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Posture Is the Attitude Taken by the Body in Any Particular Situation Like Standing Posture, Sitting Posture, Etc

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Posture Is the Attitude Taken by the Body in Any Particular Situation Like Standing Posture, Sitting Posture, Etc Posture is the attitude taken by the body in any particular situation like standing posture, sitting posture, etc. even during movement, there is a continuously changing posture The basis of posture is the ability to keep certain group of muscles in sustained contraction. Variation in the degree of contraction and tone in different groups of muscle decides the posture of the individual. The muscles which maintain posture should have the ability to remain contracted for long periods. MECHANISM •Posture-maintaining muscles contain more of red muscle fibres, which are slowly contracting and not easily fatigued. All muscles in the body are a mixture of red and pale(white) muscles. Muscles of hand, eye etc., has a preponderance of white muscle fibres which are easily fatigued. •Only a fraction of the muscle fibres are active at any given time due to asynchronous contraction. POSTURAL REFLEXES The postural reflexes help to maintain the body in upright and balanced position. They also provide adjustments necessary to maintain a stable posture during voluntary activity. REFLEX ARC of postural reflexes is as follows: •Afferent pathways of reflex arc come from the eyes, the vestibular apparatus and the proprioceptors. •Integrating centers are formed by neuronal networks in brain stem and spinal cord. •Efferent pathways consist of alpha-motor neurons supplying the various skeletal muscles which form the effector organs. TYPES OF POSTURAL REFLEXES Broadly they are of two types: •Static reflexes: These are elicited by gravitational pull and involve sustained contraction of muscles. •Statokinetic reflexes: These reflexes, also called phasic reflexes, are elicited by acceleratory displacement of the body. They maintain a stable postural background for voluntary activity. •Both these types of postural reflexes are integrated at various levels in the CNS from the spinal cord to cerebral cortex and are affected largely by pyramidal pathways. The basic reflex operating in maintaining posture is stretch reflex and the receptor involved is the muscle spindle. Any posture can be voluntarily assumed, but maintenance of posture is reflexly done. The degree of contraction of any muscle depends on the degree of firing from α- motor neuron. Motor neuron is influenced by pyramidal and ex- trapyramidal tracts coming down directly or through gamma motor neurons or interneurons. MAINTANENANCE OF POSTURE Decision for a particular posture may occur in the cortex, planning and programming occur in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, and the information comes down through the pyramidal tract to the motor neurons supplying muscles. In a standing posture, the centre of gravity is acting in such a way that the body falls forwards. So the antigravity muscles like extensors of neck, back,hip,legs etc., should be in a contracted state. In the normal standing posture of humans, the upper limbs are slightly flexed, and the flexor group of muscles are the antigravity muscles in the upper limb. The vestibular receptors, proprioreceptors, visual receptors etc., play important role in maintaining posture. In the standing posture, impulse coming through vestibulospinal tract and reticulospinal tract also play an important role. If there is a change in the position of head, the receptors in the utricle and saccule are stimulated and some group of muscles contract and the head is held erect or in a particular posture. If an animal is pushed to one side, the limbs of that side extend or there will be a hopping movement VARIOUS POSTURAL REFLEXES REFLEX STIMULUS RESPONSE RECEPTORS INTEGRATING CENTRE IN CNS A.Static reflexes 1.Local static Contraction of Muscles Spinal cord and reflexes Stretch antigravity spindles mid brain Stretch reflex muscles 2.Positive Contact of skin Contraction of Touch and Supporting of the sole of flexors and pressure Spinal cord reflex foot with ground extensors of receptors from the limb. skin of sole of foot. 3.Negative Stretch of Disappearance Proprioceptors Spinal cord supporting extensor of positive in extensors reaction muscles supporting reaction REFLEX STIMULUS RESPONSE RECEPTORS INTEGRATING CENTRE IN CNS 2.Segmental Contraction of Nociceptors Spinal cord static reflexes Painful flexors of the Crossed stimulus ipsilateral limb and extensor reflex extensors of contralateral limb to support the body. 3.General static reflexes Gravity Extensor rigidity Otolith organs Vestibular and Attitudinal (alternation of reticular nuclei reflexes position of head present in the 1. Tonic relative to medulla labyrinthine horizontal plan) Flexion of forelimbs oblongata. reflex and extension of hind Stretch of neck limbs on ventroflexion 2. Tonic neck muscles due to of head .extension of Pacinian fore limbs and flexion reflex alternation of corpuscles in Medulla of hindlimbs.flexion of position of head ipsilateral limbs and the ligaments relative to body. extension of of cervical joint contralateral limbs on and muscles turning the head side- spindles of ways. neck muscles. REFLEX STIMULUS RESPONSE RECEPTORS INTEGRATING CENTRE IN CNS 2.Long loop stretch Stretch of the Continuous Muscle Spinal cord reflex muscle due to moment to spindles(monosyna swaying of body moment ptic reflex) visual Cerebral cortex corrections of receptor(long loon sways which occurs reflex) 3.Righting reflexes during standing. Otolith organs in • Labyrinthine Gravity Brings the head in saccules of Mid brain righting reflex upright level labyrinth.exterocep tors •Body righting Pressure on side of reflex body Righting of head. Exteroceptors Mid brain •Neck righting Stretch of neck Muscle spindles reflex muscles Righting of thorax Mid brain and shoulders and •Body on body Pressure on side of then pelvis Exteroceptors righting reflex the body Righting of body Mid brain even when righting of head is •Limbs righting Stretch of limb prevented. Muscle spindles reflex muscles Appropriate Mid brain posture of limbs • optical Visual cues Eyes Cerebral cortex righting reflex Righting of head REFLEX STIMULUS RESPONSE RECEPTORS INTEGRATING CENTRE IN CNS B.Statokinetic reflexes Linear Foot placed on Receptors in •Vestibular acceleration supporting utricle and Cerebral cortex placing surface in saccule . reaction position to support body. •Visual placing Visual cues Foot places on Eyes Cerebral cortex reaction supporting surface. •Hopping reactions Lateral Hops, maintains Muscle spindle Cerebral cortex displacement the limb in position to while standing support the body ROLE OF DIFFERENT REGIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEMS IN MAINTENANCE OF POSTURE Role of spinal cord: spinal animal Effects of spinal cord transaction: The effects produced by complete spinal cord transaction occur in three stages: •Stage of spinal shock, •Stage of reflex activity, and •Stage of reflex failure. ROLE OF BRAIN STEMM: BULBOSPINAL ANIMAL OR DECEREBRATE ANIMAL Decerebrate animal Decerebrate animal is one in whom the brain stem is transected at intercollicular level (between superior and inferior colliculi). ROLE OF CEREBELLUM Spinocerebellum regulates the postural reflexes by modifying muscle tone .It facilitates the gamma motor neurons in the spinal cord via cerebello-vestibulo-spinal neurons in the spinal and Cerebello-reticulo-spinal tracts .The gamma motor neurons reflexly modify the activity of alpha motor neurons and thus regulate the muscle tone. Thus, cerebellum forms an important site of linkage of alpha-gamma systems responsible for muscle tone ROLE OF BASAL GANGLIA: DECORTICATE ANIMAL Decorticate animal is one in whom the whole cerebral cortex is removed but the basal ganglia and brain stem are left intact. DECEBRATE PREPARATION DECORTICATE PREPARATION • Extensive extensor rigidity moderate rigidity as in And decerebrate posture hemiplegia • Righting reflexes absent rightining reflexes present • Temperature regulation temperature regulation Absent normal • Only a standing posture can stand and walk reflexly, Can be maintained but placing and hopping Reactions are absent MECHANISM OF STANDING IN MAN Tall human being has to stand over a narrow base of feet,therefore,maintenance of erect posture is more difficult than the quadruped animals. Mechanisms which play important role in erect standing posture are. Reflex adjustment in muscle tone of antigravity muscles Undoubtedly plays most important role in making the man stand erect. From this statement,it may be presumed that a continued contraction of most of the trunk and leg muscles keeps the posture upright. However, electromyographic studies have revealed very little muscle activity in a person standing quietly in upright position. Configuration of hip and knee joints is such that they are kept extended by the gravity itself. However, a little activity of the antigravity muscles is required to maintain the very precarious balance. This explains the little muscle activity revealed by electromyographic studies. The effect of gravity has to be opposed by reflex contraction of the antigravity muscles all the time, otherwise a standing man may fall in any direction(forwards,backwards or sideways).The different antigravity muscles which oppose the fall under various circumstances are: Extensors of the trunk and flexors of legs contract sufficiently to restore the balance when the body sways forward Recti abdominis and leg extensors contract to restore the balance when the body sways backward Contralateral external oblique abdominal muscles maintain the balance when the body leans sideways Head has a tendency to sway more than the trunk: since the centre of gravity of head passes in front of the centre of gravity of atlanto- occipital joint, therefore, head always has got a tendency to roll forwards.To hold the head in erect position the cervico-occipital muscles are to be maintained in a state of constant tension. Reflex changes in antigravity muscles described above are induced by: •Stretch receptors in the trunk and leg muscles, •Visual afferents also play important role in reflex maintenance of upright posture in man. This is why, when the eyes are closed, the upright posture is less steady and there occurs more swaying(bending) of the trunk. •Vestibular afferents help in maintaining the erect position of head. .
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