monitoring of River by City officials, Water covered lower road on dyke and and by Federal and Territorial buildings located there. Governments. Buildings on Pleasure Island flooded; three The City’s Emergency Measures buildings at Moosehide partially under Organization on standby. water. Tourist Complex and Pleasure Island totally flooded. Cause suspected to be jumbled ice on Yukon River (water and snow not high this year) which impeded smooth emptying of the river. April 29, 1997 Rock Creek Minor flooding of the Klondike River Klondike Valley Fire Fighters activated Davidson, Klondike washes out Rock Creek Road, cutting of for patrol. Sun, May 16, 1997. south end of lane where it exits beside the Residents parked vehicles above YTG campground. potential danger. Waters hit peek at noon; by 1:20 they had Emergency Measures plan activated; receded 4 inches; water gone from road by overflights of river made to keep an 3:30pm. eye on situation. KVFA kept watch during the night. May 7, 1986 Rock Creek Ice‐jam at bridge sent water over banks 1.5 3 families evacuated. Davidson and Ellis. km upstream of Yukon River. The Whitehorse Star, Water ran down the Hwy flooding a piece May 8, 1986. of low land half way between Ogilvie Bridge and Dawson City. Spring, 1982 Rock Creek Minor flood. The Yukon News, July Ice‐jam on creek caused water to back up 29, 1982. over the banks. May 3, 1979 Dawson City Ice jammed in the afternoon; by midnight Blower sounded Wed night drawing Lids of sewer boxes 600 people left The Whitehorse Star, water reached top of dyke; 40 minutes 200 people to waterfront to sand bag. floated away; created homeless. May 3 and May 4, later the town was 5 feet under water; by Trench dug on Thurs in Front St dyke to drop holes. $50 million in damages 1979; National Round 5:30 am the water dropped 3 feet; by 9:30 allow waters to flow out. (1979 dollars) Table on the am water dropped 5 feet. Water in south end pumped out. Buildings floated off Environment and the Six feet of water at its highest point. Warning from environmental services foundations, homes Economy, 2009. Floating ice bergs entered the community, of contamination danger from backed filled with water, scraping up against buildings. up sewer lines and spilt fuel. trailers turned over. 80% of Dawson buildings affected. Summer, Dawson City More than 3 feet of water entered the Sandbags placed around Power Plant; The Whitehorse Star, 1962 town. six pumps used to clear water. June 21, 1962. Water rose 1inch/hr. Hospital basement filled with water; Minto Park turned into small lake. power had to be turned off. Boil water advisory. May 22, 1957 Dawson City and Water rose 1inch/per hour. Community radio used by mayor to Two houses suffered Unknown. Klondike Rd Water 2 feet higher than average normal announce state of emergency. interior water high. All classes cancelled and people called damage; many others to help save the power plant. with water in cellars, May 23, RCAF rescue plane brought including hospital, the territorial engineer to assess situation, sisters residence and especially at Klondike River Bridge – police barracks. concern that it would be washed out as ice built up dangerously high and behind it. Decision taken to blast ice upstream from bridge to break ice. Volunteers dyked roads ten feet high. 3000 cubic yards of sand in 36,000 bags filled (1250 tons). Hospital vacated. May, 1925 Dawson City South end of City submerged by 4 to 5 feet Canoes and small boats used to move Cabins afloat and The Dawson News, of water, from Fifth Ave to the waterfront. people and belongings to dry land. seriously damaged. May 14 ,1925. Police had five canoes out

Appendix 8: Historic photos of flooding in the Dawson townsite

May 3rd 1979, Eighth Ave and Dugas St. Source: Brian Reeve, photographer, Dawson City Museum 1984.104.3

1962 flood, Second Ave between Harper and Queen St. Source: John Gould, photographer, Dawson City Museum 1977.7.47

May 1962, Dawson City shortly after flood. Source: Iris Warner, photographer, Dawson City Museum 1984.111.01

May 7th 1944, South Dawson from Crocus Bluff. Source: Dawson City Museum 1984.110.08

1936, Fifth Ave, Dawson City. Source: Dawson City Museum 1984.113.05

c1930 Southwest Dawson. Source: Dawson City Museum 1995.345.23 Appendix 9: Dawson City dyke

Lands adjacent to the dyke are reserved for The dyke is popularly used by residents and recreational use and have become a gathering tourists. A pathway rests on top which provides a place for cultural events. look-out up and down the Yukon River.

A flood-gate provides vehicular access to the community docks. The gate is closed and sand- bagged in the event of high water.

Drainage conduits allow for the townsite to drain, while blocking water and ice from surging into Southern entrance to the community, where the the community. Picture taken from Yukon River Klondike Highway turns into Front St. The dyke side facing towards the dyke. continues until it meets flush with the increasing slope of the highway. Yukon River is to the left.

Appendix 10: Flood-proofing measures in the Klondike River Valley

Loally found materials, such as piping, are scavenged from abandonned mine sites and used to reinforce homes against drifting ice-pans. This house was elevated after the 2009 flooding of the Klondike River.

A home constructed at-grade using wet flood- A private berm made of rip-rap protects a proofing techniques. Materials are water- residence on the north bank of the Klondike tolerant and the first floor is designed to flood. River.

A new property owner raises the site’s Landscaping techniques are used on this property foundation with fill, pre-construction. to protect the main residence from ice-scour.

Preface:

This flood simulation was created for the CAVIAR Dawson Project. Water surface levels of the Yukon River are based on separated elevation data at 1m intervals. This information is derived from a DEM file with a resolution of 16m (interpolated from 20m contours). The model depicts the natural course of inundation of the Yukon River floodplain.

Data sources: Orthophoto: QuickBird 2006 Elevations: interpolated from NTDB.

Contact information: For more information on this model and its application, please contact Erica Beasley [email protected] Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 318m Community Hall 0m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 319m Community Hall 1m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 320m Community Hall 2m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 321m Community Hall 3m

Community Chapel Water in Dawson now at dyke level St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre 2.6m = extent of Robert Service School 1979 flood

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 322m Community Hall 4m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 323m Community Hall 5m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 324m Community Hall 6m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 325m Community Hall 7m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 326m Community Hall 8m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 327m Community Hall 9m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 328m Community Hall 10m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 329m Community Hall 11m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 330m Community Hall 12m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 331m Community Hall 13m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 332m Community Hall 14m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 333m Community Hall 15m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 334m Community Hall 16m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 335m Community Hall 17m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 336m Community Hall 18m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 337m Community Hall 19m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 338m Community Hall 20m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 339m Community Hall 21m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 340m Community Hall 22m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 341m Community Hall 23m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 342m Community Hall 24m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 343m Community Hall 25m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 344m Community Hall 26m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 345m Community Hall 27m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy Dawson City, YT

SfSurface eltilevation Municipal Works and Fire Hall within townsite: Water depth: 346m Community Hall 28m

Community Chapel

St. Mary’s Church Recreation Centre

Robert Service School

Daycare Centre Ambulance Seniors’ Home Current Medical Centre RCMP Sewage System Construction Future Regional Hospital Reservoir Pump Yukon Energy