Global Issues and Trends in Tourism

Editors Cevdet AVCIKURT Mihaela S. DINU Necdet HACIOĞLU Recep EFE Abdullah SOYKAN Nuray TETİK

ISBN 978-954-07-4138-3

ST. KLIMENT OHRIDSKI UNIVERSITY PRESS SOFIA  2016

Editors Prof. Dr. Cevdet AVCIKURT Prof. Dr. Recep EFE Balikesir University Balikesir University Faculty of Tourism Faculty of Arts and Sciences Balıkesir- Department of Geography Balıkesir-Turkey Prof. Dr. Mihaela S. DINU Romanian American University Prof. Dr. Abdullah SOYKAN School of Domestic and International Balikesir University Tourism Economics Faculty of Arts and Sciences Bucharest, Romania Department of Geography Balıkesir-Turkey Prof. Dr. Necdet HACIOĞLU Balikesir University Assist. Prof. Dr. Nuray TETIK Faculty of Tourism Balikesir University Balıkesir-Turkey Faculty of Tourism Balıkesir-Turkey

St. Kliment Ohridski University Press ISBN 978-954-07-4138-3

The contents of chapters/papers are the sole responsibility of the authors, and publication shall not imply the concurrence of the Editors or Publisher.

© 2016 Recep Efe All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior permission of the editors and authors

Cover Design: İsa Curebal Back Cover Photo: Recep Efe

ii CONTENTS Chapter 1 ...... 1 Research into the International Tourism Movements on the Basis of Destination: The Case of Turkey Necdet HACIOĞLU, Füsun ESENKAL ÇÖZELİ Chapter 2 ...... 19 Emotional Labor Behaviors in Tourism: A Study on the Students of Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism Cevdet AVCIKURT, Pelin YAGCI Chapter 3 ...... 33 Gastronomy and Tourism Osman ÇALIŞKAN, Gökhan YILMAZ Chapter 4 ...... 51 The Thermal Tourism Services Provided by Five Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar Gonca KILIÇ, Asuman PEKYAMAN, Engin AYTEKİN Chapter 5 ...... 68 The Role of Gastronomy Tourism in Slow Cities: Case of Turkey Mehmet SARIOĞLAN, Cevdet AVCIKURT Chapter 6 ...... 73 Interpretation of Museum by Tourist Guides Uysal YENIPINAR Chapter 7 ...... 87 Job Insecurity from a Multi-faceted Perspective of the Tourism Sector Aziz Gökhan ÖZKOÇ, Nurgül ÇALIŞKAN Chapter 8 ...... 103 Leadership in Service Enterprises Ahmet BAYTOK, Hasan Hüseyin SOYBALI Chapter 9 ...... 120 The Role of Rural Tourism in Rural Development Gülay ÖZDEMİR YILMAZ Chapter 10 ...... 134 An Ideal Example for Sustainable Tourism Development: Kaiserwinkl, Austria Barış ERDEM, Eray POLAT, Sami Sonat ÖZDEMİR Chapter 11 ...... 149 Innovative Planning in Thermal Tourism Destinations: Balikesir-Güre Thermal Tourism Destination Case Study Melike GÜL, Kudret GÜL Chapter 12 ...... 163 Attitudes of University Students towards Mobile Marketing of Food and Beverage Goods and Services Nuray TETİK, Göksel Kemal GİRGİN

iii Chapter 13 ...... 176 Management of Special Interest Tourism in Terms of Sustainable Tourism Zeki AKINCI, Murad Alpaslan KASALAK Chapter 14 ...... 191 A Curriculum Proposal for Recreation Programs in Faculties of Tourism Pelin YAGCI, Ahmet KOROGLU Chapter 15 ...... 203 Tourist Guiding: “Cinderella” of the Tourism Feray İRİGÜLER, Mehmet Emre GÜLER Chapter 16 ...... 217 Consumers and Tourists’ Restaurant Selections Gökhan YILMAZ, Selami GÜLTEKİN Chapter 17 ...... 231 Ayvalık, in Terms of Sustainable Tourism Hüsniye DOLDUR Chapter 18 ...... 242 Opinion Mining to Analyze Perception of a Touristic Destination Valentina Erminia ALBANESE Chapter 19 ...... 255 Sustainability of City Destinations: A Case Study of Mersin City Council Uysal YENİPINAR, Elif BAK Chapter 20 ...... 269 Motivation and Involvement as Antecedents of the Perceived Value of the Festival Experience: A Study on Burhaniye Bicycle Festival Sabriye ÇELİK UĞUZ, Volkan ÖZBEK, Mustafa GÜNALAN Chapter 21 ...... 282 A New Trend in the Turkish Tourism Industry: Halal Tourism Hüseyin PAMUKÇU, Özgür ARPACI Chapter 22 ...... 296 Destination Management in Culture Tourism: The Case of Safranbolu Nurettin AYAZ, Özhan DEMİRKOL Chapter 23 ...... 309 Travel and Accommodation Preferences of Public Employees: A Case Study in Aksaray (Turkey) Burak Murat DEMİRÇİVİ, Sait DOĞAN, Mehmet TUNCER Chapter 24 ...... 323 Festivals as Cultural Heritage: The Mesir Festival of Manisa Uysal YENİPINAR, Erşan YILDIZ Chapter 25 ...... 335 The Rising Trend of Tourism: Cruise Tourism V. Rüya EHTIYAR

iv Chapter 26 ...... 348 Evaluation of Potential Wellness & SPA (Thermal) Tourism in Aydın Province GülserenYURCU Chapter 27 ...... 360 A View to Tourism Investment Policies in Turkey in the Context of Globalization Process and Sustainability Düriye BOZOK, Özge GÜDÜ DEMIRBULAT Chapter 28 ...... 372 A Comparison of Depression and Turnover Intentions of Hotel Employees in All- Inclusive and Non All-Inclusive Hotels Hakan BOZ, Özer YILMAZ, Aytuğ ARSLAN, Erdoğan KOÇ Chapter 29 ...... 383 Wine Tourism Ozlem GUZEL, Elena GROMOVA Chapter 30 ...... 394 Gastronomy Tourism: Motivations and Destinations Berrin GUZEL, Müge APAYDIN Chapter 31 ...... 405 Expectations and Satisfaction Perceptions of Tourists, Who Travel For Purpose of Culture: Case Study of Bergama S. Banu YILDIZ & Sultan Nazmiye KILIÇ Chapter 32 ...... 417 Social Security Rights of Tourist the Guides and Taxation of Their Earnings in Turkey Ö. Hakan ÇAVUŞ Chapter 33 ...... 429 Sustainable Practices at Tour Operators: Case of Kuoni Group Halil KORKMAZ, Lütfi ATAY, Serdar SÜNNETÇİOĞLU Chapter 34 ...... 439 Dynamic Capabilities: A Theoretical Framework for Tourism Destinations Emre ERBAŞ Chapter 35 ...... 449 The Effect of Work Related Smartphone Use during Vacation on Recovery Experience: Mediating Role of Work-Travel Interference Mustafa C. ALTUNEL, Ebru ULUCAN Chapter 36 ...... 459 Event Tourism Ömer ÇOBAN Chapter 37 ...... 470 Potential of Gastronomy Tourism within Culture Tourism and Developing Neslihan ONUR & Fatih ONUR Chapter 38 ...... 480 Economic Impacts of Tourism and Its Place In Turkish Economy Kamil UNUR, Hasan KÖŞKER, Ferhat ŞEKER

v Chapter 39 ...... 490 Turkish Cousine’s Importance and Tourism Potential Faruk SEYITOĞLU and Osman ÇALIŞKAN Chapter 40 ...... 499 Cruise Tourism in the World and in Turkey Elif Tuba BEYDİLLİ & Ömer Zafer GÜVEN Chapter 41 ...... 509 Relationship Marketing in Tourism Sector Kaplan UĞURLU Chapter 42 ...... 518 Informal Employment in Tourism Sabriye ÇELİK UĞUZ, İsmet KAYA Chapter 43 ...... 527 Cruise Tourism in the Mediterranean Kamil YAĞCI and Gürkan AKDAĞ Chapter 44 ...... 535 Equine Tourism: Nature, Sports and Travel Kemal YILMAZ, Gülşen GONCAGÜL Chapter 45 ...... 544 Casino Gaming Tourism: A Case of Macau Burak MIL & Derman KÜÇÜKALTAN Chapter 46 ...... 553 Backpackers’ Travel Motivations and Experiences Kadir ÇAKAR, Faruk SEYITOĞLU & Nazlı SAYAR Chapter 47 ...... 561 Sensory Marketing in Tourism Ceren IŞÇI Chapter 48 ...... 569 The Leadership Orientations of Tourism Managers of the Future Halil AKMESE, Ahmet BUYUKSALVARCI, Sercan ARAS Chapter 49 ...... 576 Agriculture-Tourism-Exchange (Ta Tu Ta) Fatih TÜRKMEN Chapter 50 ...... 583 Annus Fidei 2013 in Rome: An opportunity for Pilgrimage Tourism in Italy Daniela LA FORESTA Chapter 51 ...... 590 Slow Food Practices in Tourism Eda GÜNEŞ, Ümit SORMAZ, Mustafa YILMAZ Chapter 52 ...... 596 Ecotourism Entrepreneurship, the Features of Ecotourism Entrepreneurshıp, Problems and Solutions Murad Alpaslan KASALAK, Zeki AKINCI, Gülseren YURCU

vi Chapter 53 ...... 602 Approach of the Young to Eco-Gastronomy: The Case of Turkish Cuisine Onur GÖRKEM, Murat BAYRAM, Serkan BERTAN and Ümmühan BAYRAM Chapter 54 ...... 611 Religious Tourism Ümit SORMAZ, Mustafa YILMAZ Chapter 55 ...... 621 Segmentation of Visitor’s Motivations: A Study on 20th East Mediterranean International Tourism and Travel (EMITT) Exhibition Ali DALGIÇ, Sevda SAHİLLİ BİRDİR, Kemal BİRDİR Chapter 56 ...... 632 The Evaluation of the Tourism and Recreational Potential of Amasra in Terms of Landscape Planning Ömer Lütfü ÇORBACI Chapter 57 ...... 650 Investigation of Nature-Based Tourism Possibilities in Bursa Waterfalls Zeynep PİRSELİMOĞLU BATMAN, Murat ZENCİRKIRAN Chapter 58 ...... 661 The Role and Importance of Tourism Information System in Urban Tourism Planning Sultan Sevinç KURT, Banu Çiçek KURDOĞLU Chapter 59 ...... 669 : One of The Gastronomy City Selected by UNESCO Hüsniye DOLDUR Chapter 60 ...... 679 Developing Ecotourism Development Strategies for Sustainable Rural Development: A Case Study of Kıyıköy, Kırklareli Tuğba KİPER, Osman UZUN, Tuğba ÜSTÜN TOPAL Chapter 61 ...... 700 Development and Sustainability of the Tourism in Lake Salda and its Environs Kaan KAPAN Chapter 62 ...... 708 The View on Alternative Tourism by Managers of Accommodation Establishments: The Example of the East Antalya (Side) Tourism Development Project Area Cemali SARI, Medine ALİGİL Chapter 63 ...... 716 Research on Slow City Movement within the Context of Sustainable Urban Planning: The Case of Vize, Kırklareli - Turkey Rüya YILMAZ

vii

Chapter 1

Research into the International Tourism Movements on the Basis of Destination: The Case of Turkey

Necdet HACIOĞLU*, Füsun ESENKAL ÇÖZELİ**

1. INTRODUCTION Tourism is one of the leading sectors that are the fastest developing and growing industries throughout the world. This sector which makes positive and important contributions to the countries from economic, social, political and cultural aspects, has become an industry on its own in the world economy (Bozok, 1996: v). To that effect, the number of tourists who participated in the international travels in 2014 reached by 4.7% increase rate and up to 1,138 million compared to the previous year (with an increase of 51 million tourists compared to the previous period) according to World Tourism Organization’s statement (Turofed, 2015: 22). Therefore, the countries almost compete in order to get a share from international tourism which is such an important source of income. New destinations which possess many original features show up every day within intense tourism competition in the world (Yavuz, 2007: 41). The competition among the businesses in international tourism and travel industry has left its place to the competition among the destinations (Cabael, 2011: 15). A large number of destinations whose physical characteristics are similar are in a competition in Mediterranean basin where Turkey is also located (Cabael, 2011:4). Many countries which offer similar tourism products are affected negatively by this type of competition. When it is taken into consideration that it is highly possible for the countries such as Tunisia and Algeria, which are located in Mediterranean basin new in tourism, to offer charming prices to the tourists for the basic product, it should be expected that the competition will be much more intensive for Turkey in the following years. One of the predictions is that it would be easier and more profitable to do what has not been done in fierce competition environment brought by globalization or to enter into the small and niche markets which have not been entered yet and which possess a certain level of potential (Yavuz, 2007: 41). Therefore, the destinations in Turkey should continuously review themselves. The destinations should rediscover their past, history and cultural values, and should face the world with a new identity and vision (Yavuz, 2007: 41). Because each place may not motivate everyone in the same way (Hacıoğlu, 2000: 118). This situation necessitates that the authorities know the factors which affect the tourists’ destination preferences, and that various public and private enterprises offer a package composed of complementary goods and services in line with the resources of the destinations in a manner which will be beneficial for the tourists (Bağıran, 2015: 10). Otherwise, all destinations, including Turkey, which cannot ensure the development of sustainable tourism, cannot diversify their attractions, cannot make use of their resources effectively, cannot perform new and creative marketing activities will face the risk of losing their share in international tourism market (Bardakoğlu, 2011: 31). 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. The Concept of Destination Destination is a word of French origin, and is used to mean “the place to arrive” in the most general sense (Cabael, 2011: 5). Apart from that, it is seen that this word is used in Turkish tourism literature with various expressions such as “the place visited”, “tourism area”, “orientation location”, “destination point”, “attraction location”, “tourist site”, “tourism region”, “target area”, “tourist target”, “tourist station” (Aksöz, 2010: 3). In general, destination is defined as “a geographical area which constitutes the focal point of the services and opportunities that are envisaged in order to meet the needs

* Prof. Dr, Balıkesir University, Tourism Faculty, Head of Tourism Guide Department ** PhD Candidate, Balıkesir University, Social Sciences Institute, Tourism Mangement Department

of the tourists” (Babacan, 2010: 40). Destinations may be either as big as a continent, or a country or may be smaller than the whole country, or may be either as small as a city or even a village in a country. Within this context; villages, towns, cities, provinces and countries are expressed as destination (Aksöz, 2010: 4). Kotler, Bowen and Makens divide the destinations into two as micro and macro. Micro destination means the places whose borders exist physically in some way or it is accepted that their borders exist, and macro destination means the places which have more than one destination area. According to this definition, Bodrum is a micro destination, and Turkey is a macro destination. Besides that, even specific casino centers can be qualified as destination as is seen in the examples of Las Vegas, Cyprus, Monte Carlo (Aksöz, 2010: 5). 2.2 The Relationship between Tourism and Destination Destination is among the most essential factors of the tourism concept (Ekici, 2013: 5). Since all tourism activities are carried out within tourism destinations by the nature of the tourism sector (Doğan, 2013: 2). Therefore, it is known that tourism and destination are two important factors which are interrelated and have an impact on the development of each other. A well-preserved destination is important for the refreshment and development of the tourism, and similarly tourism is also rather important for the development and promotion of the destination (Keskin, 2012: 35). A visitor wants to be engaged in many activities in the place he/she has gone and wants to live different experiences such as accommodation, food & beverage, entertainment, sightseeing new places, learning different cultures. Hence, the visitors prefer the destinations which can provide some of the tourism activities all together such as sea-sand-sun, shopping, culture, sports, history, faith etc. During the vacation, the visitors evaluate the quality of the total service they have been provided, and they have an overall satisfaction opinion satisfaction upon these evaluations at the end of the vacation (Cabael, 2011: 16). Therefore, a success of a tourism destination lays on considering thoroughly how the visitors that have tendency for travelling can be affected and/or how the visitors coming to that place can be re- attracted. In this period, it has great importance to develop strategies in the matters of determining the factors that have affect upon the destination preferences of the tourists, knowing the features of the destination well, knowing how to use and manage the existing potential of the destinations (Cabael, 2011: 4). Thus, the destinations which can meet the demands of the changing visitors, and which can enhance the quality of service and product range will gain advantage in today’s fierce competition conditions (Cabael, 2011: 16). 3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1. Purpose and Importance of the Research In this study, some suggestions have been brought forward in relation to what can be done about moving the position of Turkey, as a tourism destination, in international tourism movements to top ranks. For this purpose, tourism destinations which comes into prominence and the destination areas which remain idle in Turkey have been addressed statistically on the basis of regions, provinces and districts. Afterwards, the regions and the provinces have been evaluated from the point of tourism features. Within this framework, it has been studied to give answers to some questions such as: Which regions and which provinces in Turkey do the foreigners mainly prefer? What are the reasons for preferring the accommodation in those destinations? What are the reasons for not preferring the destinations remaining idle? What can be done to increase the demand towards the destinations remaining idle? There exists a great deal of studies about destination marketing when the studies about the issue are examined. However, there has never been this type of study. In this sense, it is considered that this study becomes more of an issue for the literature. 3.2. Research Method As the method, firstly literature review has been conducted, and then it has been scrutinized that which destinations the countries prefer in the world and why they prefer these destinations, and which features Turkey has as a tourism destination, and the reasons why the foreigners prefer Turkey; and later it has been aimed to determine the destination centers that are preferred and the destination centers remaining idle in Turkey in the light of statistical data.

2 3.3. Findings obtained from the study When the data in the Table 1 are examined, it can be seen that Mediterranean, Marmara, Aegean, Southeastern Anatolia, Central Anatolia, Black Sea and are listed respectively from the most accommodated to the least accommodated regions. Table 1: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in Turkey by the Geographic Regions 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Mediterranean 8,870,174 9,592,572 10,313,228 10,978,366 12,122,769 Marmara 3,829,370 4,425,365 4,998,288 5,145,758 5,811,276 Aegean 3,387,806 3,825,261 3,719,639 3,515,462 3,913,693 Central Anatolia 1,080,197 1,098,324 1,102,695 1,118,511 1,267,282 Southeastern Anatolia 84,168 116,831 136,993 190,405 180,656 Black Sea 101,053 133,722 141,135 152,238 160,635 Eastern Anatolia 62,596 72,363 69,330 80,928 111,488 Source: This table was compiled from the Accommodation Statistics of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Mediterranean Region According to the data of Table 1- 2014, Mediterranean Region is ranked as the first in terms of accommodation. The region draws attention of the foreign tourists both due to its natural beauties and mild climate; and its history and culture. In Mediterranean Region, there are natural health sources such as hot springs, healing waters, and mineral springs, which are of capital importance; and relaxing waterfalls and lakes, as well. The presence of Taurus Mountains brings the region into prominence in terms of mountain and hunting tourism. Apart from these, the region comes into prominence in terms of tourism with important cultural events and tourism fairs and festivals such as Mersin Fashion and Textile Fair, and Golden Orange Film Festival (Antalya Film Festival) which is held annually (web-1 (web-2). Mediterranean Region is the earliest warming and the latest cooling region in Turkey (web-2). The fact that the summer starts early results in the early start and development of the sea tourism, as well (web-2). Therefore, the most developed tourism type is sea tourism (WEB-3). At the same time, conducting tourism development projects in the region, intensification of the domestic and foreign tourism investments and accordingly the existence the tourism facilities which have various qualities and sufficient bed amounts lead to the fact that this region achieves superiority upon the other regions; and bring the Mediterranean Region into the number one attraction center (Hacıoğlu et. al. 2008: 81). So much so that, up to 35% of the tourist bed capacity in Turkey have been positioned in this region, especially in Antalya coastline. Along the coasts of the region, some very-well equipped international hotels, holiday villages, hostels, and the marinas are ranked after one another. There are other important factors which contributes to the development of the tourism in these areas such as marinas built in many places of the coasts, new airports, the roads which link the settlements and the spectacular sights to each other along the shore (WEB-3), and carrying out charter flights directly from the countries to this region, and the direct flights made in the air transportations. When the region is examined on the basis of the provinces, it is seen that the most important tourism center is Antalya which has a share at the rate of 98.5%. The province has 4 important tourism center as Alanya, Kemer, Manavgat, Serik. Moreover, it is seen that Muratpaşa, Side, Aksu and Konyalatı are also important tourism centers. Mersin gets share from tourism with its Akdeniz and Erdemli districts, Adana with its Seyhan and Yüreğir districts, Hatay with its down-town and Antakya and İskenderun districts, Isparta with its centers and Eğridir district, with its down-town and Ağlasun district, Kahramanmaraş with its Dulkadiroğlu and Onikişubat districts, and Osmaniye with its down-town. As seen in the table; the number of the tourists decreases especially as getting closer to the Syrian provincial border. Although there are plenty of cultural, historical and natural attractions, it is evident that the biggest reason why these provinces cannot get the desired share is security issue (Syrian civil war, terrorism etc.).

3 Table 2: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Mediterranean Region by the Provinces and Districts Mediterranean Region Number of the Number of the Districts Districts arrivals to facility arrivals to facility Alanya 2,564,824 Eğirdir 3,005 Kemer 2,407,689 Isparta Antalya Manavgat 2,193,077 5 970 Down-town 2,837 11 944 480 Serik 2,130,536 Others 128 Others 2.648.354 Burdur Down-town 2,260 Mersin Akdeniz 30,395 4 333 62 396 Others 32.001 Others 2073 Adana Seyhan 33,739 Kahraman- Dulkadiroğlu 2,275 51 782 Others 18,064 Maraş Others 1,663 Down- 3.398 Hatay town 26,270 Osmaniye Down-Town 1,030 48 534 (antakya) 1.336 Others 336 Source: This table was compiled from the accommodation statistics of the ministry of culture and tourism. Table 3: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Mediterranean Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Provinces 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Antalya 8,695,231 9,454,362 10,183,562 10,827,654 11,944,480 Mersin 63,003 50,105 43,651 50,106 62,396 Adana 40,922 40,420 39,592 44,641 51,782 Hatay 57,879 37,157 35,473 43,870 48,534 Isparta 8,046 6,210 4,401 4,111 5,970 Burdur 1,446 957 1,847 1,847 4,333 Kahramanmaraş 2,493 2,356 2,405 4,093 3,938 Kilis 153 293 1,192 - - Osmaniye - - - - 1,336 Source: This table was compiled from the Accommodation Statistics of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism

When the statistics between 2010 and 2014 are examined on the basis of the provinces, it is seen that Antalya maintains its stability and the number continues to increase. However, the same balanced attitude could not be maintained in the other provinces by years. Particularly, the declines which were experienced in Isparta after 2010 cannot be ignored. There has been a decline in especially Eastern Mediterranean provinces in 2012. When the reason behind this decline is examined, it can be considered that the reason is the Syrian civil war which broke out on 5 March 2011 and the Turkey-Syrian crisis which began after a Turkish jet was downed by Syria on June 2012. This is because, the nationals of Syria, Iran and Iraq often visited Eastern Mediterranean and Southeastern provinces in order to do one- day shopping until 16 September 2009 when the visa requirement between Turkey and Syria was effectively and mutually lifted, and then the visa requirements with Iran and Iraq were also lifted. However, this upward trend in 2011 was reversed with the impact of the crisis in 2012 and the number of the tourists coming from Syria decreased by 33.1% as it is seen (Çay, 2016). According to the Table 1-2014 data, Marmara Region is ranked as the second in terms of accommodation choice. The most important reason behind this is surely the region’s natural, historical and cultural richness (WEB-4). Apart from this, there are other features which increase the attractiveness of the region. For instance, there (Bosporus) and Gallipoli Straits (Dardanelles) in the region (WEB-5) and this region is located on important transportation routes (WEB-6). However,

4 the following reasons have caused that this region is preferred as the 2nd accommodation location: the visits to the region are for one-day, and the accommodation periods are short, this region is the point of entry (airline and highway) for the tourists, and the tourism centers in the other regions are used as transit while leaving (Hacıoğlu et. al., 2008: 78). Table 4: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Marmara Region by the Provinces and Districts Number of the Number of the Provinces Districts Provinces Districts arrivals to facility arrivals to facility Fatih 1,627,085 Edirne Down-town 29,250 Istanbul Beyoğlu 1,072,043 33 222 Others 3.972 5 078 949 Others 2,379.821 Yalova Termal 22,369 Bursa Osmangazi 167,216 32.645 Others 10.276 225 588 Others 58,372 Sakarya Sapanca 16,154 Balikesir Ayvalık 86,990 Adapazarı 9,985 28.690 114 929 Others 27.939 Others 2.551 İzmit 35,147 Tekirdağ Çorlu 11,306 Kocaeli Gebze 28,102 21 260 Others 9.954 79 653 Bilecik Bozuyük 1,440 Others 16,404 2 694 Others 1.250 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics The most important tourism destination of the region is İstanbul which has a share of about 87% and named as a world city. İstanbul is an important tourism center where every pleasure and desire can be satisfied thanks to its historical places, museums, palaces, fortifications, mansions, natural beauties and faith centers, which are the accumulation of the 8000-year of history. Furthermore, İstanbul as the capital of culture is the city where the visits particularly for business, congress, meeting, and fair purposes are organized. Moreover, the other important reasons why tourism activities are intensely experienced here are that it has the biggest port of importation of the country, it has the characteristics to be the starting point of sea transportation in the country, and it is the biggest center which provides airline connection with the other countries throughout the world (WEB-7). When the districts where tourism is intensely experienced in İstanbul are analyzed, Fatih and Beyoğlu are the districts where the cultural places such as mosques, palaces are centered around. According to Table 8 data, it is seen that the other provinces of the Marmara Region fall behind İstanbul in terms of tourism, despite the fact that they hold many historical, cultural and natural beauties within. While Bursa which is ranked as the second comes into prominence with its Osmangazi districts, it is seen that Çanakkale which is ranked as the third is in the forefront with its down-town. The other provinces and their prominent districts are respectively Balıkesir- Ayvalık, Kocaeli-İzmit and Gebze, Edirne – Downtown, Yalova- Termal, Sakarya-Sapanca, Tekirdağ-Çorlu ve Bilecik- Bozuyük and down-town. It is possible to say that Bursa attracts tourists with its history and natural attractions, and also with Uludağ which hosts winter sports. The fact that the most important thermal springs are in Bursa and Yalova in the region moves these provinces to an important point in terms of medical tourism. Manyas, with its “Bird Sanctuary”, is in the limelight for the tourists who are interested in bird watching. Southern coasts including Balıkesir constitute the most favorable parts of the Marmara Region in terms of sea tourism (WEB-8). It is thought-provoking that the important coastal areas such as Erdek, Avşa Island, Zeytinli Ada which can lead to sea tourism of Balıkesir; and Ören, Burhaniye in Aegean coast cannot get share as much as Ayvalık does. Although Çanakkale which is another important tourist destination of the region is rich in terms of historical and natural beauties, it attracts rather less tourist than it should do. Tourism focuses on Gallipoli (Gelibolu) which hosts Trojan War and where the Ancient City of Troy and Assos lived and Gallipoli Campaign (Dardanelles Battle) occurred In particular, thousands of tourists from Australia and New Zealand rush into the region in Anzac Day which is held on 25th April every year. In addition, Gökçeada (Imbros) and Bozcaada (Tenedos) are important tourist destinations in terms of sea tourism. Although this province is suitable for sea tourism,

5 it is seen that there is not a structuring activity in this regard. Such that, the number of 5-star hotel within Çanakkale provincial border is only 1 (WEB-9). Moreover, the other destinations of the region such as Kocaeli, Edirne, Sakarya, Tekirdağ and Bilecik can be mentioned as tourism destinations and have many historical, cultural and natural values which can improve the region. When the related trend is examined, it is seen that İstanbul and Bursa, which are the most important tourism centers, maintain stability increasingly by years. Table 5: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Marmara Region by the Provinces in 2010- 2014 Provinces 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Istanbul 3,371,952 3,832,035 4,416,608 4,475,838 5,078,949 Bursa 112,340 130,338 160,559 188,736 225,588 Çanakkale 154,647 162,658 179,870 172,791 192,878 Balikesir 111,425 195,948 124,160 136,730 114,929 Kocaeli 35,460 45,527 52,766 82,007 79,653 Edirne 17,228 16,482 13,359 16,788 33,222 Yalavo 12,948 15,486 - 21,697 32,645 Sakarya 558 7,077 13,525 23,136 28,738 Tekirdağ 9,924 16,439 16,374 23,281 21,260 Bilecik 2,449 2,931 2,348 4,064 2,694 Kirlareli 439 444 750 690 720 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics However, it is not the same in the other provinces. Especially, Çanakkale which maintained its place as the second important tourism destination until 2013 has lost its place, and Bursa has become the second important tourism destination, and Çanakkale fell to third place. One of the most important factors which causes this situation is the fact that there has been an influx of the Arab tourists to Bursa recently. A large part of the incoming tourists, (30%), to the region for holiday purposes is Arab tourists. Even if this situation is a pleasing development for Bursa, it is worrisome that Çanakkale could not catch the same increase rate when Çanakkale’s potential is taken into consideration. Furthermore, it is obvious that the other provinces, which may be important tourism centers with their numerous features, cannot get enough share. According to the data of Table 1-2014, Aegean Region is ranked as the third. The fact that it was a cradle to many civilizations throughout the history as one of the oldest residential areas is among the factors which increase the cultural and historical attractiveness of the region (WEB-6). Historical artifacts remaining from Ancient civilizations and Turkish States in the region are the other tourist attractions (WEB-10).On the other side, the fact that the mountains run perpendicular to the coastline form a very indented coastal strip (WEB-11). Therefore, it has plenty of bays and gulfs which are suitable for swimming (WEB-6/WEB11). Mediterranean climate prevails in the region (WEB 11). For this reason, tourism season can continue during 7-8 months (WEB 6). The factors such as the winter’s coming late, sunbathing opportunities in the summer, the convenience of the sea water temperature attract many tourists. This situation has led to preferability of the region in terms of the sea tourism (WEB-11). When the region is examined on the basis of the provinces, it is seen that Muğla destination is in the position of a tourism center. The province draws attention with its Bodrum, Marmaris and Fethiye districts in terms of tourist traffic, as well. Another destination which has importance in terms of particularly sea tourism of the region is Aydın. Aydın is at the forefront with particularly Kuşadası. The districts which come into prominence in terms of tourism in the other provinces that are full of historical and natural beauties are respectively Denizli-Pamukkale, Manisa-Yunusemre, Afyonkarahisar –down-town, Uşak–down-town. However, it is seen that these provinces serve for tourism quite limited despite their tourism potential. When the related trend concerning Aegean Region is examined, it is seen that Muğla province maintains its stability since 2010, and it is seen that Aydın province which was ranked as the third or

6 fourth before 2013, takes the second place in 2013. İzmir province continues to increase its tourist share; however there was a decrease by % 13 in 2013. It is stated in the news sources that one of the biggest factors causing İzmir province’s tourism potential to decrease is that some values such as Kadifekale, Agora, and Kemeraltı are poorly groomed and they have lost their attractiveness (WEB-12). The same situation is also seen in Denizli. Denizli lost its second place in 2012, which was maintained in 2010 and 2011. According to news sources, it is seen that the most important reason behind this situation is that Pamukkale travertine face the risk of losing its characteristics because of the unconscious water consumption especially by the five-star hotels and the increased structuring around the Pamukkale travertine. However, the measures taken have prevented this deterioration, and the increase of % 15 in the statistic of 2014 compared to the previous year proves this point (WEB-13). It is seen that the share obtained from tourism by the other tourism destinations such as Manisa, Kütahya and Uşak provinces are up-and-down by years and the balance cannot be maintained. It can be seen that the underlying reasons for this are lack of promotion and insufficiency of the facilities. It attracts attention that Afyonkarahisar province gets higher amount of share from tourism especially by the years 2013 and 2014. It can be stated that the reason behind this situation is that Afyonkarahisar is in the position of thermal tourism destination for the tourists travelling for health purposes (WEB-15). Table 6: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Aegean Region by the Provinces and Districts Number of the Number of the Provinces Districts Provinces Districts arrivals to facility arrivals to facility Bodrum 869,847 Denizli Pamukkale 514,816 Muğla Marmaris 600,958 518,176 Others 3.360 1,935,104 Fethiye 348,626 Manisa Yunusemre 13,677 Others 115.673 17,824 Others 4.147 Kuşadası 658,146 Afyon Down-town 13,488 Aydin Karahisar 728,549 Others 70.403 Others 4.174 17 662 Konak 202,201 Kütahya Down-town 5,102 Izmir Menderes 170,314 5 473 Others 371 688,148 Selçuk 139,050 Uşak Down-town 2757 Others 176.583 2757 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics Table 7: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Aegean Region by the Provinces in 2007- 2014 Provinces 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Muğla 1,713,645 1,672,772 1,661,475 1,661,453 1,935,104 Aydin 461,123 599,016 677,490 721,342 728,549 İzmir 509,771 717,653 683,331 596,875 688,148 Denizli 679,215 813,993 677,490 496,231 518,176 Manisa 10,223 10,584 7,800 19,546 17,824 Afyonkarahisar 8,785 6,521 7,720 14,906 17,662 Kütahya 2,606 2,643 2,208 3,289 5,473 Uşak 2,438 2,079 2,059 1,820 2,757 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics According to the Table 1-2014 data, Central Anatolia Region is ranked as the fourth place in terms of accommodation. There are some factors which ensure a dynamic tourism in this region but not as much as the other regions. For instance, Turkey’s capital province, Ankara is located in this region and is the political center of the country (WEB-6), Kapadokya that is the natural area (the region which covers Nevşehir, Ürgüp, Göreme valley) favorable for long-term accommodation tourism after the

7 coasts is located in this region; and as the center of cultural tourism of the region is also located here (Hacıoğlu, 2008: 79, 81). Meanwhile, the region is rich in terms of historical tourism because it hosted a great variety of civilizations. The settlements which belong to Neolithic period, and the various artifacts from Hittites are among the important tourism attractions. Seljuk monuments in Konya and Mevlana Mausoleum set a good example of these attractions (WEB-15). Medical tourism is also developed in the region. There are hot springs in particularly Eskişehir, Ankara, Konya, Niğde, Kayseri provinces. There are recreation and accommodation facilities established for this purpose in these settlements. Mount Erciyes and Elmadağ in the region are the developed places in terms of ski tourism. Most particularly Anıtkabir, Atatürk Museum, Ethnography Museum located in Ankara in the region are among the most commonly visited places by the people. Kayseri Anatolian Fair and Konya Fair which are held annually in the Central Anatolia Region are the major tourism and trade activities. There are also tourism areas which are preserved from historical and natural aspects such as Boğazköy Alacahöyük National Park, Göreme Historical National Park and Yozgat Pine Grove National Park (WEB-16). Table 8: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Central Anatolia Region by the Provinces and Districts Number of the Number of Provinces Districts arrivals to Provinces Districts the arrivals to facility facility Ürgüp 272,989 Tepebaşı 12,144 Eskişehir Down- Nevşehir 268,613 15 744 Odunpazarı 3.600 town 613 392 Down- Others 71.790 Aksaray 7,703 town 8 473 Çankaya 300,904 Güzelyurt 770 Ankara Down- Altındağ 117,743 Yozgat 728 458 842 town 730 Others 40.195 Others 2 Down- Konya Selçuklu 105,354 Sivas 643 town 140 463 657 Others 35.109 Zara 14 Kayseri Kocasinan 18,688 Kirşehir Down- 460 25 556 Melikgazi 6,868 460 town Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics Table 9: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Central Anatolia Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Provinces 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Nevşehir 571,650 535,028 492,758 501,507 613,392 Ankara 296,558 360,107 423,782 416,053 458,842 Konya 164,335 151,865 129,897 146,057 140,463 Kayseri 14,332 23,760 30,389 30,216 25,556 Eskişehir 7,254 10,279 9,786 12,656 15,744 Aksaray 21,337 11,020 10,014 7,483 8,473 Niğde 1,275 2,950 777 1,175 788 Yozgat 619 866 381 475 730 Sivas 2,447 998 446 657 Kirşehir 21 441 345 414 460 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism- Accommodation Statistics The tourism center of the region is Nevşehir. The most important reason for this is undoubtedly nature’s wonder fairy chimneys, crater lakes, Ihlara Valley and Kapadokya area which is famous for its underground cities in Derinkuyu in the region (WEB-16). Accordingly, the most important tourism

8 places in the province are Ürgüp and its down-town. When the tourism destinations which are central locations in the other provinces are examined; it is seen that Ankara is at the forefront with Çankaya and Altındağ districts; Konya is at the forefront with its Selçuklu district; Kayseri is at the forefront with its Kocasinan district; Eskişehir is at the forefront with its Tepebaşı district; and Aksaray, Sivas and Kırşehir are at the forefront with their down-towns. The provinces which particularly remain inactive in the region are Kayseri, Eskişehir, Niğde, Yozgat, Sivas and Kırşehir. Nevertheless, these provinces possess many historical, cultural and natural beauties. Kayseri which is particularly the trade and industry center of Central Anatolia, and located on the junction point of the highways and railways (WEB-17) has great importance with regard to business tourism. Furthermore, the fact that Erciyes Ski Resort exists here results makes this province rather favorable for winter tourism (WEB-18). However; despite these values, it is highly thought-provoking that this province gets quite low share from tourism. When, the trend between 2010 and 2014 of the concerned provinces of the region, it is seen that the number of the incoming tourists to all provinces except Ankara, which is at the forefront with its political identity, decreases as of 2012. According to news sources, it is determined that there has been a decrease in the number of Japanese tourists and western tourists visiting the region (WEB-19) and it is stated that this is because of the decreasing number of Japanese tourists due to the Arab Spring, the emergence of ISIS, and murder of two Japanese by ISIS (WEB-20). Southeastern Anatolia Region When the statistics of the region in the Table 4 are analyzed for 2014, it is seen that this region is ranked as 5th in terms of accommodation. It is the region where the oldest settlements of Anatolia have existed (WEB-6). Therefore, its tourism potential is very high (WEB-21). It is in the central position especially with regard to faith tourism (WEB-22). The region is full of many sightseeing places, and historical, cultural and natural beauties such as Adıyaman-Mount Nemrut, City of Prophets Urfa, Historical Harran University, Harran houses, Mardin houses. There are important tourism attractions in the region such as the traces of Commagene Civilizations on the Mount Nemrut where the sun rises in the most beautiful way in the world, and the Pool of Sacred Fish (Pool of Abraham) in Şanlıurfa. However, the region which has been exposed to terrorism for many years has not got a share from tourism it deserves (WEB-21) Table 10: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Southeastern Anatolia Region by the Provinces and Districts Number of the Number of the Provinces Districts arrivals to Provinces Districts arrivals to facility facility Gaziantep Şahinbey 73,744 Artuklu 12,198 Mardin 107,205 Others 33.461 17,225 Others 5027 Sur 16,935 Diyarbakir Kahta 2,255 Adiyaman 24,584 Others 7.649 Down- 4,209 1,831 town Haliliye 17,549 Down- Batman 3,220 town Şanliurfa 3,444 Others 224 23,486 Others 5.937 Siirt Down- 503 503 town Source: Ministry of culture and tourism- accommodation statistics According to the data on the Table 12; the most important tourism center of the region is Gaziantep. The reason for this is that Gaziantep province, which is a settlement area and the center where various religions developed and spread since ancient times, is an important tourist attraction and has a central position in the region, where the numbers of accommodation is highest (Hacıoğlu et. al., 2008: 81). The province is at the forefront with its Şahinbey district. Subsequently, Diyarbakır with its Sur district; Şanlıurfa with its Haliliye district; Mardin with its Artuklu district; Adıyaman with its Kahta district and

9 its down-town districts; and Siirt with its down-town are at the forefront respectively. Table 11: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Southeastern Anatolia Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Provinces 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Gaziantep 38,546 64,013 90,658 119,879 107,205 Diyarbakir 19,680 20,006 13,871 22,582 24,584 Şanliurfa 7,760 8,899 13,245 21,113 23,486 Mardin 9,855 8,399 10,495 15,499 17,225 Adiyaman 7,742 10,741 7,495 6,775 4,209 Batman 585 4,773 1,229 4,557 3,444 Siirt - - - - 503 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics However, when the statistical data in this region are analyzed by years, it draws attention that the arrivals and accommodations which showed an increasing trend until 2014 visibly decrease by the year of 2014. One of the biggest reasons for this situation is Syrian civil war which began which arose in 2012. Turkey-Syrian relations which developed rapidly with regards to trade and tourism in the past, has regressed because of the war, and the economies and tourism of especially Gaziantep, Mardin and Şanlıurfa provinces which are near Syria have begun to be affected negatively (Çay, 2016). The other important reason, or even the main reason is terrorism problem. Terrorism showing its presence less or intense from time to time, has caused that the share which the provinces get is both less and draws an unbalanced table by years. The region has an important potential in terms of tourism with its lush vegetation, mountains, plateaus, natural beaches along the coast, hot springs, mineral springs, historical and natural beauties (WEB-23) (WEB 24). However; this region is ranked as 6th in terms of accommodation according to Table 5-2014 data, despite the fact that it has natural, cultural, and historical attractions; and it is a safer region compared to Southeastern Anatolia regions. The important reasons for this situation are that the mountains run parallel to the coastline; there are a few beaches due to the absence of protrusions and indentions along the coast; and the summer season lasts a short time when compared to the other regions because of its climatic condition which receives rainfall in every season (WEB-6)(WEB-23). This situation directs tourists who want to benefit from sea tourism towards mainly south and west. Furthermore, the other reasons are as follows: the important entrance gates are located in the west, this region is far from the major tourist roads, and the tourists prefer visiting the region without accommodating here or have a tendency to stay for a short period of time instead of accommodating and spending their holidays in this region. The fact that total bed amount is inadequate for holiday tourism, and foreign organized tours regard the Black Sea Region as the transition area can be considered as the other reasons (Hacıoğlu et. al., 2008: 81). The most important tourism center is Trabzon which is at the forefront with its Ortahisar and Yomra districts. The most important feature which makes Trabzon a tourism center of the region is that there is, one of the oldest structures of the history, Sümela Monastery in Maçka district within this province (WEB-25). Sümela is one of the oldest and most important monasteries of Christianity and especially of Orthodox sect in Anatolia. Therefore, it is regarded as one of the leading holy places by Orthodox Christians. That’s why it constitutes a huge potential with regard to faith tourism. Moreover, it is a tourist attraction thanks to its spectacular view, because it was built in a geographical area which is composed of a quite steep and green nature (WEB-26). When the other tourism destinations in the region are analyzed, it is seen that Bolu gets share from tourism mostly with its down-town and Mudurnu district; Karabük with its Safranbolu district; Samsun with its Canik districts; Rize with its Pazar, Fındıklı and Ardeşen districts; Ordu with its Altınordu district; Düzce with its down-town and Akçakoca district; Artvin with its Hopa district; Zonguldak with its Ereğli district and its down-town; and the other provinces get share from tourism mostly with their down-towns.

10 Table 12: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Black Sea Region by the Provinces and Districts Number of the Number of the Provinces Districts Provinces Districts arrivals to facility arrivals to facility Ortahisar 30,879 Artvin Hopa 4 186 Trabzon Yomra 20,185 5 907 Others 65,468 Others 14.404 Zonguldak Ereğli 2 999 Down-town 27,991 5 768 Down-town 2 631 Bolu Mudurnu 10,883 Amasya Down-town 4.399 41,217 Others 2.343 4 399 Others Karabük Safranbolu 26,842 Giresun Down-town 4 123 4257 Others Samsun Canik 10,321 7.077 17,398 Others Çorum Down-town 1 122

1806 Pazar 4,175 Others Rize Fındıklı 2,152 Kastamonu Down-town 1 129 10,363 Ardeşen 1,985 1.531 Others Others 2.051 Sinop Down-town 863 Ordu Altınordu 5,978 892 Gerze 29 7.733 Others 1.755 Tokat Down-Town 619 Others Düzce Down-town 3.257 674 508 6,437 Akçakoca 3 180 Çankırı Down-town

Gümüşhane Down-town 405 Bartin Down-town 129 440 Kelkit 35 209 Amasra 80 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics Table 13: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Black Sea Region by the Provinces in 2010- 2014 Provinces 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Trabzon 23,363 41,036 57,313 52,279 65,468 Bolu 26,561 25,815 29,732 33,187 41,247 Karabük 7,923 12,859 12,729 19,384 26,842 Samsun 5,919 7,239 5,995 6,176 17,398 Rize 731 4,327 1,535 3,966 10,363 Ordu 2,268 3,440 4,527 6,215 7,736 Düzce 2,912 2,950 3,125 4,523 6,437 Artvin 20,183 16,322 7,127 3,949 5,907 Zonguldak 2,208 2,930 1,687 6,888 5,768 Amasya 2,087 6,801 5,716 5,206 4,399 Giresun 807 2,719 3,114 2,758 4,257 Çorum 4,265 3,063 2,534 1,991 1,806 Kastamonu 280 944 1,236 3,310 1,531 Sinop 607 1,264 1,570 1,154 892 Tokat 638 511 2,066 473 674 Çankiri 93 1,077 400 253 508 Gümüşhane 1 176 165 216 440 Bartin 207 249 564 310 209 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics

11 However, it is apparent that the share they get is rather limited in comparison with the historical, cultural and natural beauties. When the related trend for the region is examined; it can be said that most provinces (except for the year 2012) apart from some provinces in the region, draw a quite balanced and increasing trend by years. When the 2014 data in the Table are examined, tit is seen that there has been a considerable increase in the most provinces of the region. It can be said that the most important share of this increase belongs to Arab tourists. According to news sources, the Black Sea Region is the leading region where Arab tourist influx recently. According to the same news source, it is stated that Uzungöl and Sümela Monastery in Trabzon; and Ayder Plateau in Rize are the places receiving plenty of visits. Furthermore, it draws attention that this region is mostly preferred particularly by the Saudi Arabians, and it attracts the tourists coming from the United Arab Emirates and Kuwait, and it is stated that the number of Arab tourists who visit the Black Sea Region was 190 thousand in 2013; and it reached to 260 thousand increasing by 75% (WEB-27). However, the relevant news sources lay emphasis upon that the intense demands of the Arabs are not fulfilled, the facilities fall short, and the universities’ private dormitories get involved in activities in order to meet this demand; but it is strongly emphasized that this situation adversely affects the quality of service, and this region may lose its charm for all these reasons (WEB-28).

Eastern Anatolia Region According to the Table 1-2014 data, Marmara Region is ranked as the seventh in terms of accommodation choice. Historical and cultural richness of the region has significant appeal. Especially because of its large holding mountainous areas where mountain tourism is an important potential (WEB 29). Table14: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Eastern Anatolia Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Number of Number of the Provinces Districts the arrivals to Provinces Districts arrivals to facility facility Van İpekyolu 32 680 Şirnak Silopi 1.940 38 478 Others 5.790 2474 Down-town 534 Erzurum Palandöken 23 760 Bitlis Tatvan 2 267 28.240 Others 4.480 2 431 Others 164 Iğdır Down-town 11.757 Erzincan Down-town 2061 11.757 2121 Battalgazi 3 429 Refahiye 60 Malatya Yeşilyurt 2 957 Tunceli Down-town 707 6.699 Others 313 916 Others 209 Ağrı Doğubeyazıt 3.320 Down-town 420 3 576 Down-town 256 Hakkari Elazığ Down-town 2 842 647 Yüksekova 227 2963 Sivrice 121 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics However, long duration of the winter months in the region, due to the abundant snowfall, tourism is not very lively (WEB 7) tourists in this region tend to be more day to visit the coastal zone and marine tourism that can not or prefer to spend their holidays However, plant diversity and the scarcity of beds and foremost security issues in the region to tourists prefer to stay long-term are among the other causes. In addition, lack of transportation has hindered the development of tourism (WEB 30). The most important tourism center of the region is Van. Subsequently, Erzurum with its Palandöken district; Malatya with its Battalgazi district; Ağrı with its Doğubeyazıt district; Kars with its Iğdır district; and Erzincan, Tunceli, Hakkari, Muş with theirs down-town are at the forefront respectively. According to the data in the table 15 when examining trends related particularly bumpy because of security issues has been experiencing a trend.

12 Table 15: Distribution of the Foreigners Accommodating in the Eastern Anatolia Region by the Provinces in 2010-2014 Provinces 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 Van 13.771 18.184 11.413 18.527 38.478 Erzurum 18.811 21.511 Iğdır 8.494 6.615 12.341 9.256 11.757 Kars 11.920 13.084 9.445 6.741 10.051 Malatya 2.625 3.228 3.764 3.540 6.699 Ağrı 1.774 1.966 3.794 4.115 3.576 Elazığ 1.167 2.092 3.230 2.747 2.963 Şırnak 395 1.565 1.638 1.790 2.474 Bitlis 2.183 1.012 1.739 1.868 2.431 Erzincan 311 881 905 945 2.121 Tunceli 57 325 235 158 916 Hakkari - 12 688 1.127 647 Ardahan 574 375 1154 957 601 Muş 458 1.429 951 364 391 Bingöl 56 84 185 144 143 Source: Ministry of Culture and Tourism - Accommodation Statistics Table 16: The Destinations Which Are Preferred by the Foreigners According to their Nationalities and the Reasons of their Preferences. Visits to historical places and cultural tours, city İstanbul, Kapodokya, Kuşadası USA tours, guided tours, gastronomy tours, spa and (Ephesus), Bodrum wellness packages Sea-sand-sun, entertainment, shopping, health, Mediterranean, Marmara-İstanbul, Germany business, package program Aegean, Central Anatolia-Kapodokya Historical, cultural, hiking, climbing, alternative İstanbul, Kapadokya, Muğla, Antalya, Australia tourism types and shopping Ankara, Pamukkale, İzmir, Çanakkale Recreation, trade (suitcase trading), winter tourism, İstanbul, Kemer, Antalya, Bodrum, Azerbaijan fair, exhibition, job interview and science-oriented Çesme trips Culture/City Tours, Wellness, Sea Vacation, Far Austria Antalya, Muğla, İstanbul, Kapadokya Destination/ Luxury Vacation United Arab Shopping, Nature, Culture and History İstanbul, Bursa, Yalova Emirates Sun/ Sea Vacation, Sightseeing, Nature, Mountain Antalya, İstanbul, Bodrum, Kuşadası, Belgium and City Tours Kapadokya, İzmir, Marmaris Bosnia Mass tourism (sea-sand-sun), Culture tourism İstanbul, Antalya, Marmaris, Bodrum, Herzegovina Kuşadası, Side, Bursa Kuşadası-Ephesus (because of the Bulgaria Sea, Culture, shopping, religion interest in Virgin Marry) Antalya, Bodrum, İzmir, İstanbul, Kapadokya İstanbul, Kapadokya, Pamukkale, China Urban tourism, Culture tourism, Shopping Kuşadası, İzmir, Antalya Denmark Sea-sand-sun, culture, sports, health and ecology Antalya, South Aegean, İstanbul Visiting historical, cultural and religious places, İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bursa, Ankara, Indonesia shopping Konya, Pamukkale, İzmir ve Çanakkale Alanya, Marmaris, İstanbul, Fethiye, Sea-sand-sun, urban tourism, golf, cultural areas, Finland Belek, Bodrum, Side, Antalya, Kemer, sailing, paragliding, yachting and nature Kaş, Kalkan, İzmir Bodrum, İzmir, Antalya, İstanbul, France Sea, culture, shopping, urban and medical tourism Kapadokya South History-Culture, Religion, Nature, Unesco World İstanbul, Antalya, İzmir, Kapadokya,

13 Korea Heritage Denizli-Pamukkale Pamukkale, Ankara, Konya, Çanakkale Croatia Recreation, sight-seeing İstanbul, Kapadokya, Antalya Sight-seeing and relaxation, Shopping, History and India İstanbul, Antalya, İzmir, Kapadokya Culture, Honeymoon, Congress tourism Sea-sand- sun, culture, city, nature and sports Alanya, İstanbul, Side, Antalya, Holland activities Marmaris, Bodrum, Nevsehir Nice climate, culture and history, clean beaches, Britain Muğla, Antalya, İstanbul, İzmir, Aydın reasonable rates Kapadokya, İstanbul, Aegean, Spain Culture/faith tourism and sea tourism Mediterranean Antalya, Marmaris, Bodrum, Kuşadası, Iran Sea, shopping, culture, faith and sports İstanbul, Konya, Ankara Sea-sand-sun, culture, thermal, nature Antalya, Aegean Coasts, İstanbul, Israel and adventure tourism Kapadokya, the Black Sea Mass tourism (sea/sun/sand), culture tourism, Antalya, Bodrum, İstanbul, Muğla, Sweden thermal tourism and golf tourism Marmaris, İzmir Sea-Sand-Sun, culture tourism, golf, yachting and Antalya, İstanbul, Aegean Region, water sports Switzerland Bodrum İzmir, Kapadokya, Eastern

Anatolia Rwgion

İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bodrum, Italy Sea, culture, faith, urban and shopping tourism Marmaris,Çeşme, Pamukkale, Ephesus, İzmir, Muğla, Antalya Antalya, Marmaris, Bodrum, Kuşadası, İran Sea, shopping, culture, faith and sports İstanbul, Konya ve Ankara İstanbul, Kapadokya, Konya, Denizli- Japan History, Culture, Nature, Unesco World Heritage Pamukkale, Çanakkale, Safranbolu, İzmir Kazakhstan Sea-sand-sun, shopping Antalya, Bodrum, Marmaris, İstanbul Vacation, trade (suitcase trade), culture, faith İstanbul, Kemer, İzmir, Antalya, Kyrgyzstan tourism Pamukkale and Erzurum, Ankara Marmara Region, Aegean Region, Macedonia Culture, nature tourism and business Mediterranean and the other regions Visiting historical, cultural and religious places, İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bursa, Ankara, Malaysia shopping Konya, Pamukkale, İzmir, Çanakkale Egypt Culture, shopping, faith and sea İstanbul, Antalya, Muğla, Bursa, Konya Mass tourism (sea-sand-sun), Culture tourism, Norway Antalya, Bodrum, İstanbul, Marmaris thermal tourism and golf tourism İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bursa, Ankara, Recreation, trade (suitcase trade), fair, exhibition, Uzbekistan Konya, Denizli-Pamukkale, İzmir, job interview and science-oriented trips Çanakkale Antalya, Bodrum, Dalaman, İzmir, Sea-Sand-Sun, Nature tourism, Wonder and culture Poland Kapodokya, İstanbul, Fethiye, tours Marmaris Antalya (Kemer, Belek, Side, Alanya), Marmaris, Fethiye ve Bodrum, Romania Sea, culture, shopping, religion Çanakkale, İstanbul, Kuşadası (Çanakkale, İstanbul, Kuşadası are preferred from Bucharest by roads) Russia Sea tourism, Entertainment Antalya, İstanbul, İzmir Visiting historical, cultural and religious places, İstanbul, Kapadokya, Bursa, Singapore shopping Pamukkale, İzmir and Çanakkale Antalya, İstanbul, Kuşadası, Marmaris, Serbia Sea-sand-sun, Culture tourism Çeşme, Bodrum Slovenia Recreation/sight-seeing İstanbul Saudi Tableland tourism, Thermal tourism İstanbul, Yalova, Bursa, Doğu

14 Arabia Karadeniz-Bolu-Trabzon Hatay, Mersin, Antalya Hatay, Mersin, Adana, Gaziantep, Sea, thermal, nature, shopping, entertainment and Syria İstanbul, Antalya, Konya, Muğla, faith, business, health and honeymoon tourism Bursa, Yalova, Kapadokya, Karadeniz Antalya (Kemer, Belek, Alanya, Side)- Sun-sand-sea, culture-history, winter tourism Ukraine İstanbul, Muğla (Bodrum, Fethiye,

Marmaris, Dalaman) - Culture, religion, sea-sand-sun, affordable price İstanbul, Kuşadası, Bodrum, Çesme, Greece (cultural and religion tours draw attention much Marmaris, Black Sea more than sea vacation) Source: Koder/ Ministry of Culture and Tourism 4. RESULTS AND SUGGESTIONS When the findings regarding the examination into the international tourism movements towards Turkey on the basis of destination are evaluated, it can be said that tourism in Turkey actually rotate around only 7 provinces. According to 2014 data, the number of the foreigners who accommodate in the facilities with Tourism Operation License in Turkey is 23,609,016 and when the share which the provinces get are considered, it is seen that Antalya where 11,944,480 people accommodate is ranked as the first with its share of approximately 57%, and İstanbul is ranked as the second with 5,078,949 accommodation number and 22% a share. of Following these provinces, Muğla province with 1,935,104 accommodation number having a share of 8%, Aydın province with 728,549 accommodation number having a share of 3%, Nevşehir province with 613,392 accommodation number having a share of 2.6%, Denizli province with 518,176 accommodation numbers having a share of 2%; and Ankara with 458,842 accommodation number having a share of 1.9% come respectively. It is seen that 96.4% of total are only these provinces (İstanbul, Antalya, Muğla, Aydın, Nevşehir, Denizli, Ankara), and the others remains at a share of 4.6%. The fact that 4 provinces among the 7 are seaside destinations is an indication of that tourism in Turkey focuses highly on sea-sand-sun trio. However; when the travel motivations of the countries on the Table16 are taken into consideration, it is seen that Turkey has many provinces and districts which are full of historical, natural and cultural beauties which can appeal to the nationalities of a great deal of countries. When an answer is sought to the question “So why these provinces and districts could not find an active place in tourism?”, it is possible to get the results written below.  Turkey’s image problem (According to “National Brands Research” conducted by a marketing expert, Simon Anholt, Turkey is on a rather unsuccessful position in respect to become a “brand-name” throughout the world. The participants evaluate Turkey as “the country where extremist Islamist currents and violations of human rights exist” in this research in which approximately 10.000 people participate and in which ten countries’ attraction as national brands are evaluated (Çerçi, 2013: 17).  Security problem in the country (Turkey is located in a place in the world, where the balances generally change due to its geographical location. This situation results in many countries which are border neighbors living war. The most recent example is Syrian civil war. Apart from this, Turkey is a country which has been fighting against terrorism for many years. Especially, Southeastern-Eastern and Eastern Mediterranean provinces are the places which are most affected by this situation.  Political Relations (When transnational political problems occur, many nationals of that country do not prefer the country where the political problem exists, and they tend towards alternative destinations. This problem cannot even remain between two countries and it can also affect the other countries with which these countries having such problems establish close relations. Recent Turkey- Russia tension constitutes an example for this. When the relevant data are examined, there has been a 17% decrease in the number of tourist arrivals from Russia, and Antalya which is preferred as a holiday resort mainly by the Russians is the most affected region.)  Lack of facility, infrastructure and transportation (These shortcomings limit the tourism development of many destination areas. The biggest example for this has been experienced in the Black Sea Region. At the present time when the inflow of Arab tourists is high, the dormitories have been

15 used for accommodation because of the fact that the facilities fall short, and consequently this situation has reduced the quality of service and created dissatisfaction.)  Shortcomings in promotion and marketing and wrong marketing methods (Turkey is known as a country which is cheap and only consists of sea-sand-sun. This situation causes that countries which have high income levels, high international tourism expenditures, and whose tourism volume is high cannot be attracted towards Turkey. Turkey has a higher market share than the countries such as Georgia and Bulgaria. However, when it is considered that these countries come with the purpose of visiting relatives and acquaintances, business visit, and their expenses are quite low, it will be understood that Turkey is ranked as 6th in terms of arrivals, and ranked as 10th in terms of incomes.) The following measures can be taken concerning the abovementioned problems. First of all, Turkey’s security problem must be solved. Otherwise, many actions and works which can be done will be wasted. There are some important points in this regard. For example; providing training for the people for public awareness by national and local administrations in this struggle, providing training on terrorism and tourism offenses for all personnel including the security forces who work in tourism destinations about, increasing security measures against possible terrorist acts, conducting international cooperation in this regard are important. Instead of the cheap country image of Turkey, it should be emphasized that Turkey is the country which has in fact a mixture of cheap and suitable-quality, and expensive but high-quality destinations, all of which can appeal to people from all strata thanks to the destination, labelling, and then marketing and promotion activities that can be made. Another issue that can be done in order to revive the idle destinations is to determine the target countries which can be directed to these destinations, and to carry out promotion and marketing activities in order to ensure that the targeted people are drawn to these destinations. For example, the idle places of Marmara, Aegean and Mediterranean regions and the Black Sea Region should be of top priority considering that the security in these locations can be intensely ensured. Within this context, the people of the countries who mainly travel nature, culture, shopping-oriented can be directed towards this region. The people of the countries who mainly travel sea-sand-sun-oriented can be directed towards the idle places of the Aegean, Mediterranean and Marmara regions. The ones who travel for medical purposes can be attracted towards the regions where the hot springs such as Afyonkarahisar, Yalova etc. exist intensely. However, the demographic, psychological and socio-cultural characteristics of the countries should be of course thoroughly studied in these types of guiadences, and required investments should be made in the destinations which can be suitable for these characteristics. Within this context, there is a need for the studies which define tourist profile including the data such as demographic, socio-cultural psychological characteristics as well as the facilities the they prefer, the type of booking, booking duration, the most effective advertising type, average vacation period, the average tourist spending, the number of people travelling, the time for going on holiday, based on the countries. When the relevant literature is analyzed, any comprehensive study has not been encountered in this aspect. It cannot be ignored that the activities which can be carried out for the tourism development are extremely important. When these problems, which Turkey experiences about being a strong trademark, are considered all together, the unseen part of the trademark (slogan, logo, and symbol etc.) should be focused on rather than the seen part of it. Structuring the products with high-quality, brand personality, spirit of brand, unlimited customer satisfaction guarantee, and the most importantly with a completely different feature that cannot be imitated by its competitors should be ensured (Doğanlı, 2006: 185). Ensuring particularly security issue, which is the most important factor while choosing destination, is the most urgent and sensitive component. Otherwise, it would not be possible for the labelling activities to gain success. REFERENCES Aksöz O. (2010)“Turizm Pazarlamasının Organizasyonunda Destinasyon Pazarlama Örgütleri ve Türkiye İçin Uygun Örgüt Yapısının Belirlenmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma”, Anadolu Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İşletme Anabilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi, Eskişehir . Babacan E. (2010), “Uluslararası Etkiliklerin Destinasyon Markalaşmasına Etkisi”, Ege Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Halkla İlişkiler ve Tanıtım Anabilim Dalı, İzmir

16 Bağiran d.,(2015), Destinasyon Yenilik Sürecinin Oluşturulmasında Ağ Yapısı ve Bilgi Yönetiminin Rolü”, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü,Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı, Turizm İşletmeciliği Programı, Doktora Tezi, İzmir Bardakoğlu Ö. (2011), “Turistik Ürün Bakımından Destinasyon planlaması ve Pazarlaması Kapsamında İzmir Turizminin Değerlendirilmesi ve Geliştirilmesine Yönelik Bir Model Çalışması”, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Programı, Doktora Tezi, İzmir Cabael T. G., (2011) “Destinasyon Yönetim Organizasyonu Üzerine Bir Model önerisi”, Muğla Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Muğla Çay, S. Suriye Krizi ve Türk Turizmi. Turizm Yönetim Dergisi, (URL: http://gmdergi.com/online/haber/ suriye-krizi-ve-turk-turizmi/) (Erişim Tarihi: 25.01.2016) Çerçi A., (2013), “Destinasyon Markalama ve Yavaş Şehir Seferihisar’ın Destinasyon Marka İmajı”, Hacattepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İşletme Anabilim Dalı, Turizm İşletmeciliği Uzmanlığı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. Doğan İ.T., (2013), “Turistik Destinasyon İmaj Ölçümü: Safranbolu Örneği”, Karabük Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İşletme Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Karabük. Doğanli B, (2006), “Turizmde Destinasyon Markalaşması ve Antalya Örneği”, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, İşletme Bölümü, Doktora Tezi, Isparta. Ekici R, (2013), “Destinasyon Yaşam Seyri ve Yerel Halkın Turizm Gelişimine İlişkin Tutumlarının İncelenmesi”, Akdeniz Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği ve Otelcilik Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Antalya Hacioğlu N, (2000), “Turizm Pazarlaması”, Nobel Yayınları. Hacioğlu N, Sarioğlan, M., Güleç, B, (2008) “Uluslararası Turizm”, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Turizm İşletmeciliği ve Otelcilik Yüksekokulu, Balıkesir Keskin E, (2012), “Tanıtım Faaliyetlerinin Destinasyon Seçimine Olan Etkisi: Kapadokya Bölgesini Ziyaret Eden Japon Turistlere Yönelik Bir Araştırma”, Gazi Üniversitesi, Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. KODER, Kuşadasi Otelciler ve Yatirimcilar Birliği, Pazar raporları, http://www.koder.org.tr/PDF/uye PDFler/tr-paza.pdf) Kültür ve Turizm Bakanliği Tanitma Genel Müdürlüğü “ Pazar raporları” (http://www.tanitma.gov.tr/Eklenti /2040,2012-pazar-raporlaripdf.pdf?0). Kültür ve Turizm Bakanliği, “Turizm İstatistikleri (http://www.kultur.gov.tr/) TUROFED Turizm Raporu (2015), WEB-1,“Akdeniz Bölgesinde Turizmin Gelişme Nedenleri” URL:http://www.forumdas.net/forum/konu/ akdeniz -bolgesinde-turizm.84027/#ixzz44BxsBKO8). WEB-2,URL:https://www.msxlabs.org/forum/akdeniz-bolgesi/266671-akdeniz-bolgesi-turizm- ozellikleri.html. WEB-3,URL: http://www.gelarabul.com/akdeniz-bolgesinde-turizm WEB-4, URL:http://www.forumdas.net/forum/konu/marmara-bolgesinin-turizmi.115110/#ixzz3wCVic Wg V WEB-5. URL:https://bycografyam.wordpress.com/tag/marmara-bolgesinde-turizm-faaliyetleri/.ve WEB-6, URL:http://cografya1224.blogcu.com/turizm-turizmin-oz-cesitleri-ve-turkiye-de-tur/2940350 WEB-7, URL:https://www.msxlabs.org/forum/marmara-bolgesi/266532-marmara-bolgesi-turizm-ozellikleri. html WEB-8,URL:http://www.derszamani.net/marmara-bolgesi-turizm-ozellikleri.html. WEB-9, URL:https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%87anakkale. WEB-10, URL: http://www.bilgiyuvasi2016.com/akdenizege-bolgesinin-turizm-oz-nelerdirhakkinda-ilgi. html #ix zz 3wEEE6Uk4 WEB-11, URL:https://www.msxlabs.org/forum/ege-bolgesi/266471-ege-bolgesi-turizm-ozellikleri.html WEB-12, URL:http://www.yeniekonomigazetesi.com.tr/quotizmir-uretmiyor-tuketiyorquot-. WEB-13, URL:https://www.turna.com/blog/bembeyaz-bir-cennet-pamukkale WEB-14, URL:http://destinationerciyes.com/?page_id=6. WEB-15, URL:https://www.ekodialog.com/Turkiye_ekonomi/ic_anadolu.html. WEB-16,URL:http://www.forumdas.net/forum/konu/ic-anadolu-bolgesi-turizmi.95772/. WEB-17, URL:http://www.kayserikent.com/site/page.asp?dsy_id=9692. WEB-18,URL:http://www.gezilebilecekyerler.com/kayseride-gezilecek-yerler/ WEB-19, URL:http://www.turizmhaberleri.com/haberayrinti.asp?ID=28773 WEB-20, URL: http://www.turizmguncel.com/haber/yakup-dinler-japon-turistin-turkiye'ye-neden-gelme digini-anlatti-h23352.html

17 WEB-21, URL: http://www.bilgilersitesi.com/guneydogu-anadolu-bolgesi-turizm-faaliyetleri-hakkinda-bilgi. html. WEB-22, URL: http://www.forumlordum.net/guneydogu-anadolu-bolgesi/11012-guneydogu-anadolu-bolgesi -turizm.html WEB-23, URL: http://www.forumdas.net/forum/konu/karadeniz-bolgesinin-turizmi.95726/#ixzz 44SNPT HWG WEB-24, URL: http://www.kulturelbellek.com/ulkemizdeki-turistik-yerler-turizm-bolgeleri/ WEB 25, URL:http://www.milliyet.com.tr/sumela-manastiri-efsanesi-tatil-1815256/ WEB-26, URL:file:///C:/Users/Pc/Downloads/213-822-1-PB.pdf. 9 WEB-27, URL:http://www.haberturk.com/ekonomi/tatil/haber/1037256-arap-turistin-gozdesi-karadeniz WEB-28,URL:http://www.ensonhaber.com/araplarin-akin-ettigi-karadenizde-tesisler-yetersiz-kald-2015-10- 08.html. WEB 29, URL: http://e-okulbilgi.com/turizm-cografyasi-nedir-turkiye-turizm-cografyasi-611.html WEB 30, URL: http://www.renklinot.com/soru-cevap-2/dogu-anadolu-bolgesindeki-ekonomik-faaliyetler- nelerdir .html

18 Chapter 2

Emotional Labor Behaviors in Tourism: A Study on the Students of Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism

Cevdet AVCIKURT*, Pelin YAGCI**

INTRODUCTION Service sector has unique features unlike the other sectors. That the employees have a lot of interaction with the customers is one of these factors. In this sector, the thing which is essential is to ensure customer satisfaction. In tourism and hotel business located in the service sector, human factor is stated to have a critical importance to ensure customer satisfaction and loyalty. In order to be ensured the satisfaction as well as human factor, the quality of the interaction between the employees and customers is very important. In order to increase the quality of the interaction, various strategies are applied. One of the strategies is expressed as exhibiting some certain behaviors and emotions by the employees in order to create a positive attitude toward the product or service submitted to the customers (Hochschild, 2003: 7; Kuşluvan, Kuşluvan, İlhan & Buyruk 2010: 171). That the employees who have an interaction with the customers present the product or service by exhibiting positive attitudes may help customers to have a positive perception to product and service presented to the customers (Mengenci, 2015: 77). Besides, the products and services which are presented in service sector are important as well as their form of presentation to the customers. Employees who perform the presentation of products or services by interacting with customers mutually respond to the emotional requests of their customers with a sense they exhibit emotional exhibited during this interaction. This can play a key role in increasing customer satisfaction (Kaya & Özhan, 2012: 110). In an empirical study carried out by Pugh (2001), it has been reached to the conclusion that the emotions exhibited by the employees towards the customers during business may change the moods of the customers and this change may affect the attitude of the customers towards the business. "Rules of conduct" are described with the aim of ensuring employees to give proper and true emotional responses to the customers by the businesses operating in the service sector. For customer satisfaction, the employees are required to manage their own emotions and demonstrate behaviors in compliance with these rules despite their own emotions (Seymour, 2000: 160; Yürü, Gümüş & Hamarat, 2011: 3827). The concept of emotional management is explained as “to create facial and body image that can be observed apparently by everybody" (Guy, Newman & Mastracci, 2008: 6). The thought of notifying emotional behavior rules related to which emotions the businesses expect from the employees and how these emotions will be displayed emphasize the concept of emotional labor (Diefendorff & Croyle, 2008: 310). In recent years, the requirement of using emotions in service sector has led to the concept of emotional labor come to the prominence (Kiffin-Petersen, Jordan & Geoffrey, 2011). The concept of "emotional labor" that was first used by Arlie Russell Hochshild and brought into literature is explained in Hoschschild (1983)'s study named "The Managed Heart," as "the management of emotions in order to ensure facial and body expression that can be observed by the public apparently with the aim of being compliant with the requirements of the job". Morris & Fieldman (1996) explains it as "the effort required to express the emotions desired as organizational during interpersonal communication, planning and controls". While Ashforth & Humphrey (1993) is expressing as "appropriate imaging act of feelings”, Grandey (2000) expresses as "the suppression of feelings to shape emotional expressions, changing and imitation of them".

* Prof. Dr., Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management ** Res. Assist., Yuzuncu Yil University, School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Travel Management

Emotional labor covers providing cooperation of the employees with the customers and colleagues, seeing another aspect of the issues and displaying the emotions and feelings required to comply with the viewpoints about what the businesses will do (Meier, Mastracci & Wilson, 2006: 900). At the same time, it expresses the process of being managed of the feelings by the employees during presentation of the services in accordance with the rules and principles determined (Wharton, 2009: 147). The employees' feelings are subjected to the administration to perform the purposes of an employer (Guy & Newman, 2004: 289). The management of the feelings plays an important role during the businesses of the employees (Hunter & Smith, 2007). The management of the feelings is required for some support positions such as public education in health and service sector, the affairs and assistants requiring professionals help, receptionists, office staff and secretaries. These emotions focus on measurable skills, success levels or qualities and they are not accepted as a part of the description of official duty (Guy & Newman, 2004: 289). Emotional labor have the following features (Wong & Wnag, 2009: 250):  Emotional labor emerges as a result of the face to face or vocal interactions of the employees with the customers;  The emotions are displayed to affect feelings, attitudes and behaviors of the others;  There is an obligation to comply with the certain rules in displaying the applications. The importance of this phenomenon called as emotional labor or emotional laborer is increasing day by day in the sense of businesses (Mann, 2007: 553). Hochschild 1983 classified the emotional laborers performed based on the acts from the management perspective of the emotions in (Kruml & Geddes, 2000: 11) and they are discussed in two dimensions as superficial behavior and deeply behavior. In a study performed by Ashforth & Humphrey (1993), the sincere behavior dimension that is a third dimension was added to these two dimensions. Superficial behavior is expressed as displaying the unfelt emotion or changing the real feelings by surpassing. In other words, it is expressed as reflecting it to the customer in front of him by differentiating the feelings of the employees from the real feelings, by becoming counterfeit in a sense. Unwilling smile of an employee during the interaction of the employee with a rude customer is shown as a superficial behavior by this employee (Hochschils, 1983; Buckner & Mahoney, 2012: 251-252). The feelings exhibited in superficial behavior are mimic emotions that is not really felt, internalization of emotion is not in question. Just the given responses are adjusted (Güzel, Atilla Gök & Büyüker İşler, 2013: 107; Sarıışık, Ulama & Nergiz, 2014: 1031). Besides, this doesn't mean that the employees do not feel anything while the superficial behavior is being displayed; here the feelings felt by the employee are differentiated from being felt (Chu & Murrmann, 2006: 1182). Emotions can be demonstrated with facial expressions, verbal or non-verbal communication (Korkmaz, Sünnetçioğlu & Koyuncu; 2015: 17). Depth behavior involves changing the emotional state by trying to feel the exhibited behavior. Employees exhibit depth behavior in interaction with rude customers to maintain positive outlook while being "under stress" (Buckner & Mahoney, 2012: 251-252). This behavior is accepted as the basis of emotional labor by Krulm & Geddes (2000) since the employees are required to spend much effort during displaying this behavior. Depth behavior involves replacement the emotions felt with the behavior that should be to comply with the rules (Diefendorff, Croyle & Gosserand, 2005: 340). The emotions required to be displayed by force of the work performed require to suppress the emotions felt by the employees. They realize this by thinking the similar events or the events experienced by the other workers as if they experienced themselves (Korkmaz et al., 2015: 17). Sincere behavior is described as being overlapped and convenient of the emotions displayed by the employees with the emotions felt (Chu & Murrman, 2006: 1182). It is no necessary for the employees to perform the requirements of the work to imitate and/or play roles and they can display the real emotions they felt. In this case, the emotions felt by the employees are evaluated in the dimension of sincere behavior (Ashforth & Humphrey, 1993). In the dimension of this behavior, displaying a feeling different from the emotion felt in real, that's to say performing a superficial behavior or trying to replace the emotion felt in real with the emotion required by the work that is to say performing depth behavior are not in question (Başbuğ, Ballı & Oktuğ, 2010: 257).

20 1.RELEVANT RESEARCHES Emotional labor concept submits a wide research field for researchers and the researches performed are built on the ideas presented in Hochchild (1983)'s original study (Erickson & Ritter, 2001: 146). It is seen that the studies carried out in this scope focus on different employee groups and study on the samples from different professions (Türkay, Ünal & Taşar, 2011: 205). In revealing the psychological results of emotional labor, qualitative and quantitative researches were carried out and are being carried out based on Hochschild's study. In these researches, the subjects generally stressed on are as follows (Wharton, 1999: 158): - The experiences of the employees displaying emotional behavior, - The comparisons between those who display and do not display emotional labor, - Under which conditions the emotional labor is positive or negative, - The changes brought by the differences in the attitudes of the employees for emotional labor, - It is the effect of the emotional labor displayed in the workplace on the employees' private life. When it is made literature scanning, it is seen that there are some studies on the samples taken from different universes on emotional labor. As public employees, there are nurses, police officers and administrators (Steinberg & Figart, 1999; Hunter & Smith, 2007; Seery & Corrigall, 2009), service sector employees (Bayram, Aytaç & Dursun, 2012), service providers and call center employees (Man & Selek Öz, 2009) etc. among these groups. In tourism sector, some of the studies carried out about emotional labor are as follows: The study carried out by Sandiford & Seymour (2002) was carried out in accommodation sector in England. In this study, ethnographic study methods described as "the investigation of an individual or culture with a participant observations supported by depth interviews" were used. As a result of the study, the factors affecting emotional labor most are detected to be negative experiences and positive experiences between the customers and employees. Besides, the presence of many different factors affecting emotional labor such as customers, the situations encountered and business conditions were mentioned. In a study carried out by Bolton & Boyt (2003), the emotions displayed in the businesses and the employees having the skill of managing these emotions have been investigated. The scope of the study involves the cabin attendants working in the businesses making three different passenger transportations in England. The data were obtained by applying semi-configured survey form to the applicants. Additional qualitative data were collected through configured interviews. It has been reached to the conclusion that it is possible that cabin attendants described as skilled emotion administrators can balance and synthesize the emotions in different types exhibited depending on the situational demands by using comparable data. Additionally, it has been stated that the resistance to emotions and managing emotions capacities of plane cabin attendants and the emotions they displayed the next customers conflict with Hochschild's suggestion about the transformation of the emotions. In a study carried out by Kim (2008), investigated the reasons and conclusions of superficial and depth behavior that are among the emotional labor in accommodation sector. As a result of the study, it has been determined that the employees having higher neurotic personality reflect mostly the fake and factitious emotions (superficial role play) but the employees having extroverted personality reflect their adopted emotions (depth role play) to the customers. It has been determined to be a positive correlation between depth role play that is the dimension of emotional labor and personal success feeling that is the dimension of exhaustion. Besides, it has been found that the employees playing a superficial role exhaust more than the ones playing role in depth. Another study was carried out on tour leaders by Wong & Wang (2009). Besides them, in the study which focused on qualitative data and analysis, it was made interviews with the people performed tour leadership at least for 4 years. In the study, it has been concluded that the various cases during tour brought along the exhibition of more intensive emotional labor behaviors. The factors such as redundancy of tour participants, length of tour times and selling the souvenirs and the tours which emerged depending on the desire will be given as examples to these situations. Kaya & Özhan (2012) has carried out a study for tourist guiding displaying emotional labor at high level by force of his profession. In the study, it has been aimed to determine the relationship between

21 the emotional labor displayed by tourist guides and their exhaustion status. As scale, "Emotional Labor Scale in Tourism Businesses" developed by Chu and adopted to Turkish by Pala and "Maslach Exhaustion Scale" developed by Maslach and adopted to Turkish by Ergin were used. As a result, it cannot be reached to a significant difference between the demographic features of the tourist guides and displaying emotional labor behaviors. Besides, it has been reached to the conclusion that there is a negative correlation between the displayed emotional labor behaviors and the dimension of desensitization that is among the exhaustion dimensions and positive correlation with personal success feeling. Another study carried out on tourist guides who are called as leading actors of tourism sector has been carried out by Güzel et al. (2013). In the study, only the region of Muğla was taken into account and the emotional labor behaviors displayed in tours by professional tourist guides were determined and its correlation with the intention of leaving of employment was revealed. Emotional labor sale received from Ünler Öz and the questions of the scale to determine the intentions of leaving of employment were used. It has been revealed that tourist guides spend extremely high emotional labor during tours. It has been concluded that depth role playing and suppression dimensions have significant correlation with the intention of leaving of employment. In a study carried out by Sarıışık et al. (2014), it was focused on a sample selected from the employees of service business. With the scale formed by making use of three different studies, it was aimed to measure the participation levels to the statements related to the experience frequency of the statements describing labor behaviors of the participants and sympathy variable were tried to be measured. As a result of the study, it has been reached to the conclusion that the participants generally display emotional labor behaviors suitable for the business expectations, they have sympathy towards the other people and they generally feel positive emissions. 2.METHODS In the research, it was aimed to determine the emotional labor behaviors displayed by the students of Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism towards the customers in the businesses where they are undergoing training or working. As data collection tool, survey form was used. The universe of the research consists of 2nd, 3rd and 4th grade students continuing their education in Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism. In the research, it was aimed that everybody reached and desired can participate in the survey and form sample mass in simple way and 247 students were selected with convenience sampling method from sampling methods that are not based on the probability (Altunışık, Coşkun, Bayraktaroğlu & Yıldırım, 2012: 140). Survey forms prepared were applied to the students face to face by the researchers between the dates of April 18-May 6, 2016. 242 of 247 surveys obtained in the application were taken to the evaluation and 5 surveys were taken out of the evaluation. The reason of not being included of 5 surveys in the evaluation is being answered to the surveys by thinking the businesses they work in (bank, textile, etc.) out of tourism sector. Emotional labor scale used in the research was developed by Chu & Murrman (2006). The original of the scale consists of 2 dimensions and 19 items. The items whose Turkish translation was made were classified under three emotional labor dimension headings whose meanings were clarified as a result of literature scanning (superficial behavior, depth behavior and sincere behavior), and the scale used in the research has been formed. The expressions used in the scale were grades “1… Strongly disagree and 5 … Strongly Agree”. The data obtained through survey forms were transferred to electronic media with SPSS 20.0 software and analyzed. The analysis were made with the data obtained in the emotional labor scale as well as demographic data belonging to the participants. In line with the answers given to the expression, the scores belonging to the sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale for each participant were calculated. Whether these scores are convenient for the normal distribution or not was examined with "kolmogrov- smirnov test". Since it has been seen to show normal distribution, whether the sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale show a change according to the demographic information has been investigated through parametric tests. The distribution related to demographic information was identified with frequency analysis. The change of sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale according to two-grouped variables such as openness status in a year was examined with “t-test in independent groups”. Whether it has a significant level of change or not according to the the variables including more than two groups

22 such as age group, the type of tourism business, personal income and average daily working time was investigated with "one-way variant analysis (one way ANOVA)". As a result of one way variant analysis, in the cases when significant difference was found, "TUKEY test" that is a multiple comparison test was used to detect from which group the difference is resulted. During the data analysis, 22 different groups belonging to title/position question that is one of the demographic elements emerged. Since the number of people in the groups are not convenient for making generalization (in small number), it includes their distribution only with frequency analysis only with frequency analysis. Analysis were carried out 95% of reliability level. 2.1. Reliability Analysis The reliability analysis has been made to determine the whole and sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale used in the study and Cronbach’s Alfa coefficient has been obtained. If the evaluation criterion that us complied in the evaluation of Cronbach’s Alfa Coefficient is 0.00 ≤ α < 0.40, the scale is not reliable; if it is 0.40 ≤ α < 0.60, the scale is in low reliability; if it is 0.60 ≤ α < 0.80, the scale is extremely reliable; if it is 0.80 ≤ α < 1.00, the scale is high level of reliable. For the sample used in the research, Cronbach’s Alfa coefficient was found to be 0,919 for superficial behavior sub-dimension; 0,820 for depth behavior sub-dimension; 0,822 for sincere behavior sub-dimension, 0,805 for the whole of the scale. When literature was examined, Cronbach’s Apha coefficient's being over 70% is seen to be sufficient in the evaluation of the statements as reliable (Pallant, 2001: 85). In line with the aim of the study, basic hypothesis were determined as follows: H1: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in the tourism businesses and gender. H2: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in the tourism businesses and age. H3: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and the type of tourism business where it is worked. H4: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and the activity period of the tourism business where it is worked. H5: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and the department where it is worked. H6: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and income. H7: There is a significant difference between emotional labor behaviors displayed in tourism businesses and working time. 3.FINDINGS 3.1.The Distribution of Demographic Findings of the Participants With the aim of determining the distribution of demographic findings of the participants, frequency analysis has been made and the results are shown in Table 1. When the distributions of the participants were investigated according to their gender, the ratio of the men is 53,3% and the ratio of women is 46,7%. When the distribution according to age groups was investigated, the ratio of the people in 17-19 age group is 2,5%; the ratio of the people on 20-22 age group 63,2%; the ratio of the people in 23-25 age group is 29,3%. The least age group participation belongs to 26-28 age groups with 5%. When the distribution of business type where they work was investigated, the ratio of the employees in travel agency is 23,1%; the ratio of the ones working in the accommodation agency is 62,8% and the ratio of the ones working in the transportation agency is 1,2%. The ratio of those working in food-beverages agency is 11,2%, while the ratio of those working in recreation agency is 1,7%. When the opening status of the businesses throughout the year was investigated, while the business where 55,8% of them are working throughout the year, 44,2% of the businesses work as seasonal.

23 Table 1: The Distribution of Demographic Findings n % Male 129 53,3 Gender Female 113 46,7 Total 242 100,0 17-19 6 2,5 20-22 153 63,2 Your Age 23-25 71 29,3 26-28 12 5,0 Total 242 100,0 Travel Business 56 23,1 The Type of Accommodation Business 152 62,8 Tourism Transportation Business 3 1,2 Business Catering Business 27 11,2 Where You Recreation (Fun-Relax) Business 4 1,7 Work Total 242 100,0 The Business Open Throughout The Year 135 55,8 Where You Seasonal 107 44,2 Work Total 242 100,0 Operation 26 10,7 Accountancy 6 2,5 The Front Office 82 33,9 Department Floor Services 6 2,5 Where You Food and Beverage 91 37,6 Work Animation 5 2,1 Facility-Hotel Consultancy 24 9,9 Other (Specify) 2 ,8 Total 242 100,0 0-500 32 13,2 Personal 501-1000 65 26,9 Income 1001-1500 109 45,0 1501 and above 36 14,9 Total 242 100,0 6-8 89 36,8 Average Daily 9-12 123 50,8 Working Time 13 and above 30 12,4

Total 242 100,0

When the distribution of the departments where participants are working were investigated; the ratio of those working in the operation is 10,7%; the ratio of those working in the accountancy is 2,5%, the ratio of those working in the front office is 33,9%. The ratio of those working in housekeeping is 2,5% and the ratio of those working in food and beverage department is 37,6%. The ratio of those working in the animation department 2,1% and the ratio of those working in the department of facility- hotel guiding is 9,9%. When the distributions of the participants according to the income of the participants were examined, the ratio of the ones whose income is 0-500 TL is 13,2%; the ratio of those whose income is 501-1000 TL is 26,9% and the ratio of the ones whose income is 1001-1500 TL is 45%. The ratio of those whose income is 1501 and over is 14,9%. The distribution of the average daily working time of the participants was examined; the ratio of the employees working for 6-8 hours is 36,8%; the ratio of those working for 9-12 hours is 50,8%, the ratio of those working for 13 hours and more is 12,4%.

24 Table 2. The Distribution According to Title n % Receptionist 45 18,6 Waiter 40 16,5 Concierge (Facility-Hotel Guidance) 24 9,9 Footboy 17 7,0 Transfer Element 12 5,0 The Officer of Customer Relations 12 5,0 Bellboy 11 4,5 Kitchen Staff 11 4,5 Barman/Barmaid 8 3,3 Reservation Officer 7 2,9 Apranti Guidance 7 2,9 Telephone Operator 6 2,5 Maid/Valet (Housekeeper) 6 2,5

Title/Position Bar Chef 6 2,5 Cook 6 2,5 Accounting Officer 5 2,1 Animator 5 2,1 Sales and Marketing Officer 4 1,7 Reception Chef 3 1,2 Pastry Cook 3 1,2 Other (Specify) 3 1,2 Reservation Chef 1 ,4 Total 242 100,0

The distributions of the participants according to their title/position are given in Table 2. Accordingly, it consists of the receptionist with 18,6% and waiters with 16,5% form the biggest group. Concierge with 9,9% (facility-hotel guidance), footboy with 7%, transfer element with 5%, the officer of customer relations with 5%, bellboy with 4,5%, kitchen staff with 4,5%. The rest of them in the other title and positions. 3.2.The Change of Emotional Labor Scale According to Gender The results of t-test in independent groups carried out for the detection of the averages of the Sub- Dimension of Emotional Labor Scale according to the gender and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not are given in Table 3. Table 3. The Sub-Dimensions of Emotional Labor Scale According to Gender Std. n Mean f p Deviation Male 129 3,00 1,06 Superficial 2,549 0,011* Behavior Female 113 2,65 1,05 Depth Male 129 3,71 0,69 -1,262 0,208 Behavior Female 113 3,82 0,69 Sincere Male 129 3,64 0,99 -1,168 0,244 Behavior Female 113 3,79 1,00

According to the results of t-test in independent groups; the sub-scale of superficial behavior show significant difference according to gender (p<0,05), depth behavior and sincere behavior sub-scales don't show significant difference according to the gender (p>0,05). For the superficial behavior sub- dimension having significant difference, the mean of men is significantly higher than the mean of women (p<0,05).

25 Table 4. The Sub-Dimensions of Emotional Labor Scale According to the Age Groups Std. n Mean f p Deviation 17-19 6 2,42 1,05 20-22 153 2,75 1,04 Superficial 23-25 71 2,95 1,07 2,349 0,073 Behavior 26-28 12 3,46 1,19 Total 242 2,84 1,07 17-19 6 3,84 0,26 20-22 153 3,70 0,73 Depth 23-25 71 3,88 0,59 1,192 0,313 Behavior 26-28 12 3,80 0,84 Total 242 3,76 0,69 17-19 6 3,72 0,77 20-22 153 3,72 0,99 Sincere 23-25 71 3,70 1,02 0,010 0,999 Behavior 26-28 12 3,70 1,11 Total 242 3,71 1,00 3.3.The Change of Emotional Labor Scale According to the Age Groups The results of one-way variant analysis carried out for the detection of the averages of emotional labor scale sub-dimension according to the age groups and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not are given in Table 4. According to one-way variant analysis results, sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale don't show significant difference according to the age groups (p>0,05). 3.4.The Change of Emotional Labor Scale According to the Tourism Agency Type The results of one-way variant analysis carried out for the detection of the averages of the sub- dimension of emotional labor scale according to the business type where it is worked and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not are given in Table 5. According to one-way variant analysis results, the sub-dimensions of emotional labor scale don't show significant level of difference according to the tourism agency type where it is worked (p>0,05). Table 5. Sub-Dimensions of Emotional Labor Scale according to the Tourism Agency Std. n Mean f p Deviation Travel Business 56 3,09 0,99 Accommodation Business 152 2,78 1,07 Superficial Transportation Business 3 2,38 1,44 1,322 0,262 Behavior Catering Business 27 2,74 1,13 Recreation (Fun-Relax) Business 4 2,32 1,17 Total 242 2,84 1,07 Travel Business 56 3,81 0,59 Accommodation Business 152 3,75 0,74 Transportation Business 3 3,79 0,83 Depth Behavior 0,850 0,495 Catering Business 27 3,79 0,56 Recreation (Fun-Relax) Business 4 3,16 1,06 Total 242 3,76 0,69 Travel Business 56 3,67 1,05 Accommodation Business 152 3,70 0,98 Transportation Business 3 3,89 0,84 Sincere Behavior 0,218 0,928 Catering Business 27 3,86 0,90 Recreation (Fun-Relax) Business 4 3,67 1,80 Total 242 3,71 1,00

26 3.5.The Change in Emotional Labor Scale according to the Department For the detection of the averages of emotional labor scale sub-dimension according to the department where it is worked and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not, one-way variant analysis results are given in Table 6. Table 6. Sub-dimensions of Emotional Labor Scale According to the Department where it worked Std. n Mean f p Deviation Operation 26 2,96 0,97 Accountancy 6 2,63 0,80 Front Office 82 2,89 1,07 Floor Services 6 3,07 1,16 Superficial Food and Beverage 91 2,71 1,08 1,071 0,383 Behavior Animation 5 2,25 1,02 Facility-Hotel Consultancy 24 3,18 1,15 Other (Specify) 2 2,07 0,26 Total 242 2,84 1,07 Operation 26 3,83 0,57 Accountancy 6 3,04 0,74 Front Office 82 3,79 0,64 Floor Services 6 3,00 0,72 Depth Food and Beverage 91 3,85 0,75 3,276 0,002* Behavior Animation 5 3,15 0,92 Facility-Hotel Consultancy 24 3,81 0,49 Other (Specify) 2 3,07 0,45 Total 242 3,76 0,69 Operation 26 3,49 1,07 Accountancy 6 3,45 1,11 Front Office 82 3,75 0,89 Floor Services 6 3,28 0,83 Sincere Food and Beverage 91 3,78 1,01 0,659 0,707 Behavior Animation 5 3,33 1,73 Facility-Hotel Consultancy 24 3,85 1,07 Other (Specify) 2 3,50 1,65 Total 242 3,71 1,00

According to the one-way variant analysis results, while depth behavior sub-scale from emotional labor scale sub-dimensions show significant level of difference according to the department where it is worked, superficial behavior and sincere behavior sub-dimensions do not show significant level of difference according to the income (p>0,05). For depth behavior sub-scale showing significant difference, according to the results of TUKEY test results performed for the detection of which group the difference is resulted from; The average of operation employees is significantly different from the average of the employees working in accounting, housekeeping, animation department. The average of the employees working in accounting department is significantly different from the average of the employees working in operation, front office, food beverage and facility hotel guidance. The mean of the employees working in front office is significantly different from the employees of accounting, housekeeping and animation department. The mean of the housekeepers is significantly different from the employees of operation, front office, food and beverage and facility hotel guidance department, housekeeping and animation department. There is not any significant difference between the other departments.

27 3.6.The Change in Emotional Labor Scale according to the Openness Status of the Business The results of t-test in independent groups performed to detect the averages of emotional labor scale sub-dimension according to the openness status of the business and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not are given in Table 7. Table 7. Emotional Labor Scale Sub-Dimensions according to the Openness Status of the Business n Mean Std. Deviation f p Open throughout the Superficial 135 2,75 1,07 year -1,474 0,142 Behavior Seasonal 107 2,95 1,06 Open throughout the Depth 135 3,85 0,66 year 2,301 0,022* Behavior Seasonal 107 3,65 0,72 Open throughout the Sincere 135 3,81 0,94 year 1,790 0,075 Behavior Seasonal 107 3,58 1,06 *p<0,05 According to the results of t-test in independent groups; while the depth behavior front the sub- dimensions of emotional labor scale shows significant level of difference according to the openness status of the business, superficial behavior and sincere behavior sub-dimensions don't show significant level of difference (p>0,05). For depth behavior showing significant difference, the average of the employees in the business that is open throughout the year is significantly higher than the employees working in the businesses that are open for seasonal (p<0,05). 3.7.Emotional Labor Scale Change According to the Income The results of one-way variant analysis carried out to the detection of the averages of emotional labor scale sub-dimension according to the income it is worked for and whether the difference between these averages is significant or not are given in Table 8. Table 8. Emotional Labor Scale Sub-Dimensions According to the Income Std. N Mean f p Deviation 0-500 32 2,99 0,95 501-1000 65 2,86 1,12 Superficial 1001-1500 109 2,75 1,10 0,499 0,683 Behavior 1501 and above 36 2,90 0,98 Total 242 2,84 1,07 0-500 32 3,48 0,85 501-1000 65 3,75 0,58 Depth 1001-1500 109 3,87 0,66 2,700 0,046* Behavior 1501 and above 36 3,70 0,77 Total 242 3,76 0,69 0-500 32 3,41 1,15 501-1000 65 3,78 0,94 Sincere 1001-1500 109 3,73 0,97 1,208 0,307 Behavior 1501 and above 36 3,80 1,01 Total 242 3,71 1,00 *p<0,05 According to the results of one-way variant analysis, while depth behavior sub-scale from the emotional labor scale sub-dimensions shows significant difference according to the income, superficial behavior and sincere behavior sub-scales don't show significant difference according to the income (p>0,05).

28 According to the results of TUKEY test carried out for the detection of which group the significant difference is resulted from for depth behavior sub-scale showing significant difference, there is not any significant difference the average of those who have the personal income of 0-500 TL is significantly lower than the average of those who have the personal income of 1000-1500 TL (p<0,05). There is no significant difference between the other groups (p>0,05). 3.8.The Change of Emotional Labor Scale according to the Daily Working Time The results of one-way variant analysis performed for the detection of the averages of emotional labor scale sub-dimension according to daily working time and whether there is a significant difference between these averages are given in Table 9. Table 9. The Sub-Dimensions of Emotional Labor Scale According to the Daily Working Time Std. n Mean f p Deviation 6-8 89 2,66 1,03 Superficial 9-12 123 2,89 1,04 2,658 0,072 Behavior 13 and above 30 3,14 1,22 Total 242 2,84 1,07 6-8 89 3,86 0,65 Depth 9-12 123 3,71 0,65 1,325 0,268 Behavior 13 and above 30 3,68 0,92 Total 242 3,76 0,69 6-8 89 3,83 0,89 Sincere 9-12 123 3,66 0,99 1,112 0,331 Behavior 13 and above 30 3,58 1,27 Total 242 3,71 1,00 According to one-way variant analysis results; none of the emotional labor scale sub-dimensions don't show significant level of difference according to daily working hours (p>0,05). In other words, each behavior style is at the different level of all working time groups. 4.DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION Emotional labor concept called as acting by forming a certain emotion expression by the employees working in the business environment towards the customer was suggested by Hochchild (1983) and it has been a subject whose importance has been in increasing day by day and in which it has been made plenty of study in recent years. Service sector is a sector that obliges face-to-face interaction with the customers. The situation is similar for the tourism agencies in this sector. Since there are many physiological, psychological and social factors that are effective on human behaviors, there are many factors affecting emotional labor behaviors. Some demographic factors such as gender and age can be listed among these factors (Oğuz, 2015: 93). Based on this, the relationship between the emotional labor behaviors displayed by the students in Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism in the businesses where they do their internship or work and the identified demographic. The results that have been reached in the research carried out are as follows: As a result of the relationship between emotional labor dimensions and gender, it has been concluded that gender factor has a significant difference only with superficial behavior dimension and there is no significant difference between depth behavior and sincere behavior dimensions. As a result of this, while the part of H1 related to superficial behavior was being accepted, the part of it related to the depth and sincere behavior dimension was rejected. The superficial behavior was revealed to be displayed by men mostly. In a study carried out by Şat, Amil & Özdevecioğlu (2015) on private school

29 teachers, it was reached to a similar result as "superficial acting levels of male teachers are significantly higher than the female teachers". A significant difference was observed between being open of the businesses throughout the year and the depth behavior dimension displayed. No significant difference was found between being open of the business throughout the year and displayed superficial and sincere behavior sub-dimensions. Similarly, the part of H4 related to the depth behavior dimension was accepted and superficial and sincere behavior dimensions were rejected. The findings obtained revealed the conclusion that the depth behavior displayed is more in the businesses that are open throughout the year is more than the seasonal businesses. When the relationship between the department where it is worked and emotional labor behaviors were examined, it has been seen that there is a relationship with the dimension of depth behavior displayed. However, no significant difference was found between superficial and sincere behavior dimensions. As a result of this, depth behavior dimension of H5 was accepted, but superficial and sincere behavior dimensions were rejected. The department where depth behavior is displayed mostly is food and beverage department and operation, facility-hotel guidance and front office departments follow this. As a result of this, in the departments where face to face communication with the customers is more, depth behavior can be said to be displayed more. However, in the study carried out by Baş & Kılıç (2014) about the employees working in disabled tourism bazaar, while a significant difference was being found between the department where it is worked and the superficial behavior displayed, no significant difference was found with depth behavior. When it was examined in terms of income status, similarly a significant difference was found with the dimension of depth behavior; no significant difference was observed with superficial and sincere behavior dimensions. This caused to be accepted of depth behavior dimension of H6 but rejected of superficial and sincere behavior dimension. Among income groups, the group displaying the least depth behavior consists of the participants having the income of 0-500 TL. In the study, as a reason of showing difference by depth behavior dimension in terms of staff income, it is thought to be resulted from the fact that tourism agencies employ low waged staff. Revising personal satisfaction on the basis of wages will give opportunities to create positive changes in the behaviors of the employees working in tourism agencies towards the customers. On the point of being dissolved of this situation, the analysis of the negative table emerged with the execution of satisfactory level of wage policy by tourism agencies seems possible. From demographic factors except for these, no significant difference was found in age, tourism agency where it is worked and working times with the dimensions of emotional labor behaviors. In the study carried out by Oral on the doctors, it has been reached to the conclusion that age and working time have no effect on any of the emotional labor behaviors. As a result of this observation, H2, H3 and H6 were rejected. This research was carried out with the data obtained from 2nd, 3rd and 4th grade students studying in Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism. For this reason, the validity of the research findings is limited with the students in Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism. In the studies planned to be made in the future, the students in a different higher education institution or different education levels can form the universe of the study. Besides, this study is a comprehensive research in terms of the type of tourism organization, the type of tourism agency, the department where it is worked and the title/position and the studies to be made with the contraction of demographic factors will provide opportunity to the comparisons and will reveal different results. REFERENCES Altunışık, R.; Coşkun, R.; Bayraktaroğlu, S.; Yıldırım, E. (2012). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri, Sakarya Yayıncılık, 381 s., İstanbul. Ashforth, B. E. & Humphrey, R. H. (1993). Emotional Labor in Service Roles: The Influence of Identity. Academy of Management Review 18 (1), 88-115. Baş, M. & Kılıç, B. (2014). Duygusal Emek Boyutları, Süreci ve Sonuçlarının Engelli Turizm Pazarında Değerlendirilmesi. Gazi Üniv. Turizm Fakültesi Dergisi 2, 67-83. Başbuğ, G.; Ballı, E.; Oktuğ, Z. (2010). Duygusal Emeğin İş Memnuniyetine Etkisi: Çağrı Merkezi

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31 Morris, J. A., & Feldman, D. C. (1996). The Dimensions, Antecedents, and Consequences of Emotional Labor. Academy of Management Review, 21(4), 986-1010. Sandiford, P. J. & Seymour, D. (2002). Emotional Labor in Public Houses: Reflections on a Pilot Study. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research 26 (1), 54-70. Sarıışık, M; Ulama, Ş. & Nergiz, H. (2014). Duygusal Emek: Hizmet Sektöründe Bir Araştırma, 12. Uluslararası Türk Dünyası Sosyal Bilimler Kongresi, 30 Ağustos-06 Eylül 2014, Bildiriler Kitabı, s. 1031-1041, Tataristan. Seery, B. L. & Corrigall, E. A. (2009). Emotional Labor: Links to Work Attitudes and Emotional Exhaustion. Journal of Managerial Psychology 24(8), 797-813. Seymour, D. (2000). Emotional Labour: A Comparison Between Fast Food and Traditional Service Work. International Journal of Hospitality Management 19 (2), 159-171. Steinberg, R. J. & Figart, D. M. (1999). Emotional Demands at Work: A Job content analysis. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 561(1), 177-191. Şat, A., Amil, O. & Özdevecioğlu, M. (2015). Duygusal Zeka ve Duygusal Emek Düzeylerinin Bazı Demografik Değişkenler Açısından İncelenmesi: Özel Okul Öğretmenleri ile Bir Araştırma. Erciyes Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 39, 1-20. Wharton, A. S. (1999). The Psychosocial Consequences of Emotional Labor. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 561 (1), 158-176. Wharton, A. S. (2009). The Sociology of Emotional Labor. Annual Review of Sociology, 35, 147-165. Wong, J. Y. & Wang, C. H. (2009). Emotional Labor of the Tour Leaders: An Exploratory Study. Tourism Management 30 (2), 249-259. Yürür, S.; Gümüş, M. & Hamarat, B. (2011). Çalışan-Müşteri İlişkilerinde Algılanan Adalet/Adaletsizliğin Duygusal Emek Davranışlarına Etkisi. Journal of Yaşar University 6 (23), 3826-3839.

32 Chapter 3

Gastronomy and Tourism

Osman ÇALIŞKAN*, Gökhan YILMAZ**

INTRODUCTION It is seen that in the last years gastronomy forges ahead towards becoming an academic discipline. For instance, Hegarty (2009) stated that so many academic studies were put forward on gastronomy and culinary arts between 1996-2007. In this context, the existence of academic journals (such as International Journal of Gastronomy and Food Science, Journal of Culinary Science and Technology, Journal of Foodservice Business Research, Journal of Gastronomy and Tourism) particular to Gastronomy and Food-Beverage Management field and the increase in the number of scientific publications are seen as remarkable developments. On the other hand, it is accepted that gastronomy is in close relationship with tourism. In this framework, it is possible to encounter with lots of academic studies indicating that gastronomy is complement and a significant component of tourism. In the light of all of these, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of gastronomy concept and tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and tourism relations; gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identitiy issues. CONCEPTIONAL FRAMEWORK The concept of gastronomy and its relation with tourism The concept of “Gastronomy” composed with the integration of the Greek words “Gastro” and “Nomos”. Gastro-relates to the stomach and, by extension, the whole digestive system, starting at the mouth, while nomos means rule or regulation. Gastronomy therefore refers to rules or norms in respect of eating and drinking (Katz, 2003; Santich, 2004; 2007). In related literature it is seen that the gastronomy concept can be defined with its guidance, process and cultural ways (Yılmaz, 2015). Santich (2004) considers gastronomy concept as rules and regulations about eating–drinking and in this regard, depending on historical, cultural and environmental effects, he defines gastonomy concept as offering proposals related to what, where, when, in which combination and how to eat and drink and making guidance. Beşirli (2010) evaluates gastronomy in cultural frame and states that the doings made during the process of producing, transporting, keeping and consuming of foods are related with culture. Also, Hegarty and O'Mahony (2001) explain gastronomy within the framework of eating and drinking culture as a concept containing elements and recipts used in preparing foods; preparing, cooking and presenting methods of foods; the amount and variety of foods; liked and disliked tastes; customs, traditions and believes about the presentation of foods; the equipments used. Richards (2002), Kivela and Crotts (2006) summarise gastronomy concept as distinctive foods of a country or a region, preparing and cooking methods of foods, presenting and consuming foods and emphasize on the relation with culture. On the other hand, Richards (2002), Hegarty (2005; 2009) and Hegarty and Antun (2010) evaluate gastronomy as a process in their studies (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011) and describe this process as producing, handling, gathering, preparing, presenting, consuming of foods and getting pleasure. A significant discussion about gastronomy concept is carried out on its relation with science and art concepts (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, gastronomy is also described as good food eating art and science (Santich, 2004; 2007; Gillespie, 2006). Kivela and Crotts (2006) and Santich (2007) state that gastronomy concept includes both the art of good eating and also the art of good cooking. Hegarty and Antun (2007) qualify gastronomy as an art because of its trying to figure out the reality; as a science due

*Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department ** Res. Assist., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department

to its relation with fields like chemistry, physics and history. In this context, gastronomic products can be considered as art when they contain subjectivity and esthetics factors; the informations produced in gastronomy field can be considered as science when they contain subjectivity and rationality factors. In other words it is accepted that gastronomy is an art for it requires mastership and ability; it is a science for kitchen is not different from a laboratory and for it can get findings based on observation and experiment (Hegarty and Antun, 2010). And, Özdemir and Çalışkan (2011) state that the informations about foods and beverages reveal the scientific aspect of gastronomy; preperation and presentation of foods and beverages to appeal to the five senses of people reveal the artistic aspects of gastronomy. In terms of academic, it is seen that gastronomy is a working field requiring a very disciplined approach and being in relation with several working fields and sciences (Santich, 2007; Zahari, Jalis, Zulfifly, Radzi and Othman, 2009; Croce and Perri, 2010) like chemistry, literature, biology, geography, history, anthropology, music, philosophy and sociology (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Hegarty, 2009). In this regard, it is possible to say that gastronomy is both connected with social sciences and also physical sciences. For example, Santich (2007) indicates that gastronomy is connected with other fields such as history, literature, medicine, politics, law, ethics, business administration, religion, chemistry, philosophy, physics, communication, cookery, agriculture, geography, economy, trade and technology and in this context he considers the relation of gastronomy with other fields within the framework of production and consumption extents. In other words, while the fields such as cuisine, agriculture, geography, economy, trade, technology constitute the production extent of gastronomy, the fields such as religion, ethics, law, politics constitute the consumption extent of foods which are suitable or allowed for people. Also, communication, history and literature help learning cultural structures, customs and traditions of societies. Similarly, Croce and Perri (2010) state that at the heart of gastronomy there are factors as nature, culture and society and also it is in relation with the fields such as botanic, zoology, chemistry, physics, astronomy, engineering, architecture, painting and geology. Hegarty and Antun (2010) indicate that the gathering, preparing and cooking stages of foods are connected with physics and chemistry sciences. Also, This (2006a; 2006b; 2009) expresses that gastronomy is in relation with nature science due to the classification of foodstuffs; with physics due to the assessment of foodstuff’s quality and content; with chemistry due to the various analysis about the content of foods; with cookery due to the gathering together a variety of foods in harmony and their artistic presentation; with business administration due to getting materials on the cheapest and selling products lucratively; with economy due to its national and international income-generating effects. Despite all these assessments, according to the studies in related literature, it can be possible to say that the science which is in the closest relationship with gastronomy is tourism and gastronomy is being analyzed in the context of this relation. The benefits of gastronomy to tourism While researchers are conceptualising the interactions between gastronomy and tourism, they can consider different factors. For instance, when Tikkanen (2007) evaluates the effects of gastronomy to tourism, he puts forward 4 factors as being an attractiveness of food that can be used in destination’s advertising; being a potential element on the development of local agriculture and economy; being a significant part of experiences tourists are going to liveand being a contact of local culture. Henderson (2009) emphasizes the positive effects of gastronomy in the relations between gastronomy and tourism and indicates that there are 4 factors ranging as being a touristic products of food; being a factor that can be marketable to tourists; being a tool of gastronomy tourism in the development of destination and providing diversification opportunities to the firms in destination. Mak, Lumbers and Eves (2012) explain the determiners of the relations between gastronomy and tourism as foods’ being component of a touristic product or activity; the food consuming behaviours of tourists; the food experiences of tourists and their being specially interested in different foods-beverages and activities related with them. Kivela and Crotts (2009) evaluate the gastronomy or local foods as a travel motivation, a criterion being effective on the decision of a destination, a factor that ensures to visit the destination again and an element that contributes to the general satisfaction of tourists. Yılmaz (2015) summarizes the benefits of gastronomy to tourism as follows:  It forms a basis to the differentiation of destinations

34  It plays significant role on marketing the destinations  It is used as an important factor in promotion of destinations.  It can be a travel motivation for tourists.  It can be effective on chosing of destination for tourists.  It can enable to visit a destination again for tourists.  It can contribute to the satisfaction of tourists.  It is beneficial to the economic development of destination. When consider from economic angle, the expenses that tourists make for foods and eating out during their travels show the importance of gastronomy in tourism industry. Hall and Sharples (2003) indicate that foods are the second most important factor (28 %) after accomodation (36 %) in daily expenses of tourists. Other researches show that the proportion of expenditures for food in total tourist spending can be between 25 % - 40 %. For instance, while Boyne, Williams and Hall (2002) state that food expenditures constitute 40 % of tourist expenditures Hudman (1986), Ardabili and Rasouli (2011), Canizares and Guzman (2012) and Getz, Robinson, Andersson and Vujicic (2014) state that this proportion is at a level of 25 %. Also Rimmington and Yüksel (1998),Telfer and Wall (2000), Torres (2002) and MacLaurin, Blose and Mack (2007) indicate that food expenditures constitute one third of tourists expenditures. For instance, it is stated that in South Africa, 8 % of foreign tourists’ expenditures and 24 % of domestic tourists’ expenditures are food expenditures (Du Rand, Heath and Alberts, 2003). According to the report of Turkish Statistical Institution it is indicated that 28,6 % of total expenditures of tourists coming to Turkey between 2005-2007 is seperated to food and eating out activities (Yurtseven and Kaya, 2011). Similarly, in Gastronomy Tourism Report published by the Association of Turkish Travel Agencies, it is indicated that the expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists coming to Turkey in 2014 are at a level of 19 %. Total expenditures and expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists coming to Turkey are shown by years in Table 1. Table 1:Total expenditures and expenditures for eating-drinking of tourists (2004-2014) Expenditure on Eating – drinking Year Total Expenditure Eating – drinking expenditure ($) ($) % 2004 17.076.609 3.158.780 18,4 2005 20.322.111 3.690.171 18,1 2006 18.593.947 3.899.512 20,9 2007 20.042.501 4.746.747 23,6 2008 25.415.068 5.774.961 22,7 2009 25.064.481 5.975.660 23,8 2010 24.940.996 5.841.251 23,4 2011 28.115.693 6.440.577 22,9 2012 29.351.445 6.210.047 21,1 2013 32.308.991 6.583.641 20,3 2014 34.305.904 6.523.852 19 Source: Türkiye Seyahat Acentaları Briliği (TÜRSAB) (URL 1) Apart from general touristexpenditures, the expenditures made by tourists travelling with the purpose of gastronomy are being important factors contributing economically to local people (Haven- Tang and Jones, 2005). For instance, it is stated that in 2013, 6.4 million people patricipated in Oktoberfest beer festivity celebrated yearly in Munich Germany and 6.7 million litres beer were consumed (Spiegel Online, 2013). Besides, it is seen that local food products including 549,899 pieces of chicken, 140 225 pair of local sausages, 44.320 kg of fish and 116 pieces of cow were used up (Oktoberfest.net, 2013). Similarly, it is indicated that millions of people visited the Maine Lobster Festivity which has been organised since 1948 in America and it produced economic profit about a billion dolar (TÜRSAB, 2014).

35 In another example, it is indicated that gastronomy tourists visiting Canada Ontario Region in 2010 spent 816 million Canadian Dollars (Richards, 2012). In this study, Schmantowsky (2008) states that the tourists travelling in order to discover different local cuisines and taste local foods spend in average 1.194 dollars per person; Green and Dougherty (2008) state they spend in average 1000 dollars per person. Such as to support this, Noseworthy, Martin, Wade, Sabev and Csillag (2005) state that the average daily expenditures of gastronomy tourists double the expenditures of typical tourists. For reaching to these spending levels, the payments tourists made for gastronomic products and services have a great share. In fact, some tourists are eager to pay more in order to be able to experience local foods (Everett and Aitchison, 2008). In this regard, in the research made with 1.440 English tourists by Enteleca Research and Consultancy (2001), it was concluded that the 67 % of tourists are willing to pay more for local foods and drinkings. Westering (1999) states that tourists pay 425 pounds for two-day France Loire Valley wine and mushroom tours and 3.999 pounds for seven-day Greece Odesa wine tour. Also Hunter (2006) indicates that tourists pay 680-1000 dollars to 3-hour gastronomy tours including cookery courses, accomodation, gourmet breakfasts and dinner. Tourism creates value for its stakeholders. Gastronomy helps the development of the economic, social and cultural values of tourism stakeholders (Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002). In a study made by Kivela and Crotts (2006) in Hong Kong it was reached the end of which gastronomy tourism make various contributions to producers, tourism industry, local people and tourists. Haven-Tang and Jones (2005) state that local foods and drinks have various benefits to tourists, tourism establishments and local people. Quan and Wang (2004) summarize the importance of gastronomy tourism on promoting, developing and marketting a destination as creating alternative opportunities and providing added value for food producers who are in rural areas, converting rich and various foods in the region and regional cuisine culture into festivals or activities about foods and creating attraction centers to which tourists are able to come, diversifying tourism activities as a result of presentation of foods seperately as touristic products and developing local people’s identities and cultures and helping to the participation of several people. In the light of all of these, the benefits of gastronomy tourism to tourists, producers, local people, tourism industry and environment are as follows (Quan and Wang, 2004; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Yılmaz, 2015):  Benefits to tourists  Being a discovery tool of local culture  Providing the opportunity of experiencing and purchasing different foods  Providing the opportunity of participating in gastronomy focused activities  Contributing to the tourists satisfaction  Benefits to producers  Developing agricultural activities  Developing local husbandry  Providing the increase of production and selling  Improving the quality and diversity of products and services  Ensuring the local producers’ being a part of tourism industry  Benefits to local people  Creating new business opportunities  Strenghtening of local identity  Increasing the intercultural interaction  Development of local economy  Benefits to tourism industry  Increasing the number of tourists  Extension of staying time  Increasing of touristic expenditures

36  Development of tourism types  Presentation of alternative products  Benefits to the environment  Contributing to the development of local destination  Helping to the keeping of local attractivenesses  Developing the environment friendly infrastructure  Helping to the ensuring sustainability

Gastronomy and tourism studies Researches made about gastronomy and tourism relation constitute a significant conceptional basis in order to understand the gastronomy and tourism relation. In this regard, it is thought that explaining this issue in the light of related literature will be beneficial. Nowadays, it can be said that academic studies made on gastronomy and tourism relation get up to a certain level in quality and quantity and predominantly focus on following issues:  Destination and local cuisine relation (Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000; Barkat & Vermignon, 2006; Guzman & Canizares, 2011; Beer, Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2012; Yılmaz & Özdemir, 2015)  Promotion (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006; Horng & Tsai, 2010; Lan, Wu and Lee, 2012) and marketing (Du Rand er al., 2003; Du Rand & Heath, 2006; Okumus, Okumus & McKercher, 2007; Horng & Tsai, 2012c) of local cuisines  The behaviours of tourists to local cuisines (Torres, 2002; Hjalager, 2004; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Chang, Kivela & Mak, 2010; 2011; Mak et al., 2012)  The expectations and satisfactions of tourists about gastronomic experiences (Ryu & Jang, 2006; Correia, Moital, da Costa & Peres, 2008)  The classification of tourists according to their relations with gastronomy (Boyne, Hall & Williams, 2003; Hjalager, 2004; Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Kivela & Crotts, 2009; Yun, Hennessey & MacDonald, 2011; Canizares & Guzman, 2012) and the determination of them as a part of market (Kivela & Crotts, 2005; MacLaurin et al., 2007; Mack, Blose & MacLaurin, 2009; McKercher, Okumus & Okumus, 2008)  Gastronomic identity (Harrington, 2005; Fox, 2007; Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010; Lin, Pearson & Cai, 2011; Çalışkan, 2013)  Gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism (Long, 1998; Hall and Mitchell, 2001; Hjalager, 2002; Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002; Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis and Cambourne, 2003; Hall and Mitchell, 2005; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Tikkanen, 2007; Henderson, 2009)  The sources (Deneault, 2002; Smith & Xiao, 2008; Silkes, 2012) and development strategies (Green & Dougherty, 2008; Horng & Tsai, 2012a; 2012b; Ottenbacher & Harrington, 2013) of gastronomy tourism  The usage of local foods in tourism (Kim, Eves & Scarles, 2009; Özdemir, Yılmaz, Çalışkan & Aydın, 2015; Özdemir, Aydın, Çalışkan & Yılmaz, 2015) Gastronomy tourism Traveling of people for the purpose of experiencing local foods is accepted as a different tourism type (Molz, 2007). In order to describe this tourism type, in related literature as shown in Image 1, the development of several number of concepts like gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism, meal tourism, gastro tourism or food and wine tourism and from time to time using these concepts interchangeably or seperation of these concepts from each other are seen. Karim and Chi (2010) state that the concepts like gastronomy tourism, culinary tourism, food tourism and wine tourism are used because, in the heart of concepts, there is traveling of people to particular destinations in order to discover foods and drinks and in this context, indeed, the concepts have the same meanings. Lin (2006) indicate that no matter which concept is used, the main aim is using foods and drinks as important means in order to promote and develop tourism in a certain region. In spite of that, Kivela and Crotts (2005) and Ignatov and Smith (2006) allege that there are some differencies between the concepts of

37 culinary tourism and gastronomy tourism. According to this distinction, gastronomy tourism is related to eating and including consumption, enjoying and quality factors. In other saying, the word “gastronomy” in the gastronomy tourism concept emphasize mostly on its consumption extent (Ignatov and Smith, 2006). And culinary tourism comprises foodstuff, the processes of food preperation and production, activities about foods and motivations (Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and handles the production and consumption extents together (Ignatov and Smith, 2006). Similarly, Ninemeier (2010) states that culinary tourism grounds on the food preperation process and it is about cuisine. In wine tourism, experiencing wines and visiting wineries or regions are main travelling motivations (Charters and Ali- Knight, 2002).

Figure 1: The concepts about gastronomy tourism used in literature (Yılmaz, 2015). According to related literature, the concept of gastronomy tourism was used firstly by Lucy Long in 1998 (Long, 1998; Kivela and Crotts, 2005; Karim and Chi, 2010; Horng and Tsai, 2012a). In this context, Long (1998) describes gastronomy tourism as a tourism type developed in order to discover other cultures and civilisations through activities about foods (Kivela and Crotts, 2005; 2006). Thus, Long (2003) emphasises the aim of recognising different cultures along with consumption in gastronomy tourism. The basis of gastronomy tourism bases on agriculture, culture and tourism (Westering, 1999; Cusack, 2000; Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000; Everett and Slocum, 2013). Agriculture is effective in providing products or foods to be consumed; culture is effective in the history or authenticity of destinations. In terms of tourism, it is accepted that gastronomy tourism is one kind of culture tourism. Because, local cuisine forms an inseparable part of destination’s or society’s culture (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). With providing required background and services, agriculture, culture and tourism elements gather under the gastronomy tourism roof (Du Rand and Heath, 2006). In the literature gastronomy toruism is defined as a new type of tourism (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Smith and Costello, 2009; Chaney and Ryan, 2012; Horng and Tsai, 2012b); special interest tourism

38 (McKercher et al., 2008) or a niche market segment (Stewart, Bramble and Ziraldo, 2008; Silkes, 2012; Forga and Valiente, 2012). Some researchers take gastronomy tourism also as one of the fastest growing in tourism industry (Deneault, 2002; Mautner, 2009) and one of the most demanding tourism type (Beer, Ottenbacher and Harrington, 2012). At the heart of gastronomy tourism, there are discovering local foods or cuisines (Horng and Tsai, 2012a), enjoying (Kivela and Crotts, 2005) and experiencing unforgettable experiment (McKercher et al., 2008). Traveling to different destinations provides tourists the opportunityof recognising new cultures, cuisines and local foods and experiencing the sense of authenticity(Westering, 1999; Cook, Yale and Marqua, 1999; Okumus et al., 2007). Gastronomy tourism focuses on unique food, cuisine and culture (Yun et al., 2011). In this regard, the definitions related to gastronomy tourism are presented in Table 2. Table 2: Definitions related to gastronomy tourism Study Definition Travels including preparing, presenting and consuming of foods, done Long (1998; 2003) in order to learn and discover local cuisines and eating patterns that they do not own. Travels from which tourists can learn the producing process of foods, Richards (2002) cooking methods, ingredients used and culinary culture of region. Gastronomy tourism, goes well beyond the dining experience. It includes a variety of cuisine and/or agri-tourism activities developed Deneault (2002) for visitors involving food and beverages. These can range from food festivals to farm visits and factory tours, and often involve the cultural discovery of a region's unique dishes. Wolf (2002) Travels made in order to search foods and drinks and enjoy. Travels which are made towards primary and secondary food Hall & Mitchell producers, foods festivals, restaurants and special food and wine (2001; 2005) regions in order to discover or experience foods and drinkings and travels whose main travel reason is foods. A tool of interesting in food and drimk or eating and drinking, Santich (2004) traveling motivation and experiencing other cultures. Tourism trips during which the purchase or consumption of regional foods (including beverages), or the observation and study of food Ignatov & Smith (2006) production (from agriculture to cooking schools) represent a significant motivation or activity. A tourism type which provides oppotunity to experience local foods Chang, Kivela & Mak (2010) and learn local culture with various aspects.

Silkes (2012) Cultural interaction taking place among tourists and local people Silkes, Cai & Lehto (2013) through sharing experiences about foods.

Source: Yılmaz, 2015 In this regard, it is possible to define gastronomy tourism as travels comprising “the production, preperation, presentation and consumption processes of foods and eating-drinking patterns, being interested in table manners and cuisine culture and participating in activities about foods organised in destinations (visiting food-drink producers, wine and beer factories, farmer markets; meal experience in restaurants; participating in festivals; gastronomy tours; taking part in cookery classes and wine tasting courses); made in order to enjoy, learn and discover and whose main travel motivation are made up of local foods (Yılmaz, 2015). In gastronomy tourism it is seen that during travels, the fact of travel for foods comes to the forefront rather than consuming foods. As of both this definition as well as related literature addressed that the followings are among the distinctive features of gastronomy tourism.  Dining is consistently one of the top three favorite tourist activities (Sparks, Bowen & Klag, 2003; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Quan & Wang, 2004; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009; Munjal & Sharma, 2013; Bessiere & Tibere, 2013)

39  Tourists dine out when traveling, and each dining opportunity is a chance to get to know local food (Deneault, 2002), culture (Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Kim et al., 2009) and people (Fox, 2007; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009)  Culinary or gastronomy art and wine tasting is the only art form that affects all five human senses—sight, sound, smell, taste, and touch (Long, 1998; Cohen & Avieli, 2004; Kim et al., 2009; Chang et al., 2010; Mak et al., 2012)  There is a high positive correlation between tourists who are interested in wine/cuisine and those interested in museums, shows, shopping, music and film festivals, and cultural attraction (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006; Lang Research Inc., 2006; Fox, 2007; Vujicic, Getz & Robinson, 2013), Interest in cuisine when traveling is not reserved to a particular age, sex, or ethnic group (Kivela & Crotts, 2006)  Unlike other travel activities and attractions, gastronomy is available year-round, any time of day and in any weather (Deneault, 2002; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; Canizares & Guzman, 2012)  More often than not, gastronomy tourists are explorers (Telfer & Wall, 2000; Heldke, 2003; Kivela & Crotts, 2006; 2009). Gastronomic tourism products Gastronomic tourism products can be described as products that tourists can consume during their travels or use for a while, include gastronomic factors (like foods-drinks) at its heart and services or factors formed by the combination of these (Yılmaz, 2015). For instance, local restaurants, wineries and vineyards in destinations are among the main gastronomic tourism products tourists can live an exhilarating experience (Kivela and Crotts, 2006). If it is though more comprehensive, in studies in the related literature traditional or high quality restaurants, food and wine festivals, cookery schools, wine trainings, local markets, cookery and meal competitions or activities (Long, 1998), wineries and vineyards, vegetable and fruit harvesting fields, food and wine routes (Yun et al., 2011), peddlers and farms (Karim and Chi, 2010) are considered among gastronomic tourism products. In order to develop gastronomic tourism products some resourches are required. There are resourchers making comprehensive classification on this issue. For example, Ignatov and Smith (2006) and Smith and Xiao (2008) classify the resources of gastronomic tourism products in four categories as facilities and opportunities, activities, events and organizastions. This classification is shown in Table 3. Facilities comprise buildings, areas and routes where the foods are produced, prepared and disseminated. These facilities are places which are open to tourist visits and where tourists can buy and consume gastronomic products, see the production areas and learn local culture. Among activities, there are eating in local restaurants, visiting wine and agricultural regions, courses about cookery, wine tastement educations and taking part in contests. And within the scope of consumer fairs and festivities, tourists can visit various food and beverage fairs and take part in local festivals. Even if they are not considered directly in gastronomic tourism products, the organizations related to gastronomy have great importance in terms of their functions. For example, the destinations willing to develop gastronomy tourism need to make some arrangements about foods and wines. In this context, it is thought that the arrangements to be made by institutions are going to become important determiners of food quality (Hjalager and Corigliano, 2000). The institutions are expressed as systems or organisations which confirm, document and assume control of local foods and wines quality (Smith and Xiao, 2008). The certification of foods guarantees the products and increasing their quality (Horng and Tsai, 2010). For example, it is known that Hong Kong Tourism Bureau started Quality Tourism Services (QTS) implementations in order to guarantee the quality of services in restaurants and increase food standarts and customer security (Chang et al., 2011). This implementation enable tourists to find reliable restaurants and thus to feel safe themselves (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). It is possible to collocate main gastronomic tourism products as gastronomy tours, factories (wine, beer), farms and farmer markets, cooking courses, festivals, museums and restaurants. Gastronomy tours can be events performed on a specific route (like wine region, agricultural region) especially in order to discover different culinary culture, foods and wines and including such activities as making

40 food shopping in local markets (Kivela and Crotts, 2006), participating in cooking and wine tasting classes (Hunter, 2006) and visiting local restaurants (Hjalager, 2002; Ardabili and Rasouli, 2011). Especially local restaurants constitute one of the main gastronomic tourism products (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008) and both gastronomy tourists whose primary travel motivation is local foods and other tourists are willing to live food experience in local restaurants in order to experience local foods (Du Rand et al., 2003; Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). For example, Law, To and Goh (2008) state that in Hong Kong there are restaurants over 9000 where tourists can experience local cuisine or east and west cuisines. Similarly, Au and Law (2002) express that tourists can live unforgettable and unique experience in the restaurants in Hong Kong. On the other hand, in Canada, 8 day gastronomy tours named West Coasts Cuisine are organised and tourists can learn how the local foods are produced and prepared (Hashimoto and Telfer, 2006). Farmers markets are indicated as places where the local products, produced or prepared by local people, are presented directly to consumers (Smith and Xiao, 2008) and fresh and organic foods can be bought (Henderson, 2009). Farmers markets offer informations to tourists about local culture and life that they can not obtain from knowledge sources like internet and travel magazines (Chang, Kivela and Mak, 2011). The visits made to factories where the local products like wine or beer are manifactured have similar function. Museums like food, cheese, wine and culinary museums are described as areas where various foods and equipments related to these foods are displayed (Bessiere, 1998). And farm visits enable tourists to make contact with local producers and local products directly (Bessiere and Tibere, 2013). Meal courses are explained as organised by restaurants (Green and Dougherty, 2008) or hotels (Henderson, 2009) and as places where tourists can learn how the local foods are prepared (Bessiere, 1998) and can consume local foods (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). Food festivals combiningeating-drinking culture and entertainment (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011) are events in which local foods and products are main themes (Henderson, 2009), organised for short-term as 1-3 days and periodically (Smith and Xiao, 2008). In Canada Ontario Region every year 73 food and wine themed festivals are organised. In some situations, festivals can be comprehensive products in which a lot of gastronomic tourism products are served together. For example, in 2-day Abergavenny Food Festival organised every year, opportunities are given to participants like wine tasting, participating in cookery classes, serving and tasting food, buying local foods from local producers, visiting fish market (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005). Also many researches in related literature show the importance of gastronomic sources and gastronomic tourism products both for destinations and tourists. Horng and Tsai (2012a) state that developing gastronomy tourism multi directional is going to be possible with gastronomic sources such as food routes, food festivals, consumer fairs, wine tours. In this context, many destinations are trying to show and familiarise the unique gastronomic sources that they own (Cohen and Avieli, 2004). For instance, Canada is trying to present so many and a large variety of gastronomic tourism products such as local festivals, agritourism events, cookery schools, farm holidays, food festivals, dinner activities, vintage, food, wine and beer routes, winery and brevery tours, cheese production centers, food museums, farmer markets and special wine tasting tours (Deneault, 2002) and gourmet restaurants (Stewart et al., 2008). Restaurants generally serving foods belonging to local cuisine and festivals about foods constitute the gastronomic tourism products of Asian countries like Hong Kong and Singapore (Horng and Tsai, 2012a). Similarly, according to The World Tourism Association’s report cookery classes or courses, food museums, food events, foods, food and beverage fairs, visits to the local food producers or food markets and food tours constitute the main gastronomic sources. In many researches in related literature some findings on the participation of tourists to these activities in destinations are presented. In the study which was done with Taiwanese and Austrian tourists visiting Hong Kong and Macau by Kivela and Crotts (2009), tourists’ participation in events about foods like visiting farms, participating in cookery courses, fruit picking and visiting cheese makers was revealed. Similarly, Yun et al., (2011) line the activities about gastronomy tourism to which tourists participate in as visiting markets selling local foods, taking part in local fairs, participate in food and wine festivals, taking part in cookery and wine courses, eating in the restaurants serving local foods or eating in luxury restaurants, participating in wineries and breweries tours, visiting food and wine routes, visiting farms and food producing places. And, in the study done with 3.137 European tourists

41 visiting Sweden by Vujicic et al., (2013), it was determined that the activities of tourists about foods during their travels are experiencing local foods in local restaurants, visiting local food markets and purchasing local products, living romantic dinner experiences, participating in the food festivals, visiting food routes and taking cookery courses. Table 2: Typology of culinary tourism resources Food processing facilities Wineries Breweries Buildings / Structures Farmers’ markets Food stores Food-related museums Restaurants Facilities Farms Orchards Land uses Vineyards Urban restaurant districts Wine routes Routes Food routes Gourmet trails Dining at restaurants Consumption Picnics utilising locally-grown produce Purchasing retail food and beverages Wine regions Touring Agricultural regions Activities City food districts Cooking schools Wine tasting/education Education/Observation Visiting wineries Chef competitions Reading food, beverage magazines and books Food and wine shows Consumer shows Cooking equipment, kitchen shows Product launches Events Food festivals Festivals Wine festivals Harvest festivals Restaurant classification/ certification systems (e.g. Michelin, Taste of Nova Scotia) Organisations Food/wine classification systems (e.g. VQA) Associations (e.g. Cuisine Canada, Slow Food) Source: Ignatov and Smith, 2006; Smith and Xiao, 2008. Similarly, Bessiere and Tibere (2013) line the places where French tourists can discover local foods during their travels as farms and production places, restaurants and local markets and the places where home cookings are made. In the study donein Taiwan by Lin et al., (2011) with tourism officials and 83 people working as senior executives (director, executive..), the activities to which tourists participate in are lined up as, in order of, food festivals, gourmet tours and gourmet holidays. Besides, it is indicated that the most attractive factor about tourists’ experience the cuisine of Taiwan is participating in local festivals, gourmet tours and holidays. In the study made with 42 people in South Africa by Du Rand et al., (2003), gastronomic tourism products are determined as specificial restaurants (62 %), food products produced in local destinations, food routes, food festivals, specific activities about foods and othes. In the research done by Lang Research Inc. (2006) it is indicated that 22 % of Canadian tourists show participating in cookery and wine tasting courses, 17.4 % of them show visiting vinery ans tasting wine, 11.9 % of them show food producing centers like cheese factory, 10.5 % of

42 them show visiting brewery and tasting beer and 3.3 % of them show taking part in all activities as the main travel reasons. In a research made in America it is concluded that 17 % of tourists (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010) and in a research made in Canada 74 % of tourists (Stewart et al., 2008) participate in the activities about food and wine. Gastronomic identity Foods are in close relationship with culture and identity issues (Hall and Mitchell, 2000). Foods and drinkings are seen as main components forming the identity of a destination (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005; Munjal and Sharma, 2013). In this context, gastronomic identity is stated as an identity reflecting food culture of a particular region or a community (Bessiere, 1998; Lin et al., 2011). And, in the studies about the subject, what are the components of gastronomic identity and which factors are effective on its formation are explained. For instance, Danhi (2003) indicates that there are 6 main factors determining a region’s gastronomic identity and lines these factors as geography, history, ethnic diversity, culinary etiquettes, common tastes and local receipts. Rao, Monin and Du Rand (2003) state that the identity movement in French cuisine during the transition process from classical period to new period took place in 5 dimensions as cuisine expression, cooking rules, materials, chefs and menu management. Harrington (2005) classifies the factors that have impact on the formation of gastronomic identity in two dimensions as culture and environment. While history, ethnical diversity, trial and error, innovations, skills, traditions, believes and values constitute the culture category, geography, climates, microclimates, local products and the harmony of new products constitute the environment category. In this context, with the effects of environment and culture, a gastronomic identity is created comprising of taste profiles, etiquettes, receipts, the entegration of materials or techniques, the harmonisation of wine and food, climatic zones and new world and old world styles in winemaking. Thus, foods that are among the main components of gastronomic identity become reflecting the social, cultural and natural features of a particular region (Lockie, 2001). According to Harrington (2005), during the gastronomic identity formation process geography, climate, historical process and ethnical diversity are the prominent factors. In historical process, migrations, battles, religional visits and discoveries taking place in the region and ethnical diversity that is formed with getting together of the communities from different cultures effect the gastronomic identity of region. By being entegrated with local products, new and different foods and drinks that are brought from remote regions with commercial activities lead to develop new preperation methods and to change the local traditions. Innovations are able to be made with trial-and-error and thus it is possible to meet the growing demands of consumers. Gastronomic identity takes form with the skills of local people apart from trial-and-error and innovations. Environmental factors comprise of the elements that are related to how the foods grow. Geographical and climatical changes such as soil diversities, precipitation, temperature, wind, humid and altitudes effect the food diversity that are produced or grown in a region and eating habits of people. In this regard, the emerging local products are foods and drinks having the characteristics of growing area and generally being perceived as good quality. In the world, it is possible to encounter with succesful samples about gastronomic identity in the world. For example, Harrington and Ottenbacher (2010) state Lyon city as the capital city of both France and the worldwhich has local foods like 140 kind of cheese and Bresse chicken, 61 restaurants with Michelin star and wineyards like Burgundy. Lin et al., (2011) utter that Taiwan has gastronomy destination identity with its various and different local foods. Because the gastronomy culture of Hong Kong is influenced by the cultures of several countries and ethnical groups, it is mentioned at present time as Gastronomy Paradise of Asia. Similarly, due to the cuisine culture that Singapore has is influenced by various ethnical groups, it is known as the Gastronomy Capital of Asia. This situation creates a gastronomic identity for Hong Kong and Singapore (Horng and Tsai, 2012c). In the study, Chang et al., (2011) state that due to several of animals such as sheep and lambs in Australia, the gastronomic identity of the country includes sheep and lamb dishes. Within the framework of local and ethnical elements it owns, French cuisine takes part in among the special cuisine in the world and thus France is known with cuisine culture it has (Barkat and Vermignon, 2006). In the interview he gave to Newsweek magazine in 1961, former President of France Charles de Gaulle utters

43 the variety of his country has with the sentence “who and how can manage a country that has 246 kinds of cheese?” (Nadeau and Barrow, 2005). Indeed, it can be said that the word “cheese” is one of the most effective gastronomic identity elements indicating the region’s climate, history, culture, geography and cuisine (Çalışkan, 2013). Thus, gastronomic identity become usable for tourists in order to live unique and recollective gastronomic experience (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010). A strong gastronomic identity special to a particular destination becomes an inseparable part of that destination’s success in tourism development (Fox, 2007). Gastronomic identity can constitute one of the attractive factors for tourists in order to visit destinations. Tourists are possibly want to experience local foods due to the destinations they travel have strong gastronomic identity (Chang et al., 2011). Grounding on these explanations, the possiblity of being so significant source of gastronomic identity for destinations comes to mind. In this framework, Fox (2007) evaluates the contributions of destination’s gastronomic identity to tourism destinations in five dimensions as differentiation, aestheticization, authentication, symbolization and vitalisation. Differentiation indicates that foods are important signs of cultural difference among regions and communities and by this way the destination is going to become different. Aestheticization expresses making aesthetic of food and beverage experience with tourist experience. Gastronomic identity that involves history, trade, transportation, technology and ethnic diversity, within the framework of authentication, creates desire to live past on tourists. Symbolization expresses that gastronomic identity can be presented with various gastronomic symbols and in this case it gives the symbolisation of Italian gastronomy with pizza as a sample. He states that, via vitalisation, a new image can be gained to destination by providing the use of old traditions and culinary heritage in tourism. The variation of factors from region to region that have impact on the creation of gastronomic identity causes to emerge different gastronomic identities and not to be able to imitate each gastronomic identity (Çalışkan, 2013). Because of its features like being valuable, rare, unimitable and not being replaced, gastronomic identity becomes a strategic source for destinations (Harrington and Ottenbacher, 2010). In this regard, matching of certain areas with certain foods and drinkings become possible with gastronomic identity special to destination (Haven-Tang and Jones, 2005). Thus, food is strongly correlated with a particular region (Lin et al., 2011). Champagne known as the most qualified sparkling wine of the World can only be produced in Champagne Region of France. Therefore, champagne and Champagne Region matches and a gastronomic identity special to the region emerges (Özdemir and Çalışkan, 2011). Similarly, matching cognac and Cognac region enables creating unique gastronomic identity (Çalışkan, 2013). In this regard, especially number of geographical indication products contributes to gastronomic identityalso. For instance, in Turkey, there are 124 geographical indications about foods. On the other hand, entering into the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists of the factors about eating and drinking like “keşkek” oftraditional ceremony, mesir paste festival and Turkish coffee and tradition also have importance in terms of gastronomic identity. Thus, with the integration of gastronomic identity and tourism development of a destination, it is possible for that destination to gain competitive advantage in the fierce competition environment in tourism market (Horng and Tsai, 2012a). In order to do this, destinations are required to create and present gastronomic tourism products based on their unique gastronomic identities. CONCLUSIONS In this study, gastronomy and tourism relation is explained within the frame of gastronomy concept and tourism relations; benefits of gastronomy to tourism; researches on gastronomy and tourism relations; gastronomy tourism; gastronomic tourism products and gastronomic identitiy issues. REFERENCES Akkuş, G. & Erdem, O. (2013). Yemek Turizmine Katılma Niyeti: Planlı Davranış Teorisi Kapsamında Bir Uygulama. 14. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi. Bildiriler Kitabı. s.636-654. Kayseri: Erciyes Üniversitesi Turizm Fakültesi. Ardabili, F. S. & Rasouli, E. H. (2011). The Role of Food and Culinary Condition in Tourism Industry. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. 9 (6). 826-833.

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50 Chapter 4

The Thermal Tourism Services Provided by Five Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar

Gonca KILIÇ, Asuman PEKYAMAN**, Engin AYTEKİN***

1. INTRODUCTION People take advantage of thermal water resources in order to overcome their health problems, feel relieved, relax and live a more youthful and energetic life and so they use the thermal tourism opportunities. Evaluated within the scope of health tourism, thermal tourism is a type of tourism that takes place under region-specific climate conditions and in the vicinities where there are medicinal mud and steam and mineral containing healing water at a certain temperature naturally (Öztürk & Yazıcıoğlu, 2002). The use of thermal water sources for treatment and rehabilitation are growing in importance all over the world, including Turkey. The effective use of the thermal water sources depend on the utilization of modern facilities and trained personnel altogether. Today various tailor-made thermal cure services are offered to customers in thermal centers that meet the infrastructure conditions through sufficient equipment and personnel thereby the patients regain their health or rest physically and mentally. Due to the rapidly increasing popularity of the thermal water sources in these centers, a great deal of contribution is provided to the health of people on one hand and compared to other types of tourism a high level of thermal tourism revenue may be achieved on the other (Türksoy & Türksoy, 2010). In this study, the thermal tourism concept in general and the related terms used in this context, thermal tourism in the world and Turkey, services offered under the thermal tourism by the thermal hotel facilities in Afyonkarahisar province, with its efficient thermal water, rich in content and highly efficient in source were discuss. 2. THERMAL TOURISM An increase in individuals’ life quality, their leisure time and the budget to be spent in their free time has led the tourism activities to hold an important place in people’s lives. Meanwhile, people have come to realize that they are not satisfied by meeting their needs through the same kind of classic tourist activities; they then have begun to search, look for and demand alternative tourism activities (Tengilimlioğlu & Karakoç, 2013). Thermal tourism is one of the most important alternative types of tourism that exists in Turkey. Thermal tourism, by providing a complementary therapy, not only helps people improve their health but also it is an important tourism type by providing many activities for visitors (Penpecioğlu, 2012). Thermal tourism is a type of tourism in which people leave their constant living place temporarily for some purposes such as regaining their health and having a healthy holiday in line with the philosophy of healthy living so that they go to the enterprises offering them thermal tourism services. They benefit from them the accommodation, food - beverages, recreation and other tourism services along with the spa, sea and climate assets there (Çelik, 2009). According to the definition made by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, thermal tourism is a type of tourism that covers the curing (treatment) applications by combining different methods like thermo-mineral water bath, mineral spring, and inhalation, mud bath with climate cure, physical therapy, rehabilitation, exercise, psychotherapy and diet. Additionally, thermal water sources are used for entertainment and recreational purposes (Tengilimlioğlu & Karakoç, 2013).

 Assist. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Afyon, Turkey **Assist. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism *** Lecturer, Afyon Kocatepe University, Foreign Languages Vocational School.

It is also known that mineral rich underground water sources have been used for relaxation and health purposes throughout history. The modern use of thermal water sources for protection, development, treatment and rehabilitation of health has become an increasingly common approach over the past decade with the accumulation of scientific knowledge in Europe, Asia, Africa and South America, including Turkey. Also, it is known that important investments have been carried out in thermal tourism in the world in recent years (Gümüş & Polat, 2012). The reason why there has been an increase in investments for thermal tourism is that thermal tourism provides the region with great benefits. The benefits of thermal tourism in a region are listed as follows (Sandıkçı & Özgen, 2013):  Thermal tourism allows four-season tourism,  Thermal tourism leads to a high occupancy rate in tourist establishments,  Thermal tourism increases employment,  Thermal tourism can be combined with other types of alternative tourism and enables diversification of tourist activities,  The establishments with cure center facilities in thermal tourism meet their costs quickly and become profitable. 2.1. Thermal Tourism in the World Nowadays thermal tourism remains widespread all over the world, especially in South, Central and Eastern Europe, Asia (Middle East, Japan, China, and Turkic Republics), South America (Argentina, Mexico, Colombia) and North Africa (Morocco, Tunisia). Although the traditional and empirical nature of the thermal treatment in many countries, including Turkey, fails to make progress, treatment has reached high quality standards in countries such as Israel, Germany, France, Italy and Japan (Cihangir, 2016). Especially Europe has an important place in thermal tourism sector and the most important share belongs to Germany. Thermal tourism has become an important sector in Germany and Germany holds about 50% of the European thermal tourism market. In Germany, there are 263 officially certified thermal facilities with a total bed capacity of 750.000 and the number of tourists visiting Germany has reached up to 7 million (Özdemir, 2015). With spa centers, casinos and the famous horse races, Baden is the nearest town of Germany to France border. In the modern Caracalla thermal facilities, the hot water coming from 2000 m depth serves the visitors from all over the world. The hot water reaching up to 68ºC is used for different treatments. This water is known to be good for heart, blood circulation, rheumatism and arthralgia, metabolic and respiratory ailments (Hemidov, 2012). As a wellness and/or medical tourism design, health tourism has grown to be a remarkable niche industry in a number of contemporary and accepted destinations. In many facilities in Germany such as thermal spas and health resorts, for example, generally are combined with a different sport and fitness products and services, which makes the destination develop in terms of health tourism (Pforr & Locher, 2012). Today about 8 million visitors come to Russia as for the thermal tourism. One of the most famous regions of Russia, which is rich in mineral resources, is Caucasus Region. Caucasus Region is a region between the Black Sea, Azov Sea and the Caspian Sea. Just behind Caucasus mountain range, the world-famous (Caucasian Mineral Water Sources) Kafkaznıe Mineralnie Vodi resort area is located (Hemidov, 2012). Modern Pyatigorsk is known to be the biggest balneotherapy and mud center. Therapeutic mineral water reaches out to the earth from 50 different springs. This place has made a name for the treatment of musculoskeletal system, respiratory system, neural system, blood vessels, and urology and gynecology diseases. Pyatigorsk sanatorium enables more than 200,000 people to recover from their illnesses each year. In the Pyatigorsk, Kislavodsk, Essentukov and Jeleznovodsk regions from 80 sources, 21 types of mineral water sources are actively in use. They serve 10 million liters of water a day (Hemidov, 2012). Munteanu & Teleki (2013) stated that since there are several natural resources in Romania, such as mineral waters, therapeutic mud lakes and various types of climate that varied from Carpathian subalpine and forested areas to Black Sea coast, a great number of climatic and touristic spas and resorts in the country have gone through a positive development and many of the facilities have been a popular destination in the eyes of the European guests.

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According to Kazandzhieva (2014), Bulgaria adapted a Strategy of Sustainable Tourism Development, Horizon 2030 and in this strategy the trends in the development of Spa and Wellness tourism in were outlined accordingly. Having analyzed all the existing resources for health tourism, the report specifically focused on the balneotherapy, spa and wellness sub-types. The potential opportunities for their development are outlined based on the abundance and variety of thermal waters, bio-climatic treatment and curative mud. It was also mentioned by Kazandzhieva (2014) that the destinations for health tourism were identified and there were among 58 balneotherapy, 55 mountain climate and 48 seaside climate resorts. In addition, in Bulgaria there were 28 centers of major importance for their development in terms of Balneotherapy, Spa and Wellness Tourism such as Sandanski, Velingrad, Bankya, Devin, Narachen, Albena, Pomorie, Varshets, Dobrinishte etc. In recent years very advanced therapeutic spa centers have been established in the Czech Republic and Slovakia. There are 60 therapeutic thermal centers in the two countries and almost 500,000 patients are provided with treatment services every year (Varol, 5). In Hungary, since any water coming from the depth of the earth to the surface is over 30 °C, they can all be regarded as thermal water. In terms of tourism, the value of the capacity of thermal water in Hungary is of vital importance because of its balneologic benefits of the dissolved mineral substances in thermal water. Indeed, hot water lake Heviz which is a natural beauty is unique in Europe. Thermal and therapeutic water is available in 80% of the country. Geothermal gradient value is 1.5 times more than the world average and the average water temperature is increased 5% every 100 meters (Çelik, 2009). There are almost 360 spa centers in Italy. Around 600,000 visitors come to Italy each year. As a result of that, thermal tourism constitutes an important source of income for the country. Due to the mountains and volcanic events in Italy, there are many thermal spa centers in many cities (Özdemir, 2015). Some centers are available in the US to provide people with cure treatments for health and help healthy people remain fit. As in other industrialized countries, the population is aging in Japan and the government does not regard the medical expenses solely as hospital spending, medicine spending and so on. Also, they wish their citizens to remain fit and healthy with tourism and thermal tourism activities (Türksoy & Türksoy, 2010). There are 1500 spa facilities in Japan. These 1500 spa facilities have a total overnight capacity of 100 million. After the United States, Japanese thermal tourism industry has provided a growth of 700 billion yen and become the second largest thermal tourism industry in the world (Tengilimlioğlu & Karakoç, 2013). It was stated in a study by Fenyves, Orban, Konyves, Nagy & Sandor (2014), thermal spas hold a key role in Hungary’s tourism. There are high-quality medicinal waters in the country while the conditions of the spas are not in the convenient state. On the other hand, there have been some significant developments so that service quality in the facilities has greatly improved. It was also added that 80% of the country territory includes thermal water sources. Additionally, these sources do not only have a high temperature but also they are rich in terms of mineral content. Hungary is regarded as the 5th most significant country in this context following Japan, Iceland, Italy and France. It was claimed that Hungary has almost 1200 thermal water wells, 220 acknowledged medicinal, 195 acknowledged mineral water and 70 thermal spas. 2.2. Thermal Tourism in Turkey The thermal tourism sources in Turkey date back to ancient times and are the facility structures remaining from the Roman, Byzantine, Seljuk and the Ottoman times. In order to benefit from the healing water sources in Seljuk and Ottoman periods, they carried on the creation of spa facilities, and period-specific "Turkish Bath" phenomenon has come to the foreground. The first modern spa facilities in the Republican era were built at Bursa Military Hospital, in 1927. In the upcoming years, Yalova and Bursa-Çelikpalas spa facilities were built (Gümüş & Polat, 2012). In terms of geothermal resources, Turkey ranks among the top seven countries and becomes the first in terms of resource potential in Europe while Turkey ranks the third in the spa applications. Turkey is located on an important geothermal zone and falls into the top seven countries in the world in terms of resource richness and potential. There are more than 1,500 sources whose temperatures go between 20 and 110 C and flow rates vary from 2-500 lt/s. In Turkey, there are around 190 thermal facilities in 46 cities (URL1).

53 Marmara Region has significant advantages in thermal tourism in terms of the number of tourists, transportation diversity, and cultural heritage, the presence of various types of tourism and hospitality enterprises. The modern facilities located in Istanbul, Bursa, Yalova, Balıkesir, Sakarya and Canakkale serve foreign tourism as much as domestic tourism. Ankara, Nevsehir, Sivas and Eskişehir located in Central Anatolia Region are rich with regards to thermal springs. But due to various reasons such as the lack of physical equipment and capital, lack of qualified staff and promotion, they failed to use existing capacity fully. The existing sources located in Eastern Anatolia and the Black Sea regions are not utilized to the desired extent. The main cause of this situation can be listed as the lack of physical equipment and capital, transportation difficulties, lack of qualified personnel and promotion. The thermal tourism resources in Mediterranean Region are limited compared to other regions and the number of spa facilities are inadequate and less in the Southeastern Anatolia Region (URL 2). Aegean region is rich in the sense of thermal springs. In almost every province in the region you can find the thermal resources, and today in thermal tourism centers especially in Izmir, Afyon, Kütahya and Denizli various services are offered in the modern sense. The mud baths in Afyon thermal facilities vary from the services supplied in other facilities in Turkey. Pamukkale which is located in the UNESCO World Heritage List offers visitors different possibilities (URL 2). "Thermal Tourism Cities Project" was launched by Culture and Tourism Ministry in order to develop health and thermal tourism, and new regional areas have been identified by taking geothermal potentials into account in Turkey (Toy et al., 2010).

Figure 1. Map of Thermal Tourism City Areas (Resource:URL 1), The regions that can be integrated with other types of tourism and which have the capacity to create a destination are as follow (Fig. 1) (URL 1): - South Marmara Thermal Region: Canakkale, Balikesir,Yalova - Phrygian Thermal Tourism Region: Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya, Uşak, Eskişehir, Ankara - South Aegean Thermal Tourism Region: İzmir, Manisa, Aydın, Denizli - Central Anatolia Thermal Tourism Region: Yozgat, Kırşehir, Nevşehir, Niğde - North Anatolia Thermal Tourism Cities Region: Amasya, Sivas, Tokat, Erzincan - East Marmara Thermal Tourism Cities Region: Bilecik, Kocaeli - Western Black Sea Thermal Tourism Cities Region: Bolu, Düzce, Sakarya It is hoped that each one of these regions can be developed as a destination center and be integrated mainly with thermal facilities, golf, nature tourism, water sports and other tourism types and be connected with the other cultural and natural attractions in the immediate environment (URL 1). 2.3. Thermal Tourism in Afyonkarahisar Afyonkarahisar is one of the important centers that have used the thermal water sources since the earliest times. The thermal facilities that were small in capacity and outnumbered up to 1990 have undergone a rapid change with the 2000s. However, there has been a significant increase in both the

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number of facilities and facility qualifications and capacities (Taş, 2012, Quoted by: Ekiz &,Yazıcı, 2016). Afyonkarahisar has been selected Water Feature: Hüdai spas rank the first in Turkey in terms radioactivity. The temperature of geothermal water is between 62 and 68 degrees and is fluid and belongs to the carbohydrate water group. The PH value of water is between 6.6 and 7 (URL 3). "Pilot Region" in Turkey and infrastructure projects were accelerated. Afyonkarahisar is classified as "Thermal Capital of the Future" (Taktak & Demir, 2010). In the scope of tourism, thermal water resources are regarded as the leading sectors of Afyon. All of the spa facilities located in Afyon have been declared as the Tourism Centers by the Cabinet Decision issued in official gazette dated 17.10.1993 numbered 21700 (Erdoğan & Aklanoğlu, 2008). The regions declared as tourism centers are (URL 4): • Gazlıgöl Thermal Tourism Center • Hüdai Thermal Tourism Center • Heybeli Thermal Tourism Center •.Ömer-Gecek Thermal Tourism Center Gazlıgöl Thermal Tourism Center It is 22 km. away from the Afyon city center, on Eskisehir highway and is connected to İhsaniye district and located in the Gazlıgöl town (URL 5). Water Feature: The temperature of geothermal water is 64 degrees and this water fits the carbohydrate water group. PH value is 6.9 (URL 3). Healing Properties: The water is applied in two different ways. Firstly it is used in drinking treatment and secondly in the bath treatment. The drinking water used as the healing water in the treatment belongs to the sodium bicarbonate water group. If this water is consumed warmly, it is good to the spasm and painful kidney disease, stomach diseases, liver, biliary tract and intestinal spastic pain (URL 6). In addition to that, it is known to relax and regulate the blood circulation through inhalation (URL 3). When it is applied as the bath treatment, it is good for rheumatic diseases, skin diseases and gynecological diseases (URL 6). Heybeli Thermal Tourism Center It is 30 km. away from the Afyon city center, and is on Afyon-Konya highway. The place of the thermal water dates back to ancient times. It is written in the tablets remained from the Roman period that there was a village called Leonte Comte which was in the north of spa and it was run during the Roman period. It was also stated by the list that belonged to the church that the spa was used in the Byzantine period. Additionally, it was also said that there was a village called Red Church (Kızılkilise) and in the Seljuk and Ottoman era the place was actively in use, which is known by the records in the National Library (the religious court) (URL 7). Water Feature: The temperature of geothermal water is 52 degrees and this water belongs to the carbohydrate water group. PH value is between 6.8 and 7 (URL 3). Healing Properties: The water is used especially for the treatment of rheumatic diseases, skin diseases, bone disorders and osteoarthritis, endocrine system diseases, neural system disorders and metabolic disorders. However, it was determined that during treatment through inhalation it is good for chronic bronchitis, pharyngitis and asthma (URL 3; URL 7). Hüdai Thermal Tourism Center It is located 8 km in the south of Sandıklı town. It was alleged that in the first period of Christianity, the archbishop, Saint Michel, in charge of the neigbouring area treated the patients in Hieropolis (today is known as Koçhisar) in the Hüdai spa. Hence, it was written in the old books as the “Saint Michel's Miracles". Thanks to its fame for source of healing, is known as the Holy City and Afyonkarahisar was named as Phrygia Salutaris (Healing Phrygia) with other existing spas. In the spa there are baths remaining from Byzantine era (URL 8). The basic feature of spas is its curative mud, and it won its name by its curative mud. Once the soil is mixed with 68°C medicinal water, a piece of mud at almost 40-45°C emerges. Staying in the mud bath depends on the patient’s endurance and may be between 6-7 minutes. Taking a mud bath once a day would be enough while it is okay to take water bath once or twice a day (URL 8).

55 Healing Properties: Calcification of joints and spine disorders are the leading diseases that the spa water and the spa mud help in the treatment. It was noted that water bath treatment is used for curing rheumatic diseases, skin diseases, bone diseases and arthritis, gynecological diseases, heart and vascular diseases. As the water is consumed by drinking, it is good for disorders of the digestive system. Moreover, mud bath is used in the treatment of rheumatic diseases, bone disorders and arthritis (URL 3; URL 8). Ömer Thermal Tourism Center It is 15 km. away from the Afyon city center and is on Afyonkarahisar-Kütahya highway (URL 9). Water Feature: The temperature of the fluid geothermal water is 95 degrees and belongs to the carbohydrate water group. The PH value of water is 7,2. The chemical property of the thermal water is that it includes sodium chloride, bicarbonate, and hyper thermal. This water also enters the carbonated water group due to the fact that it contains more than 1 g CO2 (URL 3; URL 9). Healing Properties: Thermal water is used to treat diseases such as rheumatic diseases, respiratory diseases, joint swelling, joint disorders, gynecological diseases, obesity and metabolic disorders, bone and calcification disorders and neuromuscular fatigue. It was identified that if the water is consumed orally, it can provide treatment for disorders like stomach disorders, digestion difficulties, intestinal laziness and chronic constipation (URL 3; URL 9). Gecek Thermal Tourism Center It is 18 km. away from the Afyonkarahisar city center and is on Afyonkarahisar-Kütahya highway (URL 9). Water Feature: The temperature of fluid geothermal water is 70 degrees and falls into the carbohydrate water group. The water of Gecek spa consists of a combination of sodium chloride and bicarbonate. The PH value of the water is 7,6 (URL 3; URL 9). Table 1. The Total Number of Rooms and Beds in Five Star Hotels Operating in Afyonkarahisar Name of Number Number of Certificate Class The Hotel of Rooms Beds Investment Hotel A Thermal Hotel 300 750 Certificate Tourism Operation Hotel B Thermal Hotel 310 800 Certificate Tourism Operation Hotel C Thermal Hotel 284 860 Certificate Tourism Operation Hotel D Thermal Hotel 329 1000 Certificate Tourism Operation Hotel E Thermal Hotel 157 450 Certificate Tourism Operation Hotel F Thermal Hotel 428 1500 Certificate Tourism Operation Hotel G Thermal Hotel 225 500 Certificate Tourism Operation Hotel H Thermal Hotel 376 1000 Certificate Tourism Operation Hotel I Thermal Hotel 352 800 Certificate Tourism Operation Hotel J Hotel 178 356 Certificate Total 2939 8016

Healing Properties: The bath treatment is used in the rheumatic diseases, in physical rehabilitations of the people who have undergone orthopedic operations, metabolism and gynecological diseases. Also, it is good for respiratory diseases, arthritis and bone diseases, muscles and neural exhaustion (URL 3; URL 9).

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According to data of 2016 by Afyonkarahisar Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, the number of thermal facilities that have municipal certificate in Afyonkarahisar is 51 with a number of 2609 rooms and 7677 beds. On the other hand, the total number of thermal facilities that have tourism business certificate is 17 with a number of 3057 rooms, while the number of beds is 6415. According to the accommodation statistics of Afyonkarahisar, the number of domestic tourists who stayed overnight in municipal certified facilities is 230,107 recorded in 2015 while the number of foreign tourists is 2402. However, overnight stays by domestic tourists in the thermal facilities that have tourism business certificate are 438.211 while the number of foreign tourists is 14.749 (URL 10). The five (5) star thermal hotels that have tourism operation certificate 5 in total. However, one hotel has a tourism operation certificate but does not hold a feature of thermal hotel. One hotel that owns tourism investment certificate in Afyon. Besides, there are three more 5-star hotels in Sandıklı. Please refer to Table 1. According to information obtained from the website of the respective hotels and the directors of human resources in five star hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar, the number of rooms and number of beds are presented in Table 1. The total number of rooms in five star hotels in the center of Afyonkarahisar and Sandıklı district is 2939 with a bed capacity of 8016. 3. MATERIALS and METHODS The aim of this study is to identify the services provided by the thermal hotel enterprises in Afyonkarahisar and to evaluate these services within the scope of thermal tourism. For this purpose, a literature review on the subject was performed and then the services provided in the scope of thermal tourism by thermal hotel enterprises in Afyonkarahisar were examined and finally content analysis was carried out. The population of the study is consisted of five-star thermal hotel enterprises in Afyonkarahisar. In this context, six hotels hotel enterprises including five hotels that have Tourism Operation Certificate businesses and one that has an investment certificate were examined in terms of thermal hotel applications. In addition to that, thermal hotel applications of three 5-star hotels that are located in Hüdai Thermal Tourism Center operating in Sandıklı district of Afyonkarahisar were investigated. Content analysis method was applied in this study. In this context, the websites of the related hotel businesses were examined. In this study, the related hotel websites were examined and their services concerning the thermal tourism were divided into different categories and then tables were formed. The hotel web sites were analyzed based on this category and they were divided into six groups as follows:  The Areas and the Services Directly Related with Thermal Tourism  Classic Concept of Massage  Massages in the Far East Concept and in Different Countries  The Thermal Services and Areas Offered  Body and Facial Treatments  Other Services If there was no information found on the website of the related hotel with the categories, then these hotels were excluded from the study. The most frequently offered services by hotels in these categories were turned into tables. The hotels were marked if the related services are offered. If a service was offered only in that hotel, then it was not added to the table but it was given as an extra explanation. According to data of 2016 by Afyonkarahisar Culture and Tourism Directorate, the number of thermal facilities that have a municipal certificate in Afyonkarahisar is 51 with room number of 2609 and bed number of 7677. Also, the number of thermal facilities that have a tourism operation certificate is 17 with a room number of 3057 and bed number of 6415. According to 2015 accommodation statistics of Afyonkarahisar, the number of domestic tourists who stayed overnight in thermal facilities that have a municipal certificate is 230.107 while the number of foreign tourists is 2402. Additionally, the number of domestic tourists who stayed overnight in the thermal facilities that have a Tourism Operation Certificate is 438.211 while the number of foreign tourists is 14.749. There are a total of ten, including seven (7) five-star hotels in Afyonkarahisar center and (3) three in Sandıklı districts. There are (5) five 5-star hotels that possess tourism operation certificate in Afyonkarahisar and they are as follow

57 However, the 5-star one hotel has a Tourism Investment Certificate, and there are six (6) more hotels 5 of which will soon start operating and the 5 star one hotel has just started operating in Afyonkarahisar. 4. FINDINGS and DISCUSSION The examined five star thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar were coded from A to I by letters. The websites of the hotels were explored and then the information related to the hotels was put forward. Accordingly, the features of the hotels are as follows (URL 11-19): HOTEL A: It is located in the Ömer-Gecek thermal tourism center and 60% of the hotel is formed with suites. It has 7 types of rooms respectively: King Suit, Queen Suit, Executive Suit, Family Suit, Luxury Suit, Standard and Room for Disabled Guests. This hotel has a total of 300 rooms and is a thermal and congress hotel for about 1,000 people. HOTEL B: This hotel is situated in the Ömer-Gecek thermal tourism center. As the thermal properties of water used by this hotel are examined, it is seen that the water possesses 4727/32 mg/lt mineral and the water source exit temperature is 76 degrees containing thermo-minerals. In the hotel there are a total of 310 rooms, including 100 Standard Rooms, 112 Deluxe Rooms, 8 Family Rooms, 92 Rooms With Balcony, 8 Connection Rooms, 100 Corner Suites, 2 Rooms for Disabled Guests. HOTEL C: This hotel is in the Ömer-Gecek thermal tourism center and is designed with different categories. It has a total of 286 rooms including 3 Rooms for Disabled Guests, 195 Deluxe Rooms, 48 Family Rooms (2 Interconnecting Rooms), 12 Prince Suites, 8 Princess Suites, 16 Queen Suites, 2 King Suites, 1 Penthouse Suite and 1 Penthouse Spa Suite. However, it has a capacity for 860 people along with 592 standard beds and with additional beds. HOTEL D: This hotel which is located in the Ömer-Gecek thermal tourism center has a total of 329 rooms with 1000 beds including room types such as Rooms for Disabled Guests, Standard Rooms, Corner Suites, Terrace Suite, Junior Suite, Large Suite, King Suite, President Suite. This hotel owns a Physical Therapy and Rehabilitation Center. HOTEL E: This hotel owns a capacity 157 rooms and 450 beds with 134 Standard Rooms, 3 Connect Rooms, 8 Deluxe Rooms, 8 Corner Deluxe Suite Rooms, 2 King Suite Rooms, and 2 Rooms for Disabled Guests. HOTEL F: This hotel has a total of 428 rooms and 1500 bed capacity including rooms in the category of Standard rooms, Deluxe Room, Corner Deluxe Room, Suite Room, Duplex Suite Room, Duplex Family Room, Duplex Queen Suite, King Suite and Sky Suite. HOTEL G: The most distinctive feature of the Hüdai thermal tourism center from the other spas is its world-renowned mud baths. These miraculous mud baths are formed in a special way from a mixture of the soil and the healing water whose temperature reaches up to 68 degrees coming up to the earth from a geological crack that lasts like 500 meters. In this hotel you can find 156 Standard Rooms, 28 Family Suites, 13 Rooms With Pool and Balcony, 18 Rooms With Pool, 3 Bedrooms With Pool for Disabled Guests, 2 King Suites, 2 Rooms for Disabled Guests, and it has 226 rooms and 642 beds in total. HOTEL H: The hotel is located within Hüdai thermal tourism center and is 5 km away from Sandıklı town center. In the hotel, there are 307 standard rooms, 16 Rooms for Disabled Guests, 25 Family Rooms, 26 Suites and 2 King Rooms, and it has a total of 376 rooms with 838 bed capacity. HOTEL I: The hotel is located within Hüdai thermal tourism center and serves its guests with a total of 292 hotel rooms and 60 Deluxe Apartment Rooms and with 1,100 beds including 2 King Suites, 16 Corner Suites, 10 Family Suites, 174 Deluxe Rooms, 24 Superior Rooms, 59 Standard Rooms, 7 Rooms for Disabled Guests. Glossary of terms for the services provided in hotels within the scope of research In this part of the research, it was intended to explain the Glossary of Terms that are provided by thermal hotel business in their physical therapy, cure and spa centers (URL 20-25, URL 31): Skin Care Services Classic Skin Care: The pores of the skin are opened by steam bath and the blackheads are cleaned by using comedones tool. Eye Massage with Oxygen: Cell regenerating bulb is applied around the eye area and then massage

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is carried out by applying cream. Skin Care with Oxygen: With This therapy, tissue repair is accelerated and the signs of aging are delayed and acnes are blocked. The skin gains of 98% moisture. Ampoule Application with Oxygen: cell renewal and anti-wrinkle ampoule is applied onto the skin and then oxygen is given to the skin. It is made sure that the skin absorbs the oxygen ampoule thoroughly. Anti-aging: It is a kind of care treatment applied to the mature skins by loading the skin with vitamin C. Peeling: It is performed by purifying the dead skin and allows the skin to breathe. Then according to skin type, a cleaning mask is made. Finally, face and neck massages are done by creams. Scheherazade Care: Before Turkish bath, rubbing with a coarse bath-glove is performed and then it is applied as a foam massage. Massage Services Classical Massage: It is a muscle relaxant and stress relieving massage. Blood circulation is accelerated by this massage. It is expected to relax all body organisms. Volcanic Stone Massage: It is a natural type of therapy in which the heated volcanic stones are moved on the body and are left in some certain places on the body so that the heat has an impact on the skin. In this way, the negative power of the individual is removed. Sports Massage: It is an effective medical massage technique used for the relief of muscle problems encountered in after sporting events. The primary purpose of this massage is to accelerate the blood circulation. Also, this massage technique has a therapeutic effect in the muscle-skeletal system diseases. Total Medical Massage: Chronic tension in the body, joint and muscular pains can be cured with a mixture consisting of various spices, nuts, herbs and pain relieving oils, and it is the massages effective in getting rid of the toxins in the body. Local Medical Massage: It is applied to the painful part of the body area. With this type of massage, it is intended to eliminate the pain and reduce the impact of the pain. Manuel Lymph Drainage-Presso Therapy: It is a kind of massage that is performed for the activation of lymphatic system and the elimination of lymphatic fluid from the body. Besides, it helps the elimination of toxins and edema accumulated in the body. Aromatherapy Massage: This massage is applied with mixture of healing herbs and flower oils along with the plant extracts. Thanks to this special mixture, the skin and body become healthier. Anti cellulite Massage: It is the massage that narrows the diameter of the vessels by improving the blood circulation under the skin, allowing the flow of blood from the legs regularly. Thus, rearrangement of bad blood circulation is achieved and toxic substances in the body are removed Relaxing (Anti-stress) Massage: It is of an effective massage type by which the tired muscles become energetic with classic Swedish massage techniques. Shiatsu: It is the traditional healing art of Japan and literally means that compression of the fingers. The compression made with hand technique balances the internal structure of the body and it stimulates natural energies. Just like in other treatment methods of the East, in this method 'Chi' or ‘Ki’ are balanced and energy flow is supported. Reflexology: It is a type of massage done on foot to correct the energy imbalance and to relieve the pain in the body. Traditional Bali Massage: It is a massage unique to Indonesia's Bali region. With the effective pressures made on the energy points in the body and the desired stretching acts, it affects the muscle tissue on the surface. This massage helps with balancing all the energy centers in the body and integration of all internal systems with each other. Thai Massage: This massage is applied with pressure to specific points in the body to reduce the tension in the muscles and stimulate the flow of energy and is completed with stretching acts. Shirodhara: It is a kind of massage done by using Ayurvedic warm oil and effective in the treatment of symptoms based on stress, insomnia and headache and it positively affects the central nervous system.

59 Swedish Massage: It is a classic massage implemented on full body that improves blood circulation rate and revitalizes cells and tissues. It also provides relief by reducing muscle tension. Mandara 4 Hands Massage: It is a kind of ritual in which two therapists working on the patient simultaneously, in synchrony and a rhythmic way by applying traditional Bali massage, Shiatsu and classical massage techniques. It is seen on the website of Hotel “I” that, the massage concept is divided into two groups as the classic concept and the Far East concept. Benefiting from this classification, the massages were handled in two main categories and they were converted into tables. However, some additions were made into the types of massages on the hotel website. Therefore, the information given by the hotel on the classic concept massage services is presented in Table 2. In addition, it was stated that Hotel “A” and “H” own massage rooms. But the information showing that which massage services are provided is not given on the hotel website so these two hotels were excluded and not presented in the table. According to the information obtained from Table 2, it is clear that the majority of the massages in the classic concept seem to be provided by the hotels. In almost all of the five-star thermal hotel businesses in Afyonkarahisar provide the massage services is the volcanic stone massage while the least offered type of massage in the hotels was found to be medical massage. However, the other massages that are applied by Hotel “D” and not included in the tables are the pregnancy massage and fruit therapy massage (URL 25). In Hotel “E”, it was identified that pregnancy massage, knee massage and deep tissue massages are offered (URL 26). As you go through the Thermal and SPA applications of Hotel “G”, it can be observed that they provide different types of massage such as Ottoman massage, local massage and chocolate massage (URL 27). In Table 3, you can find the hotels that provide massage techniques from the Far East and specific to some other countries Accordingly, the related information on the massage techniques were not included on the website of hotel "A" and "H" so they were not added into the tables. Table 2. Massage Treatments Offered in Classic Concept by Five-Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar

Name of the Hotel Sports Lymph Classic Medical Massage Massage Massage Massage Massage Massage Drainage- Anti-cellulite Aromatherapy Volcanic Stone Relaxing (Anti- Presso Therapy stress) Massage

HOTEL B X X X X X X HOTEL C X X X X X X HOTEL D X X X X X X HOTEL E X X X X X HOTEL F X X X X X HOTEL G X X X X X X X X HOTEL I X X X X X X X

According to the information contained on the websites of the five-star hotels in Afyonkarahisar, the five-star hotels expressed that they all apply reflexology massage. On the contrary, it was determined that Swedish massage and Mandara massages performed by two expert therapists are the least massages offered by the hotels. It was also learnt that Hotel “C” and “F” provide Abhyanga massage (URL 21; URL 24). Moreover, it was stated that in Hotel “C” various kinds of massages such as Balinese Massage without Oil (The energy points in the body are stimulated to be balanced in terms of mental and body health. It is a type of massage applied on the Futon mattress with pressure.), Asian Deep Massage Therapy (Compared to the traditional Balinese massage, it is applied with more force. The therapist uses his arms in this massage technique, too), Shiroabhyanga (It calms the neural system, revives senses, clears the energy channels and runs them. It is applied to the body with hot spice oils.), Minera specially (It is a type of massage demonstrating the difference of Minera. It is a muscle relaxing and stress

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relieving massage, which reduces the tension in the body (URL 21; URL 22). Table 3. Massage Treatments Offered by Five-Star Thermal Hotels Operating in Afyonkarahisar in Far East and Other Country Concepts

Name of The Hotel hands) Shiatsu Swedish Balinese Massage Massage Massage Mandara Massage (4 Shirodhara Reflexology Traditional Indian Head Thai Massage HOTEL B X X HOTEL C X X X X X X HOTEL D X X X X X HOTEL E X X X X X HOTEL F X X X X X X X HOTEL G X X HOTEL I X X X X X

Table 4. Bath Therapies Offered by Five-Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar

Name of The

Hotel Bath Bath Cleopatra Mud Bath Milk Bath Daisy Bath Steam Bath Thyme Bath Aromatherapy HOTEL A X X X HOTEL B X HOTEL C X X X HOTEL D X X X X X X X HOTEL E X X HOTEL F X X X HOTEL G X X X X X X HOTEL H X X HOTEL I X X X X

As a result of the massage, tissues, each cell and the complete organism are all expected to relax.) and La Stone massage (La Stone therapy is a type of massage based on ancient Indian healing methods. Hot basalt and cold marble stones are placed on energy points of the body. Due to the intensive massage and temperature of the stone, blood circulation in the tissues rises. A feeling of comfort is obtained.) are applied (URL 21; URL 22). Lomi Nui Massage (It is a type of massage applied to the king in the temple by shamanistic healers of Kahuna living in the Hawaiian Islands. It aims to uncover the positive energy.), Baby Massage (It is administered by mother participation. It helps babies to get better acquainted with their bodies and organs and also it contributes to their development of intelligence and senses. It creates a special bond between mother and baby.), Pregnancy Massage (It is a relieving, relaxing and refreshing massage carried out in the gestation period between three and six months.) and Aliva touch (It is a classic massage therapy applied to some regions of the body) massages are done in Hotel “F” (URL 24). The information concerning the therapies offered within the framework of the thermal services by thermal hotels are given in table 4. According to the data obtained, the most applied bath therapy is the bath mud while the least bath therapy offered by hotels are the milk bath, thyme bath and chamomile bath.

61 Some bath services are also included in Hotel “I” such as chocolate therapy bath, herbal bath therapy and wine therapy bath (It is a Spa bath done in order for the implementation of the skin detox through special wine) (URL 28). Additionally, unlike other hotels in Hotel “E” clay bath (Clay bath is important because it contains natural minerals like iron, aluminum, magnesium, calcium, and zinc. It is a scientifically proven antiseptic that is active against a wide variety of microorganisms. It can easily take out the dirt in the deepest layer of the skin. It accelerates healing and restructuring by helping to regulate the fluid mechanism in the skin) is also provided (URL 29). The information concerning the other services provided by five-star thermal hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar under the thermal services is given in table 5. In this context, adventure showers, snow- ice fountain, detox or foot detox applications, salt cave, doctor fish or sauna applications-ozone therapy were examined. It is seen that there are salt cave or salt rooms in the majority of the hotels. Also, it was found out that by other services offered, the adventure showers and ice-snow fountains are the least services provided by the hotels. In addition, there is hydrotherapy session (It causes acceleration of blood circulation by applying the pressure water to the body by the rhythmic movements.) within the framework of thermal services provided by Hotel “F” (URL 23). Biorezonans and phytotherapy methods are used in Hotel “B”. Bioresonance method detects the impaired micro frequencies in the human body and reinstates them. The foundation of the application is based on Quantum physics. In the SPA section bioresonance applications are available. Phytotherapy is a combination of Greek Python (Plant) with Therapeia (Treatment) words. It is the name given to the method of treating the diseases with fresh or dried plants or their natural extracts. The hotel also has a Phytotherapy center capable of providing Phytotherapy products to the customers (URL 30). Table 5. The Other Services Offered by Five-Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar

Name of and The Hotel Fish Ozone Rooms Doctor Sauna- Showers Therapy Detox or Detox Ice-Snow Salt Cave Fountains Adventure Foot Detox HOTEL A X X X HOTEL B X HOTEL C X X HOTEL D X X HOTEL E X X X X HOTEL F X X X HOTEL G X X X X HOTEL H X X X X HOTEL I X X The hotel web sites of five-star thermal hotels were examined, and the services offered by the hotels and the services which are directly related with thermal were handled as Turkish bath, private family bath, thermal pool, sauna, Jacuzzi or thermal Jacuzzi, Finnish sauna or steam bath. The concerning information is given in Table 6. When examining the thermal services directly offered by the thermal hotels, their websites were used but while forming this table, there was a lack of direct information about some certain hotels so that the photograph galleries of the hotels also were put into the process. According to the information achieved, it was found out that in almost all the hotels there are areas associated with nearly thermal services and they serve the customers actively. As we examined the body and face-skin care services offered to customers by the five-star thermal hotels in Afyonkarahisar, it is noticed that skin care is administered in all hotels and it is followed by the peeling application. However, there was not any explanation on the Hotel “A”, “H” and “E” website concerning skin care so these hotels were excluded when forming the table.

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Table 6. Thermal Services Offered by Five-Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar

Name of The

Pool Bath Hotel Bath Sauna Sauna Family Jacuzzi Finnish Private Turkish Bath Or Thermal Thermal Jacuzzi Or

HOTEL A x x x x x HOTEL B x x x x x x HOTEL C x x x x x x HOTEL D x x x x x x HOTEL E x x x x x x HOTEL F x x x x x x HOTEL G x x x x x HOTEL H x x x x x x HOTEL I x x x x x x Except for the services included in the table, Hotel "B" also provides applications like Paraffin Slimming (Hot paraffin is applied to the body and it takes the form of the body and the body is covered with heat blanket for 40 minutes. This application dismantles the fat between the skin and muscle and allows the destruction of unwanted cellulite in the body.), Selectron Slimming (Electro pads are connected to the fatty parts of the body and the machine starts the massage. As a result of 40 min. massage, the decomposition of fat is achieved.), Pressotherapy Slimming (The person wears a jumpsuit and then air is given to the body. This process runs the lymph nodes. It is carried out for 30 minutes and the body is left to relax.), Eye Massage with Oxygen (Cell regenerating bulb is applied around the eyes and then oxygen is supplied to the region and finally massage is performed by applying cream.), Skin Massage with Oxygen (The skin gains 98% of moisture. This therapy accelerates tissue repair and the signs of aging are delayed and finally acne formation is blocked.) (URL 31). In the MineraSpa Center of Hotel “C”, some services just like special Skin Care, Skin Care in Depth, Minera Skin Care, and Body Wrap with Aroma Oil are offered. Besides, some other kinds of therapies like Seaweed Body Wrap (It is applied with pure micro-algae powder obtained from the shores of Britain, which thins the body and raises metabolism and allows rapid elimination of toxins. It moisturizes the skin and helps the skin be stretched by providing minerals.) Pressotherapy (It is a pressure therapy applied by starting from the lymph points in the body and is applied from the bottom of the soles to the lower chest. It accelerates lymphatic and venous circulation in the body and drains the fluid accumulated between the vessels. It is also used in the treatment of edema caused by various diseases.) are provided to the customers (URL 32; URL 33). Table 7. Body and Face Care Applications Provided by Five Star Thermal Hotels in Afyonkarahisar

Name of The

Hotel Care Ritual Peeling ampoule (Oxygen) Eye Care Application Classic Skin Scheherazade Paraffin Care Care – Harem Anti-Aging Care HOTEL B x x x x x x HOTEL C x x x x HOTEL D x x x x x x HOTEL F x x x x x x HOTEL G x x x x HOTEL I x x x x

In addition to that, various skin care services just as Aliva Secret Skin Care (It is Aliva Spa’s most exclusive and intensive care service. It refreshes the damaged skin, especially repairs the scars left on

63 the skin by stress.) are applied in Hotel “F”. Also, body care treatments like Elixir of Life Body Care (Having performed the sea salt and cinnamon peeling process, the elixir of life oil is applied to the body, which allows the revival of the skin.), Balancing Seaweed Care (The most important effect of this treatment is that the edema in the body is removed thanks to the plenty of vitamins and minerals contained in the seaweed. Another feature of this care is that it dries the acnes with its oil stabilizing and disinfecting property) and Japanese Hanakasu Ritual (The peeling mixture containing cherry blossoms and rice powder extracts is heated and applied to the body. Then the body is cleaned with soft towels, and starting from the foot Hanakasumi Shea oil is applied to the whole body as a massage.) are offered to the customers (URL 23). As the thermal and the spa applications are examined, it is understood that in Hotel “G” there are some other applications such as oily skin care as facials, back facials, mixed skin care, clay mask, sensitive skin care, green tea mask, mature skin care, chocolate mask except for the services listed in table (URL 34). 5. CONCLUSIONS According to the Culture and Tourism Ministry, Turkey is among the top seven countries in the world in terms of geothermal resources and potential while it ranks the first in Europe. The thermal water sources of in Turkey, both the flow rate and temperature and their various physical and chemical properties, have qualities superior to the thermal water sources in Europe. The thermal water sources are natural in terms of water outlet and rich in water efficiency, sulfur, radon and salt along with high in solution mining value. Turkey has more than 1500 water sources whose temperatures and flow rate vary from over 20°C and 2-500lt/s respectively. The total investment capacity of the thermal sources in Turkey corresponds to 1,365,000 bed capacity. In the calculations done about the temperatures and flow rate of thermal water sources, Afyonkarahisar province holds the highest bed capacity in terms of thermal health tourism in Turkey (Öztürk & Bayat, 2011). In this study it was intended to put forward the services in terms of thermal tourism offered by the five-star thermal hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar so that the hotel websites were examined and they were handled in six categories. As the required literature review is performed, it was noticed that this kind of research was not found in the field so that it led to the start of this study. According to the findings obtained from the websites, it was stated the most applied type of massage in the classic concept in the hotels is the volcanic stone massage while the least preferred type of massage by the hotels is the medical massage. However, when the massages applied in the Far East concept and the massages unique to some other countries are examined, it is seen that reflexology is the most applied massage in the hotels, which is applied to the foot. On the other hand, it was determined that Swedish massage is the least preferred type of massage by hotels. In addition, it was noted that in some hotels different massages are performed by expert therapists in the Far East concept. Moreover, it was identified that all the hotels offered mud bath therapy and nine of the ten hotels included salt caves or salt rooms and related applications which are used for the treatment of diseases such as asthma and bronchitis. It was also found out that all the hotels have thermal pool, sauna, steam bath, areas such as Turkish bath and private family baths, which are directly associated with services related to thermal tourism. Furthermore, when the body and skin care services implemented by five-star hotels in Afyonkarahisar are examined, it was detected that treatments such as classic skin care, peeling and eye care are the most applied and most preferred ones. Being defined as the capital of the thermal water in Turkey along with its increasing bed capacity and thermal water properties and investments made up till now and will be made in the future, Afyonkarahisar province is increasing in importance with regards to thermal tourism day by day. The demand for thermal tourism, spa centers and health tourism in the world is increasing each passing day. On the other hand, while the facility investments in Afyonkarahisar rise, the number of foreign tourist arrivals is very low (Kervankıran, 2014). People participate in thermal tourism activities so as to regain their health or protect their health, stay fit and try alternative tourism forms especially in the countries where industrialization is felt at high levels. As these results are taken into account, the necessity of carrying out promotion activities about the Afyonkarahisar province comes to the forefront.

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Considering the physical therapy centers, cure centers, spa center units and the diversity of offered services by the thermal hotels operating in Afyonkarahisar province, it is believed that contributions both to the economy of province and the country will be quite high on the condition that adequate promotion activities are actualized. REFERENCES Cihangir, İ. S. (2016). Termal Turizm Potansiyelinin Bölgesel Kalkınmada Ekonomik Rolü: Ilgın Termal Tesislerinde Bir Uygulama, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Necmettin Erbakan Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı, Konya. Çelik, S. (2009). Afyonkarahisar’da Uluslar arası Termal Turizm Destinasyonu Oluşturma Potansiyelinin Analizi, Doktora Tezi, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İşletme Anabilim Dalı, Afyonkarahisar. Ekiz, E. & Yazıcı, H. (2016). Termal Turizmde Farklı Bir Destinasyon: Jeoturizm (Afyonkarahisar Örneği). ZfWT 8 (1),67-81. Erdoğan, E.& Aklanoğlu, F. (2008). Termal Turizm ve Afyon-Gazlıgöl Örneği. , e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy 3 (1), 83-92. Fenyves, V.; Orban I.; Konyves, E.; Nagy, A.; Sandor, F. (2014). Economical Aspects of Thermal and Medical Tourism. Apstract 8:(4), 77–84. Gümüş, S. & Polat N. (2012). Sağlık Turizminde Pazarlama Değişkenlerine Bir Bakış ve İstanbul Örneği, Hiperlink Yayınları, 52 s., İstanbul. Hemidov, G. Y. (2012). Avrupa’nın Termal Turizme Olan Talep Analizi ve Türkiye’nin Pazardaki Payı: Haymana ve Balçova Örneği, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Dış İlişkiler ve Avrupa Birliği Koordinasyon Dairesi Başkanlığı, Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara. Kazandzhieva, V. (2014). Trends in The Development of Spa and Wellness. Tourism. Conference: International Tourism Forum "Spa and Wine". October 16-20,2014, p.1-8. https://www.researchgate.net/ publication/263808671Trends (Accessed on: 21.06. 2016). Kervankıran, İ. (2014). Afyonkarahisar İli Turizminin Türkiye Turizmindeki Yeri. Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi 32, 171-192. Munteanu, L. & Teleki, N. (2013). Thermal and Spa Activities in Romania and Other Eastern European Countrıes. OMTh and SITH Congress. October 19, 2013, Levico Terme, Italy, p.1-9. http://www.omth. com/86/L%20Munteanu%20THERMAL%20 AND%20SPA%20ACTIVITIES%20IN%20ROMANIA.pdf. (Accessed on 21.06.2016). Özdemir, Ş. (2015). Türkiye’nin Termal Sağlık Turizmi Potansiyeli. Mustafa Altındiş (Ed.) Termal Turizm kitabı içinde (bölüm1, sayfa1-12). Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık Eğitim Danışmanlık Tic. Ltd. Şti.: Ankara. Öztürk, M. & Bayat, M. (2011). Uluslararası Turizm Hareketlerinde Sağlık Turizminin Rolü ve Kalite Çalışmalarının Önemi Bir Literatür Çalışması. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 1(2), 135-156. www.dergipark.ulakbim.gov.tr/ksuiibf/article/download/5000039249/5000038122.(Acces.on 20.5. 2016). Öztürk, Y. & Yazıcıoğlu İ. (2002). Gelişmekte Olan Ülkeler İçin Alternatif Turizm Faaliyetleri Üzerine Teorik Bir Çalışma. Gazi Üniversitesi, Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2, 183-195. Penpecioğlu, E. (2012). Termal Turizm ve Bölgesel Kalkınma. Spa&Wellness 6(22), Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı ve Ulu Basım Matbaacılık. Pforr, C.; Locher, C. (2012). The German Spa and Health Resort Industry in the Light of Health Care System Reforms. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 29:(3), 298-312. Sandıkçı, M. & Özgen, Ü. (2013). Afyonkarahisar İlinin Termal Turizm Açısından SWOT Analizi ile Değerlendirilmesi. Uşak Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 6(3), 51-79. Taktak, F. & Demir, H. (2010). Termal Otel Geliştirme: Afyonkarahisar Örneği. Harita Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi 2(1), 20-35. Taş, B. (2012). Afyonkarahisar İlinde Termal Turizmin Gelişimi. SDÜ Fen Edebiyat Fakültesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 26, 139-152. Tengilimlioğlu, D. & Karakoç, G .(2013). Termal Turizm ve Spa Turizmi. Dilaver Tengilimoğlu (Ed.) Sağlık Turizmi kitabı içinde (bölüm 3, sayfa 71-97). Siyasal Kitabevi: Ankara. Toy, S., Çatakçı, S., Eymirli, E. B. & Karapınar, M. (2010). Erzurum Termal Turizm Potansiyeli. Turizm Raporları No:., Kuzeydoğu Anadolu Kalkınma Ajansı: Erzurum.

65 wwwremote.ikg.gov.tr/upload/2011.../34db5c5f-6282-4cba-ae66-54ba1b3cbf28.pdf, Accessed on: 23.5.2016. Türksoy, A. & Türksoy, S. S. (2010). Termal Turizmin Geliştirilmesi Kapsamında Çeşme İlçesi Termal Kaynaklarının Değerlendirilmesi. Ege Akademik Bakış /Ege Academic Review 10 (1), 699-725. Varol, B. Nevşehir Termal Turizm Raporu. Ahiler Kalkınma Ajansı, Nevşehir Yatırım Destek Ofisi. http://investinnevsehir.com/assets/ilgilidosyalar/Nevsehir-Termal-Turizm-Raporu_1.pdf(Accessed on: 07.06.2016). URL 1:WTHC. http://www.visitturkeyforhealthcare.com/34-termal-bolgeler.html (Accessed on: 07.06.2016). URL2:Sağlık Turizmi Koordinasyon Kurulu. http://www.saturk.gov.tr/images/ pdf/tyst/07. pdf Türkiye’de Termal Sağlık Turizmi. (Accessed on: 07.06.2016). URL3:AfyonkarahisarValiliği.http://www.afyonkarahisar.gov.tr/kurumlar/afyonkarahisar.gov.tr/Dosyalar/afy onkarahisar-turkce-ingilizce-tanitim.pdf (Accessed on: 23.05.2016). URL4:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http://www.afyonkulturturizm. gov.tr/TR, 63508/saglik-turizmi.html (Accessed on: 23.05.2016). URL5:Yatırım ve İşletmeler Genel Müdürlüğü. http://yigm.kulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,10078/ afyon.html. (Accessed on: 23.05.2016). URL6: Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http:www.afyonkulturturizm .gov.tr/ TR ,63509/ gazligol-termal-turizm-merkezi.html.(Accessed on: 23.05.2016). URL7:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http:www.afyonkulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,63511/heybeli-termal-turizm-merkezi.html (Acc. on: 23.05.2016). URL8:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http://www.afyonkulturturizm. gov.tr/TR,63510/hudai-termal-turizm-merkezi.html (Acc. on: 24.05.2016). URL9:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http://www.afyonkulturturizm. gov.tr/TR,63512/omer-gecek-termal-turizm-merkezi.html (Accessed on: 25.05.2016). URL10:Afyonkarahisar İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü. http://www.afyonkulturturizm. gov.tr/TR,158749/kultur-turizm-istatistikleri.html (Acc. on: 25.05.2016). URL 11: Alila Deluxe Termal Hotel&Spa Afyon. http://www.alilatermal.com/alila-thermal-hakkinda/ (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 12: Oruçoğlu Thermal Resort. Afyonkarahisar. https://orucoglu.com/odalar/ (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 13: İkbal Thermal Hotel&Spa. http://ikbal.com.tr/wp-content/uploads/2016/01/bilgi-formu.pdf. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL14:Afyonkarahisar Korel Thermal Resort Clinic & Spa. http://www.korelthermal.com /tr/ kurumsal. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL15:Afyon Budan Thermal Spa Hotel & Convention. .http://www.budantermal.com. tr/tr/hakkimizda (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL16:Ng Güral Afyon Wellness & Convention Hotel. http://www.nghotels.com.tr/ Otellerimiz/NG-Afyon- 2/ODALAR-2/(Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL17:Sandıklı Thermal Park Hotel. http://www.sandikliparkhotel.com/tr /anasayfa/ kurumsal/hakkimizda. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 18: May Thermal Resort & Spa Sandıklı. http://maythermal.com/tr/hakkimizda. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 19: Safran Thermal Resort Sandıklı. http://safrantermal.com/tr/otelimiz. (Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 20: Oruçoğlu Thermal Resort. Afyonkarahisar. https://orucoglu.com/project/analizler/ Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL 21: İkbal Thermal Hotel & Spa. http://ikbal.com.tr/masajlar. (Accessed on: 04.06.2016). URL 22: İkbal Thermal Hotel & Spa. http://www.mineraspa.com/masajlar. (Accessed on: 04.06.2016). URL23:Ng Güral Afyon Wellness & Convention Hotel. http://www.nghotels.com.tr/ Otellerimiz/ NG- Afyon-2/Bakimlar-1108/.(Accessed on: 06.06.2016). URL24:Ng Güral Afyon Wellness & Convention Hotel. http://www.nghotels.com.tr/ Otellerimiz / NG- Afyon-2/Masajlar-1104/(Accessed on: 04.06.2016). URL25:Afyonkarahisar Korel Thermal Resort Clinic & Spa. http://www.korelthermal.com/ tr/hizmetler/ thermal-spa/masaj/(Accessed on: 01.06.2016). URL26:Afyon Budan Thermal Spa Hotel & Convention. http://www.budantermal.com.tr/ tr/thermal-spa/masaj-cesitleri/ (Accessed on: 04.06.2016).

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URL27:Sandıklı Thermal Park Hotel. http://www.sandikliparkhotel.com/tr/thermal-Ssa/uygulamalar/masajlar(Accessed on: 04.06.2016). URL28:Safran Thermal Resort Sandıklı. http://crocusthermalspa.com/#/icerik/spa-banyolari. /(Accessed on: 05.06.2016). URL29:Afyon Budan Thermal Spa Hotel & Convention. http://www.budantermal.com.tr/tr/ thermal-spa/kil-banyolari. /(Accessed on: 05.06.2016). URL 30: Oruçoğlu Thermal Resort. https://orucoglu.com/project/biorezonans-ne/(Accessed on: 05.06.2016). URL 31: Oruçoğlu Thermal Resort. https://orucoglu.com/project/termal-dor. (Accessed on: 06.06.2016). URL 32: İkbal Thermal Hotel & Spa. http://ikbal.com.tr/cilt-vucut-bakimlari/( Accessed on 06.06.2016). URL33: İkbal Thermal Hotel & Spa. http://www.mineraspa.com/yuz-vucut-bakimi. (Accessed on 06.06.2016). URL34:Sandıklı Thermal Park Hotel. http://sandikliparkhotel.com/tr/thermal-spa/uygulamalar/cilt-bakimlari (Accessed on: 08.06.2016).

67 Chapter 5

The Role of Gastronomy Tourism in Slow Cities: Case of Turkey

Mehmet SARIOĞLAN*, Cevdet AVCIKURT**

THE CONCEPTS OF SLOW CITY AND GASTRONOMY TOURISM Cittaslow forms from the words Italian Citta and English slow and means “slow city”. This concept formation; has been started to protest the opening of McDonalds at Spanish Stairs/Rome in 1986 by a group in the leadership of Carlo Petrini, throwing bunch of Italian macaroni plateful. The main reason of this protest is based on the philosophy “Eating food should not be greedily and not be a fast-food”. As from this concept, the time slips by slowly and Slow food concept has been revealed in reaction to the fast-food and gradually been spreaded all over the world extemporarily. During this process, "Slow Food Unity" has been established in Barolo/Italy.In the later years, has become a movement that fed from a mutual "slowness philosophy" such as money, food-beverage, life, trip, education and other fields (Presenza et al., 2015; Üstündağlı et al., 2015; Park&Kim, 2014; Ekinci, 2014; Baycan&Fusco Giard, 2013; Heitmann et al., 2011; Pink, 2009; Pink, 2007; Knox, 2005). It can be stated that Cittaslow movement which is an urban unity based on membership has emerged to hinder globalization make city's structure and lifestyles standardize adversely. “Cittaslow” movement is kind of route map that supports the sustainability of tourism by increasing its competitiveness as well as being a development model, well accepted internationally. At the same time, It is a significant gastronomy tourism model due to the fact that it has been constituted under the skin of food and beverage phenomenon (Servon&Pink, 2015; Pink, 2014; Carp, Baldemir, 2013; 2012; Radstrom, 2011; Lowry, 2011; Mayer&Knox, 2006). To be a Citaslow city, several criterias has been determined by unity such as environment policies (11 pieces), infrastructure policies (13 pieces), Technologies and tools which increases the quality of urbanlife (9 pieces), protecting the domestic production (11 adet), hospitality (5 pieces), awareness( 3 pieces), supporting the slow food projects and activities are totally 59 different criterias. Besides the most determinant requsities to be slow city; the population must not be over 50.000, protecting the natural and historic fabric of environent, maintainig the cultural and social customs and providing the sustainability of foods and beverages in dimension of supply chain (from supply to product, from product to service).In this context, Food and Beverage phenomenon is required to be featured significantly, absolutely, so as to make the concept actual in an effective way. Thus when viewed from this aspect, the concept of gastronomy tourism can be described as a developing tourism type day by day (Presenza et al., 2015; Hatipoğlu, 2015; Panait, 2014; Ildiko, 2013; Semmens&Freeman, 2012; Yurtseven&Kaya, 2011; Pink, 2008). As an attractiveness fact of slow cities ‘’ Gastronomy’’, takes place in first related to expectations of individuals about destinations due to that being a cultural heritage with a strong mean. This phenomenon can only be realized with a gastronomical identity. Gastronomical identity, because which differs from as far as current cultural, geographical, ecological, economical and historical process, has big role on creating an unique, inimitable concept and coping with increased competitiveness against other destinations of slow cities. After creating this identity, the competitiveness of slow cities will be enabled. Thus, the demands to gastronomical tourism has been increasing as qualitative and quantitive day by day (Pajo&Uğurlu, 2015; Sarıoğlan, 2015; Görkem&Öztürk, 2014; Yurtseven&Karakaş, 2013). METHOD The research has been conducted in 6 of 11 different destinations which got ‘’Cittaslow’’ title such as Akyaka (Muğla), Seferihisar (İzmir), Taraklı (Sakarya), Vize (Kırklareli), Yenipazar (Aydın) and

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Tourism Faculty, [email protected] ** Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Tourism Faculty, [email protected]

Gökçeada (Çanakkale) totally. The research has been conducted w,th questionairre method(face to face interview) which is a quantitive data collection method. Field of research has been implemented with tourists who visit relevant slowcities in between the years September,2015 and May,2016. The main reason of this study is determining the motivations of tourists who visited slowcities concerning the effects of gastronomical facts on their visits and destinations. This pilot study has been implemented in Seferihisar so as to increase the effectiviness of questionairre and achieve the objective before its final form. In this context, this research has been conducted on 952 tourists operating in 6 different ‘’ Cittaslow’’ regions but only 833 of this total were implicated in this study. As a result of research, obtained datas have been analyzed by SPSS 22.0 Pc Programme. FINDINGS AND COMMENTARIES In this part of this study, findings and analyzes as the result of obtained datas are evaluated. Findings and analyzes in the part of field research have been revealed as an ultimate aim so as determine tendencies of individuals and gastronomical values that effects the destinations( Slow City) during their visit. In this context, the demographical profiles of 833 tourists are demonstrated below Table 1. The major part of attendants are conglomerated in the age of 60 and above, age and rational distrubutions are increasing directly proportional. However; we cant ignore the distributions of below 20 and 20-30 age ranges; it has been predicted that demands to Slow Cities will increase in the forthcoming terms. We can say that the incomes of tourists are higher than the major part of Turkey’s average income. The major part of attendants are retired, businessman, merchant and student. In the light of these datas, it can be stated that there is a population consisted of majorly higher incomes and free spacer. It has been determined that the numbers of tourists hosted by destinations and attendance level to the research of tourists are directly proportional. Major part of attendants dwell in big cities (Metropolits). Major part of attendants have various graduation degrees, so this tourist mass is well sophisticated and educated. Table 2 has been created in order to determine the effects of food and beverage facts to destinations (slow cities) motivationally. The first proposition is “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous meat dishes”. The attendance level of this proposition is quite above average. We can say that Eating meat dishes is a well motivational fact for people who wants to visit Slow Cities. The second proposition is “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous vegetable dishes”. Although the attendance level is right below the average, it can be stated that the attendance level is significant. The other proposition is “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous starters”. It has been determined that although the attendance level is right below the average, it can be stated that the attendance level is significant. In this context, if dessert cultures of destinations will be improved, gastronomical visits to destinations would increase gradually. The propositions “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous bakery products (cookies, muffins, pastries etc..)”, “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous drinks” are right above the average. These propositions; “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous foods products with endemic plants”, “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous drinks products with endemic plants”, “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous oliveoil dishes”, “I think number of tourists will increase by improving and revealing the indigenous cooking methods”. Have quite considerable attendance from tourists. This explains the situation that the given importance to oliveoil dishes and endemic plants is quite a significant subject for tourists. The proposition; “I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous seafoods” shows an average attendance from tourists. Besides, slow cities should improve their concept based on seafoods and cooking methods in order to increase the tendency levels of individuals.

69 Table 1. The Demographical Profiles of Attendants Variables Frequency(n) Percentages (%) Age Range 20 and below 92 11,04 21-30 age range 109 13,08 31-40 age range 117 14,04 41-50 age range 136 16,32 51-60 age range 173 20,76 60 and above 206 24,76 Total 833 100 Average income 500 $ and below 57 6,84 501-1000 $ 88 10,56 1001-2000 $ 94 11,29 2001-3000 $ 139 16,68 3001-4000 $ 172 20,65 4001-5000 $ 196 23,54 5001 $ and above 87 10,44 Total 833 100 Profession Officer 104 12,49 Employee 38 4,56 Student 143 17,16 Merchant 155 18,61 Businessman 169 20,29 Retired 183 21,97 Other 41 4,92 Total 833 100 Destination Akyaka (Muğla) 143 17,16 Gökçeada (Çanakkale) 189 22,69 Seferihisar (İzmir) 204 24,51 Taraklı (Sakarya) 97 11,64 Yenipazar (Aydın) 129 15,48 Vize (Kırklareli) 71 8,52 Total 833 100 Graduation Degree Primary 16 1,92 Secondary 39 4,68 High School 97 11,64 Two Year Degree 144 17,29 Bachelor 489 58,71 Master 29 3,48 Doctorate 19 2,28 Total 833 100,0 Residence İstanbul 288 34,59 Ankara 91 10,92 İzmir 179 21,48 Abroad 151 18,12 Other 124 14,89 Total 833 100

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Table 2. Analyses of Answers to Propositions by Attendants Propositions Attendance Percentage (%) I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous meat dishes. 54,96 I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous vegetable dishes. 49,44 I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous starters. 47,89 I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous desserts. 43,81 I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous bakery products (cookies, 51,84 muffins, pastries etc..) I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous drinks. 51,49 I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous foods products with endemic 70,68 plants. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous drinks products with endemic 51,24 plants. I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous oliveoil dishes. 71,52 I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous seafoods. 62,76 I came to this destination in order to taste indigenous products wşth indigenous 57,36 cooking methods (jug,steamed) I think number of tourists will increase by improving and revealing the indigenous 73,57 cooking methods. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS This study is consisted of two main chapters be about literatur research and field research. Drawed a conclusion that Gastronomical facts have an unignorable impression on destinations which got “Cittaslow” title. In the direction of a result of the literatur research, the communication level between slow cities and gastronomical facts has been tested whether if they are in the same direction or not. As a result of this field research, it has been determined that Gastronomical facts have an important role on individuals to prefer “Cittaslow” destinations. A set of suggestions were developed for “Cittaslow” cities and “Cittaslow” candidate cities related to make an evaluation about gastronomical facts;  “Cittaslow” and candidate cities should develop a new food and beverage culture incident to region by doing a scientific study about using endemic plants with indigenous foods and drinks,  Cittaslow” and candidate cities should feature their own indigenous gastronomical facts with their promotion strategies,  Cittaslow” and candidate cities should organize fairs,expos,festivals and panels to refer individuals to destinations. Soon after this study, a certain number of studies will be conducted by means of determine the gastronomical facts of ‘’ Cittaslow’’ regions. Besides by the help of this study, following relevant studies will be an example for candidate destinations to generate their own strategical policies. REFERENCES Baldemir, E. Kaya, F. Şahin, T. K. (2013). A Management Strategy Within Sustainable City Context: Cittaslow, Procedia Social and Behavşoral Sciences, 99(1), 75-84. Baycan, T. Fusco Giard, L. (2013). Case Study Window–Culture in International Sustainability Practices and Perspectives: The Experience of ‘Slow City Movement – Cittaslow’, The Ashgate Research Companion to Planning and Culture, Aldershot-UK, 273-292. Carp, J. (2012). Enviromental Reviews and Case Studies: The Town’s Abuzz: Collaborative Opportunities for Enviromental Professionals in The Slow City Movement, Journal of Enviromental Practice, 14(2), 130-142. Ekinci, M.B. (2014). The Cittaslow Philosophy in The Context of Sustainable Tourism Development; The Case of Turkey, Tourism Management, 41(1), 178-189. Ergüven, M.H. (2011). Cittaslow-Yaşamaya Değer Şehirlerin Uluslararası Birliği: Vize Örneği, Organizasyon ve Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, 3(2), 210-210. Görkem, O., Öztürk, Y. (2014). Gastronomic Reflections of Cittaslow Movement on Local Cuisine: The

71 Case Study of Seferihisar (İzmir, Turkey), TURIZAM, 18(1), 11-21. Hatipoğlu, B. (2015). Cittaslow: Quality of Life and Visitor Experiences, Journal Tourism Planning & Development, 12(1), 20-36. Hietmann, S., Robinson, P. & Povey G. (2011). Research Themes for Tourism (Slow Food, Slow Cities and Slow Tourism), FSC Publishing, USA. Ildiko, G.H. (2013). Regional and Town Development in Hodmezovasarhely From The Aspect of Cittaslow, Analele Universităţii din Oradea, Fascicula Protecţia Mediului, 20(1), 197-204. Knox, P.L. (2005). Creating Ordinary Places: Slow Cities in a Fast World, Journal of Urban Design, 10 (5), 1-11. Lowry, L.L. (2011). CittaSlow, Slow Cities, Slow Food: Searching for a Model for the Development of Slow Tourism Travel & Tourism Research Association, 42nd AnnualConference Proceedings: Seeing the Forest and the Trees–Big Picture Research in a Detail- Driven World, June 19-21, 2011 London, Ontario, Canada. Mayer, H. & Knox, P. (2006). Slow Cities: Sustaniable Places in a Fast World, Journal of Urban Affairs, 28(4), 321-334. Pajo, A., Uğurlu, K. (2015). Cıttaslow Kentleri İçin Slow Food Çalışmalarının Önemi, Electronic Journal of Vocational Colleges, 65-73. Panait, I. A. (2014). From Futurama To Cittaslow (Master Thesis), MSC Landscape Architecture and Planning, Wageningen University-Netherlands. Park, E., Kim, S. (2014). Enhancing Local Community’s Involvement and Empowerment Through Practicing Cittaslow: Experiences from Goolwa, South Australia, SHS Web of Conferences Proceedings, 1-7. Pink, S. (2014). Making Resillience: Everyday Affect and Global Affiliation in Australian Slow Cities, Journal of Cultural Geographies, 21(4), 695-710. Pink, S. (2009). Urban Social Movements and Small Places, Journal of City: Analysis of Urban Trends, Culture, Theory, Policy, Action, 13(4), 451-465. Pink, S. (2008). Sense and Sustainability: The Case of The Slow City Movement, The International Journal of Justice and Sustainability, 13(2), 95-106. Pink, S. (2007). Sensing Cittaslow: Slow Living and The Constitution of The Sensory City, Journal of The Sense and Society, 2(1), 59-77. Presenza, A., Abbate, T., Perano, M. (2015). The Cittaslow Certification and Its Effects on Sustainable Tourism Governance, The Journal of Enlightening Tourism, 5(1). Presenza, A., Abbate, T., Micera, R. (2015). The Cittaslow Movement: Opportunity and Challanges For The Governance of Tourism Destination, Journal of Toursim Planning&Development, 12(4), 479-488. Radstrom, S. (2011). A Place Sustaining Framework for Local Urban Identity: an Introduction and History of Cittaslow, Italian Journal of Planning Practice, 1(1), 90-113. Sarıoğlan, M. (2015). Prospects for The Turkish Gastronomy Tourism, Athens Journal of Tourism, 2(2), 117- 126. Semmens, J., Freeman, C. (2012). The Value of Cittaslow As an Approach to Local Sustainable Development: A New Zealand Perspective, International Planning Studies, 17(4), 353-375. Servon, L.J. Pink, S. (2015). Cittaslow: Going Glocal in Spain, Journal of Urban Affairs, 37(3), 327-340. Üstündağlı, E., Miray, B. Güzeloğlu, E.B. (2015). Collaborative Sustainability: Analyzing Economic and Social Outcomes in The Context of Cittaslow, Journal of Business and Economic Research, 6(1), 125- 144. Yurtseven, H.R., Karakaş, N. (2013). Creating A Sustainable Gastronomic Destination: The Case of Cittaslow Gökçeada-Turkey, American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 3(3), 91-100. Yurtseven, H.R., Kaya, O. (2011). Slow Tourist: A Comperative Research Based on Cittaslow Principles, American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 1(2), 91-98.

72 Chapter 6

Interpretation of Zeugma Museum by Tourist Guides

Uysal YENIPINAR*

1. INTRODUCTION In recent years, the importance of tourist guide’s interpretive role has increased and has begun to be included in foreign scientific studies. It is seen that tourist guides’ interpretive roles have gained importance in promoting local culture and cultural heritage. The main purpose of the study is to identify how historical, mythological, ecological belief and cultural images with high artistic value depicted in mosaic panels in Zeugma Mosaic Museum can be interpreted in an entertaining and accurate way after going through tourist guides’ information strainer with literature review, visual elements and participating tourist guides’ suggestions. Providing information about the artifacts in the museum necessitates knowing and interpreting many disciplines, in particular art history and archeology. Therefore, in addition to historical, mythological, geographical and socio-cultural subjects, tourist guides need to be knowledgeable on many different subjects like presentation techniques, diction, animation ability, group psychology and visitor profile and they also need to apply these. On the other hand, since the study is a new subject, it is expected to contribute to the literature on tourist guiding and the promotion of Zeugma museum. Professional tourist guiding is a work area with rich human relations, high professional return and satisfaction. Tourists believe that successful guides have extensive knowledge on the visiting places and attraction elements (Yu, Weiler& Ham, 2001). Ap and Wong expressed that tourist guides have the ability to turn a museum visit into an unforgettable learning experience for the visitors (Ap & Wong, 2001). Tourist guides give confidence to the group with their interest and knowledge. The feeling of confidence raises the visitors’ expectations of experiencing a new cultural experience without feeling the difficulties of being in a foreign country. From this aspect, tourist guides contribute to the preservation and promotion of the cultural and natural heritage of the countries where they work at. On the other hand, a guide’s foreign language skills have important part in cultural mediation and knowing both languages provides the guide the opportunity to defend one culture to the other culture fairly (Yu et al., 2001: 79). Partaking in the application of package tours prepared by tour operators, tourist guides play important role to meet the aforementioned needs in the name of travel agency and tour operator. On the other hand, it is known that the roles of tourist guides in interpretation of destination culture and cultural mediation are gaining importance. Through the example of Zeugma Museum mosaics, the study evaluated how the interpretive roles of tourist guides were effective in passing complicated subjects. 2. Literature Tourist guides bear the responsibility to make written, visual and auditory, artistic and historical themes meaningful for the tourists with the education they have gotten and pass this information to them in an entertaining way. While fulfilling these responsibilities, they draw on their communication and interpretation abilities. Where there is intense competition in the tourism sector, countries develop different strategies to be the preferred destination and try to ensure customer loyalty by focusing on tourist satisfaction. It is seen that the countries that prioritize tourist satisfaction aim to raise service quality. It is known that tourist guides take a role in destination promotion, tourist satisfaction and raising destination loyalty. The changes in tourist expectations has widened tourism industry and brought multidimensionality. Tourist guides and their professional roles also got affected by the changes and their roles turned into much more diverse and comprehensive roles compared to their solely guiding roles during the beginning years of tourism. Interpretative Roles of Tourist Guides: While performing their professions, tourist guides have

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Mersin University, Faculty of Tourism, Tourism Guiding Department

important and multi-faceted roles. Role is a behavior expected from a person who is assigned to a certain position or function. Tourists’ changing travel trends have affected and changed the roles of the tourist guides who show around and are the closest person to the tourists. In 1985, Cohen defined guides as pathfinders who guide and lead the visitors in regions and environments where the visitors did not know and experienced before. The role given to the tourist guides in Cohen’s seminal definition is being “pathfinders”. Today, tourist guides’ tasks got diversified and became more comprehensive and functional, going beyond only guiding. Professional tourist guides, the leading actors in tourism, are the tourism workers who the tourists visiting Turkey spend the longest time with and most affected from, who take responsibility and get authorization during the moments when services turn into actions, who generally accompany tourists during their trips and who have the opportunity to have direct communication with the tourists (Genç, 1992; Karaçal&Demirtaş, 2002; Zengin et al., 2004; 2011; Çetin& Kızılırmak, 2012; Güzel et al., 2013). To be a cultural mediator, a tour guide needs to mediate information and encounters but their elaborations on what these roles entail provide new insight beyond which has been previously written in the literature. Stronger support must be provided to tour guides, particularly to the new comers who may need intercultural training. If excellence in cultural interpretation and mediation is to be achieved, commitment and support from all sides, government, the tourism industry, employers and the guides themselves, is vital (Yu, at al., 2004: 7). Today’s tourists are as knowledgeable and interested as tourism professionals about destinations. They are sophisticated tourists who gather information from different channels; compare similar destinations and who prefer destinations that offer different opportunities before the trip. Today, it is known that tourist trends are towards education, experience and entertainment (Fennell&Iagles, 1990:28). The positive change in the attitudes and behaviors of the visitors informs the resource managers that interpretative tour guiding can be an effective and desirable educational tool. Thus, the negative change in attitudes and behavior sug- gests a need for better training of guides in design and delivery of interpretation (Poudel&Nyaupane, 2013:10). In other words, interpretation of information can give tourists new insights and understandings of the area they visit and the culture and environment they experience. The Society for Interpreting Britain’s Heritage defines interpretation as “the process of communicating to people the significance of a place or object so that they enjoy it more, understand their heritage and environment better, and develop a positive attitude toward conservation” (cited in Moscardo, 1999: 8). This definition assumes there is a ‘correct’ significance of a place or object that must be known before people can enjoy or understand their experience. Reisinger and others brought a different perspective to the interpretation skills of tourist guides. According to them, there is also an ulterior motive for offering the interpretation: to influence the tourists’ attitude towards conservation (Reisinger and Steiner, 2006). Moscardo (1998) identifies three main ways in which interpretation can contribute to the quality of visitors’ experience. “These are: (1) providing information on the available options so tourists can make the best choices about what they do and where they go; (2) providing information to encourage safety and comfort so tourists know how to cope with and better manage encountered difficulties (e.g. sea sickness) and understand messages given by the warning signs (e.g. ‘you cannot swim here’); and (3) creating the actual experience so tourists can participate in activities such as guided walks, eco-tours, visit art galleries, fauna sanctuaries or zoos, and learn in areas of educational interest” (Moscardo, 1996: 382). Interpretation also means a kind of humor, analogies, metaphors; opportunities to ask questions, provision of variety, and structuring logically presented information help to build links between the interpretative content and the everyday experience of visitors. These deceptively encouraging words lose some of their appeal when one realizes that Moscardo et al. (2004) are not advocating that tourists make links between their experiences and their current knowledge but rather between someone else’s interpretations and their current knowledge. According to Ham (1992) and Moscardo (1998), interpretation enhances visitor satisfaction. To achieve this, Moscardo (1999) believes interpretation should incorporate differences into interpretative experiences, provide personal connections for visitors, practice participation, create clear content, and allow for alternative audiences. Dahles stated that tourist guides should be seen as people who encourage tourists to see, hear, smell, taste, feel and experience other cultures (Dahles, 2002: 785-786). In a study conducted by Müküs

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in 2009, the participants listed the qualifications of a tourist guide as follows: to know archeology, art history and foreign language; to be able to follow innovations; to be knowledgeable on the region; to have good communication skills. It is determined that tourist guides’ qualifications and skills and meeting the tourist expectations play a key role in tourist satisfaction. In the study, also, stress that tourism sector, media and government officials see the subject as a more comprehensive subject than meeting the roles of the tourist guides and giving information. On the other hand, tourist guides are obliged to preserving the country and destination they work in (TUREB, 2004). This obligation gives the tourist guides in Turkey the role of “cultural and natural history preserver”. According to the definition of Turkey Tourist Guidance 2013 regulation, “tourist guides are people who guide domestic and foreign tourists in languages written on their identity cards, who have scientific and comprehensive knowledge on the historical, cultural and natural heritage of the regions they are promoting, who can reflect the country’s image in the best way with their knowledge, who ensure the tour programs organized by travel agencies are executed how it was sold to the customer in line with the written forms of the travel agencies and who guide organized groups/people in museums and archeological sites”. Tourist guides accompany tourists during their trips and ensure that their trips go smoothly. Therefore, on the one hand, they identify the visitors’ satisfaction levels and on the other hand they reflect and identify Turkey’s and Turkish people’s image with their knowledge, attitudes and behaviors (www.myk.gov.tr). According to the definition of World Federation of Tourist Guide Associations (WFTGA), a tourist guide is a person who guides domestic and foreign groups or individual visitors in the language of their choice, who guides monuments, museums, cultural and natural heritage of an area and passes information in an entertaining way and who is recognized by the appropriate authority. According to Ahipaşaoğlu’s definition, a tourist guide is a person who accompanies tourists, visitors and guests, who gives accurate information about protected sites, museums, monuments, tombs, temples, historical artifacts and ruins, folklore, cultural and artistic artifacts, hand crafts, souvenirs and entertainment places and who helps execute various sports like mountain and nature hikes, water sports, hunting, skiing, caving, ornithology, parachuting, botany, bike and horse tours (Ahipaşaoğlu, 2001). In intercultural formations, there is generally a cultural gap between the visitor and the visiting area. For this reason, in areas where cultural heritage based on tourism activities occur tourist guidance service with information on high standards is demanded. On the other hand, tourist guides take on the role of mediator between local culture and culture of the tourists and can be described as “cultural mediator” since they offer communication between the tourists and the local people (Leclerc & Martin, 2004). In addition to developing tourists’ experiences, tourist guides directly play the role in “cultural mediation” and “intercultural communication” between the local culture and visitors (Yu et al., 2001: 77) because the guides have great knowledge, skills and experience in where visitors should go, what they should see or what aspects of the local culture the visitors should establish relationship. Tourist guides play an important and decisive role in the visitors’ satisfaction from tour organization and travel experiences and in promotion of Turkey and Turkey’s image. Thus, training qualified tourists guides who will represent Turkey and Turkish people with their knowledge, skills, culture, attitude and behaviors, who will accurately promote and who will ensure visitors returning to their countries satisfied and with positive impressions is of great importance (Tosun&Temizkan, 2004). According to Ham and Weiler, with meeting service expectations based on experiencing the product the tourist buys through interpretation, the tourist will be satisfied, customer loyalty will be ensured and destination’s sustainability will be increased (Ham&Weiler, 2002). In their report titled “Interpretation Reduces Ecological Impacts of Visitors to World Heritage Site”, Littlefair and Buckley emphasized the effectiveness of a skilled tourist guide’s narratives based on interpretation. They also mentioned that tourist guides reduced the negative ecological effect the visitors have on world cultural heritage sites and that the effect on these sites are due to the tourists’ attitudes, behaviors and knowledge rather than being biological and physical (Littlefair&Buckley, 2008). Changes in people’s behaviors were identified after educational experiences (Holbrook & Hirschman, 1982; O’sullivan & Spangler, 1998; Lasalle&Britton, 2003; Ballantyne et al., 2011; Penz&Hogg, 2011). ‘Effective interpretation enables visitors to make connections between the information being given and their previous knowledge and experiences’ (Moscardoet al., 2004: 13). This can be achieved by using clear, simple explanations

75 to reduce the gap between the information and visitors’ current knowledge. Also, humor, analogies, metaphors, opportunities to ask questions, provision of variety, and structuring logically presented information help to build links between the interpretative content and the everyday experience of visitors (Moscardo et al., 2004: 13). It is a known fact that tourist guides create awareness in the visitors with their interpretation skills about preservation by drawing attention to the importance of local culture for world cultural heritage. The interpretation skill of the tourist guide overlaps with ethics of responsibility. Ethics of responsibility is to define an action, behavior and attitude that need to be done in terms of the situation’s unique conditions and behavior’s results. Ethics of responsibility is also called situational ethics (Yarcan, 2007). Situational ethics is the change of attitudes and behavior types according to context under unclear conditions (Keskin, 1999). There is the principle of pragmatism in ethical behavior. This principle is based on the idea that there are no fundamental and valid values and man does what he does for the good of the majority. Doing whatever needed for the right action is not related to philosophy; it is rater a behavior towards solution (Kuçuradi, 1999). Ethics is values criteria that identify evaluations and attitudes in human relations. Travel agencies work with guides who they know from before and had business relations with before. Tourists and leaders of tour groups prefer professionals they have known and worked with before. Tourist guides execute the tour program, solve the problems arising in the name of customers and travel agency and they are directly responsible from the tour’s success. The guides determine the tourist’ perception of travel experience and images of travel and country to a large extent (Dahles, 2002). Functions of Museums and Tourist Guides: Contemporary museums are cultural centers where visitors learn while having fun and where visitors enjoy learning (Atagök, 1982: 2). With their interpretation and entertaining narratives, tourist guides help the visitors to visualize and learn the objects they see and to gain aesthetic appreciation and historical awareness. According to a definition made by International Council of Museum-ICOM, “a museum is a non-profit, permanent institution in the service of society and its development, open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment for the purposes of education, study and enjoyment” (Mclean, 1996). “A museum is intended to provide interest, education and enjoyment to its visitors, the quality of the experience being dependent on many variables from the age and education of the visitor and the kind of museum collection to the exhibition presentation and visitor services” (Capstick Brenda,1985:365-372). “Educational” function of museums is directing in addition to collecting, preserving, examining, evaluating and exhibiting. Museums can be described as free choice or informal learning environments (Kelly, 2004; Rabley, 2005; Grant, 2005). Visitors voluntarily learn the subjects they are interested in more easily and more permanently by experiencing through the tourist guides. The quality of the experience depends on many variables. Visitors’ age, education level, museum collection, exhibition presentations, exhibition type, presentation and visitor services are among the main objectives (Capstick Brenda, 1985: 365-372). Museums are places where people from many different cultures visit and have education. For this reason, reputable museums put much effort in exhibitions and providing information to the visitors (Abacı et al., 2005; 114). Today, The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization’s (UNESCO) sub- branch Social and Human Sciences is largely concerned with transformation of daily life (Altaylı, 2011: 2). Here, it is extremely important to elaborate the difference between scientific knowledge and narrative knowledge. Today, intangible heritage refer mostly to narrative knowledge and museums assume an important role in rescuing this knowledge kind from the dominance of scientific knowledge that totally leaves out human lives’ daily aspects (Lyotard, 2000: 16). Museums offer opportunities for the creation of identity. For this reason, museums are places where a society’s historical, cultural and natural values are collected, protected and presented for educational purposes (Buyurgan,Altın&Oruç, 2007; Mercin&Özsoy, 2005; Oruç, 2008: 125-141). Museum learning can be defined with concepts like informal, inner directed, optional and life-long (Hughes, Jackson & Kidd, 2007; Gray &Chadwic, 2001). It is known that studies on museums are conducted for purposes like personal development, restoration and education. Intrinsic motivation in museum increases the objective gained from the

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museum. Museums function as a kind of educational institution reflecting culture and history (Oruç&Altın, 2007). With the education they have received in subjects like art, history, culture, cultural heritage, destination management, tourist guides make sure the visitors are not bored, entertained and leave the museum satisfied and also contribute to the development of museum science. By promoting the artifacts in the museums to domestic and foreign tourists, tourist guides contribute to museums’ education and culture functions. With the tourist guides’ interpretations of artifacts during museum trips, the visitors go on a journey to the past in their minds and explore humans’ cultural reflections. This process helps the visitors to make new connections in their lives and create meaning and help their personal development. Gaziantep Zeugma Museum: Zeugma Mosaic Museum is located in the city center of Gaziantep in Turkey’s southeastern region. Founded to the west coast of the , the city is the region’s most important commercial and industrial city. Just like the historical Zeugma city, Gaziantep owes this to its location on the fertile land along the Euphrates River an as Silk Road’s gateway to the Middle East. With its Zeugma Museum, Turkey became one of the rare countries owning the rich mosaic mosaics of the Roman of the Roman period. The museum building covers an area of 30.000 square meters. With its 1450 square meters mosaic area, Zeugma Museum became the world’s biggest mosaic museum, taking the title from Tunisia’s Bardo Museum. Zeugma Museum building is comprised of three different buildings. Congress and culture center, mosaic museum, exhibition and conference center and archeology museum make up the museum complex. Between the museum and administration building, there are souvenir shops where the visitors can walk around without being bored. With their artifacts and exhibition styles, museums tremendously draw the interests of the visitors and become touristic attraction centers for the cities all by themselves. 40-square-meter mural, four Roman fountains, 20 columns, four sculptures made from limestone, a bronze sculpture of Mars, grave steles, sarcophagi and architectural pieces whose restorations were completed are exhibited in the museum. The atmosphere of the places where the mosaics were removed from was created and the mosaics were placed in their assigned spaces with modern museology understanding. Keeping kids in mind, mosaics are reflected on the museum’s floor with visual light plays. Visitors walk on these visual mosaics on the floor. Visitors are curious about the pool made out of colorful natural stones and the mosaics that are used as wall panels and look like a large painting and their mythological stories. Another feature of Gaziantep Archeology Museum is its seal collection. The collection is made up of 100.000 seals reflecting the archive of the ancient city of Zeugma. With this number, the museum is the number one in seal collection. Rich descriptions on the terra-cotta seal inform the visitors about Zeugma’s economic, social and religious life and its relations with other ancient cities (http://www.zeugmaweb.com). A seal is a security system giving an idea about where and from whom a letter, decree or package is coming and a system ensuring the shipment goes without being opened. Mosaic: Pebble stone tesserae (neatly cut stone), transition to mosaic technique, seen in the Mediterranean World at the beginning of third century BC. (Üstüner A.C., 2002: 22). 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS For the study, literature and visual data about the museum were reviewed. Phenomenology, a qualitative research method, and face to face interview technique were employed in the study. The main data collection tool in phenomenological studies is interview. It is important for the researcher to establish a safe and empathy-based interactive environment with the interviewed individuals. In phenomenological studies, the interviews are generally long. To bring out and explain the experiences in-depth, the researcher should enter an intense interaction with the interviewed individual or individuals. Since there is an opportunity to show the explanations and meanings reached by the researcher to the interviewed individuals and for them to confirm them, the study’s validity and reliability of the study increase (Yıldırım&Şimşek; 2013). The study sample are 15 active tourist guides who are registered to İzmir, Antalya, İstanbul, Adana and Nevşehir Chamber of Guides and who frequently do Gaziantep tours with domestic and foreign package tours and guide in Zeugma Museum. The number of participants was limited to 10 since some of the participants gave similar answers and 5 people did not want their names written. Face to face interviews were conducted with the participants

77 during the low season, February and March, of 2016. During the interviews, new questions were added and some questions were omitted from the semi-structured question form that was used as the data collection tool. Question forms were revised considering the questions the tourists frequently ask about the museum and the mosaics and the questions the tourists might ask. 3. FINDINGS The participants stressed that it would be impossible to answer the questions directed to them from only one source. They stated that their answers came from the vocational courses they took during college, Turkish and foreign books they read archeologists they met during their tours to the protected sites and museologists, architects, art historians and artists that participate in their tours. They also stated that their knowledge enriched and interpretation skills improved with the questions asked by culture groups. They told that they will answer the questions about the interpretative narration of Zeugma museum mosaics without sticking to a book or any other work as they synthesize and interpret in their minds after reading, listening and seeing. Participants gave the following answers to the question of “where do you first start narrating and how do you start it?” While we approach the museum with the tour bus, we see camel caravan sculptures that are evocative K1, of the historical Silk Road. The statutes attract the attention of the tourists. They take pictures and look K5, at me with questioning eyes. I start with explaining the two factors that make the two cities, Zeugma K4, and Gaziantep, important. I start with explaining the importance of both of them being founded along K6, the banks of the Euphrates and on the intersection of historical routes. When we get off the bus, we K7, take a group picture with the museum stairs, museum sign and museum building at the background. K8, They love this. They always say that taking a picture was a great idea. They love this even more when K9, the tour finishes and they look back at the pictures. Later, I give information about the Zeugma K10 museum building and the most important artifacts exhibited in the Zeugma museum.

We also start our narration with the camel caravans on the way to the museum. We stop in front of the panel that has the Zeugma city plan and model on and we make sure they see the plan and the model. By this way, we make the visitors imagine the city I their minds. On the map, we explain which museum mosaic was removed from where and from which villa, we explain along which bank of the Euphrates the city was founded on and the historical location of it. After this visual narrative, our tour group begins to listen to us attentively and does not want to miss a single word. If we have time, in the museum’s theater we watch the movie about the short history of ancient city of Zeugma in different languages. All of these help the visitors to make sense of the large-scale mosaics they will hear their stories from us soon after and the time and culture of the people who made these mosaics. I gather the group under the shade by the wall across the museum canteen. We sit and face the museum building and I start talking about the museum. While they listen to me, I make sure they see the museum. Here, I talk about the area of the museum, the functions of the buildings, the size of the mosaics, how the mosaics after four years of restoration were placed on the museum floors with a design that is similar to the villa the mosaics were taken from, geometric colorful mosaics that look like a carpet and how they can walk on the light displays on the colorful floor made for the children. The answers of participants to the question of “What are the characteristics that make the museum important?” are as follows; With their artifacts and exhibition styles, museums tremendously draw the interests of the visitors and K9, become touristic attraction centers for the cities all by themselves. 40-square-meter mural, four Roman K10 fountains, 20 columns, four sculptures made from limestone, a bronze sculpture of Mars, grave steles, sarcophagi and architectural pieces whose restorations were completed are exhibited in the museum. The atmosphere of the places where the mosaics were removed from was created and the mosaics were placed in their assigned spaces with modern museology understanding. Keeping kids in mind, mosaics are reflected on the museum’s floor with visual light plays. Visitors walk on these visual mosaics on the floor. Visitors are curious about the pool made out of colorful natural stones and the mosaics that are used as wall panels and look like a large painting and their mythological stories. Another feature of Gaziantep Archeology Museum is its seal collection. The collection is made up of 100.000 seals

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reflecting the archive of the ancient city of Zeugma. With this number, the museum is the number one in seal collection. Rich descriptions on the terra-cotta seal inform the visitors about Zeugma’s economic, social and religious life and its relations with other ancient cities (http://www.zeugmaweb.com). A seal is a security system giving an idea about where and from whom a letter, decree or package is coming and a system ensuring the shipment goes without being opened Participants gave the following answer to the question of “Where was the large size mosaics found?” According to Mr. Ergeç (2000); Museum takes its name from the ancient Roman city of Zeugma. Zeugma was founded by in 300 BC with the name “Selevkia Euphrates”. In the

year 64 BC the Roman general Pompeius surrenders to Antiachos I. One of the four big cities of Commagene Kingdom, the city was connected to the Roman Empire in 31 BC and took the name “Zeugma” meaning “bridge” and “gateway”. While the city had great wealth and splendor during K1, the Roman Empire, it was conquered by Sassanid ruler Shapur I in 256. With the conquest, the city K3, was sacked and demolished and later forgotten. K5, The first excavation work in Zeugma, which is an archaeological site of primary importance, was K5, started in 1987 in the South of Belkis Hill by the Gaziantep Museum. During excavations conducted in a rock tomb and its surroundings, many sculptures left by traffickers were found. These sculptures were made of limestone. The buried people were transferred to the Gaziantep Museum and are presently exhibited there. Excavation works were carried out in the antic site gained a new dimension with the start of the construction of Birecik Dam on the Euphrates, which was contracted out to an international consortium (Birecik A.S.) in 1993 on build-operate-transfer model. Following studies that asserted the dam’s threat on the area, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism started "urgent excavation and rescue work" in 1992. As a result of this work carried out by the Gaziantep Museum, villas, floor mosaics, frescoes and various other remains were unearthed. Also found during this excavation was a splendid mosaic on the wedding of Dionysus and Ariadne. 2/3 of this mosaic, however, was stolen in 1998. Upon the start of construction, tomb steles with eagle and basket relieves, a beheaded sculpture and a floor mosaic with goddesses of seasons were found in 1993 and they were removed and transferred to the Museum in 1994. In 1993, Prof. David Kennedy from the University of Western Australia joined excavations carried out by the Museum. During his work, Prof. Kennedy found that the floor mosaic of a Roman villa was also displaced by traffickers. Further investigations revealed that the mosaic taken from the site was that of two immortal lovers, Metiox and Partenope and that the mosaic was in the private Menil Collection in Houston, US. Upon the initiatives of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the mosaic was returned to Gaziantep Museum in June 2000. Participants gave similar answers to the question of “Who made the Mosaics done and where were they used?” Zeugma is inside the Persian border region of the Little Asia province and is the only gateway K1, bridge on the Euphrates connecting East to the West. When the Gaziantep region came under Roman K2, sovereignty, 4th Scythian Unit, one of the 30 legions, was founded in Zeugma. The presence of the K3, unit enlivens the trade. When trade attracts wealth and wealth attracts artists, Zeugma becomes a K4, big city with its 70.000 population. The commanders and traders made pools with mosaics constructed inside their villas along the banks of the Euphrates to cool them. The mosaics were used on the floors, pools and pavements of the villas. This need attracted traders, artists, scholars and clergy to the city of Zeugma. It is known that the art of mosaics reached its peak between the 2nd and 5th centuries in Antakya and Zeugma. When the mosaics are excavated and transferred to the museum, mosaics and their secrets woke from their 2000 years old sleep Participants gave the following answer to the question of “What are the topics of the mosaics in the museum? In the big mosaic panels transferred to the museum ancient gods like Poseidon, Oceanus, Tethys, K3 Aphrodite, Perseus and Andromeda and various topics like Dionysus’s wedding, Danae and K4 Euphrates gods are portrayed. The visitors can see the portrayals of how Achilles disguises himself K5 as a woman not to go to the Trojan War, how Aphrodite was born out of the white bubbles of an oyster to the coast of island of Cyprus, grape and wine god,

79 Dionysus, the life tree that grows out of the water coming from the pitcher of the Euphrates river god and the endangered bald ibis that today lives on the Birecik rocks along the banks of the Euphrates. The Gypsy Girl mosaic became the museum’s symbol. With her big eyes, she watches the visitors

wherever they go. There is a gypsy neighborhood in Gaziantep. Their lives are intertwined with music. Since the big-eyed gypsy women’s headscarf tying style looks like the girl’s style in the museum, people gave this name to the mosaic. On the other hand, on the 2nd floor of the 2nd section to the right of the museum, there are nature and animal mosaics on the large panels on the floor and the wall. What is interesting is some of the animals like stubborn goats, sheep and wild birds can be seen today but some of the animals portrayed in the mosaics like giraffes, elephants, lions and tigers do not live in Anatolia anymore. Participant mentioned how the 1.50 meter bronze statue of war god Mars symbolizing abundance and strength was found nearly undamaged underground during the excavations. What is interesting about the Mars statue is that the statue is holding a spear in one hand and flower on the other hand. It is believed to represent an artistic spirit who knows how to fight but prefers peace. The responses given by participants to the question of “What is mosaic? Is there a technique?” are as follows: Mosaic is the art of creating images on a surface with an assemblage of small colorful pieces like stone, enamel, glass and wood. To protect the small pieces creating the decorative figures, mortar at the same level as the pieces facing up was used. Mortar was soft at the beginning of the application K1, but hardens afterwards. In this architectonic surface, another characteristics that differentiates K5, mosaic art from other art branches is that mosaics did not lose any of their color characteristics K6 even though thousands of years have passed (Üstüner, 2002: 7). Mosaic as decorative art of any architectural area is lining up colorful little stone pieces or prism- shaped pieces made out of terracotta on a cement bed. Mosaic stones are called tessurula or tesserae in Latin and mosaic floors are called pavimenta in Latin and musoi in Greek. Mosaic artist is called museiarius or musivarus. Pavimentarius is the one who uses marble to pave the mosaics (Üstüner, 2002: 7). The middle mosaic is called Emblema. Mosaics are generally divided into two types as floor and wall mosaics. Because the walls are easily damaged, the floor mosaics survived more than the wall mosaics. Participants explained mosaic types and characteristics as follows: K1, Mosaics have different types based on the qualities of the stone pieces and method applied. K4, According to the technical classification, mosaics are divided into two types as wall (MusivumPous) K3, and floor (Opus Tessellatum or Pavimentum). Many other types emerged under different names in K5, different regions due to techniques developed in time and changing tastes. K10 Opus Vermiculatum and Opus Signinum are two of them. In time the neatly cut small and colorful marble, stone, ceramic or cube-shaped tesseras made from glass paste took pebble stones place in Opus Tessellatum floors. The size and shape of the tesseras are more or less the same. During the early periods of this technique, the tesseras are used in geometric arrangements. Participants stated that they use Ödekan’s studies while explaining mosaic laying techniques. According to Ödekan, mosaic construction stages are as follows: K2, 1. First, the widest borders of the mosaic on the floor or wall are determined. Outer contour lines like K3, this are seen on the brick walls of the Hagios Georgios Church’s dome (Ödekan, 1997: 1300). K7, 2. After determining the outer contours, a layer of plaster on which the mosaic pieces (tessera) will be K8 applied on is prepared. 3. The wall surface is plastered with a mixture of tar to prevent the plaster layers fall down from because of moisture. 4. For the plaster layer of the mosaic not to fall, head nails are nailed between the bricks leaving the heads out (Mozaik-sanat.html.). 5. Pebbles and glass pieces are applied on the material generally made from cement. Plaster is applied between the glued pieces. Pieces in different kinds, shapes and sizes like ceramic, metal, wood and glass can be used together as mosaic pieces. The participants stated that materials used in Zeugma

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museum were mainly procured from the colorful pebble stones along the banks of the Euphrates. The colors that were not found along the Euphrates were procured from glass materials Participants gave the following answer to the question of “Where were the mosaics first made? According to Üstüner; The pioneers of mosaics were seen in the Sumerian and Egyptian art until the 4th Millennium BC in Mesopotamia. From the Greek classical age, mosaics were seen in Anatolia and Greece and finally at the beginning of 2nd century BC mosaics were began to be seen in every province in the East and the West. After the Roman Empire, mosaic art developed inside the Iranian K2, and Byzantium lands. These influences developed during the Byzantium art periods and transferred K3 to Renaissance. Christian Victor expressed that there is a similarity between ceramic art, wall mosaics and other art techniques in Mesopotamia and textile art of that time. It is believed that mosaic art took inspiration from textile art because of the motif similarities (Üstüner, 2002). Mosaic Construction: When the mosaic art which is the art of decorating walls and floors by lining different colored small stones, marbles or glass pieces on a surface, is examined in terms of technique, it was determined that there is a standard construction technique (Hasol, 2000: 404). The participants gave the following answers to the questions about where the mosaics are mostly used and how information about daily lives are learned from the mosaics: We know that mosaics are mostly used on city pavements, courtyards of houses and bottoms of pools. We learn about the city’s daily life mostly from the mosaics and one hundred thousand seals found in the city of Zeugma. Ancient city of Zeugma is situated on the key transit route of Silk Road going from

capital of The Roman Empire, Rome, to capital of China, Shanghai and it is located inside the Persian borders. Roman soldiers provided city’s and roads’ security. It is understood that this improved the K6, trade in the city and increased quality of life. Having the images of gods and goddesses of like Tyke, K5, Fortuna and Hermes reinforces this interpretation. Tyke governed the fortune and prosperity of a city. K1, Fortuna was the goddess of fortune. Hermes was the god of commerce. On the highest hill of the K2 ancient city of Belkis, on the other bank of the Euphrates, there is a Tykhe temple for the goddess Tykhe. This temple was also portrayed on the back face of the city coins. Because the majestic temple was seen by the caravans from tens of kilometers away, it is believed to make traders and passengers feel safe. On the other hand, deployment of the 4. Legion camp with its 5 thousand soldiers in Zeugma increased this feeling of being safe. It also strengthens the city economically and increased the postal communication. More than ten thousand seals had the image of Augustus on them. This shows that official documents were mostly military documents. Zeugma literally meant Gateway Bridge. From its name, it is understood that Zeugma was the customs gate from east to west at that period. Participants provided the following response to the question of “What are the characteristics that made mosaics different from each other? 1. A rug’s quality is determined by knots per square inch and the colors of the strands used. This is K2, true for the mosaics. There are floor mosaics similar to rug motifs. As the stones, teserras, used in the K5, mosaic get smaller, the beauty of the image increases. For example, in Zeugma the mosaic masters K7, used 400 thin pebble stones (teserra) to portray the feelings of a person’s face. While stones in 3-5 K8, different colors were used in other mosaics, this number is 12-13 in Zeugma mosaics. Artists using K1, variety of color shades added a different depth to the mosaics. It is remarkable that many of the artists K4, signed their works just like today’s painters. This indicates the existence of mosaic workshops and K10 schools in the region. Frequently portrayed in Zeugma mosaics, Oceanus and Tethys were rarely used in Greek mythology. 2. Because Zeugma was founded on the bank of the Euphrates and because it was close to the Mediterranean, they gave special importance to water gods and goddesses. It is known that Oceanus and Tethys were not portrayed in full body in mosaics found in European museums. Oceanus and Tethys figures were portrayed in full body or in the form of bust in Zeugma mosaics. This can be evaluated as the proof to the respect they had in this geography. 3. On the other hand, it is seen that Zeugma mosaic artists used “perspective” at least one thousand years earlier than the Renaissance artists. It is possible that Renaissance artists learned perspective, different color transitions and giving depth to the image from the mosaic artists that were brought from the East to the West.

81 4. Because Zeugma was founded on the bank of the Euphrates and because it was close to the Mediterranean, water god and goddess were frequently portrayed in the mosaics. One of the mosaics portrays Oceanus and Tethys in the water and the visit of Hera to Tethys and Oceanus, described as the father of gods in Homer’s Iliad. In Homer’s book, Odyssey, Odysseus comes to the shores of Oceanus to go to land of the dead. On the other hand, it is told that Herakles needs to pass Oceanus to reach the land of Hesperides and for this reason asks for a golden bowl from Helios. Also included in the mythological narratives of Ovidius’s Metamorphosis, Oceanus and Tethys comfort Hera who was cheated on by Zeus with Kallistro. This is depicted in Zeugma mosaics. 5. It is understood that mythological stories of ancient gods and goddesses were systematically depicted in Zeugma mosaics in a magnificent way. A similar situation exists in the early Christian churches in Cappadocia, Turkey. Bible stories were depicted in the frescoes of the churches’ walls and ceilings in Cappadocia. Every single page of Bible and subjects in the Bible were depicted on the ancient churches’ ceilings and walls. The new religion was taught the easy way to the Anatolian people who did not know Hebrew just like narrating with Barco-vision The participants summarized their views on the city of Gaziantep as follows: K1 Because Just like Zeugma, Gaziantep is founded on the historical Silk Road along the bank of the K2 Euphrates and is located on the intersection of Mediterranean lands and Mesopotamian lands where K3 the civilizations were born, it brought the past’s historical, cultural, artistic and hosting traditions to K4 today. It has an important place in trade and industry, especially in agriculture. Because of the recent K5 touristic activities in recent years, it began to be famous in gastronomy. K6 With Geographical Indication, baklava is registered with Gaziantep’s name. In the year 2015, K7 UNESCO announced Gaziantep as World Gastronomy center with its 300 different food. K8 Gaziantep is an important touristic city not only its Zeugma Museum but also with its castle, K9 archeology museum, open-air museums, historical bazaar and streets. Therefore, tour guides told that K10 they frequently take domestic and foreign tour groups to Gaziantep and Zeugma museum and to be able to guide them in these places they need a historical and cultural accumulation and they are very happy to use their skills while guiding the visitors. They stated that groups and agencies that come with themselves are also very satisfied from the museum and the city. Participants gave the following answers to the question of “Do you observe a change in the visitors after you narrate about Zeugma and Gaziantep city? What are these changes?” K1 Of course, there are a lot of changes. Because the Southeastern Anatolian Region is less developed, because there are not enough information and because the region is close to the Middle Eastern K2 countries, there is a question mark and prejudice inside the visitors’ minds. But they relax when they K3 learn about the city’s history and today’s life style, the bustle of the bazaars, the taste of their food. They want to taste Gaziantep food, buy dried eggplants, menengiç coffee and regular eggplants and K4 see the bazaar with pearl inlaid tables, coppersmiths and jewelers. We tell them that the local people K5 enjoy food, drinking, walking around and they drink tea and coffee at the famous Tahmis Coffeehouse. K6 When they hear about these, they want to drink coffee made traditionally over ash and cinder and chat and observe the local people. They want to drink the traditional natural mulberry syrup sold by the K7 street vendor just like the locals. We have difficulty in bringing them to the hotel from the streets. They K8 don’t want to leave the streets; they say they wish they could have stayed a little bit more. K9 K10 All the participants gave the following answer to the question of “What are your recommendations about tourist guides’ interpretation skills?” We know that tourist guide candidates studying at the departments of Tourism Guidance in Turkish K1 tourism faculties and other candidates take really good courses. To graduate, they have to participate K2 in a 45 days of Turkey tour and they need to get at least 75 from foreign language exam. We recommend them to give importance to their course starting from the first year, to read books on K3 history and culture in addition to their classes and enrich their knowledge.

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In addition to being rich in its geography, Turkey is a rich country in terms of historical and cultural K4 sources. If the guide candidates cannot understand these richness people have produced and K5 bequeathed to today and if they cannot find the relation between them, their interpretation skills will not improve. K6 For them to improve their interpretation skills, they need to (a) read a lot, (b) establish connections K7 between different histories and different faiths, (c) participate in trips to regions rich in faith and culture, (d) benefit from the experiences of guides who have worked in the cultural region they will go K8 to, (e) to guide different groups, particularly culture groups, in these cultural regions, (f) note the K9 interesting questions the visitors ask, (g) get help from experts in areas they lack to better themselves, (h) learn about the local people’s traditions, life styles, eating habits and how they approach K10 foreigners by staying with them for a while to get to know today’s local culture through observation and experiencing, (j) be keen on liking and preserving the local culture, (k) know the visitors’ culture really good and to establish connections between their culture and their destinations and to narrate these to the visitors. In short, interpretation skills develop in time by traveling, observing, experiencing, asking, learning and sharing with the visitors. Interpretation needs certain stages. Just like Rumi’s famous words “I was raw, I became cooked, I was burnt”, it needs effort and process transitioning from apprenticeship to professionalism. The process can be long or short. We recommend our students to work in the summers in travel agencies organizing package tours starting from the first year and get experience under the guidance of professional guides. We are aware that the financial resources of our students and educational institutions are limited. We are aware that many of our students have difficulty in participating in Turkey tours and some of them cannot even participate at all. This is a problem. We believe that the tourism sector and the Ministry should provide financial support to these guide candidates who will become promotional ambassadors of our country and who will become cultural mediators.

Professional Turkish guides’ interpretations about the subject coincide with Yu and others’ interpretations. According to Yu and others, sufficient funding must be allocated to tourism and tour guide associations and tourism training authorities to facilitate training and basic entry-level jobs should be provided as well as advanced guide training for tour guides. Also, there should be respect to guides’ cultural mediator roles for good guiding. Tourism industry should support professional development, on the job training and offer better remuneration and rewards for good practice for tour guides. 4. DISCUSSION and CONCLUSIONS The participants stated that they are very well informed about Zeugma Mosaic Museum and the artifacts inside the museum and they could lengthen and shorten their interpretations depending on the tour group’s interest. Also, they mentioned that special culture groups stay inside the museum longer and they can walk around longer without hurrying. They take pictures of the mosaics and listen to the interpretations of them more carefully. They told that these cultural tours are more satisfying for the tourists and for the guides because they can interpret the history and stories back ground of the mosaics in the museum more comprehensively and in a fun way. On the other hand, the agencies put lots of places to visit especially in the domestic package tours. They have difficulty in giving information and making interpretations in places like the zeugma Museum where special time must be allocated. They drew attention to the fact that travel time should be longer in this kind of special places. Despite the external factors limiting their performances, their agencies receive positive feedback from archeologist, art historians, mythologists, architects and other people who are familiar with the subject and who participate in their tours. This pleases them and the agency they work for. Participants interpreted the role of mosaics shown in zeugma in bringing history’s cultural accumulation to today. It can be said that tourist guides’ interpretation skills are effective in teaching the visitors the local culture, the creation of cultural places, how objects were used and what purposes they served, their reflections on today and connections between the past and today’s local culture. As in Zeugma Museum and Gaziantep example, when the tourist guides narrates the right information in the right place and in a way that the visitors understand, visitors get more interested in the city and the products produces in the city. Guide’s interpretation skill contributes to the visitor’s learning, experiencing and entertainment

83 trends. Their demands to drink mulberry syrup in the street and to drink coffee and chat at Tahmis Coffee House can be given as examples to this. When the tourist guide knows well the functions of the historical places they visit and the local culture if the tourist guides give this information accurately to the visitors. So visitors develop positive feelings towards local culture and they want to get to know the local people and local life. Tourist guide’s intercultural mediator role is effective in visitors’ attitudes. Tourist guide candidates studying at the departments of tourist guidance in Turkey’s tourism faculties are required to attend the 45-day General Turkey tour organized by the Association of Tourist Guides in Turkey (TUREB). However, many students who do not have the means have difficulty in attending these costly trips. For this reason, financial contributions of Ministry of Culture and Tourism and other stakeholders in the tourism sector will help overcome these problems. On the other hand, using third and fourth year students who know foreign languages and who can represent their country in domestic and foreign expos can be more effective in Turkey’s promotion. REFERENCES Abacı O., Alakuş O. A., Gökay, M., Macccario, N.K., Tuna S. (2005). İlköğretim Sanat Eğitimi Kuramları ve Yöntemleri, Görsel Sanatlar Eğitimi Derneği Yayınları 3.Varan Matbaacılık, ISBN 975-00345-1- 1.Altaylı. Ahipaşaoğlu, S., (2001). Seyahat İşletmelerinde Tur Planlaması ve Yönetimi. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.s.91. Altın, B. N., Oruç, S. (2007). Tarih ve Coğrafya Eğitiminde Müze Eğitimi ve Yaratıcı Drama, I. Ulusal İlköğretim Kongresi, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Ankara: 15-17 Kasım 2007. Ashley, S. (2005). State Authority and the Public Sphere: Ideas on the Changing Role of the Museum as a Canadian Social Institution, Museum and Society, 3 (1), pp. 5-17. Ap, J. and Kevin, K. and Wong, F. (2001). Case Study on Tour Guiding: Professionalism, Issues and Problems, Tourism Management, 22, 551. Atagök, T. (1982). Çağdaş Müzecilik Kavramı Doğrultusunda Türk Sanat Müzelerinin Kültürel Etkinliklerinin Saptanması, Yeterlilik Tezi, Mimar Sinan Üniv., İstanbul, s.67. AyantabDergisi; Zeugma’nın Kronolojik Tarihi, Sayı 4. Ballantyne, R.,Packer, J. and Falk, J. (2011). “Visitiors‟ Learning for Environmental Sustainability: Testing Short and Long Term Impacts of Wildlife Tourism Experinces Using Structural Equation Modelling”, Tourism Management, 32(4): 770-779. Buyurgan, S., Mercin, L. ve Özsoy V. (Ed)., (2005). Görsel Sanatlar Eğitiminde Müze Eğitimi ve Uygulamaları. Ankara: Görsel Sanatlar Eğitimi Derneği Yayınları. Chapstick, B. (1985). Museums and Tourism, The lnternational Journal of Museum Management and Curatorship (1985), 4. 365-3 72. Christian, V. (1940). Altertumsk un des Zweist Romlandes, Cilt 1,s. 137. Cohen, E. (1985). The Tourist Guide: The Origins, Structure and Dynamics of a Role, Annals of Tourism Research, 12(1): 5-29. Çetin, G., ve Kızılırmak, İ., Eraslan Şehnaz, (2012). Antik Dönem Sanatında Okeanos Figürleri, Atatürk Üniversitesi, Güzel Sanatlar Fakültesi, SanatDergisi, sayı 22, sayfa.157. Ergeç, R. (2000). Belkıs/Zeugma 1992-1999/2000; Çalışmaları, Kazı ve Araştırmalar. Arkeoloji ve Sanat Dergisi, No: 98. s. 20-29. İstanbul. Fennell, D. A. and Malloy, F. (1996). Measuring the Ethical Nature of Tourism Operators, Annals of TourismResearch, 26(4): 928-943. Genç, Ö. (1992). Rehberlik Eğitimine Eleştirel Bir Yaklaşım, Turizm Eğitimi Konferansı, Bildiriler Kitabı, Turizm Bakanlığı Turizm Eğitim Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara, 215-217. Grant, M., C. (2005). Enhancing Motivation Using The Constructs of Flow in Museum Education Activities. San Diego Üniversity, Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation. Gray, D. & Chadwick, A. (2001), Museums: Using Key Workers to Deliver Lifelong Learning. International Review of Education, 47, 5, 427–441. Grimal, P. (1997). Mitoloji Sözlüğü. Yunan ve Roma, İstanbul. Güzel, F.Ö. ve Köroğlu, Ö., (2013). “Turistlerin Milliyet Bazında Davranış Kalıplarının ve Karakteristik Özelliklerinin Belirlenmesi: Turist Rehberleri Üzerinde Bir Araştırma”, 14.Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, “Turizmde Yenilik”, Erciyes Üniversitesi, Bildiriler Kitabı 6-9 Aralık, ISBN : 978-605-5216-74-0, Kasım 2013, s.449-473, Kayseri.

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85 Etik İlkeleri, Madde 30, (1-e).26 Aralık 2014, Cuma. www.tureb.org.tr/ URL:http://www.unutulmussanatlar.com/2012/07/mozaik-sanat.html 16.10.2014. URL:http://www.zeugmaweb.com, (2016)/zeugma/onem.htm.8.5.2016. URL:http://www.myk.gov.tr.10 Kasım 2013. URL:http://www.wftga.org/tourist-guiding/what-tourist-guide.World Federation Tourist Guide Associations. Tourist Guiding, What is a Tourist Guide (24.5.2016). Üstüner Ali C. (2002). Mozaik Sanatı, Engin Yayıncılık, Sanat Kitapları Dizisi, ISBN 975-379-333-2, s. 9, İstanbul. Weiler, B.,and S. H. Ham. (2001). Tour Guides and Interpretation.In Encyclopedia of Ecotourism, edited by David B., Weaver. Wallingford, UK: CABI, pp. 549-63. Yarcan, Ş. (2007). Profesyonel Turist Rehberliğinde Mesleki Etik Üzerine Kavramsal Bir Değerlendirme, Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, Cilt 18, Sayı 1, Bahar: 33-44. Yağız, D. (2006). Tale of Zeugma and the Birecik Project, Art and Cultural Heritage, Law, Policy and Practice, edited by Barbara T. Hoffman, Cambridge University Press,New York, USA. Yıldırım, A., Şimşek, H. (2013). Sosyal Bilimlerde Araştırma Yöntemleri, Seçkin Yayıncılık, 9. Genişletilmiş Baskı, ISBN: 978-975-02-2603-8, Sertifika No:13268, ss:80-81, Ankara. Yu., Xin; Weiler B.,and Ham, S., (2004). “Cultural Mediation in Guided Tour Experiences: A Case Study of Australian Guides of Chinese Tour Group, Monash University, Business and Economics, Department of Management Working Paper Series, ISSBN: 1327-5216, p.7. Yu.,Xin; Weiler., B.,and Ham, S., (2001). Intercultural Communication: A Framework for Analysing Intercultural Competence of Chinese. Journal of Vocation Marketing 8 (1), pp., 7587. Zengin, B., Batman, O. ve Yıldırgan, R. (2004), “Seyahat Acentalarının Turist Rehberlerinden Beklentilerine Yönelik Bir Araştırma”, I. Balıkesir Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, Bildiriler Kitabı, 366-376. Research Participants N Name&Surname Age Occupation, Association of Tourist Guiding P1 SemraAltın 44 Professional Tourist Guide, İzmir-Fabruary, 2016 P 2 Tijen Oral 41 Professional Tourist Guide, İzmir, March- 2016 P 3 Hamide Çakır 30 Professional Tourist Guide, Nevşehir, March - 2016 P 4 Evren Özdemir 40 Professional Tourist Guide, İzmir, Fabruary, 2016 P 5 Atilla Nilgün 49 Professional Tourist Guide, Antalya, March 2016 P 6 Burhan Çınar 27 Professional Tourist Guide, İstanbul, March, 2016 P 7 Uysal Yenipınar 54 Professional Tourist Guide, İzmir, March, 2016 P 8 Güney Peker 31 Professional Tourist Guide, İstanbul March, 2016 P 9 Lale Yılmaz 32 Professional Tourist Guide, İstanbul April, 2016 P 10 İsa Akdağ 43 Professional Tourist Guide, Adana, April, 2016

86 Chapter 7

Job Insecurity from a Multi-faceted Perspective of the Tourism Sector

Aziz Gökhan ÖZKOÇ*, Nurgül ÇALIŞKAN**

INTRODUCTION Article 23 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights states that, “everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment and protection against unemployment’ which indicates that being able to work is a fundamental human right. Therefore, in order for the right to work which is accepted as a fundamental human right to gain value it is not sufficient to be employed in a suitable job, it must also be ensured that they are prevented from losing their jobs as long as they work according to the rules, in other words they must be ensured job security (Ağer, 2006). However, the liberalization of economic life on an international level as of the 1970’s and the globalization of competition the nature of work has changed. The establishment of flexible employment associations in response to this change with flexible enterprise applications leads to vulnerability on the part of employees against insecurities in terms of employment and induces a perception of job insecurity in employees. Especially taking into consideration features such as the relative seasonality of the tourism sector, the high staff turnover rate, flexible employment and extensiveness of labor force mobility it is safe to say that the tourism sector is one of the sectors where the perception of job insecurity is felt quite strongly. From this aspect the study will carry out a conceptual and structural analysis regarding job insecurity and assess job insecurity in the tourism sector from a multi-faceted perspective. 1. CONCEPTUAL ANALYSIS OF JOB INSECURITY Many definitions have been made regarding the concept of job insecurity is association with discussions pertaining insecurity. A study of the contents of these definitions reveals that reference is made to the concept of job insecurity either as job security as a legal concept or the social, organizational, economic and psychological dimensions of insecurity. Therefore, in order to understand the concept of job insecurity it is primarily necessary to manifest what ‘job insecurity’ is as well as the historical process of its development. 1.1. The Generation and Development of the Concept of Job (in)security in the Historical Process The concept of job security covers normative regulations which are aimed at eliminating the weaknesses in labor contracts to limit or prevent employers from unfair termination of the labor contracts of employees who are dependent on their subsistence through their labor and to protect them (Aktuğ, 2009). In short, job security which means the protection of the right to work has been manifested and developed in parallel with modern labor law. From this aspect the manifestation and development of labor law and therefore the concept of job security can be explained within the understanding of three eras which are based on different economic and social values. The first one is the understanding of a liberal state which emerge with the industrial revolution, the second eras is the social state understanding and the third era is the new liberal understanding which emerged together with globalization. The industrial revolution is a technological, economic, social and cultural transformation process which started in the United Kingdom during the second half of the 18th century and subsequently spread to Western European countries and America and continued to spread throughout the world until the mid 19th century. The most prominent features of this process were manifested in the working life and small scale manufacturing based on the master-apprentice association of the previous era was replaced with

* Assist. Prof. Dr., NHBV. University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management ** Res. Associate, NHBV. University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Guidance

mass production in factories equipped with large machinery and numerous laborers working together (Ağer, 2006:9). During this process new production associations were manifested as employee and employer classes were promulgated for the first time in history and it became necessary to regulate these associations (Ekin, 2002). However, the classical liberalisms which developed on the basis of the structure and philosophy of this era foresaw a free market economy far from state intervention and a social order based on individual freedoms and promulgated the “homo economicus” (economic man). Consequently, the "laissez-faire, let pass" defending the natural order of the principles of classical liberalism adopted a limited and responsible state approach and tasked the state with guaranteeing the freedom of working instead of tasking it with the regulation of working affairs among individuals in the working life. In line with this approach complete freedom has been given in terms of whether or not a labor contract is prepared as well as the termination of such a contract. This situation has led to various negative aspects in terms of the labor class such as long working hours, inadequate wages and working conditions which are in violation of occupational health and safety which has subsequently put the questioning of contract freedom on the agenda. The rules of the liberal system manifested during the Industrial Revolution rated human labor as “merchandise-goods” (Demir, 1991:31). Therefore this understanding generated a new labor class which had more individual freedom than medieval serfs who were overwhelmed with insecurity under new working conditions (Ekin, 1994:11). However, the major dimensions of the prevailing injustices and instabilities forced the state to intervene in the economic and social life and therefore the working life to manifest the concept of ‘social state’ and with the idea of the state regulating the market labor law in the contemporary sense started to be formulated. Particular during the process between the First and Second World Wars with the manifestation of mass unemployment in the Great Economic Depression of 1929 it became evident that the social security system was not adequate. Therefore it was foreseen that the concept of social state needed to be strengthened to enable the social state to eliminate the precarious environment on the agenda with a series of interventions. With the understanding of the social state which emerged during the second half of the 19th century and made its mark in the 20th century and recognized the need to protect laborers law makers were prompted to bring an order which limited the freedom of employers in the field of job security as well as other areas of labor law. In the first instance ‘life long work contracts’ which could mean slavery were prohibited and the opportunity to terminate fixed term contracts and indefinite contracts with a notice without looking for justification was enabled. The most important regulations in this regard on a constitutional level were the Constitutional Law of Mexico dated 1917, the Constitutional Law of the Soviet Union dated 1922 and the Constitutional Law of Cuba dated 1934 which stipulated that dismissal from work must be based on valid reasons (Alpagut, 2001:80). The concept of social state strengthened between the two wars and had its golden age after the Second World War. In addition to the regular inclusion of protective standards in terms of job security into national and international regulations laborers were given the opportunity to organize against employers and establish unions which ensured them the power to carry out collective bargaining. Therefore with the manifestation and development of the social state human labor ceased to be a commodity and was transformed into a concept which required that the sustainability of the lives of the laborer and his family are guaranteed. This positive process in both developed as well as developing countries came to an end with the recession in the USA during 1969-1970, the collapse of the international monetary system in 1971 and the sudden bottleneck in the world economy during 1974-1975 (Müftüoğlu, 2001). The crisis which started in the mid 1970’s mandated success in competition, enhancing potential to counter the shrinking market, adapting to changing conditions in demand and the use of advanced technology (Çetik & Akkaya, 1999). On one hand, this situation pushed enterprises in an economic crisis to focus on costs in order to sustain them in an increasingly competitive external market and on the other hand the trend to decrease the intervention of the state in the economy had accelerated. In other words the process of returning to liberal policies had started (Koray & Topçuoğlu, 1995). The reflection of this transformation into the labor law has been manifested as less rules, less legislation in return for the search for more flexibility and freedom. In a way labor law had been obliged to adapt to competition law (Uçkan, 1998).

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The liberalization of the economic life on an international level, globalization, the manifestation of competition in terms of the external market rather than the internal market pressurized enterprises to go for ‘flexible’ regulation in response to these changes. The understanding of a more flexible, open, horizontal, autonomous and continuously learning enterprise changed the qualifications demanded from the labor market as well (Aktuğ, 2009:55). In this context the concept of ‘flexible labor’ which differed from standard employment associations generated new forms of employment such part time work, temporary work, fixed term work, seasonal work and self employment. It can be asserted that the fact that these forms of employment contained a much higher level of instability, uncertainty and variability paved the way to the extension of job insecurity. Furthermore with globalization and the necessity to use advanced technology in the orientation to the service sector caused many employees to lose faith in the stability of current jobs and experience job insecurity. In conclusion by starting to move away from the understanding of a social state the concept of job security with its overriding legal aspect is replaced with the concept of job insecurity which has a psychological dimension. 1.2. Definition and Dimensions of Job Insecurity While contemporary businesses endeavor to compensate for unbalanced economic changes with downsizing, saving in material or dismissals on one hand during well earning periods they endeavor to re-structure in terms of organizational productivity or enhance flexibility by temporary employment to earn more (Reisel, 2003). Therefore laborers have found themselves in an increasingly precarious working life due to the fact that the flexible applications of the new liberal economy are becoming increasingly more prominent in work related organizations and the work force. In this context it can be asserted that job insecurity covers circumstances which generate a concern for losing employment based on the uncertainties which have been established as a result of all forms of legal or illegal organizational changes that may obstruct the sustainability of the current employment (Çakır, 2007:120). The confusion as to whether “job security refers to the process regarding current employment or whether it refers to a process of life time guarantee of employment” also complicates the definition of job insecurity (Keser, 2009:11). Therefore the definition is made in both legal as well as psychological aspects. From a legal perspective the concept of job security is used rather than job insecurity. In legal terms job security can be defined as the protection of the rights of employees to employment against unjust dismissals. From a psychological aspect job insecurity is the concern felt by employees regarding the future of their employment. The focal point of the definition of job insecurity concentrates on the way that the individual perceives events and explains the perception of threat regarding the current employment of the employee (Seçer, 2009). From this aspect job insecurity is assessed subjectively and in the scope of Work Related Psyco-Social Risks of the World Health Organization job insecurity is viewed as a risk threatening the career development of employees (Vatansever, 2014:138). The concept of job insecurity which was studied in detail initially by Greenhalgh and Rosenblatt (1984) define job insecurity as ‘the difficulty perceived in maintaining sustainability if the continuation of employment of a person is under threat’. On the other hand regardless of the fact that job insecurity is usually considered as the start to the loss of employment, unemployment is not an inevitable result of this process. Not all workers who perceive job insecurity lose their jobs. According to Jacobson and Hartley (1991) job insecurity reflects ‘the difference between the levels of security experienced by an individual and the levels of security they would prefer’. In this sense job insecurity indicates the faith of the individual in the continuity of employment. Therefore, it would be wrong to conclude that all perceptions of job insecurity will result in the loss of work. However, due to the fact that the perception of job insecurity plays a role in disrupting the psychological, biological and social life of an individual it has similarities to various negative consequences generated by unemployment. Some researchers who handle the concept from a holistic perspective have defined job insecurity as a general concern regarding the availability of work in the future. According to these researchers job insecurity is a one dimensional concept which reflects the perception regarding the continuation of employment. According to some other researchers, job insecurity is a multi-faceted concept including the strength of resistance of individuals regarding the perceived threats regarding various features of the work (De Witte, 1999). In this sense job insecurity is generally handled within the scope of two dimensions. The first one of these dimensions is the severity of the threat and the other one has been

89 determined as the weakness to resist the threat (Greenhalg & Rosenblatt, 1984:442): The first dimension of the severity of the threat is dependent on the possibility of the potential loss and its significance. At this point major distinguishing features among the employees are relevant. These are; 1) the transience or permanency of the potential loss, 2) will the action causing the loss result in a layoff or firing, 3) will the change incur in a loss of the job itself or the loss of certain properties. The second dimension comprised of the feeling of powerlessness escalates threat and therefore is viewed as a significant element of job insecurity. There are four factors which contribute to the feeling of powerlessness of employees. These are; lack of protection, uncertainty, the culture of the enterprise and the belief of the employee regarding the layoff procedures of the enterprise. 2. APPROACHES REGARDING JOB INSECURITY It is evident in literature that three different approaches have been adopted in explaining job insecurity. These approaches are classified as objective-subjective, cognitive-emotional and holistic (qualitative) dimensions. 2.1. Objective and Subjective Job Insecurity While objective job insecurity is associated with external threats regarding the employment of an individual subjective or in other words perceived job insecurity is associated with the evaluation of the threats by the individual (Ferrie et al., 2001:38). According to this perspective the basis of the perception regarding subjective job insecurity is the interpretation of factors associated with the work environment on an individual basis. Even if individuals are confronted with the same objective situation their perception regarding the risk of work loss differs (Sverke & Hellgren, 2002). Therefore both job insecurities are associated with each other however; the level and severity of subjective job insecurity can differ in an organization where employees have equal amounts of objective job insecurity. 2.2. Cognitive-Emotional Job Insecurity According to this perspective the cognitive job insecurity indicates the estimated possible job loss of an employee in the near future while emotional job insecurity indicates the concern and fear of the employee regarding the loss of work. Accordingly, cognitive job insecurity is one of the determinants of emotional job insecurity. However, emotional job insecurity is comprised of more than the threat perceived in terms of the current job situation (Anderson & Pontusson, 2007:214). The distinction between cognitive and emotional job insecurity has a significant role in understanding the concept of job insecurity. For example, employees may believe that a job loss will incur without feeling concern for a possible job loss. In contrast, job loss can be worrisome for an employee with financial responsibility who is not concerned about the possible results of a job loss (Slack, 2004). In this case, a cognitive impact develops first which is subsequently generated into job insecurity in an emotional sense. 2.3. Holistic (Quantitative) and Multidimensional (Qualitative) Job Insecurity Holistic (quantitative) job insecurity is defined as the threat of job loss or uncertainty about work. Multidimensional (qualitative) job insecurity is not limited to an uncertainty regarding the continuity of work on the part of the employee but also an uncertainty about certain characteristics of work such as promotion opportunities, income flow and sovereignty. Holistic (quantitative) job insecurity is a more severe threat compared to multidimensional (qualitative) job insecurity. As a natural result of this situation significant results such as financial losses, losses in social status and social losses related to employment are generated. In other words while multidimensional (qualitative) job insecurity manifest behavioral changes in terms of work, holistic (quantitative) job insecurity generates psychological stress and illness and therefore is accepted as a more significant stress factor (De Witte et al., 2010). 3. FACTORS CAUSING JOB INSECURITY Various factors directly or indirectly influence the different levels and severities of the manifestation of job insecurity and its perception by individuals. These factors can be studied under four main headings which are individual, organizational, economic and legal.

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3.1. Individual Factors A part of the individual factors generating job insecurity are related to the qualifications and employability of the individual while the other part involves the personal characteristics of the individual which influence the individual’s perception regarding the circumstances (Çakır, 2007). Particularly the state of affairs regarding employability which indicate the qualifications and competencies of an individual can be perceived as factors which decrease or increase the risk of job insecurity. Therefore it is safe to say that high qualifications and competencies will increase mobility in the labor market and thus the job insecurity perception of employees who are not concerned about unemployment will be less. Personality traits cause different levels and severity perceptions regarding job insecurity and is related to the strength of resistance against this feeling of threat. In this aspect personal traits such as self confidence, self esteem of the individual, internal/external locus of control, positive/negative affect can be listed as significant elements with an impact particularly on the perception of subjective job insecurity. For example it has been foreseen that employees with internal locus of control who believed that they had the strength to resist any threats from the ambient environment will perceive job insecurity on a lower level than employees with external locus of control. 3.2. Organizational Factors The higher the number of expected changes to incur in an organization by an employee the higher the perception level of job insecurity will be. Organizational change may cause the disruption of the psychological engagement between the employee and the organization as well as induce a feeling of lack of control and anxiety in the employees. Furthermore, change can cause various rumors within an organization. Employees who take incorrect rumors to predict the individual results of the change may generate an unrealistic perception of job insecurity. Under such circumstances the employee will feel even more distress about a potential job loss (Ashford, Lee & Bobko, 1989:806). Therefore developments such as downsizing, re-engineering, outsourcing, company mergers, technological changes and flexibility applications which cause organizational change can be listed as organizational elements which trigger job insecurity. 3.3. Economic Factors Another one of the factors that leads to concern about the continuity of the employee's employment is associated with economic conditions. Labor demand is generated by indirect demand and therefore there is a direct association between economic stability and job security. In this context, an increase in job insecurity is observed during periods when there is a decrease in the volume of economic activity on a global and national level (Felstead & Nick, 1999). In other words, the experiences of employees regarding flexible work, changes in wages and individual/mass layoffs associated with economic recession or crisis may enhance the perception of job insecurity. Indeed according to researchers (Anderson & Pottuson, 2007) the high level of unemployment manifesting during economic crisis periods has a negative impact on the expectations of an employee of finding other employment and consolidates the perception of job insecurity. For example according to a study carried out by Önder and Wasti (2002) in Turkey revealed that the job insecurity perception of employees before the crisis in November 2000 had been lower than in the post crisis period when downsizing policies were applied. 3.4. Legal Factors The legal factors which generate job insecurity, in general are related to the legal regulation dealing with work contracts, the characteristics of work contracts and the right to unionize. Work contracts prevent employers from arbitrary dismissal and have the objective of protecting employees. Therefore it can be said that employees with legal protection will experience less job insecurity than unprotected employees. On the other hand the features of the work contract also are among the factors which affect the employee’s job insecurity perception. Therefore it is asserted that the job insecurity perception of part time and full time employees and those on fixed term and indefinite contracts is different. Unions which have been established by employees to protect and develop common economic, social rights and benefits are structures which are believed by the majority of employees to deliver various benefits on condition that they are members. Unions endeavor to make collective contracts with employers to challenge the dismissal of employees and stipulate provisions which prevent illegal layoffs

91 by the employer (Bingöl, 2016). Therefore it can be asserted that the presence of unions and union membership are influential in decreasing the perception of job security by protecting employees against employers. 4. JOB INSECURITY FROM THE PERSPECTIVE OF THE TOURISM SECTOR Together with the increase of economic and social problems which are employment-based throughout the world job insecurity has become a serious threat for many sectors, including the tourism sector. A review of the results of studies which analyze job security within the framework of the tourism sector with its multidimensional aspects for the past ten years reveals that the level of risk perceptions in terms of the job insecurity of tourism employees is not low. (Karacaoğlu, 2015; İzgi & Olcay, 2008; Yıldırım & Yirik, 2014, Zeytinoğlu, Keser, Yılmaz, Inelmen, Özsoy & Uygur, 2012). It is also evident that the fluctuation in the demand for tourism for the last years has had a negative impact on employment in the sector. For example according to data collected by the research unit of Mediterranean touristic Hoteliers and Operators Union (AKTOB) the increase rate of employment in tourism in Turkey receded from 12% to 5,1% in the first half of 2015. With this deceleration the increase in employment in the accommodation sector which was 11,7% in 2014 receded to 3,1% in the same period in 2015 (haberturk.com, 2016). A review of the tourism employment data of the European Union for 2014 reveals that 27% of the employees working in accommodation enterprises had been employed in their current jobs less than one year. The tenure rate in accommodation enterprises was the lowest among other sectors in Europe (ec.europa.eu, 2016). 4.1. Job Insecurity due to the Structural Features of the Tourism Sector It is anticipated that due to their structural characteristics various factors may influence the generation of job insecurity in the tourism sector. The factors can be listed as the seasonal structure of the tourism sector, the employment of personnel on a transient and short term basis, the vulnerability of the sector in economic and social crises, the sensitive and variable structure of the demand and revenue of tourism. The seasonal characteristic in the tourism sector is processed as ‘temporal imbalances incurred in the realization of tourism activities” (Jang, 2004). The increase and decrease observed in demand for touristic enterprises based on temporal changes are directly proportional with the rise and fall in employment. The seasonal fluctuations in the work volume in the sector cause fluctuations in the work force they demand. The unemployment which is manifested due to decreased demand for labor is called seasonal unemployment. The tourism sector is one of the sectors where seasonal unemployment is most prevalent. Therefore the rate of employment increases or decreases according to the intensity of the demand for tourism (Ünlüönen & Şahin, 2011). Tourism enterprises employ ‘seasonal’ personnel to meet the demand especially in high season. At the end of the season this personnel are left jobless, have no job security, cannot make solid plans for a career, have economic problems and subsequently lose their enthusiasm for work (Günel, 2009). According to the results of a study carried out by Yıldırım ve Yirik (2014) in Antalya province which is one of the main tourism centers in Turkey the perception of job insecurity of the employees increase due to the seasonal nature of the activities of hotel enterprises. According to the results of another study carried out in hotel enterprises as an output of the seasonal structure of tourism employment 85% of the employees of 5-star hotels had the intention to quit work (Bas-Collins, 2007). As the demand for tourism is concentrated for certain months of the year it is inevitable that due to the characteristics of touristic enterprises transient staff is employed alongside regular staff. The seasonal characteristic of the overall sector validates the conditions of underemployment (Olalı & Timur, 1988). Studies conducted in various sectors reveal the negative perceptions regarding the job insecurity of transient employees and the negative results of job insecurity. Cuyper and Witte (2007) have determined that job and life satisfaction among transient laborers is low and this is due to the fact that employers do nothing to ensure job security. Kuroki (2012) indicated that the overall rate of transient workers in the total labor market in Japan had increased by two and a half fold during the years 2002–2005 and increased from 0.9% to 2.1%. Kuroki also determined that this increase in the number of transient workers had been accompanied in parallel with a significant increase in the perception of job insecurity. Similarly Lee, Bobko and Chan (2006) manifested that when China moved from a

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planned economy into a liberal market economy the number of transient workers had increased due to the autonomy given to investors and that less benefit was generated by these workers and that they had more concerns regarding job insecurity. Various proposals have been made to minimize the job insecurity established in the sector by seasonal changes in tourism activities. One of these proposals is to hire students or similar personnel with spare time as transient personnel employed during the peak season (İçöz, 2005). Another proposal is to focus on alternative tourism types such as health tourism, congress tourism, yachting tourism and prevent the fluctuations in demand incurring during certain periods of the year (Akgül, 2010). In addition to the individual initiatives and applications carried out in Europe on a country, region and sector basis to contend with the seasonality of the sector the European Union has initiated the Calypso Preparatory Action with an international perspective to decrease seasonality in tourism on a European level. Especially Spain has realized applications to support 3rd age tourism within the scope of social tourism to resolve the seasonality challenge of tourism (Küyük, 2012). Although tourism is a sector which undergoes seasonal fluctuations it is also a sector which is affected slowly by positive internal and external developments and very rapidly from negative internal and external developments (economic crisis, terror, social chaos, etc.) (Pearce, 1992). For example due to the terror attacks which took place in Ankara and Istanbul provinces in 2016 Turkey has fallen behind in global tourism. In comparison with 2015 the number of tourists visiting Turkey for the first two months of 2016 decreased by 8,5% and tourism revenue decreased at a rate of 15.7%. During the same term the number of tourists visiting Spain, a rival of Turkey in terms of tourism, increased with 12,5% and tourism revenue increased by 5.7% (turizmdatabank.com, 2016). According to data for January in 2016 the number of insured workers in the tourism sector decreased from 900 thousand to 700 thousand due to terror attacks (turizmdebusabah.com, 2016). Likewise, according to data from the World Tourism Organization, serious changes incurred in tourism revenue in the world in 2009 after the 2008 crisis which affected the whole world. In America which was the most affected country by the economic crisis tourism revenue receded by 14.4% compared with the previous year and by 13.6% in Spain and 12.4% in France. Crises on a global or national scale, terror incidents and other negative developments do not only affect the income-expenses statistics in the tourism sector, they also have an impact on the employment structure and labor market. In any crisis environment in parallel with the decrease in tourism demand and revenues, the first action to be taken by employers to decrease costs is to dismiss employees. Therefore the job security of the employees is lower compared to the employees of other sectors. Due to this characteristic of the tourism sector employees do not prefer the tourism sector in the long term (Yanardağ & Avcı, 2012). 4.2. Job Insecurity due to the Structure and Operation of Tourism Enterprises In addition to the structural characteristics of the tourism sector the various negative aspects generated by the current structure and operation of tourism enterprises may also enhance the job insecurity among employees. In general the factors due to the operation which causes job insecurity can be listed as failure to manage organizational restructuring correctly, employment of mainly unskilled labor in tourism enterprises, negative working conditions, failure to apply work contracts by the enterprises and lack of support for the unionizing and organization of employees. Within the past 10 years employees in many countries have been subjected to comprehensive changes such as organization re-structuring (corporate downsizing, closure of facility, re-organization of the workforce). As a result job security has practically disappeared in all sectors including tourism and job insecurity has been established. The decisions taken by the administrators of tourism enterprises regarding the re-structuring of the labor force do not support employees in terms of eliminating job insecurity and generate negative individual and organizational results (Probst & Lawler, 2006). One of the most important factors increasing job insecurity in the tourism sector is that tourism enterprises mainly employ unskilled labor. In Turkey, there is no mandate requiring the certification of those employed in the tourism sector which results in random employment in the sector. Likewise, it is evident that 25% of the employees working in accommodation enterprises in European Union member countries have low levels of education. The employment of unskilled labor is most prevalent in

93 accommodation enterprises in European Union member countries (ec.europa.eu, 2016). In 2011 the Ministry of Labor and Social Security in Turkey conducted an inspection of 106 hotel enterprises in the most popular tourism centers covering Antalya, Aydın and Muğla provinces. During the inspection it was determined that out of the accessed 26.884 tourism employees 48% had finished elementary school while 37% had graduated from secondary and high school. Although the necessity of employing qualified staff in the tourism sector throughout the country is widely spoken of most of the employees are elementary school graduates and uncertified (csgb.gov.tr, 2016). While the necessity for qualified labor in tourism enterprises is continuous the fact that the majority of the employees in the sector are individuals without an education in tourism enhances the possibility of failure (Akgül, 2010). Although the labor turnover rate is affected by factors such as the lack of a robust labor market on a sector basis, high unemployment rate in the sector, frequent application of seasonal work the turnover is on a high level especially in economies where unskilled labor is concentrated. In developed countries with extensively qualified labor the availability of a job security system to a certain degree is influential in reducing labor turnover in terms of the tourism sector. In contract in developing countries where unskilled labor is prevalent there is no job security system and unionized organization in the tourism sector is not efficient to induce a high level of labor turnover (Boz, 1999; Kılıç, 2000; Ünlüönen & Şahin, 2011). The perception of job insecurity of employees in the tourism sector can also be manifested due to the negativities generated by current working conditions in tourism enterprises. According to the results of the inspection conducted by the Ministry of Labor and Social Security in Turkey covering 106 hotel enterprises problems were encountered in 98 enterprises which violated working time rules (failure to comply with weekly working time, daily working was over 12 hours including breaks), unpaid employee receivables (98% of overtime fees-receivables in particular), weekly and annual leaves which have not been used (in 54 work places) (csgb.gov.tr, 2016). Such problems originating from the operation of tourism enterprises will cause the tourism sector to be an unreliable area of employment in the future in addition to the concerns and exhaustion generated in employees. Recent quantitative studies have achieved results which verify this prediction. İzgi and Olcay (2008) indicated that due to the working conditions hotel employees had concerns in terms of the future of their working lives and did not believe that they would be able to retire from their current work places. According to the results of another study conducted on students studying tourism education in Turkey revealed that the majority of the students were of the opinion that working hours in the tourism industry were long and irregular and that the work environment was stressful and exhausting (Duman, Tepeci & Unur, 2006). Another subject which needs to be addressed together with negative working conditions in the tourism sector within the scope of job insecurity is the lack of unionization and organization in tourism as well as the failure to implement the work contracts between employee and employer. Article 23 of the Universal Human Rights Declaration recognizes the right for everyone to establish a union and become a union member. Also, the declaration by the World Tourism Organization in 1999 ‘Global Code of Ethics for Tourism’ emphasizes that tourism employees must have rights such as training, social security, job security, improvement of living conditions. However, in addition to having a work force which lacks organization the work force in the tourism sector especially in underdeveloped and developing countries is blocked from unionizing. For example, regardless of the rapid increase in the numbers of accommodation enterprises in Turkey very few of the employees are members of a union. This is prevented with collective labor agreements which also prevent implementation (Erdinç, 2008). Therefore it is evident that in parallel with economic developments and social changes in future years there is a need for a new employment and operation structure in the tourism sector. This new structure will bring individual, organizational and sectoral improvement with the job security presented to employees. 5. CONSEQUENCES OF JOB INSECURITY IN THE TOURISM SECTOR Quantitative studies conducted in recent years regarding job insecurity in particular have emphasized the negative individual, organizational and socio-economic consequences arising from job insecurity.

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5.1. Consequences from the Perspective of Employees In our society work is a key element in social participation and in terms of recognition. The threat of becoming jobless means the prevention of this type of individual needs and being deprived of many more significant sources (social, financial and social). Job insecurity which transforms into an unattractive prediction in terms of the future of employees in time also has a negative impact on the psychological health of employees (Elst et al., 2014). Job insecurity is a significant burden on employees due to the long term ‘uncertainty’. ‘Uncertainty’ has a tendency to increase its detrimental impact based on two fundamental factors. The first one of these is that they are ‘unpredictable’ as well as ‘uncontrollable’. If job insecurity is ‘unpredictable’ this means that it is not clear what this concern will be in the future. The fact that it is ‘uncontrollable’ means that as a result of developing a feeling of powerlessness against the threat of job insecurity a loss of control will be inevitable. Both negative factors have a detrimental impact on the psychological health of employees (De Witte, 1999). Stress and stress related other psychological problems (anxiety, depression, stress and burnout, etc.) are the most common adverse outputs which develop in employees as a result of job insecurity perception. Based on the ‘psychological stress theory’ developed by Lazarus and Folkman (1984) many researchers address job insecurity in terms of a subjective assessment regarding the risk of an individual losing his job and its consequences. Thus without regard as to whether there is an objective threat or not, individual assessments regarding the threat of job insecurity will be accompanied by psychological stress already at the initial process (Hallier & Lyon, 1996). Researchers who address the impact of job insecurity on the mental and spiritual health of employees have determined that employees with a high perception of job insecurity are often plagued by stress derived conditions such as tension (Elst et al., 2014), anxiety (Lee & Chen, 2006), emotional exhaustion (Boswell, Buchanan, & Harris, 2014). At the end of the 1980s, a study which lasted two years was conducted by Ohio State and Michigan University on the consequences of chronic job insecurity prevalent among employees. The study revealed that job insecurity did not only have psychological symptoms but physical symptoms as well. According to the achieved findings it was manifested that job insecurity caused conditions such as shortness of breath, chest tightness and pain, racing or pounding heart, skin irritation, ringing in the ears, eye strain, frequent headaches (Heaney, Israel, & House, 1994). Especially in labor-intensive sectors such as tourism employees who are continuously in motion must also struggle to maintain their physical health. In time psychological and physical ailments may cause employees to display negative attitudes and behavior in the work place. Employees with a high perception of job insecurity may develop behavior with a tendency for absenteeism, intent on leaving, low self esteem. Furthermore, significant statistical findings have been reached about job insecurity triggering aggressive and deviant behavior in the work place (Boswell et al., 2014; Kinnunen, Feldt, & Mauno, 2003; Glambek, Matthiesen, Hetland, & Einarsen, 2014). Alongside the studies which have emphasizes the adverse consequences of job insecurity during the past decade, it has also been advocated that the perception of job security should be kept on a certain level in the work place. This outlook advocates that if job insecurity is eliminated the performance and productivity of employees will decrease, the employees will have less regard for their work and be indifferent about development (Calhoun, 2009). This outlook considers that the perception of job insecurity can be assessed as a motivation factor in enterprises. 5.2. Consequences from the Perspective of Enterprises In time the negative perception, attitude and behavior caused by job insecurity in employees in tourism also becomes a significant threat element from the perspective of enterprises. Job insecurity is one of the determinants of the strength of the bond between a tourism enterprise and an employee. Enterprise administrators and leaders display a greedy nature and endeavor to protect their short term profits at all costs. However, they do not display an effort to establish a comprehensive vision for the robustness of the enterprise in the long term. Shutting down units and dismissing employees by enterprise administrators in order to realize their short term profit targets is a threatening element to the robustness of the enterprise in the long term. For example, when Lehman Brothers was on the verge of bankruptcy the company CEO announced that he had received the enterprise by paying compensation worth 500 million dollars. Subsequently many employees were dismissed and work units were shut

95 down. Such problems are material losses which drag enterprises to bankruptcy as well as one of the outlets of distrust between administrators and employees (Lawton, Taye & Ivanov, 2014). In time the climate of mutual distrust established by the job insecurity within the enterprise will decrease the loyalty of employees as well as the organizational citizenship behavior of employees (Feather & Rauter, 2004). Measurements conducted regarding the work oriented welfare level of employees have lead to the conclusion that the perception of job insecurity has an adverse impact on job satisfaction (Artz & Kaya, 2014). At the same time job insecurity both directly and through job dissatisfaction causes a significant decrease in the organizational performances of employees (Selenko, Makikangas & Kinnunen, 2013). Every employee working in a tourism enterprise mostly has to work a heavy workload to protect the relevant enterprise from bankruptcy. A serious decrease in productivity and innovative work behavior has been observed in employees due to job insecurity. This situation causes an obstructive process in the struggle of the enterprise to stay afloat (Lawton et al., 2014). In fact according to Greenhalgh (1983) enterprises which fail to manage a job insecurity crisis correctly are likely to enter an organizational collapse process. 5.3. Social and Economic Consequences Job insecurity may require employees not only to struggle with the work environment but also with a life crisis in the social environment. Individual life crises have been broadly defined as highly demanding situations in which the person must adjust his behavior to a new set of circumstances. Changes in the social and economic setup conditions, the uncertainties and attitudes regarding the degree of impact on the employment security perceived by the individuals will cause an individual life crisis (Jacobson & Hartley, 1991). Considering that the most significant element in the establishment of social dynamics is the ‘individual’ it is safe to say that the stress, concern and uncertainties caused by job insecurity will decrease the welfare level of societies. According to the results of a study conducted by Knabe ve Rätzel (2011) with data they obtained from the German Socio-Economic Panel poor re- employment opportunities established for the unemployed and job insecurity in employees have an adverse impact on the life satisfaction of individuals. When this situation transforms into a chronic social problem it turns into a virus that penetrates the whole society to cause an unhealthy social structure. Another issue that concerns the social consequences of job insecurity is that it is not only the individuals who are affected but their families and especially children as well. Accordingly the job insecurity of families and the associated adverse experiences have a negative impact during the socialization process when the work values of children and their attitudes are being formed (Çakır, 2007). Studies dealing with the social impact of unemployment manifest that job insecurity has negative social consequences which need to be addressed. In a study conducted on personal and family relationships it has been determined that job insecurity caused distress and tension in families and had an adverse impact on affairs between spouses and even caused divorce (Gaunt & Benjamin, 2007). This situation is a threat to the ‘family’ institution which is one of the social organizations ensuring a contribution to the shaping of societies. Anxiety about job insecurity is addressed within the framework of organizational psychology and behavior discipline with an overriding social aspect. Usually economic factors are addressed as the reason for job insecurity. However, the low productivity and performance observed in employees as a result of job insecurity will leave tourism enterprises face to face with serious economic crises in the medium and long term (Lawton et al., 2014), This situation is a significant problem caused by job insecurity from an economic perspective. Furthermore, the cost of the organizational and public applications carried out to eliminate the perception of job insecurity established in employees is an issue which is also discussed in terms of the economic consequences of job insecurity. The applications conducted with a view on decreasing job insecurity in society may transform into serious financial problems and therefore the necessity to handle the total costs caused by job insecurity within a realistic financial policy framework is emphasized (Gianetti, 2014). 6. CONTENDING WITH JOB INSECURITY IN THE TOURISM SECTOR Job insecurity is the result of worldwide economic changes and all modern societies are afflicted.

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Perhaps in the near future the structures of these changes and their significance will progressively increase. These developments emphasize the necessity of various interventions to decrease the complicated structure of job insecurity as well as its impact. Due to its problematic nature as a result of being unpredictable and uncontrollable, experts working in various areas (psychologists, economists, management scientists, public administration experts, etc.) have generated proposals and developed interventions to minimize the negative impact of job insecurity. 6.1. Individual and Organizational Struggle on the Micro Level The negative impact of job insecurity on the employees in the tourism sector can primarily be decreased with the resistance displayed by employees at certain points. Psychologists and researchers who are experts on the subject have developed various proposals with this perspective. ‘Job control’ is the most common one among these proposals. Job control is defined as the degree of potential control and execution that employees have regarding all their tasks throughout the working day. Job control is recommended as one of the ways that employees can overcome work stress. Employees who are in control of their work have decreased work stress and reduced job insecurity (Schreurs, Emmerik, Notelaers & De Witte, 2010). In addition to job control employees need to have a faith in ‘self-efficacy’ and ‘the ability to overcome’ is also an important impact source for contending with job insecurity. Self-efficacy is the faith and judgment of the individual in terms of his degree of success in overcoming possible circumferential incidents (Bandura, 1994). Self-efficacy is viewed as a strong moderator between stress sources and tension in the work environment (Schreurs et al., 2010). The ability to overcome is a resolution oriented strategy developed to minimize a stressful situation incurring in the work environment for various reasons (emotional or other problems). There are strong empiric findings indicating that employees and administrators implementing these strategies successfully will have low job stress and job insecurity (Van Zyl, Eeden & Rohtmann, 2013). A strong and positive personality is necessary to contend with a precarious work environment and the accompanying stress sources especially in a sector like the tourism sector which is based on human oriented productivity. A positive personality is able to balance the mental and spiritual health employees better than a person with negative tendencies. This emphasizes that employees in the tourism sector must act with a positive personality in order to contend with the perception of job insecurity (Roskies, Louis-Guerin & Fournier, 1993). Furthermore environmental pressure and organization-al change implementations which have been incurred as a result of necessity at the same time present an opportunity of self-fulfillment for employees regardless of how much their perception of job insecurity is increased. Therefore job insecurity can be transformed into a strong motivation tool in time with its inherent uncertainly and stress. For example, a new front desk automation program developed for tourism enterprises will generate a new style and process of executing the work. Therefore in order for the front desk employees working in the sector to adapt to the technological change and preserve their current jobs they must start a self-fulfillment process with various tools such as training. This situation underlines the fact that employees contending with job insecurity also display an effort in self- fulfillment and adaptation with the new business world (Vermeylen, 2005). At the same time the robust operation of the process will be ensured with the support of various administrative decisions and applications in contending with job insecurity. Various proposals are purported in administration literature as a response to the question, “how can the administrators of tourism enterprises contribute to minimizing the negative impact of the perception of job insecurity?”. Some of these proposals are ensuring accurate information to employees, increasing communication with employees, delivering new training for alternative employment opportunities and teaching employees how to deal with stress caused by job insecurity (Sverke & Hellgren, 2002). The most significant stimulant which could cause the perception of job insecurity to increase among employees in the future is lack of communication. Open, courteous and clear communication may increase the unpredictable and uncontrollable aspect of concern for the future and furthermore, this kind of communication will make the employees perceive themselves as respectable individuals (De Witte, 2005).

97 The importance of job control in employees contending with the perception of job insecurity was emphasized previously. Administrators can apply various procedures to increase the control of employees regarding the work. For example, the participation of employees in decision making, applications such as work autonomy, job enrichment can be used within the scope of administrative support to increase the control of their work by employees. However, it is important for the robust functioning of the struggle against job insecurity that both communications as well as participatory management techniques are implemented within a fair framework (De Witte, 2005). Greenhalgh (1983) who was one of the first researchers to handle the subject of job insecurity in management literature underlines that enterprise administrators have various responsibilities to minimize the negative results generated by job insecurity. These include responsibilities such as the strategic planning of human resources, displaying necessary efforts to minimize disputes between employees-employer, showing an interest in the ‘powerlessness’ of employees caused by job insecurity, informing employees about any aspect of their work as soon as possible and helping those who have lost their jobs. Such applications presented by administrators to support the mitigation of stress and tension induced by job insecurity have also been observed to increase positive employee behavior. 6.2. Social Struggle at Macro Level Although every employee is a member of the enterprise where they work at the same time they have social identities as individuals in the society they live in. Therefore job insecurity and the negative aspects that accompany it are a source of problems on an individual and organizational micro level as well as a social problem on a macro level. This reality manifests the necessity of establishing a social support mechanism at the same time to contend with job insecurity. Each positive step to be taken within a social structure for the resolution of employment related problems such as job insecurity must be backed by a strong national culture. Hofstede who is known for the national culture typology he developed asserted that during the 1980’s collectivist cultures emphasized job security and good working conditions more than individualist cultures. Many studies conducted in subsequent years resulted in views which confirmed this outlook (Probst & Lawler, 2006). Therefore, contending with job insecurity in collectivist cultures where the understanding of ‘we’ rather than ‘I’ dominate and groups which prioritize the socialist perspective instead of a personal one are prominent generates much more positive results. The term social support has been used to refer to the functions performed for the individual by significant others, such as family members, friends, and colleagues. These significant others can provide different types of support, such as emotional (i.e., care, love, and trust), appraisal (i.e., transmission of information relevant to self-evaluation), informational (i.e., helping individuals to help themselves), and instrumental support (i.e., various sorts of practical help). Social support has often been cited as an important buffer against various workplace stressors including job insecurity (Schreurs, Van Emmerik, Günter & Germeys, 2012). The state mechanism which has a critical role in building social welfare and peace must also take an active role in contending with job insecurity. In many countries such as Germany, China, Japan various applications are implemented under the title ‘Employment Protection Regulations’. Although the enforcement power of government sourced measures in the resolution of current employment problems in a country is high so is its power to minimize economic and financial stress sources (Gianetti, Madia & Moretti, 2014). Institutionalized organization also has a significant role in contending against elements such as job insecurity which threatens public health and in defending the rights of individuals and the protection of their interests. In this context it is necessary to support and activate unionization and corporate structures such as non-governmental organizations to resolve the social problems caused by the private sector. Inadequate social organization which is viewed as one of the primary problems of the tourism sector is also blocking the struggle of contending with job insecurity in a sectoral sense. Therefore, addressing tourism employees within a social state framework as well as a protective social union in terms of their work and social rights will be an appropriate approach.

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CONCLUSION Strategy and the new competition oriented world economy have manifested a multi-functional labor force profile called ‘intellectual capital’. The functional changes which have taken place in expectations regarding the labor force emphasizes that employees who can discover their talents and use them in the right place, who are able to think in a human and service oriented manner and can play an influential role in the decision making within the organization can get a toe hold in the sector. Therefore, employees who have been transformed into a key component of development from a micro aspect and economy from a macro aspect must prepare themselves for new working conditions not only physically but also in terms of mental and psychological resilience. During this process one of the main threats that are waiting for them is ‘job insecurity’. A strong psychological infrastructure is necessary in order to survive in a sector with a variable and sensitive employment structure like the tourism sector. In the tourism sector like in every sector administrators make various strategically decisions and implement them to achieve optimal productivity from the work force. When administrators take decisions involving employment they are guided by many variables such as the structure of the tourism sector, the quality of the work force, future targets, capital to be transferred into human resources. Job insecurity is an individual perception and attitude which is generated by the reflection of the administrative decisions regarding employment into the work environment. This concept which threatens the mental and spiritual health of employees does not only feed from organizational factors but from economic, legal and individual factors as well. Tourism which delivers service oriented activities and is a labor intensive sector is one of the sectors in which individual, organizational and social problems based on job insecurity are most commonly encountered. This situation can be caused by the temporary employment due to the seasonal characteristic of the sector or because it is a sector which is susceptible in terms of chaotic setups just as much as from adverse working conditions or managerial applications. Regardless of the source in time the perception of job insecurity causes numerous psychological ailments such as stress, anxiety, burnout in addition to mental and physical ailments. Employees with a high perception of risk regarding the future of their current jobs will likely lack motivation which is accompanied with low productivity and performance. It is emphasized that if job insecurity is transformed into a chronic and sectoral problem it will cause social and economic losses in addition to individual losses or losses for the enterprise. The comprehensive area of destruction with its multi-dimensional results underlines the necessity to manage job insecurity properly from a macro and micro aspect. Sector employees, administrators, social and public administrations have various responsibilities in contending with job insecurity. As a priority, employees should develop their current knowledge and skills and be transformed into individuals who are in control of their jobs. Administrators must take decisions which support employees with a perception of job insecurity both within and outside the enterprise and implement them. Every member of society should develop a life style which advocates the rights of the individual and those around him, who listen to problems and generate solutions with a collectivist culture rather than an individualistic one. Within an understanding of a social state, state administrations should generate solutions to eliminate this negative perception with legal regulations which protect the rights of employees. In conclusion, in the present day when social rights are advocated more efficiently due to civil society structuring, union structures and civil society structuring for tourism employees should be supported and enhanced. By virtue of all these elements the tourism sector can be transformed into a sector which presents a reliable work environment for society. REFERENCES Ağer, İ. (2006). Türk Çalışma Yaşamında İş Güvencesi. Ankara: Adalet Yayınları. Akgül, V. (2010). Türkiye’de Turizmin Mevsimsellikten Çıkarılarak On İki Aya Yayılmasına Yönelik Değerlendirme: Öne Çıkan Alternatif Turizm Türleri, T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Tanıtma Genel Müdürlüğü, Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara. Aktuğ, S.S. (2009). İş Güvencesinin Sosyal, Ekonomik ve hukuki Temelleri ve Türkiye Değerlendirmesi. Doktora Tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir.

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102 Chapter 8

Leadership in Service Enterprises

Ahmet BAYTOK, Hasan Hüseyin SOYBALI

INTRODUCTION With the rise of management concept, the difficulty of managing large organizations that began to emerge at the beginning of the twentieth century and provision of more effective management of people and resources have brought the concept of leadership to the forefront. Under rapidly changing conditions which are posed by increasing competition, especially with globalization, it is only possible to become successful by actualizing appropriate changes within the enterprise, external environment and especially with meeting the expectations of the customers. These mentioned facts have played an important role in the increasing interest in leadership. Unlike administrators’ roles to manage systems that are founded with the legal authority and based on specific positions, the need for a constant change requires leaders who are capable of ensuring accordance between the human resource and the job done (Joiner,1987: 1; Brake, 1997: 2) and can transform systems and direct people to purposes more effectively. Instead of "administrators" using the legal authority based on this position, the "Leader" concept has achieved prominence (Koçel, 1998: 396) and leadership has become one of the fundamental concepts of modern management approaches. Leadership is a concept required in all circumstances and time of periods. It can be said that an orchestra without its conductor is no different than a stack of musicians and the instruments, and can be concluded that organizations without leadership are not a thing different from piles of human and the machine (Newstrom and Davis, 1993: 222). As in all areas and the sectors, leadership is important and necessary in the service sector businesses in terms of maintaining their competitive nature. The labor-intensive structure of the sector, in particular, and internal control caused by simultaneous production and consumption characteristics make it necessary for the managers of the enterprises operating in the sector to carry leadership qualities. Because leadership in a sense means being a follower and the employees and managers’ perceptions in service business related to leadership qualities are directly reflected to their jobs and attitudes and behavior towards their customers. In order to sustain the rapid changes that have been experienced in the industry in recent years and the competitive features of complex structure, it requires managers with leadership qualities who are able to determine vision, mission, structure and values adequately in administrative aspects. Thus, this development exhibits the necessity of leadership in the service sector. For this purpose, this section will first provide basic conceptual information concerning leadership and then will define service leadership with the information obtained. CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP Political, military, religious, business or at which level a group may be formed, someone in the group has to assume the leadership role due to the hierarchical nature of the human being because of ensuring the intra-group order and guiding the group towards its purpose and targets. Anthropology studies have shown that there is always a leader who acts first and plays a central role in the group decisions even in primitive societies where there is not a corporate executive, a legislator or a Chosen One (Lewis, 1974). Therefore, researchers note that the research of the history of civilization is nothing more than investigating what leaders have done and why (Yukl, 1994: 1; Bass,1990: 3). Leadership is a primal issue told in the myths and legends of the prehistoric periods such as in "Epic of Gilgamesh", "Egyptian Hieroglyphics”, Plato's "State", Homer's "Iliad", Machiavelli's " The Prince" (Bass, 1990: 3- 4) and in the life story of important historical figures such as Ataturk, Attila, Alexander the Great, etc.

 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management  Assoc. Prof. Dr., Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management

Leadership is one of the mostly studied concepts among the behavioral science topics. More than 5,000 empirical research on leadership at academic level were carried out (Yukl, 1994) and leadership was defined in 350 different ways (Bennis and Nanus, 1985: 4). Looking at the research done in the last fifty years, it can be seen that some questions such as "Is leadership a quality or is being a leader innate or is it an acquired personality trait? Is leadership an interpersonal process between the leader and the followers? Does leadership mean that the leader shows consistency to the whole group or team? Is leadership a process covering all the system or a collectivist management and supervision of the process?" have not been asnwered yet (Yammarino et al., 2001:149). That the leadership is a complex and a comprehensive concept (Cribbin, 1972: 9) which can ascribe different meanings and is defined by researchers by their personal perspectives (Yukl, 1989: 252) according to interest of them makes it difficult to conceptualize leadership. The first reason among all is that leadership concept has been employed to suggest different concepts. There are some concepts that are often used instead of leadership particularly power, government, authority, and control (Yukl, 1994: 2). While leadership has common points with these concepts, the difference is how these common points are exploited by the leaders. Table 1. Myths Related With Leadership Concept, Traditional Perspectives and Realities Traditional Myths Realities Perspectives Leader challenges the process and runs Leader is stable and tidy. after changes. Leader connects with the Through voluntary participation and followers through his encouragement, leader connects with the extraordinary movements and followers. affects them. Leader has a short-term Leader often has a long-term perspective. perspective. Leader is a calm and Leader takes the truth as they are but also . analytical thinker and acts uses the feelings of people. devoid of his emotions The dynamism of the leader does not Leader is charismatic. Leader has result from his different personal distinguishable characteristics characteristics. On the contrary, the from other people. dynamism of the leader comes from his faith and passion to succeed. The first job of the leader is Leader does not control people. The leader the control (people, money, allows people to act. materials and time). It is a place and position. It is a process. Only senior managers can be Being at highest positions makes you an leaders. administrator, not a leader. It is the effect. It is the interaction. Source: adapted from Kouzes and Posner, 1987: xvi-xvii. Another major cause of the problems in understanding the concept of leadership is the basis of leadership. Because leadership is as a myth perceived mostly with regard to senior management based on a position. However, leadership is not only the activities resulting from the legal position. Just like it may come out of legal position of the activity, it may also be a person's action at any position. Being unable to make a distinction between management and leadership disregards the fact that leadership does not depend on legislative power, authority and position, and necessitates different functions and

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features. Another important point to remember in this regard is that an employee who is assigned or promoted to a post in any organization becomes an administrator, not a leader. The myths about the concept has made major contributions to the understanding of the conceptual structure of leadership. The myths about leadership has some pre-acceptances. This situation created the basic research topics in the conceptualization of the leadership since the study of leadership started at academic level, and thus different perspectives and approaches have been developed about leadership. The most obvious features of the myths about leadership are that they are leader oriented. As shown in Table 1, the most important myth about leadership is "being charismatic" and depending on that “leaders are born, not made”. Apart from this, there are other valuable myths saying that the leadership is considered as a "position" and it is believed that “only senior managers can be the leaders” and is seen as a unilateral "action". Between the time periods that passed within the beginning of the 1930s on which leadership began to be studied at an academic level and up to the present time, the studies done on the subject by researchers in different fields, which are general truths accepted by many researchers today, revealed some conclusions. They are; leadership is a process consisting of a leader, followers and conditions. Achieving a particular goal or objective via the interaction between leader and followers constitute complementaries of the process (Koçel, 1998: 397; Başaran, 1998: 47). Leadership = f (Leader, Followers, Status and Conditions) Leadership is a process, not an event that is only dependent on the leader and the characteristics of his personality. In other words it is not a solo act. The leadership studies that aim to reveal what traits make leaders different from other people are the most important indicators that there is no one universal quality about leadership. Therefore, today's leadership is regarded as a process in which the follower is also as effective as leaders, not a leader oriented thing that is caused by leader’s influence. The process takes place between the leader and the followers in a given situation and there is not a one-way influence in this process arising from the leader to the followers but rather there is an interaction between the leader and the followers. In other words, as the leader influences the followers, the followers also affect the leader. Leadership is not a single event but it is a group of activities (Blake and McCanse, 1991: 4; Tichy and Cohen, 1997: 25; O’Toole, 1999: 8). Burns (1978) stated that the biggest mistake made in leadership studies was handling the leadership literature and the followers literature as two seperate issues and claimed that these two concepts should be considered jointly. Pree (1990) and Northouse (1997) indicated that there would not be a need for leadership without the followers and the leadership would only exist by the relationship between the leader and the followers. They emphasized that in the process the followers held as much importance of as the leaders. The basic factor that makes the followers important in the leadership process is that a person is regarded as a leader and is then elected, and the objectives driven by the leader are carried out by the followers. The leader is the person who played a leading role in this process. This role is rooted in the followers’ belief that it will contribute to the achievement of their objectives, accepting to follow this person since that person was the first to act (Burns, 1978: 20). The Status and Conditions are other important determinants of the leadership process. The effect of conditions or status about the process was firstly demonstrated by Stogdill (1948). Stogdill emphasized in the study that many of the quality, features and capabilities that a leader should possess are determined by the status within which a leader operates and added the importance of the status into the leadership process. Later on the studies carried out in the contingency approach, the impact of the status and conditions on the process was set forth more clearly. Today, the conditions are seen as the determinants of many leadership styles and behavior characteristics. Many studies have sought to answer the question that “What characteristics should a leader possess as personality?” from the time leadership began to be investigated at the academic level. Although researchers have been unable to reveal even a single feature directly linked with which personality traits should the leader own in the characteristic approach studies and in more recent studies performed in the following periods, they have managed to obtain some determinations. In this context, considering the information provided by leadership approaches and today's conditions, as personality traits a leader

105 should have intelligence, credibility, reliability, accuracy, cognitive ability, empathy, listening and influence, which will provide the leader with benefits in playing the leadership role. One of the significant subjects about the study of leadership is the question question that which funtion the leadership fullfills at the organizational level. The organizational function of the leader has been tried to be expressed with different approaches (behavioral, situational) but the approaches that were put forward to have attempted to provide some information. In addition, they were considered to be missing a point and have been criticized. It is to say, leadership is a quite wide subject as a content and is evaluated with its only one aspect by everyone to uncloak these results. The information provided by the approaches related to leadership and the fact that today's complex and ever-changing environment pose is that today's organizations need leaders. Bisesi (1983: 62) states that “Nobody knows it better than the one doing this job. However, no one in the whole of that business system may know the importance of harmony better than the leader himself”. Today's changing environment requires more leadership along with new kinds of leadership (Conger, 1993: 203). In other words, it is a must for today's business leaders to fulfill job and task linked duties and responsibilities without losing strategic focus and control; to think more flexible, innovative, creative and changable and to become challenging people. A leader who wants to be successful at the organizational level instead of employing the traditional structure and control should focus on motivating their efforts, being a source of inspiration, using the strategic vision, performing employee empowerment at all levels, collecting and sharing information within the organization, collecting and integrating external information, challenging the status quo and enabling creativity (Dess and Picken, 2000: 18–19). To ensure that, present and future organization leaders should center their organizational functions on vision creation, strategy formulation, change creation and employee empowerment. LEADERSHIP IN SERVICE ENTERPRISES Leadership is a subject matter that has been studied in the fields of military, politics and social sciences and in all industries at enterprise level. Service enterprises are also included in this scope. In leadership studies conducted in the service enterprizes; the characteristics of services were taken into account and the leadership approaches developed in the past and current ones were used, and it was investigated to determine the dimensions of leadership and what the most suitable approaches were (Normann, 1984; Walker, 1986; Worsfold, 1989; House, 1992; Hinkin and Tracey, 1994; Sparrow, 1995; Testa, 2001; Kasper, 2002; Chathoth and Olsen, 2002). Since human factor plays a key role in service production, "Should the service enterprise employees be managed in the same way as military or industrial company employees?" question emerged (Wilderom, 1991: 6) and this initiated the research and the use of "service leadership" term as a new leadership approach by some researchers in the 1990s (Zeithaml et al., 1990; Wilderom, 1991; Edvinsson, 1992; Siehl, 1992; Keller and Wilderom, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Chowdhary and Saraswati, 2003). Service leadership, as a different leadership approach, has attracted the attention on the basis of two basic reasons. The first reason why there has been an interest in service leadership is that services have become a vital element for any enterprises in maintaining their competitive structure. In today’s world, products do not express any meaning by themselves; in contrast, they even produce problems that need to be solved. The solution to these problems lies behind the services. Because services play a vital role in maintaining customer satisfaction and only customer satisfaction can provide customer loyalty. This situation makes it imperative to all enterprises to understand the service dimension of whatever they produce. (Keller and Wilderom, 1992: 55-56). In addition, today has constituted an environment for the enterprises in which they can either exhibit not adequate business performance or achieve only limited success, whereby enterprises advocate competition within the axis of product and quality and internalize managerial approaches that advice the process approach and systematic thinking to be successful. It is difficult for today's modern enterprises to sustain their absolute technology-based competitive advantages for a long time as the technology can be easily imitated by competitors (Chowdhary and Saraswati, 2003: 106). This situation raises the question for enterprises that how they can differentiate themselves from the competitors and it requires the diversion of attention and resources to other areas

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that create value. The answer for this question and the area in which differentiaton will be created is "the service" itself. No matter what industry an enterprise operates in, under the present circumstances, it can only gain advantages with its "service" by creating differences, increasing productivity, creating customer loyalty, being an advertising tool and getting rid of the price competition (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 2). The second reason why service leadership has drawn a lot of interest is that the differences linked to the sectoral characteristics of the service sector increase the necessity for the service enterprise managers and employees to have leadership qualities. Depending on the rapid changes taking place in the services sector, organizational structures are getting more complex each passing day, which increases the requirement of managers that can determine the vision, mission, structure and values with good leadership qualities in administrative aspects in order for the businesses to maintain their competitive qualities. Besides, the labor-intensive structure, the internal control caused by simultaneous production and consumption, which are some of the distinctive characteristics of the service sector, make it mandatary for the business managers operating in the sector to hold leadership qualities. Because leadership in a sense means being a follower and the employees and managers’ perceptions in service business related to leadership qualities are directly reflected to their jobs and attitudes and behavior towards their customers. The mentioned situation reveals the result that there is a need to treat service leadership as a separate approach to leadership and it is advised that it be studied separately. A) Service Leadership Concept Although leadership has the same significance in all industries, it necessitates that leadership in service enterprises should be explored as a different leadership approach since it holds some distinctive features such as;  the importance of the service has increased recently,  it is abstract and different,  it is dependent on a particular location and time,  human factor plays a major role in the production,  the customers’ active participation in the production is required (Wilderom, 1991: 7). It is because “There is a direct relationship between good service and the leadership” (Burwash, 1997: 13). Leadership, in a sense, means being a follower. As being a follower, employees in service business need a role model who may manage to show the employees a vision to believe, a success culture to be the best, a team spirit to improve, encourage and guide them (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 5). The determinant of all these organizational parts of the system and the role model to be taken by followers signal being the service leader. Zeithaml and Bitner (1996) stated that a service leader plays a vital role in the excellent service delivery in service enterprises to customers and added that the leadership model (Figure 1) created by Locke et al., (1991) was a suitable model for service leadership. The model refers to the service leader’s specifications required in personality (motive, quality, knowledge, skill, ability) and administrative (the vision and the implementation of the vision) aspect. The researchers who have taken the fact into account that the importance of the service sectors are increasing each passing day and the structure of the business sector is getting more complex depending on the continuous changes have tried to express service leadership in the context of the vision and implementation of the vision. While the model provides basic information about service leadership, it fails to supply detailed information about its managerial functions. Hence, the following points should be taken into account in order to reveal the conceptual structure of the service leadership in addition to Zeithaml and Bitner's (1996) statements:  Service leadership requires having some certain personality traits,  Service leadership can take place at all levels,  Changing people's ideas and values in service companies is only achivable through service leadership,  Service leadership is pro-change but not traditional,  The service leader leads via his examples and is always involved in the work process.

107  Employee empowerment in service enterprises could be obtained by service leadership,  Quality and excellent service may be provided by the service leadership,  The service leader regards the employee customer theme as an opportunity to create the future strategy of the company,  Leadership roles required for the services in the success of the service leader are important. The studies carried out on leadership display that leadership is not an innate quality but they also emphasized that being a leader requires some certain personality traits. Service leadership is not an innately acquired quality. However, it is believed that in order for the service leader to be successful, the leader has to own some personality traits. It is stated that it is mandatory for service leadership to have particularly intelligence, honesty, reliability, accuracy, clarity, self-confidence and cognitive ability. Service leadership may take place at all levels of the organizational structure. Because successful service leaders allow the development of all employees in the enterprise by carrying out coaching service consistently and continuously, advising, correcting, giving responsibility and developing along with creating a work environment that supports the process, whereby efforts are put to achieve new leaders. To encourage all employees to become leaders is the common feature of the good enterprises operating in service sector in the world (Burwash, 1997: 13). Service leadership is about changing people's values, behavior and judgment. Unlike traditional leader, the service leaders who are in favor of changes know very well that the change at the organizational level is possible and obtainable with well-planned service vision. The service leaders are aware that as an ideal the service vision could become reality just with the participation and support of employees while achieving the vision the service leaders need to lead the employees by examples and adapt employee empowerment approaches. Employee empowerment in service enterprises may be acquired with service leadership. Traditional management approaches act accordingly with the assumption that the employees may be governed by bureaucracy, rules and instructions. On the other hand, senior management has no control on employees in the service sector in the course of the realization of services. Besides, as for the service production it is also possible to make a decision in the course of service production depending on the uncertainty of customer demands. In such a case, the customer will never want to hear the statement of "I have to consult to my chief" and will expect an immediate solution to be performed by the employee. Such cases create the diversity of services in the service sector, which forms these small details so that it requires the employees to have empowerment about their job. Creating a business environment and organizational culture which may allow the employee to use individual decision authority can be achieved by service leadership. Service leadership in service business is the main determinant of provision of quality and excellent service. Traditional approcahes consider that quality is an asset owned by business with documents and flags. In reality, determinant of quality in the service business is the perception of customer who buys the service. Therefore, in service delivery, it should be targeted to reach perfection, not a level of good. Excellence in service quality in service businesses could be ensured not as a program but by turning it into organization's philosophy and lifestyle of doing business. To create this structure at the organizational level, leadership service is required. Every day thousands of contacts are experienced in service enterprises. The contacts that take place between the customer and the employee offer opportunities to the enterprises in determining the marketing strategy and creating customer loyalty by learning the customer's expectations. The contact moment of the employee and the customer means the success of the enterprise in the current service delivery and should be regarded as an opportunity for the company to create its future strategies, which can be possibly obtained by service leadership. Because an individual who purchases the service wants to be considered important as a human. Converting this idea into a strategy that supports the vision in the generation of enterprise systems necessitates service leadership. This is one of the simplest but the most critical applications that lies behind the success of today's major service businesses. For example, Ritz-Carlton hotels operating in the hospitality industry evaluate every stay of the customers as an opportunity to learn about the customer and try to learn customers' specific needs and tastes. When a customer again goes to the Ritz-Carlton hotel, he is given the same room, with his favorite chocolate

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and drinks in the mini bar of the room. This approach distinguishes Ritz-Carlton from the other enterprises since it is referred as the “quality” in the hospitality industry. Because of the increasingly complex organizational structure of the service businesses and increased competition in the sector, service leadership will be an important determinant in maintaining enterprise’s existence by creating a difference in the future. In order for the service leaders to succeed in this environment, it is required that they know how to provide high quality services in the future, meet customer expectations through benchmarking, make differences and grow new leaders; and they should ensure that business service employees learn and teach how to serve (Siehl, 1992: 22).

Figure 1. Essence of Leadership Model Source: Locke et al., 1991, cited by Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996: 243.

As a result, depending on the fact that leadership is a human-related concept, it is possible to say that leadership acts as the same function in all industries. However, as the human element is the main determinant in the production and the subjectivity of the human factor in production make the leadership in service businesses more significant than the industrial businesses and allows a chance to distinguish them. Many people have a false belief that they are just simple businesses due to the nature of the services business. For example, a person who stayed in many hotels may think that he can easily manage a hotel depending on his observations or a person who is very good at cooking might think that he can be a good cook. However, the production of services as previously highlighted has an abstract and subjective nature in which human is the basic input, the production is realized by the contact between customer and employee, it is difficult to standardize but easy to imitate. Therefore, a very good vision, organizational system, employees, organizational values are needed. To reveal a quality service that has reached the excellenct level by bringing this complex structure altogether requires service leadership. B) Managerial Roles of Service Leader Just like other businesses, service businesses operate as a system. Operation of these service enterprises effectively and efficiently as a system commands that they actualize their activities in

109 thought, process and physical dimensions and in a healthy structure. It is only possible when the service leaders in these managerial positions fulfill some certain roles successfully. Edvinsson (1992) highlighted that to be successful, a service leader should be able to play thought leader, process leader and commercial leader roles, and expressed that the three roles of service leader may reshape the competitive structure of the company, employee performance and creation of added value by bringing them altogether in harmony. 1. Thought Leader Role: It refers to having information about business environment, grouping, development and education in order for service leader to cope with competitors. The tools that a service leader will benefit in fulfilling the Thought Leader Role are his intelligence and the use of information technologies. The service leader who fulfills the Thought Leader Role has the edge on like thinking faster than his competitors, gathering information and sharing information and thus he contributes to his enterprise by increasing the productivity. 2. Process Leader Role: The process leader role of the service leader is about the productivity caused as a result of interaction between emeployee and customer and its determination of how the highest energy can be achieved. Service leader is the leader who energises people with the process leader role. Traditional managers steal people's energy with bureaucracy, rules and directives while the service leader who plays process leader role shares the energy by establishing dialogues with the employees and may communicate effectively. The process leader role makes a contribution to the service leader in the improvement of the service delivery process and in achieving perfection at the organizational level. 3. Commercial Leader Role: The key issues in the commercial leader role of service leaders are creating added value and saving money. Many people think that service sector is not a profitable business field. However, it may seem possible that a conscious service leader who understands the nature of the business may create added value and achieve profitability that the company targets by playing commercial leadership role well. C) Personality and Management Qualities of Service Leader The main determinants of what characteristics a person should possess to play a leadership role in service businesses are the features of the service and the struct of the service enterprises in terms of cultural aspect. It is possible to put the qualities in two groups as personal and managerial, which the service leader needs to have. Conceptual information about service leadership shows that as personality qualities a service leader needs to hold intelligence (Walker, 1986; Zeithaml et al., 1990; Edvinsson, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997), honesty (Keller and Wilderom, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997), reliability (Nebel, 1991; Keller and Wilderom, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997), righteousness (Burwash, 1997), clarity (Keller and Wilderom, 1992), self-confidence (Walker, 1986; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997) and cognitive ability (Walker, 1986; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Burwash, 1997) (please see figure 2). As aforementioned in the earlier part of the chapter, these qualities generate the leadership qualities that are demanded by job, employee, competition and the structure of environmental conditions in today’s business world. These conditions are also applicable to service businesses. The issue that what qualities the service should have in terms of managerial aspect has been evaluated differently by researchers. For example, Normann (1984) pointed out the must-have qualities for a service leader as establishment of standards, assessment of people, development of role models, and creation of codes that guide the employees’ behavior. Keller and Wilderom (1992); brought vision and flexibility to the fore and viewed that being customer and people-oriented is necessary. Chathoth and Olsen (2002); defined vision as the basic task of service leader and stated that the other determinants are the focus in teamwork, employee empowerment and employee involvement in the achievement of organizational goals. Zeithaml and Bitner (1996) who focused on making change tried to explain the duties and responsibilities of the service leader in the process of vision creation and implementation of the vision. Nebel (1991) who investigated the leadership qualities by interviewing hotel managers found out that effective leadership qualities are employee empowerment, team building, providing motivation, delegating authority and being a good communicator. In addition, Zeithaml et al.

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(1990) asserted that in terms of managerial aspect a service leader should have service vision, high standards, invlovement in the job and personal dignity. As various researchers’ assumptions on the managerial qualities that service leaders should have are examined, it is possible to say the findings by Zeithaml et al. (1990) express all the fundamental qualities that service leaders need to have as for the managerial aspect (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Personal and Managerial Qualities of Service Leader Source: Baytok (2006), Saylı ve Baytok (2014: 154) 1. Service Vision The vision which is shortly expressed as "an ideal and image of future" helps determine the direction of the organization and requires replacement or rearrangement of many elements such as strategy, structure, organizational culture, and organizational system. Since vision requires changing at its core, it is referred as a leadership position. Thus, in the majority of the current leadership approaches (charismatic, transformational, strategic, servant leadership) vision is defined as the basic leadership task and is one of the priority tasks of service leaders. The service vision is the tool that will be used by the service leader to carry the oragnization to the desired point by taking service characteristics into account. The vision to be created in the service business must mainly focus on the following points. These are;  Excellence in quality,  Competition,  Interest in employee and customer,  Making difference,  Organizational culture. One of the main determinants of service vision is providing excellence in service quality. The excellence of service quality in terms of service enterprises is the key to success and is the main element of competition. Therefore, it should be considered as an inherent tradition of the organization rather than a matter that cues that excellence in service is not deteriorative. The strategy of obtaining good service and regarding it as an endless journey along with turning service quality into lifestyle (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 5–6) at the organizational level depending on the

111 previously mentioned ideas could be procured by service vision. When the world's major service businesses are explored, it can be noticed that their vision is based on providing excellence in service and service quality. For instance, Ritz-Carlton Hotels and SAS Airlines do not define themselves as an accommodation and airline enterprises but instead call themselves as “service” enterprises. This situation is due to the vision of the service leaders. Employees’ harmonization themselves with the enterprise, providing motivation and empowerment feeling (Chathoth ve Olsen, 2002: 9) could be attained by service vision. As for the employee, the vision is a pathfinder that eliminates uncertainty. The vision created by service leader and the strategies concerning the implementation of these help guide the employees how to think and act. The employees particularly the ones who have direct contact with customers in service enterprises should be in harmony with the system of organization, strategy, objectives and the mission, which are formed as a result of organization climate. All in all, they may be gained by vision. Additionally, depending on the nature of the service, the necessity of being employee-focused enables the environment for employee empowerment in the implementation of the vision. One of the major advantages of the vision to the service businesses is the contributions it makes to create difference. Small differences in service delivery may provide a major contribution to customer satisfaction. Service leaders emphasize the details that make a difference with vision and make employees adopt them. Vision is also important in terms of being a determinant of changing the organizational culture. Many businesses have been expecting the culture to change in time. Successful business leaders make the changes in the direction they desire by managing their culture and visions deliberately (Chowdhary ve Saraswat, 2003; Bass et al., 1993). The excellence in service quality, being employee and customer focused, creating differences are the conditions that are attainable on the condiiton that they are brought into the organizational culture. In the determination and the implementation of the vision, the service leader should know that everything he will change will be about organizational culture. For that reason, it is required that vision be well determined since creating a vision, in some senses, means changing the existing culture (Bass et al., 1993). When forming the vision, determining how the vision should be conceptually is the easiest step in the process of achieving the vision. The hard part of the realization of vision is getting the support of the followers. Therefore, in the efforts of vision-building, the service leader need to know that he will be engaged in the moves and activities such as structure of the organization, employee selection, employee socialization, training of employees, motivating employees, knowledge management, team building, change propagation, innovation and risk-taking (Zeithaml ve Bitner, 1996: 245). 2. Providing High Standards and Maintaining Continuity In today's business world quality is not considered sufficient to provide excellence in competition whereas it is applied in all industries in the production of goods and services as a basic attribute. The conceptual structure related with quality consists of the data obtained from studies conducted in the manufacturing businesses (Kundu ve Vora, 2004: 41), but the concept of quality was also defined for service businesses and it was aimed to determine the dimensions of quality (Zeithaml et al., 1990; Grönroos, 1990). Due to the structure and characteristics of service, the concept of quality in the service businesses differ from the industrial products. Since service is an abstract product as experience, fact and event, the employee and customer contact plays an important role in the production, it is difficult to standardize and easy to imitate and price is not a competition means. All of them constitute the basic constituents of the differences between product service and quality. In service businesses, the difference is the determinant of quality. The difference in the service quality is achived by perfection. High standards must be identified to ensure gain perfection. Successful service leaders are the leaders who are seeking excellence in service delivery. Service leaders believe that the good service that fails to differentiate themselves from competitors is not good service at all, and by dealing with the details of the service they notice the opportunities in small activities that the competitors lose sight of. According to service leaders, the applications of service enterprise relating to

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small jobs are the same as the applications regarding big jobs. Also, they believe that small things add value to customers and they make a difference (Zeithaml et al. 1990: 6). The high standards set by leader in service businesses are determinant in increasing the performance of the company and they also function as a controlling tool (Normann, 1984: 135) for the employees' behavior and attitudes, which becomes more of issue concerning service leadership. The approaches of the enterprises that are looking for excellence in quality in the service sector are the indicators of high standards. For example, the leaders of Ritz-Carlton Hotel and the SAS airlines, have expressed themselves in their basic philosophy with these remarks: “We are in service industry and offer service” (Burwash, 1997: 33– 34). 3. Being Involved in Job The most important determinant that distinguishes service leaders from other leaders is that they are involved in the job. The structure of service delivery makes it compulsory. Due to the nature of the service companies, it is not eligible to carry out a desk job in service companies. In service businesses, especially awareness of the need for organizational change, determination of the structure of the vision to be created, revealation of the strategies needed to achieve the vision and employee guidance require involvement in the job. One of the primary responsibilities of service leader is to ensure the implementation of the vision he puts forward as the future target. The implementation of the vision can be achieved by providing confidence in the vision. This is only possible with the help of employee support and by earning their trust. In gaining the trust of those employees, two-way communication and contact with them are very important. Being involved in the job opens up new opportunities to the service leader such as carrying out continuous coaching to employees, warning them, correcting them, convincing them, giving advice them, asking questions to them and listening to them. In this way, leader may direct the employees towards both his wishes and the vision by learning their expectations, getting to know their problems and the operation of the job. In addition, the excellence of the service requires getting the job done properly not just by individual employees but all the personnel involved in service delivery, as a part of the team (Normann, 1984: 136). The creation of team climate which will allow everyone to do the job right can be gained if the service leaders often come together with the team and engage in meetings and hold celebrations with the team. As being involved in the job, the service leader gets the opportunity to communicate directly with customers, to persuade them and to listen to them. This provides the leader with instructional information in creating the vision and setting the strategy. Being involved in the job supplies the leader with the opportunity to make personal observation, to witness workflow process and to observe the employees, and it will contribute to the development of his individual ideas, values and the way of doing business. Sam Walton's (Wal-Mart's owner) approach is a good example for being involved in job. Walton and the senior managers of Walmart spend a big part of their time on visiting the stores and listening to people, and as the top management they meet in one place each week sharing impressions obtained. It is the achievement of organizational culture created by Sam Walton. Although Walmart is a huge business, this structure enables Walmart to run the organization like a small business (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 7). 4. Personal Dignity One of the most important qualities of the service leader is the personal dignity. The final requirement of effective leadership is to gain confidence. Otherwise, there will be no followers. If there is a lack of dignity in an organization managed by service leaders, it is kown that it is impossible to exhibit a service-oriented attitude. The service leader is aware of the interdependence between the service excellence and employee pride and also knows that the pride of the employees will take a shape by their perception on the fairness of management (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 7). Another service leadership model is Testa and Sipe’s (2012) High Order Competency Model which provides a foundation to further explore service leadership competencies in the hospitality and

113 tourism management context. Based on the in-depth interviews of Testa and Sipe, they developed a preliminary model which identified three broad leadership factors (Business Savvy, People Savvy, and Self Savvy) focus on managing the business, interacting with others and managing self (Figure 3). Business Savvy, as the first factor, consists of dimensions of behaviour which focuses on effectively managing the business and organization. People Savvy focuses on traditional leadership behaviours or people skills. Finally Self Savvy is related with the skills, abilities and behaviours focuses on managing self in the service settings.

Service Leadership

Business Savvy People Savvy Self Savvy Planning Interpersonal Communication Accountability Numberwise Expressive Service Professionalism Continuous Improvement Team Orientation Self-development Strategic Decision Coaching & Training Time Management Making Inspiration Spirit of Optimism Systems Thinking Cultural Alignment Change Management Technical Service Networked Results Oriented

Figure 3: High order competency model; Source: Testa and Sipe (2012: 652) The service leadership Competencies and its’ Definitions are shown on Table 2. In the model, business savvy behaviors are focused on managing the business, people savvy behaviors are geared toward developing positive interactions with others. Table 2: Service Leadership Competencies and Definitions Competency Definition Accountability Takes ownership, executes and follows through on promises and responsibilities. Professionalism Role models behaviors and demeanor consistent with company values. Inspiration Engages and inspires others to do their best work every day. Self development Takes initiative to continuously learn, adapt, and improve oneself. Interpersonal Listens and communicates openly and effectively in a variety of settings. communication Time management Balances multiple tasks while focusing on key priorities. Spirit of optimism Displays an energetic, passionate, and optimistic approach in all endeavors. Expressive service Goes above and beyond to create customer loyalty and memories that last a lifetime. Team oriented Fosters a climate of shared vision and contributions from all team members. Cultural alignment Aligns team goals and values to that of the company culture. Technical service Uses systems, processes, and standards to provide consistently efficient service. Results oriented Focuses on achieving high expectations and getting things done. Change management Adapts easily and views change as a way of life. Coaching and training Provides actionable feedback that supports continuous learning. Systems thinking Orients toward the big picture and a process focused approach. Strategic decision- Uses all available resources to make sound decisions appropriate to the situation. making Planning Creates and translates a shared vision into strategic priorities and actions. Continuous Strives to improve the business and make things run smoother. improvement Numberwise Incorporates data, reports, and trends to draw conclusions and inform decisions. Networked Fosters industry relationships inside and outside the company. Source: Testa and Sipe (2012: 654)

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In the hospitality and tourism context, such interactions or “moments of truth” will be common place, and form the foundation for both employee and customer satisfaction. The constant changes taking place within the industry, the economy, and both customer and employee needs suggests that service leaders must be able to adjust their behavior, often times in rapid order. These leaders are not afraid of taking risks and make an effort to create an environment where others are comfortable doing so as well. Service leaders who have a command of change management are likely to be at the forefront when seeking to develop new and different amenities and services. (Testa and Sipe, 2012: 654-656). D) Similarities and Differences of Service Leadership with other Leadership Approaches The question that “Is there a need to address Service Leadership as a separate approach to leadership?” forms the critical main point related to service leadership whose conceptual structure has not been fully determined yet. Accordingly, a lot of people go through the dilemma by asking the questions: "Service leadership?" or "Leadership in service enterprises?”. It is seen in the literature that there are a lot of research to answer both of the questions. Researchers who carry out leadership research in this context in services business (Normann, 1984; Walker, 1986; Worsfold, 1989; House, 1992; Hinkin ve Tracey, 1994; Sparrowe, 1995; Testa, 2001; Kasper, 2002; Chathoth and Olsen, 2002), have used the models and theories developed with classical and contemporary leadership approaches in service enterprises up to now and are still using them. Researchers who have dealt with the service leadership as a leadership approach (Zeithaml et al., 1990; Wilderom, 1991; Edvinsson, 1992; Siehl, 1992; Keller and Wilderom, 1992; Zeithaml and Bitner, 1996; Chowdhary and Saraswati, 2003) tried to clarify service leadership and demonstrate the conceptual structure within the question of “Should the service enterprise employees be managed in the same way as the employees of military and industry enterprises?". This study also seeks to explain the service leadership by taking it as a distinct approach to leadership. According to the researchers who handle the service leadership as a separate leadership approach, some of the characteristics such as untouchablility, perishability, and inseparability and variability that result from the nature of the service differentiate the system of organization, structure, strategies, most importantly, the culture of the service businesses from the other businesses. In addition, due to the fact that service production is the labor-intensive, human resource is the main input in the production and the production and consumption is simultaneously realized, managers have no control over the employees in the course of production, which makes it necessary to study service leadership. While service leadership is dealt with as a separate leadership approach, it is observed that the personality traits and administrative functions of service leaders in the management share similarities in many points compared with previously developed leadership approaches. In today's business world, intelligence, honesty, reliability, righteousness, clarity, self-confidence and cognitive ability, which are thought to be possessed by the service leader, are the general leadership qualities required by job, employee, competition and environmental conditions. In other words, in today's conditions the personality traits that a leader should have are valid for the service leader as well. The service vision, ensuring high standards and continuity, being involved in the job (as an example) and personal dignity, which are defined as the administrative functions of the service leader, are emphasized as the managerial duties and responsibilities of leader in all of the charismatic, transformational, servant leadership and strategic leadership approaches, which are considered as the contemporary leadership approaches. As it is highlighted in all other current approaches, creating a vision which is defined as the basic leadership task composes the main task of the service leader, too. Due to its structure, creating a vision necessitates making a change, personal dignity, being involved in the job and employee empowerment. This aspect posits the similar points in fulfilling service leadeship’s leadership function with other leadership approaches. The difference point of service leadership as a separate approach to leadership focuses on two critical points, which is required by the structure of service. These are being involved in the job (being an example) and ensuring high standards and maintaining continuity. Being involved in the job is one of the desired and highlighted tasks and responsibilities in other leadership approaches while it is an obligation in the service business because of the nature of the job. Because service businesses are not a type of desk-job enterprises. What makes being involved in the job

115 necessary is to become aware of a need for an organizational change, to determine the structure of the vision to be created, to reveal the required strategies to achieve the vision and to guide the employees. Just as in Walmart for example, Walton and the senior managers in Walmart spend most of their time on visiting the stores along with listening to people, and as the top management they gather in a place each week sharing the impressions that they obtain. It is the achievement of organizational culture created by Sam Walton. Although Walmart is a huge business, this structure enables Walmart to run the organization like a small business (Zeithaml et.al., 1990: 7). This situation can be managed by the service leader on the condition that he is involved in the job. Being involved in the job is one of the main determinants of the structure of organizational culture. Thus, this aspect makes the difference of service leadership. Demonstrating high standards and ensuring its continuity required by the sturcture of service are two other differences that a service leader has to fulfill as his managerial duties and responsibilities. Because the quality concept in the service business differs from industrial products. That is to say; service is an abstract product as experience, fact and event and the employee and customer contact plays an important role in its production. It is also difficult to standardize service but easy to imitate, and the price is not a competition means for service, all of which generates the basic constituents of the differences between service and product quality. This situation executively distinguishes the service leader’s practices and approach to job. The determinant of quality in the service businesses lies behind making a difference. Making a difference in service quality is only achievable by perfection. High standards must be determined in order to ensure excellence. Therefore, a service leader should be the leader who seeks excellence in service delivery, believes that the good service is actually not a good service at all if it does not differentiate itself from the competitors and by dealing with the details of the service sees the opportunities in small activities, which are disregarded by the competitors. Because a service leader knows that the implementations of the service business related to small business are the same as the implementations related to big business, and small things add value to customers, which makes a difference (Zeithaml et al., 1990: 6). When the service leadership is compared with other leadership approaches, it is clear that in general it is not very different from the current approaches to leadership. As highlighted in other leadership approaches, vision creation, change making, employee empowerment, being invloved in the job and personal dignity are the fundamental administrative duties and responsibilities of the leader in the service leadership. The main difference comes to light in the functions like being invloved in the job, ensuring high standards and continuity. Being invloved in the job, which is also a desirable feature in other approaches, is a must for the success of the service leader due to the nature of the service. Ensuring high standards and maintaining its continuity distinguishes service leadership from other leadership approaches as a requirement by the structure and properties of the service. Service Leadership Case Study This case study has been taken from the article of Drs Sandra Naipaul and Youcheng Wang (2009) called “entrepreneurship and leadership in hospitality- Insights and implications for hospitality and tourism education” which is based on conversation with Mr Harris Rosen who is an entrepreneur, leader, hotelier, and philanthropist in Central Florida. This case indicates Mr. Rosen’ views on how a service leader should be, think and act. Mr. Rosen on leadership; I do not believe that you can teach someone to be an entrepreneur (it is I believe akin to teaching someone to be 6’ 8” tall). However, I do believe that it is absolutely possible to teach someone to be a good leader. The military does it all the time. The three years I spent as an officer in the Army certainly helped me tremendously. The question is: are there natural born leaders, perhaps there are individuals who carry themselves a certain way, and who speak with a certain authority. However, I believe that you can also train someone who wishes to be a leader or someone who has the passion to learn and who also possesses the necessary skills to do so. No doubt you can teach someone to be a good leader if they have the desire to do so.

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To be a leader, you must always set the example. This is really the key. Please remember never to ask someone to do something that you, yourself, would not do and always be fair to everyone, treat all equally, and don’t play favorites. Never treat some individuals differently than others. Treat everybody the same. It is also important to praise whenever appropriate and to offer constructive criticism when necessary. Criticism may be directed at an individual quietly or perhaps not so quietly; however, to be effective it must be unequivocal. People must understand when they have done something inappropriate or incorrectly; however, you must explain why it was inappropriate and then make sure to correct the situation for the future. Simply speaking, it is a balancing act where fairness and respect must always be emphasized. It is also important to let your staff know that you are always anxious to hear whatthey are thinking. Remember the best ideas often come from those who are workingwithin the company usually in the middle and lower levels of the organization, not the top. I’ve certainly had my share of ideas and our company has certainly grown based on my intuitiveness and my gut feelings (it is the entrepreneurial gene that often gets my attention). I have often gotten wonderful ideas from those associates within the organization such as housekeeping, the front desk, the culinary departments, engineering, sales, food & beverage operations, etc. Great ideas come from all corners of the organization and it is vital to develop a culture that encourages the sharing of ideas and suggestions. Everyone should be comfortable when offering a suggestion. And, of course, never ridicule anyone for a silly idea. I never have and I never will. No matter how silly the idea might be, never make someone feel uncomfortable about sharing an idea with you. It is also important to realize that on occasion the craziest (out of the box) ideas can turn out to be exciting and productive. Sadly, however, I have discovered that in academe, in the public sector, and sometimes within large private organizations (G.M., Ford, AIG, Citicorp, etc.) there seems to be disinclination, almost a fear for those who work within these organizations, to think out of the box. Perhaps it is akin to a fraternity where likeminded people are comfortable with each other and don’t ever wish to be considered as outcasts or mavericks by thinking differently. Indeed it is often the private sector where the outcasts and mavericks excel. Neither Donald Dell nor Bill Gates graduated from college. They both decided to first develop their ideas in the private sector before completing college. It is most often those who have different ideas and who also have the courage to act upon them that succeed and I suspect it is why the USA has been such a fertile ground for the entrepreneur, the thinker, the maverick and why it is such a great place to live especially if you posses the troublesome “defective” entrepreneurial gene. I tell youngsters all the time that it is not a gene I wish upon those I really care for because it can drive you mad. I am often asked, how do you feel when you walk into one of your hotels. I respond that I don’t really feel anything because I am usually too busy looking for cigarette butts, litter or to check if someone’s nametag is on straight or perhaps if paintings are hanging correctly, or if the carpet has been recently vacuumed. I wish that just one day I could crawl into Donald Trump’s shoes and see how it must feel to be an “important” person, being driven around in a stretch limousine, flying in private jets and wearing very expensive suits. How must that feel? I suspect I will never know!

REFERENCES Bass, B.M. (1990). Bass & Stogdill Handsbook of Leadership, 3. Ed., Free Pres, London. Bass, B.M.; Avolio, B.J.; Binghamton, S. (1993). Transformational Leadership and Organizational Culture, Public Administration Quarterly, 17: (1), 112-121. Başaran, İ. E. (1998). Yönetimde İnsan İlişkileri: Yönetsel Davranış, Gül Yayınevi, Ankara. Baytok, A. (2006). Hizmet İşletmelerinde Örgütünün Oluşturulmasında Liderin Rolü, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Bennis, W.; Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders, The Strategies For Taking Charge, Harper & Row, NY. Bisesi, M. (1983). SMR Forum: Strategies For Successful Leadership in Changing Times, Sloan Management Review, 25: (1), 61-64. Blake, R. R.; McCanse, A. A. (1991). Leadership Dilemmas-Grid Solutions, Gulf Publishing Company, Houston, Texas. Brake, T. (1997). The Global Leader: Critical Factors For Creating The World Class Organization, Irwin Professional Publishing, Chicago. Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership, Harper & Row, NY.

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Tichy, N. M.; Cohen, E. (1997). The Leadership Engine: How Winning Companies Build Leaders at Every Level, Harper Collins Publishers, NY. Walker, R. G. (1986). Wellsprings of Managerial Leadership, The Cornell H.R.A., Quarterly, August, 27: (2), 14-16. Wilderom, C. P. M. (1991). Service Management/Leadership: Different From Management/Leadership in Industrial Organizations?, International Journal of Service Industry Management, 2: (1), 6-14. Worsfold, P. (1989). Leadership and Managerial Effectivenss in The Hospitality Industry, International Journal of Hospitality Management, 8: (2), 145-155. Yammarino, F. J.; Dansereau, F.; ve Kennedy, C. J. (2001). A Multiple-Level Multidimensional Approach to Leadership: Viewing Leadership Through an Elephants’s Eye, Organizational Dynamics, 29: (3), 149- 163. Yukl, G. (1989). Managerial Leadership: A Review of Theory and Research. Journal of Management, 15: (2), 251–289. Yukl, G. (1994). Leadership in Organizations, 3rd.Ed., Prentice Hall, NJ. Zeithaml, V. A.; Bitner, M. J. (1996). Service Marketing, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Zeithaml, V. A.; Parasuraman, A.; Berry, L. L. (1990). Delivering Quality Service: Balancing Customer Perceptions and Expectations, The Free Press, NY.

119 Chapter 9

The Role of Rural Tourism in Rural Development

Gülay ÖZDEMİR YILMAZ*

INTRODUCTION Ensuring and sustaining economic growth and development for developed and developing countries is among the main targets. Since there is a big population in rural areas, it has lead rural development to become more prominent today in development efforts. Rural development concept has become one of the most arguing phenomena in recent years. Undoubtedly, one of the leading and most important issues in rural development is the rural tourism. The importance of rural tourism is increasing day by day as an alternative or supplement of the current tourism types in both developed and developing countries. The important reasons for the rise in interest to the rural tourism can be listed as the changing demographic structure and the consumption habits, increase in environment awareness and the passion of adventure as well as the destruction of urban life on the people. The increased interest in rural tourism ensured the acceleration of the efforts to use supply sources worldwide for touristic purposes. Rural tourism ensures to distribute the intensity of tourism in certain months to the whole year, to eliminate the unequal distribution of tourism income in the geography of the country, to strengthen the economies of rural areas and to reduce the population mobility that occurs from rural to urban areas. With many other positive economic and socio-cultural effects, it is seen as one of the basic tools in rural development and the countries try to reveal some projects that will lead to positive results. In this study, it is aimed to reveal the importance of rural tourism in rural development in details. For this, it has been stressed on the concepts of rural development and rural tourism. RURAL DEVELOPMENT The development is generally described as the process including economic, social and political structure depending on the continuous increase in national income level of a country (Clark, 1996). In other words, development is being capable to ensure the positive qualitative change for a country. Although development concept occurs in the field of economy, it is not only an economic event. The development doesn't only mean the increase in production and income per capita but also includes the change and renewal of the economic and socio-cultural structure in a developing country. The development is closely associated with economic factors as well as social, cultural, political and psychological factors. The development is a unity composed of different parts (Kaypak, 2012). The countries and societies are in a process having continuous changes in the matters such as the distribution of resources, production techniques, corporate structure, social values, behaviors and attitudes of people. The traditions of people, their interests develop continuously and reshape in different forms. For this reason, development is closely associated with the positive interventions performed to affect social change process. The development is a dynamic concept suggesting to go through changes by starting from the available status or the previous position (Tolunay & Akyol, 2006). Economic development is one of the basic topics which is stressed by the countries. The countries that had partly performed their economic growth and development do various regulations and reforms in the field of economy to provide the continuance of this stability whereas underdeveloped or developing countries do such to perform economic growth and developments (Çukurçayır & Tezcan, 2011).All the countries in the world want their own society to live in wealth and for this reason, they apply some programs in their boundaries. For most of the countries, that the population living in the rural area is more than the urban population is a factor that makes the development difficult. In such countries, rural development is stressed on (Ün, Tutar, Tutar & Erkan, 2012). Rural development concept has become

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Tourism Management Department

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one of the issues on which has been discussed mostly in recent years. OECD, United Nations, World Bank, European Union, various volunteer institutions, civil society organizations and Government allocate more source, information and time to the concept of social development (Çeken, Karadağ & Dalgın, 2007). Approximately 90% of European Union is rural area and considering that 56% of the population is living in rural area, rural development in unity can be said to have a special importance. In 77% of rural areas, agriculture and forestry are performed. Today, the scope of unity and rural development policy is perceived wider than traditional "agriculture" activities; environment protection and development measures, supporting rural societies and rural development designs as a whole (Gülçubuk et al., 2010). The concept of rural development has been described as "society development" without being stated whether the quality of the society is rural or not by the United Nations (Kaypak, 2012). According to this description, rural development has been described as; “being unified of all of the volunteer struggles they undertake to improve social, economic and cultural conditions including small societies with the struggles of central administration on this subject and all of the processes about unifying local societies with the whole of the society and the nation and contributing fully to the struggles of development struggles of the country (Geray, 1999). Rural development is mobilizing all factors to help agricultural, economic and social areas of all people living in a certain rural area as a whole and making use of these factors at maximum level (Kiper & Yılmaz, 2008). In other words, rural development can be thought to be equal access to the arable lands, more equal distribution of the income, health, nourishing and acquiring accommodation and expanding the opportunities for all individuals (Sıma, 2015). From the point of descriptions made for rural development, the basic purpose of rural development can be listed as to minimize the socio-cultural and economic development difference between the urban and rural areas as a result of using the sources owned by rural areas and spaces effectively, prevent the migration to the cities and rise the life standards in rural areas by increasing employment opportunities in rural areas and urban immigration (Çeken et al., 2007). In the framework of these explanations, for rural development (DPT 2000); • It is a process having economic, social and cultural dimensions. • It is a rural life level developed with universal criteria, equality and justice. • It is the country development and welfare sharing of rural society by developing on-site. • It is an employment type in which rural labor is productive and gives their rights. • It is a life level developed by sharing better access to the resources, welfare and income in a balanced way. • It is the elimination of poverty and bad nourishment in rural area. • It is the modernization of rural social life. • It is the reduction of urban/rural separation. • It is the economic development of the media that is thought to be rural. The mission of "New Rural Development Strategy" identified by the World Bank,“ is to reduce the poverty. The vision revealed to perform this mission can be summarized as follows (Gülçubuk et al., 2010); - The people living in the rural area are required to have a life standard and quality at least as much as those living in the urban areas, - Economic and socio-cultural opportunities which are equal and fair to those who live in rural areas, - Rural areas must be made sustainable and attractive for living, - Rural areas must adapt to economic, social, environmental and technological changes. The plans made in order to make rural development efforts reach success and to realize the purposes explained above should be realistic and peculiar to the conditions of the vicinity. Besides, it must be designed to grasp all sections of the society. In rural development studies; answers are being searched for some questions such as; For whom?, Who is the target mass?, With whom will it be carried out?, What will it be made?, How will it be performed, How will it be concluded?, What will the success criteria be?, How will it be made sustainable? (Kiper & Yılmaz, 2008). In general, it is possible to show the basic processes of the studies to be performed in the process of rural development process,

121 that's to say, of rural development period as in Figure (1). As it is seen in Figure (1), rural development process is started with the recognition and identification of the problems in rural area. Making planning studies for identification of the selection of the best alternative style ensuring the solution of the recognized problems and the intervention type to the rural structure is the second stage. The execution process is performed by putting plans and projects prepared afterwards in the application area. With the monitoring values collected by performing follow- up within application process, rural development period is evaluated. Successful results are allocated as the output of this period and it is returned to the beginning again. If an unsuccessful case is in question, the reasons of this failure are searched and by following the same processes, the identified problems are restarted to be solved (Tolunay & Akyol, 2006). In general, it is possible to give the strategies discussed in rural development studies in three main headings (Tolunay & Akyol, 2006): (I) Technological strategies: We can summarize this strategy as changing the viewpoints of rural societies by using technological developments. Adapting to the technological innovations by the rural societies and using these innovations within a current rural structure are main principles. Among study subjects that are taken into account by this strategy, the development of agricultural production techniques, using machine agricultural pesticides and fertilizers, artificial fertilization in breeding and the development of skills in handicrafts can be listed.

Figure 1: The Major Processes of a Rural Development Period (Cited from FAO/RAPA, Tolunay & Akyol, 2006). (II) Participant reformist strategies: Although technological change also has an important place in this strategy, having an effective role in rural development struggles gives the meaning of the strategy. The participation of the people to rural development efforts is the basis of this strategy. (III) Structural strategies: This strategy primarily investigates social, political and economic relations that exist in rural area as a whole. Then, it identifies the negative results brought by these relations to the people of rural area and ensures to be carried out of rural development work with the movement style to eliminate these negativities. When the descriptions about rural development are investigated, it is possible to classify its basic components as agricultural development, rural industry and rural tourism. Agricultural development is the applications including agriculture (vegetable and zoological activities), production activities about forestry and aquaculture and quality, income increase, marketing and production rise in these fields. Rural industry is the activities of on-site evaluation of the local resources (raw) such as agriculture, medical plants, and depending on the demand, ensuring the production of marketable local products and selling them when necessary. Rural tourism is a tourism type developed depending on touristic supply values as well as agricultural activities in rural vicinities where agricultural activities are intensive (Uçar, Çeken & Ökten, 2010). No matter how the rural development is described, the most important key stone in this development tour is agriculture. Rural societies to be developed with rural development are substantially villages. As a result, rural

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development programs are applied to the villagers obtaining most part of it from agricultural activities. For this reason, making the rural tourism activities adopted to the societies settled in the villages substantially is the prerequisite for ensuring rural development with rural tourism (Kuşat, 2014). RURAL TOURISM Tourism industry is one of the most rapidly growing industries of global economy. Industry revolution has been a turning point for tourism. So, the people have leisure time to have a holiday, new production methods in the manufacturing has emerged, basic seaway and railway transportation has been strengthened. In the 20th century, the technological developments in air and road vehicles ensured the expansion to include the destinations of mass tourism in wider geography (Bull, 1995). The developed and developing countries are in an effort to gain profit from this industry. Tourism activity increased its importance in each passing year in economic field and has become a concept interested by wider masses. Today, as a result of rapid differentiations in production concept, acclaims, fashion and values, the viewpoints and expectations of people about tourism began to change. This change increased the interest of both suppliers and demanders to different tourism types. One of these tourism types is the rural tourism. By escaping from the exhaust of urban life, being in rural places, relaxing here, consuming organic food has become almost a style, fashion for people. Rural tourism developed on the basis of sustainability is an extremely wide concept. With the most general sense, the travels to rural areas are called as rural tourism. It is possible to encounter with many descriptions about rural tourism (Soykan, 2006). Nilson (2002) expressed that rural tourism is a tourism type covering all tourism activities in rural places. Rural tourism has been described by the European Union as the desire of the people who likes spending their holidays in rural areas by seeing rural inheritance and who likes rural lifestyle (European Commission 2003). Küçükaltan (1997) describes rural tourism as people's visits to rural places outside the places where they are settled continuously, goods and services produced by the agricultural producers there and the whole of cases and relations arising from temporary hosting by demanding the places convenient for the natural tissue of the region and minimizing money increasing efforts. Akça (2004) described rural tourism as; “people's visits to the rural areas outside the places where they are settled continuously goods and services produced by the farmers there, and the whole of cases and relations arising from temporary hosting by demanding the places convenient for the natural tissue of the region and minimizing money increasing efforts.” The researches indicate that rural tourism is a more complex structure. ‘‘Rural tourism is a multi- dimensional complex activity including all agricultural tourism activities, educative travels, health tourism and ecotourism’’ (Özkan, 2007). When the relevant literature is examined, rural tourism is seen to be called as farm tourism, village tourism, highland tourism, agri tourism, ecological village tourism and green tourism (Maestro, Gallego & Requejo, 2007, Dimitrovskia, Todorovic &Valjarevic, 2012, Haven-Tang &Jones, 2012). The reason for this can be shown as being unable to reach a consensus about the scope of rural tourism among specialists (Maestro et al., 2007). These concepts are the concepts receiving different names according to the field where it occurs and according to the activity. Rural tourism has some typical features such as being performed basically in rural areas, being based on the experience, occurring in the regions where the population is less, performing in the areas where natural environment is intensive, aiming to protect and enliven the cultural values and from this aspect being based on the local activities (Dinçer, Türkay & Avunduk, 2015). It is possible to gather the determinants of tourism society under four headings such as rural area, rural life, rural inheritance and rural activities. Rural areas present an attraction to the tourists in many aspects resulting from ethnic and geographical characters, history, different culture and rural nature. Within this scope, the various applications of rural tourism have been in question in different countries of the world. These applications are fishing in fisher villages, renting a part of their houses to tourists to gain income by the families living in mountain villages, accommodating in farm houses, due to this, selling the products, souvenirs and ornaments manufactured by those who are living in the farms, sustaining otantic cultural values peculiar to the region and presenting some opportunities such as camping, riding a horse and horse drawn travelling, hiking and mountain bike, sustaining the traditions of the public in the region,

123 etc. (Pamukçu, Aydoğdu,Gemici & Samgar, 2015).

Figure 2: The Determinants of Rural Tourism Society Source: World Tourism Organization (WTO), Rural Tourism in Europe: Experiences, Development and Perspectives (cited by. Kuşat, 2014) For realization of these activities mentioned, that is to say, for the development of rural tourism in the region, there must be some factors. These factors are (cited by. Çelik, Coşkun & Öztürk, 2013); • Having plenty of water • Being able to organize trip factor meticulously, • Convenient for doing sports (golf, tennis, swimming, fishing) • Being close to the national parks, • Containing historical values, • Being able to make easy and direct reservation, • Easy to access and economic, • Having traditional architecture, • Presenting a certain production type, • The regions where the people of them are sincere and open to interaction are the most convenient places for rural tourism. Rural tourism is a kind of tourism coalescing with culture, natural environment and agriculture and integrated with the other tourism types extremely easily. For this reason, rural tourism whose content is enriched with various local, national and international attempts can attract people in many countries of the world to rural places (Soykan, 1999). That the natural life interest is becoming a need day by day and relaxing, peace, healthy life and a different activity focus, rural tourism can be said to establish a bond between an urban and rural life again (Hall, Sharples, Mitchell, Macionis & Cambourne, 2003). In recent years, the interest in rural tourism has begun to increase. Rural tourism that was the subject of domestic tourism to a large extend previously, has begun to form a subject for the international tourism with the developments in transportation opportunities (Özçatalbaş, 2006). While rural tourism was a tourism activity performed by the people living in big cities previously for recreation and visiting the relatives and friends for one day, today it has turned into a tourism type that can cover the destinations in a very long distance and that people can prefer to spend the whole of their holiday for a long time. At this point, rural tourism has assumed a quality responding to a need to experience a life presenting the life different from their own cultures and lifestyle, purified from technology, complexity and stress and presenting different and authentic attractions. For the people who prefer rural tourism, the followings come to the fore among their expectations and demands from rural tourism: Relaxing and relief, longing for the past, experience for the adults and children, farm tours, harvesting, collecting yields, buying products from the manufacturing areas, active and passive recreation, culture communication, settlement and accommodation conditions (Ukav, 2014). In general, no matter how leisure time and income factors are effective in the development of tourism, as well as these factors, some other factors such as rising education and culture level, development in the environment and healthy life awareness, increasing in the interest in organic foods and the desire to be integrated in the nature are also effective in the development of rural tourism (cited by. Çeken, Dalgın &

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Çakır, 2012). In the rising interest in rural tourism and becoming widespread of it, the effects of these factors have been extreme (Çakır, Çakır, Dursun & Dursun, 2010): • The increase in tendency to active holidays and special interest tours. • The desire to remote from the environment of life that is restrictive and full of rules. • That sea shores resemble each other in all aspects, even being degenerated. • Increase in the old urban population ratio in developed countries, their preference to the healthy environments of rural areas by them. • That the rural areas have appropriate environments for a number of recreational activities. • That the rural tourism is cheaper than the other types of tourism. • Becoming widespread of the environment protection awareness, and the increase in the protected areas in the world. PRINCIPLES OF RURAL TOURISM It is possible to classify the principles of rural tourism as “utilization”, “development”, “design”, rural economy”, “protection” and “marketing”. It is possible to summarize them as follows (cited from Tarlak 2007 by Karafakı Çetinkaya &Yazgan, 2012): Utilization: The utilization of tourists from the rural areas must be ensured by making activities based on the features of the rural areas, the beauty, history and wild living beings of it. Development: The tourism development in the rural areas should help the purposes of protecting and rising. As an example, new utilizations can be brought to historical houses and additional utilizations to farms, desolated areas can be improved and new opportunities can be provided for transportation to rural areas. Design: Planning new tourism developments, detecting their places and managing them must be suitable for the landscape and when possible, the landscape must be enriched. Rural Economy: Investment to tourism must support rural economy but it must be followed-up to spread in wider extend geographically in order to avoid destroying tourism resources due to intensive crowd, erosion and excessive use and shifting to the out id the periods when visits are most frequent. Protection: Those who are utilizing from the tourism in rural places must provide political and practical support to protection and raising policies and programs to contribute to protection an enrichment of the grizzle that is the most important belonging of this tourism. Marketing: In promotion, informing and marketing attempts of tourism industry, it should make people to reach appreciation and utilizing sense by deepening the understanding and interests of them for rural areas. THE THINGS REQUIRED TO BE PERFORMED FOR THE DEVELOPMENT OF RURAL TOURISM IN A DESTINATION The potential developments in the field of tourism in a region have a quality in need of directing long-term plans more than inner dynamics. The support of a more sensitive planning and administration in rural tourism is a must for ensuring the desired developments (OECD 1994). In the regions where supply potential of tourism is high, some conditions required by tourism are important which are needed to prevent the uncontrolled growth of tourism and thus avoid damaging historical, natural, cultural and agricultural sources. It is possible to list these conditions as follows (Çeken et al., 2007): • The public in rural areas must be informed about tourism. • Different components of natural beauties, activities and services in rural tourism must be formed. • Especially in the places where rural tourism potential is high, sub-structure services, drinking water, sewage and treatment plants must become widespread. • The promotion of local culture and services must be performed. • The measures for rural tourism in regional and local level must be stable with tourism plans and programs. • Tourism and agriculture unification must be ensured and be convenient for production market conditions. • The rural areas must be ensured to turn into rural tourism destination.

125 • The ones dealing with family pension managing for tourism in rural areas and the administrators who get their land to use for recreational purpose must be given credit and supported by the state. • The time of farmers dealing with rural tourism must make working plans to meet the needs of tourists. • In the regions where rural tourism is intensive, new institutions to deal with rural tourism must be opened. • For rural tourism activities, especially housewives must be incited and be ensured to obtain income. • In the employment of rural tourism, the local people must be given priority. • Tourism awareness must be developed in the region. • The promotion of rural tourism must be made and domestic and foreign tour operators must be invited. • The goods and services produced in rural tourism must be convenient for the pleasure, demands and habits of tourists. • The investments made to improve available housing conditions in the regions must be supported by the state. • The arrangements to ensure active participation to local festivals in the rural areas should be made. • Touristic investments launched by civil society institutions in rural areas must be supported by the state. There is a direct relation between rural development and rural tourism. Rural tourism is one of the most important components of unifying economic activities in the rural development. In the following part, the role of rural tourism in rural development is explained in detailed way. THE ROLE OF RURAL TOURISM IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT Rural areas are the places where the traditions, inheritance and natural beauties are interlocked. Rural areas can sustain their own identities, self-balances and organizing capacities only with a series of limited complexity. If socio-ecological conditions continue to change, these rural areas will also change eventually (Gobattoni, Pelorosso, Leone & Ripa, 2015). In general, it is known that the underdeveloped countries and/or regions are the rural places mostly dealing with agriculture. For this reason, there are special efforts to improve rural areas in almost every country (Uçar et al., 2010). In rural development policies prepared for the areas in the process of reconstruction process, tourism has a central role. In the areas having special value where especially agricultural activities regress, it is accepted to be a catalyzer for socio-economic development and innovation. Even in the destination in poor countries, the effects of rural tourism in different processes of the development can be monitored (cited by. Akbulak, 2016). It is stated that those who participate in rural tourism are richer, more well-educated and quality seekers and they spend money more than the average. With this approach, the rural tourism in the harmony with sustainable tourism concept can be said to have important contributions to the country's tourism in both macro and micro sense (Kodaş and Eröz 2012). In rural development, the reasons why it is in need of rural tourism can be listed as follows (Soykan, 2006); • The protection of traditional affairs in rural areas is extremely important. Some of them are peculiar to there and on the verge of extinction. • Many new businesses can be created during rural tourism. • In rural areas, it is a must to protect tourism services. Rural tourism contributes to the development, informing, transportation and similar services. • The development of tourism in rural areas supports the diversification and multiple-integrated activities arise. • The support to the farmers is not always given in the content of agriculture by the state organs, some other support factors are looked for. • Rural handicrafts occupy a priority and important place in the cultural heritage of the countries and regions. • Cultural services always remain behind in rural areas. • In rural tourism, it is possible to utilize from historical structure in tourism (old churches,

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chateaus, farm buildings, houses) in different types (museum, handicrafts center, accommodation house etc.). •Although the role of woman is extremely limited in rural societies in the past, they are ready to take important roles today. • In rural areas, it is to activate the attempts of rural development by developing the cooperation among public section, special section and civil society organizations. • The institutionalizing of local attempts • It is to develop the capacities of regional administrations and unions within the scope of very cultivated governance concept and to increase in organization level. • It is the promotion of local, local culture, local products and services and turning the local resources into benefit. • It is to provide the information and experience share on regional, national and international level. The effect of rural tourism to rural development is proportional to effective use of the historical, natural, cultural and agricultural resources in the region. Kuşat (2014) examined the interaction between rural tourism-rural development in three dimensions as “economic effects”, “socio-cultural effects” and “physical environment effects". These dimensions can be summarized as in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Rural Tourism - Rural Development In Figure 3, both positive and negative aspects of the effects of rural tourism on the development are attempted to be emphasized. While economic effects are displaying a positive performance as investment increase, the increase in demand to goods and services in rural area leads to a reaction inciting inflation. While it is forming a structure by giving opportunity to the protection of cultural values of rural places, the increase in value of women in socio-economic sense and revival of the traditional products that the cultures of the tourist lead to a cultural degeneration can be in question. On physical environment, providing opportunity to gain environment awareness with an understanding bringing environmental values to the forefront and taking important steps for sustainability will be in question. But provided that raising awareness in all participants about environment is not completely possible, an environmental degeneration and ineffective source use can form a structure to negatively affect the sustainability (Kuşat, 2014). It is possible to examine the importance of rural tourism for rural development in more detailed way. The Effect of Rural Tourism on Rural Economy The most important one among the positive effects of rural tourism on rural areas is the effect of creating income. That the people living in the rural areas have low income and their income obtained as a result of agricultural activities have made the rural tourism attractive (Torun, 2013). In a research carried out in England, it is stated that most of the farmers have participated in tourism sector to

127 increase their income (Fleischer & Pizam, 1997). The spending of domestic and foreign tourists to meet their needs such as accommodation, food-beverage, rural activities, transportation, shopping, local handicrafts and authentic foods ensures people living in the rural places to increase their income. Besides, the income increase that emerges as a result of rural tourism activities positively influence many direct or indirect sectors within the region in the fields such as production increase in goods and services. Rural tourism income obtained from the rural areas contributes to the other production factor owners in the economy in terms of income by being spent by production factor owners in the other sectors in the region (construction, agriculture, industry and other service providers) and changing various hands (Uçar et al., 2010). Ün et al. (2012) summarize the income gaining opportunities of tourism to rural local people from various sources as follows; • Since additional demand to agricultural products will arise, this means the formation of additional market for agricultural products. • Augment in public services with touristic goods and services sector increases both individual income and public income. • Handicrafts and domestic craft develop in rural areas, the number of tradesman and craftsmen increase, additional income increases. • Increase in the facilities such as food-beverage etc. increases employment and wage income. • Since construction sector develops, side sectors of it and income increase. The effect of rural tourism on providing employment to rural economy is another important issue. The additional demand arising with rural tourism increases both agricultural production and the number of touristic administration that arises with rural tourism. So, new employment opportunity comes out for the people living in the rural areas. Besides, the developments in rural tourism facilitate changing the roles of women in the family and the participation of women in working life more effectively (Karafakı Çetinkaya & Yazgan, 2012). Women play an important role especially in agricultural tourism in European Union. They carry out the activities related to tourism in the farms. For their professional status, the needs of women play a role in this term (Şerefoğlu, 2009). Rural tourism provides the employment of women living in rural areas indirectly. As well as the daily housework, the women gain income by producing agricultural products (canned goods, fruit, cheese, diaries, village bread, sausage, etc.) and various handicrafts and by selling them to the tourists and thanks to this kind of work, they have a job. The improvement in life conditions in the rural areas, ensuring fair income share, the increase in employment opportunities will decrease immigration as well. Those who live in the rural areas will evaluate the current opportunities without migrating to the provinces. So, both the migration from rural places to the province is prevented and continuous employment fields are created in rural areas thanks to tourism (Uçar et al., 2010). Besides, the status of young population in the society is strengthened. Together with new business branches, it is contributed to the young's being able to gain entrepreneurism spirit (Ongun & Gövdere, 2014). The increase in tourism demand for the regions having the potential of rural tourism supply leads to increase in touristic investments. That rural areas become attractive in terms of tourism incites public or private entrepreneurs to make new or additional touristic investments. Realizing these investments without destroying the local features is extremely important. The increase in demand of tourism for the region will ensure to increase the investments in the other sectors directly and indirectly associated with tourism sector. While this increase continues, the matter of considering historical, natural and cultural values in the region is extremely important. The natural destroys and the structuring that are not convenient for the nature will negatively affect the rural tourism (Uçar et.al, 2010). Another one of the effects of rural tourism to economy is the effect of sub-structure. Depending on the increasing tourism demands, with the sub-structure services developed with income support, the utilization of the local people will be ensured. In rural places, the development in sub-structure thanks to tourism, a significant increase in the quality and number of the services such as health and education are extremely important in terms of rural development. Finally, as a result of the fact that tourism is based on the nature in rural areas and the income that has previously been earned in big cities is spent in these regions, the difference between the urban and

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rural places in development level will reduce a bit more. The Effect of Rural Tourism on Social Structure Tourism is basically a social event. Tourism leads to a new lifestyle and carries a social flow quality. The relations emerge between the tourists and the local people and among themselves is an important aspect of socio-cultural effects of tourism. With the developments in tourism, the relations of tourists and local people, behaviors of tourists and their relations with each other come to the status of important social events and seen as the most important activator factors in starting the social changing factors (Civelek). Tourism is expected to be effective in ensuring social developments of individuals and as a result, in making positive behavior changes in individuals. As a result of the development of tourism activities in rural areas, the tourists get in touch with the local people with the aim of meeting their needs such as food and beverage, enjoyment, curiosity and recreation and they establish various relationships. As a result of this, there are some changes in the current social values, personal behaviors, interfamilial relations, moral rules, activities of handicrafts and traditional demonstrations of those who live in the rural places (Brunt & Courtney, 1999). The local people can benefit from the businesses in rural areas opened for tourism (restaurant, sport centers, accommodation facilities, etc.). So, it is to raise the life quality of the people. In the development of rural places in social sense, the possible effects of rural tourism can be listed as follows (Çeken et al., 2012): • As a result of continuous people mobility from urban to rural areas, life and behavior differences between urban and rural region are eliminated. • Associated with the employment created by rural tourism, the status of women in the family and society is strengthened. • Rural tourism contributes the young living in the region to gain entrepreneurism spirit. • With the development of rural tourism, professional knowledge and skills of the people employed in this region develop with the contribution of various education programs and thus the quality of rural labor force arises. • As a result of the fact that the tourists coming to the region accommodate in the units interlaced with the living areas of the local people, a social interaction arises and temporary friendships comes out between two parties. • With the effect of the development of rural tourism, migration from the rural to urban areas will decrease, and as a result of that, some improvements can be provided indirectly for the problems such as squatting and conurbation experienced in the cities. • Thanks to rural tourism, the societies having different social and cultural structures can associate with each other, and the interaction taking place as a result of such relations plays the role of accelerating the social change. • Rural tourism leads to change in consumption habits and nourishment types of the local people living in the region and accelerates the change in social value judgments. • As a result of visiting rural areas by the people living in the city, information flow occurs as a result, people learn new things and gain new viewpoints. • The interest towards traditional festival and enjoyment peculiar to the rural area motivates local people to continue to these activities; as a result, local identity strengthens. The Effect of Tourism on Cultural Structure One of the factors forming the touristic supply potential of a region is cultural structure. Cultural environment of a region is composed of physical culture factors such as historical areas remained from the past, historical museums, churches, architectural structures and historical monuments as well as ethnic societies and cultural asset factors specifying cultural features shared by ethnic groups and organizations (cited by Kodaş & Eröz, 2012). Rural areas mostly show the feature of close society and local people protects the cultural structure they have. Since the protected cultural structure show differences from other cultures, it also accelerates rural tourism demand for the region. If tourism develops within its natural course, the interaction of tourists with local people provides opportunities for the intercultural dialogue and revival of the traditional culture owned by the region (Uçar et al., 2010). That the individuals coming from different societies making information exchange with each other and

129 identify their cultural structures lead to new friendships (Civelek). Rural tourism have an important factor in the protection of local family traditions, values, belief and our cultural heritage in the region (MacDonald & Jolliffe, 2003). It is possible to summarize the possible effects of local tourism on the culture of the tourism as follows (Uçar et al., 2010): • As a result of the development of tourism in rural regions, cultural assets in the region are taken under protection, local people and tourists have knowledge about the history and culture of the region. Besides, the income obtained from tourism contributes to restoring the structures that are attractive in cultural sense. • In rural areas, together with the development in family boardinghouse owning depending on the tourism, a double directional interaction occurs in cultural structure and life style of the local people and tourists; and depending on the friendship between two sides, the result of enrichment of the cultures arises as a result of exchanging cultural components such as clothing, food culture, traditions and customs. • Rural tourism positively affects the protection of both cultural heritage and traditional architectural structure. • With the development of tourism in the region, the local people feel the need of learning a foreign language to make a better communication with tourists and thanks to this language; local people try to learn different cultures. • Emphasizing local identity, the protection of cultural diversity and originality are ensured (Uslu & Kiper, 2006). The Effect of Rural Tourism on Physical Environment Environment and tourism are closely associated with each other. For the sustainability of tourism, the protection and development of natural resources are required while tourism is an important tool to develop natural values (Uslu & Kiper, 2006). Rural tourism must use all the environment in its authentic form and is one of the tourism types that is the most solicitous to protectiveness. Considering that the tourists who choose farms and villages for the purpose of holiday are here to taste the natural; having uncontaminated forests and mountains, keeeping alive the traditional production types bounded to agriculture and breeding are very important. The importance to natural values is increasing day by day since they are the basic capital of rural tourism (monument trees, plateaus, waterfalls, etc.) Rural tourism is a kind of tourism that inspires the protection awareness to the guests coming to the tourism region and the people living in the region (Uçar et al., 2010). Negative Effects of Rural Tourism Rural tourism is a type of tourism having the least negative effects due to its features. Performing the accommodation in rural areas and mostly in the available houses of the rural settlements do not lead to environmental problems such as concretion and land consumption. Rural tourism do not lead to seasonal intense due to the feature of making in four seasons of a year and eliminates the touristic pressure. On the other hand, it may lead to various negative economic and socio-cultural changes by developing in time (Uçar et al., 2010). It is possible to summarize the possible negative results of rural tourism as follows (Morgül, 2006): • Rural tourism leads people who gain income from the agriculture to shift out of the agricultural sector. Unplanned development of rural tourism leads decrease in agricultural areas. • In the prices of land and the other real estates, there are speculative increases. Renting costs extremely increase and agriculture producers may incline to leave their land empty to wait for income instead of bringing-in from the agriculture. • The excessive and intense use of rural areas may destroy agricultural lands and by leading to the destruction of natural and cultural heritage protection areas, it ruins destroys the ecological balance. • The income earned from rural tourism may create an opportunity for local people to assess this income out of agriculture even outside that region, and this strengthens the capital flow to the other sectors and can remote rural tourism from the aim of improving that region. • Being crowded of the rural areas excessively leads to decrease in their attraction and lose their authenticity.

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• The efficiency reduces by the change in agricultural product sample. • Presenting rural areas and lifestyles as a product for tourism due to commercial reasons lead local life stories and identities lose their originality in time (cited by Rogers, 2002). Rural tourism leads to cultural contamination. It leads to destroy the existent spiritual emotions in time. • In case the rural tourism is made unplanned, the people may leave agriculture and focus on tourism and this may lead to value decrease in the agriculture. • The unconscious tourists' or the mass tourists groups' visits may destroy the natural structure. • As a result of the flexible structure of tourism sector, the people inclining to rural tourism can be affected by this flexibility negatively. • Depending on the development pace of rural tourism in the vicinity, increase in the prices of lands leads to rise in the prices of houses and rents. This case negatively affects the life conditions of the people living in that region. Those who will get benefit/harm from positive/negative features of tourism are local people. For this reason, the local people are required to be previously informed about the effects of developing tourism and adopted of the development of tourism. CONCLUSION In rural areas, it is considered that a particular importance should be given to non-agriculture activities in order to eliminate poverty. No matter how agricultural development and rural development concepts are closely associated with each other, rural development covers not only the agricultural development but the development in industrialization, education, health, social security, accommodation, transportation and employment fields. On the basis of rural development, there is establishing a balance in socio-cultural and economic differences between the urban and rural areas. The general purpose of rural development can be said to be the policies aiming to develop economic, social and cultural opportunities of rural societies. Rural development is the basic purpose of the developing countries. One of the basic components of rural development is rural tourism. The rural tourism, which is not a new concept; is a tourism activity emerged in the rural area and developed as a reaction to the stress and dilapidation of industry cities growth and developed in 19th century. Rural tourism that began to develop especially in 1970s emerged with the start of the tourism industry revolution. That the employees working in the industry were seen to rest in the village houses were the first activities (Perales, 2002). Today, the increase in income level, the facilities ensured by the improvements in working conditions and technological developments and that the people living in big cities need to relieve their tiredness in rural places integrated with nature ensured to increase the demand in rural tourism. For those who want to get away from the crowded population, air pollution and stress in the cities, it has become an ideal holiday type. Rural tourism has gained importance in rural places of European Union countries before long years. As a result of increasing demand in rural tourism, rural tourism has become one of the basic tools of rural development. The success of rural tourism is very important in rural tourism. In the worldwide, most of the developing and developed countries, the struggles for strengthening the economies of rural areas by using touristic supply resources for the purpose of tourism have accelerated. From this point of view, both in EU and in Turkey, the policies about rural tourism and development are formed. The European Union directs most of the economic and agricultural policy tools together with all positive and negative income for rural development (Dinçer, Türkay & Avunduk, 2015). Rural tourism forms an employment and income opportunity for rural areas in the first place. Especially in the places where agricultural activities are intensive, it is possible with rural tourism that the farmers can provide a side income for themselves and rise their wealth level by using natural, socio- cultural and historical values of the region without leaving agriculture, which is their main work. Especially in underdeveloped and developing countries, in small family organizations, providing side income with their own facilities of rural area (physical, human and cultural) is an important matter. It is a tourism type compatible with human, environment and local culture and so, it is less compared to the other tourism types. In rural tourism; accommodation and being able to make the local settlement in available houses do not lead to environmental problems such as concretion and land occupation. Besides, due to the feature of being able to continue for twelve months of the year, rural tourism does

131 not lead to seasonal intense and eliminates the use to exceed the capacity that will not be sufficient for seasonal intense. As well as its positive effects, rural tourism may lead to negative results provided that its development is not planned and managed in a professional way. It is especially important that the local people should adopt, embrace and become conscious of the tourism. Rural tourism is a commerce type requiring professionalism. Besides the hospitality of the local people, they should also be more conscious about how they can draw a tourist. Considering the education level of the people living in the rural areas, it is not known by many organizations. For this reason, some studies should be performed focusing on this matter (Şerefoğlu, 2009). REFERENCES Akbulak, C. (2016). Ardahan İlinde Kırsal Turizm Potansiyelinin Sayısallaştırılmış SWOT Analizi İle Değerlendirilmesi, Uluslararası Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi Humanitas 4 (7), 1-30. Akça, H. (2004). Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Kırsal Turizm. Ekonomik ve Teknik Dergi Standard 43(513), 61-70. Brunt, P. & Courtney, P.(1999). Host Perceptions of Socio-Cultural Impacts. Annals of Tourism Research 26(3), 493-515. Bull, A. (1995). The Economics of Travel and Tourism, Second Edition. Longmans, Green & Co Ltd., England. Clark, J. (1996). Kalkınmanın Demokratikleşmesi, (Çev: Serpil Ural). TÇV Yayınları, Ankara. Çakır A.; Çakır, G.; Dursun S. ; Dursun B. (2010). Kırsal Turizmde Yenilenebilir Enerji Kaynaklarının Kullanılması: Poyralı Köyünde Uygulanabilirliği. Uluslararası II.Trakya Bölgesi Kalkınma ve Girişimcilik Sempozyumu, 1-2 Ekim 2010,s.347-356, İğneada, Kırklareli. Çeken, H.; Karadağ, L.; Dalgın, T. (2007). Kırsal Kalkınmada Yeni Bir Yaklaşım Kırsal Turizm ve Türkiye’ye Yönelik Teorik Bir Çalışma. Artvin Çoruh Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 8 (1), 1-14. Çeken, H.; Dalgın, T.; Çakır, N. (2012). Bir Alternatif Turizm Türü Olarak Kırsal Turizmin Gelişimini Etkileyen Faktörler ve Kırsal Turizmin Etkileri. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekon, Bilimler Derg. 2 (2), 11-16. Çelik, S., Coşkun, E., Öztürk, E. (2013). Şehri Nuh’un (Şırnak) Kırsal Turizm Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi, 3 (2), 21-28. Çukurçayır, S.& Tezcan, K. (2011). Demokratikleşme ve Ekonomik Kalkınma: Etkileşim Analizi. Bilgi Ekonomisi ve Yönetimi Dergisi VI (II),48-76. Devlet Planlama Teşkilatı (DPT), (2000), Sekizinci Beş Yıllık Kalkınma Planı Hazırlıkları Çerçevesinde Hazırlanan “Kırsal Kalkınma” Özel İhtisas Komisyonu Raporu, Ankara Dinçer, M. Z.; Türkay, B.; Avunduk, Z.B. (2015). Kırsal Turizm Politikaları: Avrupa Birliği ve Türkiye’deki Politikaların Değerlendirilmesi. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi 5(1), 49-60. Dinler, Z. (2003). İktisada Giriş, Ekin Kitabevi, Dokuzuncu Baskı, Bursa. Dimitrovski, D. D.; Todorovic, A. T; Valjarevic, D. (2012). Rural Tourism And Regional Development: Case Study of Development of Rural Tourism In The Region of Gruža, Serbia. Procedia Environmental Sciences 14, 288-297. Fleischer, A. & Pizam, A. (1997). Rural Tourism in Israel. Tourism Management. 18(6), 367-372. Geray, C. (1999). İşlendirme Açısından Kırsal Gelişme Yöneltilerimiz, A.Ü. Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi 54(2), 62-100. Gobattoni, F.; Pelorosso, R.; Leone, A.; Ripa, M.N. (2015). Sustainable Rural Development: The Role of Traditional Activities In Central Italy. Land Use Policy 48, 412–427 . Gülçubuk, B.; Yıldırak N.; Kızılaslan,N.; Özer, D.; Kan, M.; Kepoğlu, A. (2010). Kırsal Kalkınma Yaklaşımları ve Politika Değişimleri, Türkiye Ziraat Mühendisliği VII. Teknik Kongresi, 11- 15.Ocak.2010., s. 1-19, Ankara. Hall, C.M.; Sharples L.; Mitchell, R.; Macionis N.; Cambourne B. (2003). Food Tourism Around The World, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford. Haven-Tang, C., & Jones, E. (2012). Local Leadership For Rural Tourism Development: A Case Study of Adventa, Monmouthshire, UK. Tourism Management Perspectives 4, 28-35. Karafakı, Ç. F.; Yazgan, M. (2012 ). Kırsal Turizme Kavramsal Yaklaşım, Kırsal Turizmin Önemi ve Etkileri Kırsal Turizme Kavramsal Yaklaşım, Kırsal Turizmin Önemi ve Etkileri, Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi 2 (2), 55-58. Kaypak, Ş.(2012). Ekolojik Turizm ve Sürdürülebilir Kırsal Kalkınma. KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi 14 (22), 11-29. Kiper T.& Yılmaz E. (2008). Şarköy-Kumbağ Arasında Kırsal Kalkınmayı Destekleyici Turizmin Olabilirliği ve Yerel Halkın Rolü. Tekirdağ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 5(2), 159-168.

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133 Chapter 10

An Ideal Example for Sustainable Tourism Development: Kaiserwinkl, Austria

Barış ERDEM*, Eray POLAT**, Sami Sonat ÖZDEMİR***

INTRODUCTION While tourism was an activity including small groups of wealthy people in the first half of 20th century; it has begun to gain a massive scale after the Second World War especially since the 1970s (Neto, 2003: 212). With the increase beyond the estimations in tourist number (Budeanu, 2005: 89), the positive economic effects of tourism such as creating employment and new investment opportunities were seen but the serious harm it gives to natural and socio-cultural environment has begun to emerge (Dabphet, Scott & Ruhanen, 2012: 1107). With starting to be noticed of the destructions given by tourism to the environment, various meetings have been organized under the leadership of the international institutions such as United Nations and the World Bank and the concepts such as “sustainability” and “sustainable development” have emerged in these meetings. The emergence of these concepts has led to the discussions about how the development of a tourism that does not consume its sources and that is sustainable will be on the reactions to the realization of mass tourism by consuming natural and cultural resources (Rızaoğlu & Biçici, 2011: 78). With the opinion that tourism activities mist be performed by ensuring the sustainability of tourism resources; a change began to be experienced on the triple of sea – sand – sun and in the demand of tourism intensified in the coastal area and it is begun to look for alternative ways (Akoğlan Kozak, Evren & Çakır, 2013: 16). Today's tourists who do not prefer contaminated natural areas, buildings deprived of visuality, overcrowded regions and noisy spaces demand the destinations in high quality and aesthetic environment (Hu & Wall, 2005: 621), giving importance to historical and cultural values (Akoğlan Kozak et al., 2013: 18), protecting local life styles and having flora and fauna that has not lost its quality. While tourists' preference, expectations and needs are differentiating, on the other hand, a change about preferred tourism regions has emerged. In this sense, the income of important tourism regions reduced and the attraction of new tourism regions and products increased. As an example for this situation, the increase in tourist numbers in the period of 2000 and 2003 that are 2% in Europe, %3 in Asia-Pacific and 27% in the Middle East (Ayaş, 2007: 61) can be given. New tourism concept requires drawing individual or smaller tourist groups instead of mass tourism, spreading tourism activities for a longer time and wider space and developing different tourism activities (Emekli, 2004: 417). So, natural and cultural environment constitutes the emergence reason of tourism and natural and cultural environment the importance of which is saved by touristic region throughout the life period will also be saved (Demir & Çevirgen, 2006: 85). Tourism which develops in a balanced way within the sustainability principles in a region will increase its quality together with protecting the environment and meet the tourists' expectations at the highest level. Due to all these reasons, sustainable tourism concept foreseeing the transmission of natural and socio-cultural resources without destroying has become a very important matter. In line with this, as stated by Falcon and Munoz (1999: 336); the public and private sector decision-makers and

* Assoc. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University Tourism Faculty, Recreation Management Department, Balıkesir, Turkey & Kyrgyz – Turkish Manas University The School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Tourism and Hotel Management Department, Bishkek, Kyrgyzstan. ** Res. Assist., Balıkesir University Tourism Faculty, Tourism Management Department, Balıkesir, Turkey. *** Res. Assist., Balıkesir University Tourism Faculty, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department, Balıkesir, Turkey.

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academicians raised interest in the subject after 1980 and plenty of studies, reports and meetings about sustainability were performed. In this study, it is focused on sustainable tourism development and in private; it is stressed on Kaiserwinkl sample that is one of the important touristic destinations in Austria. Kaiserwinkl is a destination including four small towns as Kössen, Walchsee, Schwendt and Rettenschöss. The region achieved saving its natural and cultural tissue and it is accepted to be one of the important destinations where tourism is vivid in the Central Europe for 12 months. It is thought that Kaiserwinkl destination constitutes an ideal sample for the development of sustainable tourism from this aspect. The detections revealed as a result of this study are expected to be leading for the regions which are planning to newly open for tourism. Again this study aims to reveal a perspective to make trials to the researchers who are interested in the field. The study includes three parts. In the first part, the concepts of sustainability, sustainable tourism and sustainable tourism development were discussed. In this part, also the applications about sustainable tourism which were carried out in various countries have been discussed. In the second part, it was given place to the relevant literature scanning performed related to sustainable tourism development. In the third part of the study, Kaiserwinkl destination of Austria has been discussed as a case study. 1. THE CONCEPTS OF SUSTAINABILITY AND SUSTAINABLE TOURISM According to Ertan et al. (2010: 143) and Sezgin and Karaman (2008: 429), sustainability concept constitutes one of the most important issues of 20th century; and constitutes one of the trend topics of all relevant subjects since 1990s (Godfrey, 1998: 213). Sustainability is described as the sustainability of a certain ecosystem or any other system having sustainability without interruption or ruining and consuming due to overuse and overloading to the main resources (Kaypak, 2010: 98). Kaya (1997: 2) summarizes the sustainability as providing the continuance of a resource being included in the economy without any reduction in the amount. This concept means long-term thinking and long-term protection and expresses not only the protection but finding balance between protection and usage (Hacıoğlu, Girgin & Tetik, 2011: 374). The continuance of the sustainability of the resources in any area taking human beings to the centre is aimed (Kocaboyun, 2009: 36). The perception of the importance of this subject in terms of the future of the world pushed each sector to produce solutions about their own job (Kahraman & Türkay, 2006: 95). Sustainability concept about tourism has been talked due to being destroyed of natural and socio- cultural environment of tourism destinations with unplanned development of tourism, and even according to Akid et al. (1996: 481) the destruction of the whole region (Choi & Sirakaya, 2006: 1274). In “Stockholm Notification" dated 1972, it has been drawn attention to the subjects of carrying capacity, taking into account the inter-generative justice and development and providing the unity of cultural, social and ecological environment (Hardy & Beeton, 2002: 476; Sarkım, 2007: 61); in "Common Future" also known as “Brundtland Commission” of World Environment and Development Commission dated 1987 (Hardy & Beeton, 2002: 480), sustainability concept has begun to be talked in the dimension of tourism and discussed in international platform (Butler, 1999: 7; Tosun, 2001: 289). In Rio Conference titled "Agenda 21" in 1992, it has been mentioned about the importance of the role in providing the sustainability of traveling and tourism industry and this case has been mentioned with the statement of “traveling and tourism industry have a great interest in protecting natural and cultural resources related to their own business area" (Sprecher, 2000: 30). "In World Conference on Sustainable Tourism and Sustainable Tourism Contract Conference’ in 1995, "Sustainable Tourism Contract" including some items such as being sustainable of tourism development in environmental, social and ethical mediums, providing the participation of all actors in private and public sectors, being based on effective cooperation at national and international levels, making positive contribution to economic development have been accepted. Other than these conferences, "International Environment Conference and Berlin Declaration (1997) on Bio-diversity and Sustainable Tourism”, “Global Ethic Principles Conference in Tourism (1999)”, I. ve II. “International Climate Change and Tourism Conferences" organized in the years 2003 and 2007 draw the attention as the conferences where tourism has been spoken (Tetik, 2011: 24 – 27). Sustainable tourism concept has become a subject that is stressed by tourism theorists and applicants besides international meetings and on which it is developed plans and

135 identified principles (Sharpley, 2000: 1). The description of sustainability as, “meeting today's needs without endangering the resources which will provide meeting the next generation's needs" has been adapted to tourism by tourism entrepreneurs, planners and researches (Hinch, 1996: 95). In this sense, while sustainable tourism is being described by Kahraman and Türkay (2006: 96) as “using tourism resources without consuming, polluting and destroying to allow to be used by the next generations”, it is explained by Butler (1999: 7) and Budeanu (2005: 92) as “ensuring the sustainability of any kind of tourism, in any place and at any time". In the description made by Liu (2003: 460), it has been emphasized that there are three critical factors to provide the sustainability as protecting the standards of the local people, providing the tourist satisfaction and protecting the natural resources. In the descriptions made, although there is not a full agreement in academic sense, (Hornagold, 2004: 75), as mentioned by Sarkım (2007: 85); protecting the environment and providing the next generations to make use of tourism activities come to the forefront as common points in the descriptions for this concept. On the basis of sustainability understanding, there is living by human beings in order not to exceed the carrying capacity to support the environment (Güneş, 2008: 172). In this sense, sustainable tourism can be said to have three dimensions as economic, ecological and socio-cultural. Economic sustainability can be described as using economical resources as efficiently and allowing to transfer o the next generations; ecological sustainability is performed by protecting the ecological diversity and resources and socio-cultural sustainability is strengthening the social identity by protecting the compliance of people with their own value and cultures and providing the sustainability (Timur & Getz, 2009: 221 – 222). With all of these dimensions, for applying sustainable tourism, it is very important for different interest groups to act together and in the conscious of protection and usage (Emekli, 2004: 417). Sustainable tourism includes social responsibility, economic efficiency and ecological sensitivity (Beyhan & Ünügör, 2005: 80). In this sense, many different concepts are used for sustainable tourism by the researchers. These concepts can be summarized soft tourism, low effective tourism, alternative tourism, green tourism, eco-tourism, responsible tourism, rural tourism and natural based tourism (Godfrey, 1998: 214). That all of these tourism types are pre-dominantly based in tourism types leads to be perceived of sustainable tourism concept as a tourism type and associated with these tourism types one by one. However, the sustainable tourism is an approach including the requirement of being protected of the environmental values as the basic element of tourism and carried out coordinately with economic development no matter which tourism type is (Kahraman & Türkay, 2006: 97). 1.1.Principles of Sustainable Tourism If a region is opened for tourism without planning in the light of sustainability principles, a reaction may arise among local people depending on tourism actions that may increase in time. Tourism activities that were approved at first, may arise the result of being disturbed by the mentioned activities after the emergence of its negative effects (İzgi, 2007: 47). For this reason, basic problems for ensuring the sustainability of tourism must be defined and the activities must be arranged according to these principles. Garrod and Fyall (1998: 202) list the principles that may consult to tourism sector on this matter as follows: Using resources as sustainable: The protection and sustainability of natural, social and cultural resources are important and ensure to create business areas. Reducing Overconsumption and Wastes: Reducing overconsumption and wastes contribute to the quality of tourism and reduce the costs caused by environmental destruction in long term. Sustaining the Diversity: For sustainable tourism development in long term, sustaining and inciting natural, social and cultural diversity are compulsory. Including tourism in planning: Tourism included by national and local strategic planning and the environment effect evaluation of which has been made can sustain its life for a long time. Supporting local economies: Tourism which supports economic activities and protects environmental values ensures both the protection of the local economies and prevents environmental destructions. Covering the local society: Full participation of local society to the tourism not only gains favor

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to themselves and their environment but increases the quality of tourism experiences. Getting Shareholders' and Public Opinion: The communication power between tourism industry and local people, organizations and foundations are important in terms of their working with each other and being able to solve the possible conflicts. Training the staff: Training empowered by local staff in all stages and which turns sustainable tourism into application increases the quality of tourism products. Forming responsible tourism marketing: Marketing providing full information for tourism increases the respect to the natural, social and cultural environment of the destination and customer satisfaction. Doing research: Since the analysis carried out with the data collected from the researches and observations will help the solution of the problems, it will be beneficial for the destination, industry and customers. The principles of sustainable tourism indicate that tourism has adopted not the high profits in short term but equality between generations in long term. The basic purpose of these principles is to protect tourism resources and transferring to the next generations (Sarkım, 2007: 113). 1.2. Sustainable Tourism Development Sustainable tourism development (STD) has emerged as a result of the growth of tourism sector intemperately and being affected by natural and social resources negatively (Greenwood, 2006: 17) and it expresses the compliance between the protection of the environment and economic benefit (Güneş, 2004: 500). According to this opinion, tourism types must be provided to be satisfied with both the efficiency of today's resources and being able to be satisfied with the needs and desires of the future generations at maximum level no matter which region it develops or not (Tosun, 1998: 596; Tosun, 2001: 290; Michalena & Tripanagnostopoulos, 2010: 668). Besides, since STD economical development policy has been the subject of some variables such as environmental subjects, social factors and international tourism system, it is a wide and multi-disciplinary concept (Tosun, 2001: 291). STD is a concept moving around the axis of the development and constituting an important dimension of sustainable development. In this sense, a tourism concept based on the sustainable development will be able to reach to the level of assigning the development direction of the region. But the important point is the matter that a tourism movement which has caught development momentum on social, economic and environmental basis do not give harm to its own development dynamics. In this sense, the tourism development is required not to leave a negative and continuous effect on today's and next generations' vital values (Çalışkan & Tosun, 2014: 1277). The success of the sustainable tourism depends on being more sensitive and intellectual in the administration of all units that may be effective on tourism (Güneş, 2004: 500). In this sense, sustainable tourism development has been expressed by Kaya (1997: 36 adapted from Müller, 1994) with the help of magic pentagon seen in Figure 1.

Economic wealth

Meeting the Subjective easiness visitors’ needs at the highest level

Protecting natural Healthy culture resources

Figure 1: Magic Pentagon of Sustainable Tourism Development (Source: Kaya, 1997: 36)

137 Here, there is a mutual interaction between these five factors. Each one of the factors has an equal importance and when a compatible unity is provided between them, ten it can be mentioned about sustainable tourism. So, while the negative effects on the nature and culture are being minimized, increasing the interaction between all dimensions is aimed (Avcıkurt, 2009: 145). 1.3. Implementations in Various Countries about Sustainable Tourism Development In order to be successful in the issue of sustainable tourism development which has gained importance as a result that tourism gains massive scale and the negative effects of it emerge, countries inclined to different implementations. As mentioned in the previous part of the study, that the scope of sustainable tourism is extremely wide has led to increase the applications performed and to differentiate. One of the most successful examples of sustainable tourism development in the United States of America is the projects known as Disneyland and organizing the touristic attractions. The project has been carried out in the region, the center of which is known as Florida marshes. The area has been turned into a protection area after being made eligible for the living of plant cover and animals; dams have been constructed with the aim of checking the distribution of sources in the area; pure water obtained from the irrigation of golf areas was used. Besides, trainings and seminars were given to ensure worker security (Kaya, 1997: 72 – 74). Within the scope of sustainable energy efficiency is another important issue. Many islands in the Mediterranean Sea and whose economy is largely based on tourism have made significant investment in the scope of renewable tourism. Sicily Island meets the electricity needs with the waves having the potential of generating electricity 800 times more than wind. In Gavdos island belonging to Greece and Sardinia Island belonging to Italy, it is made use of solar energy to meet the needs of energy in touristic activities intensified especially in August (Michalena & Tripanagnostopoulos, 2010: 668 – 669). About the development of sustainable tourism, “Cowichan-Chemainus Ekomüze” that has been formed in the shape of park in Vancouver island of Canada constitutes another approach. In eco- museum covering an area of 640 km2 and described as a museum without walls, the local people's traditions and cultures as well as their life styles are displayed. With this museum, it has been aimed to contribute to tourism for enlivening the region's economy and protecting natural and cultural heritage. The applications such as experiencing the forestry applications performed in the region by tourists, marketing the products of the region's tradesmen and producers, organizing local festivals, the employment of local people in touristic businesses have been realized within the scope of the project (Kaya, 1997: 75 – 76). With the aim of ensuring sustainability of Tourism also in Turkey, many projects have been carried out. With these projects, "blue flag project" which is an indicator that beaches and marines have international level of standards; "green star project" which is the document of being sensitive of accommodation institutions about protecting the environment (URL-1); being taken under control of water, electricity, energy, chemical and solid waste amount used in touristic institutions; "white star project" aiming to minimize the destruction of the environment and natural resources (Dolmacı & Bulgan, 2013: 4864); "Mediterranean-Aegean Tourism Substructure Coastal Administration (ATAK) Project" carried out with the aim of forming new coastal administration plans to eliminate the substructure deficiencies in coastal regions and forming new coastal administration plans (Kahraman & Türkay, 2006: 119) can be given as examples. Besides, the environmental impact evaluation (EIE) process carried out to evaluate whether the development of tourism or its dimension is appropriate or not and whether it provides benefit for the vicinity or region (Demir & Çevirgen, 2006: 169) is one of the most important applications carried out. In addition, there are various projects that have been carried out in the scope of Eastern Black Sea Project (EBSP) and with the aim of diversifying tourism and ensuring sustainability. With this project, developing winter tourism having the potential in the region on the basis of sustainability, it has been aimed to make slabbing studies to make the efficient promotion of the region in international level the region and to increase the visibility and awareness of tourism destinations in the region (URL-2).

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2. RELEVANT LITERATURE Academic studies in domestic and foreign literature for sustainable tourism development focused on many different subjects. In the examination made, great majority of the studies in the domestic literature have been identified to be for examining the perceptions and attitudes of local people about sustainable tourism development. Foreign studies subjected to sustainable tourism development generally include empirical studies including the field researches and book episodes based on literature examination. The matters examined mostly in the mentioned studies are the examination of alternative tourism types in different destinations on sustainable tourism development and the identification of the roles of shareholders in terms of their contributions to tourism development. Aforementioned studies are summarized in Table 1. Table 1: The Summary of the Relevant Literature Research Researcher/ Researchers Basic Purpose and Findings Method Duran, 2013: 76 – 94 Empirical In these studies, authors have examined the attitudes and behaviors Biçici, 2013: 19 – 36 Research of the local people leaving in the regions subjected to the study. Çevirgen et al., 2012: 65 – The data obtained in the studies indicate the participation of local 76 people in sustainable tourism development in different dimensions. Lee, 2013: 37 – 46 Saufi et al., 2014: 801 – 820 Ekinci, 2014: 178 – 189 Empirical The author suggests that some cities must be included in the Research application of "slow city" in order to eliminate regional differences in the development of sustainable tourism. Öztürk & Eraydın, 2010: Empirical In their study in which the authors mentioned about the importance 113 – 124 Research of cooperation of tourism shareholders in ensuring sustainable tourism development, they have reached the result that the cooperation that has been formed occurs mostly for economic matters not environmental. Michalena & Literature The authors have examined the contribution of solar energy to Tripanagnostopoulos, 2010: Review provide sustainable tourism development. 667 – 673 Yasarata et al., 2010: 345 – Empirical In the study for identification of the political obstacles before 356 Research sustainable tourism development, in the identification of policies, political system and power focuses have identified to play a key role. Jurdana & Frleta, 2011: 24 – Empirical In their study, the authors have aimed to reveal economic and 34 Research social achievement to be obtained thanks to sustainable tourism Zientara, 2012: 169 – 186 development in rural areas. Jadhav et al., 2013: 159 – Literature In the study, it was made some suggestions to tour operators about 165 Review realizing the applications to give the less harm to environmental and cultural structure in terms of sustainable tourism development. Shakeela et al., 2012: 35 – Empirical In his study examining the role of tourism training in ensuring the 43 Research tourism development, the author defends that the training must be brought to the necessary quality level in order that sectoral labor force demand can overlap the expectations. Doan, 2010: 249 – 263 Literature The authors examined the touristic features peculiar to the Onchwati et al., 2014: 49 – Review destinations and the contribution of alternative tourism types in 60 (Book these destinations to sustainable tourism development. Chapter) Ishwaran, 2013: 81 – 95 Literature The author discussed the subject of the relationship between Review sustainable tourism development and climate change. (Book Chapter) Cascante et al., 2010: Empirical As a result of the study analyzing the relationship between 735 – 756 Research societies based tourism and sustainable tourism development, the importance of being included in social institutions in the process

139 and ensuring their participation in decision-making processes has been emphasized. Ellis & Sheridan, 2014: 129 Empirical The studies were performed to measure the perceptions of – 142 Research shareholders and identify their roles in ensuring sustainable Dabphet et al., 2012: 107 – tourism development in various countries. 124 Kruja & Hasaj, 2010: 1 – 12 Rotich et al., 2012: 108 – 117 Boukas & Ziakas, 2014: 191 Empirical The study examines the effect of crises on sustainable tourism – 209 Research development. Ndlovu & Heath, 2013: 947 Empirical As a result of their study carried out to identify the effects of re- – 955 Research branding and regional identity on sustainable tourism development, Sani & Mahasti, 2011: 523 the authors have revealed that the mentioned factors can make a – 530 positive contribution to sustainable tourism development thanks to the supports of the shareholders. Reihanian et al., 2012: 223 Empirical In the research, it was tried to identify the strategies for sustainable – 228 Research tourism development through SWOT analysis. Petrevska, 2012: 701 – 706 Literature In his study, the author discusses the role of state administration in Review incitement and planning applications for the development of sustainable tourism. Matev & Assenova, 2012: Literature The author suggests development of social support approaches as 1065 – 1073 Review the supporter of sustainable tourism development. 3. A SAMPLE FOR SUSTAINABLE TOURISM DEVELOPMENT: KAISERWINKL / AUSTRIA Kaiserwinkl is known as important destinations in Tirol region of Austria. According to the data of the year of 2013, approximately 10 million of 36 million of domestic and foreign tourists visiting Austria went to Tirol region. From this aspect, Tirol is the destination drawing tourists mostly in Austria. In the second row, Vienna comes with nearly 6 millions of visitors. In overnight figures, again the superiority of Tirol region attracts the attention. In 2013, 45 million of 132 million overnight stays in Austria has come about in Tirol region. The average staying time in the region is seen as 4,4 days in statistics (Statistics Austria, Tourism Statistics. Compiled on 22 February 2014). Kaiserwinkl is a destination including four small towns as Kössen, Walchsee, Schwendt and Rettenschöss (Figure 2). The region has succeeded to protect its natural and cultural tissue up to now. From this aspect, it is accepted as one if the important destinations of Central Europe where tourism is experienced for 12 months.

Figure 3: Logo of Kaiserwinkl Destination Source: URL-4 Figure 2: The Destination of Kaiserwinkl Source: URL-3 As it is known, the tourism concept based on sea-sun-sand triangle continues its dominance throughout the world today and the people mostly prefer organizing their travels in the summer period. Undoubtedly, in such a preference, there is the important effect of school holiday periods, seasonal factors in the origin countries sending tourists, holiday habits and big tour operators guiding tourists. Nevertheless, intensifying the tourist flow in a certain time and place obstructs the carrying capacity in

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the regions that is traveled and as a result of this, tourism activities and reach to the dimensions to destroy natural and socio-cultural environment. In this scope, in the basic elements of sustainable tourism concept, the necessity of “spreading tourism to 12 months” is frequently emphasized. In figure 3, there is the logo of Kaiserwinkl destination. As seen in the logo, the blue part represents the "lakes" in the region (that is to say summer tourism), the strip going down from the colored part to the upside and shown in white color represents "skiing tourism" and the symbol indicating the sun just above this and snow represents "summer and winter season". With the logo of destination, it is tried to create the perception having the alternatives suitable for tourism activities of the region throughout the year. Actually, there are some alternatives tried to be told in the region. For example, the lake in Walchsee town which is frequently visited by tourists in summer months is worth-seeing (Fig. 4). In the lake, various activities are organized during summer and so, it is tried to be presented a pleasing holiday opportunity to the tourists.On the other hand, when figure 5 is examined carefully, it is noteworthy that Walchsee town has not a scattered settlement plan, nature and green are protected, the buildings in the settlement are single or two-storey and compatible with nature and there is no structuring in especially mountain slopes. Again, it is possible to express that the accommodation centers in the town are generally in the type of pension and the number of hotels which can be described as big scaled are not more than one or two. Figure 4: Walchsee – 1 (Source: URL-5) Many of the institutions especially being run on the type of pension are in the statue of family organization. This is another important subject in tourism in terms of economic sustainability.

Figure 5: Walchsee – 2 (Source: URL-6) When figure 5 is examined, it is understood better how much the nature is protected in Walchsee town. Being scarcely any structuring or touristic facilities around the lake is noteworthy at first sight. On the coast, there is only one and single-storey cafe. When all prominent factors in Walchsee town are evaluated together, they are said to be in compliance with the criteria which are important to ensure sustainability in tourism such as ‘protection of life standards of local people', 'ensuring tourist satisfaction' and 'protecting natural resources'. Another one of the tourism types in Kaiserwinkl destination is related to winter tourism. Especially Kössen town is an important ski tourism center (Figure 6). Kössen town is an important destination preferred by those who like skiing in the Central Europe in winter. The town has alternatives appropriate not only for skiing but for paragliding. Another factor that makes Kössen town attractive is the swimming activities of it. There is a

141 swimming pool center in compliance with the nature and open for the use of domestic and foreign tourists (Figure 7). The center with the name of “Erlebnis-Waldschwimmbad Kössen – Tirol” is prominent as an alternative tourism type for the tourists visiting the region. From this aspect, it is possible to say that Kössen town has tourism diversity required by sustainable tourism development.

Figure 6: Kössen Ski Center (Source: URL-7, URL-8)

Figure 7: Kössen Swimming Pool (Source: URL-9).

Figure 8: Alternative Tourism Types in Kaiserwinkl Destination Source: URL-10, URL-11, URL-12, URL-13, URL-14

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In Kaiserwinkl destination, there are prominent alternative tourism types other than these. For example; in Walchsee and Rettenschöss towns, there are trekking, cycling and water skiing and in Schwendt town, there are line fishing opportunities (Figure 8). Again in Walchsee town, there are adrenaline activities called as “Sommerrodelbahn” (Figure 9). So, it was tried to ensure tourist satisfaction without destroying the nature by creating alternatives convenient for the field of interest of the tourists visiting the region. Undoubtedly, socio-cultural sustainability is important at least as much as economic and ecological sustainability. When the real owners of a touristic destination are the local people living that region, being transferred of their own values and cultures by the people to the next generations and so, strengthening the social culture are very important in terms of sustainable tourism development. In the destination of Kaiserwinkl, it is encountered with good samples in the scope of socio-cultural sustainability. Especially various festivals organized in the region (Figure 10) both strengthen the local identity and give the opportunity for tourists to learn a different culture.

Figure 9: Sommerrodelbahn – Walchsee (Source: URL-15, URL-16).

Figure 10: The Festivals in Kaiserwinkl Destination Source: URL-17, URL-18, URL-19, URL-20, URL-21 In Kaiserwinkl destination, another interesting application in terms of sustainable tourism development is again related to ‘ecological sustainability’. In order to be less vehicle traffic for the destination, the roads were made narrow and the nature has been protected. Instead of this, using public transportation has been incited to be used. For example; tourists entering from Kufstein train station to the region can access to Kaiserwinkl easily by the buses moving from the front of the station. When the tourists are settled in the facility where they will accommodate, they are given card called as “Kaiserwinkl Card” (Figure 11). During the time when tourists accommodate in the region, they can make use of public transportation free by using this card. Again thanks to this card, tourists can make use of this opportunity of the hotels which are out of the facility where they accommodate and which have swimming pools free.

143 In Kaiserwinkl destination, while the accommodation facilities are planned, it was made swimming pools in each hotel to protect the environment but the hotels made agreement between themselves in order that the tourists having holiday in the region can make use of this opportunity. So, the tourists accommodating in any region in the facility were given the opportunity to make use of the activities of hotels thanks to

“Kaiserwinkl Card’. Figure 11: Kaiserwinkl Card (Source: URL-22, URL-23) This application constitutes a good sample for the coordination between the tourism organizations in this destination. Kaiserwinkl Card not only provides these opportunities but presents deduction opportunities to the tourists in making use of various activities (horse riding, doing shopping, using telpher, adrenaline sports such as sommerrodelbahn, playing golf etc.).

4. CONCLUSION In any countries, the development of tourism mostly in developed regions creates some regional differences and class inequities problems. As a result of this, the development problems caused by tourism in the country may arise. For this reason, in order to mention about sustainable tourism concept, spreading tourism activities throughout a year and its spatial distribution are also important. For this reason, the carrying capacities of the regions having tourism potential in tourism planning studies must be taken into account and new investments must be oriented according to these planning studies. In this study, the applications in Kaiserwinkl destinations presented as a sample case must be described as reference for tourism plans to be prepared in developing countries. Besides, the development of tourism especially in the underdeveloped regions is not so easy. Especially in underdeveloped vicinities and regions where there is a basic substructure deficiency, the development of tourism will be difficult, because substructure development generally requires intensive capital investment. On the other hand, that the tourists expect the facilities and services with the standards of their own countries obstructs the case more. Actually, it is very difficult to use scarce capital to form a substructure for tourism in underdeveloped regions. For this reason, the capital investments in the regions already having substructure may be more attractive (Tosun, Timoty & Öztürk, 2003). This difficulty mentioned leads to emerge some unbalances between developed and underdeveloped regions. Therefore, in the destinations that may be relatively small like Kaiserwinkl, it is needed some arrangements that will not obstruct the substructure or that will give the most optimal service with the available substructure. On the other hand, while carrying out tourism planning studies, raising awareness in local people has a different importance. Especially in the regions that have newly begun to develop in tourism, there are some obstacles for local people to make use of the incentives. Although there is no legal limitation in being made use of tourism incentives by local people, bureaucratic formalities and big tourism institutions' being deprived of necessary education and specialty may limit the local people to make use of tourism incentives. In such periods, it is needed to consultancy services to help local people to carry out and expand their own traditional operating activities (Tosun et al., 2003). On the other hand, in tourism plans to be prepared to reach the goal of sustainable tourism development, the necessity of taking into account the regional and local conditions is in question. It doesn't seem possible to reach this goal with a planning approach at macro and international level. Instead of this, it is needed to specific plans specific plans at regional and destination level (Tosun & Timoty, 2001).

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Limitations and Suggestions for Further Researches This compilation research is limited to current literature information. In the future studies, the empirical studies to be carried out about sustainable tourism development in Kaiserwinkl destination to relevant literature. The mentioned empirical studies can be performed on local people as well as the perceptions of the tourists who visit the destination can be examined by empirical researches. On the other hand, this study is limited with Kaiserwinkl destination of Austria. There are many destinations similar to Kaiserwinkl sample of Austria. In the next researches, the other destinations may be made the examination topic. Even similar studies can be carried out on the destinations that may constitute a sample for sustainable tourism development in the other countries of the world. Acknowledgement This study has been submitted to the Symposium of International New Orientations in Social Sciences organized in Milano city of Italy as a proceeding. REFERENCES Akis, S.; Peristianis, N.; Warner, J. (1996). Residents' Attitudes to Tourism Development: The Case of Cyprus. Tourism Management, 17(7), 481 – 494. Akoğlan Kozak, M.; Evren, S.; Çakır, O. (2013). Tarihsel Süreç İçinde Turizm Paradigması. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 24(1), 7 – 22. Avcıkurt, C. (2009). Turizm Sosyolojisi Genel ve Yapısal Yaklaşım. Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. Ayaş, N. (2007). Çevresel sürdürülebilir turizm gelişmesi. Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(1), 59 – 69. Beyhan, Ş. G.; Ünügür, S. M. (2005). Çağdaş Gereksinmeler Bağlamında Sürdürülebilir Turizm ve Kimlik Modeli. İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Dergisi/Mimarlık-Planlama-Tasarım, 4(2), 79 – 87. Biçici, F. (2013). Datça’da Yerel Halkın Sürdürülebilir Turizm Gelişimine ve Turizm İşletmelerine Yönelik Tutumları. Seyahat ve Otel İşletmeciliği Dergisi, 10(1), 19 – 36. Boukas, N.; Ziakas, V. (2014). A Chaos Theory Perspective of Destination Crisis and Sustainable Tourism Development in Islands: The Case of Cyprus. Tourism Planning & Development, 11(2), 191 – 209. Budeanu, A. (2005). Impacts and Responsibilities for Sustainable Tourism: A Tour Operator’s Perspective. Journal of Cleaner Production, (13), 89 – 97. Butler, R. W. (1999). Sustainable Tourism: A State of the Art Review. Tourism Geographies: An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and Environment, 1(1), 7 – 25. Cascante, D.; Brennan, M. A.; Luloff, A. E. (2010). Community Agency and Sustainable Tourism Development: The Case of La Fortuna, Costa Rica. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 18(6), 735 – 756. Choi, H. S.; Sirakaya, E. (2006). Sustainability Indicators for Managing Community Tourism. Tourism Management, (27), 1274 – 1289. Çalışkan, C.; Tosun, C. (2014). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Gelişimi Açısından Turizmin Gelecek Nesil Üzerindeki Etkilerinin Paydaşlarca Algılanması. 14. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, 5 – 8 Aralık, Kayseri, 1276 – 1288. Çevirgen, A.; Baltaci, F.; Oku, O. (2012). Residents’ Perceptions Towards Sustainable Tourism Development: The Case of Alanya. 3rd International Symposium on Sustainable Development, pp.65-76, May 31 - June 01, Sarajevo. Dabphet, S.; Scott, N.; Ruhanen, L. (2012). Applying Diffusion Theory to Destination Stakeholder Understanding of Sustainable Tourism Development: A Case from Thailand. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 20(8), 1107 – 1124. Demir, C.; Çevirgen, A. (2006). Turizm ve Çevre Yönetimi. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım, Ankara. Doan, N. T. K. (2010). Sustainable Tourism Development in Vietnam. In (Ed, T. Hundloe) Linking Green Productivity to Ecotourism: Experiences in the Asia-Pacific Region. Tokyo: Asian Productivity Organization Publication, pp. 249 – 263. Dolmacı, N.; Bulgan, G. (2013). Turizm Etiği Kapsamında Çevresel Duyarlılık. Journal of Yasar University, 29(9), 4853 – 4871. Duran, E. (2013). Yerel Halkın Sürdürülebilir Turizm Gelişimine Yönelik Tutumları: Bozcaada Örneği. Uluslararası Hakemli Beşeri ve Akademik Bilimler Dergisi, 2(3), 76 – 94. Ekinci, M. B. (2014). The Cittaslow Philosophy in The Context of Sustainable Tourism Development: The

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148 Chapter 11

Innovative Planning in Thermal Tourism Destinations: Balikesir-Güre Thermal Tourism Destination Case Study

Melike GÜL*, Kudret GÜL**

INTRODUCTION Innovation and planning in thermal tourism destination is an emerging research theme, and there is a growing understanding of the frameworks for involving innovative activities. Ilban, Köroğlu and Bozok (2008) indicate that thermal tourism is the type of tourism that developed in the areas of healing waters with beneficial minerals, medicinal mud and steam with unique climate conditions. Akbulut (2010) and Kervankıran (2014) state also that thermal tourism expresses a versatile kind of tourism with drinking and external application of mineral waters and hot springs including transportation, accommodation and other services to meet the requirements of health conscious customers. According to Kim and Ko (2015) thermal and health tourism differs from other tourism activities with its emphasis on treatment and medical care to improve one's health, and serves the purpose of improving the participant's quality of life through active participation. Rosenbaum (2014) reports that spa services marketed as an alternative vision of contemporary society that revolved around the interrelated themes of nature, “modernness,” and cosmopolitanism as well as a cure for the disorienting experience of contemporary life with modern treatments, amenities and accommodations. With another approach, Speier (2011) indicates that health tourism industry combine health cure, travel and business activities not only for people who seeking health and spa treatment, but also for generale clientele and youngers. But, accordig to Serbulea and Payyappallimana (2012) inducement and insurance coverage is a key determinat for improving health tourism. Naraindas and Bastos (2011) report that thermal spa services are supervised and supported by the states and are reimbursable medical expense to varying degrees in the different countries in the European continent. But, spa as medicine slowly fizzled out from the early part of the twentieth century, reappearing instead as an alternative healing practice in America or Brazil. Naraindas (2011) states also that the Kur treatment would be either fringe or alternative in the Anglo-American world, it is seen as part of medicine in the legal entity in Germany. As a result, Lee et al (2014) declare that spa brands tend to have short trend cycles as fast fashion and corporate profitability is sensitive to consumers' attitudinal changes in the worldwide. contribution of the health tour to subjective well-being to be more positive than non-seekers. Speier (2011) asserted also that most of spa hotel managers declare that patient tourists hear about the spa hotels from word of mouth, via internet and holiday web sites. Patient tourists try to combine their health treatment and spa procedures with their holiday, relaxation and leisure. On the other hand, the product diversifications that aim at attracting new customer groups by enhancing the customers’ memorable experiences play important role for prolonging visits or extending the season in the destination (Hjalager and Flagestad, 2012). Choi et al. (2015) claim also that functional and wellness values are also two aspects of perceived value in spa, whereas functional value represents visitors’ utilitarian aspects of perceiving the value of spa experiences, wellness value reflects the benefits of spa experiences in terms of enhancing physical, mental, and spiritual health. Planning a destination is the key driver for gaining required economic, social, cultural and environmental benefits in the thermal tourism. According to Dredge and Jamal (2015) tourism planning and policy issues can be systematized as rational scientific planning and policy processes, spatial

* Lect. Dr. M. GÜL, Balıkesir University, Sındırgı Vocational School Tourism and Hotel Management Department. ** Assist. Prof. Dr. K. GÜL, Balıkesir University, Balıkesir Vocational School

planning and development models (physical destination development), economic tools (growth and development), institutional theories (roles and responsibilities of government, business and community), the relational turn in planning and policy, critical turn, community engagement (public interest), priorities, evaluation and monitoring, dynamics and knowledge flows (managing change, mobilities, interrelations between policy makers) and reflexive practices. Vogt et al. (2016) report also that a collaborative locally driven tourism plan that is grounded with the participation of local residents and administratively mandated by government motives economic benefits as well as well-being and quality of life. With a similar approach, Rivera et al. (2016) report that tourism development positively impacts the happiness of residents through combined effects on social, environmental, socio economic, macroeconomic, and cultural dimensions. Hatipoglu et al. (2016) indicate also that lack of institutional structures for effective collaboration and leadership, stakeholders' narrow vision, lack of strategic orientation and financial focus based on self-interest may impede the realization of sustainable tourism despite the local community's involvement in the planning process. Moreover, Lozano-Oyala et al. (2012) report that six core factors need to be addressed in the case of the economic dimension in the destination planning. These are; economic benefits from tourist activities for the local community, the quality of the tourist offer available at the destination, new tourism products that attract low season visitors, local community employment levels, visitor accessibility and the tourism exploitation of resources. The temperature and discharge level of thermal waters depend on several factors such as changes of temperature with depth, underground conditions and dilution of the heated water in depth (Sadeghi and Khalajmasoumi, 2015). According to Kervankıran (2014) unproductive and inefficient usage of thermal water jeopardizes the sustainability of sources. Necessary precautions should be taken such as the protection of thermal waters, drilling and distributing. Thus, limited resources of thermal waters make it difficult to allocate among alternative usages.The complexity of thermal water usage forces it for good intersectoral coordination. This coordination may be arranged among local municipalities and goverments (the establishment of central cure treatment and distribution of thermal sources), ministry of environment and urban (from sources to the business), ministry of health (cure treatment control), ministry of culture and tourism (regulations for business and accomodation) and thermal tourism businesses (cure treatment business, accommodation, food and beverage, and other services). Ersun and Arslan (2011) report that all thermal tourism destination’s geography, position and superstructure differ from each other, and they have many common features such as the healing resources that create a gravitational force, cure services, accommodation, food and beverage services, entertainment and recreational services. On the other hand, Kim and Ko (2015) state that active leisure activities positively affect subjective well-being. As a result, there is a need for coordination of all activities in a thermal destination. This requires a necessity for integrated and innovative destination planning. On the other hand, Olalı and Korzay emphasize the importance of having adequate financial resources for the implementation of a plan. Healing resources, infrastructure, supper structure, cultural and social opportunities, relaxation, entertainment and adequacy of shopping opportunities should be also take into consideration in the thermal destination planning (Ersun and Arslan, 2011; Kavacık, Zafer and Inal, 2012). In addition to physical attractiveness factors, it is very important to be sensitivity for the protection of environmental factors such as plants, animal life and landscape usage (Kutvan and Kutvan, 2013). Chen (2015) satates also that tourists exhibit the strongest interest in sustainable tourism development comparing with residents and tourism businesses, and a positive attitude toward environmental protection and cultural preservation is considered as the driving force in promoting sustainable operations. On the other hand, Borović and Marković (2015) suggest that innovative geothermal utilization can be supported by energy self-sufficient tourism facilities with low environmental impacts. As a requirement of systematic destination planning, choosing the right market segmentation for a thermal tourism destination is very important. Positioning the destination depending on its attractiveness may be also useful for the selection of right marketing strategies. Therefore, it is important to balance between purpose of tourists visiting and destination's attractiveness in the destination positioning (Karabıyık ve İnci, 2012). In addition, Supak et al. (2015) assert that geospatial demand for destinations

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can improve management decisions affecting destination planning, marketing, natural preservation, and resident as well as visitor experiences. On the other hand, it will be the most appropriate solution to be constructed environmentally sensitive hotel investments by taking into account the local characteristics with different types and design in the destination. Another point to be considered in destination planning is the creation of suitable transport infrastructure to the destination (Kutvan ve Kutvan, 2013). Thermal destination planning should be done in accordance with integrity, conservation, development and participation criteria. In this approach, integrity requires sectoral developmentalism that supporting physical form of the strategic plans with environmental sensitiveness and natural conservations. Conservation requires a way to pass on to future generations of natural, cultural and historical assets. Developmentalism requires dealing economic, social and the spatial development all together, and the participation requires an applicable plan that ensuring the participation of all social actors in the planning process (www.csb.gov.tr). On the other hand, institutional innovation is one of the main drivers for a destination planning. According to Hjalager and Flagestad (2012) institutional innovation is concerned with creating new modes of collaboration and establishing organisations, and it aims to reap economic benefits (in terms of visitors, spin-off effects, etc.) which could not be harvested by single stakeholders acting alone. Institutional innovations are also bridging sectoral barriers or linking mental frameworks and pooling resources in new ways, as well as regulating this collaboration. It requires also collaborative structures for ensuring renewable resources and commercial success depending on public-private sector partnerships in the capacity utilization. As the Turks are a bath loving people, this cultural advantage has given rise to certain unique cultural health practices such as Turkish bath. Historically, this cultural health practices made also common usage of thermal waters in the Turkish baths. But there are several reasons for transformation from cultural traditions to modernization. Turkish bath practices have an inherent link with the cultural traditions. Today, beyond this tradional dimension, increase in the both internal and international travel has been changed these practices. The trends seem biased towards holiday and leisure rather than beneficial of thermal waters. As cure prescriptions are uncommon in the traditional practices, the length is much shorter for cure treatment and generally limited with massage. Thus, the benefits of visitors may not be fully obtained indicating the deterioration of knowledge and cure practices. MATERIALS AND METHODS The aim of the study is to investigate current destination planning approach and to provide an innovative destination planning model for Güre Thermal Tourism Destination. The case study includes expert interviews and questionnaire that consists of 6 ranking questions and 12 open-ended questions. Ranking questions include economic and environmental factors as well as the priorities in branding, touristic product development and improving thermal services that affect thermal tourism destination plan. In order to calculate mean value of the each factor, the highest score is given the most important factor to be considered and the lowest score for the least important (exp. mean value of a variable that consist of eight factors, 8 point is given the most important factor and 1 point for the least important factor, and then multiplied by the number of frequencies). Ural and Kılıç (2011) state that variables are ranked according to the degree of importance to each other in the ranking scale. Fabris (2013) indicates that the implementation of the ranking technique is based on ranking the items from most important to least important by the participants in a given subject, according to a predetermined structure. Methodology included also web site content analysis of 8 thermal and spa hotels, participants observation, informal and formal interviews with Edremit district municipality representatives. Data obtained from 8 interviewers that consists of 6 thermal and spa hotel representatives, South Marmara Development Acency representative and Balıkesir Province Culture and Tourism Directorate representative. Turkey is the leading country in the Europe with its high geothermal potential and therapeutic hot springs. Thus, health tourism depending on geothermal resources has emerged as a significant alternative tourism in Turkey in recent years. However, the country are not competitive enough with European leading countries due to inability to have a reputation of thermal destinations and lack of cure centers in terms of quantity and quality. In order to solve the problem, a master plan has been prepared

151 in the Turkey's Tourism Strategy 2006-2023 Action Plan and four regions including Southern Aegean (Aphrodisia), Southern Marmara (Troy), Phrygia and Central Anatolia is selected as the leading thermal tourism destinations. In this way, it is intended to maximum utilization of the benefits of the aging population of Europe, the Middle East market share, advantages of spreading tourism to 12 months and permanent employment, investment and business profitability and high domestic demand as a regional development tool. Balıkesir with Bursa, Çanakkale and Yalova is in the South Marmara health tourism and thermal tourism development plan. Thermal sources of Balikesir province is also designed in accordance with thermal destination planning criteria in the same action plan. In this framework, in addition to Edremit-Güre and Gönen thermal tourism centers that previously declared as thermal tourism centers in 1993, other destinations that Gönen-Ekşidere, Bigadiç-Hisarköy, Manyas-Kızık, Susurluk-Kepekler, Sındırgı-Hisaralan and Balya Şifa thermal tourism destinations have been also declared as thermal tourism centers and a total of 57 000 beds is foreseen across the province at the end of planned period. It is also planned 35 000 beds for other thermal centers at a total of 92 000 beds across the province (www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr; www.balikesir.bel.tr). Master plan of the thermal tourism centers is integrated with other types of tourism such as cultural tour routes, ancient cities and natural itineraries. 21-day cure program is also predicted with at least 14- day tour programs for thermal tourism centers. Thus, the opportunites of entertainment and relaxation is provided to the tourists whose coming to the thermal tourism centers (www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr). As a result, developments during the action plan shows that Güre is emerging not only as a thermal tourism destination, it also conducive to sea, sand, sun, historical and natural tourism. In other words, although these destinations planned as a thermal tourism center in the action plan, inadequate cure treatments in these centers emerged them as holiday, entertainment and leisure destinations as well as thermal tourism destinations. Thus, it may be suggested that the targets can not be properly identified for those thermal tourism centers in the Turkey's Tourism Strategy 2006-2023 Action Plan. As a result, these centers are emerging as holiday centers instead of cure treatment centers. This problem is the main driver of the study. A destination grows with market demand and changes in response to internal and external environments. According to Zhang and Xiao (2014:228) a destination development has five stage depending on market demand upgrade and evolution of driving forces. These are; Exploration stage; Promotion by social elites and the beauty of natural scenery were the major drivers of tourism development. During this stage, local government became gradually involved in developing tourism. Starting stage; Inside and outside accessibility increases and institutional change generates the pull of institutional environment. Conflicts amongst institutions occurred and continued to drive a new round of institutional change. Fluctuation stage; Basic tourism facilities come up, and the pull of governmental investment and marketing take place. Investment and capital raised by both local government and private enterprises in the subsequent phases of fluctuation and acceleration which are the main catalysts of destination development. Acceleration stage; Comfortable tourism facilities and services raises, and the pull of entrepreneurial investment and marketing become more commen. The growth of domestic markets and competition amongst domestic destinations drove the upgrade of facilities and services. Transition stage; Market differentiation and comprehensive experiential projects take place, and the pull of product innovation and brand image become more important. Possessing high-quality facilities and service become the bottleneck for the acceleration of the destination’s development. According to Hjalager and Flagestad (2012) diversifications that comprise festivals and events, season- enhancing products and products for new target groups expand the conception of well-being in this stage. Our research that carried out based on web pages of thermal tourism business, the data of Balikesir Province Culture and Tourism Directorate, Balikesir Municipality and investors declaration indicates that capacity increase with new investments and renovation investments is 260 beds in Gönen, 180 beds in Gonen-Ekşidere, 1200 beds in Bigadic-Hisarkoy, 436 beds in Sındırgı-Hisaralan, 600 beds in

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Susurluk-Kepekler and 200 beds in Balya Şifa thermal tourism destinations. There is no capacity increase in the Manyas-Kızık thermal tourism center in this period. The maximum capacity increase has been faced in Edremit-Güre thermal tourism destination and it ranks first in the increase of bed capacity with 4546 in this period. The investments that made in the destinations in the last 10 years as follows (table 1). Table 1. Actual Investment in the Planed Thermal Destinations Between 2006-2016 in Balikesir Province Thermal Destination Center Room Apart Flat Bed Edremit-Güre 776 784 4546 Gönen 129 - 260 Gönen-Ekşidere 60 - 180 Bigadiç-Hisarköy - 464 1200 Manyas-Kızık - - - Susurluk-Kepekler 300 - 600 Sındırgı-Hisaralan 148 34 436 Balya Şifa 90 - 200 TOTAL 7422 Depending on a destination development stages and drawing upon implementation in Güre thermal destination, this paper demonstrates thermal facilities and services in driving destination change. By taking into account the existing structure of Güre thermal destination, the following innovative destination planning model is developed and visually depicted in Figure 1. The model could be useful for examining destination development in Güre. It may be possible that this inductively derived model could be verified and empirically tested in other destination contexts for its explanatory capacity. As Jones et al. (2011) reprorted, a modelling may contribute to destination planning by seting an information system for individuals and groups, cooperation betwen groups, institutional learning, and assist assumptions. The offerings detailed above illustrate a variety of approaches that related to Turkish thermal baths traditions. Within these traditions, thermal water experiences are vital, and these experiences entail a strong emphasis of relaxation and comfort. It is also demonstrate that some innovations concern minor issues, details and incremental improvements in the thermal destination planning. RESULTS Permanent population of Edremit district is 140 857. But it is supposed that the population is almost 1,500,000 in the destination during summer times, especially with the impact of seconday residence holidaymakers. The destination has significant geothermal resources and 2742 houses is also heated with these resources. The geothermal resources are particularly available in Güre and Bostancı neighborhood in the distict (www.gazeteyenisoz.com). The flow of thermal water in the destination is about 232 cubic meters per second. The temperature of thermal water ranges from 40-68°C (South Marmara Development Agency, 2015). Edremit-Güre destination is generally used by domestic tourists and many hotels have been set up near hot springs. Thermal water is offered in the spa centers and thermal pools in each hotel to attract tourists in the destination. Güre thermal water contains magnesium, iron, potassium, calcium, sodium and aluminum. With these contents, it is used in the treatment of skin, thyroid, arthritis, kidney stones, liver disease and some women diseases (www.tatilbudur.com). Local manucipality has an authorty on how to use thermal spring and resources. There are 8 thermal and spa hotels. Spa hotels and resorts are trying to develop their health cure and leisure services in specific ways that are oriented toward market-based consumption. There are also a few SMEs hostels that use thermal water in their room and bathing in order to atract tourist. This situation leads to destructive competition for businesses in the scope of research. It is used as creating image strategy by SMEs. But, according to Song at al. (2005) using hot spring water in the hotel rooms and bathing has radon levels in indoor air exceeding relevant guideline levels and thus might have potential health risks through inhalation. Also rooms in ground floor with floors contacting with soils should be avoided to be used as hotel guestrooms. However, health tourism

153 has been growing rapidly with the new globalized spa hotels that offering high quality thermal service. The destination is also trying to gain its reputation as a holiday and health resort for people from all over the country.

Figure 1. A process-driven model for innovative thermal destination planning. Thermal and spa hotels have their own unique designs, facilities and service structure that differ greatly from other hotel facilities. These hotels are often preferred by the customers who are more sensitive about health services. Internet is one of the most effective ways of advertising tool for these hotels to promote their spa and health services in the both national and international tourism market. In the study, the websites of 8 thermal and spa hotels that operating in Edremit-Gure thermal destinations were examined and these sites were evaluated for their thermal and spa services offered at the hotels. The data that obtained as a result of web sites content analysis and participant’s interview is in the table 2. Table 2 shows that all hotels provide thermal pool and traditional Turkish bath facilities. Sauna and steam room is also much common. Some hotels have also therapy pools, thermal jacuzzi, vitamin bars, cap type baths, snow room and salt room facilities. Massage, foam and scrubs, facial and skin care services are also much common. According to interview results and data obtained from 8 participants, economic priorities that affect Güre thermal tourism destination as follows (table 3). Extending season is 10.83, the number of visitors is 10.28, infrastructure investment is 10.25, superstructure investment is 9.83, imployement is 9.57, product diversification is 7.83, businesses earning is 7.17, destinational competitive advantage is 7.00, room rates is 7.00, locals earning is 6.60, the earning of affiliated sectors is 5.67, guilds earning is 4.40 and the existence of financial institutions is 2.50 (Max. 13.00). Accordance with importance, the most important enviromental priorities are ranked as protecting plant cover is 7.83, natural view is 6.63, sea pollution is 6.50, land pollution is 5.67, wastage pollution is 5.63, noice pollution is 5.00, coastal demolution is 4.86 and air pollution is 3.33 (max. 9.00).

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s of thermal and spa hotels s in the Güre Thermal Tourism Destination * Data is obtained via interview and web sites contents analysi The Facilities and Services Offered by Thermal Spa Hotels Table 2.

155 Table 3. Destinational Economic and Enviromental Priorities in the Güre Thermal Tourism Destination Economic Priorities Extending Season Number of Visitors Investment Infrastructure Superstructure Investment Imployement Product Diversification Businesses Earning Des. Competitive Ad. Room Rates Local Earnings Earning of Affiliated Sec. Guids Earnings Existence of Financial Ins. Frequencies 6 7 8 6 7 6 6 5 7 5 6 5 6 Weighted Avarages 10.83 10.28 10.25 9.83 9.57 7.83 7.17 7.00 7.00 6.60 5.67 4.40 2.50 Enviromental Priorities Protecting Plant Cover Protecting Natural View Sea Polution Land Polution Wastage Polution Noice Coastal Demolution Air Polution Increase in Population Frequencies 6 8 8 6 8 7 7 6 6 Weighted Avarages 7.83 6.63 6.50 5.67 5.63 5.00 4.86 3.33 1.83

We investigated also the priorities of destinational brad equity, products, thermal facilities, thermal and spa services in the study. According to participants view, related destinational priorities determined as follows (table 4). In accordance with importance of participants’ opinion, cure treatment (7.87), eco tourism (5.00), meeting and conference (4.83), cultural tourism (4.57), sea and sun (4.50), history and mythology (4.43), holiday and entertainment (3.28) and sportive activities are the main priorities for creating brand equity for destination (max. 8.00). Participants indicate also that cure treatment (11.75), accommodation (9.25), sightseeing tours (8.00), food and beverage (7.57), conference organizations (6.83), cultural activities (6.83), entertainment (6.50), sea and sun (6.17), recreational activities (5.83) and sportive activities (5.57) are the main products that attract tourist to destination (max. 12.00). According to participants’ perception, the priorities of thermal and spa facilities ranked as thermal pool (9.87), Turkish bath (8.12), therapy pool (7.75), steam room (6.17), sauna (5.43), thermal jacuzzi (5.00), salt room (4.67), cap type bath (3.50), snow room (3.17) and vitamin bar (2.43) in accordance with importance (max. 10.00). The priorities of thermal and spa services ranked as hydrotherapy (14.5), massage types (14.25), respiratory cure (12.17), mud bath (12.0), herbal bath (11.67), facial and skin care (11.6), moss care (10.83), reflexology (10.8), aroma therapy (10.25), relaxing (9.85), foam and scrubs (8.2), balneotherapy (7.33), adventure shower (7.0), detox (6.17), coffee peeling (6.0), honey cure (5.2) and milk bath (4.69) (max. 17.00). Descriptive analysis methods were used in the clasifying of the participants' answers to open-ended questions in the study. Participants suggest that establishing a cure center based on cooperation between stakeholders, diversification in thermal cure services and improving new cure services that are prescribed by doctors, diversification in massage rituals, honoring refreshments, treatment with stones, improving geriatric and respiratory services are the innovative services that increase destinational attractiveness.

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Facilities, Thermal and Spa Services. The Priorities of Destinational Brand Equity, Products, Thermal Table 4.

157 Four participants support health insurance coverage for thermal cure and spa stays. Two participants support thermal cure based on adequate infrastructure. One participant proposes a sample application. One participant had no comment. Four participants suggest that a well-planned health insurance coverage system should be based on the referral of patients through the health authorities, doctors’ authority and prescription. Participants claim that such a system will be increase thermal hotel revenues. They also suggest that financial and prescription control is necessary. One participant said, “Protecting the system against misuse is very important. There may be incorrect, unnecessary and blowing bill cure and prescription”. Another participant said, “The infrastructure of the thermal hotels and spas must be inspected and accreditation is vital”. Another participant said, “There are many patients waiting for healing within the country and abroad. We have opportunities to meet this demand. The problems we face in agreement with the insurance companies. Govermental support and coordination is necessary”. Another participant said, “If all patients demand thermal cure, system can not be run anymore. Delimitations and restriction is mandatory for a well-run system”. Four from eight thermal hotels that operating in the destination provides their thermal water requirement over priced cubic meters from local municipality. Two thermal hotels use their own drilling that only charged with operating license per year. Two businesses that their own drilling is no sufficient use both local government and their own resources. Except one, participants support central cure investment project under the leadership of local government. They think that such a project could be applied in cooperation with stakeholders such as local municipality, governorship, businesses, opinions leader, commercial and non-commercial organizations. Bureaucratic obstacles are considered as the most important challenges. Participants evaluate that such a project requires high investment cost. Thus, it is stated that investment incentives and state support is required. One participant suggests that such an investment will provide cost benefits and competitive advantages. But some investors who have high quality services may not support this project. Another participant suggests that cure complex requires high cost and qualified staff. This may lead a well-run cooperation with ministry of health. Business representatives who opposed the view declared: “such a project will be used to ignore our existing drilling licence and the rights to use thermal water with lower cost. We believe that such a project is a violation for our commercial interests”. Traditional usage of thermal water in the destination is problematic for international competitive advantages. Central cure complex investment evaluated as a tool for the transition from the traditional use of the thermal water through the modern use. Participants indicate that 14-21 days cure package is necessary under doctor’s authority. They also indicate that cure service diversification, prescription based cures, insurance coverage, customer awareness about thermal cure and the role of cure complex would be beneficial for modern thermal water use. These applications will be improve quality of thermal and spa services. Using thermal water in the rooms or not is one more issue in the thermal tourism destinations planning. Six participants do not support thermal water usage in the rooms. They emphasize that the risk of using thermal water out of doctors’ authority, unconscious and wild usage, waste and depletion of natural resources, faster deterioration of facilities and short stays. Hovewer, two participants claim that using thermal water in the rooms are considered more attractive compared to the common areas and the ease of use by customers. Emphasize that all rooms have thermal water has also marketing and advirtisement advantages. Participants agree for thermal water distribution policies under the control of local government. They indicate that thermal water should be distributed from one center, and formalization of reserves, distribution according to needs, considering the characteristics of the thermal water in the spa services, control of the heat losses and to prevent mineral losses by using heat exchanger system is necessary. One participant suggests that if the thermal water is not sufficient, high standard hotels should have priority. Another participant emphasized health use priority in the thermal water instead of the alternative use. The advantages of Güre thermal tourism destination are listed as nature, oxygenrich clean air,

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history and mythology, Kazdağı, plant cover, fresh water, climate, mineral-rich thermal water, eko tourism, cultural tourism, water and outdoor sports, proximity to large cities such as İstanbul, Bursa, Eskişehir and İzmir. Desadvantages of destination are listed as low brand equity, low recognition of destination in the country and abroad, lack of advertising and promotion, transportation, short season, lack of qualified personel, secondary houses, local development policies and practices, inadequate and substandard facilities, weak connections with travel agents and international organizations. Participants also indicate that it would be beneficial for the destination to improve competitive products such as making the mesurement of oxygen and improving it for respiratory cure, integrated tours (Kazdağı, mythology, history, eco, local culture etc.), extreme sports, gastronomy, olives and olive oil and new recreational activities. Destinational planning priorities are listed by participants as environmental sensitivity, the adequacy of infrastructure and transportation, harmony with nature and technology in the structuring, priority in horizontal structures instead of vertical, quality and high standard facilities, take precautions against noise, air, sea and land pollution, sustainability, landscaping, protection of cultural values, destinational branding, sensitivity in changing customer needs, efficient thermal water distribution policy and water use, facilities in different price and quality and to improve 14-21 days cure packages. Participants indicate that sustainability in thermal water depend on use of renewable resources, making necessary regulations and inspection on this issue, making the necessary infrastructure investments for the return of thermal water to wells, efficiency in the use of thermal water with the central complex, the establishment of wastewater collection center by municipality and the adoption of policies for public as providers and buyer for private sector in the thermal water resources, no force for carrying capacity and the policies for extending public holidays. Participants agree also that using destination as respiratory cure and sports medice is not attractive well enough. Hovewer, they indicate that these activities may be integrated with other attractiveness in order to improve destinational image. They also claim that there should be respiratory cure and sportive camp center in Kazdağı (Mount Ida). One participant proposed that the trail map of Kazdağı is necessary for athletes in order to satisfied hike. Finally, participants emphasize that coordination and participation of stakeholders makes easy to reach the target of a destination plan with the concept of “first quality servive after profit”. Participants proposed also that destination should be planned as thermal cure and spa cluster center, and other service providers and suppliers (accommodation, food and beverage, entertainment, leisure, sports, culture, history etc.) should be integrated to this system. DISCUSSION Today, healty life demand, sensitivity about wellness, environmental sensivity, indulgence in good food and community interactions had a multidimensional health and well-being effect on thermal tourism. But inadequate awareness of cure treatment among the public, insufficient research on thermal theraphy and lack of insurance coverage are some of the major challenges in the sector. According to Pforr and Locher (2012) focus on a thermal destination’s core competence as well as its unique endogenous potentials, increased levels of interconnectedness and network building between the various service providers stemming from the integration of a wide range of health-related products and services increase competitive advantage of a destination. Our research findings support this opinion. According to participants’s view point, thermal cure centers and cluster buildings that managed by the regional organization such as local government, provincial administrations and businesses has been facilitated in the innovative planning process. Innovative thermal spring destination planing should also focus on the new spa trends through youth, beauty and anti-stress programs. In this way, the spa hotels can meet the expectation of different clienteles who have no serious sick. According to Verykios et al. (2015) converting or promoting traditional thermal hotels as clinic/thermal properties is also another trend in thermal tourism destinations. On the other hand, Smith and Puczko (2010) indicate that European health tourism trends shift away from medically orientated and curative treatments for the physical body, towards a greater degree of self-responsibility through lifestyle based, preventative wellness activities. They also report that these trends differ depending on geographical and cultural differences between Northern, Western, Southern, and Central and Eastern European regions and countries. Some countries mainly focused on

159 holistic body-mind-spirit products and services in addition to beauty-based luxury spas, whereas others have traditionally focused on medical baths which cure and rehabilitate physical illnesses. In our case study, we revealed that all hotels provide thermal pool and traditional Turkish bath facilities to their clients. Sauna, steam room, massage types, foam and scrubs, facial and skin care services are also much common. These findings indicate that thermal and spa hotels in the destination focus on private use of thermal water with traditional way instead of cure applications. This trend can be considered as a handicap in terms of competitive advantage for the destination. In order to solve these structural problems, we improved a model for the the destination in the study. Although not a full consensus among participants, there is a strong desire for the model to be adopted into a broad range of planning processes. The issues have been raised on the agenda and there is strong support to use the model for upcoming planning processes. In order to ensure support for improved model among stakeholders in Güre, it is necessary to take certain steps at various hierarchical levels. First, it is essential to provide legal regulations about thermal water distribution as well as strategic planning documents. Centralized cure services is vital. Moreover, it is necessary to establish standardization and certification of thermal facilities by taking into account internationally accepted standards. The next step is to brand destination. Furthermore, existing cure services have to be converted into innovative product diversification. Thermal resources are also economically utilized with higher degree of capacity utilization by extending the season. Thermal tourism based on these starting points will be able to provide a year-round business, and may improve image of destination. It will be also lead to greater financial and economic benefits. Two companies use their own drilled water and six company use thermal water provided by local municipality in the destination. Few small companies that operating Turkish bath use also thermal water. The drilled thermal water is used as if it will never end and there is no return process to the wells. In the same basin, the existence of low standard small facilities jeopardize to the future of qualified facilities and the image of destination. To provide independent thermal services by large scale and SMEs facilities is a serious problem in the basin. Existing thermal water distribution policy threatens the renewability and sustainability of thermal water and decreases the quality of the thermal services. In order to solve problem, a central thermal cure and treatment center that operated by municipality should be established. Thus, visitors of destination can get high quality thermal cure and treatment services, and each accommodation facilities can focus on core services such as accommodation, food and beverage, relaxing, recreation and entertainment. Prolonging the season in a tourism destination is one of the main issues. As Peršić and Janković (2012) stated taht health tourism provides a higher degree of capacity utilization in tourist destinations by prolonging the season. In accordance with the participants’ consensus, thermal tourism could play important role for extending the season in the Güre tourism destination. On the other hand, Güre thermal destination is generally preferred by domestic visitors. The number of international visitors is almost none. There is a need to create international thermal competitive advantages by packaged and coordinated thermal offerings to foreign tourists. Verykios et al. (2015) suggest that introducing more health and wellness activities in the services offered at thermal establishments could further induce international demand. They also indicate that targeting and capturing more international business may serve as a good “safety net” that could assure healthy business results, but this extroversion would only bring results provided that the owners of the thermal properties would invest in required renovations. CONCLUSIONS Notably, with respect to sustainability in economic and environmental terms, a key point is perhaps to achieve a well-planned destination development depending on regulations on allocation of geothermal sources, providing central cure services and involvement of all related parties for future development of a thermal destination. Thus, sustainability of a destination development could be formulated together for business orientations and strategies for both public and private sector. The interviews with both commercial and public sector actors point to a range of future developments as innovative destination planning, and the analysis of the previous researches underline the need for a more detailed and inclusive strategic approach. The integration of respondents' individual opinions and group consensus results indicate also that more advertisement which includes special

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products and services about thermal destinations such as thermal cure and recuperation are needed to develop in the Güre thermal tourism destination. As a result, despite the singularity of the Güre case and perspectives of the authors, it is suggested that the driven innovative planning model may be empirically verified in future undertakings on thermal destination planning in different contexts. Thermal cure and therapy is not currently covered by social security institution in Turkey. It makes difficult to improve these services. Thus, it is recommended that both private and state health insurance system should cover cure services and stays. Thermal water should be distributed from a main center and return process should be applied to wells by the local municipality in the Güre thermal tourism destination as well as all other destinations in Turkey. It is recommended that thermal water distribution policy should be regulated centrally depend on sustainability policy. Speier (2011) states that spas are traditionally ‘medical’ in nature. But shifting their focus toward relaxing and anti-stress of therapies is necessary under the global trends of spas in the global market. In line with these trends, it is recommended that additional activities sould be take into account in the destination planning. Fresh and oxygen-rich air is the main advantage in the Güre destination. Thus, it is recommended that madical tourism should be encouraged in the destination, especially based on sports health and asthma. The study contributes the literature by providing an innovative thermal tourism destination model. Data gathered with limited stakeholders is the main weakness of the case study. However, applying interviews with more stakeholders in the future studies will make the study findings more meaningful. A detailed project on proposed model will also be tested in future. REFERENCES Akbulut, Gülpınar. (2010). Türkiye'de Kaplıca Turizmi ve Sorunları. Gaziantep Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 9 (1), 35-54. Balikesir Metropolitan Municipality. (2015). 2015-2019 Strategic Plan. http://www.balikesir.bel.tr/ documents/ file/bb_StrategicPlanFiles/Dosya_1-4ea95334-71ae-47bf-b41e-9fab3fcc73de.pdf accesed date 26 May 2016. Borović, S. and Marković, I. (2015). Utilization and tourism valorisation of geothermal waters in Croatia. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 44, 52-63. Chen, J. S. (2015). Tourism stakeholders attitudes toward sustainable development: A case in the Arctic. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 22, 225-230. Choi, Y., Kim, J., Lee, C-K. and Hickerson, B. (2015). The Role of Functional and Wellness Values in Visitors’ Evaluation of Spa Experiences. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 20(3), 263-279. Dredge, D. and Jamal, T. (2015). Progress in tourism planning and policy: A post-structural perspective on knowledge production. Tourism Management, 51, 285-297. Ersun, N. ve Arslan, K. (2011). Turizmde Destinasyon Seçimini Etkileyen Temel Unsurlar ve Pazarlama Stratejileri. Marmara Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, Cilt: XXXI, Sayı: II, ss. 229-248. Fabbris, L. (2013). Measurement Scales for Scoring or Ranking Sets of Interrelated Items.Survey Data Collection and Integration, (Edd.: Davino, C. ve Fabbris, L.), Verlag Berlin Heidelberg: Springer. Hatipoglu, B., Alvarez, M. D. and Ertuna, B. (2016). Barriers to stakeholder involvement in the planning of sustainable tourism: the case of the Thrace region in Turkey. J.of Cleaner Production, 111, 306-317. Hjalager, A-M. and Flagestad, A. (2012). Innovations in well-being tourism in the Nordic countries. Current Issues in Tourism, 15(8), 725–740. İlban, M. O., Köroğlu, A. ve Bozok, D. (2008). Termal Turizm Amaçlı Seyahat Eden Turistlerde Destinasyon İmajı: Gönen Örneği. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Yıl: 7( 13), 105- 129. Jones, T., Glasson, J., Wood, D. and Fulton, E. A. (2011). Regional Planning and Resilient Futures: Destination Modelling and Tourism Development-The Case of the Ningaloo Coastal Region in Western Australia. Planning Practice and Research, 26 (4), 393-415. Karabıyık, N. ve İnci, B.S. (2012). Destinasyon Pazarlamasında Pazarlama Stratejisi ve Konumlandırma Çalışmalarına Kavramsal Yaklaşım. Istanbul Journal of Social Sciences, 2012 Summer (1), 1-19. Kavacık, M, Zafer, S. ve İnal, M.E. (2012). Turizmde Destinasyon Markalaması: Alanya Örneği. Erciyes

161 Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Ocak-Haziram, 169-192. Kervankıran, I. (2014). The sustainable usage of geothermal sources and their importance in tourism in Afyonkarahisar. Journal of World of Turks, 6(1), 201-212. Kervankıran, İ. (2014). The Sustainable Usage of Geothermal Sources and Their Importance in Tourism in Afyonkarahisar. Zeitschrift für die Welt der Türken, 6(1), 201-211. Kim, H. J. and Ko, T. G. (2015). A comparative study of health tourism seekers and non-seekers’ satisfaction and subjective well-being evaluation: The case of Japanese and Korean Tourists. 5th AHTMM Conference, 18-21 June 2015, Japan. Kutvan, A.B. ve Kutvan, S.A. (2013). Turizm Planlamasında Destinasyon Çekiciliklerinin Ölçümü: Bir Yöntem Yaklaşımı. International Journal of Economic and Administrative Studies, Yıl: 6 (11), 159-184. Lee, C. H., Ko, E., Tikkanen, H., Phan, M. C. T., Aiello, G., Donvito. R. and Raithel, S. (2014). Marketing mix and customer equity of SPA brands: Cross-cultural perspectives. J.of Business Res., 67, 2155-2163. Lozano-Oyola, M., Blancas, F. J., González, M. and Caballero, R. (2012). Sustainable tourism indicators as planning tools in cultural destinations. Ecological Indicators, 18, 659-675. Milena Peršić and Sandra Janković. (2012). The assessment of opportunities and assumption of the Croatian health tourism development. Journal of Business Management, 6, 88-104. Naraindas, H. (2011). Of relics, body parts and laser beams: the German Heilpraktiker and his Ayurvedic spa. Anthropology & Medicine, 18 (1), 67-86. Naraindasa, H and Cristiana Bastos, C. (2011). Healing holidays? Itinerant patients, therapeutic locales and the quest for health. Anthropology & Medicine, Special Issue for Anthropology & Medicine, 18(1), 1-6. Olalı, H. ve Korzay, M.(1993), “Otel İşletmeciliği”, Beta yayınları, İstanbul. Pforr, C. & Locher, C. (2012). The German Spa and Health Resort Industry in the Light of Health Care System Reforms. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 29, 298–312. Rivera, M., Croes, R. and Lee, S. H. (2016). Tourism development and happiness: A residents’ perspective. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 5, 5-15. Rosenbaum, A. T. (2014). Grounded Modernity in the Bavarian Alps: The Reichenhall Spa Culture at the Turn of the Twentieth Century. Central European History, 47, 30-53. Sadeghi, B. and Khalajmasoumi, M. (2015). A futuristic review for evaluation of geothermal potentials using fuzzy logic and binary index overlay in GIS environment. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 43, 818-831. Serbulea, M. and Payyappallimana, U. (2012). Onsen (hot springs) in Japan: Transforming terrain into healing landscapes. Health & Place, 18, 1366–1373. Smith, M. and Puczko, L. (2010). Taking your life into your own hands? New trends in European Health Tourism. Tourism Recreation Research, 35(2), 161-172. Song, G., Zhang, B., Wang, X., Gong, J., Chan, D., Bernett, J. and Lee, S. C. (2005). Indoor radon levels in selected hot spring hotels in Guangdong, China. Science of the Total Environment, 339, 63-70. South Marmara Development Agency (GMKA). (2015). Geothermal investor's guide. Balıkesir, 1-84. Speier, A. R. (2011). Health tourism in a Czech health spa. Anthropology & Medicine, 18 (1), 55–66. T.C. Çevre ve Şehircilik Bakanlığı, Mekansal Planlama Genel Müdürlüğü, Yozgat-Sivas-Kayseri Planlama Bölgesi 1/100 000 Ölçekli Çevre Düzeni Planı. http://www.csb.gov.tr/db/mpgm/editordosya/file/CDP_1 00000/ ysk/ysk_PLAN_ACIKLAMA_RAPORU.pdf access date 30 may 2016. T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Yatırım ve işletmeler Genel Müdürlüğü, Termal Turizm Master Planı, Hedefler; Kısa, Orta ve Uzun Dönem (2007-2023). http://www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr/ Eklenti/21666,ttmp.pdf?0 access date 30 may 2016. Tatilbudur.Com: Güre Otelleri. Available at; http://www.tatilbudur.com/yurtici-oteller/balikesir/edremit/ gure- otelleri? gclid=CI2A3sba-MwCFckaGwodrUgHmg Accessed date 26 May 2016. Ural, A. ve Kılıç, İ. (2011). Bilimsel Araştırma Süreci ve SPSS ile Veri Analizi. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Verykios, P., Papadimitriou, P. and Poinelli, E. (2015). In focus: thermal hotels and spas in Italy. HVS Global Hospitality Report, Milan, Italy, 1-6. Vogt, C., Jordan, E., Grewe, N. and Kruger, L. (2016). Collaborative tourism planning and subjective well- being in a small island destination. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 5, 36–43. Yeni Söz News Portal: Edremit Körfezi’nde tatil sezonu uzadı. Available at; .http://www.gazeteyenisoz .com/haber-10388-edremit-korfezinde-tatil-sezonu-uzadi.html Accessed date 23 May 2016. Zhang, C. and Xiao, H. (2014). Destination development in China: towards an effective model of explanation. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(2), 214–233.

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Chapter 12

Attitudes of University Students towards Mobile Marketing of Food and Beverage Goods and Services

Nuray TETİK, Göksel Kemal GİRGİN**

1. INTRODUCTION Mobile communication systems are devices that allow delivering messages fast, share information among users (Barutçu, 2011, 7) and, allow people to communicate with others without being tied to a physical location. These characteristics offer significant opportunities for marketers to reach customers at anytime and anyplace (Cleff, 2010, 158). As mobile technology applications continue to increase, so do the number of mobile subscribers (Soroa-Koury & Yang, 2010, 103). By September 2012, the usage of mobile phones was 67,16 million in total and the penetration of mobile phones has almost reached %89, 9 in Turkey. With the introduction of 3G service in July 2009, the usage of 3G services reached 40,3 million in the same period (ICTAT, 2012, 33). These indicators show that there is a high potential of growth in the GSM sector in Turkey. A market research which was done by Information and Communication Technologies Authority of Turkey (ICTAT) revealed the fact that when comparing usage duration of mobile phone with those in European countries, Turkey took the first place with the average of 299 minutes per month in the third period of 2012. Spain (247 min.), Belgium (242 min.), Sweden (235 min.) and Germany (221 min.) followed Turkey respectively (ICTAT, 2012, 54). The developments in information and communication technologies have provided marketing opportunities for companies. For example, companies had very effective marketing, advertising and sales tools owing to the invention of phone, TV and the internet. Beside internet, the second important technological development that affect marketing facilities is the usage of mobile phones as a mobile marketing channel (Barutçu, 2008, 15; Barutçu, 2011, 7). Tähtinen (2006, 152) also supported this idea and mentioned that importance of mobile marketing arose with the improvement of mobile technology. Early scholars (e.g. Woodside and Soni, 1991) conclude that mobile marketing provides marketers with a real opportunity to get a high response rate compared to traditional media. The justification for that is that people within the mobile marketing network such as customers, businesses, advertising agencies, marketers and brands can interact with each other in more creative and fashionable way unlike before (Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 28). 2. LITERATURE REVIEW Leppäniemi et al. (2006) carried a comprehensive review about mobile marketing research and found that academicians have used different terms interchangeably, such as mobile advertising, wireless marketing and wireless advertising which all refer to mobile marketing (Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29). For example, Kalakota and Robinson (2002) use the term mobile marketing when referring to distribution of messages and promotion, in Stafford and Gillenson (2003) m-commerce refers to the same phenomenon, and in Pura (2002) the term is mobile advertising (Tahtinen, 2005, 152). Moreover, Balasubramanian et al. (2002, 329) stated that there is no conceptual agreement about the definition of mobile marketing, besides most of the proposed definitions mainly focused on the technology itself rather than trying to go beyond that to clearly relate such technology into the marketing field (Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29).

Dr., Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Guidance, Balıkesir **Dr., Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Gastronomy and Kitchen Arts, Balıkesir

163 Mobile marketing or wireless marketing is a subset of e-marketing (Bamba & Barnes, 2007, 816) and is defined by Scharl, Dickinger and Murphy (2005, 165) as “using a wireless medium to provide consumers with time-and-location-sensitive, personalized information that promotes goods, services and ideas, thereby benefiting all stakeholders”. This definition includes an important concept of adding value not just for the marketing party, but also for the consumer (Tetik, 2008, 17). Mobile Marketing Association (MMA, 2006), defines mobile marketing as "the use of wireless media as an integrated content delivery and direct response vehicle within a cross media or standalone marketing communications program" (Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 28; Gao, Sultan & Rohm, 2010, 574). Mobile marketing can also be seen as; "all activities required to communicate with customers through the use of mobile devices in order to promote the selling of products or services and the provision of information about these products and services" (Ververidis & Polyzos, 2002, 3). The growth potential of mobile communication market attracts the attention of marketers and gives them many opportunities to reach the consumers directly (Eren, 2008, 3). Since the mobile phone is a very personal device, (Tahtinen & Salo, 2004, 3; Valsecchi, Renga & Rangone, 2007, 755) mobile marketing which has personalization features (Tsang, Ho & Liang, 2004, 68; Bauer et al, 2005, 182; Tripathi & Nair, 2007, 1024; Eren, 2008, 15; Xu, Liao & Li, 2008, 711; Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2) provides consumers with personalized information based on their time of day, location and interests (Lee & Lee, 2010, 350; Eren, 2008, 15; Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2). It is also ubiquitous (Lee & Lee, 2010, 350; Yuan & Cheng, 2004, 462; Bauer et al, 2005, 182; Pousttchi & Wiedemann, 2006, 2; Schierholz, Kolbe & Brenner, 2007, 834; Eren, 2008, 16; Mehta, 2008, 98) that enables the business entities to reach their customers through mobile devices anywhere at anytime (Tsang, Ho & Liang, 2004, 68; Bouwman, et.al., 2007, 150; Cleff, 2007, 262; Ngai & Gunasekaran, 2007, 4; Valsecchi, Renga & Rangone, 2007, 755; Barutçu, 2008, 15; Eren, 2008, 16; Gurau & Ranchhod, 2009, 496; Akın, 2010, 2; Banerjee & Yancey, 2010, 98; Broeckelmann, 2010, 416). Being interactive is another important feature of mobile marketing (Bauer et al, 2005, 182; Schierholz, Kolbe & Brenner, 2007, 834; Cudmore & Patton, 2008, 77; Eren, 2008, 4; Akın, 2010, 3; Gao, Sultan & Rohm, 2010, 574; Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2), because it is crucial to enable users reply to a mobile marketing message immediately. Mobile phone holds all the specifications that are needed for a close dialogue between brands and consumers (Bauer et al, 2005, 182; Okazaki & Taylor, 2008, 5; Akın, 2010, 3). In addition, companies have more knowledge about their client pool than ever before. This is because mobile communication technology brings together a broad range of information regarding its users, ranging from location and transaction details tor personally identifiable information (Cleff, 2007, 262; Xu, Lee & Li, 2008, 711). This provides businesses with the opportunity to reach their prospects when and where it is most appropriate for the effectiveness of a marketing campaign (Gratton, 2002, 59). As well as these features; it is cost effective (Eren, 2008, 4; Usta, 2009, 295; Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2), measurable, (Persaud & Azhar, 2010, 2), controllable (Pousttchi & Wiedemann, 2006, 2) and effective way of reaching the target market of the companies (Eren, 2008, 4; Usta, 2009, 295). It is possible not only to build brand awareness and change brand image; but also to promote sales and generate brand loyalty (Pousttchi & Wiedemann, 2006, 6; Valsecchi, Renga & Rangone, 2007, 756; Cudmore & Patton, 2008, 78; Karaca & Gülmez, 2010, 74). Thus, it is focused on the customers and customer satisfaction (Cudmore & Patton, 2008, 77; Xu, Liao & Li, 2008, 710). However, it is important to bear in mind that; familiarity of mobile marketing depends on age, gender and educational level of users (Akın, 2010, 3). On the other hand, ease to locate and communicate with mobile phone users (Gratton, 2002, 59; Gurau & Ranchhod, 2009, 496), unless carefully monitored, may become an extremely intrusive practice (Gratton, 2002, 66; Cleff, 2007, 263; Merisavo, et. al., 2007, 42; Soroa-Koury & Yang, 2010, 104). The possibility to utilize personal and location information in order to create customized and personalized advertising messages can easily assemble detailed user profiles. Therefore, the privacy risks have to be considered and appropriate data protection and privacy safeguards must be guaranteed

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(Cleff, 2007, 263). As Barwise and Strong (2002) stated mobile users have said that they would accept mobile advertising provided that they had given prior consent (Soroa-Koury & Yang, 2010, 104). Additionally, a company could irritate customers by bombarding them with different messages from separate areas of the organization (Eren, 2008, 27). If the consumer is interrupted during his or her daily activities this can severely damage brand image (Bamba & Barnes, 2007, 817). Moreover, mobile information access must cope with mobile environment problems and restrictions such as display size, battery, memory size, processing power, narrow bandwidth and restricted resources (Rau & Chen, 2006, 905; Xu, Lee & Li, 2008, 710; Mehta, 2008, 100). Today, there are a variety of technological platforms such as rich voice, wireless application protocol (WAP) and message services (SMS, MMS) that are available to support mobile marketing applications (Steinbock, 2005, 202; Tetik, 2008, 17; Akın, 2010, 6; Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29; Karaca & Gülmez, 2010, 74; Zengin, 2010, 24). Such formats are regarded as valuable and helpful channels for direct marketing and promotional activities. Therefore, it is expected to achieve higher response rates compared to e-mail marketing since such formats are sent more personally (Al-Alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29). The literature (Barwise & Strong, 2002, 14; Dickinger, et al., 2004, 5; Bauer, et al., 2005, 181; Scharl, Dickinger & Murphy, 2005, 160; Bourke, 2006, 5; Okazaki & Taylor, 2008, 4; Salo, Sinisalo & Karjaluoto, 2008, 501; Phau & Teah, 2009, 97; Al-alak & Alnawas, 2010, 29; Zengin, 2010, 41) shows that the most popular mobile application among them, which is widely used as a mobile marketing tool, is SMS. For example, SMS ads, messages are more likely to be viewed (70%) than email marketing messages (30%) (Timpson & Troutman, 2009, 57). The growth of the mobile industry has attracted attention on mobile marketing, especially in two thousand years, as it is a new field of academic research. When considering the studies on mobile marketing and advertising, theoretical and empirical studies which focused on different aspects have been conducted in this field. For example, prior studies have examined mobile marketing in terms of its acceptance by consumers (Bauer, et.al. 2005; Gao, Sultan & Rohm, 2010; Gao, et.al. 2013; Grant, 2007; Leppäniemi & Karjaluoto, 2005; Merisavo, et.al. 2007; Persaud & Azhar, 2010; Rau, et.al. 2014; Rohm, et.al. 2012; Sultan, Rohm & Gao, 2009), privacy concerns (Cleff, 2007; Cleff, 2008; Cleff, 2010; Phelps, Nowak & Ferrell, 2000; Xu, et.al. 2011), permission-based use (Bamba & Barnes, 2007; Barwise & Strong, 2002; Gurau & Ranchhod, 2009; Im & Ha, 2013; Salo & Tahtinen, 2005; Tezinde, Smith & Murphy, 2002) and the importance of personalization (Chen & Hsieh, 2012; Cudmore & Patton, 2007; Xu, Liao & Li, 2008; Yuan & Tsao, 2003). However, most of the studies focused on consumer perceptions and attitudes towards mobile marketing and advertising. They approached the subject in terms of negative and positive factors that influence the perceptions of mobile marketing. Some examples of these studies were given at Table 1. On the other hand, there is little empirical research on perceptions of consumers towards mobile marketing in terms of sectors. Especially researches on mobile marketing by taking into consideration of food and beverage sector is scarce. So this study was conducted to fill this gap by examining university students' attitudes towards mobile marketing. 3. MATERIALS AND METHODS The study aimed to determine undergraduate students' attitudes towards mobile marketing services (MMS) of food and beverage goods and services. The research was carried out at Balikesir University Tourism Faculty. In order to reach the aim, close-ended questionnaire form was designed for collecting data by based on former studies (Bamba & Barnes, 2007; Banerjee & Yancey, 2010; Gao, Sultan & Rohm, 2010; O’Doherty, Rao & Mackay, 2007). The sample included 400 students. Questionnaires were distributed to students in classrooms by the authors of this research in January 2014. Out of the 400 distributed questionnaires, 384 with a response rate of 89%, were returned. The questionnaire consisted of two sections. Students' profiles were tried to be determined in the first section. The second section asked students to rate mobile marketing services. In order to reach the aim, ten items were developed. Each item was evaluated by using a five-point Likert Scale, ranging from “strongly disagree (1)” to “strongly agree (5)”.

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Studies about Influential Factors on Mobile Marketing Studies about Influential Factors Table 1:

166

: Continued Table 1

167 Data obtained from questionnaires were analyzed using SPSS Program Version 16.0. Descriptive statistics including frequencies and distribution percentage were evaluated to determine students’ profiles. Cronbach’s Alpha was calculated to test the reliability of the scale and was obtained 0.790. This result indicated that the scale was acceptable and reliable. Then mean scores and standard deviations of the items were calculated. One Sample Kolmogorov- Smirnov (K-S) Test was applied for determining whether the data set was well-modeled by a normal distribution or not. The result showed that the data were not normally distributed (P=0.000; p<0.05), implied that non-parametric tests had to be done for evaluating data. Finally, Chi-Square Test (x2) was applied whether attitudes towards MMS of food and beverage goods and services differ in terms of students' profiles. 4. RESULTS Table 2 above shows that among the 384 students, 52.6% are female and 47.4% male. With regard to the monthly income of the students, the results showed that 30.7% of the students’ monthly income were “400-500 Turkish Liras” and 29.2% were “400 Turkish Liras and below”. Almost all of the students in the percentage of 93.5 were "not working part-time" whereas only 6.5% of the students were working. Table 2: Socio-Demographic Profile and Mobile Marketing Preferences of the Students Socio-Demographic Profile n % Gender Female 202 52.6 Male 182 47.4 Monthly Income 400 Turkish Liras and below 112 29.2 401-500 Turkish Liras 118 30.7 501-600 Turkish Liras 65 16.9 601 Turkish Liras and above 89 23.2 Part-time Working Situation Working 25 6.5 Not working 359 93.5

Table 3: The Goods and Services That Students preferred to be Informed by Mobile Phones Goods and Services n % Rank Fashion Products 130 33.9 1 Foods and Beverages 63 16.4 2 Hotels/Tourism/Leisure 51 13.3 3 Travel/Transportation 48 12.5 4 Telecommunication (phone / internet) 46 12.0 5 Banking 30 7.8 6 Other 16 4.2 7

As presented above, Table 3 shows the goods and services that students preferred to be informed by mobile phones. According to the table, 33.9% of the students indicated that they prefer to be informed about fashion products. The second goods and service preferences of the students are foods and beverages with the percentage of 16.4. Table 4 revealed that according to the students, the most effective way of mobile marketing tool for food and beverage goods and services is SMS marketing with the percentage of 53.6. 32% of the students expressed that phone call is a secondly effective way of mobile marketing tool.

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Table 4: Most Effective Way of Mobile Marketing Tool for Food and Beverage Goods and Services Mobile Marketing Tool n % Rank Text messaging 205 53.4 1 Phone call 123 32.0 2 Mobile mail 56 14.6 3

Table 5 presents the most effective timing of mobile advertisements of food and beverage goods and services according to students. This result is important for managements, as they should know the acceptable time zone of advertisements for their clients. As a result, nearly half of the students (48.2%) expressed that they affected by mobile advertisements, mostly in the evening; the second time zone is at noon with the percentage of 39.6. Table 5: The Most Effective Timing of Mobile Advertisements of Food and Beverage Goods and Services Timing n % Rank in the evening 185 48.2 1 at noon 152 39.6 2 at night 26 6.8 3 in the morning 21 5.5 4

Table 6 highlights the mean scores and standard deviations of the item values related to students' attitudes towards mobile marketing of food and beverage goods and services.

Table 6: The Mean Scores and Standard Deviations of the Item Values Items X s.s. The type of campaign (discount, coupon, free product, etc.) is 4.208 1.036 important The amount of discount is important 4.203 1.065 The time of receiving a mobile advertisement is important 3.784 1.111 The brand name of the sender business of mobile advertising is 3.711 1.173 important The need for a campaign is important 3.730 0.98 Receiving the same mobile advertisement frequently is irritating 4.247 1.245 Personalized mobile advertisement is important 3.622 1.256 The sender business of mobile advertisement which I am accustomed 4.245 0.941 to is important Online communication is a much more effective way of mobile 3.508 1.244 marketing than SMS The validity of the campaign is important 4.148 0.986 As seen at Table 6, which given above, students scored none of the items as "strongly agree". On the other hand, students generally have positive attitudes towards mobile advertising activities. The item of "receiving the same mobile advertisement frequently is irritating" got the highest mean score among the items by the students. The second highest mean score was belonging to the item of "the brand name of the sender business of mobile advertising is important". The item "online communication is a much more effective way of mobile marketing than SMS" got the least mean score among the items with a mean score of 3,508. This means that SMS is a popular mobile marketing service than online communication for food and beverage goods and services among students. Chi-Square Test (x2) was applied whether attitudes towards MMS of food and beverage goods and services differ in terms of students' profiles.

169 Table 7: Gender and Goods and Services that Students Prefer to be Informed Gender Female Male Total Food/Beverage 34 29 63 54,0% 46,0% 100,0% 18,7% 14,4% 16,4% Fashion Products 81 49 130 62,3% 37,7% 100,0% 44,5% 24,3% 33,9% Banking 11 19 30 36,7% 63,3% 100,0% 6,0% 9,4% 7,8% Travel/ 21 27 48 Transportation 43,8% 56,2% 100,0% 11,5% 13,4% 12,5% Telecommunication 14 32 46 (phone / internet) 30,4% 69,6% 100,0% 7,7% 15,8% 12,0% Hotels/Tourism/ 18 33 51 Leisure 35,3% 64,7% 100,0% 9,9% 16,3% 13,3% Other 3 13 16 18,8% 81,2% 100,0% 1,6% 6,4% 4,2% Total 182 202 384 47,4% 52,6% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0% 100,0%

As a result of Chi-Square test statistically significant difference was determined between genders in terms of goods and services that the students prefer to be informed (x2=27.896; p<0.01). Mobile advertisements about “Clothes and Finery” were the most preferred ones by female students than males. On the other hand, male students were much more interested than female students in “Telecommunication” with the percentage of 69.6%, in “Tourism” with the percentage of 64.7%, and “Banking” with the percentage of 63.3%. 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Mobile advertising is an unprecedented way of marketing communications. Nevertheless, low acceptance rate will hinder the success of mobile advertising campaigns (Soroa-Koury & Yung, 2010, 111). Therefore, it is important to know how consumers feel about the mobile marketing services (MMS) delivered to their mobile phones. In this frame, the study aims to determine the undergraduate students' attitudes towards MMS of food and beverage goods and services. Based on this aim, the study outlines when and how the students accept MMS of food and beverage goods and services. According to the results, recommendations about how mobile phones can be used as a marketing tool for food and beverage establishments and what companies need to do in order to enhance the students’ acceptance of MMS were developed. Initially, it was determined that receiving mobile advertisements via SMS, was the most popular way among students. This can be explained as SMS is more common communication tools among the younger. For example, according to a survey conducted in The United Kingdom, 81% of 18-24 year-old mobile phone users use SMS and this service is more popular among younger (Barwise & Strong, 2002, 15). This makes SMS as one of the most important preference among marketing tools for foods and beverage establishments. Therefore, it is crucial for establishments give place to SMS in mobile advertisements.

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Receiving advertisement at a relevant time is also important for the acceptance. The results show that the students prefer to receive mobile advertisements in the evening and at noon. This can be explained as students accept mobile advertisements at lunch and dinner time, in other words when they are hungry. This immediate need makes them accept mobile advertisements and affects their purchasing habits. Xu, et.al. (2008, 717) stated that users would be more satisfied if mobile dining messages were sent to them at the right time and in the right situations. They also stressed that a lunch coupon would be of little interest to evening diners. At this point establishments need to position mobile advertisements in a way that meets the students' expectations in terms of timing. The results indicate that the students generally have positive attitudes towards MMS of food and beverage services. On the other hand, they found mobile advertising irritating if establishments bombarding them with countless advertisements. As Süher, İspir and Öztürk (2008, 371) stressed, more frequency and time are playing an important role in the acceptance of mobile advertisements. Therefore, establishments need to control the number of advertisements they send to avoid consumers' irritation. Another important result shows that the students prefer to receive advertisements from the establishments that they know. Similarly, Persaud and Azhar (2010, 8) found that if the users were familiar with the company that the marketing message was being sent from, they would be more likely to accept the message. Rettie and Brum (2001, 185) determined in their study that 85% of the respondents do not agree receiving mobile advertisements from the establishments which are unknown. Furthermore, Whitaker (2001) reported that respondents were more reluctant to share information with unknown companies (Al-alak & Alwanas, 2010, 30). These findings showed that the relationship between the customer and establishments and the brand name of the business are important factors for consumer’s acceptance of mobile marketing. As determined from the study that, the validity and type of campaign (discount, coupon, free product, etc.), the amount of discount and the time of receiving a mobile advertisement were all important factors for accepting mobile marketing. Banerjee and Yancey (2007) conducted a study about mobile coupon redemption in fast food campaigns and found that the discount size was an important factor for the promotion of utilitarian food products (entrees and sandwiches), whereas the timing of receiving the message was important for hedonic products (desserts and frozen beverages). Another study (D2 Communications, 2007) conducted in Japan showed that 58% of mobile subscribers use mobile coupons and discounts more than once a month (Okazaki and Hirose, 2009, 794). As Merisavo, et.al. (2007, 42) stated, acceptance was significantly correlated with campaign interest, campaign relevance and monetary incentives. According to the results, the students neither agreed nor disagreed to receive personalized mobile advertisements. While some of the students expect mobile advertisements to be personal, the others regarded personalized mobile marketing without permission as an invasion of their privacy. Al-alak and Alwanas (2010, 34) stressed that there were some privacy concerns, so service providers should obtain consumers' permission prior to using their mobile numbers and other personal details concerning them. At this point, permission-based marketing and advertising gain importance for food and beverage establishments. The overall attitudes of the students towards mobile advertising of food and beverage goods and services were positive, according to the results of this study. However, the students are sensitive to price and their acceptance of mobile marketing depends on the economic benefits they receive such as discounts, free product, etc. So it is extremely important for the establishments to determine the preferences and attitudes of the students towards mobile marketing and, develop effective promotion campaigns in order to increase the acceptance of mobile marketing and after all, affect their purchasing behaviors positively. In addition to all, feedback mechanisms should be implemented to determine the effectiveness and success of the proposed campaigns. Establishments can use databases of the students to track their responses to the mobile marketing and advertisements. This study has some limitations. First of the limitations is about sample targeting. The research has been conducted on university students of Balikesir as this group is one of the target group for mobile marketing of food and beverage establishments. On the other hand, the research was carried out only at

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175 Chapter 13

Management of Special Interest Tourism in Terms of Sustainable Tourism

Zeki AKINCI*, Murad Alpaslan KASALAK**

INTRODUCTION Today, tourism activity, both developed and developing countries in terms of social, cultural and economic dimensions is becoming increasingly important (Akıncı & Yüzbaşıoğlu, 2015). Sun, sea and sand-motivated general interest to be presented within the scope of tourism services in the natural and physical capacities that exist due to a limited period of being heavily used, depending on the installation and use of the natural environment of excessive corruption and the loss of the ability in sustainability. However, while the general demand for special interest tourism in a limited time period, a large part of the year in vanishingly demand reduction, remains underutilized the capacities of enterprises and employment is decreasing.In this context, within the scope of the general interest tourism, it is not able to talk about, sustainable development and sustainable tourism. Sustainable tourism recognized as a tool for sustainable development must respect and protect the development of future opportunities, meet the needs of the hosts, ensure the sustainability of biological diversity and life support systems and cultural integrity, essential ecological processes finally reveal raising efforts to meet the economic requirements for sustainable tourism products. In this context, general interest as an important tool for sustainable tourism (mass) tourism can be seen as an alternative responsibility approach for limiting the negative effects on society and the natural environment, leading the way to repair the damage caused by mass tourism, trying to meet the needs of homeowners, handling responsibilities in harmony with society, culture and environment. SUSTAINABILITY AND TOURISM According to Karaman (1996), sustainability defines as "a community, ecosystem or interruption of the operation of any system that has continuity, corruption, excessive depletion from or the ability to sustain without overloading the main source bond vital system" (Karaman, 1996). Social sustainability, are dealt with in three different stages, including economic and ecological dimensions (OECD, 2005; Özyol, 2013). Socio-cultural Size:benefits of "Improving the Quality of Life" to them and next generations should be explained to people with continuous training programs. It was defined as to meet People's cultural, material and spiritual needs. Economic Dimension: every resource on earth is limited. Therefore, whatever resources we have, it should be a way how these resources in a way that improves the quality of human life could deploy the fair. Costs are described in the ensuring of self-sufficiency without exceeding revenues. The economic dimension of the activities and factors of production refers to the sustainable use. Environmental (Ecological) Dimension: whether or not the rotation back, all natural resources should be aimed to provide continuity of use. By supporting ecosystem means the provision of long- term competence. Ensuring the sustainable use of natural resources, it should be provided future generations using this resources as current generations. Ecological (environmental) as a sustainable system refers the system which can sustainable source resources with avoiding the excessive use of renewable resources. Tourism is a phenomenon that has a wide range of economic, social, cultural and environmental problems. Tourism is not only a rapidly increasing economic activity, creating a positive economic

*Assist. Prof. Dr., University of Akdeniz, Tourism Faculty, Tourism Management **Assist. Prof. Dr., University of Akdeniz, Tourism Faculty, Recreation Management

impact, but also social and cultural problems which can cause havoc on the artificial and the natural environment. The sustainability of tourism is the preservation of regional or improving natural resource values possible with the provision of continuity of tourism attractiveness (Çubuk, 1996). In this context, sustainable tourism can be defined as "preserving the environment in which the interaction of people, maintenance of cultural, economic and biodiversity, at the same time , a form of government which aims to be able to meet the same needs of future generations with economic and social needs of tourists coming to the region” (Dinçer, 1996). As a result of the 1960s to the prominence of the economic profitability of tourism supported by national governments, environmental carrying capacity ignored by items of uncontrolled mass tourism having negative effects on development of the physical and social environments, sustainable tourism emerged. The concept of sustainable tourism, refers long-term, participatory, environmental, social, cultural and economic development of tourism. In this context, the developments can be classified as sustainable or unsustainable in terms of sustainability that expresses the mental transformation in the tourism sector (Table 1). Table 1. Sustainable and Unsustainable Developments in Tourism Sustainable Development Unsustainable Development Slow Fast Controlled Uncontrolled General Appropriate scale Improper scale Concepts Long-term Short-term For the quality For the amount Local control Distance control Planned development (First plan Unplanned development (before later development) development later plan) Development Taking into consideration all Appeal focused only Strategies environmental Foreign investors Local investors Non-native architecture Local architecture Tourist Travel in small groups Travel in large groups Behavior Respectful and sensitive Intense and non-delicate Repeated visits Probably unrepeated visits

In this context, it is searching a balance between benefits and provided opportunities for the local community (Timur & Getz, 2002), on the other hand ,taking into account,the compliance of cultural, environmental, biological quality and diversity with host society ,at the same time providing socio- economic welfare and the protection of natural and cultural heritage. (Çıracı, Turgut & Kerimoğlu, 2008). At the same time, sustainable tourism phenomenon without adversely affecting the natural environment and tourism sector human resources capacity foresees the preservation of local architectural features in the structure, harmony with care to avoid disturbing historical and archaeological remains of the original environment, and the use of existing structures instead of restructuring efforts and in this regard the development of efforts with basic philosophy. It is necessity to take into account the capacity of environmental and other features for making arrangements and planning in order to ensure sustainability of tourism. Countries that have economic, humanitarian,natural and cultural advantages are being able to deliver their quality service and product without interruption and they enhance the long-term competitiveness (TÜSİAD, 2012). In this context, the principles of sustainable tourism will be generated can be expressed as follows, (Çakılcıoğlu, 1996): Touristic demands done by assuming, not according to the demand Giving priorities to the local community Dissemination of tourism in 12 months Priority should be given to public transport Encouraging the use of clean energy The staging of real life The use of the existing building stock

177 The protection of social and cultural identity Flexible tourism investment,open to development and being long-term. In line with the general principles of sustainable tourism sustainable tourism aims to provide the most appropriate level, minimizing the impact of the environment on the human environment rather than the cultural and environmental impact on people by bringing it to the highest point, to minimize damage the best level of satisfaction of local people and visitors for the region in question and long-term sustainable economic growth and development. Thus, it will provide opportunity to prevent excessive strain on the resources of the ecosystem to renew itself and fix the problem. In this context, at the bottom, the purposes of sustainable tourism are as follows. to protect environment and community that forms a whole with historical, natural and cultural assets. to bring historical, natural and cultural assets to tourism to diversify tourism and dissemination it to seasons to increase tourism revenues to facilitate transportation possibilities to solve infrastructure and services problems to increase the quantity and quality of labor in the tourism sector to develop investment opportunities in the tourism sector. SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM According to the definition of the World Tourism Organization, special interest tourism is defined as; “to have a specific theme which is one of the tourist centers to visit, and in particular the people which aims to develop their interest in, participating individually or in groups, a type of specialized tourism” (Tanrısevdi & Çavuş, 2003). Special interest tourism described as, “people traveling to their destination in a specific region or they can perform their hobby” by Reader (1980), but in a similar direction, Douglas and Derrett, (2001) defined the special interest tourism as “individuals or groups of special interest driven by specific motives, harmonized leisure and recreation experiences”. Special interest tourism that has developed especially in the 1980s is a new concept, although it is not a new phenomenon.From the first ages to the present day, people have travelled for private purposes such as interest, curiosity, and adventure because of it, special interest tourism is considered as one of the oldest tourism types. Sometimes synonymous with the special interest tourism both concepts of active tourism and alternative are used. According to Küçükaslan (2007), sea, sand and sun around the growing interest in the aforementioned general interest (mass) against tourism, they appeal directly to people's curiosity or special interest of special interest tourism, can be referred as alternative tourism.Taking a path that many scientists here have used the term of special interest tourism as a synonym for alternative tourism. Similarly, it is seen that using the concept of active tourism synonymously with special interest tourism.Indeed, taking an active role by people in the cultural and physical environment that they visit is located in the focus of special interest tourism. Contrary the general interest vacationers that trapped by rigid and narrow space of mass tourism, special interest tourism comprises more active, more environmentally friendly, more tolerant and more social motifs. Therefore, a trend should be evaluated as different in terms of motifs contained in special interest tourism. It will be right approach that, special interest tourism must take into consideration as a concept that arose out of separate interests in terms of travel motivations and limited interests and that's very different from mass tourism alternative tourism activities due to the properties contained in the general interests . In addition, there is a difference between special interest tourism and alternative tourism. This difference is, although it can alone bear the shrinkage of each special interest within the framework of the tourism market demand, such a feature is not fully meet by each alternative forms of tourism (Tanrısevdi & Şenol, 2003). As it can be seen, despite the many similarities, it is not correct to use or express a concept of special interest tourism instead of active or alternative tourism.While alternative tourism used as an alternative to general interest tourism,sometimes it includes integral components of general interest tourism(mass tourism). For example, the person that participate in rafting tour which is content of mass tourism in trilogy of sea, sun and sand. If a person participates in a trip only for the purpose of rafting

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and comes specific destination, this action can be evaluated within the scope of special interest tourism. In this context, by Hacıoğlu and Avcıkurt (2011), special interest tourism can be defined as a specialized form of tourism that focuses on a single topic and personally conducted tour including certain designated groups by people who want to develop their strongly typed interests. Special interest tourism include activities such as boat tour, yachting, train tours, skiing, trekking, mountaineering, golf, tennis, fishing, rafting, bird watching, etc. A study conducted in the UK by Brotherton and Himmetoğlu (1997) it is said that there are thirty-six different types of special interest. Values which are gaining importance in this process are to participate in outdoor activities, sensitivity towards environmental problems, educational progress, aesthetic and personal and social developments together with understanding of the importance of relationships with nature and people with each other in special interest tourism. In this process, the factors that influence the development of special interest tourism are new lifestyle, increasing prosperity, urbanization, developments in the field of Medicine and human-nature relationship. (WTO, 1995).The personal motivations of tourists and things that they want to do are forefront rather than the attractiveness of destination in achieving trips of special interest tourists. In this context, activities carried in destination are more attractive for special interest tourists. Special interest tourism participants take vacations during periods that they can perform their hobbies.For example, those who want to make a vacation of snow skiing,prefer to travel in winter, a bird watching tourists prefer to take a holiday in spring and autumn when the birds begin to migrate. According to Hacıoğlu and Avcıkurt (2011), special interest tourists are people that want to experience new things and to know about the culture of the country and the region and provide satisfaction from it, environmentally sensitive also they want clean but not high price places. Such tourists will travel according to certain established interests, their travel and holiday seasons are longer and preferences are determined according to the conditions required by the activities. According to Sorenson (1993) special interest tours tourists usually, buy following the subjects from magazines. In choosing tours, included activities is more important than price. Tour activities are things that can not be easily accomplished himself. The other issues they consider are the quality of guide, size of group, distance of destination and transportation. In travelling of special interest tourists, general factors are effective in joining tourism, but It is seen that there are some specific variables (Kozak & Bahçe, 2009). These variables; Where the differences between special interest tourist and public interest tourist were examined in the following Table 2. Table 2. General and Special Interest Tourist Properties General Interest Tourist Special Interest Tourist Centricity, reluctance to adapt to External centeredness, willingness to Personality local cultural conditions adapt to local cultural conditions Accommodation Large-scale and intensity Based on the local architectural style, sparse and scattered accommodation Pull Items Artificial pull items, a vacation Authentic pull items, the warm isolated from local people and the relations between visitors and hosts culture Economy Interest in Imported and non- Interest in local and authentic products local products Effect sensitivity to the carrying Cultural, social, economic sensitivity capacity to the carrying capacity Source: Weaver, 1999 Starting from Table 2, the characteristics of special tourist interest can be listed as follows (Douglas & Derrett, 2001; Tanrısevdi & Çavuş, 2003; Yıldız, 2009; Kozak & Bahçe, 2009; Uluçeçen, 2011; Brotherton & Himmetoğlu, 1997): Originality and are eager for the real experience. They provide active identity to local people by the non-exploitative way. Age distribution is vary according to special interests. It usually belongs to the middle or upper-middle socio-economic class. Touristic spending and purchasing power are high.

179 He/she is participant and want to take part in activities related to the area of expertise or interest. He/She is usually advanced knowledge, skill and experience in the field and aims to develop himself by showing interest in any activity. They look for new alternative destinations to investigate the content of special interest. They do not like to go after the majority and carries individualistic features. They are rational elite and selective in the decision on holiday. Compared with the general interest of tourists are less price sensitivity. He/She does not supply concern about how the social aspects of holiday and look himself, he does not feel the need to choose vacations that socially acceptable. He/She has expectation to buy personally unique service for himself. He/She doesn`t want to benefit from services that publically provided. He is ready to pay the price for it. He does not want to benefit from an open buffet or self-service. It is possible for him to evaluate his holiday as an extension of home –based recreation. He/She doesn't stay in the focus of expectations to the quality of accommodation facilities. Areas where there is high expectation; are activities that taken place. Participates in holiday with special and meaningful motivation activate. Special interest tourism often uses the original small businesses that based on nature and culture, social responsibility and sensitivity to the environment and developed by local people. According to one study, the vast majority of tourists that are participating in special interest tourism (80%) is included in the upper socio-economic group. The average half of the respondents were married and they were between the ages of 40 and 50, and indicated that they are traveling as a couple (Sorenson, 1993). Himmetoglu, and Brotherton (1994), gathered special interest tourism in four groups participants according to the level of the intensity of the interest they possess knowledge, skills, and experience. These are beginners, enthusiasts, experts and fanatics. Beginners: Beginners are people who have a particular interest towards the area, there is motivation to pursue a potential interest in them. they can turn to any areas of interest to resolve the boring aspects of daily life and to improve themselves . Enthusiasts: They chose particular special interests that fits them and tried to get to know the area perfectly. Enthusiasts are special interest travellers that can define the boundaries what they want and what they can do, and capacity more clearly . Experts: Persons that located in this group are people who have selected a particular special interest and has been claimed in the area. They have knowledge related to a wide range of special interests. Special interests, have become almost a part of life. Fanatics: Fanatics gave themselves a custom field as far as he could see, and even people who are devoted to this field. Because of these characteristics, they are described as crazy by others. Hall and Weiler (1992) classified motivations that can be evaluated within the scope of special interest tourism into three groups in terms of environment in which these activities take place.These are motivations that are related to activities which can be performed in the city, rural areas and natural environment.The issue where special interest activities can be done and motivations that produce them are given in Table 2. Special interest activities listed in Table 3 shows the special interest tourism can be done both in urban areas and rural areas located outside of the city. Related to special interests of travelling tourists they can be divided into groups according to activities or destinations in first plan or the environment that these activities take place in (Hall & Weiler, 1992). Such a partition is shown in Table 4. As seen in Table 4, the Learning Objectives of an activity to focus on in various places, seeking to satisfy their own interest is a factor that separates those who travel with educational purpose However, basic training or motivation of the relevant ethnic tourists related to other motivations such as to contact local community.Again, travel products in nature tourism associated with environmental products will be more important than participating certain activity or certain participation motivation. For example, as an activity of bird-watching is an important activity in the first degree. The detection of strengths and weaknesses with opportunities and threats of special interest tourism which has a significant impact on the social, cultural, and economic development of the region in terms

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of sustainable tourism is of great importance for the sustainability of special interest tourism. The following Table 5. shows the SWOT analysis of special interest tourism. Table 3. Special Interest Activities Related Motivations Environment Special Interest Related Motivations Activities Museums Innovation, diversity, discovery, authenticity, Urban uniqueness, education Environment Art galleries Emotion, beauty, exclusivity, uniqueness, authenticity, education History The atmosphere, the environment, intuition, authenticity, discovery, escape Art and folk festivals Authenticity, emotion, escape Art activities Emotion, escape Cultural (ethnic) travels Authenticity, silence, social relations, innovation, education Sports tourism Audience, physically stronger, and social relationships Rural Cultural (ethnic) travels Authenticity, silence, social relations, Environment innovation, education Art and folk festivals Authenticity, emotion, escape History The atmosphere, the environment, intuition, authenticity, discovery, education Adventure trips Risk-taking, self-discovery, self-transcendence, relationship with nature, social relations Health tourism Physically strengthening Sports tourism Physically strengthening, social relations Farm and ranch tourism Relationship with nature and the rural environment, social relationships, discovery Naturel Nature tourism Relationship with nature, discovery, Environment knowledge, education, scientific curiosity Adventure trips Risk-taking, self-discovery, self-transcendence, relationship with nature, social relations Source: Hall, C. M and Weiler, B. (1992). Table 4. Basic Purpose of Travel and Market Segments by Environment Basic Actual activities of the Environment Motivation Urban Out of Urban / Rural Art and history tourism (to take Sports tourism (diving, golf, etc.) Participate part in art activities, etc.) in activities Educational tourism (foreign Adventure trips (rafting, climbing, etc.) language learning, studying, etc.) Art and history tourism (visiting Ethnic travel museums and art galleries, etc.) Going to Educational tourism (such as Nature tours (such as the tour of the Galapagos Destination architectural tour of Europe) Islands) Adventure trip (such as trekking in Nepal) Sports tourism Health tourism (such as the European spa tourism) Source: Hall, C. M and Weiler, B. (1992). When we examine the tourism interest cycle, increased travel experience for tourists, confidence and a more adventurous travel more secure with prosperity and increase the value of the tourist concept of the right of a tourist life cycle of the type of holiday, providing social prestige and ego development purposes it is a transition issue. Although special interest tourism have spesfic descriptors, it must be remembered that special interest tourism doesn`t exclude general interest or mixed interest tourism and

181 sometimes it overlaps and even evaluate certain types of special interest tourism such as car racing and hunting under unsustainable tourism.Also, it shouldn`t be forgotton among travelling motivations of tourists there is also evaluating mixture interest tourism types that is combination of special and general tourism. For example, sea, sand and sun triangle or 3S (Sea, Sand, Sun) tourism is one of the types of special interest tourism tourists coming within the scope of general interest and also participate in the activities of the rafting tourism (Fig. 1). Although there are a lot of descriptive motivational factors in participating tourism activity, in decision-making process: "Where I'd like to go?" –this question is leading to the "general interest tourism" "Where I would like to go? And which events I can follow here? " if she or he ask this question this means she or he will prefer "mixture interest tourism". "Which interest or events I want to follow and what can I do here?" this means It is "special interest tourism" (Fig. 2). According to Brotherton and Himmetoğlu (1997), the potential GIT - MIT - SIT continuum was conceived. This general tourism/tourist typology is detailed further in Table 5 with what are seen to be the distinguishing characteristics of each type. Apart from the likelihood that this typology may be a useful approach to develop a basic segmentation framework for the tourism market as a whole, and may focus attention on the possible existence of a developmental tourist life cycle, it also indicates that each of these three categories could be further developed through additional sub-division. However, the main area of interest here is the SIT section of the continuum.

General Interest Tourism (Mass Tourism) Sustainable Tourism

Mixed Interest Tourism

Unsustainable tourism Special Interest Tourism

Figure 1. The relationship between sustainability, General Interest, Mixed Interest and Special Interest Tourism. To formulate a typology of SITs a number of initial assumptions for all three categories were developed. For the MIT, destination choice is still an important factor in the decision process, but is no longer the only, or necessarily most important factor influencing the tourism decision. Once potentially acceptable destinations have been assessed, the MIT then considers the nature of the activities which are offered by these alternatives. For SITs the decision- making transformation is complete. As Table 2 shows the destination per se is no longer the primary focus for the holiday choice; this now becomes the interest or activity. In short, SITs are seen to be motivated mainly by intrinsic factors derived from the interest or activity.

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A simplified SWOT Analysis of special interest tourism Table 5:

183 . continued Table 5

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Tourism occurs along a continuum that supplies products to a range of markets from general interest tourist to the special interest tourist and is based on the importance of both an activity (i.e. interest) and the role of the destination. The Special Interest Tourist has been described as a tourist whose motivation and decision making are primarily determined by a particular special interest (Hall & Weiler, 1992). This special interest can be related to either an activity, destination or setting (Trauer 2006). Brotherton and Himmetoglu (1997) maintain that special interest tourism both as a product and as distinct entity within the overall tourism spectrum has been largely ignored within tourism research. They characterised the tourist market according to how important the activity is to the individual in selecting a destination. The GITist is associated with mass tourist markets whereas the SITist is aligned with the market for alternative tourism products. General Interest Tourism (GIT) Or Mass Tourism = Conventional large-scale tourism Focus: Where can I go on holidays?

Mixed Interest Tourism (MIT) Focus: Where, how and/or with whom can I go on holidays and what activities can I

Geographical Accommodation, Affinity Location Transport & Group Segments: Event Segments: E.g. Regional tourism, Segments: E.g. Senior Urban E.g. Resort, Cruise tourism

Special Interest (Activity/Setting) Segments: E.g. Environmental tourism - Cultural tourism - Hobby tourism - Health and spa tourism - Sport tourism - Adventure tourism - Wine and food tourism - Sex tourism

Special Interest Tourism (SIT) What interest/activity do I want to pursue, and where can I do it? E.g: Adventure Tourism

E.g. E.g. Adventure E.g. Sport Environmental Sub-segments Sub-segments Sub-segments e.g. backpacking e.g. golf, tennis, e.g. ecotourism, nature- (bushwalking), sailing, soccer, cycling, mountaineering, based tourism, wildlife tourism kayaking, scuba diving whitewater rafting, bicycle-

Figure 2. Leisure–Tourism Interest Cycle Source: Brotherton and Himmetoğlu (1997), Prosser (2001), Ruys and Wei (2001) and Schofield (2001) Table 6 illustrates the tourist continuum suggested by Brotherton and Himmetoglu (1997). The GITist does not pursue a particular activity per se, rather the perceptions and images of the destination pull the tourists to the locale. GITist’s are seeking a fashionable destination that is consistent with their own home based social reference frames (e.g. behaviour and codes that are ‘normal’ or familiar), and they demand high quality accommodation, are relatively inexperienced travelers and are not seeking life changing experiences rather they seek life re-creating experiences. In Table 7, general interest tourism and special interest tourism were compeared under the macro and micro economy, local community and natural environment in terms of sustainable tourism.

185 Table 6. The Tourism Interest Continuum GENERAL INTEREST TOURISM (GIT) constitute the majority of the travelling population, tend to be primarily drawn from the lower/lower-middle socio-economic segments of the population, are relatively price sensitive, are relatively inexperienced and unsophisticated travellers, would tend to be mainly psychocentric, in terms of psychographic types, either have not developed a special interest are not eager to pursue such an interest on their holiday, have a desire to visit “fashionable” destinations which are sources of social value, look for consistency in their patterns of trip and destination choices, especially in relation to their social reference frames at home, opt for generally accepted behaviors and codes which are viewed as “normal” in relation to the destination visited, demand relatively high quality accommodation facilities. MIXED INTEREST TOURISM (MIT) have experienced, no longer enjoy, general interest tourism, are willing to make changes in their holiday choices, but perhaps are not totally different type of holiday, are undergoing a period of transition and change in their tourism preference, desire to be more adventurous, bet feel a need to maintain the social acknowledgement and approval for their choice of holiday amongst the social groups to which they belong, are still attracted to “fashionable” destinations as status symbols, can have developed special interests, but are not sufficiently resolute to devote their holiday choices to such interests, are still attracted to and influenced by, the quality of accommodation facilities when making their holiday choice decisions. SPECIAL INTEREST TOURISM (SIT) constitute a minority of the travelling populations, are usually from middle to upper-middle socio-economic groups, are generally less price sensitive than general/mixed interset tourists, tend to be experienced and sophisticated travellers, have high expectations in relation to the activity/interest, but not necessarily in terms of accommodation facilities, are adventurous, allocentric, types of people who do not like to follow the majority, have no specific social obligations for their holidays, and do not feel the need to choose "socially acceptable" holidays, are likely to see the special interest holiday as an extension of their home-based leisure and activities, view alternative destinations as contexts for the pursuit of their special interest. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The importance of special interest tourism in terms of social ,cultural and environmental perspective is discussed in this theoretical study.Special interest tourism that alternative to the general interest tourism activities is reached a special position in the 21st century when sustainable tourism came to forefront although special interest tourism functions in slow processes. In many developing countries sustainable tourism is seen as a magic "stimulating, fascinating and repulsive" power in economic development process without conscious of sustainability, sustainable tourism and sustainable development. In this context, coasts and beaches protected by care for many years, wooded areas, local governments, issued by central governments without the knowledge of the incentive allocation and the public with unplanned and uncontrolled construction has taken place quickly and in large sizes.Due to the liberal economic policies` “laissez-faire, let them do, everything should be set by market" approach, the social, cultural and ecological dimensions of tourism are neglected. Due to the locals can`t see it, cutting special pine trees and buried them under sand for opening new golf areas were concerned. All negativity of mass tourism with intensive infrastructure investment that regardless to the carrying, sustainability and renewability capacity natural environment and processes has led to growing cultural, social and environmental problems.

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As is known, natural tourism is a phenomenon based on the consumption of social and cultural resources. This consumption, due to the nature of tourism is natural and inevitable.The important things in this process are the fulfilment of tourism activities according to ecological carrying capacity and within the principle of using with protection and protect with using. Recognizing the importance of mentioned case to achieve the objectives laid down in accordance with sustainable tourism principles mentioned above, the decision–makers, public and sector representatives of countries that have active role in tourism should fulfill activities to carry special interest products to international market and to increase competitiveness power of country. In today`s world that have intense global competitiveness, sustainable tourism is possible with revealing diversity of country form other countries and superior aspects of country. The countries that most visited and generate most revenues per tourist in world tourism are countries which prefer special interest tourism and create brands. They compete for other countries` cheap prices in mass tourism, but in special interest tourism they compete with brands.In addition, only with special interest tourism, countries can provide economic sustainability, local welfare, quality employment, social equality, visitor satisfaction, social prosperity, cultural richness, physical integrity, biodiversity, resource efficiency and environmental purity. However, it can be possible to achieve fair distribution of income with special tourism activities that are created according to regional characteristics in all regions of the country. In this context, in the tourism sector it should be aimed establishment a healthy balance between using and protection, development this awareness, attending all stake holders in planning, supervision and execution functions, positive effects spread all over the country in parallel with universal values and the best practices, taking into consideration principles of productivity, efficiency and effectiveness, competing in national and international markets, and passing into leading positions as a multi-gravity centre. (TÜSİAD, 2012). But if these targets are being made,it will be possible, tourists to gain experience in providing safety, to increase quality of local people that live in destinations with the way of tourism, to minimize pollution of local, regional, global, national environment and decreasing resource using, for strength and protection of cultural richness and environment. In this theoretical study on sustainability in tourism, there may be shortcomings in the data presented in the context of special interest tourism. However, with this study, the concept of special interest tourism in the country's tourism, and the importance of the data that has emerged in its place, academics and decision-makers on this issue is considered to contribute towards the theoretical and areal application. REFERENCES Akıncı, Z. & Yüzbaşıoğlu, N. (2015). Türkiye, Dünya Turizm Sektörü İçerisinde Bir Belirleyici mi, Yoksa Bir Taşıyıcı mı? Finans, Politik ve Ekonomik Yorumlar, 52(609), 45-62. Brotherton, B. & Himmetoğlu, B. (1997). Beyond Destination-Special Interest Tourism. Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 12 (1), 6-22. Çakılcıoğlu, M. (1996). Sürdürülebilir Turizme Yönelik Bir Yöntem Önerisi:, Doğu Karadeniz/ Trabzon İli Özelinde Bir İrdeleme, Doktora Tezi, İstanbul:Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi. Çıracı, H., Turgut, S. & Kerimoğlu, E. (2008). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Gelişimi için Bir Yönetim Modeli Önerisi: Frig Vadisi Örneği. İTÜ dergisi/a, mimarlık, planlama, tasarım, 7(2), 89-102. Çubuk, M. (1996). Sürdürülebilir Turizm; Turizm Planlamasına Ekolojik Yaklaşım. 19.Dünya Şehircilik Günü Kollokyumu, İstanbul: Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi. Dinçer, İ. (1996). Sürdürülebilir Turizmin Hayata Geçirilmesi İçin Aktive Olması Gereken Dinamikler ve İşlevleri-Model Çalışması. Sürdürülebilir Turizm; Turizm Planlamasına Ekolojik Yaklaşım, 19.Dünya Şehircilik Günü Kolokyumu, Mimar Sinan Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Douglas, N. & Derrett (2001). Special Interest Tourism, John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd., Milton. Hacıoğlu, N. & Avcıkurt, C. (2011). Turistik Ürün Çeşitlendirmesi, Nobel Yayıncılık, Ankara. Hall, C. M. & Weiler, B. (1992). What's Special About Special Interest Tourism? In Special Interest Tourism, London: Belhaven Press. Karaman, A. (1996). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Planlaması İçin Ekolojik Bir Çerçeve. Sürdürülebilir Turizm; Turizm Planlamasına Ekolojik Yaklaşım, 19.Dünya Şehircilik Günü Kolokyumu, Mimar Sinan

189 Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Kozak, M. A. & Bahçe, S. (2009). Özel İlgi Turizmi, Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Küçükaslan, N. (2007). Özel İlgi Turizmi, Bursa: Ekin Yayınevi. OECD (2005). Measuring Sustainable Development, Statistics Brief, September, Statistics Directorate, No:10, Paris, France. Özyol, A. (2013). Sürdürülebilir Yeşil Kalkınma ve Kadın. Fe Dergi, 5(2), 134-138. Reader, S.E. (1980). A Prime Force in the Expension of Tourism in the Next Decade: Special Interest Travel Tourism. Marketing and Management Issues, G.W. University, Washinton D.C. Prosser, G. (2001). Regional tourism. In N. Douglas, N. Douglas, & R. Derrett (Eds.), Special interest tourism (pp. 86–112). Brisbane: Wiley. Ruyss, H. & Wei, S. (2001). Senior tourism. In N. Douglas, N. Douglas, & R. Derrett (Eds.), Special interest tourism (pp. 407–431). Brisbane: Wiley. Schofield, P. (2001). Urban tourism and small business. In N. Douglas, N. Douglas, & R. Derret (Eds.), Special interest tourism (pp. 432–450). Brisbane: Wiley. Sorenson, L. (1993). The Special Interest Travel Market. The Cornell H.R.A. Quarterley, 34,24-30. Weaver, D. (1999). Magnitude of Ekoturizm in Costa Rica and Kenya. Annals of Tourism Research, Sayı: 4, 792-816. WTO (1995). The Role of Recreation Management in the Development of Holidays and Special Interest Tourism and Consequent Enrichment of Holiday Experience, Madrid. TÜSİAD (2012). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Raporu, Yayın No:TÜSİAD-T/2012-09/531, İstanbul. Tanrısevdi, A. & Çavuş, Ş. (2003).Özel ilgi Turizmi ve Özel İlgi Turizmi Kapsamında Kuşadası ve Çevresinde Varolan Potansiyel Kaynaklar Üzerine Kuramsal Bir İnceleme. Anatolia Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 14(1), 9-21. Timur, S. & Getz, D, (2002). Applying stakeholdertheory to the implementation of sustainable urban tourism, Karl Wober ed, City Tourism 2002, Springer Economics. Trauer, B. (2006). Conceptualising Special Interest Tourism - Frameworks for analysis. Tourism Management, 27, 183-200. Uluçeçen, T.H. (2011). Özel İlgi Turizmi: Kapsamı, Çeşitleri ve Türkiye’de Uygulanabilirliği, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara. Yıldız, Ö. E. (2009).Türkiye’de Şarap Turizmi: Çeşme Örneğinde Ürün Geliştirme Modeli, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İzmir.

190 Chapter 14

A Curriculum Proposal for Recreation Programs in Faculties of Tourism1

Pelin YAGCI*, Ahmet KOROGLU**

INTRODUCTION Recreation concept, the importance of which is increasing with the increase in spare times After the developments in science and technology and industrialization has become an important industry due to the desire of using the spare times emerged to respond to the needs of individuals and efficiently. Recreation described as a basic and contemporary need of the individuals covers the activities, trainings, facilities, etc. which are precious for an individual's spare time. Spare time is generally described as being free without limitation, choosing freedom, time remaining after the work or spare time remaining from compulsory social duties (Torkildsen, 2005: 50). The integration of spare time concept in our daily life emerged the concept of recreation which means making use of the spare times (Ceyhun, 2008: 236). Sonnenberg & Barnard (2015) recreation is described as innovative and enlivening activities performed in spare times, similar incentives and stimulated experiences in which the people participate fondly. Tribe (2011) describes recreation as “searching performed in spare times such as home-based activities such as radio and watching television, sport, theatre, cinema and tourism”. A comprehensive recreation description performed by Hacıoğlu et al. (2003), “the activities in which people who are negatively affected by intensive studies and environmental effects will participate to obtain bodily and spiritual health again and besides, to take pleasure and delight which will provide satisfaction for personal needs and expectations in their spare times remaining from the time allocated for completely working and compulsory needs and by choosing with their own merits”. The people who are fed up with urban planning developed together with industrialization, buildings rising as glass and concrete and environmental pollutions look for different alternatives to take a breath (Jitaru, Sambotin, Khalil, Mayer & Tirchi, 2012: 248). The individuals participate in recreation activities to gain new experiences, to ease, to escape from the environments where they are always present, to be free, security, and identify themselves, to participate in the physical activities, fitness and to satisfy their needs (Hall & Page, 2006: 47). Recreation activities have some benefits individually such as to create healthy physical development, to gain spiritual health, to provide personal ability and skill, to gain spiritual health, to provide personal skill and ability development, to socialize, to increase business and work efficiency, to provide happiness; and from social aspect, to provide social solidarity and consolidation, and to provide facility to create society (Karaküçük, 2008: 95-102). Recreation covers a very wide array and includes many activities. In order to perform the services to be given under recreation concept, the need for trained employ who knows desire, interest and expectations of the society, who is dominant in philosophy, concept and purposes about the recreation and has the features to provide the orientation of the individuals to these activities and the control of these activities by planning and organizing various and different programs is increasing day by day (Tütüncü, 2008: 100). When recreation activities are oriented by trained elements, they will provide physiological, social and physical benefits to the individuals in all stages of their lives, they will load experiences and so they will be more beneficial. For this reason, recreation appears as an important training matter to meet the lack of trained staff who will give recreation service (Kement, 2014: 116-

1This study is an excerpt taken from the master thesis of Pelin Yagci completed under the supervision of Assoc. Prof. Dr. Ahmet Koroglu. * Res. Assist., Yuzuncu Yil University, Tourism and Hotel Management College, Travel Management **Assoc. Prof. Dr., Balikesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Tourism Management

118; Balcı & İlhan, 2006: 12). 1.RECREATION TRAINING IN TURKEY Recreation training describes a functional area in which there are trainings such as environment, citizenship and health which is within the scope of general training but having differences in application and the methods to reach the targets (Karaküçük, 2008: 124). In the universities where science-based information is created, developed and trained individuals who can use them, there are license and master's (master's and doctorate) programs for recreation (Naralan & Kaleli, 2012: 2; Tütüncü, 2008: 93). The aim of recreation training is to teach people using their spare times in a constructive way and to choose recreation activities carefully (Kızanlıklı, 2014: 49; Ağaoğlu & Boyacı, 2013: 21). Being conscious of people in Turkey, the tendencies of long lasting and hearty living, the efforts to increase life qualities of disabled people increase the interest in recreation and the qualified labor force demand trained in this field. Due to these reasons, recreation departments have begun to be opened in Turkey (Tütüncü, 2008: 85). Recreation departments in Turkey began to be opened in Sport Sciences and Technology Vocational School (SBT) and School of Physical Education and Sports (BESYO) for the first time. Then, Recreation Management Departments that is begun to be opened within Tourism Faculties have begun to be attached to the available departments (Tütüncü, Taş & Kiremitçi, 2012: 112). Considering the formations in Turkey, recreation trainings are continuing within the scope of the "Recreation" departments still included in School of Physical Education and Sports (BESYO) and Sport Sciences and Technology Vocational School (SBTYO) today and "Recreation Management" departments found in Tourism Faculties (Tütüncü, 2012: 250). Recreation training curriculum given within the scope of School of Physical Education and Sports in Turkey must be planned to train staff to present recreation services (Tütüncü, 2008: 100). The students who completed their training with the curriculum within the scope of recreation programs and graduated are expected to have knowledge about the below items (Zimmermann, Dupree & Hodges, 2014: 145):  The quality and scope of relevant park, recreation, tourism or relevant professions and related industries,  Technics and processes used by the professions and employees in the sector,  Technics and processes used by the employees,  Historical, scientific, philosophical roots of the profession.

2. CURRICULUM One of the most important processes of any training process is planning the curriculum programs representing the name and descriptions of the course (Korotchenko, Matveenko, Strelnikova & Phillips, 2015: 213). Curriculum presents alternatives to meet the learning needs in a wide range (Meo, 2010: 22). The concept of curriculum is a concept that is not easily described and used in many different situations by the people who thinks knowing its mean (Marsh & Willis, 2007: 2). There are many competitors belonging to the concept. Reaching to agreement in order to eliminate the conceptual differences of these concepts have finalized with failure. But, considering all descriptions made, the statement that "curriculum must plan the activities of the students" is seen to be found in almost all of them (Pratt, 1980: 4). Among all descriptions made for curriculum concept, not considering any of the descriptions may cause deficient description of the concept. Some descriptions provide knowledge to gain a general opinion. Following descriptions must be considered for this (Marsh & Willis, 2007: 8):  Curriculum includes "continuous" matters such as grammar, reading, reasoning, rhetoric, math and it is the biggest book materializing the basic knowledge of the western world in the best way.  Curriculum is the matter that is the most useful for living in the contemporary society.  Curriculum is the whole planned learning to which the students are deemed to responsible by the school.

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 Curriculum is the whole experiences of the students under the school surveillance.  Curriculum is the whole of learning experiences provided to the students.  Curriculum is the thing providing the working facility to the students together with various networks such as computer and internet.  Curriculum is the researcher for questioning the authority and the complex status of human statues.  Curriculum is the whole experiences owned by the students throughout their lives. Curriculum concept is described in the simplest way as "the instruction schedule" by Taylor & Richards (1985) (Airey & Tribe, 2005: 47). Instruction program expresses the goals to which the students will reach, the required behaviors to reach the goals, instruction programs to be planned to acquire these behaviors and the whole of open elements covering evaluation situations to be planned for acquiring these behaviors and to reveal to what extent the behaviors of these instruction programs acquire the behaviors, being in multi-dimensional interaction and open for development (Hotaman, 2010: 33). It covers all kinds of activities related to instructing a course planned to acquire to the individuals in or out of the school (Demirel, 2013: 6). Curriculum concept has been used as a correspondent to instruction program phrase for long years (Görgen, 2014: 9). The curriculum is accepted as a whole program covering instruction experiences that is to say as a package program for a license degree (Airey & Tribe, 2005: 48); and organized as formal training and/or instruction designs. Their scopes also vary (Pratt, 1980: 4), because the curriculum aims to train individuals in different categories (Erdem & Şenol, 2015: 729). There is a series of modules which forms the curriculum and can be expressed as syllabus or course contents. Besides, curriculum has been suggested for capturing not only what it will be taught but also what will not be taught and what it will be excluded and expressed as a concept having wide scope (Airey & Tribe, 2005: 48). That is to say, it focuses on the matters of what is taught and how is taught (Tanner & Tanner, 2007: 2). For new universities and new courses, curriculum presents more importance. With the expansion of the higher education and increase in new courses (including tourism), the curriculum seems more important than being a simple discipline formation since it forms a core for most of the new courses (Airey & Tribe, 2005: 48). Including Tyler (1949), curriculum design models are suggested by plenty of authors such as Eraut et al. (1975), Rowntree (1982) and Manwaring & Elton (1984). Each one of them expresses that in curriculum designs, the relevant target mass, the goals and aims of the planned course, academic time required by the training (weekly, monthly, quarterly, etc.), local and national education precedence must be considered and prioritized. At the same time, curriculum is required to be convenient for the applied learning. The common feature of most of these models is expressed to be these factors. A typical order of curriculum design is shown as follows (Birsner & Satin, 2013: 175; Tribe, 2011: 79; Airey & Tribe, 2005: 52):  Forming the justification (setting its logic);  Identifying goals and aims;  Forming a modular structure including the levels and compulsory/optional factors;  Choosing modules;  Forming learning outputs for modules;  Identifying evaluation strategies;  Identifying teaching and learning strategies;  Developing a system for approval, evaluation, examination and improvement. Such a curriculum design process is still accepted today to a large extent (Fidgeon, 2010: 705). Curriculum design process includes content analysis and course planning, identifying teaching and learning principles, formulating goals and aims, designing curriculum and instructing material and finally evaluation processes. All of the processes are linked to each other and they are discussed as a whole (Kaewpet, 2004: 216).

193 3. A CURRICULUM PROPOSAL FOR RECREATION PROGRAMS IN FACULTIES OF TOURISM Recreation concept used as the correspondence of the activities performed in the spare times (Hall & Page, 2002: 10), is the mixture of physical, mental, emotional and spiritual components as an activity cluster. It has some benefits such as providing personal health and welfare, contributing to the balanced development, increasing life quality, decreasing personal harm and anti-social behaviors, providing social solidarity, contributing to economic renovation and ecological processing (Broadhurst, 2001: 13- 85). Recreation activities having many benefits and which shows diversity vary depending on the interest, stimulation, aim and participation types. For this reason, the requirement that individuals to give recreation service have sufficient knowledge and skill has emerged. Giving knowledge and skills required for the individuals is possible through recreation training. In order to develop this kind of education, the concept must be understood by the society, teaching the principles and their making types scientifically, classifying their types and turning into a format suitable for cultural features (Zorba, 2008: 52) that is to say it is required to be given importance to recreation education must be required (Aran, 2014: 735). Recreation training aims to teach individuals to use their spare times constructively, ensures to choose recreation activities carefully (Süzer, 2000: 125) and aims to satisfy human requirements (Arslan, 2013: 78). In the societies where recreation training is not taken, recreation activities performed remains weak and do not show diversity (Kement, 2014: 118). The individuals who have taken recreation training, in public/state recreations institutions such as park and recreation departments, fitness centers and in commercial institutions as private activity planner, in private interest field courses in Private and Secondary Education in the Ministry of Education in amateur and professional sport clubs, in pre-school education institutions such as kindergarten and infant school, recreation facilities, health organizations, rehabilitation centers, nursing home, amusement parks, nurseries, health centers and curing areas, it finds a wide employment opportunity (Zimmermann et al., 2014: 144; Tütüncü, 2008: 97; Zorba, 2008: 3). It is very important to prepare the curriculum belonging to recreation programs in accordance with these purposes for bringing up individuals who will know the demands, interests and expectations of the society, who will dominant in recreation related philosophy, concept and purposes, who can plan, organize, enter into force, orient, supervise various programs and services and who have knowledge and skills to manage different recreation facilities (Tütüncü, 2008: 100). In this study, recreation department curriculum of 106 of the universities in the United States of America and 12 of the universities in Canada has been examined (Yağcı, 2015: 71). Table 1: 1st Class Curriculum Suggestion for Recreation Programs 1st CLASS 1st SEMESTER 1st CLASS 2nd SEMESTER NAME OF THE COURSE CREDIT NAME OF THE COURSE CREDIT Entrance to Recreation 3 Recreation Management 3 General Tourism 2 Recreation Leadership 3 Free time training 3 Computer Applications 2 Communication Skills 2 First Aid 2 Psychology 2 Basic Concepts of Law 2 Professional Foreign Language 4 Professional Foreign Language (English ) 4 (English) Optional 2nd Foreign Language 4 Optional 2nd Foreign Language 4 Atatürk’s Principles and Revolution - Atatürk’s Principles and Revolution - History History Turkish Language - Turkish Language - TOTAL 20 TOTAL 20 Optional 2nd Foreign Language Optional 2nd Foreign Language 2nd Foreign Language (German) 4 2nd Foreign Language (German) 4 2nd Foreign Language (Russian) 4 2nd Foreign Language (Russian) 4 2nd Foreign Language (French) 4 2nd Foreign Language (French) 4

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It was reached to the curriculum via websites of the universities and as a result of the curriculum was reached by the websites of the universities and curriculum suggestion in accordance with the program aims from the courses obtained as a result of the examination of the courses within the scope of the curriculum has been suggested. The courses to be kept within the curriculum, field information planned to be gain to the individuals, general purposes, knowledge and skills to meet the needs of individuals are considered and evaluated. As a result of the evaluation, the curriculum suggestion formed by the courses thought to be included by recreation programs found in Tourism Faculties and the requirements belonging to some courses are given below. Table 2: 2nd Class Curriculum Suggestion for Recreation Programs 2nd CLASS 1st SEMESTER 2nd CLASS 2nd SEMESTER NAME OF THE COURSE CREDIT NAME OF THE COURSE CREDIT Recreation Geography 3 Financial Management and Budget in 3 Recreation Legal Dimensions of Recreation 2 Recreation Marketing 3 Entrance to Sociology 2 Statistics 2 Economy 2 General Accounting 2 Professional Foreign Language 4 Professional Foreign Language (English) 3 (English) Optional 2nd Foreign Language 3 Optional 2nd Foreign Language 3 Optional Professional Course I 2 Optional Professional Course I 2 Optional Professional Course II 2 Optional Professional Course II 2 TOTAL 20 TOTAL 20 Optional 2nd Foreign Language Optional 2nd Foreign Language 2nd Foreign Language (German) 3 2nd Foreign Language (German) 3 2nd Foreign Language (Russian) 3 2nd Foreign Language (Russian) 3 2nd Foreign Language (French) 3 2nd Foreign Language (French) 3 Optional Professional Courses Optional Professional Courses Labor Law 2 Tourism Economy 2 Sustainable Tourism 2 Management 2 Social Phycology 2 Dimensions of Tourism 2 International Tourism 2 Consumer Behaviors in Recreation 2

Within the scope of the suggested curriculum, it was given place to the courses in the quality of entrance about basic concepts, phenomenon, principles, theories and hypothesis related to the field about which the individuals are trained. Through these courses, it is thought that it will be helped to identify the field from which the individual receives education and to gain different viewpoints to the individuals through the information they obtained. Gürbüz (2015), also expresses that the absence of the courses in the quality of "introduction" in the curriculum of recreation management department can be seen as a deficiency. Rapid increase in recreation activities requires taking these activities under certain management discipline today. Karaküçük (2008) expresses recreation management as the requirement of following continuously changing consumer needs, identifying the resources used in the recreational activities and the activities to be submitted for the service, reaching the activities to be submitted in an effective, economic and in the style of being assured as well as analyzing the success of these activities. For this reason, the organizations, holiday villages, hotels and state institutions and organizations need administrators trained as having a command of a management style and field and having the managerial skills examined under three main groups as technical, human and conceptual. This necessity is thought to be brought the features that must be owned by the administrators and the requirement of the administration courses which will gain them the features they must have.

195 Table 3: 3rd Class Curriculum Suggestion for Recreation Programs 3rd CLASS 1st SEMESTER 3rd CLASS 2nd SEMESTER NAME OF THE COURSE CREDIT NAME OF THE COURSE CREDIT Management of Recreation 3 Program Planning in Recreation 3 Resources Incentive Recreation 3 Recreation for Private Groups 2 Private Activity Management 2 The Design and Planning of Recreation 3 Fields and Businesses Recreational Use of Virgin Zones 2 Ethics 2 Professional Foreign Language 3 Professional Foreign Language (English) 3 (English) Optional 2nd Foreign Language 3 Optional 2nd Foreign Language 3 Optional Professional Course I 2 Optional Professional Course I 2 Optional Professional Course II 2 Optional Professional Course II 2 TOTAL 20 TOTAL 20 Optional 2nd Foreign Language Optional 2nd Foreign Language 2nd Foreign Language (German) 3 2nd Foreign Language (German) 3 2nd Foreign Language (Russian) 3 2nd Foreign Language (Russian) 3 2nd Foreign Language (French) 3 2nd Foreign Language (French) 3 Optional Professional Courses Optional Professional Courses Entrance to Open Area Recreation 2 Entrance to Therapeutic Recreation 2 Park Management 2 Open Area Life Skills 2 Organizational Behavior 2 Tourism and Recreation peculiar to the region 2 - - Public Recreation 2 Table 4: 4th Class Curriculum Suggestion for Recreation Programs 4th CLASS 1st SEMESTER 4th CLASS 2nd SEMESTER NAME OF THE COURSE CREDIT NAME OF THE COURSE CREDIT Current Problems and Trends in 3 Risk and Stress Management 3 Recreation Recreation and Social Development 2 Recreation Researches and 3 Evaluation Recreation Policy and Planning 2 Research Techniques 2 Public Relations 2 Human Resources Management 2 Professional Foreign Language (English) 4 Professional Foreign Language 3 (English) Optional 2nd Foreign Language 3 Optional 2nd Foreign Language 3 Optional Professional Course I 2 Optional Professional Course I 2 Optional Professional Course II 2 Optional Professional Course II 2 TOTAL 20 TOTAL 20 Optional 2nd Foreign Language Optional 2nd Foreign Language 2nd Foreign Language (German) 3 2nd Foreign Language (German) 3 2nd Foreign Language (Russian) 3 2nd Foreign Language (Russian) 3 2nd Foreign Language (French) 3 2nd Foreign Language (French) 3 Optional Professional Courses Optional Professional Courses Society Recreation Management 2 Commercial Recreation Management 2 Recreational 2 Recreational Sport Programming 2 Sport Management Campus Recreation 2 Commercial Recreation and Tourism 2 Open Area Recreation Activities: Land 2 Open Area Recreation Activities: 2 and Water Summer and Winter

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According to the activity type, most of the resources used for the recreation activities occurred in different environments is seen to be provided by the nature accepted as a finite source (Karaküçük, 2008: 216-218). As a result of the increase in the use of the environment and natural resources with the aim of recreation activities, the requirement of preventing being negatively affected of these two factors and destroyed emerges, because as it is expressed by Kement (2014), environmental features are very important in terms of especially open area recreation activities. For this reason, with giving training in the quality of providing to form environmental awareness, bringing up the individuals who protect the environment and sensitive to the nature can be provided. Open area recreation activities playing an important role in the identification of environment and making use of the environment in the best way are expressed as leisure time evaluation activities performing by being alone with the nature in completely open areas (Arslan, 2013: 54; Gül, 2014: 23). In Tütüncü and Aydın's (2014) studies, it is mentioned that open area recreation activities having positive effects in bodily and mental, social and spiritual aspect are preferred by the people most and these activities are quite more and diversity. From this point of view, with the aim of regular organization of these activities, satisfying more of the individuals participating in the activities and at the same time, less destruction of natural resources hosting activities, the requirement of the open area recreation related courses emerges. Additionally, it is thought that the presence of the courses focusing on the areas such as parks and virgin zones is in the supportive quality. Parks are evaluated as the areas having very different dynamics for recreation activities by Erol (2014) and when they are examined in terms of the potential owned by Turkey, Altınpark in Ankara (horse riding, go-cart and sport activities (swimming, running, football, basketball, volleyball and ice-skating)) and Mogan Park (tennis, golf, skating, cycling and picnic areas) are expressed as the areas where many recreation activities can occur. With the course to be found in the curriculum with this matter, the protection of these resources by the individual and the management of the visitors oriented or to be oriented there will give information about training the visitors. With the aim of providing individuals to receive education in the department of recreation management to have knowledge about how the recreation activities spread over the country's geography, it was tried to be included of the courses. So, by learning the geographical features of the regions, the individuals' having knowledge about the questions; “Which region of Turkey is convenient for which recreation activity?" and “In which region of Turkey, is there a suitable resource for which recreation activity?" can be supported. Planning found in recreation activities appear in quite various types is a process providing to protect human vicinity for the next generations and having the aim of making human life beneficial. Since recreation activities are one of the important tools of human life, planning of these activities is important. Planning process performed to meet different needs, programming and the tools in which the recreation facilities are made ready to be submitted to the society express the programs (Gürbüz, 2015: 57; Karaküçük, 2008: 163-167). In this case, it is thought that it is very important to be covered of these courses by the curriculum with the aim of having knowledge that will be necessary for the individuals in planning recreation areas and designing the programs peculiar to the needs, point of interests and individuals and that will show the individual differences. Besides, the individuals who have been given the awareness of environment are estimated to consider environment facilities for the activities they will plan with information differences. As the main factor of this activity organization, "human" emerges and the human types encountered in each activity are different from each other. For this reason, human relations are very important in the field of "recreation management" (Gürbüz, 2015: 62-63). On the basis of this reason, the courses are included with the aim of ensuring individuals to have a certain viewpoint about human relations in the scope of the curriculum to be suggested, communication as the process of mutual interaction, human behaviors and social relations. So, the individuals are thought to have information about the people, groups and societies which will be encountered by the individuals continuously in working life. Karaküçük (2008) claims that the requirement of using recreation activities for ensuring social and personal happiness features recreation leadership; Yayla (2014) also claims that the need for recreation

197 leadership increases more due to the fact that the diversity in recreation activities, it's principles, standards and the application methods today. Gürbüz (2015) expresses that an individual specialized about human relations by receiving a good education is an individual who can be a candidate about carrying out and managing recreation activities. Another course that is seen in the quality of supporting each other with the courses such as communication and human relations and included in the scope of curriculum depending on the increase in the recreation leaders. With these courses, the individuals are aimed to be trained in terms of general leadership that is important for management as well as assessing leisure times. So, it is thought that the individuals are trained about the matters of providing to have the quality of leadership for recreation activities in all fields and in parallel with this, directing the people to participate in recreation activities to the activities appropriate for their needs, leading them, providing the unproblematic application of the activities. Another course group thought to be given in the scope of this department is the courses related to tourism. Karaküçük (2008) expresses that one of the most important processes of recreation activities continuously enriched in terms of both diversity and the people who participated in and evaluated as a new life style is tourism and between these two factors, there is a common life relation in terms of increasing their life qualities and positively affecting their satisfaction levels. In this case, tourism and recreation are seen as two factors that cannot be thought separate from each other. In this case, with the aim of gaining the knowledge about the matters such as tourism sector in the curriculum, the businesses covered by the sector and the values related to tourism are assumed to be needed to tourism courses. The activities such as festival, fair, congress, carnival and sport organization evaluated as tourism product create important amount of tourism demand throughout the world (Kozak et al., 2015: 74). Based on the tourism recreation relation and the statement of Gürbüz (2015) as, “organizing a festival is a recreation activity”, it is thought that all these activities can be evaluated in the scope of these activities. From this point of view, it is thought that these course groups must be included in the curriculum with the aim of giving information to individuals about from basic activity concept of the individuals to planning the activity and national or international different societies and evaluating out national activity values in the scope of recreation activities. Sport is in an important action area that will meet all kinds of recreation needs of people in different groups at all age and gender with many activity types and features (Karaküçük, 2008: 234). The research carried out reveals that the number of people who prefer sportive activities for recreational purposes is more than the number of those who prefer other recreation activities (Şahin & Kocabulut, 2014: 5). From this point of view, it is inevitable to reach to the conclusion that sport and recreation affect each other and to evaluate sport as one of the most attractive areas in recreation. It is thought that the leaders to plan and apply varies and sportive activity programs for sportive purposes, the trained individuals who will ensure increasing presented facilities and manage facilities at different levels and the requirement of sport courses to train the individuals are needed. With these courses, it is assumed to gain necessary information and skills about the matters such as the diversity of sport and recreational sportive activities, the organizations where the activities are applied, sources and environments. Therapeutic recreation whose primary purpose is to eliminate the limited situations or diseases of the individuals as well as which means improving their limitation or disease status or bringing them to their old health status again by adopting to these cases forms another course group included in the scope of the curriculum. It is described as “an important recreation type providing benefit for private patients such as the old, disabled and children to feel down by enjoying, playing games, racing during their treatment processes and seeing themselves different from the others” (Demirci, 2013: 196; Tütüncü, 2008: 97). With the courses included in this scope, it is thought to be trained equipped individuals about the following matters:  By learning basic concepts about therapeutics recreation field, having general knowledge,  Planning recreation areas for private patients and programming the activities performed in these areas and acquiring skills about the application,  Aiming to rise the life standards of individuals and societies,  Having the qualities to bring innovations about this matter by following developments in the field for facilitating the private patients' lives and apply.

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Another course that is thought to be found in the curriculum of recreation departments is the course of first aim. With this course, it is aimed to bring up the individuals having knowledge and quality to make the first intervention in any health problem that may occur during recreation activities. Karaküçük (2008) claims that the reaching to success by the programs covering recreation activities is undoubtedly associated with the management of these spaces and they have been designed appropriate for the purposes in terms of the establishments of the facilities or organizations, managements and facilities. Gürbüz (2015) claims that recreation and space concepts are in close relationship because the spaces must be design as making the society happy in order to make the society happy. For this reason, it is seen that the requirement of the courses including the sources, businesses and facilities in the scope of the department and their maintenance, design and management is inevitable and they must be included in the curriculum. The individuals receiving education in recreation departments are thought to have knowledge about the matters of identifying the expectations and needs of the consumers and making production suitable for these expectations and needs and submitting them to the preferences of consumers, the costumers' leaving as satisfied and ensuring the businesses to make profit when they graduate from the university and begin to work. It is assumed that it is possible to gain these knowledge to individuals through marketing. As stated by Karaküçük (2008), it is clear that recreation marketing remained deficient in eliminating the needs to spend leisure times beneficially by the individuals for this reason it is needed clearly to a marketing process to eliminate this deficiency and the applications to meet the needs better. It is thought that this need brings along the requirement of marketing courses which are thought to give information about these matters to the individuals. Recreation is not an economic event directly bit it forms an economic wealth; because it provides a considerate commercial mobility by leading to spend this income in various types. For this reason, it is required to be examined in economical aspect (Karaküçük, 2008: 232; Karaçar, 2014: 115). Based on this result, it includes courses to provide knowledge to the individuals in financial and economic aspects With the courses included suggested curriculum, some of the knowledge and skills thought to gain individuals are as follows:  The individuals' having knowledge about basic concepts of law and business law and recreation activities performed in national and international areas and legal regulations about application areas of these activities,  With following the publications and reports about recreation field, reaching to scientific knowledge, evaluating this information and putting it in practice,  Following technological and scientific innovations in a level required by the field, using computer software with information and communication technologies,  Providing easiness in establishing communication by ensuring to be learnt at least one foreign language,  Decision processes about the problems to be encountered, and the solution of the problems and what it can be made for solution of the problems, problem solving, creative thinking and making comparisons with developed countries,  Ensuring consumers who will make use of recreational services to have knowledge about selecting the products to satisfy their needs, purchasing and using them and directing the behaviors for disposal of them after use,  Comprehending the importance of recreation in terms of society and the requirement to consider cultural and individual differences in the activities to be organized for the society.

4. CONCLUSION Increasing in the leisure times and inclination to recreation that is the activities covering more space in individuals' lives and gaining more importance and some reasons such as the demand of increasing benefits provided by recreation activities in social, economic and psychological terms have emerged the requirement of education in this line. Due to these reasons, some departments to perform recreation training have been opened within the universities.

199 When it is evaluated in terms of Turkey, it is possible to say that recreation departments are mostly within the School of Physical Education and Sports. However, with understanding the relationship of recreation with tourism in time, being addressed of recreation departments within the School of Physical Education and Sports to a narrower field (sport), increasing in the interest in recreation, the requirement of bringing up trained staff who will present the services in this field, recreation departments have started to be opened within Tourism Faculties. Accelerating the develops of newly opened recreation departments and closing the gap of trained staff, forming the curriculum to be given within this department is important, because the curriculum is in the status of mediator to give targeted training for bringing up the desired qualified staff. While forming the curriculum to be prepared for recreation departments, it is important to answer the questions such as which lessons will be given for which reasons in the curriculum, how the courses will be given, what the evaluations will be. During the formation of curriculum, there are some factors which will be considered in the selection of the courses which are thought to contribute to recreation field, can be stressed on and must not be overlooked and some of these factors are as follows:  Curriculum emerges from needs and the courses to be included in the curriculum must help about closing this gap,  The needs of learners and society must not be overlooked,  They must be compatible with sector expectations,  They must have the quality to gain demanded knowledge and skills to individuals,  They must be ensured to be compatible with current technological developments,  They must ensure to have a profession,  They must complete the deficiencies of the ones who have a profession,  It was included in optional courses for presenting different programs to the individuals having different interest area, skill and needs. Considering them and similar factors and when course selections are made, it is thought to be possible to meet the need of qualified staff having sufficient knowledge about recreation through these courses, skills and competence, covering a wide array who can plan and carry out recreation activities, orient appropriate people for appropriate activities, have the skill of planning leisure times and who are dominant in contemporary approach and concepts. It is thought that identifying the capacity of the businesses which can give employment and career guarantee to the individuals who received recreation training in Turkey and recreation programs will accept students within this capacity because so, it will be ensured to be both given recreation training and prevent the emerging unemployment problem. At the same time, employment problem out of the area can be eliminated with some measures such as bringing special conditions to be undergone training/worked by the individuals who received only recreation training in employment areas, preventing everybody to be employed easily, and limitation to enter in the area. That the businesses listed as employment fields in practicing and working matters and the universities giving recreation training are in cooperation is importance. The individuals must be informed by lecturers during their training and by business managers during their practice. Such kind of preventions can minimize the level of being disappointed of the individuals who are in big expectations after graduation and even eliminate it completely. As a result, bringing up desired qualified individuals for recreation areas can be possible with information and skills to be given to the individuals through the curriculum to be used during their education and training life. For this reason, the selection of compulsory and/or optional courses to be included in the curriculum is very important for meeting this need. REFERENCES Ağaoğlu, Y. S. & Boyacı, M. (2013). Serbest Zaman Eğitimi. Spor Yönetimi ve Bilgi Teknolojileri Dergisi 8 (1), 17-23. Airey, D. & Tribe, J. (2005). An International Handbook of Tourism Education. Advances in Tourism Research Series, Elsevier. Aran, S. (2014). A Case Study on Defining Leisure Time Motivation of Recreation. Procedia-Social and

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Behavioral Sciences 152, 734-739. Arslan, Sibel. (2013). Yetişkin Eğitimi Bakış Açısıyla Serbest Zaman-Rekreasyon ve Serbest Zaman Eğitimi. (1. Basım). Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık. Balcı, V. & İlhan, A. (2006). Türkiye’deki Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Rekreatif Etkinliklere Katılım Düzeylerinin Belirlenmesi. Spormetre Beden Eğitimi ve Spor Bilimleri Dergisi 4 (1),11-18. Birsner, M. L. & Satin, A. J. (2013). Developing a Program, A Curriculum, A Scenario. Seminars in Perinatology 37, 175-178. Broadhurst, R. (2001). Managing Environments Leisure and Recreation. First Edition. London and New York: Routledge. Ceyhun, S. (2008). Spor Tesislerinin Rekreatif Açıdan Kullanımı. Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 16 (1), 325- 332. Demirel, Ö. (2013). Eğitimde Program Geliştirme Kuramdan Uygulamaya. (20. Baskı). Anakara: Pegem Akademi. Erol, Ersan. (2014). Rekreasyon Olgusuna Genel Yaklaşım. İçinde Ali Yaylı (Ed.), Kamusal Alanlarda Rekreasyon. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Fidgeon, P. R. (2010). Tourism Education and Curriculum Design: A Time for Consolidation and Review. Tourism Management 31, 699-723. Görgen, İ. (2014). Eğitimde Program Geliştirme Kavramlar Yaklaşımlar. İçinde Hasan Şeker (Ed.). Program Geliştirmede Temel Kavramlar. 3. Baskı. Ankara: Anı Yayıncılık. Gül, Tolga. (2014). Rekreasyon Olgusuna Genel Yaklaşım. İçinde Ali Yaylı (Ed.), Rekreasyona Giriş. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Gürbüz, Ali Kemal. (2015). Lisans Düzeyinde Eğitimde “Rekreasyon Yönetimi Bölümü”nün Anlamı, İçermesi Gereken Dersler ve Gerekçeleri Üzerine Manifesto. Balıkesir: Liva Yayınları. Hacıoğlu, N.; Gökdeniz, A; & Dinç, Y. (2003). Boş Zaman ve Rekreasyon Yönetimi (Örnek Animasyon Uygulamaları). İçinde Ayhan Gökdeniz (Ed.), Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Hall, C. M. & Page, S. J. (2002). The Geography of Tourism and Recreation Environment, Place and Space. Second Edition. London and New York. Hall, C. M. & Page, S. J. (2006). The Geography of Tourism and Recreation – Environment, Place and Space. Third Edition. London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Hotaman, D. (2010). Demokratik Eğitim: Demokratik Bir Eğitim Programı. Kuramsal Eğitimbilim, 3 (1), 29- 42. Jitaru, D.; Sambotin, L.; Khalil, F.I.; Mayer, M; & Tirchi, S.(2012). Recreational Rural Tourism in Europe. Lucrari Stiintifice, 14 (4), 247-254. Kaewpet, C. (2009). A Framework for Investigating Learner Needs: Needs Analysis Extended to Curriculum Development. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching 6 (2), 209-220. Karaçar, Ercan. (2014). Boş Zaman ve Rekreasyon Olgusunun Tarihsel Gelişim Süreci. İçinde Ali Yaylı (Ed.), Rekreasyona Giriş. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Karaküçük, S. (2008). Rekreasyon Boş Zamanları Değerlendirme. Altıncı Baskı. Ankara: Gazi Kitabevi. Kement, Ü. (2014). Rekreasyon Olgusuna Genel Yaklaşım. İçinde Ali Yaylı (Ed.), Rekreasyonun Diğer Alanlarla İlişkisi. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Kızanlıklı, M. M. (2014). Türkiye’deki Yükseköğretim Kurumlarında Rekreasyon Eğitiminin Yapısı. International Journal of Science Culture and Sport, Special Issue on the Proceedings of the 3rd ISCS Conference, 1, 46-60. Korotchenko, T.; Matveenko, I. A.; Strelnikova, A. B. & Phillips, C. (2015). Backward Design Method in Foreign Language Curriculum Development. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences 215, 213-217. Kozak, N., Akoğlan Kozak, M.ve Kozak, M. (2015). Genel Turizm İlkeler-Kavramlar. (17. Baskı). Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Marsh, C. J. & Willis, G. (2007). Curriculum Alternative Approaches, Ongoing Issues. Fourth Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Meo, G. (2008). Curriculum Planning for All Learners: Applying Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to a High School Reading Comprehension Program. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth 52 (2), 21-30. Naralan, A. & Kaleli, S. S. (2012). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Üniversiteden Beklentileri ve Bölüm Memnuniyeti Araştırması Atatürk Üniversitesi Örneği. Organizasyon ve Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi 4 (1), 1-11.

201 Pratt, D. (1980). Curriculum Design and Development. London: Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Sonnenberg, R. & Barnard, M. (2015). Youth Worship as Recreation. International Journal of Practical Theology 19 (1), 138-163. Süzer, M. (2000). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Boş Zamanlarını Değerlendirme Alışkanlıkları. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi 8 (8) 123-133. Şahin, İ. & Kocabulut, Ö. (2014). Sportif Rekreasyon Aktivitelerine Düzenli Katılımı Engelleyen Faktörlerin İncelenmesi: Akdeniz Üniversitesi Turizm Fakültesi Öğrencileri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Journal of Recreation and Tourism Research 1 (2), 46-67. Tanner, D. & Tanner, L. (2007). Curriculum Development Theory into Practice. Fourth Edition. New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. Torkildsen, G. (2005). Leisure and Recreation Management. (5th Edition). London and New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. Tribe, J. (2011). The Economics of Recreation, Leisure and Tourism. (Fourth Edition). Published by Elsevier. Tütüncü, Ö. (2008). Rekreasyon Yönetimi’ne Yönelik Üniversite Düzeyinde Bir Müfredat Önerisi. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi 19 (1), 93-103. Tütüncü, Ö. (2012). Rekreasyon ve Rekreasyon Terapisinin Yaşam Kalitesindeki Rolü. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 23 (2), 248-252. Tütüncü, Ö.; Taş, İ.; & Kiremitçi, İ. (2012). Rekreasyonda Kurumsallaşma ve Uzmanlaşma. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 23 (1), 112-116. Tütüncü, Özkan ve Aydın, İpek. (2014). Toplum ve Açık Hava Rekreasyon Faaliyetleri: ABD Örneği. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 25 (1), 118-120. Yağcı, P. (2015). Lisans Düzeyinde Rekreasyon Bölümü Müfredatlarının İncelenmesi ve Örnek Müfredat Çalışması. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Balıkesir. Yayla, Özgür. (2014). Rekreasyon Olgusuna Genel Yaklaşım. İçinde Ali Yaylı (Ed.), Rekreasyon Faaliyetlerinde Liderlik. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Zimmermann, J.A.M.; Dupree, J.; Hodges, J.S. (2014). The Delivery of Recreation Programs: Students Gain Entry Level Management Skills Through Service Learning. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 14 (4), 144-163. Zorba, Z. (2008). Türkiye’de Rekreasyona Bakış Açısı ve Gelişimi. Gazi Haber Dergisi, 52-55.

202 Chapter 15

Tourist Guiding: “Cinderella” of the Tourism

Feray İRİGÜLER*, Mehmet Emre GÜLER**

INTRODUCTION Tour guiding has been described as " the 'Cinderella' of the tourism industry: attractive, useful, but often neglected" (Mak, Wong and Chang, 2011: 1442). Tourist guiding comprises complicated and multivariate roles composed of different kinds of unrelated roles and sub-roles (Rabotic, 2010: 3). Tour guides serve purposes such as educator, information giver, interpreter, leader, role model, cultural broker, facilitator of access to non-public areas, tour and group organizer and representative of tour companies (Black and Weiler, 2005: 26). The prime responsibility of a tour guide is to turn the tourists’ experience into a most pleasurable while making the information available in an entertaining yet culturally acceptable manner (Boyle and Arnott, 2004: 75). Since the tour guide is in an incessant and maximal contact with the tour members throughout the tour’s entire duration, the responsibility for achieving higher levels of customer satisfaction is mostly passed on to them (Geva and Goldman 1991: 178). The tour guide usually has frequent, extended, and mostly intensive encounters with people who participate in tours and is expected to display diverse emotions. They act the role of a characteristically emotional laborer in the tourism environment. In addition to this, she or he has extremely restricted space and time for himself or herself in which to discharge the emotional burden; as a result they’re faced with a much more increased intensity of challenge (Wong and Wang, 2009: 250). Jobholders in the hospitality industry are exclusively susceptible to the requisitions of emotional labor since they are generally requested to maintain friendly manners and positive attitudes while doing their jobs even under the conditions that usually reveal unfavorable emotional reactions such as dealing with intolerant, difficult or irritating customers, incessant work cycle (Pizam, 2004: 315). At the same time expectations of quality from both tourism stakeholders and tourists are augmenting as the tourism market is expanding and competition is rising. All these factors contribute to emotional burden of tourist guides. THE CONCEPT OF TOURIST GUIDING Tourist guiding, as one of the oldest professions in tourism industry, has a critical importance in terms of promoting the natural and historical wealth of a country effectively and efficiently. Guide is a term meaning someone who is leading and showing the way. Tourist guiding is perceived as a fun and easy occupation that offers many opportunities such as travelling, sightseeing, having fun, meeting new people and places from the outside but the reality is that it is a profession with many difficulties and problems (Batman, Yıldırgan and Demirtaş, 2000: 24). Tourist guides lead group of visitors on tours to places of their own interest. While some guides lead short term visits such as daily excursions which last a couple hours or sometimes a day, some guides lead groups of people on long term visits which may enclose time duration of a week up to a month. They are not only expected to know everything and answer all the questions about history, geography, places of interest, architecture, museums, shopping districts, best restaurants and entertainment facilities but also pay attention to the route, speed limits, hotel locations, traffic hours, managing time as well as dealing with the driver, the tourists, safety issues and many more. Besides, they do this standing backward in a moving bus trying to entertain the tour participants with an imaginative and creative interpretation at the same time. Their prior responsibility is to ensure a safe and enjoyable trip (Ferguson, 2010: 109-111).

* Res. Assist., İzmir University of Economics, School of Applied Management Sciences, Department of Culinary Arts and Management **Assoc. Prof. Dr., İzmir Katip Çelebi University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management

A tour guide is a person, in most countries a licensed professional, who is assigned to accompany not only groups but also individual visitors or namely tourists in and around of natural settings, historic sites, and buildings and sceneries in the preferred country, region or place and who also interprets natural and cultural heritage, both tangible and intangible, in an entertaining and inspiring way. For most guided tours, one guide is assigned per group; this way the guide has the opportunity to adapt the theme and style coherent with the group and also they are capable of interacting with them via reciprocal interaction or in other forms of communication with group members. This way, they are able to enhance the tourists’ experience, improve visitor satisfaction, and increase their awareness and understanding as well as shaping behaviors, attitudes and perceptions. They work either as self- employed or are employed by various touristic establishments such as travel agencies or tour operators, hotels, lodges, resorts, attraction and theme parks, public or private museums and visitor centers where they function a pivot role as part of the tourism product or the experience of visitors. They make sure the tour runs smoothly and is safe using their mediatory and interpretive facets of guiding. These facets not only affect the ambiance of the tour and the experience of the tourists but also their perceptions of the visited area; hence shaping their post-visit attitudes and overall image about the destination in terms of repeat visits, word of mouth advertising to friends or purchase of another tour for a different region within the same country or another tour of the very same tour operator (Weiler and Black, 2015: 1-4). Tourists expect to have unique experiences and look for variety along with a high quality service to be fully satisfied which is solely based on tourist guides’ skills on interpretation and information as well as their expertise on managing of group dynamics as they act a vital role on influencing sensations and emotions adapted to clients’ interests. It’s in tourist guides’ hands to make information more meaningful via creative interpretation by embedding humor to reality, telling stories and using wittiness. Thus, tourist guides should elaborate diverse professional and personal features to insure high quality service. A solid education, continuous training and real life experiences are essential elements of effective tourist guiding along with a deep knowledge of the destinations, communication skills, responsible and honest behaviors. As the tour guides’ experience, creativity, background and devoutness differ from each other, each tour is unique and personalized in nature. It’s normal that tourists trust guide’s commentaries on destination and local community as their stay or visit is usually not long enough to make observations and gain knowledge. At this point, the tourist guide is the only mediator between the host destination and its visitors; thus holding on an important function. (Brito, 2012: 270-275). Tourist guides should also follow society dynamics attentively, and have a foresight about new trends, changes on customs and traditions, possible upcoming events in the near future. They should similarly be knowledgeable retroactively. They are expected to answer questions about the origins of current social rules, their executions back in the past, the reason of their necessity and changes that have been made over time (Ahipaşaoğlu, 1994: 137). Some of the basic roles of the tourist guides can be summarized as follows (Ferguson, 2010: 112, Wressnig, 1999: 40):  to make sure all members of the group stay together so no one gets lost  to make sure they are on time for various arrivals and departures  educate the group about places they visit  make alternative arrangements in case of delays, inconvenient weather conditions, over- bookings etc.  dealing with personal issues regarding dietary requirements, wheelchair accessibility for handicapped guests, sick travelers etc.  confirming reservations prior to an arrival point on the route  ensuring a safe and an enjoyable trip by planning and overseeing every detail of the tour  provide information about customs and rules to prevent any offensive behavior such as breaking social rules or violating others’ privacy.  giving instructions about general behavior such as taking photographs with or without flash or none at all, not to remain too close to glass cases, not to touch the exhibit, removing hats or covering bare shoulders etc.  provide information about value of money in foreign currency

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The aim of tourist guiding is to make contribution to the promotion and appraisal of tourist attractions of Turkey and provide a correct and better understanding of the visited areas in the context of tourism policies defined by Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Tourist guiding activity includes taking in and around all kinds of individual tourists and groups as well as supporting activities in this regard without any prejudice to occupational activity areas and the rights of other tourism professionals granted by law (Tetik, 2006: 3). DEFINITION OF TOURIST GUIDE According to the definition of World Federation of Tourist Guide Associations (WFTGA, 2003) which was mentioned during the 10th International Convention that took place in Dunblane, United Kingdom, a tourist guide is defined as “a person who guides visitors in the language of their choice and interprets the cultural and natural heritage of an area, which person normally possesses an area-specific qualification usually issued and / or recognized by the appropriate authority”. According to the definition of Ministry of Culture and Tourism of Turkey, a professional tourist guide is defined in the Professional Tourist Guiding Regulation (Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey, 2005) as a person who;  have the authority to perform the guiding profession in accordance with the principles and procedures defined in the regulation  guides the local and foreign tourists in accordance with the languages specified on their guidance identity cards that is compatible with tourists’ choice before the visit  interprets them the cultural and natural heritage of the visited regions  executes the tour program that was sold to the consumer in accordance with the printed documents of the tour operator or travel agency  manages the tour program on behalf of travel business While the term ‘tour guide’ is also used synonymously with ‘tourist guide’ extensively, it might be misleading, unfitting or an inaccurately designated title in most cases as the term ‘tour guide’ may refer to a book, a brochure, audio and visual technology resources or a virtual robotic tour guide. This is the reason that the term ‘tourist guide’ is commonly used in most countries of the world rather than ‘tour guide’ (Weiler and Black, 2015: 3). In this context, it’s possible to categorize guides as static guides and dynamic guides; where static guiding refers to ‘tour guide’ and the latter refers to ‘tourist guide’. While people keep in their memories 20% of any written document that is read, this ratio increases to 40% when they look at something and listen to get information about it at the same time. And this is only possible with dynamic guides. People have always preferred fancy, warm, lively, humorous narratives rather than books; as a result, dynamic guides giving the visitors intangible emotions through five senses while increasing their knowledge have become more attracting when compared to simple and dry descriptive phrases in books (Yazıcıoğlu, Tokmak and Uzun, 2008: 3). There are also some similar positions such as tour manager, group leader, transfer men, agency or tour operator representative in the tourism industry which are used interchangeably with professional tourist guide; yet, these positions differ from each other. These are defined below: Tour Manager: Those are the people who escort the group from the very beginning of the tour until it ends, lead the participants, help them or do on behalf of them all the routine or legislative procedures, give them brief orientation about the destination, make purchases of goods and services on behalf of group members when necessary, take care of their problems at first hand, represent the tour operator to individualistic tourism service providers, make sure the tour is successful and run smoothly as it was planned. They are expected to do their best and be available so that clientele enjoy their vacation. Tour manager is not a local guide (Ahipaşaoğlu, 2001: 83). Group Leader: They are the people who are influential on bringing a group of people together to participate on a package tour. The general rule is that these people don’t pay a price for joining the trip. Yet, they’re expected to fulfil the responsibilities of a tour leader. A tour leader also may be employed depending on the number or importance of the group members. If this is the case, group leader is much more in charge of cheering the group up and creating a positive ambience (Ahipaşaoğlu, 2001: 98). Transfer Men: The prime responsibility of transfer men is to escort the group between the arrival

205 point at the destination and the accommodation facility or the starting point of the tour. They are not expected to be qualified people but speak the language of arriving group members and be knowledgeable about the procedures to be done (Ahipaşaoğlu, 2001: 100). Representative: Overseas tour operators that have contract agreements with the hotels at the host destination usually assign contact persons to help their customers on the premises during their stays. These people are called representatives and carry out the responsibilities of transfer men and as well as being available to guests anytime they need. Besides, usually the next day of their arrival, they organize a welcome reception which is called information cocktail and they do tour sales on behalf of the tour operator or the representative local travel agency (Batman et al., 2000: 21). TYPES OF TOURIST GUIDES While people travel for different purposes and look for unique experiences with different motivations and demands, governments try to boost their revenues from the tourism industry; as a result, the industry is getting more segmented and specialized in nature. The increase in demand for tourism professionals includes tourist guides as well. Because people, especially inexperienced visitors going to a place for the first time, prefer guided tours to experience the destination in a safe and efficient way. The various types of tourism activities make it also necessary for tourist guides to specialize in at least one of these tourism genres and these specialization types can be grouped under the following classification as on Figure 1. Yet the complex nature of package tours as well as multi-faceted structure of tour guiding may sometimes make it necessary for them to take on dual or more roles. Their expertise is mainly determined by the geographical environment, history, season, product or the employer (Black and Weiler, 2005: 9-12).

Adventure Forest- Heritage Culture Guides Wilderness Guides Guides -Mountaineering Guides -History -Cuisine -Aerial Sports -Hunting -Architecture -Religion -Water Sports -Safari

Tour Guides

Nature Guides Special -Desert Interest Business- Coach Guides -Hill Station Guides MICE Guides Botanical -Cruise -Golf Garden -Shopping

Figure 1: Types of Tourist Guides Source: Black and Weiler, 2005: 8. HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF GUIDED TOURS The Ancient Empire: Travel began in the era of the great empire which was between 3,000 B.C. to 500 A.D. The first organized travelers came out of Persians, Assyrians and Egyptians but invasions, lack of security and difficulties of transportation made travels both dangerous and slow. Travelers of this period chose land and sea as means of transportation. Egyptian priests are referred as the first

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guides according to written historical sources in the world. Following the upcoming of festivals and shows known as Olympic Games that started in 776 B.C. during the Greek Empire, people have begun to travel for pleasure and in mass. As the tourism activities have begun common among people, a new profession, guiding, emerged as a necessity. Greeks called guides as “perigetai” which means a person who leads people around or “exegetai” meaning explainer or information giver. Herodotus, known as the first travel writer with his book Historia, mentioned extensively about guides. In Ancient Rome roads such as Via Regalis, Via Flamnia, Via Aemilia, Via Avrelia, and Via Agnetia were built and made it a lot easier for people to get from one place to another. They also built accommodation facilities every 20-30 km on these roads which leaded an increase in number of travelers (Cruz, 2008: 14). The Middle Ages: Also called as Dark Ages, Middle Ages is the period between 500 A.D. and 1508 A.D. which is from the fall of Rome till the Renaissance. When the Rome fell, it didn’t only cause a decline in trade and economy but also a decline in motive to travel. The only travelers were those to make their pilgrimages to Canterbury, Winchester and Walsingham from middle or upper class citizens but the roads were not safe and they were scared to travel alone. That is why the role of the guide was a bit different than giving information or finding the path. They were paid large fees to find safe alleys and protect their travelers from possible dangers (Cruz, 2008: 15). The Renaissance and the Grand Tour: Tour guides were highly respected during the Renaissance. Young members of high class families started to travel from England to Italy through France, Germany, Austria and Switzerland on the Grand Tour. This tour was designed for young men so that they learn foreign languages, broaden their minds, exchange cultural values, self-development and become intellectual individuals. For this reason, they were assigned a private escort who was called cicerone, bear leader or antiquari whose function was to lead these young men on their educational and cultural tours during this journey. These personal tutors were expected to be sophisticated people who knew foreign languages and also who were knowledgeable about art, history, architecture, literature and so on. There were many writers, historians among guides of the Grand Tour who created the first body of tourism literature. They were also responsible for keeping an eye on their pupils in terms of safety matters and ethical conducts. As their responsibilities were numerous, so was their income as the rich families were paying the most to hire the best guide (Cruz, 2008: 17). The Modern Age: In the 19th century there had been a revival in tourism activities with the invention of the motor vehicles. In the years 1800s, following the Industrial Revolution, organized tours for touristic purposes increased first in England and then in the rest of the Western Europe. Thomas Cook, a former Baptist preacher, took a group of temperance campaigners from Leicester to Loughborough to a rally on a one-day rail excursion which was 11 miles away on July 5th, 1841 as he believed this trip would help people drink less and became better educated and this was accepted as the first organized tour. Thomas Cook was also the first travel agency to organize tours on a regular basis. While there had been a decrease in touristic activities during the World Wars I. and II., visiting battle fields and wish for meeting different cultures attracted the interests of those who were fighting against each other in the post-war period. As a result tourism activities were revived. Guiding was undertaken by those who actually fought in the battle. In the early 20th century, London Tower and Windsor Castle were opened to guided visits. Some of the travel agencies and tour operators started to employ full-time tourist guides. The organization and training of the tourist guides were realized after 1930s (Tetik, 2006: 5). Tourist Guiding in Turkey: History of tourist guiding in Turkey dates back to late 19th century. Tourist Guiding Associations are also involved in various studies to improve the quality of services provided by tourist guides, pursue the on-the-job trainings, continue their works in the area of specialization and actively participates in numerous activities to promote tourism all around the country for more than 50 years (tureb.org.tr/index.php?mod=haber_detay&did=177, accessed on 23.03.2015). The relations with the Europeans in areas such as education, fine arts and trade started to increase in volume as well as the number of foreigners living in Istanbul following the declaration of Reforms in 1839 by the Ottoman Empire. When Orient-Express rail expeditions between Paris-Istanbul commenced on June 5th, 1883 upon the development of travel services in Europe, Ottomans also supported western authorities during the Crimean War. Citizens of western societies started to sympathize with Anatolia

207 and traveled to the country more for trade and pleasure reasons. With this development, tourist guiding that emerged towards the end of the 19th century was very important in terms of national security and promotion of the country. The first example of the attempts that were made for institutionalization of the profession was the adoption of Regulation No. 190 dated 29 October 1890. This regulation was made to construct certain rules for tourist guiding and the application of this regulation was given to municipalities by the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Regulations dictated to act in good faith, have a proper knowledge of maternal language as well as proficiency of a foreign language. The foreign language proficiency was decided to be tested through a proficiency exam to be applied. Two years after the foundation of the Republic of Turkey strict rules were introduced about tourist guiding with the Decree No 2730 dated 8 November 1925 for those who functioned as interpreter and guide to foreign travelers. The most important issue that the decree emphasized was the education of interpreter guides; yet, because of a lack of a foundation on touristic activities, testing their proficiencies with an exam was never implemented. At the end of 1920s, touristic activities in Turkey almost stopped due to the economic crisis but in December 1928, Istanbul Directorate of Economics announced via press that a guidance course to be organized. Fifty of the candidates who entered the exam were entitled to be a tourist guide. In 1935, tourism offices were founded as part of municipality branches and a guidance course was organized for the second time. This time the courses gave fifty three graduates. But in 1940s, with the impact of World War I. and II., tourism activities almost stopped again and the guides quit their professions. In 1950s, Directorate of Press and Tourism submitted a report titled as ‘Tourist Interpreter Guidance’ to the Secondary Tourism Advisory Board. Following this report, Turkish National Scholar Federation executed a study so that guidance was adapted to the conditions of the day. 129 young men completed the course that was designed for university students and stepped into the profession. Between 1955 and 1960, Municipality of Istanbul and Istanbul Provincial Directorate of Media cooperated for the graduation of 128 students and they started to work as tourist guides in different languages. On August 20, 1963, Ministry of Tourism and Promotion was founded and it was their responsibility to open vocational schools and courses for training staff between 1964 and 1968. But these courses were executed through in-service instructions and circulars dependent on Regulation No. 2730. The first Regulation No. 13945 named as Interpreter Guiding Courses and Interpreter Guiding Regulation was published on September 3, 1971. This regulation was renamed as Professional Tourist Guiding Regulation on March 21, 1974 and was updated in 1981, 1983, 1986 and 2005. In recent years, universities opened two year undergraduate programs and four year bachelor’s degree programs to educate tourist guide candidates along with the courses of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. On June7, 2012 Tourist Guiding Profession Act No. 6326 was adopted by the Turkish Parliament and this act was published in the Official Gazette on 22.06.2012. With the introduction of Tourist Guiding Profession Act No. 6326, Tourist Guiding Association (TUREB) gained legal status with its 13 sub-associations and 10.000 members and continues its activities in Ankara. (tureb.org.tr/index.php?mod=haber_detay&did=177, accessed on 23.03.2015). CHARACTERISTICS THAT A TOURIST GUIDE MUST HAVE When tourists visit a country, a site or a region on a guided tour, their overall image of the destination and the level of their satisfaction are dependent upon the interpretation and information provided by the tourist guide since the tourist guide is the person who is always there to teach them what is already included in the program but also satisfy their curiosity on any subject that cannot be predicted until meeting the group. The way the tourist guide construct the tour and how he or she represents it plays a pivotal role in the establishment of the local identity in tourists’ minds. While they are expected to answer all the questions on various subjects such as social, local and national history, previous civilizations, political system of the country, social and health insurance policies, education system, customs and traditions, the structure of the population, geographical and geopolitical conditions, human geography etc., they should strictly pay attention on discussing the issues such as race, religion, gender discrimination or sexual matters to avoid any offensive behavior. But their responsibilities are not just limited to information giving. Tourist guides must have a wide variety of skills. They should lead the group professionally not to lose control, be cold-blooded, fair, flexible, humorous, a storyteller, and diplomatic. They are responsible of their acts in terms of their relations with their employers, their

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customers and the tourism policies of their country. Different researchers identify different roles for tourist guides (Dahles, 2002: 786). Table 1 summarizes the various roles defined by various researchers. As their profession necessitates adoption of each role individually to achieve their responsibilities and please the guests, there are some certain characteristics that tourist guides need to have and they are consisted of the following. Knowledge One of the most prominent characteristics that a tourist guide should possess is having a certain amount of knowledge on various topics. These topics can be summarized under the following headings. Table 1: Different Roles of Tourist Guides Roles Researcher Year Actor Holloway 1981 Ambassador Holloway 1981 Schmidt 1979 Buffer Pearce 1982 Caretaker Fine and Speer 1985 Catalyst Holloway 1981 Holloway 1981 Culture Broker Katz 1985 Holloway 1981 Information Giver Hughes 1991 Schmidt 1979 Intermediary Ryan and Dewar 1995 Almagador 1985 Holloway 1981 Interpreter / Translator Katz 1985 Ryan and Dewar 1995 Cohen 1985 Leader Geva and Goldman 1991 Schmidt 1979 Holloway 1981 Mediator Cohen 1985 Katz 1985 Middleman Van den Berghen 1980 Hughes 1991 Organizer Pearce 1982 Schuchat 1983 Fine and Speer 1985 Salesperson Gronroos 1978 Shaman Schmidt 1979 Holloway 1981 Pearce 1982 Teacher Fine and Speer 1985 Manchini 2001 Source: Zhang and Chow, 2004: 83. Knowledge of a Foreign Language Professional tourist guides not only guide local tourists of their own nationality but also guide tourists who come from different countries. For this reason, they are expected to be fluent in at least one foreign language and speak it efficiently. Because, a tourist guide is the person who guides visitors in the language of their choice at the destination. Therefore, knowledge of a foreign language is of great importance to communicate effectively and transmit the information correctly to foreign visitors. Besides, one of the requirements to be a tourist guide in Turkey is proficiency in a foreign language

209 (Tetik, 2006: 53). Knowledge of General Culture Although the tourist guide gives general information about the places visited during a tour which becomes scripted in time, tourists expect them to present it in a way that they become familiar with the local culture extensively. A guided tour is an interactive experience where the listeners ask questions and the extensive expertise of the tourist guide is necessary to enlighten the visitors upon their questions. These questions vary in nature depending on the group from science to art or from economy to politics. Therefore, they need to have a high level of cultural knowledge on a wide range of subjects to prove their professionalism and competence as well as to satisfy the curiosity of the visitors in a dynamic manner to hold their interest (Dahles, 2002: 783). Some of the basic knowledge expected from tourist guides are shown on Table 2: Table 2: Basic Knowledge Subjects National history, history of religions and art, political conditions of past civilizations, social conditions, daily lives, religious rituals, wars and peace agreements, architectural styles, History mythology, archeological excavations, exhibition, classification and dating of artifacts, antiquities smuggling Geography Mountains, forests, rivers, lakes, seas, underground resources, climate Economy Economical structure, economical situation, agricultural Urban and provincial life, legal structure, educational status, unionization, customs and Life traditions, music, folklore, dance, clothing, eating habits, TV shows, social issues, human rights, crime rate, freedom of thought Politics International relations, political history of the country and present situation Art Literature, theater, ballet, exhibitions, seasonal shows and celebrations Source: Genç, 1992: 215 Knowledge About Other Cultures There is a demand for intercultural comprehension and communication in the tourism sector more than any other sectors. Tourist guides serve people from all of the world and they should develop a positive relationship with their tourists no matter what their nationality is. They shouldn’t discriminate among people. They should learn how to look from their point of view and respect their values rather than their own to fully understand them (Tangüler, 2002: 26). A good tourist guide should also have some knowledge about visitors’ country, culture, religion, economy and customs as well as speaking their language. This way, they can explain things with comparative examples to make things more clear and the tourists feel much more comfortable and appreciate the guide. This also helps the guide to make some familiar treats to make them feel home. For instance, a 5 o’clock tea break on the itinerary would be a pleasant treat for an English group which is part of their tradition. Tourist guides can travel, follow foreign news, read books on various countries and watch documentaries about history and culture to expand their knowledge on other cultures (Güzel, 2007: 29). First-aid knowledge Tourist guides are responsible of all group members at any time in any situation including emergencies. For that reason, they should know first-aid procedures and applications. First- aid is an initial intervention in a serious condition prior to professional medical help is reached. The most important objective of first aid training in terms of tourist guides is to prepare them to stay calm in any emergency situation. Besides, they should also be able to tranquilize the patient and other passengers, keep them away from any further harm, make prompt and proper decisions and preserve the life of the patient until paramedics arrive. First aid knowledge can be given as part of in-service training or may be required as a hiring prerequisite of the employer (Tangüler, 2002: 29). Skills and Abilities Tourist guides are required to be equipped with some basic skills and abilities to be able respond to

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tourists’ needs and to fulfill their expectations. A unique tour experience is somewhat connected to possession of these skills and these skills are shaped within the society depending on country or region, customs and traditions, family upbringing or social lifestyle. These skills are either learnt or improvable and re summarized as follows: Narrative Skills Since tourist guide will be speaking in front of a crowded group of tourists on most of the tours they lead, they should be good at public speaking and narration so that they can direct the reaction of the group to the information they get. They should speak clearly, master their voice to talk calmly and slowly so that everyone gets what’s being told, and also learn how to control their breathing. Individuals learn information through visual, auditory or sensory processing. Tourist guides should provide information to match all three types of processing to make tourists feel like they are part of the story. They should keep in mind that narration is not just about talking about facts and dates but rather making it interesting with storytelling and embellishing it with fascinating events to create motivation to learn. They can use visual materials such as maps, photos, plans and drawings. These materials may complement the auditory sensation and capture their imagination as well. The information provided through narration should well match what visitors are experiencing and observing to avoid confusion and ambiguity. Tourist guide should explain the tour program in detail at the very beginning of the tour and emphasize the important facts so that the visitors are enlightened and stimulated. Likewise, they should be provided with a summary of the places visited at the end of the tour to refresh their minds. The key to success is to make them internalize the new information by stimulating tourists’ attention where and when possible (Güzel, 2007: 23). Communication Skills Communication stands at the core of daily social life, relations between societies, people, and groups. Communication can be defined as the transmission of meaning from an individual to another individual or more than one person. Communication may be realized both in verbal and non-verbal forms. The communication process is composed of the sender, the message and the receiver. So the message should be clear and convincing and presented in a way that it’s precisely understood. While the travel agency or other tourism service providers may not have the opportunity to communicate directly with the tourists, the tour guide is the person who is in direct communication with each member of the group. Communication skills are important as it functions as a facilitator of a guide’s all other functions. The tourist guide should know the values of the culture of his or her group and tolerate any unacceptable behaviors or habits to his or her values in order to be successful in communication with tourists. Communication skills are affected from different factors such as environmental factors, personality and proficiency in the language (Güzel, 2007: 21). The communication skills of a tourist guide can be improved through getting good at speaking in the public, overcoming anxiety, experience, making eye contact while talking and using proper body language and can be explained as the following (Tangüler, 2002: 19-20): Speaking in Public: Most people get nervous when speaking in front of a great number of live audiences. While this fear may be disruptive for a tourist guide’s career, the possession of this skill on the other hand is a sign of self-confidence and powerful tool which is necessary to influence and entertain group members. Tour guides should avoid any stereotyped speeches and humiliating words while speaking to in front of their groups. Overcoming Anxiety and Experience: Speaker’s interest in the subject and his or her enthusiasm to share it with the audience is the key to overcome anxiety. One of the methods to overcome anxiety for the speaker is to put himself or herself in the shoes of listeners. The reason of forgetting the next word prior to or during a speech of a speaker stems from the fear of making mistakes or doing something wrong. Experience, on the other hand, is an effective tool that develops self-confidence of the self. As the experience of the tour guide increases, it takes less time to get ready for the tour. They become a more effective speaker and get more pleasure during the tour. Eye Contact: While eye contact is a means of nonverbal communication, it is an important element of communication in conveying emotions and establishing a sense of connection. Tour guides,

211 by making eye contact, can gauge the reaction and measure the level of interest or mood of their groups instantly. While too much eye contact can convey a meaning of hostility, rudeness or superiority, too little eye contact would make the tour guide to be evaluated as lacking self-confidence, unprepared and incompetent. Body Language: Body language consists of body posture, hand movements, gestures, facial expressions, skin coloring, use of space and have a strong effect on effective communication. Tourist guides can use body language to make a positive impact and also understand group members better with deciphering their body language. It helps adapting to social environment better and read people easily. An incompatibility between body language and what’s said causes lack of confidence and respect of the group so it should be well integrated. Body language should reflect natural and conscious movements rather than arbitrary and artificial ones. Some of the distractive behaviors for tourist guides are as follows and should be avoided:  Constantly playing with jewelry or hair  Frequently and unnecessarily repeated sounds like ‘hmm’  Facial expressions of anger or humiliation  The use of slang and colloquialism  The use of words or phrases like ‘Do you know?, ‘etc.’, ‘unbelievable’, or ‘The thing I like most’ Interpretation Skills Interpretation is far beyond simple fact-giving aimed to reveal meanings and develop relationships between the listener and the information given to stimulate, provoke and inspire. The goal of interpretation is not giving instruction but creating provocation. A skilled interpreter’s commentary makes people think and also infer meanings related to a place. It makes people to rethink, imagine and talk about it to others. Information makes up a part of the interpretation. Interpretation, on the other hand, helps the audience to be involved with all their senses and to what is being told and be enlightened about it. For instance, standing in front of a building or sculpture and talking about just the date they were built or which material they were made of could be a quite boring and ordinary experience for the group unless the information is embellished with storytelling why they were created or with the details of the period as a whole (Tangüler, 2002: 28). Organization and Coordination Skills A professional tourist guide makes a preparation before each tour and checks whether there is anything missing. He or she is aware of the importance of safety, efficiency, time management and prepared for the possible issues that may occur. They plan the tour program, welcomes guests, deals with accommodation, food and beverage and entertainment facilities, execute the tour program and inform tourists. All these phases requires that the tour guides excel in organization skills from the moment tourists arrive at the destination till the moment they leave. For this reason, tourist guides should have knowledge about planning, organization, leadership, coordination and control phases of the management functions and their applicability to tourist guiding. Anything can happen during the tour. Passengers may get sick, injured or died. That’s why a tourist guide should learn to stay calm and make quick decisions as he or she is the decision maker in the group. These decisions must be understandable and rational, not emotional. They should also be punctual at all times. A tourist guide should never make the group wait as a sign of his respect for his job as well as to group members. Tour guiding is a profession that requires attention to every single detail. Opening and closing times of museums, sites or exhibitions, lunch arrangements, extra tour sales, monetary issues, time spent on the way, confirmation of various pre-bookings etc. are all part of their organization and coordination skills (Tetik, 2006: 60, Tangüler, 2002: 23). Ability to Deal with Questions It gets easier for the tour guide to answer questions as they get experienced on the job. The newcomers often abstain themselves from questions. What makes a question difficult varies depending on the tour guide, but some questions have always been difficult for all of them (Tangüler, 2002: 21,

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Tetik, 2006: 62): Questions that they have no answer: Tour guides who are new in this profession sometimes come up with questions that they have no answer. This situation may cause them to think that they are not competent enough or they sense a lack of self-confidence. But sometimes the question is new to them and they cannot answer it right away. When they start trusting their knowledge, these questions don’t leave a negative impact on them or don’t cause a sense of incompetency. They should look for the answers for future reference and evaluate this situation as a tool for learning new things. Questions open to discussion: Questions in this category are about politics, religious and local scandals or ongoing court cases. As the group members feel somewhat attached themselves to their guides or simply because they respect their guides’ opinions, they may come up with such questions. The tour guide should keep in mind that the group members are not a homogenous group and consisted of different individuals with different point of view and they should approach with moderation. Questions about tour guide’s privacy: Questions such as ‘How much you earn from this job?’, ‘Are you satisfied with your employer?’ or ‘Why don’t you have any children?’ are private questions that tour guides don’t have to answer. Questions of this category could be a sign of friendly approach of group members and vary depending on the culture. Humiliating or opposing questions: These questions are cunningly asked by the group members to measure the tour guide’s reaction to the subject. In such circumstances, tour guides should give short answers by directing attention the positive sides of the matter and should be humorous rather than being defender. Ability to Renew Themselves and Update Their Knowledge Tourist guides work in different settings where rules are regulations are exposed to continuous changes A professional tourist guide should accept that training is not sufficient and need to keep abreast of all new developments through constantly absorbing new knowledge and upgrade themselves. They need to be aware of current events and emerging developments. When they don’t renew their monologues and keep telling out-of-date information to visitors, tourists’ expectations will not be met. A tour guide who cannot renew himself or herself will, in the end, fall behind their colleagues and have difficulty to find a job. Any information that the tour guide gives should be the latest and valid information. They can also update their knowledge through communicating with local guides. It would be useful to know postal and telephone codes, tipping rates, exchange rates, traffic and next day’s weather forecast etc. along with destination’s history, geography, flora and fauna as these are the most common subjects the groups are curious about (Güzel, 2007: 27). Personality Characteristics Tourists observe everything to create an image of the local people as well as the country and this image is mostly affected from the tourist guide. Besides knowledge and some certain skills, there are some basic personality characteristics and also physical appearance that feed and complement the representation of the tourist guide. Those are leadership spirit, extroverted and hospitable personality, sense of humor, work ethic concerns and physical appearance. These characteristics are briefly explained below: Leadership Spirit Leadership spirit is an essential element to ensure an effective and enjoyable tour to direct and encourage the group. Even the definition of leadership which is guiding or directing others or organizing a group of people constitutes the framework of the profession. It’s not quite possible for the tourist guide to motivate, influence and set direction for the group if they lack leadership spirit. Leadership spirit helps the tour guide to provide people enthusiasm and excitement, give memorable examples and keep them vivid throughout the journey Leadership is difficult and complicated. Leadership role is on the top of all other duties and responsibilities of a tour guide Basic leadership requirements for a tourist guide are (Güzel, 2007: 16): Having self-confidence so that people confide in you reciprocally Consistency of personality to deal with issues with determination and objectively

213 Sincerity for a modest approach Liveliness to exchange positive moods A creative mind to better perceive the facts Common sense to perceive the relationship of components and the whole Understanding people to empathize Extroverted Personality Extroverted people have a type of personality which is oriented outside for surroundings. Extroverted people tend to communicate with a wide variety of people, need attention from others and tend to involve in public speeches, participate in different activities, events and parties. When applied to tourist guiding profession where human relations should be delicately handled, being extrovert undoubtedly ensures establishment of positive moods and interactions. A group of people on vacation expect nothing but a tour guide who respects them and listens to them with sincerity. It’s not only tourists but also industry stakeholders who expect to see a guide who is kind, patient, sensitive, and unselfish and someone who really appreciates his or her job and most importantly someone who is able to control his or her temper no matter what the conditions are. Tour guides need to be individuals with positive energy who approach others proactively. They can also manipulate social pressure much better with an extroverted personality (Tetik, 2006: 65). Hospitable Personality Travel is a social phenomenon and the tourist guides play an important role as part of this phenomenon. One of the most important roles is showing hospitality. They are expected to make their guests feel comfortable and at home. This is only possible by providing them a warm and friendly environment at the destination where they are thousands miles away from home with no knowledge of the language or acquaintance of the culture. Their attention to the whole group and interaction with each guest require a welcoming, friendly and integrative touch. A hospitable tourist guide shows kindness to each and every guest with a feeling of good will and knows how to be a good host. A good host is the kind of person who likes people, is keen enthusiastic in human relations and who is able to provide them a comfortable setting. A good host is also sensitive to others’ emotions and willing to be helpful whenever needed. The moment they realize their guests are disturbed from any conversation or activity, they divert the attention to another subject. The essence of the tourist guiding profession should be to make a good host (Tangüler, 2002: 15). Sense of Humor Tourists expect a lot from their guides one of which is the expectation to make them entertained while flourishing them with their cultural insight. A good sense of humor and telling anecdotes are part of an effective speech to avoid boredom. Tour guides with a sense of humor always make a trip more memorable, makes the experience more exciting, the ambience more vivid and friendly, which helps groups of strangers to bond positively together. When it looks like they're enjoying themselves, people tend to enjoy the tour more. Even the most demanding guest who is not easily satisfied with anything will be at tempered to some extent which is important to soften the overall ambience of the tour. Sharing a laugh is a great way to lighten the atmosphere, relieve tension, and connect with others. But tourist guides should pay attention not to be political or offense people and nations while choosing their anecdotes. They should keep in mind that arguments related to religion are delicate and be respectful. Besides, entertaining should be done without going to extremes. Some tourist guides just like comedians, think that the more tourists make applause or laugh, the more they are successful. Entertaining and making jokes don’t mean making someone laugh perpetually. Humor can cause an uncomfortable environment and hostility when used inappropriately. They should be careful not to be sexist, ageist and racist and avoid humor that labels any person or any group of people as inferior (Tetik, 2006: 59). Clothing Style The first impression that a tourist guide gives to group members may greatly influence his or her

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image as a leader. As the tourist guide is the person who is examined closely by each tourist in the group, his or her clothing and accessories help them to create an image. A proper outfit and personal care is a sign of respect, thus; tour guides should try to choose the most suitable clothes matching the type of tour or the daily activities. Since there is a lot of time spent on travel, the clothes should be comfortable and should be chosen from not easily wrinkled ones matching the season or the location of the hotel. Women tourist guides should avoid wearing excessive accessories or make-up as this may distract tourists’ attention. It’s also valid for men’s hair and beard cuts. If the tour is going to last long, they need to make sure that they have taken enough clean clothes with them as wearing the same dirty shirt for days is not going to be tolerated. They should also inform their guests about the next day’s activities so that they choose the proper clothing for themselves; while tours such as Jeep Safari, rafting or animation park visits may require specific equipment or casual clothing; stylish clothing may match an evening city tour much better (Güzel, 2007: 20). Work Ethics Concerns Each profession has its own norms and regulations and it’s also the case for professional tourist guiding. Tourist guides have definite ethical responsibilities and standards to their travel agencies, to the staff of all service providers and partners as well as their customers. They should make their best to ensure that tourist get the highest standard of service that is specified by the travel company. There should be a written contract between the tourist guide and the travel agency and this contract shall be binding for both parties. While tourist guides should strive to fulfill their duties in a responsible manner, the travel agency should take the necessary actions for a flawless tour experience. Tourist guide should provide a skilled presentation of knowledge in a courteous, attentive and dutiful manner and avoid discriminatory attitudes free from propaganda and prejudices. They should be hypersensitive to the values and interests of the group and do not share their personal views on controversial subjects such as sex, religion, and politics. As representatives of the host country, they shouldn’t try to impose anyone their own ethical standards and values in case of a problem (Tangüler, 2002: 17). CONCLUSION The nature of tourist guide job requires the establishment of strong face-to-face relations with their guests during a daily or package tour. As it’s known, most of them has to interact with a great number of guests all day long; thus practicing their professions in a human relations intensive work environment. Considering the necessity of regulation of emotions even in our daily non-occupational relations, it wouldn’t be difficult to understand that this emotion management would be much more intense in the professional setting with so many display rules regarding social, occupational and organizational environments. A multi-task profession requiring multi-faceted responsibilities in a multi- component job setting not only causes mental and physical fatigueless but also brings an emotional labor burden. This is the reason why this dissertation is carried out in the scope of tour guiding. Besides, the quality of the interaction between tour guides and the guests not only affect tourists’ satisfaction levels but also general and tourism image of the overall country. REFERENCES Ahipaşaoğlu, H. S. (2001). Turizmde Rehberlik. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Batman, O., Yıldırgan, R., Demirtaş, N. (2000). Turizm Rehberliği. Adapazarı: Değişim Yayınları. Black, R., Weiler, B. (2005). Quality Assurance and Regulatory Mechanisms in the Tour Guiding Industry: A Systematic Review. The Journal of Tourism Studies. 16(1): 24-37. Boyle, A., Arnott, A. (2004). What Tour Guide Stories can Tell us about Learning, Education and Training: A Case Study in the Top End of the Northern Territory. Council for Australian Tourism and Hospitality Education (CAUTHE) conference (86-94), University of Queensland. Brisbane, Qld, Australia. 10-13 February 2004. Brito, M. (2012). Cultural Tourists Requests from their Tourist Guides. International Journal of Management Cases. 14 (1): 266-282. Carmeli, A., Josman Z. E. (2006). The Relationship Among Emotional Intelligence, Task Performance, and Organizational Citizenship Behaviors. Human Performance. 19(4): 403-419.

215 Cruz, Z. (2008). Principles and Ethics of Tour Guiding. Philippinnes: Rex Book Strore Inc. Dahles, H. (2002). The politics of tour guiding: Image management in Indonesia. Annals of Tourism Research, 29(3): 783-800. Ferguson, P. (2010). What can I do now? Travel and Tourism. New York: Infobase Publishing. Genç, Ö. (1992). “Rehberlik Eğitimine Eleştirel Bir Yaklaşım”. Turizm Eğitimi Konferansı–Workshop (09- 11 Aralık 1992) Bildirileri, Ankara: Turizm Bakanlığı Turizm Eğitim Genel Müdürlüğü, p. 215-217. Geva, A., Goldman, A. (1991). Satisfaction Measurement in Guided Tours. Annals of Tourism Research. 18(2): 177-185. Güzel, Ö. (2007). Türkiye İmajının Geliştirilmesinde Profesyonel Turist Rehberlerinin Rolü: Alman Turistler Üzerine Bir Araştırma. (Unpublished Master’s Dissertation). Balıkesir: Balıkesir University Graduate School of Social Sciences. Mak, A. H. N., Wong, K. K. F., Chang, R. C. Y. (2011). Critical Issues Affecting the Service Quality and Professionalism of The Tour Guides in Hong Kong and Macau. Tourism Management. 32: 1442-1452. Official Gazette of the Republic of Turkey. (2005). Professional Tourist Guiding Regulation. http://www.resmigazete.gov.tr/eskiler/2005/11/20051125-4.htm. (Accessed on 23.03.2015). Pizam, A. (2004). Are hospitality employees equipped to hide their feelings?. International Journal of Hospitality Management. 23(4): 315-316. Rabotic, B. (2010). Professional Tourist Guiding: The Importance of Interpretation for Tourist Experiences. 20th Biennial International Congress: New Trends in Tourism and Hotel Management. University of Rijeka. Opatija, Croatia. 06-08.05.2010. Tangüler, A. (2002). Profesyonel Turist Rehberliği ve Turist Rehberlerinin Seyahat Acentesi ve Müşteri İlişkileri: Kapadokya Örneği. (Unpublished Master’s Dissertation). Ankara: Hacettepe University Graduate School of Social Sciences. Tetik, N. (2006). Türkiye’de Profesyonel Turist Rehberliği ve Müşterilerin Turist Rehberlerinden Beklentilerinin Analizi: Kuşadası Örneği. (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Balıkesir: Balıkesir Universitesy Graduate School of Social Sciences. TUREB, tureb.org.tr/index.php?mod=haber_detay&did=177. “Turist Rehberliği Nedir ve Nasıl Ortaya Çıkmıştır? Günümüzde Turist Rehberliği ve Yasal Dayanağı. (Accessed on 23.03.2015). Weiler, B., Black, R. (2015). Tour Guiding Research: Insights, Issues and Implications. Bristol, UK: Channel View Publications. Wong, J., Wang C. (2009). Emotional labor of the tour leaders: An exploratory study. Tourism Management 30(2): 249-259. World Federation of Tourist Guide Associations – WFTGA. (2003), European Standard EN 13809:2003, http://www.wftga.org/sites/default/files/imceuploads/documents/DEFINITIONS%20OF%20TOURIST%20GU IDE-TOUR%20 MANAGER -TOUR%20ESCORT-FINAL.pdf. (Accessed on 24.03.2015) Wressnig, F. (1999). The professional Guide: Building Bridges Between Conservation and Tourism. Museum International (UNESCO Paris). 51(1): 40-53. Yazıcıoğlu, İ., Tokmak, C., Uzun, S. (2008). Turist Rehberlerinin Rehberlik Mesleğine Bakışı. Üniversite ve Toplum Dergisi. 8(2): 1-19. Zhang, H. Q., Chow, I. (2004). Application of Importance-performance Model in Tour Guides’ Performance: Evidence from Mainland Chinese Outbound Visitors in Hong Kong. Tourism Management, 25(1): 81-91.

216 Chapter 16

Consumers and Tourists’ Restaurant Selections

Gökhan YILMAZ*, Selami GÜLTEKİN**

INTRODUCTION The changing trend and lifestyle today such as more women participating in the workforce, extended working hours, increasing household income and busier daily schedule has led the consumers to dine out. The existence reason for food and beverage industry and the restaurants, as the most significant component of this industry, is seen as the consumers’ dining out behaviour (Özdemir, 2010). Customers’ out-of-home food consumption is inherent in the fact of dining out. This fact is defined differently in literature regarding this matter. For instance, Warde & Martens (2002) define dining out as consuming food in a restaurant or in someone else’s home. As for in commercial context, dining out is stated as (Narine & Badrie, 2007; Özdemir, 2010; Ali & Nath, 2013) purchasing and consuming food and beverage, out of home, which is prepared and served by a food and beverage business. Dining out experience firstly requires consumers’ decision to dine out (Gregory & Kim, 2004). Consumers’ decision to dine out is related with their eating purposes (Özdemir, 2010). In this context, eating in restaurants also becomes a typical example of dining out. It’s known that there is varied and numerous reasons pushing customers to dine out or eat in restaurants. People may eat in restaurants for such purposes as: appease, seeking for novelty, for fun, happiness, mood recovery, pleasure, easiness, saving on time, socialization, being together with family and friends, social standing and prestige (Auty, 1992; Goldman, 1993; Kivela, Inbakaran, & Reece, 1999; Narine & Badrie, 2007; Batra, 2008; Ali & Nath, 2013). When the related body of literature is analysed, its seen that the consumers and tourists’ dining out purposes show variance. For instance, Kivela (1997) states that the consumers eat in restaurants for purposes such as meeting someone, appease, for fun, for quick meal/convenience, pleasure, social occasion, with business purposes, family outing, and celebration. Albayrak (2014) sorts consumer’s purposes for eating in restaurants as: affordability, get together with family and friends, special occasions, for fun, saving on time, convenience, as a meeting place and for prestige. On the other hand, it’s seen that the purposes of tourists for eating in restaurants resemble with customers’ purposes. For instance, Sparks, Bowen & Klag (2003) and Batra (2008) state that, tourists visit restaurants for purposes such as indulgence, healthy food, relaxation, experience, discovery and social reasons. In consideration of these, the studies and findings about consumers’ purposes as well as tourists’ purposes for eating in restaurants are shown in Table 1. Some researches (June & Smith, 1987; Cullen, 1994; Kivela, Inbakaran, & Reece, 2000; Özdemir, 2010) group the purposes of consumers purposes for eating in restaurants. For instance, June & Smith (1987), Kivela et al., (2000), Upadhyay, Singh, & Thomas (2007) and Alonso, O'Neill, Liu, & O'Shea (2013) classify purposes for eating in restaurants as: social occasion, special occasion, convenience and business. Cullen (1994), classifies purposes for eating in restaurants conceptually as: social eating and convenience eating. The term social eating involves social interaction, mood recovery, fun, happiness, social standing and prestige, while convenience eating involves the purposes like: convenience, hunger, affordability and avoid cooking at home. On the other hand, Özdemir (2010) classifies purposes of customers for eating out in restaurants according to their physiological, psychological, social and economic needs. Physiological aspect refers to the fulfilment of eating demand which is an essential need for the people. Psychological aspect refers to dine in restaurants for the mood recovery, pleasure and happiness reasons. Social aspect involves purposes such as socialization, social standing, gain prestige and make social difference. Economic aspect defines saving on time and avoid cooking at home. Similarly, Bekar & Gümüş Dönmez (2016) also group consumers’ purposes for eating in

* Res. Assist., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Dept. ** Res. Assist., Akdeniz University Tourism Faculty Tourism Management Department

restaurants under psychological, sociological, obligatory and economic factors. Considering all of these, it’s known that a wide and various range of restaurant businesses emerged, meeting consumers’ need for refreshments and accomplishment of these purposes (Çalışkan & Özdemir, 2011). CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK Restaurant Concept Restaurants are generally assumed to be in the business of selling food only. (Yüksel & Yüksel, 2002a; 2002b). According to Prentice Hall Essentials Dictionary of Culinary Arts; restaurant is defined as a place where there is food and beverage presentation in a facility in order for people’s consumption through a menu. (Szende, Pang & Yu, 2013). According to Yıldız (2010), restaurant businesses are explained as businessess in which customers have their private table and seat for sitting, a menu including food prices and where there is food and beverage presentation. In other words, restaurant is referred to a foodservice place typically providing tables where one can sit and eat a meal in a relaxed mood (Ali & Nath, 2013). Restaurants within the context of tourism are defined as (Hjalager & Corigliano, 2000) businesses meeting food and beverage needs of both tourists and locals. Hjalager (2002) also states restaurants as businesses in which the tourist can try indigenous food. In this way, restaurants, besides being places pursuing only dining service goals, become places acting as intermediaries for tourists’ food experience in the tourist regions (Yüksel & Yüksel, 2002a; Ardabili & Rasouli, 2011). In this respect, tourists evaluate the restaurants as one of significant qualities of a destination (Batra, 2008). From the point of destinations, restaurants are presented to tourists as an important gastronomic tourism product (Ignatov & Smith, 2006; Smith & Xiao, 2008). When the related body of literature is analysed, the businesses serving food and beverage to consumers out of their home (Edwards & Overstreet, 2009; Özdemir, 2010; Ali & Nath, 2013), are evaluated as commercial and non-commercial food and beverage businesses (Sökmen, 2006; Aktaş & Özdemir, 2007). Commercial food and beverage businesses are composed of hotels, cafe, transportation, shopping and businesses serving food and beverage in parks and are profit oriented. Non-commercial food and beverage businesses are composed of non-profit businesses rendering food and beverage service within hospitals, educational institutions, jails, social institutions and military establishments (Sökmen, 2006; Aktaş & Özdemir, 2007; Edwards & Overstreet, 2009). Restaurants are taking part in commercial food and beverage businesses (Çalışkan & Özdemir, 2011). It’s remarkable that the restaurants classifications differ in terms of business management. For instance, Kılınç & Çavuş (2010) classify restaurants by, proprietary status, scale and specifications. In terms of proprietary status, restaurants are classified as independently owned and chain restaurants, in terms of scale as large, medium and small scaled restaurants and in terms of specifications as menu selection, restaurant compositions, luxury restaurants, themed restaurants, ethnic restaurants and quick service restaurants. Indeed, restaurants are stated to differ by qualifications such as service concept, atmosphere, menu and workers (Dahmer & Kahl, 2009; Bujisic, Hutchinson & Parsa, 2014). In this regard, American National Restaurant Association categorises restaurants as quick service, traditional, themed, luxury and other restaurants. (Canziani, Almanza & McKeig, 2010). Muller & Woods (1994), count business dinner restaurants in this classification and categorise restaurants as quick service restaurants, traditional, middle class, luxury and business dinner restaurants (Bujisic et al., 2014). Ottenbacher and Harrington (2007; 2009) categorise restaurants basically as table service and quick service restaurants. Similarly, it’s seen that there are differentiations in terms of quality such as luxury, middle and low class restaurants. In the relevant studies it is observed that the table service (luxury restaurant) and quick service restaurant differentiation is commonly used. For instance, Kim & Geistfeld (2003), sort restaurants as luxury and quick service restaurants and state that the luxury restaurants are higher level in terms of time and cost. As for in the context of tourism, restaurants might emerge in different forms such as tourism oriented, mixed and chain restaurants (Cohen & Avieli, 2004). It’s seen that indigenous restaurants appeal especially to local residents while tourism oriented restaurants select tourists as target group. Mixed restaurants are defined as restaurants rendering service which appeals both to locals and tourists. Similarly, Yılmaz (2016) also states that restaurant may emerge in tourism destinations in five different

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forms including; hotel restaurants, group restaurants, boutique restaurants, ethnic restaurants, and kebab and pita restaurants. Hotel restaurants render service to package tour customers and their major attributes are open-buffet service and being located within the starred hotels. Group restaurants serve food for daily tour groups based on a special contract with travel agencies. Table 1: Reasons for dining/eating out at restaurants Studies Sample Reasons for dining/eating out at restaurants Key Reasons Intimate dinner with a friend, Business lunch, June & Smith (1987) Birthday party, Family dinner Having a fun time, Having a nice meal out, Satisfying Goldman (1993) a craving, Making sure everyone has something to eat, Doing the easy thing A place to meet someone, Hungry, For fun, For quick 120 Kivela (1997) meal/convenience, For enjoyment, A social occasion, customers Business necessity, Family outing, For celebration Koo, Tao, & Yeung 86 Business, Family, Tourist (1999) customers Sun, Lee, & Lee 220 Business, Gatherings, Family dining, Other reason Business (1999) customers Kivela, Inbakaran, & 861 Celebration, Business need, Social occasion, Social Reece (2000) customers Convenience, Other reason occasion Hungry, For fun, For enjoyment, A social occasion, 180 Place to meet Heung (2002) Family outing, For celebration, Place to meet customers someone someone, Convenience Yamanaka, Almanza, 362 Nelson, & De Vaney Social factors, convenience factors Social factors customers (2003) Sparks, Bowen, & 459 Indulgence, Healthy food, Relaxation, Experience, Relaxation Klag (2003) tourists Discovery, Social reason Baek, Ham, & Yang 632 For a simple meal or snack, Meeting other people, For a simple (2006) customers Companion’s ask, Others meal or snack Upadhyay, Singh, & 300 Recreation, Business necessity, Special occasion Recreation Thomas (2007) customers Narine & Badrie 120 Special occasion, Gathering of friends, Mood, Special (2007) customers Convenience, Taste/flavour occasion Convenience, Seeking for variety, Get together with 206 Sun (2008) friends, Get together with family, Celebration, Don’t Convenience customers want to cook 400 Discovery Relaxion, Experience, Indulgence, Healthy Batra (2008) Discovery tourists food, Social reason Alonso, O'Neill, Liu, 277 Convenience, Special occasion, Business, Social Convenience & O'Shea (2013) customers occasion 618 Special occasion, Family outing, When Special Ali & Nath (2013) customers friends/colleagues/ guests come, Others occasion Normal dining out, Business or work related, Gathering Clemes, Gan, & 402 Gathering with friends or family, Special occasion and with friends or Sriwongrat (2013) customers celebration, Intimate dining family Get together Being affordable, Get together with friends and 353 with friends Albayrak (2014) family, Special occasion, For fun, Saving on time, customers and family Convenience, Place to meet someone, Prestige

Boutique restaurants are visited mainly by individual travelers with an intention to taste the local dishes, and serve food independently or within a boutique hotel. Ethnic restaurants rely on a specific

219 national culture such as Japanese, Korean and Indian, and serve food that completely fits the tastes of the tourists coming from those cultures. Having a menu containing mostly pita, meat kebabs or doner kebab, and located mostly in the city center; pita and kebab restaurants are the places where mainly local residents eat. Taking all of these into account, the various restaurant classifications or configurations in the related body of research, play a critical role as the consumers or tourists would differentiate their restaurant selections according to a forementioned differentiations. Restaurant Selection and the Factors Affecting Restaurant Selection There is for so long a discussion about what are the factors affecting consumers’ restaurant selection (Choi & Zhao, 2010). Consumers take their various requests and needs into consideration while deciding where to eat (Tikkanen, 2007). These requests and needs affect consumers or tourists’ restaurant selections. Consumer preferences of a restaurant are typically influenced by various attributes and involve an interaction between the consumer, food service, and the restaurant (Fitzsimmons & Fitzsimmons, 1998; Harrington, Ottenbacher, & Kendall, 2011). In this regard, there are some important restaurant attributes that may affect the decision of customers in selecting a restaurant. These factors are also conceptualised as restaurant attributes that consumers attach importance in restaurant selection (Heung, 2002; Özdemir, 2010; Özdemir & Çalışkan, 2011). According to this view, the consumers appraise some several restaurant attributes such as food quality, range, price, service staff, atmosphere and location (Lewis, 1981; Auty, 1992; Sun, 1995; Kivela et al.,1999) then they select the restaurant as a result of this appraisal (Myung, McCool & Feinstein, 2008; Njite, Dunn & Kim, 2008; Harrington et al., 2011; Roseman, Kim & Zhang, 2013). When the first studies about consumers’ restaurant selection (Lewis, 1981; Auty, 1992; Knutson & Patton, 1993; Shank & Nahhas, 1994; Kim, 1996) are analysed, it is seen that the factors related with food are of importance for consumers’ restaurant selection. For instance, Lewis (1981) states that food quality, menu variety, price, atmosphere and convenience factors affect the restaurant selection and food quality is the centrepiece. In a study conducted by Auty (1992) with 155 customers, the factors affecting restaurant selection are sorted as food type (71 %), food quality (59 %), value for money (46 %), image & atmosphere (33 %), location (32 %), service speed (15 %), recommendation (11 %), new experience (9 %), operating hours (8 %) and child facilities (8 %). Similarly, in study of Knutson & Patton (1993), with 430 consumers, the factors affecting restaurant selection are sorted as: food quality, service quality, atmosphere or cleanliness and price or value. Also Kim (1996), mentions that food and beverage quality and service (good service, quality of food and beverage, level of hygiene and sanitation, physical facilities and interiors, image and reputation), access (easy access, location, parking convenience) and price (competitive price) are influential on customers’ restaurant selection and the food quality takes place at the top of these factors. In the studies of the later years (Johns & Howard, 1998; Kim & Huh, 1998; Clark & Wood, 1999; Koo et al., 1999; Elder et al., 1999; Kivela et al., 2000) it’s noticeable that the factors affecting restaurant selection of customers are showing variation. For instance, in the study of Johns & Howard (1998), conducted on 150 customers in England, the factors are sorted as: Service (friendly staff, quick, efficient, polite staff, attentive, relaxed, children friendly, tables cleaned quickly), food (variety, taste, reliability, hot meal, portions, well-presentation, well-done, fresh, salad, vegetarian menu, children’s menu), price or value (ambiance/environment, setting, music, cleanliness, furniture, comfort, plants), staff (happy-looking, helpful, knowledgeable, attractive, clean uniform, identifiable supervisor), atmosphere (relaxed, no dress code/informal, friendly, dun, stylish, romantic), drink (variety, alcohol after hours, wine) and location (convenient). Koo et al., (1999) executed that; taste of food, service, uniqueness, price, location, decoration, type of food, food variety, and car park are influential on restaurant selection and taste of food is placed at the top of these factors. In the study conducted by Elder et al., (1999) on 305 customers in America, factors affecting restaurant selection, are stated as: cleanliness, taste, atmosphere, service quality, price, children’s menu, fast service, menu variety, nutritional content, convenient hours, fun place for children, salad bar, distance from home, low-fat dishes, price coupons, low calorie dishes, language, ethnic speciality and liquor license while cleanliness is placed at the top of these factors. Similarly, in the study of Kivela et al., (2000) conducted on 861 customers in Hong Kong, it is stated that the customers attach importance to factors as: comfort,

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cleanliness, freshness of food, staff ‘s appearance, heat of food, restaurant’s appearance, taste of food, staff’s willingness to serve, efficiency of service, friendliness, politeness and helpfulness, staff greeting, quality of food, attentive staff, parking, staffs’ food knowledge, handling of complaints, presentation of food, restaurants’ temperature, restaurants’ view, nutritious food, telephone reservations, level of noise, menu variety, new dining experience and dining privacy. In a study conducted by Stewart, Blisard, Jolliffe, & Bhuyan (2005), on 700 customers in America; the food related factors are analysed and; taste, nutrition, ease of preparation or convenience, ease of digestion and low prices are found as the factors affecting restaurant selection. Knutson, Beck & Elsworth (2006) in their research conducted on 685 customers over 50 years of age found that, the experience (friendliness (83.2 %), menu variety (77 %), location (76.8 %) , value (74.2 %), price (73 %), convenience (68 %), speed of service (67.2 %) and incentives (early bird discounts (76.4 %), coupons (74.9 %), senior discounts (72.5 %), 2 for 1 specials (68.6 %), senior menu (65.4 %), doggie bag (59.2 %), combination meals (appetizer, entree, dessert) (42.6 %) are influential factors on restaurant selection. Similarly, Upadhyay et al., (2007) in their study conducted on 300 customers in India state that; the quality of food, safety, menu, location, less time in serving, parking facility, operating hours, separate place for family, ambiance, cuisine tariffs, separate bar, innovative recipe, specialised cuisine facility, vegetarian cuisine availability and popularity of chefs are of importance in restaurant selection. Ali & Nath (2013) have found seven factors are influential in customers’ restaurant selection: ambiance and services, convenience, timing and security, additional facility, food variety, food quality & safety and value for money. When the related body of literature about influential factors on restaurant selection is analysed the primary factors or attributes influencing restaurant selection are observed to be as follows: food quality (Lewis, 1981; Auty, 1992; Qu, 1997; Heung, 2002), menu variety (Lewis, 1981; Auty, 1992; Cullen, 2004; Law, To & Goh 2008), taste of food (Elder et al., 1999; Choi & Zhao, 2010; Alonso et al., 2013), presentation of food (Heung, 2002; Law et al., 2008), food portion size (Cullen 2002; Choi & Zhao, 2010), healthy menu items (Moschis, Curasi & Bellenger, 2003; Upadhyay et al., 2007), selection alcoholic beverages (Johns & Howard, 1998; Mehta & Maniam, 2002), price (Lewis, 1981; Auty, 1992; Jacobsen & Haukeland, 2002), value for money (Qu, 1997; Knutson et al., 2006), payment methods (Moschis et al., 2003; Ali & Nath, 2013), atmosphere (Lewis, 1981; Auty, 1992; Law et al.,2008), interior design (Koo et al., 1999; Ali & Nath, 2013), cleanliness (Cullen, 2004; Alonso et al., 2013), operating hours (Auty, 1992; Albayrak, 2014), location (Lewis, 1981; Cullen, 2004), parking facilities (Kim, 1996; Kivela et al., 2000), service personal (Cullen, 2004; Knutson et al., 2006), service quality (Kim et al., 2010; Clemes et al., 2013), speed of service (Gregory & Kim, 2004; Baek et al., 2006) and reputation (Sweeney, Johnson & Armstrong 1992; Choi & Law, 2015). In this context, it is salient that the food quality is the most important of the factors influencing restaurant selection. On the other hand, there is a limited number of studies conducted on, factors affecting tourists’ restaurant selection (Gregoire, Shanklin, Greathouse & Tripp, 1995; Kivela, 1997; Yüksel & Yüksel, 2002a; 2002b; Jacobsen & Haukeland, 2002; Law et al., 2008; Batra, 2008; Myung et al., 2008; Kim et al., 2010). In this studies the factors influencing tourist restaurant selection show resemblance with that of customers. In this regard, it is seen that the factors affecting tourists’ restaurant selection are: food quality, food variety, price, atmosphere, setting, location, service staff and service quality. For instance, in the study of Gregoire et al., (1995) conducted on 2.712 tourists in America it is stated that there is 41 restaurant attributes influencing tourists’ restaurant selection and these attributes gather under 4 main factors: information, restaurant basics, amenities and health issues. In the study of Kivela (1997), conducted on 120 tourists in Hong Kong, the influencing factors on tourists restaurant selection are sorted as follows: food quality (82 %), type of food (63 %), cost of food (62 %), new experience (55 %), location (51 %), menu item variety (43 %), speed of service (41 %), ambiance (24 %), comfort level (19 %), cleanliness (15 %), prestige (9 %), competent waiting staff (7 %), prompt handling complaints (7 %), friendliness of waiting staff (3 %). In the study of Jacobsen & Haukeland (2002) conducted on 816 tourists visiting Norway, factors affecting restaurant selection of tourists during their travel are gathered under 4 main topics as follows: physical standarts and atmosphere (hygiene, cleanliness, setting), food (food quality, menu options, price level, restaurants location and accessibility) and human

221 resources (communicative skills, warmth, friendship). Similarly in the study of Yüksel & Yüksel (2002a) conducted on 449 European visitors in Turkey, revealed the factors affecting tourists restaurant selection under 9 dimensions: Service quality and staff attitude (helpful staff, prices shown clearly, competent staff, service standards, attentive service, service efficiency, staffs’ appearance), product quality and hygiene (staffs’ cleanliness, hygienic food preparation, fresh ingredients, food tastiness, food preparation consistency, high-quality food), adventurous menu (availability of local dishes, availability of interesting food, a place frequented by locals), price and value (value for money, reasonable food prices, hearty portions), atmosphere and activity (atmosphere, activity and entertainment), healthy food (availability of healthy food, nutritious food), location and appearance (impression from the road, convenient location), smoke (availability of non-smoking area), visibility (visibility of food preparation area). In this sense, it is seen that the most important factors affecting tourists’ restaurant selection are: staffs’ cleanliness, hygienic food preparation and fresh ingredients. In the study of Law et al., (2008) conducted on 230 Chinese tourists visiting Hong Kong, five main influencing factors on tourists’ restaurant selection are set forth: food and beverage (variety, portions, quality, presentation), service (speed, attitude, operating hours, diversity), price (value for money), environment (atmosphere, comfort, cleanliness, location, decoration) and attraction (image, new experience, word of mouth, advertising). And as a result of this study, servers’ attitude placed at the top of factors affecting restaurant selection. In the study of Kim et al., (2010) conducted in Las Vegas on 76 tourists over fifty years age, 24 influential attributes are mentioned as follows: friendliness of employees, speed of service, servers’ knowledge about menu, consistency of food quality, healthy menu options, variety of menu items, choices of ethnic cuisine menu items, consistency of service quality, taste of food, nutrition information for menu items, food presentation, size of portions, carryout availability, special discounts for seniors, coupons, price, location, hours of operation, comfortable place to socialize, enough place for parking, comfortable seating, atmosphere and recommendation of other people. In the researches conducted within the context of tourism about restaurant selection, it is a high point that, main factors as food, service, atmosphere and social interaction may be influencing factors on tourists’ restaurant selection. The related body of research presents some findings in the direction that factors influencing restaurant selection may differ by some variables as well. The purposes of dining in the restaurant such as celebration, socialising, saving on time or business (June & Smith,1987; Auty, 1992; Kivela, 1997; Kim et al., 2010); the accompanier (family or friend), (Sweeney et al., 1992), and the restaurant type such as fine dining restaurant, themed restaurant or fast food serving restaurant or atmosphere and convenience (Lewis, 1981; Kivela, 1997; Elder et al., 1999; Ayala, Mueller, Madurga, Campbell, & Elder, 2005) may be determinant about how much importance, to which restaurant attribute, would be attached in restaurant selection (Auty, 1992; Kivela et al., 1999; Kivela, Reece & Inbakaran, 1999; Kim et al., 2010; Choi & Zhao, 2010). For instance, in the study of June & Smith (1987), it is mentioned that if consumers purpose for going to restaurant is an intimate dinner or a birthday celebration; the liquor licence becomes the most important factor, however if the purpose is having a business or a family dinner, the service becomes the most important. Auty (1992) also states that, if the purpose of the consumers for going to restaurant is about socialising and service speed or convenience; food type becomes the most important factor, while if the purpose is celebration; the food quality becomes the foremost factor. Similarly, Kivela (1997) found that when the purpose is celebration or business; the quality of food, if the purpose is having social occasion; cleanliness and if the purpose is having a quick meal or the convenience; the location factor places at the top. Kim et al., (2010) state that, the taste of food is more important in fine-dining and casual or family restaurants, while variety of menu is major in buffet dining restaurants. On the other hand, Sweeney et al. (1992) found that, when the restaurant visit is accompanied by a friend (a dinner with a friend); manner, reputation and premises; while accompanied by a group (a dinner with a group of friends); reputation, manner and price become important factors. Kivela (1997) sorts the most important factors influencing restaurant selection by restaurant types as follows: In fine dining restaurants; friendliness of waiting staff and prestige, in themed or atmosphere restaurants; ambiance, in family restaurants and convenience or fast food restaurants; the location. Similarly, Elder et al. (1999), emphasise children’s menu and price are placed

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near the top in fast food restaurants; while salad bar and low calorie dishes are more significant in family style restaurants. Consumers’ restaurant selections may be influenced by socio-demographic factors as age, gender, nationality, income and marital status as well (Lewis, 1981; Kivela et al., 1999; Jacobsen & Haukeland, 2002; Kim and Geistfeld, 2003; Kim et al., 2010; Harrington et al., 2011). For instance, Jacobsen & Haukeland (2002) found that, Swedish tourists attach importance to service friendliness, language skills of staff and hygiene; Finnish tourists attach importance to view from restaurants, food quality and service friendliness and German tourists attach importance to service friendliness, hygiene and air quality or non-smoking zone. Similarly, Baek et al., (2006) assert that the Korean consumers consider the menu price, brand and food-related factors, while Philippinian consumers mind the menu price, food related and service-related factors. On the other hand, in some of the researches (Knutson & Patton, 1993; Shank & Nahhas, 1994; Moschis et al., 2003; Cullen, 2004; Knutson, Beck & Elsworth, 2006; Kim et al., 2010) the age is discussed as a significiant variable and these studies are centered particularly to elderly consumers. In this context, Knutson & Patton (1993) conducted a research on consumers over 55 years of age; Knutson et al. (2006) consumers over 60 years of age and Kim et al. (2010) consumers over 50 years of age. In these studies, the outstanding finding is that the elderly consumers attach more importance to socialising and service staffs’ attendance. For instance, Moschis et al. (2003) found that consumers over 55 years of age consider special discounts, comfort and location in restaurant selection, while consumers less than 54 years of age, regard the comfort, location and recommendation of other people. Similarly, in the study conducted by Cullen (2004), it is remarkable that for consumers in between 20-29 ages range, the type of food factor is at the top place, while for the consumers in between 50-59 ages range, the location is major. In the light of all these, it would be beneficial to touch upon information sources used by tourists for restaurant selection. Information Sources in Restaurant Selection Information searching plays an important role in consumers or tourists’ restaurant selection process (Özdemir & Çalışkan, 2011). In this regard, the consumers decide about restaurant selection as a result of their interpretation of the information that is obtained via information sources. There are two behavioural patterns showing up in restaurant selection: Active information searching and inactive information searching. Within active information searching, consumers act in particular manners such as previewing the restaurant and gathering information from various sources and in this way showing an active effort to obtain the information that would be the basis for their restaurant selection. While within the inactive information behaviour, the consumers evaluate the information imparted to them in a sort of way via some ads or recommendations (Pedraja & Yagüe, 2001; Iglesias & Guillen, 2002). In the related body of research it is seen that consumers information sources may show variance. For instance, in the study of Pedraja & Yagüe (2001) conducted on 450 consumers, it is mentioned that, in their information searching about restaurants, the consumers, make use of acquaintances and friend recommendations, ads and promotional activities and the information provided by operation itself. Similarly, Qu (1997) and Heung (2002) also mention that the restaurants’ advertising and promotional activities would be influential on restaurant selection. In the study conducted by Park & Yhang (2002) in South Korea with 349 customers, information sources used by the consumers are sorted as: previous experience (35. 4 %), family or friend (28. 2 %), newspaper or TV (23. 3 %), signboard (8. 1 %) and internet (2. 0 %). Similarly, Gregory & Kim (2004) state that the information sources influencing restaurant selection are; friends or relatives, store signs, newspapers, magazines, mailed coupons, booklets, radio/television ads, internet and billboards. In the study of Choi & Zhao (2010) conducted in South Florida with 307 consumers, the information sources that consumers rely on for their restaurant selection are sort as follows: recommendations from friends or family (65. 1 %), advertisements (17. 6 %), discount coupons (7. 5 %), brochures (6. 2 %) and others (3. 6 %). Also Harrington et al. (2011) state that, the consumers refer to magazine or newspaper ads, recommendation from friends and reviews in newspapers or magazine in their restaurant selection. In the light of all these, from the studies of Auty (1992), Gregory & Kim (2004), Moschis et al. (2003), Choi & Zhao (2010), Harrington et al. (2011) and Fatimah, Boo, Sambasivan & Salleh (2011), it is in evidence that, the most important information source influencing restaurant selection is recommendation from friends or family.

223 Consumers obtain information about restaurants via sources such as printed materials or acquaintances and family recommendations besides internet sources. Restaurants’ web sites are considered as an important source, providing consumers with information about offered products or services. (Namkung, Shin & Yang, 2007; Karim & Leong, 2008; Arıker, 2012). The information obtained by consumers via web sites of restaurant businesses, may create positive or negative perception about restaurants (Namkung et al., 2007) and induce consumers to visit the restaurant or back down (Stockdale & Borovicka, 2007). For instance, in the study conducted by Jin (2004), it is stated that, 21.5% of the consumers use the internet in their information searching about restaurants. Similarly, Yom, Kyoung and Park (2005) underline that, 30% of the consumers regard the internet in restaurant selection and internet is ranked at the first among information sources. And in the study conducted by Harrington, Fauser, Ottenbacher and Kruse (2013) in Germany on 350 customers, it is expressed that, in the process of Michelin-Starred restaurant selection, consumers benefit from information sources such as reputation of the restaurant, recommendation from friends, recent reviews, website and rating in food guides whence web sites are the most important information source. In the related body of literature it is significant that, the information sources utilized by consumers in their restaurant selections are mostly classified. For instance, in the study of Bei, Chen, Rha & Widdows (2003) conducted on 762 American and Taiwanese customers, the information sources are classified as traditional information sources and on-line information sources. Traditional information sources involve information obtained via customers (discuss with friend or family), via sellers (newspaper, magazine, TV or radio ads; store visit or discuss with salespeople) and neutral information sources (magazine article). Online information sources include information obtained via customers (customer opinion; rating; discussion), via sellers (web ads; sellers website) and neutral information sources (web articles). In this regard it is inferred that, traditional information sources are more influential than on-line sources for both American and Taiwanese customers. Especially discussion with friend or family is perceived to be the most important source of information during the search for information to dine out in United States and Taiwan. In the context of tourism, tourists in a destination especially where they are strangers, need reliable information sources to make restaurant selection (Özdemir & Çalışkan, 2011). In this way, tourist may ask for various information sources and these sources play an important role in their visit of a restaurant (Smith & Xiao, 2008). When the related body of the literature is analysed there is evidence that, the tourists’ information searching differ from consumers’ searching. For instance, in the studies of Sparks et al. (2003) and Batra (2008), it is seen that tourists may utilize mainly two information sources: printed materials and restaurant characteristics. In the study of Sparks et al. (2003), conducted on 459 visitors in Sydney and Melbourne, the sources of information comprise of, printed materials: restaurant reviews in the region’s local newspaper, restaurant reviews in food guides or food magazines, references to the reputation of the chef in newspapers or magazines and advertisements in newspapers, magazines or tourist dining-out guides. Restaurant characteristics comprise of: the display of a menu in the window, evidence of a wide variety of food on the menu, evidence of local food products featured in the menu, the restaurants’ busy looking and the restaurant having an attractive decor or atmosphere. Similarly, in the study of Batra (2008) conducted on 400 visitors in Bangkok, most of tourists reported typically relying on ads and being influenced by ads in newspapers, magazines and food guides, followed by restaurant reviews in food guides and internet. On the other hand, restaurant attributes are composed of display of menu, wide variety of food, speciality of food, busy looking, setting and atmosphere, which are among information sources used by consumers in selecting restaurants. In their study, Sparks, et al. (2003; 2004) and Batra (2008), state that the restaurants’ characteristics are more influential than printed materials as information sources used by tourists for restaurant selection. In this regard many of the tourists, for restaurant selection, consider rather the perception obtained by seeing the restaurant than the writings on the printed material. On the other side, in some researches of the related body of literature (Litvin, Blose & Laird, 2005; Canizares & Guzman, 2012), internet is also seen as an important source of information for tourists’ restaurant selection. For instance, in the study of Litvin et al. (2005), conducted on 138 tourists in America, internet takes place at the top (59 %), among the information sources used by tourists, in restaurant selection during their travels, and the other sources are sorted as follows: previous experience (38 %), family or friend recommendation (24 %),

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restaurants’ appearance (11 %), hotel staffs’ recommendation (9 %) and information via promotion guides (5 %). Similarly, Canizares & Guzman (2012) state that the most important information sources of tourists are internet and acquaintance or friend recommendations.

Figure 1: Information Sources Used by Tourists in Selecting Restaurants In the light of all these, the information sources used by tourists in restaurant selection may be gathered under five categories: Printed materials, restaurant characteristics, internet, word of mouth and previous experience (see Figure 1). Tourists may obtain information via printed materials such as restaurant reviews or ads on newspapers, food magazines or books. Also restaurant characteristics such as display of a menu, wide variety of food on the menu, speciality or local food in the menu, busy looking and setting or atmosphere also are among information sources referred by tourists in restaurant selection. On the other side it is evident that web sites of restaurants and social media, recommendation by friends, by family or recommendations of others or previous experiences of tourists are information sources also utilized by tourists in restaurant selection. In this context, the information searching and obtained information about the restaurant via different channels can induce tourists to visit the restaurants or back down. CONCLUSIONS The main purpose of this study is to gain an understanding of the important attributes of consumers' perceptions in restaurant or eating place selection. In this respect, this chapter investigates the factors influencing consumers’ preferences of restaurants and information sources used for restaurant selection. Also as it is stated by Pedraja & Yagüe (2001), restaurants knowledge of the factors influencing restaurant selection of consumers and how much importance the counsumers attach to given factors, plays an important role in meeting the needs of customers. From the restaurant operators' point of view, it is very important to understand what service attributes are more favourable to the customers in order to gain customer satisfaction and bring repeat business (Dube, Renaghan & Miller, 1994). People may dine out in restaurants with the purposes such as a place to meet someone, appease, for fun, for quick meal or convenience, for enjoyment, for a social occasion, business necessity, family outing or for celebration. Within that period, consumers or tourists appraise some restaurant attributes as food quality, food variety, price, service staff, atmosphere and location. And as a result of this appraisal

225 they make their restaurant selection. In this regard, consumers decide to select restaurants according to some primary restaurant attributes as follows: food quality, menu variety, taste of food, presentation of food, portion size, healthy menu items, selection alcoholic beverages, price, value for money, payment methods, atmosphere, interior design, cleanliness, operating hours, location, parking facilities, service personal, service quality, speed of service and reputation. On the other hand, factors influencing tourists’ restaurant selection, show similarities with the findings of the studies conducted on consumers. It is possible to state that the factors such as food quality, food variety, price, atmosphere, setting, location, service staff and service quality play important role in tourists’ restaurant selection. Information source also plays an important role in consumers or tourists’ restaurant selection process. Within this scope, information sources used by consumers in restaurant selection can be categorised as follows: from customers (discuss with friend or family), from sellers (newspaper, magazine, TV or radio ads; store visit or discuss with salespeople), neutral information sources (magazine article) and from internet. On the other side it is seen that tourists have five sources to obtain information before selecting a restaurant: printed materials, restaurant characteristics, internet, word of mouth and previous experience. Consumers or tourists decide to select a restaurant and visit that restaurant according to the information they obtained from these sources. REFERENCES Aktaş, A. & Özdemir, B. (2007). Otel İşletmelerinde Mutfak Yönetimi. Detay Yayıncılık. Ankara. Albayrak, A. (2014). Müşterilerin Restoran Seçimlerini Etkileyen Faktörler: İstanbul Örneği. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi. 25 (2): 190-201. Ali, J., & Nath, T. (2013). Factors Affecting Consumers' Eating-Out Choices in India: Implications for the Restaurant Industry. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 16 (2): 197-209. Alonso, A. D., O'Neill, M., Liu, Y., & O'Shea, M. (2013). Factors Driving Consumer Restaurant Choice: An Exploratory Study From the Southeastern United States. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 22 (5): 547-567. Ardabili, F. S. & Rasouli, E. H. (2011). The Role of Food and Culinary Condition in Tourism Industry. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research. 9 (6). 826-833. Arıker, Ç. (2012). Restoranların Web Sitelerinin İçerik ve Sunumlarının Analizi: İstanbul Örneği. Eskişehir Osmangazi Üniversitesi İİBF Dergisi. 7 (2). 145-172. Auty, S. (1992). Consumer Choice and Segmentation in the Restaurant Industry. The Service Industries Journal, 12 (3): 324-339. Ayala, G. X., Mueller, K., Madurga, E. L., Campbell, N. R., & Elder, J. P. (2005). Restaurant and Food Shopping Selections among Latino Women in Southern California. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, January: 38-45. Baek, S. H., Ham, S., & Yang, S. (2006). A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Fast Food Restaurant Selection Criteria between Korean and Filipino College Students. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 25: 683-698. Batra, A. (2008). Foreign Tourists' Motivation and Information Source(s) Influencing Their Preference for Eating Out at Ethnic Restaurants in Bangkok. International Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Administration, 9 (1): 1-17. Bei, L, Chen E. Y., Rha, J. Y. & Widdows, R. (2003). Consumers’ Online Information Search for a New Restaurant for Dining-Out: A Comparison of US and Taiwan Consumers. Journal of Foodservice Business Research, 6 (3): 15-36.. Bekar, A., & Gümüş Dönmez, F. (2016). Tüketicilerin Dışarıda Yemek Yeme Nedenlerine İlişkin Bir Değerlendirme. Social Sciences (NWSASOS), 11 (1): 1-15. Bujisic, M., Hutchinson, J. & Parsa, H. G. (2014). The Effects of Restaurant Quality Attributes on Customer Behavioral Intentions. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management. 26 (8). 1270- 1291. Canizares, S. M. & Guzman, T. L. (2012). Gastronomy as A Tourism Resource: Profile of The Culinary Tourist. Current Issues in Tourism. 15 (3). 229-245. Canziani, B. M., Almanza, B. A. & McKeig, M. J. (2010). Assessing the Utility of Restaurant Descriptors and Typologies for Advancing the Body of Knowledge in Restaurant Management. International CHRIE Conference. 1-8. Boston: University of Massachusetts.

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230 Chapter 17

Ayvalık, in Terms of Sustainable Tourism

Hüsniye DOLDUR*

INTRODUCTION Just like in the past, “natural and cultural differences” will continue to be at the top of main motivations which induce tourists to travel in the future. And this is only possible with sustainability of natural and cultural assets on an ‘as is’ basis (Özgüç, 2013). Though tourism activities are generally considered as a “clean industry”, they have many positive and negative effects on natural and cultural assets due to their relationship with the geographical site, and their structure intermingled with the culture. In some cases, the negative effects may reach to such an extent that they may result in degradation and even destruction of natural and cultural heritage. As the irresistible rise of tourism will continue, the principle of “sustainability” has been suggested to be applied to tourism for minimizing its negative impacts. Within the context of tourism, “sustainability” means regulating use of tourism resources without depletion, pollution, and degradation so that next generations would also enjoy them. In “sustainable tourism”, an alternative type of tourism which adopts that approach, it is aimed to create a new tourism culture which gives more importance to environment, i.e. the main source of tourism. (Gökçen, 2006; Baykal and Emekli, 2010; Özgüç, 2013). The World Tourism Organization defines sustainable tourism as: “tourism that leads to the management of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems”. Since 2007, the World Tourism Organization has endeavored to establish Global Sustainable Tourism Criteria for adoption of a common perspective for sustainable tourism, and classified such criteria under four themes: 1) Effective sustainability planning, 2) Optimize social and economical benefits for the host community, 3) Protect and augment cultural heritage, 4) Minimize environmental impacts (McKercher, 2003; Baykal and Emekli, 2010). Increasing impacts of tourism on natural and cultural resources and solution offers have been the subject of many geographical studies carried out in recent years (Sertkaya Doğan, 2009; Ertin, 2007; Baykal and Emekli, 2010; Doldur, 2011; Doğan, 2013 etc). This study deals with how the problems caused by tourism activities in Ayvalık would be solved under “sustainable tourism”, and what can be done to preserve tourism resources and hand them down to next generations. 1.DEVELOPMENT PROCESS and MAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF TOURISM ACTIVITIES IN AYVALIK Ayvalık, which was a small residential area with olive cultivation and limited fishing as dominant businesses, has started to develop as a tourism area as a result of tourism activities started after 1950. Such a development was owed to Ayvalık’s suitable geographical location, short distance to big cities, as well as natural, historical and cultural assets, which are appealing in terms of tourism. Tourism activities in Ayvalık emerged in early 1950s when, among other subsequent developments, Sefa and Çamlık districts, which were deserted then, were plotted and sold out at cheap prices. These two districts with cheap plots were then connected to the downtown with roads built, which enticed residents of Ayvalık to build a second summer cottage in these districts for summer holiday. After a while, tourist residences in the region flourished with the construction of villas and well-maintained buildings. Then a tourism area emerged in the city with subsequent opening of a Municipality Club, a tennis club, a tennis court, and miniature golf course in Çamlık, and opening of tourist clubs in Sefa.

* Assoc. Prof. Dr., Istanbul University, Faculty of Literature, Department of Geography .

However, tourism activities in Ayvalık actually leaped forward in the early 1960s as first commercial accommodation facilities commenced their operations. Those facilities were Yanyalı Hotel (Yorulmaz 2004), and a villa operated under the name: Ege Palas in Çamlık intended for accommodation of people from Izmir. In subsequent years, the tourism activities expanded as new accommodation facilities (motels, boarding houses, beaches, and clubs) opened along Çamlık road and in areas near the downtown. Ayvalık Tourism Association which was established in those years also contributed to development of Ayvalık as a tourism destination, and presentation of its natural-cultural assets to masses. One of the most important contributions of the Association was their encouraging the residents of Ayvalık to rent at least one room of their houses for board and lodging as a result of which the residents Figure 1: Location of Ayvalık were ensured to be involved in tourism activities which led to changes in the socio-economical structure. One of the other important developments at that time was opening of a public recreation facility (Highways Camp) in Sarımsak beach which was then deserted. In the end of 1960s, the boarding house business continued to develop in Ayvalık, and the number of accommodation facilities reached to 30 with the opening of new hotels and motels. In the meantime, new camping areas such as Foundations Camp in Sarımsak, and Tayfun Camp in Tımarhane Island were built. Though no precise statistical data is available regarding 1960s, it is estimated that approximately 2.000 to 3.000 visitors visited Ayvalık per year (Ceylan 1968-1969; Timor, 2004). Moreover, at that time, new businesses were established for providing food and beverage services to visitors. Most of such businesses were located along the coast and around Cumhuriyet Square in the downtown. At that time, though tourism activities brought very limited employment opportunities for the residents of Ayvalık, they provided economic opportunities which generated income, though little. In 1960s, the greatest development in the field of tourism in Ayvalık was Ayvalık’s being recognized as a “Priority Region” for tourism in 1969. After Ayvalık’s being recognized as a Prior Region for Tourism, both public and private investments in the city rapidly escalated through 1970s. Throughout 1970s, the tourism activities in Ayvalık continued to develop with with ever increasing number of hotels, motels, and boarding houses, along with low-cost second houses built on lands which were once used as olive groves. In that period, the tourism activities continued to affect the economical life in Ayvalık as the agricultural areas –the olive groves in particular– were sold for such second houses, and increasing numbers of Ayvalık residents reorganized their houses as boarding houses, thus creating employment opportunities, though little. In 1970s, the road of Balıkesir-Ayvalık-Izmir was also asphalted in order to facilitate access of tourists. Thus, the number of tourists visiting the city increased. Some estimate that the number of tourists visiting the city during those years was approximately 7.000 to 8.000 per year (Timor, 2004). In the early 1980s, Ayvalık evolved into a tourism destination which was also visited by foreign tourists as a result of focusing on promotional activities, efforts of tourism establishments and businesses to improve their quality and capacity, and operations of travel agencies with international

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networks. In that period, some of the foreigners were flying to airports in big cities (such as Istanbul and Izmir) and then travelling to Ayvalık by road while some of them were travelling by sea to enter Ayvalık through Ayvalık border gate. Throughout 1980s, the number of domestic and foreign tourists visiting Ayvalık increased, reaching up to 30.000 foreign tourists in 1989. During that period, the number of domestic tourists also increased but the number of domestic tourists could not be calculated precisely as they mostly preferred to stay in second houses. In 1990s, both the number of accommodation facilities increased and more luxurious facilities opened, and the tourism activities continued to make their way onward. However, the rapid and irregular housing in the areas where the accommodation facilities and second houses located (Ayvalık downtown and Küçükköy) brought forward challenges such as infrastructural problems and lack of water during summer months in particular. Throughout 1990s, new establishments flourished in order to meet needs (food, transportation, etc.) of local and domestic tourists whose number increased every year. Moreover, the economy of the city invigorated with the increase in sales of souvenirs and miscellaneous consumables such as olive and olive products. In 1999, total 85.446 tourists visited Ayvalık. 22.177 of them were foreign, and 63.289 were domestic tourists. Koca Seyit (Edremit Körfez) Airport which entered into service in 1997 also contributed to the increase in number of tourists by the end of 1990s. Throughout 2000s, tourism activities in Ayvalık continued to develop. In early 2000s, there were total 150 accommodation facilities (12.561 beds capacity) providing service in Ayvalık which presently increased to 233 accommodation facilities (more than 17.000 beds capacity). Hotels comprise 48.4%, boarding houses comprise 26.1%, and apartment hotels comprise 10.3%, motels comprise 8.5%, and camps comprise 6.4% of such facilities. There is a noticeable difference in distribution of total bed capacity according to type of facility. The hotels which have the biggest share in terms of the number of facilities in the region also have the biggest share in terms of bed capacity with 56.6% share. Hotels are followed by apartment hotels with 9.7%, boarding houses with 7.1%, and motels with 5%. What is surprising here is that though the number of camps in the total number of facilities is relatively small, they comprise 21.1% of total bed capacity. With nearly 100% occupancy rates, camps have an important portion of bed capacity in the city. Accommodation facilities in Ayvalık can be divided in two groups according to their locations: 1) New, big and modern hotels and motels which are mostly far from the downtown (in Çamlık, Sarımsak, Alibey ısland and Altınkum) and 2) Previously established older and smaller boarding houses, apartment hotels which are nearer to downtown. Boarding houses, which are classified under second group, are mostly located in Sarımsak, along the road between the downtown and Sarımsak, downtown of Alibey Island and along the way connecting the island to the city downtown. Apartment hotels, on the other hand, are mostly located in the city downtown, Badavut, Şirinkent, Tuzla districts, Alibey Island and Sarımsak. In Ayvalık, there are also total 15 camping facilities (10 public and 10 private camping facilities) operating in Ayvalık and providing cheaper accommodation services. They are located in Çamlık, Sarımsak, Armutçuk district, Lale Island, Tuzla district, and Alibey Island. Besides business enterprises, there are second houses used as accommodation facility in Ayvalık. These houses are in the form of either collective housing (housing estates) or dispersed detached housing. A great part of housing estates are constructed relatively far from downtown of Ayvalık. Such estates owned by non-residents (Şirinkent, Düçmen, Deryakent, Teknik Güç, Engürü, etc.) are mostly located in lands to the north of city. Another location where second houses are densely located is south of Alibey Island. In Ayvalık, there are also housing estates which are under construction along coasts of Alibey Island, Küçükköy, and Altınova. In Ayvalık, besides accommodation facilities, the complementary facilities have also reached sufficient capacity to meet demands. The most important and demanded complementary facilities are restaurants, cafés, and similar places providing food and beverage services. Of complementary facilities, most of the restaurants are located in the downtown in Cumhuriyet Square, Ataturk Street, Gümrük Street, Gazinolar Street, and the coastline while the other complementary facilities are concentrated in Çamlık, Altınova, Sarımsak and Alibey Island. One of areas where complementary facilities are densely

233 located is Alibey Island. The fish restaurants there (regional herbal olive oil dishes, marine products) are quite popular among tourists. Table 1. Accommodation Facilities in Ayvalık (2015) Type of Facility Number of facilities Bed Capacity Hotels with Operating Certificate issued by Ministry 17 2.466 of Tourism Hotels with Investment Certificate issued by Ministry 2 440 of Tourism Hotels authorized by Municipality 94 6.921 Motels authorized by Municipality 20 871 Boarding Houses authorized by Municipality 61 1242 Apartment Hotels 24 1.685 Public Camps 10 2.579 Camps authorized by Municipality 5 1.090 TOTAL 233 17.344 Source: Ayvalık Tourist Information Office, (2015). From the beginning of 2000s up to present, the number of domestic and foreign tourists visiting Ayvalık has continued to increase. The number of foreign tourists which was around 28.000 in 2000 increased to 77.767 in 2015, while the number of domestic tourists increased from 71.035 to 150.962. Table 2. Number and Length of Stay of Domestic and Foreign Tourists Visiting Ayvalık Visitors Stay Overnight Years Foreign Domestic Total Foreign Domestic Total 2000 27.900 71.035 98.995 47.115 153.187 200.302 2005 39.900 90.810 130.710 49.978 160.948 210.926 2010 58.967 144.223 203.109 98.327 245.639 343.966 2015 77.767 150.962 228.729 159.003 318.006 477.009 Source: The Ministry of Culture and Tourism of The Republic of Turkey (2015) and Ayvalık Tourist Information Office (2015). Most of local tourists visiting Ayvalık are coming by road from miscellaneous cities including in particular Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Bursa, and Balıkesir. Previously, mass transportation was the most popular means of transport by road but the share of mass transportation has been decreasing due to miscellaneous reasons, including increased popularity of Ayvalık among middle-upper income group (Bardakçı 1988; Yorulmaz 2004; Ayvalık Turizm Information Office, 2015). Today, some of foreign tourists travel to Istanbul and Izmir by plane, and then reach Ayvalık by road or domestic flights (Koca Seyit Airport). The others use seaway, travelling from Greece to Lesbos Island and then to Ayvalık by ferry, and entering Ayvalık from the border gate. Big tourist groups cannot travel to Ayvalık due to various reasons including challenging competition with Greek islands, lack of coasts and facilities suitable for mooring of big ships, etc. Greeks comprise a great part of visitors by arriving by sea while the rest comprises of those from various countries of the world who spend their holiday in Greek islands, and visit Ayvalık. Approximately half of visitors consists of visitors from Lesbos who come with tours and by boats for a one-day trip while a great part of rest of visitors come for short stays (mostly due to Crete and Lesbos immigrants who know their language). The number of Turkish citizens using Ayvalık border gate is quite little. They mostly comprise people who go to Lesbos Island for trade and holiday.

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2. NATURAL, HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL RESOURCES THAT CONTRIBUTE TO DEVELOPMENT OF TOURISM ACTIVITIES IN AYVALIK Ayvalık has a wide range of natural, historical and cultural resources which are attractive for tourism. Besides unique natural resources (coasts, sea, landscape, natural vegetation, suitable climate conditions, etc.), Ayvalık also has many historical and cultural artifacts (churches, mosques, monasteries, etc.) reflecting traces of various civilizations which ruled in Ayvalık since founding of Ayvalık. Ayvalık is like an “outdoor museum” with its streets and historical monuments which are considered to be among the most interesting examples of neoclassic architecture. For protecting such beauties of Ayvalık, the Ministry of Culture - Cultural and Natural Heritages Preservation Board announced Ayvalık as a Protected Area which should be preserved as a whole with its natural and historical assets. The Board also registered the settlements in Ayvalık downtown and Cunta as “Urban Protected Area”, Çamlık district as “Urban Protected Area with Green Properties”, and the forests as “Natural Protected Area”. Besides, a buffer zone has been determined which encompasses all protected areas under the name: “Urban Protected Preserved Area” (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 1984). Natural, historical and cultural attractions which contribute greatly to development of tourism activities in Ayvalık can be classified as follows: 2.1. Climatic Resources In Ayvalık where Mediterranean climate rules, summer season conditions are felt from May to September with monthly average water temperature above 20C and sea temperature above 18C. In addition to hot and dry summers, average temperatures which are not too high, and suitable sea water temperatures, Ayvalık also has a relative humidity rate of 61% which gives Ayvalık ideal climatic conditions. Another climatic factor that affects the tourism activities in Ayvalık is wind. Ayvalık is dominated by winds from north and northwest; and though the winds have an irregular blowing order during winter months, they blow regularly during summer months and thus provide cool air. Winds blowing during nights through summer months (June, July and August) mitigate effect of muggy summer weather. Moreover, the average wind speed of 3-3,5 m/s during summer months enables diversification of daily tourism activities involving wind (like sailing and windsurf). Another climatic condition that affects tourism activities in Ayvalık is cloud. The cloud amount is low from May to September as a result of which Ayvalık provides suitable conditions for enjoying sun and miscellaneous tourism activities with 109 cloudless days and 2.776 hours of sunbathing (Doğaner, 2001). In spite of short tourism seasons limited to 5 months highly dependent on climatic conditions, Ayvalık is a tourism destination favored by tourists who do not like excessive temperatures. 2.2. Coastal Resources and Sea Coasts of Ayvalık are among the youngest coasts of Turkey. The coasts which were formed in a very narrow area feature a highly indented structure characterized by islands and peninsulas with volcanic hills, and bays and gulfs connecting them to each other, along with coastal lines and lagoons which represent their previous borders, as well as beaches. Coasts of Ayvalık gained these characteristics as a result of tectonic and fluvial events during Pleistocene epoch in particular, with final touches during last eustatic marine transgression. Collapses formed by vertical faults also contributed to the present form of Ayvalık coasts (Ardel, 1967-1968; Ozaner and Öğdüm, 1991; Yalçınlar 1993; Timor, 2004). Coasts of Ayvalık can be classified in two groups as high and low coasts. Though high coasts present challenges and difficulties for humans’ use of coasts, they have very interesting natural beauties in terms of undersea topography. These coasts are available in Mağaralık Hill, Cape Sarımsak, İğdeli Rocks’ western coasts, Beşparmak Hill coasts, parts of Çamlı Hill’s facing Ayvalık Port, both sides of Pınar Strait, coasts of Maden Island, and to the north of Pateriçe Peninsula. The low coats, on the other hand, occupy an extensive area along the gulf. Regular accumulation of materials brought by sea flows and waves greatly contributed to shaping of these coasts. The most popular part of these coasts in terms of tourism activities in Ayvalık is Sarımsak beaches stretching from the east of Mağaralıtepe.

235 Sea is one of the most important natural attractions in Ayvalık. Many islands and peninsulas offer diversified opportunities for benefiting from and enjoying the sea. As a great part of Ayvalık coasts features volcanic formations, the bays are covered with high quality sand. Ayvalık has more than 100 km coastline in a rectangular-shaped area with Cape Pateriçe and Cape Mitralyöz to the north, Cape Eğribucak and Altınova to the south. Some parts of this coastline have thin sand beaches stretching out for kilometers. The most popular beaches which both tourists and residents of Ayvalık enjoy are the Sarımsak beaches which are located 5 km to the downtown. The beach with an uninterrupted length of 4 km is the focus of tourism activities in Ayvalık. There is a row of hotels, motels, apartment hotels, board houses and restaurants Figure 2: Sarımsaklı beaches which extend aligned along the beach. In this area, there are uninterruptedly for 4 km are intensively used. both the most luxurious (five star) hotels and cheap accommodation facilities. Besides Altınkum and Gül, which are included in Sarımsak beaches, the main beaches in and in the vicinity of Ayvalık include Kapri, Çamlık, Aybar, Badavut (Şahinkaya), Duba, Ali Çetinkaya (Armutçuk), Tuzla and Altınova beaches. All of these beaches are used throughout the tourism season by domestic and foreign tourists who would like to enjoy sea. Altınova beaches also offer opportunities for picnic, sightseeing, and recreational activities in the woods. Besides these beaches, all natural beaches of the islands (especially beaches in Alibey Island) are also used for swimming, sunbathing and sea sports. Ayvalık also has important attractions for undersea sports. Both coasts in the near vicinity of the downtown and small and big islands stretching up to Lesbos Island attract attention in terms of undersea sports. There are a great number of islands which have diving points and the divers can surely find a point to dive in still waters in some part of these islands regardless of direction of the winds, which make coasts of Ayvalık attractive in terms of undersea sports. Approximately 6-7 miles off Ayvalık, there are two main points allowed for diving. There are 22 diving points in these areas, the most famous of which are Alibey Island and its vicinity, Maden Island, Güvercin Island, Güneş Island, Kara Island, İncirli Island, Kız Island, Melinda, Üçkale and Batık Shallows. The points named Deli Memet, Ezherbey Rocks and Kerbela are famous for red sea fans which grow on deep undersea rocks. 2.3. Landscape and Sources of Natural Life Among Ayvalık’s natural heritages are many hills where the beautiful landscape can be viewed. Of these hills, the most famous and the most visited hill is Şeytan Softası (Devil’s Dinner Table) to the southwest of Ayvalık. Şeytan Sofrası Hill which resembles a round table surrounded by steep rocks is the main place where tourists visiting Ayvalık can view peninsulas, islands, bays, and see the sunset. Besides Şeytan Sofrası, there are other hilly areas where the natural beauties can also be viewed. Among most popular points where landscapes of Ayvalık can be viewed from different points of view are the hill named as Tavşan Kulakları (Rabbit Ears) on the way to Şeytan Sofrası (Devil’s Dinner Table), the Çıplak (Naked) Hill with springs and pinion pine trees on its skirts where the outstanding landscape of the gulf can be seem up from the summit, and the İlk Kurşun (First Bullet) Hill where the first bullet was fired against enemy during the Republic period. In addition to these places, Ayvalık’s natural heritage and assets can also be viewed from the skirts of Alibey Island. Besides Alibey Island, there are some other islands (like Taşlı Manastır Island) where the landscape can be viewed. Moreover, the natural beauties can also be seen from rock formations named as Delikli Taş (Drilled Stone) and Kartal Yuvası (Eagle’s Nest) near Taşlı Manastır (Stone Monastery) Island. Among sources of natural life in Ayvalık is natural vegetation. The natural vegetation featuring Turkish red pine, oaks and scrubs have been greatly destroyed due to tourist and urban settlements.

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However, it is maintained along arable fields, slops, cliffs, coastlines which are not suitable for agriculture, and coastal areas which achieved to avoid tourist settlements, as well as in Şeytan Sofrası (Devil’s Dinner Table) and its vicinity, Alibey Island, Dalyan Hill, Sarımsak Hill, Tımarhane Hill, Deliktaş Hill, and Çamlık and Sefa Hill to the south of Ayvalık. It is extremely important for the future of tourism activities that the natural vegetation which is under partial protection should be completely taken under protection. 2.4. Historical and Cultural Assets Ayvalık has many important historical and cultural assets attractive for tourists. With its many historical structures with rare architectural features and properties, Ayvalık has drawn attraction since the Ottoman era to such an extent that a permanent team of architectures was assigned to the city during Ottoman period (Orhonlu 1984). Among historical and cultural assets of Ayvalık are abundant numbers of old houses (residences). These structures are mainly located in old neighborhoods in the downtown, and 62% of these structures ages 50 to 100 years while 20% of them is older than 100 years. These houses were built in very narrow dead cul-de-sacs, and a great part of such houses extending through İnönü Street from Cumhuriyet Square to the Tax Office have been registered. The old buildings in Ayvalık are mostly two-storey buildings, 61% of which were built using Sarımsak stones, a type of stone specific to this region. Most of these buildings feature finest examples of stone workmanship in entrances and doors, and of iron workmanship in balcony guards, windows and stair handrails. Besides the downtown, another place where old houses are found abundantly is Alibey Island. The houses there dating back to end of 19th century and early 20th century are very similar to the houses in the downtown. They were also built using Sarımsak stones (Timor 2004). Among historical and cultural heritages in Ayvalık, religious buildings are not less important than the houses. In Ayvalık where Orthodox religion was dominant for long years before the rule of Ottomans, there are many churches and monasteries. A great part of these structures, which are important in terms of religious tourism are located in the downtown and Alibey Island. Churches of Ayvalık are considered as rare artifacts of neoclassic architecture with their specific exterior architectural characteristics, the interior marble workmanship, ceiling decorations and paintings. These churches, most of which have been used as mosques since the proclamation of Republic, include: Agios Yannis known as Çarşı Mosque or Saatli Kilise Mosque, Kato Panaya known as Hayrettin Paşa Mosque, Agios Nikolaos known as Biberli Mosque, and Agios Yorgios known as Çınarlı Mosque in Hayrettin Paşa Neighborhood. Other than churches which are used as mosques, there are two churches which are used out of their purpose. One of them is Feneromeni Church built in 1890 and registered (used as olive oil manufacturing plant), and the other is the church used as tobacco monopoly’s warehouse. Other than solid churches, there are also churches whose ruins exist only. These churches include Agios Yorgis(Abacı Church) at the foot of Sarıkayalar, and Agia Paraskevi located near the road to Izmir. Other than Ayvalık downtown, there are also many church ruins in other Islands, in particular in Alibey Island. The most important, famous and visited religious structure of the city is Taksiyarhis Church. The church located in a neighborhood which is the first settlement where the Muslim and Christian population lived together still preserves its characteristics in harmony with texture of nearby streets and typical Ayvalık houses. In addition to its history longer than 100 years, the church is also a source of attraction for its religious depictions, as well as paintings made on fish skin. The historical buildings in Ayvalık also include Monasteries. A great number of monasteries are located in the Alibey Island, and the most famous of these monasteries are Evan Gelistriya (Maidens’ Monastery), Leka Panaya (Protective Marry Monastery) and Ayışığı (Moonlight) Monastery. In addition to churches and monasteries, there are also mosques built in Ottoman era which are among important religious structures of the city. The most famous of these mosques is the Hamidiye Mosque built by Sultan Abdülhamit in the first half of 19th century. Besides Alibey Island, the other islands also have historical artifacts and ruins from miscellaneous civilizations. Some of them are Pordoselene Tower in Maden Island, castle walls from the Chalki civilization in the Çıplak Island, the ruins of a monastery built in the 18th century in the Tavuk Island, a

237 monastery built by the Greek in the Tımarhane Island, and Agios Yorgis Monastery in the Güvercin Island. 3. EVALUATION OF AYVALIK’S RESOURCES IN TERMS OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM Various resources defined above ensured Ayvalık to promote and develop its tourism up to its present status. However, careless use of such resources without a certain planning led to some problems regarding use of resources. For solving these problems which threaten the future of tourism activities before it is too late, well planned tourism policies should be developed and implemented. The most important factor that poses the greatest threat for sustainability of the tourism activities in Ayvalık is environmental destruction. The increasing construction of second houses in particular in Sarımsak, coasts of Alibey Island, Şirinkent, and Armutçuk district, which started in as early as 1980s, still continues its destructive impacts on the environment. Construction of housing estates containing second houses which have a total residence capacity several times more than the population of the city caused great destruction of the natural vegetation of the region. Moreover, construction of such housing estates in areas without proper infrastructure services, which was also performed in breach of applicable construction permits and development plans, accelerated the physical destruction of the environment. However, a sustainable tourism planning which introduces an architectural style in harmony with the nature without compromising attraction aspects would help controlling that situation. Construction of second houses does not only destroy the natural structure but also threatens the landscape. Construction of second houses resulted in destruction of natural beauties which existed until a short while ago in Sarımsak region and the Alibey Island. In order to protect the elements that contribute to the beauty of the landscape in the region, it is important to locate and determine such elements and build observation terraces on them. The second houses which popped out in an unplanned manner also occupy the areas which would be used for tourism investments in the future. Among areas which were destructed most are pine forests and olive groves which comprise the natural vegetation of the region. Another place which is threatened by construction of second houses is “Ayvalık Islands Nature Park”, which is a natural protected area. In these places which will play key roles in future development of the tourism, the construction activities should be taken under control under a sustainable tourism planning before it is too late. The rich biodiversity and non-living assets of Ayvalık Islands Nature Park are also under threat. One of these threats is the biodiversity damage caused by uncontrolled collection of crustaceans in particular in the beginning of spring in the northern coasts of Ayvalık strait. Another treat is that those who participate in tours organized to Maden Island which is located in the park collect stones, the non- living heritages, and take them out of the park. In both cases, as the nature is damaged, it is extremely important to increase and improve the controls inside the park (Koç 1999). Areas which are subject to environmental destruction in Ayvalık are not only limited to the settlement areas. Some islands and coasts where no settlement is available are environmentally polluted as a result of daily tours organized to such islands and coasts. Litters such as PVC, paper, clothes, glass, and metal thrown by visitors cause pollution. Besides pollution, it should be noted that the glass items also pose fire danger, and thus should be regularly cleaned and regular inspection should be provided. Tourism activities are not the only factor to be blamed of as the cause of environmental destruction. Many oil, soap and pomace oil plants aligned in a row along the coast both cause visual pollution and environmental damage by dumping their wastes into the sea. Relocation of such facilities in industrial zones with proper infrastructure located out of the city will help preventing the environmental destruction caused by such facilities. Thus, the noise and traffic in the city will also be reduced. Moreover, such facilities are located by the coast so their current locations can be used for different tourism activities. Though the pollution in Ayvalık Gulf is, to a great extent, attributable to the domestic and industrial wastes, the insufficient water circulation in the gulf also contributes to that pollution, which both accelerates pollution and makes it difficult to benefit from the sea and organize sea sports. In order to improve circulation and prevent further damage to the environment, some measures must be taken. First of all, it is extremely important that the waste water currently being dumped into the gulf by the

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industrial and residential areas in and in the vicinity of Ayvalık should be collected, treated and then dumped into the deep sea by waste treatment facilities to be established. Moreover, industrial facilities should be equipped with treatment systems that will prevent dumping of particles that precipitate under and shallow the sea. Among factors that cause pollution of the gulf are boats that organize daily tours to the islands, and dump their waste to the sea at certain hours. For sustaining cleanness of the gulf, it is highly important to provide waste tanks needed by these boats, and conduct more frequent inspections for such boats. Another greatest reason responsible for the environmental pollution in Ayvalık is insufficient infrastructure. Lack of water suffered during summer months, insufficient sewer system which has been a problem for long years, and dumping of waste into the sea without waste treatment are the most important infrastructural problems of Ayvalık that wait to be solved. Physical and biological treatment units should be built as soon as practicably possible in order to solve these problems which cause marine pollution. In Ayvalık whose summer population almost triples its resident population (approximately 200.000), it is impossible to build these treatment facilities with the budget of local government so more funds should be allocated to Ayvalık. Ayvalık has many historical and cultural assets which can be used in terms of sustainable tourism. Ayvalık’s historical and cultural heritages which should be protected include churches, monasteries, old houses, and streets in particular. The first study for protecting the historical structures, hundreds of which are available, was started in 1984 by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. Under said study, three areas which were “eligible for tourism” were designated according to following criteria: architectural properties, eligibility for restoration, and observation areas. Thus, it was planned to give priority to restoring the buildings in those areas, and put them into service of tourism. The first of those three areas covered the territory from Cumhuriyet Square to the north of the city between İnönü Street and coast. The second area covered Taksiyarhis Church and the small square where the church is located, together with attached houses in the streets leading to that square. The third area included Sefa Street, and Necat, Şeref, Hayat, Orta and Gayret Streets surrounded by Namık Kemal and Cumhuriyet streets in Alibey Island (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 1984). However, long years have passed and these buildings could not be possibly restored and put at the disposal of tourism due to high restoration costs. What is more, small numbers of restored structures failed to provide the desired results due to restoration errors (e.g. the cement mixture used for the structures conducted the moisture directly to the structure as a result of which the structure decayed). However, these structures which would guarantee sustainability of tourism activities in Ayvalık should be protected very well. For this, the structures should be put at the disposal of tourism under a well planned restoration program. As the owners cannot possibly meet the high restoration costs, the costs should be paid from local government budget or budgets created by state supports as in similar cases in the world (Paris, Rome, Strasbourg, Venice, etc.). Similar protection approaches should also be adopted for the historical roads and streets of the city, and when preparing the plans, the historical properties of roads and streets should be protected unless mandatorily required otherwise. Other than the suggestions mentioned above, Ayvalık should also solve transportation problems which are closely related with sustainability of tourism activities. Thanks to regular bus and midi-bus services from and to downtown and nearby settlements (Küçükköy, Altınova, Şeytan Sofrası, and villages), Ayvalık has no problem in this regard. However, the increase of population during summer months, in particular, results in traffic congestion problem. In order to solve this problem, a new road project which would improve the capacity of local transportation should be designed by duly considering the plans regarding development of the city in the future. However, a great part of the city is under protection so the new road project will take a long time (in order to make a good plan). As a short term solution, the sea can be filled for building a new road along the coast. A new beltway may also be considered where the road passing through Cennet Hill is used for going and the road in the market area can be used for returning. Another measure which would contribute to relieving traffic congestion is building multi-story parking garages. Another transportation problem of the city is that there is no direct flight for foreign tourism visiting Ayvalık. This problem can be solved by improving functionality of Koca Seyit Airport which is currently used for domestic flights only, with ongoing preparations for

239 performing international flights in the future. Similarly, Ayvalık yacht marina should be renovated and improved (solid superstructure services, winter mooring, towing areas, repair and maintenance services, and sustainability of them). Another way of ensuring sustainability of tourism activities in Ayvalık is to ensure that the local community gets a share from the tourism incomes as much as possible. For this, boarding houses should be supported, and the local community should be encouraged to open small businesses which provide entertainment & food services, and produce souvenirs and handicrafts specific to that region. Moreover, it is extremely important that the “trained personnel” who will provide tourism services should be selected from the local people. For this, the government has to establish miscellaneous educational institutions in the region (such as language teaching, tourism awareness and communication, etc.). Thus, both the need for trained personnel will be satisfied and awareness of local people regarding tourism will be raised. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Though it has natural and human-made attractions along with other advantages such as short distance to big cities which are sources of tourists, and easy accessibility, Ayvalık could not reach the desired level of development in terms of tourism. The tourism activities which started in 1950s intended for appealing domestic tourists continued to develop and started to appeal foreign tourists as of 1980s. However, tourism activities which developed without a good planning brought about many problems relating to exploitation of tourism resources of Ayvalık. These problems can be solved with well planned sustainable tourism policies. Actions which should be taken for this can be listed as follows: 1) Ensuring sustainability of tourism activities in Ayvalık primarily depends on training of local community regarding the environment, and giving a share to the local community from tourism incomes. For this, it is important to support boarding houses, and encourage the local community to open small businesses which provide entertainment & food services, and produce souvenirs and handicrafts specific to that region. Moreover, selecting “trained personnel” who will provide tourism services from the local people would contribute to sustainability of tourism activities. 2) Environmental destruction is the most important threat and is one of the most significant problems which wait to be solved for ensuring sustainability of tourism activities in Ayvalık. In order to prevent the environmental destruction created by tourism, industrial and urbanization activities, it is quite important that the construction of second houses which are intensively being constructed in Sarımsak, coasts of Alibey Island, Şirinkent and Armutçuk districts should taken under control. The industrial facilities which are aligned along the coast causing environmental pollution should also be relocated in industrial zones to be created out of the city as soon as possible. Moreover, harmful effects of domestic and industrial wastes, which cause environmental pollution, can be prevented by establishing treatment facilities. Another place where the environmental destruction is witnessed is “Ayvalık Islands Nature Park” which was announced as Primary Natural Protected Area, though that place has been under protection. Some tourism activities which are performed there and which threaten the natural park (such as construction of second houses) should be stopped immediately, and inspections should be increased and improved in order to protect the park and its all beauties, and pass them to the next generations. 3) The number of historical and cultural attractions in Ayvalık which should be protected under sustainable tourism activities is no less than the natural attractions of Ayvalık. The abundant number of artifacts which should be protected (churches, monasteries, old houses and streets) and high costs of restoration prevent restoration of historical structures. For structures which cannot be restored by their owners and left to their own fates due to high restoration costs, the restoration costs should be provided from budget to be created by the local governments or central government just like similar examples in other urban protection projects in the world (Paris, Venice, Strasbourg, etc.). 4) Though Ayvalık has no transportation problem thanks to regular bus and midi-bus services to and from nearby settlements, there is traffic congestion in the city during summer months in particular. This problem can be solved by constructing new roads, rearranging use of existing roads, and constructing multi-storey parking garages. Another transportation problem which is closely related to the future of tourism activities in Ayvalık is lack of direct flights for foreign tourists. For achieving this,

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Koca Seyit Airport which is currently used only for domestic flights, with ongoing preparations for making it eligible for international flights in the future, should be made more functional. 5) Another obstacle in front of sustainability of tourism activities in Ayvalık is lack of promotion. With cultural and sportive events (festivals, sports competitions, etc.) to be organized regularly every year, a great number of people can be enticed to come to Ayvalık. Moreover, the interest in Ayvalık can be increased with publications and commercials throughout the year in national and international media and on various websites. REFERENCES Ardel, A. (1967-68). Türkiye Kıyılarının Teşekkül ve Tekamülüne Toplu Bakış, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı:24-25, s.1-13, İstanbul. Ayvalık Turizm Danışma Bürosu, 2015. Turizm İstatistikleri. Bardakçı, A.G. (1988). Turizm ve Rekreasyon Açısından Ayvalık, İ.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Baykal, F. & Emekli, G. (2010). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Yaklaşımıyla Dikili ve Bergama’yı Bütünleştirme Potansiyeli, Tübitak 1002 Hızlı Destek Programı Projesi (No: 109K323). Ceylan, İ. (1968-1969). 1/500.000 Ölçekli Ayvalık Paftasında Nüfusun Dağılışı ve Bunun Noktalama Metodu İle Gösterilmesi, İstanbul Üniversitesi Edebiyat Fakültesi Coğrafya Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Mezuniyet Tezi, İstanbul. Doğan, M. (2013). Mengen Çevresinin Ekoturizm Potansiyelinin Değerlendirilmesi, İstanbul Üniversitesi, Coğrafya Bölüm Dergisi, s. 18-31. Doğaner, S. (2001). Türkiye Turizm Coğrafyası, Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul. Doldur, H. (2011). One of The Recreational Areas Near Istanbul: Polonezköy, NWSA –e-Journal of New World Sciences Academy, Volume:6, Number:4, s.145-168, Article Number:4A0043. Ertin, G. (2007). Rekreasyonel Bakımdan İstanbul Adaları (Geçmişten Günümüze), Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul. Gökçen, T. (2006). Turizmde Planlama ve Kırsal Alanlar, İnsan ve Mekân -Prof.Dr. Erol Tümertekin’e 80. Yıl Armağanı, (Hazırlayanlar. Nazmiye Özgüç, Ayşe Nur Timor), Çantay Kitabevi, s.176-186, İstanbul. Koç, T. (1999). Ayvalık Kıyılarında İnsan Ortam Etkileşiminde Sorunlar ve Çözüm Önerileri, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı 34, s.233-262, İstanbul. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, 1984. Ayvalık’ta Tarihsel Dokunun Korunması ve Turizm Amaçlı Kullanımı, Turizm Plânlama ve Yatırım Dairesi Başkanlığı, No.1984/3, s.13, 26, Ankara. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, (2015). Turizm İstatistikleri. (https://www.kultur.gov.tr/) McKercher, B. (2003). Presentation to the National Seminar on Sustainable Tourism Development, (http://www.tanzaniagateway.org/). Orhonlu, C. (1984). Osmanlı İmparatorluğu’nda Şehircilik ve Ulaşım, Ege Üniversitesi Yayın No: 876, s.13- 15, İzmir. Ozaner, S. & Öğdüm, F. (1991). Ayvalık Körfezi ve Çevresinin Jeomorfolojik Gelişimi ve Deniz Kirliliğinin Önlenmesine İliş-kin Öneriler, Jeomorfoloji Dergisi Özel Sayı 19, s.159-166, Ankara. Özgüç, N. (2013). Turizm Coğrafyası -Özellikler.Bölgeler, Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul. Sertkaya Doğan, Ö. (2009). “Ecotourism Activities in Turkey and The Example of Kirazlı Village (Kuşadası/Aydın)”, Management and Education Academic Journal, pp.45-48. Timor, A. N. (2004), Ayvalık Bir Sayfiye Yerleşmesinin Gelişme Süreci, Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul. Yalçınlar, İ. (1993). Ege Kıyı Kuşağında Krater ve Kalderalar”, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi, Sayı 28, s.17-27, İstanbul. Yorulmaz, A. (2004). Ayvalık’ı Gezerken, Dünya Yayınları, İstanbul.

241 Chapter 18

Opinion Mining to Analyze Perception of a Touristic Destination

Valentina Erminia ALBANESE*

1. INTRODUCTION This chapter is based on certain key observations presented in the first part of this study. The first observation, also made by Lozato-Giotart (Lozato-Giotart, 2008, p.15) is that we are living at a time when there is no place on earth that is not affected by tourism. Because it affects all parts of the earth, however remote, the ‘tourist question’ (Lozato- Giotart, 2008, p. 10) is increasingly complex and important, and is a fit topic for academic research in various disciplines. It is transversal and complex, and requires different methods of analysis which can jointly describe how demand perceives an area. This implies that perception is based primarily on the object, the area, but develops on the basis of other related variables such as communication of evaluation and views, marketing and sensory experience. It is also necessary to look at the identity of the area, which has recently become an important question because it concerns local identities of circumscribed places having particular characteristics. This identity involves associations between society and place in terms of cognition, emotion and perception (Banini, 2009, p.8). The perceptions of internal and external users orient expectations and demand in the area, and need to be recorded in systematical quantitative analyses. Tourism cannot in fact be studied or evaluated in isolation from the real perception of the demand side, which is structured in the codifiable and emblematic aspects of local identity. This perception itself involves expectations of the tourist before visiting the place, and which underpin the elaboration of the experience. Tourists in fact choose destinations on the basis of image resulting from a subjective construction, rather than the attractiveness of the destinations. The tourist will have his or her own idea of the place formed from various sources; books, stories, guidebooks and tourism brochures. As well as orienting the tourist towards one place rather than another, these images are also used to interpret the trip and become the measurement stick for it, because the trip and destination will be evaluated on this basis. The reasons for visiting a particularly place are not in fact traditional criteria. Pictures and images count much more than words in choosing a destination, hotel and services (Ejarque, 2015). This is why identifying tourist perception is so important; it is determinant in the demand and fruition of tourism. For this reason, the second part of the research presents Sentiment Analysis, which is a new instrument for studying perception. It is a method of listening to opinion, typically online, and collects the huge quantity of data about user opinions and preferences by systematically monitoring general social networks, (Twitter, Facebook, etc.) and professional social networks (e.g. LinkedIn). Sentiment Analysis is first described, then applied to a case study, where it provides ex post qualitative data on a particular issue. It is used to measure tourist perception of a particular area, and reveals tourist expectations and levels of satisfaction after the trip. The case study focuses Salento, the peninsular on the heel of Italy in the south of the region of Puglia, which has recently become an important destination for both Italian and foreign tourists. Theory and methodology. Territorialization and construction of “sense of place” An area is more than a landscape (Dematteis, 2001), and more than a set of natural resources or codified and tacit knowledge (Albanese, 2008). It is the sum of all these elements as well as the horizontal relationships between actors and vertical relationships between actors and area. The system of relationships and tangible and intangible elements comprise its image (Raffestin, 2005). The image is closely related to the meaning given to the area by society. It is made up of all aspects of life and functions carried out there. The relational processes among inhabitants within the area lead to a process of identification with area underpinning social values and local knowledge which it is impossible to

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Alma Mater Studiorum, Università Di Bologna, Italy

transfer elsewhere. They also underpin complex identification links which give a relationship of medianza (Berque, 2004) between people and the environment. This leads to what is called a sense of place (Rose, 2001). This concept includes atmosphere generated, as well as physiognomy, and gives rise to social relationships which are unique to each area, emblematic of collective identity and the spatial identity of local society. Care and enhancement of a place starts from knowing it, and even more from recognition; the capacity to interpret values, semiology, rules and identity. In this chapter I am using the term area or territory not as a geographical area but in Magnaghi’s definition as a «highly complex living subject », the outcome of synergy between a culturally based human settlement and the environment (Magnaghi, 2000). Perception of place and construction of tourist image Tourism today is an important aspect of society because of its economic importance and because it is based on a large amount of online communication. An enormous amount of people can be reached and influenced by an online opinion, and can listen or take part in online conversation. Territorializing processes are made up of synergies and relationships between area and local society and the dynamic outcome determines the physical environment (Governa, 2001). This creates an image or an identity which characterizes it uniquely, what Claude Raffestin terms its genius (Raffestin, 1986). The characterization comprising the intangible atmosphere and knowledge of a place lead to its commercialization (Dallari, 2007). This is what attracts tourists, as well as local inhabitants who are the main consumers of the area. Tourists wish to exploit the natural environment and the sense of place, produced and transmitted by the territorialisation processes. Tourism concentrated in a given area is a double-edged weapon and requires careful study. On one hand, it requires study as an economic phenomenon, and quantitative data as well as less traditional qualitative data are required. Knowing the type of tourism, or the demand, means a destination can be better enhanced and valorized. Mass tourism can be defined as the anticulture of place, as it deteriorates and pollutes the destination treated as an economic good. Small scale tourism, on the other hand, can contribute to the enhancement and valorization and creating relationships with a pleasant destination with a friendly local community open to cultural exchange (Turco, 2012). This creates a virtuous cycle between the local people’s capacity to modify their own living environment, enhancement of the location, sustainability, and opening to the outside world including opening out to tourism, which can strengthen and even rebuild the destination itself. An example is the number of uninhabited farmhouses which have today become tourist accommodation in order to meet demand for small scale farm stay and similar experiences*. Tourism is deeply rooted in the vast and changing world of the imaginary. The close network of information between place, companies, local society and tourists gives rise to communication which aims to build tourist image on the basis of tourists’ perception of the place in a given time. The communication also aims to activate semantic strategies which will give ideas and illusions. In the context of tourism, the image of the place encapsulates experience and is like a relationship in the context of interaction. It is the concrete and aware outcome of communication between inhabitants, external users and area. Reviewing and sharing opinions is one the oldest forms of communication. Today, the town squares or village greens of the past have been replaced by social networks as an unconfined space where an enormous number of users can find information, building the imaginary, and evaluate their experience using a scale. The growth of online communication, particularly on social media, is altering ways of thinking and acting. In tourism, a sector where all phases from the choice of destination to the comments after the trip are online end to end, the change is particularly clear. The growth of social networks, as well as a technological revolution, entails a change in users’

* For details see: Miani F. & Albanese V., “Intangibile Cultural Heritage for the promotion of local space development. The case of a Mediterranean Italian region, Puglia”, in Amoêda R., Lira S. and Pinheiro C. (edited by), HERITAGE 2013 – Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Intangible Heritage, Green Lines Institute for Sustainable Development, Porto, 2013, pp. 315- 330.

243 cognitive relational and social process (Lovink 2012). This change is big enough to call into question social relationships as well as the subjectivity and the embodied nature of social network users. In fact, it: 1. Removes the body and its meanings from interaction, altering our capacity to perceive and express emotions (Riva 2012); 2. Modifies cognitive frameworks and social frameworks of action and communication influencing perception of a situation (Riva 2014); 3. Makes social networks independent from me and the communication generated linked to me (Riva 2016, p.27). Today, online experience tends to be totalizing; it meets needs in terms of security, socialization, communication, information and self-esteem. New media are successful precisely because they are able to meet needs that are not only physiological. General and specialist social networks gather information about users who are potential clients or users of products and serviced provided by tourist locations, public firms and an infinite number of providers. Users can be current users, to be made loyal, or potential users, to be attracted. Once upon a time, communications were through letters, but today, underneath the magic world of communication without time barriers, there is a parallel universe of listeners analyzing conversation for useful information of various types. Everything we write and publish online is listened to and coded. Internet makes us free and lets us travel where we like, (Boccia Artieri 2004) but it imprisons us at the same time. Privacy is increasingly under threat, our emotions regarding any topic useful to anyone are taken by Google analytics to measure the social media impact. Online activity in a way makes us owners of information, having access to a large amount of data, yet at the same time we can often be smothered in data smog (Shenk 1997). Extreme asymmetry of information prevails in what is a commercially planned activity. There is no information or general entertainment context (Sisti, De Nardis and Pavone 2015). Content today is made to meet the need for interactive narration to create links and set up a networked flow (Riva 2016) which boosts online creativity and mass self-made communication with the same cognitive effects as old-fashioned word-of- mouth, but too much higher levels of dissemination and persuasiveness. The networked flow is mainly generated by sharing objectives and emotions, or sentiment, in the channel of communication. It creates a situation of liminality where the individual takes heed of the network before deciding what course of action to take. The joint activity of the network is perceived as superior (Riva 2016). This is why people tend to look at TripAdvisor when choosing a restaurant or hotel, and sometimes even a destination. The networked flow is entirely present in the social network. Pierre Lévy finds that this is the beginning of a new type of knowledge, very different from the elitist and encyclopedic knowledge in the past. Today, knowledge is accessible and can be modified, as anyone and everyone can correct or modify content as well as generate it. For these reasons, information quickly goes out of date and knowledge is something which cannot be mastered or kept entirely under control (Lévy 1990). With traditional media, there is a clear distance between sender and receiver, and the one receiver or spectator among many is passive with no decisive power. The new media, on the other hand, have brought a revolution in the cognitive faculties of the user, or receiver of information. The user today can perceive, remember and learn in a group. Social network stimulates a type of learning which includes sociality and goes well beyond the autonomous and individual style. Learning retains its individual and autonomous aspect but it is influenced by the stimulation of the community. This is collective, or connective, learning (Lévy 1994), as is termed by Derrick de Kerckhove. In the composite universe of the social and digital weave, connective intelligence is a new version of the individual, moving away from was the Renaissance idea of the individual to a new digital humanism. The new digital identities integrate into online knowledge creating a bridge between individual and social identity, public and private, which interact without barriers in time or space. In discussing the key role of communication policy in forming image and perception in tourism, as in other sectors, territorial branding is an important issue. The competitive advantage of an area includes performance and differentiation strategies. A place needs to have unique characteristics and must be perceived as having desirable features not commonly found in competing products (Porter, 1998). City

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marketing strategies which emphasize advantages over other cities are using this type of advantage. Competitiveness between destinations comes into play especially where large cities host a high number of attractions, but smaller cities can also use it where they have some localizing advantage, or factor which directs tourists towards one place rather than another. It is true that in order to be internationally successful a city needs to have infrastructure and services. But it is also true that in a service and ICT based society, competitive advantage coincides less and less with physical aspects and more and more with knowledge, creativity and innovation (Bassetti, 1994). In the intense competition between cities and between areas, image is decisive in attracting capital, people and business, and the imaginary is decisive in selling a city and its elements. Territorial branding has become increasingly important since the 1990s. In fact, it is controversial, in that it is sometimes thought to be unhelpful in development and sometime thought to be a key stimulus. Branding, however, has a strategic role in local development, (Pollice, Spagnuolo, 2009) when it used to build and support local identity, rather than just for promotional activities. Measuring the perception of place and evaluating image in tourism The postmodern tourist increasingly makes choices on the basis of imagination and the imaginary. Through travel, he or she tries to live the experience imagined internally on the basis of prior perception of the place. With their incisiveness deriving from artistic sensibility, art, photography, TV and cinema all help to create a subjective ‘geographical interpretation’ of an area (Tuan, 1976, p. 260). There is no longer a mere ‘human geography’ but rather a ‘geography of the soul’ which explores those “Terrae Incognitae” of the spirit and the imagination discussed by John K. Wright (1947). The image in the cognitive sphere of the tourist is the inspiration for planning, making and evaluating the trip, and that is why it is important to investigate the complex processes which construct it. The places we live, work and travel across, the worlds we read about and see in works of art or films blend in our imagination and creativity, and we thus create and perceive an image of nature and mankind inside ourselves. The greater the difference between the image the destination gives of itself and the imagination of the tourist, the higher his or her level of dissatisfaction. If it is difficult to know what ex ante territorial perception is, because it cannot be determined scientifically. But new tools can be used to study ex post the characteristics of an area in the tourist’s imagination in order to align the area as product with user expectations. E-tourism has brought changes in terms of using technologies on demand and in real time and has also greatly simplified the business of organizing travel, starting from the choice of destination and ending with the evaluation of the experience. This is not only a question of technology, it has important implications socially and culturally. In the past, the world used impersonal mass communications, but today, anyone and everyone can create digital content and share in real time emotions, sentiments, and thoughts using accessible and inexpensive technology (Corigliano, Baggio, 2011, p. 260). Tour operators today need to take account of this online activity and the power that it has over the perception of destination. The way the area is recounted constructs its identity, which is always in fluctuation. And the imaginations of tourists and travelers are based on these images, and they lead demand to one destination rather than another. The imaginary and perceptions of place impact on the interpretation and final evaluation at the end of the trip. So the imaginary has an extremely important role in defining demand and enhancing the territorial brand, and today, knowledge of online opinions indicates what tourist perceptions of a place are. Regular Sentiment Analysis makes it possible to monitor the online imaginary which impacts on travel choices and influences the interpretation of experience. The closer an area is to the imaginary, the higher the satisfaction of the tourist. This leads to a virtuous cycle between the initial online commentator who inspires the user to make the trip, and ends with the final comments of the user who posts impressions of the trip and provides advice for future travelers. Perception and imagination in virtual space New forms of text and new forms of personal and collective interaction are altering the spatial quality of the web. It is an intangible universe, imagined and decoded with reference to physical

245 attributes with their own particular functions such as town squares or village greens, information highways, shopping malls and panopticon (Stefik, 1996; Pasquali, 2004). The invented mythology of William Gibson (Gibson, 1984) influences enormously the description of the web as cyberspace and the representation of a multi-function hyper-reality. There is perceived to be a cybernetic space without any of the boundaries which separated it from reality until the end of the last century. Today it is a river in full spate, together with the tangible world, in terms of communication, trade and reciprocal influence. Any distinction between real world and possible world has disappeared (Eco, 1977, p.24). As Franco Farinelli writes in his afterword to the Italian edition of Edward Soja’s Postmetropolis: Critical Studies of Cities and Regions, it is necessary to recognize the discontinuous, heterogeneous and anisothropic nature of the city, (Farinelli, 2007, p.352), and the complex system of web relationships gives us a new meaning for inhabited space. Soja codifies spatiality as a dynamic process (Soja, 2007) which makes the interactivity of relationships as a conjunction and assimilation point between reality and virtuality. The virtual world with its technological macro systems (Gras, 1993) is a network. It is just like a “supranational spider’s web giving a new geographical space drawn by the lines connecting material points […] physically embodying the representation of modern society” (Boccia Artieri, 2012, p. 25). This representing shows that virtual space is far from abstract and has little to do with Augé’s complex skein of cables and wireless networks (Augé, 1992). Instead it multiplies relationships in the inhabited part of Internet, impacting on identity and expressing something which is “anthropologically dense” (Vittadini, 2003). This is seen mainly in the development of 2.0 and the growth of new media, where the Internet is a true social space, an online village green where experiences take place in a similar way to the real village green, but with clear differences. When considered not as individuals who are connected but as related subjects, users «in their daily dynamics cross and link tangible and intangible online spaces unceasingly and naturally. There is no threshold between the two immeasurable worlds but rather an extension of the space for daily experience » (Giaccardi, 2010, p. 7). The affinity and the analogy between offline and online make it more possible to acquire continuously linked real and virtual space rather than their being in opposition or discontinuous. The continuity is seen in users’ daily practice incorporating various online functions into their routine, and in the way online communications are used in offline social life. The community spreads online the word in tastes, behavior and attitudes to aspects of daily life, ranging from the directions, fitness, trips and recipes. The key shift from the real/virtual antithesis to the online/offline antithesis is from the nomothetic and generalized map to new ideographic representations which allow individualism and personalized perception. In these new representations, opinions, daily experiences, the individual and words have more importance. Geographers rediscover the density of place and new impure maps with participation and localization are being drawn (Sobrero, 2015). There is a new set of measurements for perception, persuasive and cognitive power of online narrations for ex ante choices and ex post evaluation. The virtual environment is inevitably included in the analysis of perception of reality. Measuring the audience on Internet: Sentiment Analysis A new trans-disciplinary academic science is being developed to meet the need first to listen to consumer opinion on brands, products, tourism destinations and various services on the crowded online market generated by the Social Network, and at the same time survey perception in a qualitative manner. Sentiment Analysis (Pang, Lee, 2008; Hu, Liu, 2004) or Opinion Mining are two techniques which sift and analyses qualitative data, and which can be used to analyse perception of a tourist destination, as we see below. Sentiment Analysis is useful for analysis of tourism products (Albanese, 2016) because services tend to be online “end-to-end”, in other word they start from the consumer choosing a destination and end with him or her posting online evaluation. Traditional tour operators and agencies have become much less important today. Tourism is the subject of numerous blogs and forums which communicate opinions on everything from services to the destination itself. Sentiment analysis makes it possible to know and thus manage web reputation of an area. Communication and destination branding, as well as web reputation are managed by public and

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private actors. These communicate an image of the area characterized by a specific quality attributes expressing the image. This image of an object is disseminated through the media and underpins the narration of the place, but typically it does not include outsiders’ perception. The risk in branding strategy is that it can be closely self-referential and include only the view that the internal actors have of their area. To avoid this short circuiting and mismatch between demand and supply, it is necessary to include perception of the area from the outside. This means building up an image starting from perception of an area as codified and imagined by outsiders. (Pollice, Spagnuolo, 2009). But although many people have written about the need to know the perceived image in detail, there are very few actual applications in the real world. So Sentiment Analysis strategically important in semantic analysis. We noted above that the web and particularly social networks are important containers of information. We now focus on how online opinion is analyzed. Technical Aspects Sentiment Analysis is the process of determining the attitude of a speaker to a topic. In the field of Computer Science, this generally means automatically determining the attitude of given input texts, often numbering thousands. Today, two general methods of opinion mining are in use, and are defined and classified as follows by Søren Houen: «Document-level and sentence-level. Document level classification means that a complete document’s bias towards one or more subjects is analyzed. This could be a movie review mined for thumbs up/down information or a political speech on a subject. More granular and precise than document-level classification is sentence-level classification. In sentence- level classification, each sentence in a given document is mined for subjectivity information and bias towards topics. This is a more involved task than document-level classification, as less text means more room for error. The more text you analyze with regards to a single subject, the more likely you are to get it right, based on the assumption that an author will display the same sentiment throughout the text. Consider the example: The movie had the potential to be excellent. It’s a shame the lead actor’s performance made it such a terrible movie. Here, the first sentence is displaying a negative sentiment, but in an ambiguous way that might have trouble being picked up by a classifier. The second sentence, however, leaves little doubt of the authors’ opinion» (Houen, 2011, p. 15). In this example, the document -level classifier works with an internal scoring mechanism (positive/negative fractions) and gives a binary value of subjectivity to a volume of text. The methods are closely related to information extraction, and machine learning plays an important role. It is important to establish whether a word is used or not, particularly a word with very high sentiment-bearing value. We refer to words such as beautiful, or terrible or? awe? aw/ awful and so on, which carry a large amount of information about the poster’s opinions. In fact, unlike traditional analysis methodologies, opinion mining methodology has demonstrated that term presence is more important than term frequency. The position of information in the flow of a text is important. It has been demonstrated that the last sentences of a document carry much more relevant sentiment information than the first. Academic debate on term position features is ongoing. Here we simply note that while Pang et al. find Unigrams to be preferable for opinion mining, Dave et al. find that bigrams and trigrams sometimes outperform unigrams (Dave, Lawrence, and Pennock, 2003; Dini and Mazzini, 2002; Pang, Lee, 2004). On the other hand, the importance of topic is clear. The role of one topic can be completely different from another. An important part of topic relevance in opinion mining is also in determining the topic discussed. If a particular topic is being mined, subjective statements not relevant to this topic should be treated specially, and often discarded. Choice of semantic resource is the first step in sentiment analysis. There are several semantic resource databases and on-line lexical resources for English, based on frame semantics. This research used Senti-Miner 1.0 software, which applies syntactic and semantic processing to provide a structured input from natural text, for subsequent processing with data mining algorithms. The approach largely

247 consisted of shallow syntactic parsing with a method known as chunking, coupled with a semantic parsing algorithm utilizing a “filled template” system applying a sentiment polarity to sentences parsed (Dini & Balestrieri, 2013). The basic assumption of the system used is that hybridizing technologies is essential for good results in opinion mining and data extraction. HOLMES is based on a flexible extraction model where operators work in a linear set-up and each can use the processing work of previous operators. Pairs of annotators were used, one based on mainly tried and trusted statical techniques and one based on manual configuration. The language expert modified the output of the statistics model on the bases of suitable rules. For Senti-Miner, HOLMES was enriched with 43 semantic analysis rules, and is particularly appropriate for studying the tourism sector. The rules were based on place, accommodation, hobbies, sport and monuments etc.; in other words, taxonomies and ontologies linked to tourism. They were also based on expressions which may have different value in tourism from everyday language. For example «mi Sono divertito molto» (I enjoyed myself a lot) may have a more positive connotation in tourism or free time than in other domains (Dini & Balestrieri, 2013). There are basic characteristics for Sentiment Analysis in the tourism sector, one of which is granularity. It is increasingly common to assign a score to evaluations of digital and physical items (restaurants, books, places, hotels etc..) in social web interactions. But in reality, opinions are more complex and include conflicting components which it is not possible to include in a global evaluation. A global evaluation can also hide the more useful «atoms of judgement» (Dini & Balestrieri, 2013). The simple classification into negative or positive document in fact hides all the shades of meaning in sentences in an outcome poor in information, so it is more useful to work at sentence level. Even this can be problematic; for example, a sentence like: It is a nice place, but there’s terrible traffic would be evaluated as neutral. The sector appears to be characterized by opinions containing different polarities, so the only useful or reliable granularity of sentiment analysis lies in phrases or sections of opinion. It is naturally crucial to understand the object of the opinion, which at first sight is usually a destination or restaurant or similar which can be fairly easily identified in reviewing sites, but is slightly more complicated in forums and blogs. Identifying the topic is the main aspect of sentiment analysis. Tourism managers however require something more than the simple association of evaluation and entity; they need to know what precise characteristics is being evaluated and how it evolves over time. There three different approaches; pre- defined, clustering and linguistic. The pre-defined approach is the most widely used and probably the simplest. The operator fixes a priori a set of categories, and the system maps these onto words used in sentences expressing opinions. This mapping yields a traditional model of the sector from a continuously evolving data set. In clustering, arbitrary groups of texts can be put together in natural categories, not as pre-defined structure, but a tree of themes emerging from the texts analyzed. Once the clusters of documents, or more precisely sentences or fragments of onion, are formed, they can be measured and? discussed for polarity and to classify the issues emerging as important. The last approach, linguistic, combines the precision of the predefined approach with the flexibility of clustering. The basic idea is whole sentence analysis in order to identify sentences and use key words, or normalized words from the text, to represent specific characteristics (Dini & Balestrieri, 2013). Case study: Salento* This case study applied sentiment analysis to the tourism sector using Senti-Miner 1.0 software, a generic onion mining tool customized for the domain of tourism. While taking into account the domain, sentiment analysis can treat opinions at different levels of granularity, such as sentence, the intensity of

* The case in object is part of the project “Nuval – Borse di ricerca in tema di analisi e valutazione delle politiche di sviluppo e degli investimenti pubblici”, edited by Valentina Albanese for FORMEZ PA, intitled: Sentiment Analysis Methodology quale supporto strategico alla pianificazione turistica del Salento. Scientific Advisor Prof. Fabio Pollice, Università del Salento.

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the opinion and capacity to identify potentially threatening trends. The tourist attractions of Salento are very varied; landscape, art and culture differ from place to place. Moreover, as a peninsular on the southern tip of Italy, its geographical position and distance from large metropolises where demand is based and transport hubs used by Italian and overseas tourist flows can also be an issue (Pollice, 2012). The supply of accommodation is also diverse, and again has characteristics which vary in size, type and quality. These reflect the attractions of the area and the demand itself. Of course, these aspects are all closely interrelated. The history and lifecycle of tourist destinations tend to confirm that where there is no reciprocity in these inter- relations, tourism can often be negative and be a de- territorialisation agent. (Minca, 1996) It can in fact compromise the environmental and social equilibria which made the locations attractive in the first place. This short circuit can thus lead to degradation of landscape and the area Figure 1: Salento - edited by Matteo in general. The area is deprived of its main reference in Proto identity, which is in fact its main resource in perception on the demand and supply side of local history and culture. We now focus on the types of tourism in the Salento, in order to interpret the dynamics between attraction, area, local society and demand for tourism. The main element of a tourist system is the local capital in terms of natural, historical, architectural and cultural capital. The landscape and local society are determinants in the choice of Salento as a destination. And where these successfully emerge and are perceived by demand as a resource and distinctive elements making unique an area, they can be used in defining the supply side tourism. These attractions can be clustered as seaside, cultural and rural tourism, as mentioned above. In Salento, two types of resource are particularly important; landscape, including nature, the environment and architecture, and on the other hand cultural, including historical, archeological, religious, traditional customs and food and wine. The current and future competitiveness of Salento in supply of tourism services needs to be analyzed in terms of the various types of tourism. There is a plurality of attraction types, although figures show tourism today is extremely seasonal and concentrated on beaches and the seaside. In future however, there could be more diversified demand. Different facets of demand could stimulate suppliers to offer increasingly diversified and spatially wide products and services. We now focus on more detail on the current and future positioning of the various segments, starting with the main one, seaside and beach tourism. Growth rates show that the main reasons for travel to Salento are the coast, which has crystal clear waters and a variety of cliffs and sandy beaches which can cater for different holiday-makers. The sea is clearly the main attraction, particularly for locations such as Otranto in the east and Gallipoli in the west. Development policies need to structure supply better as well as retaining market share in a dual strategy. The first part of the strategy would be to enrich what the area offers by adding cultural and environmental values as well as giving more attention to inland areas, which are often exploited simply for accommodation and restaurants rather than being used as real attraction in themselves to holiday- makers. The other strategy would be to enhance what is offered in terms of the environment, a key aspect. There needs to be integration between the various attraction factors so that supply is wider and more flexible and able to meet the demand from various segments of Italian and overseas tourist flows. Currently, supply for seaside tourism is low compared to potential demand. It is particularly poor in accommodation as well as the complementary services which play a key role in attractiveness. The second type of tourism important in Salento is cultural. Cultural tourism is perhaps the most important type for Italy as a whole and internationally, and in recent years has helped to make tourism,

249 especially international tourism, less dependent on the summer season. Salento has a significant artistic heritage in terms of art and monuments, but little is done to exploit this for tourism purposes except for events in food and wine and local traditions known in Italy but not overseas. This type of tourism requires innovation on the supply side in terms of dedicated and accessory services. It is also the case that many attractions of Salento can also be found in the surrounding areas, sometimes at better levels of quality partly thanks to better conservation of the cultural heritage and partly thanks to services available for tourists. This in itself can trigger competition with local areas. As is often the case for areas with the same composition of attractions, the capacity to attract tourists can be affected by the fame of one or more particular resorts, or a specific resource such as archeological site or religious shrine etc. For Salento, the main draw appears to be the capital of the province, the city of Lecce, which is famous for its Baroque architecture. The whole area, however, has its own attractions, but is forced to compete for tourists as a system as the individual places do not appear to be capable of attracting a flow matching their own heritage. Integration of the system implies that the area needs to have a stronger network which emphasizes the historical and cultural relations and improves connections in terms of distance to be covered. Tourists need to perceive this integration as a key element of what Salento offers. The third type of tourism is rural, and in recent years Salento has become more important in this. In many areas private initiatives have been able to meet new trends in demand by setting up farm-stay agritourist accommodation. But partly because there has been little institutional support for such initiatives, they have not reached the levels of other areas with similar attractiveness. A large segment of tourist demand lives in urbanized areas afflicted by serious social and environmental problems, which lower the standard of living, and the perception of it. It is therefore not surprising that tourists and holiday-makers, always wanting to go elsewhere and find something different, are increasingly turning toward alternatives like the countryside and rural tourism where there is the fasciation of a symbiotic relationship between people and nature. Rural tourism is emotive journey where the search for intimate and aesthetic experience combines with the discovery of a new place. What people want from a rural holiday in fact is complete escape form a frenetic everyday life, and a new identity in the experience. In fact, intermediaries of all types have a smaller role in rural tourism where experience tends to be self– made. And rural tourism has also grown because of its relationship with sport, nature and wood and wine tourism. Food and wine tourism in fact has very little autonomy as a type and can rarely be separated from territorial attractions. It tends to be the sublimation of other factors, which are themselves enhanced and promoted in the experience of food tasting. For the development of rural tourism, the quantity and quality of farm stay accommodation need to be developed, preferably under a province level plan with guidelines on strategies and actions for entrepreneurs and institutions in the area. Naturally, the effect of rural tourism is an effect of the fabric and size of the local subsystem of accommodation as well as overall local coherence. Rural tourism in Salento in fact shows demand for rural and environmental quality and the alterity characterizing rural areas. As well as the three types of tourism outlined above, Salento also has other attractions for which tourism operators need to assess demand. These are mainly events showcasing characteristics that can be summed up as traditional culture. The famous dance called pizzica pizzica is a magnet for events organized during the summer season, where the authentic nature of tourist experience in Salento is enhanced. In fact, emotively based tourism plays a role in all supply strategies and expectations on the demand side. The less varied is everyday life, the greater the expectations of experience while on holiday. Resources on offer to tourists are enriched by generic ‘other’ resources, which are not closely related to tourism but play a significant role in making a location competitive. These ‘other’ resources are the key to exploiting specific resources outlined above, because they can make them more accessible both physically or intangibly or at the level of information. Mobility is a key issue for hospitality and welcome in Salento. Infrastructure such as airports, ports, roads and railways is generally poor, while only banks and various services are better than the rest of the region of Puglia. This is perhaps one of the most critical

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aspects of the tourism system in Salento and a principle difficulty in its integration. The case study of Salento using Senti-Miner 1.0 software for Sentiment Analysis methodology supplies useful information for various local resources about tourist preferences. The software was set up to use two languages to decode what were considered at first to be the richest sources of information. The two languages were Italian for the analysis of perception and imaginary of domestic demand, and French. The overseas component of demand is shown in statistics to be on the rise nationally, while in Puglia overseas demand is low but is growing rapidly mainly from within the European Union. Over the years, the market share of Germany has fallen while France for example, increased its market share by one per cent, and the Netherlands, Belgium and Austria are also growing. In terms of channels or environments listened to, social networks and sites having tourism in Salento as topic were used, through the codification of key words such as Salento tourism or holiday. But only informal sites were used, as these give voice to user opinions rather than the more or less explicit marketing found on top-down managed commercial sites. Selecting key terms, we used single words to represent the main topics. The software subsequently sifts and organizes into tag clouds and graphics, such as bar graphs, the individual variables. Opinions posted online in Italian and French yield several useful observations. First of all, the French, or at least users speaking French online, are not only or not mainly attracted to Salento by the sea. They travel there throughout the year, as can be seen in one of the ad hoc tag clouds where the phrases a week, Puglia and Salento, are accompanied by September, Christmas, Culture and similar.

Figure 2: Tag clouds obtained using Senti-Miner 1.0 in French So overseas tourists are attracted by cultural resources, landscape, food and towns, as well as the sea. Overseas tourism has in fact helped a positive trend in the sector in spite of the economic crisis, and could be a segment of demand to encourage in low season. The same comments show that Puglia is recommended as a destination in itself and there is no particular advice in favor of Salento. Salento therefore, seems to have appeal in the context of the whole region rather than in itself, as its own supporters would hope. Salento is in fact a part of Puglia with its own identity and culture differentiated Figure 3: Sentiment Analysis in French: tag for reasons of history and geography. But this cloud on the places most frequently cited in differentiation is strongly perceived within Puglia, not conversations on the topic. outside, and is perhaps not sufficiently emphasized. There are moreover largely positive evaluations of the holiday: 1029 positive opinions compared to only 277 negative opinions, with a gray area of just over a hundred neutral comments. The opinions in Italian number 1263, and here again most are positive: 1038 compared to 366 negative. Clustering shows that after the sea gastronomy is a particularly important positive element. Negative perceptions among Italian and foreign tourists concern ‘lack of security’, ‘fear’ and ‘chaos’. Concentration on these elements is an indicator of critical points which are among the biggest challenges for the sector.

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Figure 4: Tag clouds obtained using Senti-Miner 1.0 in Italian

These are some of the main findings of the case study. Closer examination gives a complete picture of tourist perception of Salento and how it is represented in the cognition of tourist imaginary. The case study provides data which can be used together with more traditional quantitative statistics to orient tourist branding policy. For example, the slogan “Salento d’amare” is a play on the Figure 5: Salento brand logo words ‘love’ and ‘sea’ in Italian, and appears to be no longer in line with the perception of tourists, especially those from overseas. Like all the existing advertising for Salento, with small exceptions showing the Baroque architecture of Lecce, the slogan indicates the sea as the main attraction. But it ignores all the cultural, gastronomic and traditional elements present in tourist expectations which could be better managed. CONCLUSIONS Online social space, particularly social networking sites, can be considered to be anthropologically dense and crossed by acts of communication in the fabric of relationships supported by the numerous social networks to which people belong and which they build in daily life. As a result of the increased technical and social sense of individuals today (Castells, 2004), the lines between online and offline appear increasingly permeable in daily life. Communication flows which link different subjects and feed daily practice cross real places as well as technological space, from mobile smartphones to the social web, and are reconstituted by the individual within a unit of experience and sense. Sentiment analysis is an important tool for the marketing of tourism for both accommodation and products etc. and for an area. There may however, be aspects in user conversations not necessarily linked to sentiment. The simple fact that people on social media users talk about something, or stop talk about something, is in itself a useful piece of information. Sentiment analysis is an excellent tool for assessing the impact of traditional and web marketing. It is also very useful to monitor rumors which may grow into threats for a place. Almost by definition, foreseeing the unforeseen is difficult for Neuro-Linguistic Planning. The distribution of a latent topic is calculated in one period and compared with another period, perhaps the following one. Any changes in distribution can then be represented graphically. Today, demand and supply for tourism are radically different from the past. Internet is growing exponentially, and this growth is accompanied by a change in the way it is used. Shifting from 2.0, Second Life, to 3.0, or Real Time web, communication and interaction take place differently. The number of users of hand-held devices is growing and reviews and evaluations are becoming increasingly less formal. Social networks are where word of mouth travels by sharing photos, videos and comments. This is particularly true for the tourism sector. In this rapid flow of information, e-tourism has become very important in tourism as a whole, and makes necessary coherent destination branding policies for promotion of products / destinations online as well as exploitation of ex post user comments and evaluations. The image of a product or service, its

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identity as perceived by consumers, plays a key role in consumer choice, particularly in tourism, given that tourism has a strong component of symbolism and experience (Morgan, Pritchard & Pride, 2002). Possible destinations are in fact evaluated on the basis of how its image is perceived, not only in physical terms but also in terms of values and emotions (Antonioli Corigliano, Baggio, 2011, p.26). It is therefore important to use and adapt sentiment analysis for the requirement of knowing how an area is perceived. Opinion mining is in its early stages, but is set to become the key to qualitative analysis of perception of an area. It will be used to systematically gather and examine big data from the net to provide hitherto unimaginable qualitative information. REFERENCES Albanese, V. (2008). Territorio, territorialità e globalizzazione. In: Miani F., Il territorio come volontà. Politiche di gestione delle risorse territoriali. Chapter 1, p.9-31,Azzali Editore: Parma. Albanese, V. (2016). Sentiment Analysis per analizzare gli effetti del cinema sulla percezione dei luoghi. Il caso pugliese. In: La città di celluloide tra vocazione turistica ed esperienze creative. n.4/2016, 419-429. Antonioli Corigliano, M., Baggio, R. (2011). Internet & turismo 2.0. Tecnologie per operare con successo. Egea: Milano. Augé, M. (1992). Non-lieux. Seuil: Paris. Banini, T. (2009). Identità territoriale: verso una ridefinizione possibile. In: Geotema (37). 6-14, Pàtron: Bologna. Bassetti, P. (1994). Città: nuove forme di governo per essere competitive. In: Impresa & Stato, Camera di Commercio di Milano, n. 27(2). Berque, A. (2004). Milieu et identité Humaine. In: Composantes spatiales, formes et processus géographiques des identities. Annales de Géographie, n. 638/639, p. 385-399. Armand Colin: Paris. Boccia Artieri, G. (2004). I media mondo. Meltemi: Roma. Boccia Artieri, G. (2012). Stati di connessione. Pubblici, cittadini e consumatori nella (Social) Network Society. Franco Angeli: Milano. Castells, M. (2004). The Network Society. A cross cultural perspective. Edward Elgar: Northampton. Dallari, F. (2007). Il turismo per lo sviluppo locale e la competitività internazionale. In: Bencardino F., Prezioso, M. (eds). Geografia del turismo, chapter 1. McGraw-Hill: Milano. Dave, K., Lawrence, S., and Pennock, D.M. (2003). Mining the peanut gallery: opinion extraction and semantic classification of product reviews. International World Wide Web Conference, p. 519. Dematteis, G. (2001). Per una geografia della territorialità attiva e dei valori territoriali. In: Bonora P.(ed.), SloT quaderno 1, Baskerville: Bologna, p. 11-30. Dini, L. and Mazzini, G. (2002). Opinion classification Through information extraction. International Conference on Data Mining Methods and Databases for. Dini, L. & Balestrieri, M. (2013). Sentiment analysis nel settore turistico: risultati e sfide future. In: Annali del turismo: (II) 2013 - Edizioni di Geoprogress, p. 77-90. Eco, U. (1977). Dalla periferia all’impero. Bompiani: Milano. Ejarque, J. (2015). Social Media Marketing per il turismo. Hoepli: Milano. Farinelli, F. (2007). Dopo la Misura. In: Soja E.W., Dopo la Metropoli. 347 – 353, Pàtron: Bologna. Giaccardi C. (2010). Abitanti della Rete. Vita e Pensiero: Milano. Gibson W. (1984). Neuromancer. Ace Books: New York. Governa, F. (2004). Modelli e azioni di governance. Innovazioni e inerzie al cambiamento. In: Rivista Geografica Italiana: (1). Gras, A. (1993). Grandeur et dépendance. Sociologie des macro-systèmes techniques. Press Universitaires de France: Paris. Houen, S. (2011). Opinion Mining with Semantic Analysis, Department of Computer Science University of Copenhagen. February 18, Copenhagen. Hu, M., Liu, B. (2004). Mining and summarizing customer reviews. In: Proceedings of the tenth ACM SIGKDD international conference on Knowledge discovery and data mining, ACM, p. 168 - 177. Lévy, P. (1990). Les Technologies de l'intelligence. L'avenir de la pensée à l'ère informatique. La Découverte: Paris. Lévy, P. (1994). L’Intelligence collective. Pour une anthropologie du cyberespace, La Découverte: Paris. Lovink, G. (2012). Ossessioni collettive. Critica del social media. Egea: Milano.

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254 Chapter 19

Sustainability of City Destinations: A Case Study of Mersin City Council

Uysal YENİPINAR*, Elif BAK

1. INTRODUCTION According to the statistics of World Tourism Organization (WTO), by the year 2030 average tourist number will be 43 million every year, the tourism industry will grow by an average 3.3.% a year and total tourist number participating in world tourism activities will reach 1.8 billion (UNWTO, 2013). When the 2015 official statistics of the same organization are examined, it is seen that the number of total tourists participating in world tourism activities has reached 1.184 million (UNWTO, 2015). It is known that in addition to countries and regions, capitals, cities and even villages, all wishing to benefit from the business volume and revenue coming from tourism, can be tourism destinations. It is seen that while some cities do not show any presence in tourism even though they have attractive natural, historical and cultural sources, some cities are successful in becoming sought-after touristic destinations even though they do not have enough cultural and natural attractions. According to Güner & Asplund (2011), there are ten basic elements of attraction that the city visitors can develop ideas about the city. These are natural beauty, historical and important personalities, shopping preferences, cultural activities, entertainment and recreation, sports fields, festivals, monumental structures, museums and other elements (Güner & Asplund, 2011). Some European cities increase their urban attractions with certain developed opportunities like get-togethers with the residents of the city on natural and cultural squares exploration of the city with bikes or walking and street festivals. Similarly, it is observed that constantly growing cities preserve the areas where the cites were founded, protect the streets, structures and bazaars around these areas and renovate these places being faithful to their original forms and they plan the new settlements far away from these areas so that they are not damaged (Batat, 2010). Bringing together different services and presenting them to the tourists to provide a positive experience for the visitors are realized by the private sector, non-governmental organizations and public institutions and organizations. The purpose of the study is to evaluate the roles entities like “City Councils” play in the development of urban destinations’ sustainability in the light of projects developed by the Mersin City Councils. In the study, it was aimed to determine what kind of contributions and achievements of the Mersin City Council’s works had on urban destination’s sustainability. For this purpose Mersin City Council and tourism and related working groups were determined as the study area. While the subject of city councils was conceptually discussed in different disciplines like public administration and political sciences in the literature, there were no studies on city councils in the field of tourism. Because of this, it is believed that the study will contribute to the literature on tourism and on the works done by institutions and organizations found in the city council and destination management. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Destination Management The concept of destination is defined as a combination of products, services and vacation experiences at local level. Also, Buhalis (2000) defines destination as a perceptual concept that can be interpreted subjectively by the consumers depending on their itinerary, cultural background, purpose of travel, educational level and past experiences. Destination management came out because of the necessity to manage every product and service as a whole in harmony. Ensuring the sustainability of the destination resources, preservation and development of destination attraction centers and raising the

*Assist. Prof. Dr., Mersin University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Guiding Res. Assist., Mersin University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Guiding

local people awareness can be listed among the purposes of destination management. The main objective is to improve the destination quality of the tourists during their visits. If the destinations want to increase their share from the developing tourism activities and maintain their places in the competitive tourism market, destinations should adapt to the changing world and improve and develop destination products (Keskin, 2008). Also, factors like life quality, urban transport systems, quality of the roads and city’s street lightings affect the destination’s service performance. Tourism stakeholders are entities that are influenced by or that may influence the destination management activities of the destination management organizations (Presenza, Sheehan & Ritchie, 2004). Destination management organizations do works and put in coordination efforts to attract tourists travelling for business or leisure to their destination (Ersun & Arslan, 2011). Ensuring the relationship between stakeholders and destination management organizations is possible by mutual communication (Ballanytne, 2003). Destination management organizations also try to organize the decision making process regarding the planning, organization and management of relationships within the network (D’angella & Go, 2009). In addition to continuing the relationship between destination stakeholders and themselves, a destination management organization needs to execute their activities with them (Elbe, Hallen & Axelsson, 2009). There are many studies done on sustainability in destination and destination organizations (Jamal & Getz, 1995; Bramwell & Sharman, 1999; Presenza, 2006; Bornhorst, Sheehan & Ritchie, 2009; Kozak, Akoğlan Kozak & Kozak, 2012). These studies discussed the importance of collaboration and organization within the destination. Jamal & Getz (1995), in their work mentioned the existence of basic conditions to create collaboration. In their study, Bramwell & Sharman (1999) wrote about the potential benefits of collaboration between stakeholders. Also, Presenza (2006) and Kozak et al. (2013) stated the necessity of collaboration between stakeholders (Table 1). 2.2. Urban Destination Understanding the importance of urban destinations for tourism encouraged cities and even districts with historical importance to be attractive tourism destinations. For cities to be tourism destinations different projects with different names has begun to be implemented. One of these is Union of Historical Towns. Because of Turkey’s function as a bridge between Europe and Asia, some of the cities on the Silk and Spice roads lost their old functions and regressed. These cities started to come to the fore when tourism activities began to gravitate towards cities and countries with historical cultural and natural heritage. Some cities felt the need to benefit from each other’s experiences by acting together to develop their tourism and to preserve their cultural and natural heritage. According to the “Guide for Cultural Itinerary Planning” (2015) published by the Union of Historical Towns, the success of cultural itinerary mentioned in the guide is only possible with “acting together” with the local governments. Multi-dimensional itinerary works requiring a strong unity and collaboration put a great responsibility on the local governments. Based on this, they play active roles in introducing these itineraries to tourism by using them on itineraries of cultural tours. Intense competition in tourism necessitates urban destinations to create uniqueness. For this purpose, they need to put the cultural and natural attractions they have to use and care. First of all, in tourism destinations where demand and supply sources are structured, destination’s success depends on the development of basic sources known as 6A; Attraction, accessibility, amenities, available package opportunities (culture itineraries), activities, ancillary services. Each of the resources is an important criterion for determining the weak and strong sides of the destination and for increasing the profit and target elements in the city (Buhalis, 2000). The environment in which a service is provided in terms of both the physical and the social element has been termed the services cape (Bitner 1992). The experience (service) environment (Clarke and Schmidt 1995) consists of four elements: the physical facility, the location, ambience and interpersonal conditions. The symmetrical approach to tourism destination evaluation should be a starting point in harmonizing the interests of the destination as well as those of the tourists. The results of such an approach could be used to sell the destination interests to visitors as well as the interests of visitors to the destination operators (Vengesay, 2003). One of the various projects developed to increase cities in value in tourism is European Union’s European Smart City Project (2007). In the aforementioned project, for the development of smart cities, the necessity of six important dimensions like smart administration, smart environment, smart action, smart economy, smart people and smart life are discussed. The same

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characteristics provide resource for many studies in order to develop smart city development strategies and indicators (Cohen, 2012). It can be said that smart cities maintaining these criteria can be developed with four basic elements such as entrepreneurship and innovation, social capital, human capital and cooperation and joint action and leadership (Boes, Buhalis & Inversini, 2015). Diversification of aforementioned attraction elements lead to different destination characteristics and types. Among the most important of these are the city destinations that are very important for tourism (Buhalis, 2000). Table 1: Domestic and Foreign Literature Review on Destination Management and Tourism Author and Date Study Subject Study Information Kozak, Akoğlan Kozak & Kozak Genel Turizm Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. (2012) Marmara Üniversitesi Ersun & Arslan Turizmde Destinasyon Seçimini Etkileyen Temel İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler (2011) Unsurlar ve Pazarlama Stratejileri Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt.31, Sayı:2, ss.229-248. Güner & Asplund Markating Yayınları, Marka Şehir (2011) İstanbul. Bornhorst, Determinants of Tourism Success for DMOs & Sheehan & Ritchie Destinations: An Empirical Examination of Brs-Tm, Vol.25, pp.1-42. (2009) Stakeholders’ perspectives International Journal of Elbe, Hallen & The Destination-Management Organization and The Tourism Research, No: 11, Axelsson (2009) Integrative Destination-Marketing Process pp.283–296. Tale of Two Cities’ Collaborative Tourism D’angella & Go Tourism Management, Marketing: Towards a Theory of Destination (2009) Vol.30, pp.429-440. Stakeholder Assessment University of Molise- The Performance of a Tourism Destination. Who Department of Economics- Presenza (2006) Manages The Destination? Who Plays The Audıt Management and Social Role? Science, pp.1-14. Towards a Model of The Roles and Activities of Presenza, Sheehan Destination Management Organizations, World Spain World Tourism & Ritchie (2004) Tourism Organization. Survey of Destination Organization, pp.1-6. Management Organizations European Journal of A Relationship-Mediated Theory of Internal Ballanytne (2003) Marketing, Vol.37, No: 9, Marketing pp.1242-1260. Tourism Management, Buhalis (2000) Marketing the Competitive Destination of the Future Vol.21, pp.97-116.

Since the early years of civilization, certain cities were preferred to visit. For example, sporting organizations like “Olympic Games” make up the basic attraction sources of activities in Ancient Greece for touristic purposes. Also, for religious purposes, visitations to cities with important cathedrals, mosques and temples are organized. The aforementioned destinations attract the attention of the visitors who comes to meetings, conferences and exhibitions for business purposes (Buhalis, 2000). Cities are nations’ economic and cultural power houses (Yaman, 2008). When cities at the forefront of today’s tourism are examined, it is seen that some of them are preferred for their cultural and historical heritage values, some of them are for their natural attraction elements like seas, forests and mountains and some of them are for the original products the local people do with their own hand work. Even though their preference reasons differ, attraction elements in the cities are important factor in the emergence of city tourism (Koçak & Tandoğan, 2008). Cities are making mobile resources and companies’ investments elements that visitors and residents can benefit from. With this style and methods, cities become brands and all the products and services produced in the cities become attractive

257 to the target audience (Kavaratzis & Ashworth, 2007). The city brand is a marketing tool that establishes an emotional bond between the city and the visitor ensures the visitors develop positive opinion about the city and makes the city differ among other destinations. These characteristics regarding the city tell the stories rising from the city’s geographical location, historical and cultural structure, infrastructure and superstructure facilities, urban planning, number and quality of national institutions found, residents’ characteristics, attraction and physical facilities (Yaman, 2008). Marketing cities as tourism destinations can transform some important cities that lost their liveliness into important tourism destinations that people want to visit by renewing their substructure and superstructure investments, developing their attractiveness fast and making them lively again. Marketing cities as touristic cities causes economic, political and social changes in them and turns into an activity that ensure liveliness around the cities. The role of local administrations and authorities in city marketing is undeniably important. To this end, local administrations and authorities need to support city marketing by developing plans and projects on city marketing and competition and promoting the city. Sustainable economic development makes up the foundation of these strategies. Local administrations and authorities need to be in consensus regarding this matter for this (Mateksas, 2007). Provided that participation in tourism planning by many stakeholders can be suggested to be possible for promotion sustainable development by increasing efficiency, equity, and harmony (Timothy, 1998). 2.3. Sustainable Tourism When the United Nations, Organization for Economic for Co-operation and Development (OECD) and European Union (EU) are taken into consideration, “Indicators of Sustainable Development” can be grouped under ten main headings. These include socio-economic development, sustainable production and consumption, social inclusion, demographic changes, public health, climate change and energy, sustainable transportation, natural resources, global partnerships and good governance. From the indicators grouped under ten main headings, the most important subjects among the goals and targets to be achieved are as follows:  Reviewing the growth and improving the quality,  Fighting social discrimination with finding solution to the problem of poverty and to meeting people’s needs,  Conservation and enrichment of resources,  Giving direction to technology and risk management,  Providing sustainable transportation,  Integrating environment and economy into the decision-making processes by uniting them,  Developing institutional responsibility and sensitivity in public and private sector and in society,  Increasing resource diversification by decreasing dependency on fossil resources in energy presentation,  Lowering the decline in biological diversity by preserving biological diversity. The concept of sustainability was put forward during the 1980s when the United Nations (UN) began to examine big problems like poverty, rapid population increase, hunger, drought, destruction of forests and climate change (Duran, 2009). Aranson (1994) mentioned that natural and cultural resources have a limit and they will be damaged due to excessive consumption. He also stated that the concept of sustainable tourism emerged as an answer to tourism’s negative natural and cultural effects on the societies and regions because of tourism’s indiscriminate and inappropriate development. Swarbrooke (1999) linked sustainability to the rapid increase of mass tourism, one of the most important tourism movements of 1960s. He expressed that the historical development of these movements until today have been effective on the emergence of sustainability tourism concept. In his study on sustainability tourism, Bozlağan (2002) wrote on the history of sustainability and sustainable development. Yaylı (2007) studied the sustainability of sustainable development. Somuncu & Yiğit (2009) conducted similar studies. Kervankıran (2011) examined the natural, historical and cultural resources of city of Afyonkarahisar in terms of sustainable tourism. Keskin (2012) mentioned the concept of sustainable

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city in his study. In their work, Erdoğan & Albustanlıoğlu (2013) examined the environmental attitudes of travel agencies on sustainable tourism development. Mercan & Özkök (2013), also, conducted similar studies. Pelit, Baytok & Soybalı (2015) did a conceptual study on the subject of sustainable tourism and tourism’s sustainability. 2.4. City Councils Governance-oriented city councils that are based on participatory democracy and that prioritize the public were founded in light of the United nations Conference on Human Settlements’ (Habitat II) principles on sustainability, livability and feasibility in order to encourage people’s participation in governance, to develop mechanisms ensuring control and to encourage owning their own problems (Emrealp, 2010). The studies conducted by Türkay (2002), Başdelioğlu (2005), Kutlu, Usta & Kocaoğlu (2008), Atvur (2009), Batat (2010), Kuluçlu (2011), Lamba (2012), Deniz (2013) and Aygen (2014) can be considred the most important studies on city councils. There are studies made on Mersin City Councils by Kavili (2001), Öztürk (2006), Okutucu (2006), Levent Sarıkaya (2009), Dede & Güremen (2010), Eroğlu (2010), Tomak (2010), Sezgin (2013) and Tutar, Fırat, Erkan & Tutar (2013). Which subjects regarding city councils were studied by which authors are presented in Table 2 from the newest to the oldest. Table 2: Domestic Literature Review on City Councils Author and Study Subject Study Information Date Aygen (2014) Kent Konseylerinin Kent Yönetimine The Journal of Academic Social Science Katkıları Üzerine Bir İnceleme: Elazığ Studies, Vol.29, No:3, pp.217-236. Örneği Deniz (2013) Kentleşme, Yerel Gündem 21 ve Kent International Periodical For The Konseyleri Languages, Literature and History of Turkish Or Turkic, Turkish Studies, Vol.8, No:12, pp.391-402. Tutar, Fırat, Yerel Ekonomilerin Yeni Aktörü, International Conference On Eurasian Erkan & Bölgesel İnovasyon Stratejileri: RIS Economies, St. Petersburg, Rusya. Tutar (2013) Mersin Uygulaması Sezgin (2013) Kalkınma Ajansı Uygulamasının Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Hitit Üniversitesi, Gelişmiş ve Az Gelişmiş Ülke Örnekleri Çorum. Açısından Sonuçları Lamba (2012) Yerel Yönetişimde Farkındalık: Antalya Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, İktisadi İli Örneği ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Vol.17, No:1, pp.495-509. Batat (2010) Türkiye Yerel Gündem 21 Yüksek lisans tezi, Dokuz Eylül Uygulamalarının Kent Konseyleri’ne Üniversitesi, İzmir. Dönüşüm Sürecinin Analizi Dede&Güreme Yerel Yönetimlerin Turizm Sektörü Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler, Vol.19, No:4, n (2010) İçindeki Önemi, Rolleri ve Görevleri pp.47-61. Emrealp (2010) Kent Konseyleri Kılavuzu. Türkiye’nin UCLG-MEWA Yayını, Istanbul. Katılımcı Demokratik Yerel Yönetişim Modeli Olarak Dünyaya Armağanı: Kent Konseyleri Eroğlu (2010) Sürdürülebilir Yerel Kalkınma ve Kent Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Konseyleri Dergisi, Vol.26, pp.44-55. Tomak (2010) Mersin’in Ekonomideki Rolü ve Çağ Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Potansiyeli Vol.7, No:1, pp.35-51.

City councils are the legislative mechanisms and democratic bodies where central government, local government, professional institutions and civil society come together with an understanding of partnership, where the city’s development priorities, problems and visions are determined, discussed on

259 the basis of sustainable development principles and where solutions are developed based on common wisdom (Regulation on City Councils, 2006). In Turkey, city councils were given legal status with 5393 numbered Municipality Act and they were asked to provide recommendations under the name of ‘views’ on various subjects to help municipalities’ decisions. With the related legislation, city councils were given important tasks. On the other hand, city councils were made dependent to the municipalities in terms of their economic structures and meeting staffing needs. This situation has a negative effect on city councils’ independent and neutral position in performing their tasks. At the same time, one should see their legal status and the clear regulation of their tasks and structure as a gain. The people with authority in the municipalities are sensitive to the views developed by the City Councils. This is positive for the effective use of national resources (Kuluçlu, 2011). 3. METHOD In the study, qualitative research method was used as a data collection method. Qualitative research method was selected since it provides detailed and comprehensive information. Important parts of the subject were discussed by focusing on a specific characteristic of the subject (Büyüköztürk, Çakmak, Akgün, Karadeniz & Demirel, 2011). With this method, it was aimed to provide a consensus by asking similar questions regarding the subject to the participants (Mil, 2007). In the study, literature on city councils was reviewed. To understand the subject better tourism sub-working group members of Mersin Councils were observed. Because one of the researchers is the head of tourism working group and the other is an active group member, the data collection process took place simultaneously. Current literature was used while developing the interview form. The interview form is made up of two sections and open-ended questions were asked. In the first section of the interview form, general questions about the City council and the process of studies in tourism and other fields regarding City council were included and in the second section of the form demographic questions about the participants were included. The main questions in the question form were on the foundation purpose and mission of the Mersin Council and the works prioritized and completed by the working groups regarding tourism and the works planned for future. With the semi-structured interview form, in-depth determination of participants’ views was aimed. Even though there are certain question patterns in the semi-structured question forms, new additions were made by the participants. The universe of the study is the city of Mersin. The sample group is made up of the City Council Chairmanship in the city of Mersin and its districts, the chairmen and group members of the tourism and culture-art working groups. In February and March of 2016, face-to-face interviews were conducted at different times with top executives of the related institutions or with people they authorized. A total of 22 participants were interviewed and the interviews were recorded with a voice recorder. In the study, interviews were also made with members other than group chairmen. The institutions included in the sample were selected among the actors that can play an active role in leading tourism in Mersin. At the request of some participants, their titles were kept confidential and their names were not mentioned in the resources. The institutions the participants were from are Mersin Directorate of Culture and Tourism, Department of Cultural and Social Affairs and Tourism, Publicity and External Affairs Branch from Mersin Metropolitan Municipality, Mersin City Council Chairmanship, Mersin City Council Executive Committee, Culture and Art Working Group Chairmanship, City and Environment Group Chairmanship, Tourism Working Group Chairmanship from Mersin City Council, Mezitli City Council Chairmanship, Silifke City Memory and City Council Chairmanship, Toroslar City Council Chairmanship, Silifke Municipality, Mersin Industrialists and Business People Association, Tarsus Tourism and Publicity Chairmanship, Taşucu Tourism Operators Association and Tourism Platform Chairmanship. From the private sector, Transport Management, Travel Management and Accommodations Management participated in the study. From the education field, instructors from Tourism Faculty, Architecture Faculty and Directorate of Mediterranean City Research Center of the Mersin University and Vocational School of Toros University were interviewed. 4. RESULTS First, information and statistics about the foundation purposes and legal processes of city councils reached via the internet sites of Mersin Governorship, Mersin metropolitan Municipality and Mersin

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City Council, reports and scientific articles written in different field regarding the works of City councils were used in the study. Additionally, Mersin City Council’s projects and tourism and culture- art working groups’ projects regarding sustainable tourism towards the development of city tourism were examined. To understand the activities carried out, participants were specifically asked questions regarding the completed works on tourism and tourism related fields and future goals. Projects carried out in partnership between branches like Mezitli City Council and Mersin City Council were also included in the study. While conducting the face-to-face interviews with the participants, the subjects discussed by the participants were also taken into consideration in addition to the information included in the interview form. The information obtained from the responses given by each participant were categorized and evaluated and interpreted with the related literature. Foundation Process of Mersin City Council and Activities Carried Out by the Council: When the contributions of tourism to the city are considered, it is seen that the suggestions of tourism working group are taken into account during the decision making process (Mersin City Council Chairmanship, 2016). Today, while there are 1397 municipalities, there are only 211 city councils (Union of City Councils of Turkey). Mersin City Council was founded in 2000. The Council intensified their work after 2009 when public institutions and municipalities began to have positive attitudes. In 2016, it had 17 working groups and three assemblies. Tourism working group has a total of 25 members. The members are chairmen of city councils in different districts, heads of tourism associations, university instructors, and representatives from accommodations management, travel agencies and municipalities’ directorates of culture. According to the 2015 data, Mersin is the tenth most populous metropolitan city of Turkey and its population is 1.745.221 (TUIK, 2015). There are 13 districts of Mersin Metropolitan Municipality. Some districts like Toroslar, Mezitli and Yenişehir are close to the center and some districts like Anamur, Mut, Aydıncık and Bozyazı are far from the center. Some of the members of tourism working group of the Mersin City Council are the heads of tourism associations and chairmen of city councils of these aforementioned districts. The responses given to the question about the foundation process of the Mersin City Council and its purposes by participants are given below:

Founded between the years 1999-2000, Mersin City Council’s works gained momentum SP1- after 2009. Mersin City Council was founded with democratic and participatory SP2 governance and with the principle of acting independently. Participants made the following explanations about his reasons behind joining city councils:

Mersin is the city that I was born and raised in. As a tourism lover who also loves her country, I have been in numerous works until now. I wanted to have a say in finding solutions to the city’s problems. Because of this, I joined the tourism working group of the SP3 City council that I believed was actively working and that have a lot of participants. In my professional life, I worked in various non-governmental organizations and I learned a lot about people’s expectations. Now, I am looking for what I can do more for Mersin as a responsible and regular citizen. I now that it is difficult to do something by yourself. I believe better works can only be done with a team. This is the reason why I am in this working group and I am happy from the result. I believe good things will happen. Participants answered the question about which works are given priority by the tourism working group of Mersin City Council:

First of all, city’s main problems were determined by taking participants’ views using brainstorming method. There were meeting twice a months for this and views were taken during these meetings. The views of each participant was recorded by the group’s secretary SP4-SP5 and sent to the group members via e-mail. The problems in transportation, migration, archeological sites and problems created by tourism-related businesses were categorized and separated based on the level of finding a solution for each of them in the long term or short term. Later the city council chairman was invited and which problems will be dealt by

261 which groups was decided by consensus vote. The report prepared by making the necessary correspondence was sent to Mersin Metropolitan Municipality and Mersin Governor’s Office. Participants made the following statements about the question about completed works by the tourism working group of Mersin Council and about future projects: As the tourism working group, we did SWOT analysis for Mersin to help the city. We determined the strengths and weakness of Mersin and the threats facing the city in the future and opportunities the city has. The views of the members of the city and the district councils were taken with brainstorming method. The featured topics were categorized SP5-SP6 under main and sub-headings and the group members decided that these suggestions should be evaluated separately for the city and for each district. Later, we started working on the action plan. With the prepared action plan, suggestions are made for the existing problems and how much time is needed for the departments to evaluate these problems was determined. These turned into a report and presented to the City council.

Participants mentioned the important assets the district of Tarsus have and completed his words as below:

St. Paul is referred as St. Paul of Tarsus in the holy book Bible. Ministry of Culture and Tourism included Tarsus in the faith corridor. For this reason, the participants adopted to evaluate the Tarsus district within the culture and faith tourism, to work for the area SP7 covering S. Paulus’s house and church to be included in UNESCO’s Cultural Heritage List and to encourage boutique hotel tourism in the district. In fact, the head of Turkish Small Hotels Association was invited to Tarsus and he gave a conference at Tarsus boutique hotel to hotel keepers from Tarsus and to council members. Participants gave the following responses by mentioning the works done in Mersin:

The best things about the city were determined. Mersin’s climatic and geographic characteristics, history, socio-economic characteristics, historical and natural attractions and “the best unique characteristics” of the city of Mersin were categorized under 120 items. It is known that Mersin’s Karakeçili and Sarıkeçeli nomads migrate to the highlands with their animals for the spring and summer months. We are looking for ways SP1-SP5- to preserve the local culture of the region and maintain sustainability of nomad traditions SP8 and culinary culture. Works on raising awareness on preservation of natural products produced in the highlands like natural and healthy meat, milk, skin cheese with the quality of cheddar cheese, butter and yogurt and works on determining nomad migration routes and highlands are among the works we do. We are working to encourage some villages to become touristic attractions and for villagers to sell what they produced to the visitors that come without someone in between. The participants gave the following responses to the same question by drawing a general framework about the works being done:

Together with Mersin City Council and Tourism Working Group, works were done to get historical assets like Mamure Castle, Alahan Monastery, St. Paul Well and Church and Maiden Castle that are already in UNESCO Tentative Heritage List into UNESCO SP9-SP10 Heritage List. A signature campaign was started with the partnership of Mersin University and central and local administrations to move Maiden Castle from the UNESCO Tentative List into the Permanent List. To bring together the studies related to tourism and culture the second issue of the e-journal titled “Mersin KültürveTurizm (Mersin Vulture and Tourism” was published with Mersin Directorate of Culture and Tourism.

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The statements of participants who are actively involved in the Regional Innovation Strategy (RIS), one of the most important projects about Mersin, on the project’s importance for Mersin are given below:

In the MERSIN RIS Project, three important topics that were targeted for the city’s development were industry, logistics and tourism. In the project, tourism was targeted as a

driving force. On the other hand, since there were participants from the Mersin University, SP11- more projects about the city were attempted to be developed. The plans and projects were SP12 collected under one single umbrella before. This made it difficult to take joint, strong and fast decisions and to apply them. When these are overcome, the goals related to tourism in Mersin that are planned to be achieved should be ranked according to importance and this rank should be followed and a different identity should be given to Mersin tourism. Participants gave the following responses to the question about the completed works in Mersin in 2016 and the planned projects for later:

Fishing Port, Silifke Castle and Kushimoto Street landscaping and Culture-Art projects are SP2- among the completed projects. 15th Mersin International Music Festival will organized in our SP13 city. This is a great opportunity. In addition, organization of Mersin city squares appropriate to cultural and artistic elements and restoration of Mersin Asri Cemetery as “Open Air Museum of Tolerance” are among the works we are planning to start on soon. Participants made the following explanations on how they are planning to take different route for the future projects:

We are planning to focus on tourism routes next year. We plan to utilize the districts with SP14- historical importance in this context. Different than works done by central administrations on SP15- determining regional scale tourism strategies like tourism development regions and master SP16 plans, route planning is important in establishing one-to-one communication with the local people. When the question of which routes are planned asked to the same participants, participants gave the following responses: SP17- St. Paul Cilicia Walking Route in Tarsus, Lamas Creek Coast Trekking Route, Mut-Alahan- SP18 Dağpazarı Tour Route, Mut Kestel, Sason Canyon Walking and Arıkaya Settlement Walking Route, Mut Yer Köprü Waterfall and Nature Park. Participants summarized the works they did as Mezitli City Council with the support of Mezitli Municipality and stated the following:

We organized the “Workshop on Syrians in Turkey and Mersin” and we carried out works SP19 together with Mersin University and Hacettepe University’s Migration and Politics Research Center. We administered a survey to the Syrian refugees and the local people around Mersin- Mezitli and carried out works dealing with Syrian refugee crisis.

5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION In Mersin’s strategic management plans, tourism, an important sector, comes in third after agriculture and logistics. Therefore, the opinions and suggestion reports developed in city-related works carried out by the City council and sub-working groups by taking the views of different stakeholders will facilitate the works of mayors and governors. They will also help increase urban population’s living standards through city councils. In addition, they will help city administrators to take more positive decisions with the information on what needs to done to bring tourism to a certain level. When city council’s works are examined, it is seen that they carry out successful tourism-related works. Tourism working group and other groups of the city council encourage participation and give importance to preservation of tourism assets the city has through plans and projects. It is found that the city council

263 share the work results and act together with local administrations and other tourism institutions and support the city’s natural, historical and socio-cultural developments. For the city council’s works to be successful, it is vital for the mayors and governors to support these works. Otherwise, creative and useful ideas created for the city will not be implemented. Renewal of the city and preservation of the old authentic assets specific to the city during this renewal will make the city’s residents and visitors happy and turn the city into a livable new city. When the activities carried out by the city council are examined in the study, it is found that the council has many joint works with non-governmental organizations. These findings show similarities with the findings of Söylemez & Söylemez (2011). The aforementioned researchers determined that non-governmental organizations have actively contributed to activities carried out specifically in Adana, Eskişehir, Bursa, İzmir and Antalya. The study found the necessity of founding a destination management organization that will bring all the tourism stakeholders together and of providing leadership and financial resource to this organization by the central administration. These findings are similar to the findings of Genç, Atay & Eryaman (2014). The aforementioned researchers found that even though the city of Çanakkale has high tourism potential, tourism was not at the desired level. The stakeholders participating in the study stated that lack of organization is the reason behind this low tourism level. Coming together of the city council, tourism associations and other institutions and organizations with similar purposes will help the implementation and effective completion of the targeted projects. It is seen that a high-level tourism destination management that will be the driving force for the region is needed in order to implement these works in coordination and to bring dynamism to Mersin’s tourism. In the Mersin RIS project, an important project for Mersin, tourism is adopted as the third sector. Therefore, tourism became one of the priority tasks of the universities, municipalities, public administration departments and city councils. It will be beneficial for the mayors, other officials and residents to act with an awareness of responsibility and be positive about the opinions and suggestions reported by the works of city council in terms of effectively and sustainable use of natural and socio- cultural resources the city has. When the different projects presented in the literature are taken into consideration, it is seen that the stakeholders have been presenting ideas and projects to the administration for the development of the city and the administrations have been planning developing by positively approaching these projects. REFERENCES Aranson, L. (1994). Sustainable Tourism Systems: The Example of Sustainable Rural Tourism in Sweeden. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, No: 2, pp.1-2. Atvur, S. (2009). Yerel Gündem 21 ve Çevre: Antalya Kent Konseyi Örneği. C.Ü. Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt.35, Sayı: 2, ss.231-241. Aygen, M. (2014). Kent Konseylerinin Kent Yönetimine Katkıları Üzerine Bir İnceleme: Elazığ Örneği. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies, Cilt.29, Sayı: 3, ss.217-236. Ballantyne, D. (2003). A Relationship-Mediated Theory of Internal Marketing. European Journal of Marketing, Vol.37, No: 9, pp.1242-1260. Başdelioğlu, M. (2005). Sürdürülebilir Gelişme ve Kent (Yerel Gündem 21 Örneğinde). Yüksek lisans tezi, İstanbul Üniversitesi, İstanbul. Batat, A. (2010). Türkiye Yerel Gündem 21 uygulamalarının Kent Konseyleri’ne dönüşüm sürecinin analizi. Yüksek lisans tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, İzmir. Bitner, Mary J (1992), "The impact of physical surroundings on customers and Employees," Journal of Marketing, 56 (April), 57-71. Bornhorst, T.; Sheehan, L.R.; Ritchie, B. J. R. (2009). Determinants of Tourism Success for DMOs & Destinations: An Empiricial Examination of Stakeholders’ Perspectives. Brs-Tm, Vol.25, pp.1-42. Bozlağan, R. (2002). Sürdürülebilir Gelişme Düşüncesine Giriş. Çağdaş Yerel Yönetimler, Cilt.11, Sayı: 1, ss.56-72. Boes, K.; Buhalis, D.; Inversini, A. (2015). Conceptualising Smart Tourism Destination Dimensions. In: I. Tussyadiah, A. Inversini (Ed.) Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism, Springer International Publishing, Switzerland, pp.391-403. Bramwell, B. & Sharman, A. (1999). Collaboration in Local Tourism Policy making, Annals of Tourism

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Private Travel Businesses (1)

Sector SP9 Mersin March/2016 Representa- Accommodation Businesses (1)

tives SP10 --- Vocational School of Toros University Mersin March/2016 SP11 --- Architecture Faculty of Mersin University Mersin February/2016 Directorate of Mediterranean City Research SP12 Tamer Gök Mersin February/2016 Center of the Mersin University SP13 --- City and Environment Group Chairmanship Mersin February/2016 Rıfat Silifke City Memory and City Council SP14 Silifke February/2016 Karaduman Chairmanship

267 Mersin Industrialists and Business People SP15 Fevzi Boyraz Mersin February/2016 Association SP16 Numan Olcar Tourism Platform Chairmanship Mersin March/2016 SP17 --- Silifke Municipality Representative Silifke February/2016 SP18 Ali Küçük Taşucu Tourism Operators Association Silifke February/2016 SP19 --- Mezitli City Council Chairmanship Mezitli March/2016

268 Chapter 20

Motivation and Involvement as Antecedents of the Perceived Value of the Festival Experience: A Study on Burhaniye Bicycle Festival

Sabriye ÇELİK UĞUZ*, Volkan ÖZBEK**, Mustafa GÜNALAN***

INTRODUCTION Unplanned urbanization and fast industrialization based serious problems such as environmental pollution, transportation problems and loss of natural areas negatively affect human life. Under these circumstances, the desires of moving away from the environment that negatively affects the life and coming closer to nature have begun increase. In order to find peace, take a rest, do sports, recreation and get social, individuals participate in tourism activities carried out in nature. The feel of experiencing the natural beauty and being in nature has increased engagement to nature based tourism activities (Tütüncü & Kuşluvan, 1997; Erdoğan, 2003) and specially interest towards nature sports (Ardahan & Yerlisu Lapa, 2011; Vaara & Matero, 2011). Nature and nature based tourism attracts attention as an alternative tourism form against bad effects of tourism activities on environment. Nature/nature based tourism includes cultural, sportive, adventure and entertainment purposed activities such as trekking, hiking, biking, peak climbing, tableland tours, paragliding, camp and caravan activities, rafting and canoe, scuba diving, bird observation, horseback riding, plant observation, expedition, sportive hand-line fishing, cave trips, photo safari, nature photography and off-road (Erdoğan, 2003; Kozak & Bahçe, 2009; Duran, 2012). Through a wide range of activities, attendants prefer nature sports to interact with natural environment (Koçak & Balcı, 2010), thereby, they purchase touristic products from visited regions. Practicability of these multi-purpose nature sports not only makes possible development of alternative tourism, but also contributes development of local community. As for bicycle activities, they increasingly gains importance as sportive and touristic activities. As bicycle tourism is gaining importance in the World, national and international bike networks is flourished for countries, and bicycle related activities enhanced. Bicycle tourism, which is related to nature/ nature-based, environmental, green, ecological, alternative, adventure and sport tourisms, generates an important tourism potential for countries, and parallel to developing this potential, bicycle festivals are arranged in rural areas that have natural and cultural values. Turkey, as well, has favorable conditions for bicycle tourism and bicycle activities by having natural, historical, cultural and touristic qualities. In Turkey, Edremit Gulf and Burhaniye, located in this gulf, have specialties to excite tourists’ attention in terms of geographical position, climate conditions, transportation facilities and natural beauties. Therefore, in order to explore the beauties of Burhaniye region, and enjoy sport, two Burhaniye Bicycle Festivals were organized in 2015 and 2016. These two festivals contributed to introduction of the region and, thus, development of the regional tourism. The aims of this study are to determine the factors motivating tourists attended to Burhaniye Bicycle Festival, reveal tourists’ involvement levels towards the festival, and identify the effects of motivation and involvement on perceived value of Burhaniye and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival. In order to achieve this aim, literature was reviewed. In the literature review, primarily features of bicycle

*Assist. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Burhaniye School of Applied Sciences, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management ** Assist. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Burhaniye School of Applied Sciences, Department of International Trade. *** Dr., Balıkesir University, Havran Vocational School, Department of Business Administration.

tourism carried out in rural regions, importance of bicycle festivals, and their contribution to local economy were investigated. Later, motivation, involvement, and perceived value were inquired as main variables of the study. In the application part of the study, a questionnaire with face to face survey method was applied to tourists attended to second Burhaniye Bicycle Festival. Application results revealed that motivation and involvement have effects on perceived value. Accordingly, it could be proposed that tourists’, who showed high level attendance motivation to Burhaniye Bicycle Festival and are interested in Bicycle Festival based on various factors, perceived values rose towards Burhaniye region and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival. Depending on this result, it might be suggested to local governors of Burhaniye that in an effort to perceived value of Burhaniye in the eyes of tourists, governors primarily should aggrandize tourists’ motivation and involvement levels. BICYCLE TOURISM and BURHANİYE BICYCLE FESTIVAL Bicycle tourism is defined as one-day or longer enjoyful visits aiming to spend best part of the visit by cycling (Sustrans, 1999), and visits that people might be either bicycle user or audience in bicycle activities (South Australia Tourism Commission, 2005). With medical, economical, environmental, and transportational benefits for participants and local community, bicycle tourism is seen as a growing tourism market (Adventure Cycling Association, 2016). Composing an integrative activity field with alternative tourism varieties such as nature/nature- based, rural, adventure, sport tourisms, and ecotourism, bicycle tourism has gained importance for countries, and this importance ascends. Cycling tourists prefer tourism activities that harmless to nature, protect the environment, care about a healthy life, and indigenize local cultures. Cyclists make a journey to feel the peace of exploring the nature, familiarizing cultures, and being in fine fettle. Bicycle tourism encourages bicycle transport, supports individual’s healthy life, and contributes to local economy. This kid of tourism that is usually performed in rural regions is taken under review by politicians and planners in terms of social and economic development of rural areas (Ritchie & Hall, 1999). Therefore, local governments, and national and international organizations attract attention of cyclist tourists by identifying bicycle routes, setting up cycling nets, establishing bicycle roads, and organizing bicycle activities. In addition, they continue to support bicycle tourism by offering touristic services. Nowadays, depending on increased interest to cycling, and development of bicycle tourism, the number of bicycle race tracks and roads augments. Especially in Europe, a lot of international qualified cycling tours are arranged. In order to develop sustainable tourism choices, and for cyclists, “green roads” with excellent facilities are prepared (European Commission, 2014). Bicycle tourism is associated with a special interest tourism that committed to live the nature, and watch the visual beauties (Aşan & Akoğlan Kozak, 2015) and ecotourism in terms of not harming the environment during activities (Chen & Chen, 2013).Cycling is evaluated as a nature sport performed in nature with a sense of adventure (Altan, 2006), and a sport branch exercised in open field, on the road, or at a specially prepared track (Bil, Bilova & Kubecek, 2012; Passafaro, Rimano, Piccini, Metastasio, Gambardella, Gullace & Lettieri, 2014). With all aspects, bicycle tourism contributes to countries’ presentation and specially accelerates economic development by increasing domestic and foreign tourist number visiting rural regions. Being able to go deep in nature, inhale the fresh air, watching natural landscape admiringly while taking a rest, and enjoying the conversation with local people in place of resorts are among attractive factors for cyclists. Depending on experiencing the feelings such as taking a rest, finding peace, being free, and getting social via bicycle activities, bicycle tourism becomes center of attention. Because of making people experience new and different feelings, bicycle tours and festivals continue to be preferred with rapidly growing interest. Bicycle tours/festivals draws bicycle tourists to region they arranged through exiting, entertaining, natural and cultural activities, and thus, enhance the image of the region. For example, Tour de France is accepted as the biggest bicycle tour that provides presentation of the country, and achieves to draw potential tourists to the country. In addition, a considerable economic input is provided through bicycle festivals. For instance, annual contribution of bicycle tours, which is carried out in EuroVelo bicycle

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routs coordinated by European Cyclists Federation, to economy is determined as $57 billion. Bicycle tourism’s contribution to the USA economy is yearly $133 billion. In this contribution, Arizona with $88 million, Colorado Pikes Peak region with $28 million, Georgia Silver Comet region with $120 million, Iowa with $365 million, Minnesota with $427 million, Oregon with $400 million, Vermont with $83 million, Washington with $3.1 billion, and Wisconsin with $924 million taken important parts. It is stated that cycle tourists in La Route Verte Bike Network in Quebec State of Canada spend $214 average per day, and this rate is 6% more than other touristic trips. As for United Kingdom, cyclists spend 9% more per trip. In the USA, Michigan, with $668 million income, average $71 spend per day, and average 6 nights stay, and Montana, with $75-103 spend per day, and average 8 nights stay, convert this tourism activity to an important income. In addition, cycle tourists spend $114 daily in Pennsylvania and Maryland (Adventure Cycling Association, Economic Impact, 2016). All these examples display bicycle festivals’ contributions to country economies. Withal in Turkey, augmenting this kind of festivals will both diversify tourism and significantly contribute to country economy. In Turkey, national/international bicycle tours and festivals that are organized by public and private enterprises such as local authorities, universities, and associations generate an important potential in favor of tourism. In Turkey, while 17 festivals in 2013, 31 festivals in 2014, and 46 festivals in 2015 were organized, 51 festivals were planned to be carried out in 2016 (URL 1). It is seen that number of bicycle festivals tripled from 2013 to 2016. Among bicycle festivals increasing in number in Turkey, Burhaniye Bicycle Festival takes an important place. First and second Burhaniye Bicycle Festivals, which were arranged by Burhaniye Öğretmenler Mahallesi Protection and Beautification Association, leaded cyclist tourist come to Edremit Gulf. These two festivals that are combined nature-friendly bicycle and tourism served to presentation of Burhaniye and its environment, and contributed to tourism diversity. Second Burhaniye Bicycle Festival that is carried out in May 2016 hosted a total 270 tourists that 230 tourists came from all four sides of Turkey and 40 tourists were member of cyclist groups of Burhaniye and its environment. Tourists stayed at campsite located in Ören, in where sea, nature and culture are intertwined. Along four days, they stayed fresh and fit by watching natural beauties of Ida mountains, Madra mountain and their environment, and interiorized historical and cultural values of the region with exciteful, fun-filled and adventureful moments of cycling. At the first day of the festival with the opening, cyclists followed Burhaniye/Kızıklı village, Havran/Büyükdere and Koca Seyit villages, and Koca Seyit mausoleum rout. At the second day, cyclists reached Gömeç by following Burhaniye-Ören-İskele-Pelitköy rout that is parallel with sea, and then, experienced natural life in villages located in green forest of Madra mountain by passing through olive trees. The last day, after blue flag ceremony, tourists had a conversation with local people and relaxed during trip to Zeytinli, Kızılkeçili and Güre taken place on piedmont of Ida Mountains, and then visited Tahtakuşlar Museum. VARIABLES, HYPOTHESES, AND MODEL OF THE STUDY Under all behavior patterns, there are motivations based on basic psychological and socio- psychological wills and needs of human. Motivation is defined as power or energy that triggers, maintains and leads a behavior towards an intention or a target (Lumsden, 1994; Dilts, 1998). Motivation, as a concept, is a structure built on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, and psychologically on self-actualization need (Cassidy, 2005). Motivation phenomenon constituted by Maslow has been applied to many types of tourism such as cultural, leisure, sport and festival (Iso-Ahola & Allen, 1982; Lee, 2000; Uysal & Li 2008). By using Maslow’s Hierarchy of needs, Getz (1991) asserted that tourists may satisfy their need and travel motivations via attending to a festival or a special activity. Motivation to attend to a festival and activity aimed tourism is explained with seek and escape conflict (Iso-Ahola, 1982) and push and pull (Dann, 1981) models. Common factors in festival motivation are predicated as family togetherness, novelty, escape, socialization, cultural discovery, attractive activities, excitement, and fun (Uysal, Gahan & Martin, 1993; Crompton & McKay, 1997; Dewar, Meyer & Wen, 2001; Nicholson and Pearce, 2001).

271 Identified motivation factors for bicycle trips, in some studies in literature, are challenge, landscape pleasure in rural regions, mental relief, appreciation of being away from crowd, discovery, experiencing the nature, escape from family responsibilities, and making new friends. However, it is determined that staying fit and environmental causes are not effective motivation factors (Crompton, 1979; Crandall, 1980; Leisure Consultants, 1992; Countryside Commission, 1995; Simonsen & Jorgensen, 1998). In another study, some factors motivating cyclists based on personal and social experiences of cycling are ranged as adventure experience, gaining skills, personal challenge, relief/escape, and social encounters (Ritchie, Tkaczynski & Faulks, 2010). It is specified that in process of decision making to travel, and destination choice, involvement factor has an important role along with motivation factor (Clements & Josiam, 1995). In researches on tourism and various tourism related activities, motivation (Manfredo, Driver & Tarrant, 1996; Manning, 2011; Kelly, 2012) and involvement (Selin & Howard, 1988; Kyle, Absher, Hammitt, & Cavin, 2006) factors take important places. Involvement is seen as an important variable in predicting consumer behavior (Prebensen, Woo, Chen & Uysal, 2012) and consumer decision making process (Alexandris, 2012). Involvement explained as generally a perceived relationship between any object/product and person that depends on individual’s needs, personal values, and interests (Zaichowsky, 1985). Involvement especially affects the level of perceived value, satisfaction, and loyalty (Chen & Tsai, 2008). In a lot of studies on tourism sector and specially on making use of spare time, some involvement factors are determined (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997; Iwasaki & Havitz, 1998; Havitz & Mannell, 2005). Among these factors, attractiveness, self expression and centrality (McIntyre & Pigram, 1992); attractiveness, symbolic value, risk probability and risk consequence (Havitz & Dimanche, 1997); priority, risk, activity and economic involvement (Lehto, O’Leary, & Morrison, 2004); pleasure/interest for tourists, risk probability, importance of risk (Gursoy & Gavcar, 2003); interest toward a destination or motivational intensity (Peter & Olson, 1999; Lehto et al., 2004) stands out. Researches testing the effects of motivation and involvement factors on making use of spare time are rare. In a study performed in China/Yanggshuo in 2010 to measure and explain the relationship between motivation and involvement factors, the motivational items are determined as getting rid of stress and escape, achievement, experiencing the nature, improving knowledge, adventure, and interaction with peers. In the same research, involvement factors are identified as attractiveness, risk consequence, and symbolic value (Ding & Schuett, 2013). In another study, motivating factors for people attended to mountain climbing in the USA are ranged as rivalry, control, escape, seeking excitement, and social factors (Ackerman, 2006). Rock climbers in Canada are motivated by factors such as exploring the nature, gaining a new skill, adventurousness, and meeting with new people (Alain, 2009). In Taiwan, it is determined that rock climbers are motivated by achievement, adventure, skill development, and watching landscape and dimensions of their involvement are pleasure, self- expression, and centrality (Chu, 2003). In another research performed in Taiwan, it was determined that tourists are motivated by interaction with new people, escape from daily routine, and reaching self- confidence; the highest involvement factor is attractiveness; and the lowest involvement factor is risk probability. In addition, it was revealed that constant involvement factors are achievement, relief, escape from physical pressure, and interaction with peers (Hsieh, 2007). In a study performed to measure the effects of motivation and involvement factors on skiers’, who come to the ski resort located in south Greece, maintaining to attendance intention, it was ascertained that primarily motivation factors and afterwards involvement factors are important. In this study, also, the results showed that attractiveness and centrality dimensions of involvement causes the relationship between motivation and rejoining intention (Kouthouris, 2009). Value concept is defined as evaluation of a product’s benefit based on perception between given and received things by an individual. That is, value is evaluation of that purchased products by a person is worth the money and time spend or not, and comparing the benefits of a product with its cost (Zeithaml, 1988). As a consequence of an individual’s assessment about a product’s perceived benefits and perceived costs, perceived value of a product emerges in mind of the individual (Chou, Cho, Lee & Kim, 2004). A person purchased a product wants to obtain benefit, namely value, more than the

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product’s cost. If a person lives an event that rises or decreases cost or benefit of a product after purchasing the product, perceived value of the product, or service, would increase or decrease as well (Woodruff, 1997). Perceived value is an important determinant factor in providing customer satisfaction (Parasuraman, 1997; Dodds, Monroe & Grewal, 1991; Sweeney, Soutar & Johnson, 1999; Cronin, Brady &Hult, 2000; Sirdeshmukh, Singh & Sabol, 2002; Swaddling & Miller, 2002, Chen & Dubinsky, 2003; Chen, 2008). Studies on tourism firms and their touristic activities exposed that perceived value affects customer satisfaction, and is a factor creating higher customer loyalty. Besides, it was revealed that quality experiment has a positive effect on perceived value as well (Korda & Milferner, 2009; Chen & Chen, 2010; Heung & Ngai, 2008). In limited studies investigating the effects of motivation and involvement factors on perceived value, these effects are revealed. In a study, while antecedents determining perceived value of travel experiment ranged as motivation, involvement, and information, it is stated that outcomes of this perceived value are satisfaction, and intention in the future occurring as recommend to others and repurchase (Prebensen, Woo & Uysal, 2014). In a study performed on tourists visiting Norway, relationships between motivation, involvement, and experiment value of destination were inspected. The results of this study demonstrated that motivation and involvement depend on tourist’s experiment value, and motivation affects involvement level (Prebensen et al., 2012). Tourist’s motivation affects perceived value of a destination (Duman & Mattila 2005) and travel satisfaction (Yoon & Uysal 2005). At the same time, tourist’s involvement affects tourist experiment value of a destination (Broderick & Mueller, 1999).

Figure 1: Theoretical Model of the Research.

This study is structured on the assumption of that motivation and involvement have effects on perceived value. In this context, firstly, it is expected that tourist’s, who came to Burhaniye Bicycle Festival with high motivation, perceived value of both Burhaniye and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival would be high. This effect was supported by previous studies about determining the effect of motivation on perceived value. For example, in a study carried out on tourist visiting Norway with a nature based aim, it is detected that tourist motivation has a positive effect on perceived value of the destination (Prebensen et al., 2012). Another study of Prebensen et al. (2014) supported this effect, too. As the results of these previous studies considered, testing following hypotheses would be useful: H1: Achievement and autonomy dimensions of motivation have positive effect on perceived value. H2: Risk taking/exploration, social, education/natural environment, and escape pressures dimensions of motivation have positive effect on perceived value. Prebensen et al. (2012), in their study, identified the positive effect of personal involvement on perceived value of destination. However, this effect couldn’t be determined in another study (Prebensen

273 et al, 2014). Based on these studies, examining following hypothesis in the scope of this study would be contributive H3: Involvement has a positive effect on perceived value. On the basis of researches in the literature, a research model was developed to test the research hypotheses. The theoretical research model is seen in Figure 1. METHOD The aims of this study are to determine the factors motivating tourists attended to Burhaniye Bicycle Festival, identify their involvement levels towards the bicycle festival, and reveal the effects of motivation and involvement on perceived value of Burhaniye and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival. In order to achieve these aims, a survey was implemented with face-to-face survey method to tourists attended to 2. Burhaniye Bicycle Festival between 26-29 May 2016. The number of tourist joined to festival is 270. Among these people, the survey was implemented to 222 tourists that accepted to participate in the research. Two of these survey forms were excluded from the analysis because of being uncomplete or inappropriate. Analyses were performed, and hypotheses were tested with rest 220 survey. Questionnaire form is composed of four parts. At the first part, there are 11 items that some of them are open-ended and some of them are multiple choice, and aim to explore respondents’ demographics, ideas about festival and Burhaniye. The second part includes motivation scale that comprise of five items and total 20 items aiming to identify which factors motivate respondents to attend to Burhaniye Bicycle Festival. These dimensions are named as achievement/autonomy, risk taking/exploration, education/natural environment, and escape pressures. At the third part of the questionnaire, 20 items, which aim to measure respondents’ involvement levels towards bicycle festival, were located. At the last part, there are six items aim to measure perceived value of the bicycle festival. Three items of perceived value are adapted from Gallarza & Saura (2006)’s study. The other 3 items of perceived value are adapted from Prebensen et al. (2012)’s study. Motivation was measured with 20 items that are developed by Driver (1990) as 22 items REP measure, and shortened by Ding & Schuett (2013) in their study as 20 items. These 20 items are used by being adapted to Turkey conditions. In order to measure involvement, Personal Involvement Inventory (PII) was used which is developed by Zaichkowsky (1985) as 20 items. In the analyses of data, SPSS 16.0 and AMOS 18.0 package programs were used. Structures of the variables investigated with exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses. Finally, research hypotheses were tested with multiple regression analysis, and interpreted. RESULTS In this section, primarily, descriptive statistics that present respondents’ profile, and results of reliability and validity analyses of the data took place. Then, correlation analysis result was presented, and research hypotheses were tested with multiple regression analysis. Descriptive Statistics The results of descriptive statistics showed that mean of respondents’ age is 45.33. Participants’ 72.3% (n=159) is men, and 27.7% (n=61) is women. While respondents’ 62.3% (n=137) is married, rest 37.7% (n=83) is single. Mean of household total income of tourists is 5.356,85 TL. Mean of the answers to question of “How many people did you come to Burhaniye?” is 2.99. Participants’ average overnight stay in Burhaniye during festival is 3.12. Respondents’ 78.6% (n=173) stated that they attended at least a bicycle festival before. In addition, the rate of attendants to 1. Burhaniye Bicycle Festival is 56.4% (n=124). It is observed that participants’ most repeated open-ended answers to “What is the first thing comes to your mind when the subject is Burhaniye Bicycle Festival?” are respectively nature (n=23), bicycle (n=22), sea (n=11), Ören (n=9), Ida Mountain, entertainment, sincerity, camping, friendship, olive, and olive oil (n=5). As to attendants’ answers to open-ended question of ““What is the first thing comes to your mind when the subject is Burhaniye?”, answers are in turn sea (n=35), Ören (n=34), nature (n=13), olive (n=12), and bicycle (n=9).

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Table 1: Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analyses

Exploratory Factor Analysis Confirmatory Factor Analysis Factor Explained Factor Eigenvalue CR AVE Loads Variance Loads Motivation 1 (Achievement / Autonomy) M1 .753 .683*** M2 .834 .843*** M3 .840 .863*** 2.565 5.829 .900 .604 M4 .821 .857*** M5 .590 .664*** M6 .657 .725*** Motivation 2 (Risk Taking / Exploration, Social, Education / Natural Environment, Escape Pressure) M7 .816 .846*** M8 .811 .813*** M9 .815 .849*** M10 .807 .827*** M11 .692 .681*** M12 .741 .704*** M13 .787 .747*** 11.733 26.667 .961 .636 M14 .791 .787*** M15 .847 .822*** M16 .801 .829*** M17 .780 .809*** M18 .697 .729*** M19 .820 .851*** M20 .828 .846*** Involvement I3 .868 .858*** I4 .902 .890*** I5 .923 .912*** I6 .921 .911*** I7 .901 .882*** I8 .955 .949*** I9 .914 .904*** I10 .846 .827*** I11 .863 .848*** 15.675 35.626 .989 .831 I12 .854 .842*** I13 .932 .937*** I14 .952 .961*** I15 .944 .951*** I16 .932 .938*** I17 .934 .928*** I18 .957 .963*** I19 .955 .962*** I20 .928 .931*** Perceived Value PV1 .881 .884*** PV2 .906 .930*** PV3 .834 865*** 3.389 7.703 .946 .746 PV4 .870 .923*** PV5 .797 .774*** PV6 .789 .794*** Model Fit Indices Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. CMIN/DF=3.211; GFI=.850; Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization. CFI=.846; SRMR=.0511; RMSEA= Total Explained Variance: 75.824% .100 *** Significant at .001 level

275 Reliability and Validity Analysis The results of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) that was performed to determine the sub- dimensions of motivation, involvement, and perceived value variables based on the festival attendants’ answers to motivation, involvement, and perceived value of Burhaniye and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival are presented in Table 1. Before the EFA was carried on, KMO (Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin) value should be controlled in order to determine whether the data, and sample size are proper to EFA. It is suggested that KMO value should be higher than .6 (İslamoğlu & Alnıaçık, 2014, p.396). At the end of the analysis that was performed in the scope of the data of this research, KMO value was identified as .922. After KMO analysis, Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity result was inspected to determine if there is any relationship between variables in the population. In order to perform EFA, result of this test should be significant (p<.05) (İslamoğlu & Alnıaçık, 2014). A significant result of this test shows existence of a relationship, and properness of the data to EFA (Nakip, 2006). In the scope of this research, Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity result significant (p<.001). Both KMO and Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity results demonstrate that the data of the study is appropriate to EFA, and also sample size is enough to EFA. When 20 items measuring motivation, 20 items measuring involvement, and 6 items designed to measure perceived value put in the EFA together, motivation items separated to two dimensions. However, motivation has five dimensions in the original study. The difference between the original study and this study could be explained with cultural diversity. Items of both involvement and perceived value were gathered one each dimensions as expected. According to results of the analysis, two items of involvement scale was excluded from the analysis because of having low factor weight. EFA results indicated that the explained variance is 75.824%. this value is expected to be at least 60% in social sciences (Nakip, 2006). It is seen that this expectation was met in this research. Besides, the results demonstrated that factor weights of all dimensions were quite above of critical threshold value (≥ .55). Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) results indicates that all items loaded to related factors with factor weights above 60%, and all factor weights were significant (p<.001). At the end of CFA, some goodness of fit indices reached to acceptable threshold (CMIN/DF, RMSEA, SRMR), some of them were stayed under the threshold (GFI and CFI) (Hair, Black, Babin & Anderson, 2014). These results confirm the factor structure of the variables. In addition, joint reliability (> .70) and average explained variance (> .50) values showed that measures were at acceptable reliability and validity levels (Hair et al., 2014). In the light of EFA and CFA results, 4 composite variables were composed with averages of items gathered in the factors. Descriptive statistics, correlations, and reliability coefficients related to these composite variables were presented in Table 2. Table 2: Descriptive Statistics, Correlations and Reliability Coefficients Std. Correlations Variables α Mean Deviation 1 2 3 Motivation 1 (Achievement / Autonomy) .896 3.767 .984 (2) Motivation 2 (Risk Taking / Exploration / Social / Education / Natural .960 3.919 .975 .523** Environment / Escape Pressure) Involvement .989 4.188 1.204 .065 .058 Perceived Value .945 4.117 .910 .308** .431** .135* *. Correlation is significant at the .05 level (2-tailed). **. Correlation is significant at the .01 level (2-tailed). As seen on Table 2, there are some significant correlations among study variables. However, the relationships between the independent variables does not cause multicollinearity problem since they are not very strong (i.e. correlations are not higher than 0.8). Cronbach Alpha coefficients are well above 0.7 showing a good inter-item consistency within the study variables. Consequently, taking the results of EFA, CFA analyses and CR, AVE, correlation and alpha coefficients it is concluded that conclude that scales used to measure the study variables have validity and reliability. Upon completing these preliminary analyses, the next section presents the results of

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hypotheses testing. Hypotheses Testing Revealed effects and test results are presented in Table 3. Table 3: Structural Equation Modeling Path Analysis Results Variables Std. β p Results Perceived Value <----- Motivation 1 .109 .128 H1: Not Supported Perceived Value <----- Motivation 2 .344 .001** H2: Supported Perceived Value <----- Involvement .107 .076* H3: Supported *: significant at the 0.10 level; significant at the 0.01 level.

In Table 3, it could be seen that the first hypothesis of this research (H1) assuming achievement and autonomy dimensions of motivation would affect perceived value was not supported (Std. β= .109; p=.128). Research findings indicated that second dimension of motivation including risk taking/exploration, social, education/natural environment, and escape pressure affects perceived value (Std. β= .344; p=.001). Thus, H2 was supported. The last hypothesis of the research (H3) that was assumed effect of involvement on perceived value was also supported (Std. β= .107; p=.076). CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The aims of this study are to determine the factors motivating tourists attended to Burhaniye Bicycle Festival, reveal tourists’ involvement levels towards the festival, and identify the effects of motivation and involvement on perceived value of Burhaniye and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival. Results of the research performed to achieve these aims demonstrated that the most motivating factor led tourists attend to 2. Burhaniye Bicycle Festival is risk taking/exploration, social, education/natural environment, and escape pressures (X=3.919). It is also seen that achievement and autonomy factors motivates tourists with lower level (X=3.767). Besides, the results indicates that involvement levels of attendants to bicycle festival well high (X=4.188). Findings of the study demonstrate that the number of overnight stay in Burhaniye is 3.12, and tourists attended along with 2.99 other people. In addition, the findings denote that even though tourism season did not begin, an economic mobility occurred in Burhaniye owing to attendance to Burhaniye Bicycle Festival. With the intend of increase this mobility, promotion efforts of the festival should be carried on by a more professional team, a budget should be allocated for marketing exercises, and an effort should be made to integrate the festival with local community. Thus, not only attendance to festival but also festival’s contribution to local economy, social life, and culture of the region would be increased. Research findings did not support the effect of achievement/autonomy dimension of motivation on perceived value. According to this result, perceived value of tourists, who joined to 2. Burhaniye Bicycle Festival with the motive of achieving something and freedom of making a decision by oneself, would not increase. On the other hand, research findings demonstrate that perceived value of individuals attended to the festival with the motive of risk taking/exploration, social, education/natural environment, and escape pressures perceived value towards Burhaniye and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival will increase. At this point, it could be suggested to festival organizing committee and local governors to bring these motivation factors into the forefront. In this way, perceived value of both Burhaniye and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival would be augmented. Another important finding of the research is that involvement levels of the tourists towards bicycle festival positively affects perceived value of Burhaniye and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival. Thus, when tourists’ involvement level is high, their value perception will be high, as well. At this point, festival executives and local governors should know that in order to increase perceived value of Burhaniye and Burhaniye Bicycle Festival, primarily they ought to have tourists interested in bicycle festival. Therefore, it may be suggested to festival executives and local governors to accelerate marketing and promotion activities. When the results of the research generally evaluated, following recommendations can be made to

277 authorities: Increasing motivation and involvement towards bicycle should be supported, and riding bicycle should be expanded. Bicycle tours and festivals should be arranged in local, national, and international scale and with professional teams. Bicycle activities should be supported by public and private institutions, local governments and non-governmental organizations. Not utilized roads in the nature should be converted to secure and attractive bicycle roads. Tourism fields might be expanded by doing plans and making applications with local governments about bicycle roads, routes, warning and direction plagues, parks and service areas. Tourism firms should be informed about bicycle tourism and bicycle festivals, and given visions on bicycle tourism marketing. As an alternative tourism option, importance should be given to bicycle activities. REFERENCES Ackerman, A. L. (2006). Differences in Motivation for Participation and Attitudes Toward Management Among Rock Climbing Sub Groups: Implications for the Benefits-based Management Approach (Unpublished Master’s Thesis). Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA. Adventure Cycling Association (2016). Benefit & Building Support, https://www.adventurecycling.org/routes-and-maps/us-bicycle-route-system/benefits-and-building-support/ Adventure Cycling Association (2016). Economic Impact, https://www.adventurecycling. org/routes-and- maps/us-bicycle-route-system/benefits-and-building-support/economic-impact/ Alain, M. A. (2009). Climbing in Cliff Environments: Examining the Relationship Among Climbers’ Motivations, Environmental Perceptions and Behaviour (Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Alexandris, K. (2012). Exploring the Role of Motivation on the Development of Sport Involvement. International Journal of Sport Management and Marketing, 12 (1/2), 57-72. Altan, Ş. (2006). Türkiye’de Ekoturizm Uygulamaları ve Ekonomiye Katkıları, (Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi) Niğde Üniver. Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, 59 s., Niğde. Ardahan, F. & Yerlisu Lapa, T. (2011). Açık Alan Rekreasyonu: Bisiklet Kullanıcıları ve Yürüyüşçülerin Doğa Sporu Yapma Nedenleri ve Elde Ettikleri Faydalar, Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi 8 (1), 1327- 1341. Aşan, K. & Akoğlan Kozak, M. (2015). Postmodern Turist Deneyimi ve Bisiklet Turizmi, International Journal of Eurasia Social Sciences 6 (21), 265-288. Bil, M.; Bilova, M.; Kubecek, J. (2012). Unified GIS Database on Cycle Tourism Infrastructure, Tourism Management 33 (6), 1554-1561. Broderick, A. & Mueller, R.D. (1999). A Theoretical and Empirical Exegesis of the Consumer Involvement Construct: The Psychology of the Food Shopper. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice 7 (4), 97-108. Cassidy, F. (2005). What Motivates Sports Event Tourists?: a Synthesis of Three Disciplines. In: Women in Research Conference 2005: Women Doing research, 24-25 Nov 2005, Gladstone, Australia, p.1-8. Chen, C.-F. (2008), Investigating Structural Relationships Between Service Quality Perceived Value, Satisfaction, and Behavioral Intentions for Air Passengers: Evidence from Taiwan, Transportation Research Part A, 42, p.709-717. Chen, C.-F. & Chen, F.-S. (2010). Experience Quality, Perceived Value, Satisfaction and Behavioral İntentions for Heritage Tourists. Tourism Management 31(1), 29–35. Chen, C.-F. & Chen, P.-C. (2013). Estimating Recreational Cyclists’ Preferences for Bicycle Routes Evidence from Taiwan, Transport Policy 26, 23-30. Chen, C.-F. & Tsai, M.-H. (2008). Perceived Value, Satisfaction, and Loyalty of TV Travel Product Shopping: Involvement as a Moderator. Tourism Management 29 (6), 1166-71. Chen, Z. & Dubinsky, A.J. (2003), A Conceptual Model of Perceived Customer Value in E-commerce: A Preliminary Investigation, Psychology and Marketing 20 (4), 323-347. Chou, K-S.; Cho, W-H.; Lee, S.; Kim, C. (2004), The Relationships Among Quality, Value, Satisfaction and Behavioral Intention in Health Care Provider Choice: A South Korean Study, Journal of Business Research 57 (8), 913-921.

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281 Chapter 21

A New Trend in the Turkish Tourism Industry: Halal Tourism

Hüseyin PAMUKÇU*, Özgür ARPACI**

INTRODUCTION Tourism is a sector of international importance which allows the employment of 300 million people worldwide. Around 7% of the international capital investments are made on tourism. This increases the importance given on tourism both in the world and in Turkey, while helping the new tourism types attract the attention of individuals by means of diversifying the tourism tendencies (Emekli, 2005: 105). Therefore, new tourism types arise and help the tourism expand in a harmony with the other sectors, increasing the welfare level of the country. Tourism sector stands at an important point in terms of providing regional development and eliminating the imbalance among the regions by means of the countries' usage of tourism supply resources. In addition, it contributes to the national economy with its exchange entry enhancing and employment providing capacities, as well as to the preservation of the world peace via its effect on providing social communication and integration. Regardless of being domestic or international, tourism is an activity that occurs among the countries and with the participation of people. Tourism activities having a global quality also indicate that it causes a cultural exchange among cultures and geographies. Consequently, the intersocietal interaction within tourism activities is inevitable where different societies meet (Çeken, 2008; Kök, 2010; Çımat and Bahar, 2003:12; Dikici and Sağır, 2012: 39). Tourism industry leads the most rapidly growing and expanding industries around the world. As a result of the several scientific and technological activities occurring in this industry, the transportation networks, which manifests significantly both in terms of quantity and quality, has undergone a development that eliminates the boundaries and allows everyone to visit wherever they want. The world has grown smaller as the boundaries are removed and people have developed a tendency to visit further distances. The share of world tourism in production increases every year with the tourism shifts from west to east. This development also increases the shares of countries with tourism attractions from the world tourism. In line with the income increase, the increase in the infrastructure investments and the developments in health and safety are among the important factors that have played a role in the development of tourism. With these developments, tourism is deemed as one of the biggest and most rapidly growing sectors of the world. Sector creates added value for more than 50 sectors apart from itself. This number increases in line with the developing tourism mind-set and types. While there were 25 million participants of tourism activities in 1950s, today, this number is around 1.133 million people. Meanwhile, tourism income has increased to 1.245 billion dollars from 475 million dollars. Therefore, tourism sector is defined as one of the most important sectors that lead the development of the countries with touristic attractions (Kozak, Kozak, and Kozak, 2006; UNWTO, 2014; Ulusan and Batman, 2010: 244). The tourism policies applied in Turkey, the new tourism tendencies starting to be implemented in the world and adaptation towards these tendencies results in alternative tourism being replaced with mass tourism in Turkey. Alternative tourism is a type of tourism that has been created to mitigate the negative effects of traditional mass tourism or city tourism and occurs with the combination of new touristic products (Hacıoğlu and Avcıkurt, 2008: 8). Alternative tourism aims to create a quality environment by preserving the natural resources and obtain economic benefits based on the tourism activities of the people living in the region (Oral and Başarır, 1995: 180; Albayrak, 2011: 11). According to Turkish Tourism Strategy 2023, "The development of primarily health and thermal

* Res. Assist., Kastamonu University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management **Assist. Prof. Dr., Kırklareli University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Travel Management and Tourism Guidance

tourism, winter tourism, golf tourism, sea tourism, eco-tourism and highland tourism and congress and fair tourism among alternative tourism" will be prioritized. However, this does not mean that new action plans and tourism policies being implemented will not be revised (Pamukçu, Tanrısever and Batman, 2015). According to the findings of UNWTO and the World Bank, the tourism sector has grown three times over the last 10 years and is expected to become "the biggest industry in the world". The reasons why developing countries like Turkey is interested in the international tourism industry to have market shares can be listed as follows (GEKA, 2012): The demand for tourism increases every day. Tourism may bring a solution to the problems of exchange draught. The development cost of tourism industry may be low. Tourism affects less from economic limitations, tariffs and quotas. Meanwhile, global competition, like in every aspect, requires diversification and renewal in tourism sector as well. Countries, states and cities compete in attracting more tourists to gain more tourism income. This competition causes the sector to create new, appealing tendencies and leading the global competition. New tendencies may be political, economic, cultural and technological sources, as well as oriented to creating alternatives as a result of the differentiation in the human needs. These tendencies cause foreign currency income and employment increase in a short period of time compared to other sectors after a successful promotional campaign. The tendencies in the world indicate that the increase in the individuals' education and welfare levels will increasingly continue and the group of experienced travellers will grow. Tourist preferences will be polarized, the demand for innovation and diversification will continue to increase and the motives of comfort and adventure will be focused further (Pamukçu, Tanrısever and Batman, 2015). The actions of tourists are mostly driven and shaped by psychological factors. Above all, the people being motivated on traveling and deciding on a certain option to spend their holiday are a psychological process. In addition, the changes in the thoughts and attitudes of the individuals during travels, their effects on the individuals' behaviour, travel and holiday, the reactions developed by the humans to adapt the tension and struggles in life and the effects of tourism and tourists on the psychology and behaviour of the local people are largely connected to psychology (MEGEB, 2014: 4). In line with the needs and desires of the customers with this mind-set, halal tourism is the type of tourism that starts to gain its ground in the tourism market. Halal tourism, which provides services to the customer group that tries to fulfil the requirements and rules of religion and benefit from the same products and services, also creates an alternative market for the portion of people that cares about their religious sensitivity (Yeşiltaş, Cankül and Temizkan, 2012: 194).Given Turkey's current culture and religious aspect, halal tourism is an important alternative tourism type. In this sense, it is important to diversify the alternative tourism activities and increase the service quality. There has been massive changes and developments in the tourism sector since 1960s and 1970s. With this changes and developments, many things have changed for the individuals participating in tourism. In particular, there is an agreement upon the fact that a strong shift has happened over the last years from the classic 3s, sea, sand and sun towards culture tourism and nature tourism. While all these discussions are taking place, one misses the fact that another type of tourism is distinguished from others. This type of tourism responds to the touristic needs of the individuals with Islamic sensitivities who deem themselves as believers, specifying their lifestyles in accordance with the requirements of Islam. However, the organizational efforts carried out within Turkish tourism up to now regarding the conceptual analysis and current potential of the concept of halal tourism has been very limited. Standards and strategies are required regarding the characteristics of the presented product, its contribution to the Turkish tourism and evaluation of this product in particular. In this sense, the aim of the research is to conduct the theoretical analysis of the halal tourism and uncover the potential of halal tourism, which is a new trend in Turkish tourism. Accordingly, a general framework will be created for the halal tourism concept and a de facto strategy will be produced in terms of bringing them to potential customers. In this way, the questions of the research are as follows:

283 What is halal tourism? What is the theoretical analysis of halal tourism? How is halal tourism regarded in the world and in Turkey? What is the place and importance of halal tourism in the Turkish tourism? What should be the strategy regarding halal tourism? METHOD In the globalized world of today and in line with the demands and daily life, tourism has become an important source of income and life style. Halal tourism, which provides services in conformity with the Islamic beliefs and practices, is considered as a new type of tourism. This study is oriented to examine the status of halal tourism as a new trend in the world and in Turkey and probe on the strategies of the countries in the world that practice halal tourism. In this sense, the aim of this study is to examine the status of halal tourism as an alternative tourism activity in the world and in Turkey and probe on the strategies of the countries in the world that practice halal tourism. With this purpose, a "Scanning Model" has been used in order to define the existing status objectively in the research, in other words, to find applicable and reliable answers to the research questions. While the Scanning Models bear both quantitative and qualitative characteristics, this study adopts qualitative approach method. The research resign of this research is formed by "phenomenology" and "document analysis" approaches. Phenomenology design focuses on the phenomenons whose existences we are aware of; however, we do not have an in-depth and detailed understanding therein. We may encounter these phenomenons in this world in various styles such as experiences, perceptions, tendencies, concepts and occasions. Phenomenology creates an appropriate research level for the studies that aim to research the phenomenon that are not alien to us but we cannot entirely comprehend (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2005: 72). Therefore, the method of qualitative research has been used. Qualitative researches are "researches in which qualitative data collection techniques such as observation, interview and document analysis are used and a qualitative process is followed oriented to put forth perceptions and events in a realistic and holistic way in their natural environment" (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2005: 39). The aim of qualitative research is to obtain a holistic picture rather than generalization. In this sense, the studied subject is examined in depth and with all possible details. In order to fulfil the aims of the study, the literature regarding the halal tourism phenomenon in relation to the practices in the world and in Turkey has been scanned in-depth and a general structure has been presented. Descriptive analysis and content analysis methods are used to analyse the data obtained in qualitative researches. This study chooses to utilize the descriptive analysis. In the descriptive analysis technique, the data is summarized and interpreted in accordance with the pre-determined themes. The data can either be sorted in line with the themes presented by the research questions or presented with the questions or dimensions used in the interview and observation processes in consideration. The aim of such analysis to present the obtained findings as read and interpreted (Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2005). The data summarized and interpreted in the descriptive analysis is processed further in-depth within the content analysis and the concepts and themes that cannot be noticed with a descriptive approach may be discovered as a result of this analysis. Document analysis technique has been utilized to construe the qualitative data obtained in this study. Documents are generally written on qualitative studies. Many document types may provide background information, hence helping found a relationship among the documents. The subject matter intended to be revealed with document analysis is probed in depth and the details become apparent. Document analysis is the examination and analysis of the written material that will shed the light on the path to reach the phenomenons and concepts to be obtained at the end of the research. Document examination covers the analysis of the written materials regarding the events or phenomenons aimed to be researched and bearing information (Şimşek, 2009; Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2006; Marshall and Rossman, 2009). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Tourism industry is one of the most rapidly developing sectors both in the world and in Turkey over the last years. As long as it cannot be managed in a healthy way, tourism industry causes economic

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imbalance, wasting usage of financial resources, social and cultural contamination and damage to the natural resources. Therefore, it is required to follow long-term and pinpoint policies in the tourism sector, take precautions in accordance with the plans and programs and implement these precautions meticulously in order to maximize the benefits of touristic development, minimize its potential damage and ensure the increase of tourism investments (Sözen, 2006). The systematic interventions towards these policies provide resources for specifying new objectives in the globalized tourism sector. The general current information regarding the tourism sector is as follows (UNWTO, 2015): Despite all the economic constriction and declines in 2014, tourism sector has grown by 4,6%. The income created by the tourism corresponds to 9% of the world GNP. 225 million individuals, corresponding to 5% of the employment in the world, is employed in this sector; in other words, one person out of every 11 works in traveling and tourism sector. 1,5 trillion dollars of the total export in the world is carried out merely by this sector. For the total of the sectors that it affects, it corresponds to almost 10% of the World GNP, equaling to 77,5 trillion dollars, with a volume of 7,6 trillion dollars. Tourism is one of the largest sectors in today's world where 1.133 billion people are travelling and this number is expected to reach 1,8 billion people by 2030. Tourism incomes reached to 1.245 million dollars by 2014. Tourism sector directly or indirectly supports 185 different sectors. Tourism directly and indirectly contributes to global GNP. Its direct contribution equals to 2,4 trillion dollars and indirect contribution equals to approximately 5,2 trillion dollars. Among the global level investments, the ratio of tourism investments is 4,5%. On the other hand, the fact that it forms 10% of the World GNP indicates that this sector makes a higher economic contribution with less investment. According to UNWTO 2015 DATA, 39,8 million people travelled to Turkey in 2014. The total income obtained is 29.552 billion dollars. Tourism income is expected to reach 31,5 billion dollars by the end of 2015. Turkey ranks 6th with the number of tourists in consideration and it ranks 12th in terms of income. The share of tourism within the total export income is 18,8%. In order to increase the Tourism Revenues in Turkey and get more shares in the ever diversifying and developing tourism sector, the Ministry of Culture and Tourism prepared a Turkish Tourism Strategy-2023 document in 2007, which aims for 63 million tourists, 86 million dollars of total tourism income and a tourist income of $1350 per individual for 2023. 2013 Tourism Strategy stipulates the creation of tourist profile- oriented tourism products. In order to achieve such objectives, the number of tourists need to increase by 63% compared to 2014 and the income per capita by 81%. Diversification of the tourism services seems probable via developing the tourism infrastructure, increasing the service quality and effective promotion. Many factors such as increasing socioeconomic level, technological developments, and psychological factors influencing the tourism behaviours of tourists, mild policies in effect, reconfigured new visa regulations caused diversification of the tourism tendencies in time. It is not possible for each tourism tendency to be popular in every country in terms of cultural, religious, geographical, social, political and economic aspects. The tendencies in the world indicate that the increase in the individuals' education and welfare levels will increasingly continue and the group of experienced travellers will grow. Tourist preferences will be polarized, the demand for innovation and diversification will continue to increase and the motives of comfort and adventure will be focused further. In this sense, it is important to diversify the alternative tourism activities and increase the service quality. One of the products required to be examined in this regard is halal tourism. It is observed that, over the last years, the demand by the Muslims who try to live their lives by abiding by the rules and prohibitions of Islam towards halal products and services has been increasing. This understanding of tourism, called halal tourism, means that the action of tourism is carried out in accordance with the rules, prohibitions and suggestions of Islam. It is a combination of activities in which Muslims perform the action of tourism as well as their religious duties and conduct their touristic activities in conformity with Islamic principles. In other words, halal tourism covers the activities related to fulfilling the "needs arising from accommodation" as stated in the definition of tourism in

285 accordance with the rules and beliefs of Islam. Pork meat and alcohol, which are banned by Islam, are not available in the service establishments in the tourism industry; opportunities that will help the customers to perform their religious services are provided and some services such as SPA are provided separately for men and women (Batman and Arpacı, 2016: 26). The increasing number of Muslim population worldwide has shown the great potential in capturing and making business for Halal products and services from this Muslim market, especially from the Middle-East countries. Normally, Middle-East consumers do have high disposable incomes which make it as a potential market for not only for Halal products but also for services particularly for travel and tourism services that highlighted, there is a real demand for Halal travel, led by tourşsts from Southeast Asia and the Middle-East. Many investor and marketers have seen this Halal industry as a lucrative industry which is able to generate wealth in the Halal business either for domestic or international trade (Sahida, Rahman, Wahidin, Man, 2011: 298). There has been a significant increase in the economic activities defined as Islamic Economy/Halal Economy within Global World Trade over the last years; the volume that the Islamic Economy reached in 2014 and is expected to reach in 2020 are given table 1. Table 1: The Status of Islamic Economy in 2014-2020 Sector 2014 2020 Islamic Banking 1.346 Billion Dollar 2.610 Billion Dollar Halal Food 1.128 Billion Dollar 1.585 Billion Dollar Halal Tourism 145 Billion Dollar 200 Billion Dollar Halal Clothing / Textiles 230 Billion Dollar 327 Billion Dollar Health Care 179 Billion Dollar 247 Billion Dollar Pharmaceutical Industry 75 Billion Dollar 106 Billion Dollar Cosmetic Industry 54 Billion Dollar 80 Billion Dollar Total 3.154 Billion Dollar 5.188 Billion Dollar Source: State of The Global Islamic Economy Report 2015/16; Mastercard-CrescentRating Global Muslim Travel Index, 2015. As indicated in table 1, the share of Islamic economy is high and its shares in the future have increased for all items. Halal tourism has been examined in depth within the scope of this study. The tourism activities conducted in line with Islamic principles create the foundation of "Halal Tourism" concept. Halal tourism is comprised of the activities related to fulfilling the needs arising from tourism activities such as accommodation, traveling, transportation etc. in accordance with the rules and beliefs of Islam. Halal tourism, which started to be heard around the globe around 6 years ago, is a type of tourism that is oriented to Muslims that regulate their lives in accordance with the Islamic rules with separate usage areas for men and women, providing means for performing prayers in small mosques with azan being chanted five times a day; as well as kiblah direction, the Koran and prayer rugs in the rooms, with presentation of halal food and absolutely no services of alcohol. Halal tourism is a newly developing type of tourism within the tourism industry. Halal tourism, which provides services to the customer group that tries to fulfil the requirements and rules of religion and benefit from the same products and services, also creates an alternative market for the portion of people that cares about their religious sensitivity. One of the important factors that direct the needs and desires of the consumers that purchase touristic products or services is their religious beliefs. Religious beliefs provide a source of purpose and meaning for the people's lives and as a cultural factor, are significantly effective on the people's values, habits, attitudes and types of living together. This effect may significantly influence the purchasing process and the purchasing behavior of the consumers participating in tourism activities (Yeşiltaş, Cankül and Temizkan, 2012: 39; Cankül, 2011). Halal tourism is comprised of the activities related to fulfilling the needs arising from tourism activities such as accommodation, traveling, transportation etc. in accordance with the rules and beliefs of Islam. Halal tourism, which has emerged to fulfil the tourism demands of conservative community such as resting, sight-seeing and socializing, is en route to become an important area of tourism. Its difference from the belief tourism is the lack of requirement that the destination should be connected to

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religion. However, it requires the activities to be performed within the orders of Islam. In short, halal tourism is to perform action of tourism is carried out in accordance with the rules, prohibitions and suggestions of Islam. Halal hotels are facilities that are designed in accordance with Islamic rules with a main function of providing accommodation as stated in the definition of hotels, as well as hosting the needs of eating, drinking and entertainment and the units in accordance with Islamic rules and beliefs. As stated above, pork meat and alcohol, which are banned by Islam, are not available in the service establishments in the tourism industry; opportunities that will help the customers to perform their religious services are provided and some services such as SPA are provided separately for men and women (Arpacı, 2015: 5; Yılmaz ve Gürel, 2012: 372; Batman and Arpacı, 2016: 26). The establishments providing services in halal tourism concept are defined as the derivatives that provide products-services in accordance with the principles of Islam. Tourism establishment are generally as follows (Tekin, 2014: 756): Accommodation establishments (hotels, resorts, motels, campsites, hostels, oberj, pension etc.). Travel businesses (tour operators and travel agents) Food and beverage establishments (restaurants, bakeries, cafes, bars, bistros, pubs etc.). Transport businesses (highway, air, rail, maritime businesses) Entertainment businesses (funfairs, amusement parks, casinos, night clubs, etc.). Other business (direct feed businesses from the tourism sector, such as tourist shops). The qualities expected from these establishments in case of having halal concept include separation of the recreation areas for men and women, prohibition of sale, presentation and consumption of all types of alcoholic drinks, providing places where hotel customers can perform their religious services, availability of signs in the rooms that show the direction of the kiblah, positioning the bathroom, toilet and beds in accordance with the kiblah and male employees serving the male customers while female employees serve the females (Özdemir, 2015: 10; Arpacı, 2015: 5). The establishments that can provide services within Islamic tourism concept are the establishments among those aforementioned establishments that can be operated in line with the Islamic principles in terms of their product-service contents and presentation concepts. In other words, all establishments whose product-service contents and presentation concepts are in accordance with the Islamic principles or that can be made into being in conformity with these principles may address the market of pious tourists. All establishments that has become appropriate for the halal tourists to receive services may be included in the establishments that provide services within Islamic tourism concept. However; due to their missions, it is technically not possible for the establishments such as casinos, pubs and bars that provide alcoholic products, which cannot be converted to have the qualifications to serve in accordance with Islamic principles, to serve within the Islamic tourism concept. Almost all of the establishment falling out of this category can be made to provide services within halal tourism concept with some changes (Tekin, 2014: 756). The standards that a tourism establishment to provide services within halal concept are briefly as follows (Arpacı, 2015: 234): Reliable (halal) foods) Separate pool, SPA areas for men and women, Little mosques, Koran and prayer hours indicators in the hotel, Kiblah direction indicator-prayer rugs in the rooms, No drink sales or discos, night clubs etc. in the hotel, The availability for iftar and sahur during the Ramadan month, Islamic activities for adults and children (conversations, chants, etc.) Contrary to the public opinion, halal tourism is not limited to not having pork meat or alcohol in the hotels or having separate areas for common usage for men and women. It is misleading to think that it is possible to attract tourists with Islamic sensitivities merely by putting prayer rugs, rosaries in the rooms, preventing the consumption of alcohol in the hotel and separating the pools for men and women. Meanwhile, the qualities that the halal tourism establishment are required to possess are as follows (Rosenberg ve Choufany, 2009; Henderson, 2010; Duman, 2011; Sahida, Abrahman, Awang and Man, 2011; Zailani, Omar and Kopong., 2011; MdSalleh, Abdulhamid, Hashim and Omain, 2014; Shuriye

287 and Daud, 2014; Stephenson, 2014:157; Tekin, 2014; Tekin, 2016; Oflaz, 2015; Pamukcu and Arpacı, 2016; Chookaew, Chanin, Charatarawat, Sriprasert and Nimpaya, 2015): a) The main qualities required in the accommodation establishments are as follows: Along with ensuring the customer that the food and drinks are halal, not hosting foods and drinks that are haram (forbidden) as per the Islamic law, Providing means to customers to perform their prayers, Separating places such as sports hall, beach, pool, SPA and cafeteria for men and women, The personnel employed possessing awareness for the concept of halal, Paying attention to Islamic sensitivities during activities, Considering the Islamic sensitivities in rooms and the toilets in accommodation establishment's areas for common usage. b) The main qualities required in the traveling establishments are as follows: Not hosting motives that contradict Islam in the office design, The personnel employed possessing awareness for the concept of halal, Taking required precautions for prayers in the offices, The agencies possessing sufficient information and sensitivity in Islamic subjects. c) The main qualities required in the food-drink establishments are as follows: The menu consisting of halal products and not including haram products, Following hygiene rules, Having sections appropriate for family privacy for the families that may demand so, The personnel employed possessing awareness for the concept of halal, Taking required precautions for prayers. d) The main qualities required in the transportation establishments are as follows: Providing means for the customers to perform their prayers at the prayer times, Assigning separate seats for single male and female passengers, Providing halal treats. With the emergence of halal tourism as a new tourism product, a need for developing products and services within the concept of "halal" has also emerged within the tourism industry, which dynamically renews itself every day. This can be regarded as the adaptation of current products and services rather than developing new products and services, which means presenting the tour packages, food and drinks and holiday locations presented to those choosing this tourism product in accordance with the Islamic beliefs and needs. Providing halal food and drinks, announcing the prayer times in some airports, specifying the kiblah directions in the rooms including 5-star accommodation facilities; same-gender hotel personnel serving male and female customers within beaches, pools and SPA centres designed separately for women and men and providing opportunities to customers such as mosques and small mosques can be set as examples to this (Zailani, Omar and Kopong, 2011: 9). There are many reasons to promote and encourage the halal tourism activities. The main reasons are the increase in the number of tourists coming from the Gulf Area and Western Asia countries, more Muslim travellers increasingly possessing a mind-set about the concept or them preferring halal food or halal-friendly services while staying in hotels or taking vacations in certain places. During a case regarding Muslim Arab travellers, these individuals preferred the touristic location packages providing halal foods and services such as halal-friendly services and foods in hotels. Another reason to promote and encourage halal tourism sector is that the tourists from Western Asia and Middle East spend more compared to the tourists from other countries. Arab tourists spend 10 times more in average compared to other tourists. In the event that this sector succeeds in the future, a connection will be created between halal tourism and Turkey. The reason behind this is that halal tourism sector is a niche product within the tourism sector with its own market share (MITIM, 2006: 602). Muslim population is the second largest population in the world today. The majority of the Muslim population lives in some of the economies that grow most rapidly such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Turkey and Gulf countries. Muslim consumers is a segment whose important constantly increases for the establishments in all sectors and is expected to become one of the largest consumer segments. Product and service choices are influenced by the requirements based on beliefs and therefore, such a special

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segment has a variety of unique needs (MasterCard-CrescentRating, 2015). It is inconceivable for the tourism establishments to ignore this portion of market in their marketing activities. Thus, many establishments design their current establishments in a way that they may provide services to this type of customers. The tourism establishments that design their services only for halal concept specify their customers with Islamic beliefs as target market and position their establishment as "Halal Concept Establishments". Halal tourism market is a niche market with young demographic structure and increasing welfare level. Many countries such as Turkey, Malaysia, India, Egypt, Dubai, Australia, Spain and Thailand carry out several marketing activities oriented to attract pious tourists. Halal tourism is considered as a new concept in the sector which provides services in conformity with the Islamic beliefs and practices. MasterCard-CrescentRating Global Muslim Travel Index-2015 study revealed that in 2014 this segment was worth $145 billion, with 108 million Muslim travelers representing 10% of the entire travel economy. This is forecast to grow to 150 million visitors by 2020 and 11% of the market with an expenditure projected to grow to $200 billion. Muslim travel will continue to be one of the fastest growing travel sectors in the world (GMTI, 2015: 4). Muslim travel market data’s are given table 2. Table 2: Muslim Travel Market Year Visitor Income (Dollar) 2014 108 Million 145 Million 2020 150 Million 200 Million Source: MasterCard-CrescentRating Global Muslim Travel Index-2016.

The criteria used in GMTI 2016 centres around the following three themes: Family-friendly holiday and safe travel destination Muslim-friendly services and facilities at the destination Halal awareness and destination marketing Each of these themes is looked at from a set of eleven main criteria. Each of the criteria is weighted averages of more than 25 sub-criteria. Family-friendly holiday and safe travel destination Family-friendly Destination Muslim Traveller and General Safety Muslim Visitor Arrivals Muslim-friendly services and facilities at the destination 1.Dining Options and Halal Assurance Access to Prayer Places Airport Facilities Accommodation Options Halal awareness and destination marketing Ease of Communication Muslim Travel Needs Awareness and Outreach Air Connectivity Visa Requirements In order to keep track of this growing market segment, the MasterCard-CrescentRating Global Muslim Travel Index (GMTI), now in its second year, looks at in-depth data covering 130 destinations, creating an overall index to benchmark how destinations are catering to the Muslim travel market. The Muslim travel market continues to be one of the fastest growing segments in the global travel industry. It is estimated that International Muslim visitor arrivals in 2015 was 117 million. Asia and Europe are the two leading regions attracting Muslim visitors. In 2015, it was estimated that there were 117 million Muslim international travellers. This is projected to grow to 168 million by 2020, where the travel expenditure by Muslim travellers is expected to exceed USD 200 billion. Turkey is in third place according to the report (GMTI, 2016). The top 10 OIC destinations and the top 10 non-OIC destinations are given table 3 and 4.

289 Table 3: The top 10 OIC Destinations in the GMTI 2016 Rank GMTI 2016 Rank Destination Score 1 1 Malaysia 81.9 2 2 UAE 74.7 3 3 Turkey 73.9 4 4 Indonesia 70.6 5 5 Qatar 70.5 6 6 Saudi Arabia 70.4 7 7 Oman 70.3 8 9 Morocco 68.3 9 10 Jordan 65.4 10 11 Bahrain 63.3 Source: MasterCard-CrescentRating Global Muslim Travel Index-2016. Table 4: The top 10 non-OIC Destinations in the GMTI 2016 Rank GMTI 2016 Rank Destination Score 1 8 Singapore 68.4 2 20 Thailand 59.5 3 21 United Kingdom 59.0 4 30 South Africa 53.1 5 31 Hong Kong 53.0 6 31 France 51.6 7 33 Taiwan 50.1 8 34 Japan 49.1 9 35 Sri Lanka 49.0 10 36 United States 48.9 Source: MasterCard-CrescentRating Global Muslim Travel Index-2016. As indicated in table 3 and 4, Turkey ranked 3rd in the general combined list with 73,9 points. Malaysia ranked 1st with 81,9 points, followed by the United Arab Emirates with 74,7 points. Vis-à-vis, among the countries outside the Organization of the Islamic Cooperation, Singapore leads 1st in this market with 68,4 points and Thailand ranked 2nd with 59,5 points. Taiwan and Japan continue to increase and improve their rankings and Asia seems to rank 1st considering the averages of points calculated in accordance with GMTI. According to the researches; 20% of the Muslim tourists are very sensitive in terms of Islamic rules and do not go to places without Islamic products and services. Even if these services are somehow provided, they do not go these places anyway in the event that there area products and services contradicting the Islamic principles. Table 5: The Number of Tourists Visiting Countries where Halal Tourism is implemented Countries / Years 2010 2014 2020 Malaysia 4.6 Million 5.3 Million 6.6 Million Qatar 0.9 Million 1.5 Million 2.8 Million Indonesia 0.9 Million 1.2 Million 1.8 Million UAE 3.6 Million 6.5 Million 13.1 Million Tunisian 3.1 Million 3.0 Million 3.0 Million Singapore 2.4 Million 3.1 Million 5.2 Million United Kingdom 1.7 Million 2.1 Million 2.5 Million Source: CrescentRating, (2016). Muslim Friendly Tourism (MFT) Understanding the demand and supply sides in the OIC Member Countries, Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (COMCEC) Coordination Office.

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60% of the Muslim tourists mandate halal food and drinks and in the event that these products are provided to them, they also mandate that there should not be any products and services contradicting Islamic principles at the location of presentation. 20% of the Muslim tourists do not have halal product and service demands. These figures show that around 80% of 108 million Muslim tourists claim services in conformity with the Islamic principles (MasterCard-CrescentRating, 2016). As indicated in table 5, the strengths of the United Arab Emirates, the country that attracts the most attention, are tourism products, being the capital of Islamic economy, constant investment, accessibility and shopping opportunities. The strengths of Malaysia, another country displaying increase, are having various tourism products, the abundance of Muslim-friendly travel services, providing non-visa travel opportunities and education. Being a non-Muslim country, however, in a position that should be considered seriously in terms of numbers, the strengths of Singapore are having a significant Muslim population, a strong culture of halal certification, the destinations renewing themselves and being focused on Muslim-friendly visiting market. As observed in figure 1, while there were 25 million tourists in 2000, this number increased to 98 million in 2010 and 116 million in 2014. It is stipulated that 180 million Muslim tourists will travel by 2020. In addition, 53 million Muslim tourists out of the 98 million travelling in 2010 visited Islam countries, while 45 million went to non-Muslim countries. In 2014, 64 million Muslim tourists out of the 116 million travelling visited Islam countries, while 52 million went to non-Muslim countries. By 2020, it is estimated that 98 million Muslim tourists will visit Islam countries while 82 million of them will visit non-Muslim countries. There are four important reasons to verge towards Muslim tourists. These are (Bahardeen, 2013):

Figure 1: The Number of Tourists Visiting Islamic Countries and Non-Muslim Countries Source: CrescentRating, (2015). Muslim Friendly Tourism (MFT) Understanding the demand and supply sides in the OIC Member Countries, Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation (COMCEC) Coordination Office. Increasing number of tourists based on the population growth, Some of the most rapidly growing economies being Muslim countries, Having a young population, Life style options increasing in line with their beliefs. CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSALS The main purposes in tourism are to become an international brand with qualified manpower, facility and service quality, diversify and improve the tourism products and services to address a higher- income group, increase the quality in every component of tourism value chain and become a leading sector in the regional development in line with the sustainability principal.

291 Tourism sector is one of the keystones of Turkish economy due to its continued investments even during the global economic crises and the volume of work, employment and income that it creates. Tourism sector is the future of Turkey. The point achieved today in tourism is the result of the devoted efforts of the investors that have carried out their investments in line with tourism incentives. Utilizing the tourism supply resources effectively, tourism sector stands at an important point in terms of providing regional development and eliminating the imbalance among the regions. Tourism has an important share in the economies of both developed and developing countries. Leading among the biggest sectors in the world in global terms, it is the most rapidly growing and advancing sector in the world. As the fundamental supply data of the tourism sector is connected to natural, sociocultural and historical resources of the regions, unlike other sector, it accelerates the development. One of the main tendencies in the tourism sector in the world is to diversify the tourism. The main reasons behind the diversification are the increasing tourist revenues, inclusion of new markets to the tourism and the increasing competition in the sector. In addition to the traditional sea-sun-sand tourism, halal tourism is an alternative tourism type that attracts demand. Halal tourism is a newly developing establishment type of tourism within the tourism industry. The number of hotels, which do not serve alcoholic drinks that are forbidden in Islam and where men and women are located separately in units such as pools, increase every day. This research is projected to shed a light to the academics to study on this field and the potential investors on the field that provide such services. This study presents the current situation of the halal concept hotels in Turkey. The suggestions developed in line with the results obtained in regard to the subject matter of the study are as follows; Considering not only the increase of the income to be obtained only from local tourists with the halal tourism, which is the type of tourism that is carried out by abiding by the Islamic orders and prohibitions, but also the demands to come from countries with Muslim communities, it is possible to obtain a new and big tourism market in country scale and in establishment basis. The attention of the investors may be attracted towards this market and it may be procured that they make important economic gains. In addition, it may be procured that the masses with religious sensitivities fulfill their holiday needs within the country. As the emergence of sufficient number of touristic facilities will indicate that this group is respected and cared, positive contributions can be made to achieving social tolerance. It is observed that the number of tourists to come to Turkey from the countries with the densest Muslim populations increase every day. Due to the fact that the tourists coming from these countries are Muslims, focusing on marketing strategies oriented to this mass and prioritizing the halal tourism among the alternative tourism types for the features of this niche market may result in the arrival of more tourists and obtaining tourism income. As indicated in the gross national product table, which displays that Islamic countries are valuable markets in increasing the tourism potential of Turkey, increasing the number of hotel establishments that provide services within Islamic tourism concept and taking steps to become the leader in this area may increase the shares of Turkey to be obtained from halal tourism. Compared to the sectors with other hotels, it can be stated that the halal concept hotel market is not completely saturated, in other words, there are still sufficient places for halal concept hotels that can operate in this sector. This should be examined. Halal tourism should be handled as a tourism policy and adapted to the 2023 vision of Turkey. Under the helm of the government; city dynamics, universities, bureaucrats, municipalities, provincial special administrations and non-governmental organizations should include this issue in their agenda in a common structure, seeking solutions. With the development of halal tourism infrastructure, enriching the infrastructures and superstructures in this area and the encouragement of halal tourism, it can become a tourism type that attracts the highest number of tourists. For this area, there are still not any defined strategies and policies in Turkey, which possesses huge advantages in terms of halal tourism. However, it is important to diversify the alternative tourism activities and increase the service quality in order to improve tourism. With the development of halal

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tourism infrastructure, enriching the infrastructures and superstructures in this area and the encouragement of halal tourism, it can rank among the tourism types that attract the highest number of tourists. The literature scan has indicated that Singapore and Thailand, despite being countries where Islam is not very common, follow a more principled strategy in halal tourism applications and host millions of Muslims. In addition, it is confirmed that Malaysia and United Arab Emirates have also been taking important steps to attract the target audience by focusing on the concept on the Halal Tourism concept. It is concluded that, in Turkey, the issue is in its infancy yet and the organized efforts on halal tourism concept is not very strong. In this sense, it is required to define a halal tourism strategy as a country. Halal tourism has entered a very rapid development in Muslim countries. Therefore, halal tourism should be handled as a tourism policy and adapted to the 2023 vision of Turkey. Under the helm of the government; city dynamics, universities, bureaucrats, municipalities, provincial special administrations and non-governmental organizations should include this issue in their agenda in a common structure, seeking solutions. Turkey needs to create its brand country logo with halal tourism. An infrastructure should be created at the points of how halal tourism could be brought to Turkey and how to become, maintain, operate and conclude a brand country in gaining positive value via halal tourism. In conclusion, the existence of halal tourism will act as an instrument that prepares the country for competition to make Turkey a brand country. Its difference from other countries can be put forth this way. REFERENCES Albayrak, A. (2011). Tüketicilerin Alternatif Turizm Türlerini Satın Alma Davranışlarını Etkileyen Faktörler, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Arpacı, Ö. (2015). Helal Konseptli Otel İşletmelerinin Sezonlara Göre Algılanan Hizmet Kalitesinin Müşteri Sadakati ve Müşteri Değeri Üzerine Etkisi, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, Sakarya Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Sakarya. Bahardeen, F. (2013). Opportunities for KZN to become the choice destination for Muslim/Halal (friendly) Tourism in Africa. CrescentRating. Batman, O. & Arpacı, Ö.(2016). Helal Turizmin Felsefesi Teorisi Uygulaması, OmniScriptum GmbH&Co.KG: Türkiye Alim Kitapları, Saarbrücken- Deutschland. Cankül, D. (2011). Otel Seçimine Etki Eden Faktörlerden Biri Olarak Dini Hayat Tarzlarının Etkisi Üzerine Bir Alan Araştırması, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Turizm İşletmeciliği Eğitimi Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara Chookaew, S., Chanın, O., Charatarawat, J., Srıprasert, P. & Nimpaya, S. (2015). "Increasing Halal Tourism Potential At Andaman Gulf in Thailand For Muslim Country", Journal of Economics, Business and Management, C. 3, S. 7, S. 739-741. Çeken, H. (2008). Turizmin Bölgesel Kalkınmaya Etkisi Üzerine Teorik Bir İnceleme, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi C.X, S II, Afyonkarahisar Çetin, C. (2015). Çerçeve- Özel Dosya Helal Ekonomi MÜSİAD, Ankara Çımat, A. & Bahar, O. (2003). Turizm Sektörünün Türkiye Ekonomisi İçindeki Yeri ve Önemi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme. Akdeniz İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi(6), 1-18.Antalya. Dikici, E. & Sağır, A. (2012). Antalya’da İnanç Turizminin Sosyolojik Çözümlemesi: Demre-Myra Örneği, KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomı̇ k Araştırmalar Dergı̇ si, 14 (22): 35-43. Duman, T. (2011). "Value of Islamic Tourism Offering: Perspectives From The Turkish Experience", World Islamic Tourism Forum, Global Islamic Tourism Organization, (Gıto) & International Institute of Advanced Islamic Studies (Iaıs), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. July 12-13. Emekli, G. (2005). Avrupa Birliği’nde Turizm Politikaları ve Türkiye’de Kültürel Turizm. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi(14), 99-107. GEKA. (2012). Güney Ege Bölgesi Turizm Strateji Belgesi, Güney Ege Kalkınma Ajansı Turizm Sektörü Araştırma Grubu.

293 Global Muslim Lifestyle Travel Market. (2012). Landscape&Consumer ForAirlines, Destinations&Hotels / Resorts. DinarStandard&Crescentcrating http://static.hosteltur. com/ web/uploads/2013/10/turismo_islyAmico_informe_2012_2 . Hacıoğlu, N. & Cevdet A. (2008), Turistik Ürün Çeşitlendirmesi, Nobel Yayınları, Ankara Henderson, J. C. (2010a). "Sharia-Compliant Hotels", Tourism and Hospitality Research, C. 10, S. 3, S. 246- 254. Konya Ticaret Odası, (2008). Turizm Sektör Raporu. Konya. Kozak, N. Kozak, M. A. & Kozak, M. (2006), Genel Turizm İlkeler-Kavramlar, (Altıncı Baskı), Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara Kök, N. F. (2010). Bölgesel Kalkınma Turizm İlişkisinde Kümelenmenin Rolü: Kavramsal Bir Analiz, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Strateji Geliştirme Başkanlığı Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, (2007). Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi 2023 Eylem Planı 2007-2013 Marshall C., ve Rossman G. B. (2009). Designing Qualitative Research. London: Sage Publications. MasterCard&CrescentRating, (2015). MasterCard-CrescentRating Global Muslim Travel Index 2015, By MasterCard&CrescentRating. MasterCard&CrescentRating, (2016). MasterCard-CrescentRating Global Muslim Travel Index 2016, By MasterCard&CrescentRating. MdSalleh, N. Z., Abdulhamid, A. B., Hashim, N. H. & Omain, S. Z. (2014). "The Practice of Shariah- Compliant Hotel in Malaysia", International Journal of Trade, Economics and Finance, C. 5, S. 1, S. 26- 30. MEGEB, (2014). Eğlence Hizmetleri Turizm ve İnsan Psikolojisi, “Millî Eğitim Bakanlığı”, Ankara. MITIM. (2006). Üçüncü Endüstriyel Ana Plan 2006-2020, Ministry of International Trade and Industry Malaysia, Percetakan Nasional Malaysia Berhad, Kuala Lumpur,pp: 593-613. Muslim Friendly Tourism (MFT) Understanding the demand and supply sides in the OIC Member Countries, Standing Committee for Economic and Commercial Cooperation of theOrganization of IslamicCooperation (COMCEC) Coordination Office.: 28 Oflaz, M. (2015). Turistik Ürün Çeşidi Olarak Helal Turizm Konsepti Uygulayan Konaklama Tesislerinde Müşteri Algıları Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Turizm İşletmeciliği ve Otelcilik Anabilim Dalı Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Balıkesir. Oral, S. & Başarır, A. (1995). Alternatif turizmin önemi, Türkiye‟de alternatif turizm çeşitleri ve Kapadokya’da uygulanabilirliği. Hafta Sonu Seminerleri II: Kapadokya’nın Turistik, Kültürel Potansiyeli ve Pazarlama Sorunlarında sunulmuştur, Nevşehir Pamukçu H. & Arpacı Ö. (2015). Helal Konseptli Otel İşletmeleri: Türkiye’deki Mevcut Durum Üzerine Bir Araştırma, 1. Uluslararası Türk Dünyası Turizm Sempozyumu / 19-21 Kasım 2015, 319-331, Kastamonu Pamukçu, H. ve Arpacı Ö. (2016), Helal Konseptli Otellerin Web Sitelerinin Değerlendirilmesi, II. Avrasya Uluslararası Turizm Kongresi: Güncel Konular, Eğilimler ve Göstergeler, 05-07 Mayıs 2016, Konya. Pamukçu, H., Tanrısever, C. & Batman, O. (2015). Turizmde Yeni Eğilimler,2nd International Congress of Tourism&Management Researches, 1-3 Mayıs 2015 Rosenberg, P. & Choufany, H. M. (2009). "Spiritual Lodging-The Shariah Compliant Hotel Concept", Hvs Global Hospitality Services, S. 1-6. Sahida, W., Rahman, S., Wahidin, K.A.,&Man, Che. (2011). Developing the Framework for Halal Friendly Tourism in Malaysia, International Business Management 5 (6): 295-302, ISSN: 1993-5250. Shuriye, A. O. & Daud, M. R. (2014). "Hospitality and Leisure Between Religious Maxims and Modern Facilities", Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, C. 5, S. 27, S. 1127-1135. Sözen, M. Ö. (2006). 1982 Sonrası Dönemde Türkiye’de Uygulanan Turizm Politikaları ve Turizm Politikalarının Çanakkale Ekonomisine Etkileri. Çanakkale: Çanakkale On sekiz Mart Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Turizm İşletmeciliği Ana Bilim Dalı. Stephenson, M. L. (2014). "Deciphering 'Islamic Hospitality': Developments Challenges and Opportunities", Tourism Management, C. 40, S. 155-164. Şimşek, Hüseyin (2009). Eğitim tarihi araştırmalarında yöntem sorunu, Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 42(1),33-51. Tekin, Ö. A. (2014). İslami Turizm, Türkiye’deki ve Dünyadaki Genel Durumu Üzerine Bir İnceleme, “Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi”, C7, S.29, Vol.7, Issue 29. Tekin, Ö. A. (2016). An Examination on Accommodatıon Establishments Wıith Islamic Tourism Concept, The Journal of International Social Research Volume: 9 Issue: 42 Issn: 1307-9581.

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Ulusan, Y. & Batman, O. (2010). Alternatif Turizm Çeşitlerinin Konya Turizmine Etkisi Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi. 23. UNWTO, (2015). Birleşmiş Milletler Dünya Turizm Örgütü, World Tourism Barometer. Yeşiltaş, M., Cankül, D. & Temizkan, R. (2012). Otel Seçiminde Dini Hayat Tarzlarının Etkisi, Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt:11 Sayı:39 (193-217) Yıldırım, A. & Şimşek, H.(2005), “Sosyal Bilimlerde Nitel Araştırma Yöntemleri”, 5.Baskı, Seçkin Yayıncılık, Ankara. Yılmaz, L. & Güler, E. M. (2012). Türkiye’de Muhafazakâr Değerler Bağlamında Turizm ve Tatil Algısındaki Değişme, II. Disiplinlerarası Turizm Araştırmaları Kongresi: 367-378, 12 – 15 Nisan 2012, Kemer, Antalya. Zailani S., Omar A. & Kopong S. (2011). An Exploratory Study on the Factors Influencing the Non- Compliance to Halal among Hoteliers in Malaysia, International Business Management, 5(1): 1 – 12; Yılmaz and Güler, 2012: 373.

295 Chapter 22

Destination Management in Culture Tourism: The Case of Safranbolu

Nurettin AYAZ*, Özhan DEMİRKOL*

INTRODUCTION Resources of cultural attraction have become essential components of tourism destinations (Kim et al., 2007) and the tourists are increasingly willing to experience different cultures (Richards, 2005). The interest on cultural tourism, which is associated the visits to the native people, who have been identified with the history, art, lifestyle of a society, region, group or institution, has been increasing day by day (Silberberg, 1995). It is since 1972, the year that UNESCO recommended the protection of parts of cultural and natural heritage that the popular interest in cultural tourism has grown (Özünel, 2011). Interaction, participation and learning of the cultural characteristics and cultural heritage of local inhabitants that the tourists visit have been considered as the visiting motivations (Lynch et al., 2011). Despite this growing interest, cultural tourism has started to lose its importance due to unplanned practices during the protection of cultural heritage and their transformation into touristic products. Not only the economic income obtained from cultural values but also the protection of these values are highly important (Gülcan, 2010). Studies to decrease the negative effects of factors, such as overcrowd, the loss of the authenticity of the destination due to activities conducted to meet touristic demands or re- planning the touristic site without taking the realities of the site into consideration) should be conducted (Eser et al., 2010). Cultural tourism, which has been associated with subjects such as handcrafts, language, gastronomy, arts, music or architecture, historical sites, festivals, cultural heritage, technology, religious values, clothing or education, has been an important subject of scientific investigation. These studies analyzed issues such as protection and promotion of cultural heritage, cultural image, consumption of culture, or the interests, differences and the factors influencing purchasing behaviors of cultural tourists (Silberberg, 1995; Richard, 2005; Öter & Özdoğan, 2005; Uygur & Baykan, 2007; Gülcan, 2010; Çetin, 2010; Lynch et al., 2011). However, no study has been conducted on the relationship between destination management by stakeholders and cultural tourism. This study evaluates the perceptions of the stakeholders about the destination management within the context of cultural tourism for the city of Safranbolu, a historical city in the list of world heritage list of UNESCO. We believe that this study on the relationship between cultural tourism and stakeholders will contribute to the literature for the destinations that are in the historical heritage list. CULTURAL TOURISM The main themes of cultural tourism, which has been associated with tourism types such as historical tourism or heritage tourism, are learning the cultural values of the past and existing civilizations, visiting historical sites and experiencing the lifestyles of the local inhabitants (Emekli, 2006; Meydan & Baykan, 2007). Cultural themes that may be attractive for cultural tourism include scientific, religious and artistic items and events about historical or prehistoric periods, language, architecture, sportive events, festivals, modern popular culture, handcraft, regional cuisine, commercial buildings, factories, folklore, traditions, crafts, popular people, festivals, exhibitions, celebrations, fairs, or competitions (Öter & Özdoğan, 2005). These themes have been related with the subtopics of historical events, popular people, heritage attractions, festivals and special events, industry and trade, sportive and recreational activities, special interest activities, linguistics, architectural variety, artistic events, local handcrafts, local cuisine, travel programs or modern culture (Kızılırmak & Kurtuldu, 2005: 102).

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Karabuk University Safranbolu Faculty of Tourism, Tourism Management

The main source of concern for cultural tourism in the literature is the commercialization of the cultural heritage and service of cultural heritage for mass tourism (Butcher, 2006). Within this context, attention has been drawn to the sustainable usage of cultural tourism in a destination and the principles of sustainable cultural tourism have been grouped into four categories: objectives and policies; processes; delivery and action; and, appraisal (Figure 1). These principles should be taken into consideration during the process of management of cultural tourism in a destination (Guidelines for Sustainable Cultural Tourism in Historic Towns and Cities, 2009).

SUSTAINABLE CULTURAL TOURISM

PROCESSES DELIVERY AND APPRAISAL OBJECTIVES ACTION AND POLICIES -Stakeholders -Destination -Respond to change -Vision -Decision making -Business -Monitoring tools -Policy -Local engagement -Products -Best practice

Figure 1: Principles of Sustainable Cultural Tourism Source: Adapted from Guidelines for Sustainable Cultural Tourism in Historic Towns and Cities, 2009: 12. Another important element of cultural tourism is the concept of cultural tourist. Cultural tourists are the tourists that visit a destination due to cultural reasons and in order to experience a different culture. Therefore, the aims and demands of these heterogeneous groups visiting cultural values are different and sometimes cultural tourism may be a secondary event (Altunel & Kahraman, 2012). The reasons behind the participation of cultural tourists in touristic activities may be related with their socio- economic and demographic characteristics, but the distance of the destination is also influential. Cultural tourists mostly belong to the high-income level group with higher age and high educational profile. These tourists may be grouped into four categories: festival/music; commercial recreational zones (cinema, science-technology, entertainment); local festival/fair; and information/aesthetics (art exhibitions, theater, historical cities, museums, historical science and technology museums) (Kim et al., 2007). Decision-makers in a cultural tourism destination should have knowledge and should be informed about cultural tourism, the characteristics and expectations of cultural tourists (Jamieson, 1994). Therefore, studies within this context should be conducted. However, the analysis of the literature shows the lack of the studies on decision-makers in cultural tourism. The existing studies rather dealt with the issues such as protection and promotion of cultural heritage, cultural image, consumption of culture, or the interests, differences and the factors influencing purchasing behaviors of cultural tourists. Below, we provide a summary of these studies. Silberberg (1995) related cultural tourism with visits to museums and historical sites and suggested the tourism enterprises, which operate in regions with important historical and cultural values but harsh economic conditions, to protect these heritages and to be open for entrepreneurship. The study found that the cultural tourists belonged to high income groups, spent more money and more time during their visits, stayed in hotels or motels, had higher tendency of shopping, were mostly female and elders. Öter and Özdoğan (2005) drew attention to the lack of regional studies that may gain a momentum for cultural tourism in a country such as Turkey, which hosts important cultural attractions. The authors also underline the factors that may contribute to the cultural image of important destinations, which should be promoted. Richard (2005) underlined the competitive structure of culture tourism market in Europe and noted the rise in the number of cultural spaces, which are based on tourism development strategies that promote cultural heritage. The study also stated that the museums, exhibitions and traditional cultural

297 activities have important effects on cultural tourism. Uygur and Baykan (2007) argued that cultural values can be protected from the negative effects of globalization if the historical and cultural heritages are used in accordance with the sustainable principles and policies; otherwise, the authors stated, cultural heritage may suffer from degeneration, alienation and decrease in authenticity. Uygur and Baykan also underline the importance of the implementation of policies that are based on scientific investigation of the effects of cultural tourism on the society, local inhabitants and the local culture. Gülcan (2010) stated that products of cultural tourism in Turkey are heavily based on concrete cultural property, that cultural products are concentrated in specific geographic regions and time periods, and that the existing cultural tourism products have not been changed for a long time. The author suggested the diversification of touristic products based on concrete culture in order to gain competitive advantage. Çetin (2010) underline the importance of cooperation between stakeholders in order to protect cultural heritage and hand down the heritage to the next generations. These stakeholders that may conduct research on cultural characteristics of a region include non-governmental organizations, local inhabitants and academicians from the fields of tourism, geography, history, sociology, folklore, literature, economy, urban planning, geology and anthropology. Lynch et al., (2011) analyzed the interests of tourists about culture tourism and found that the interests of the cultural tourists differed according to their demographic characteristics, including age, gender and place of residence. the elder cultural tourists were more interested in cultural activities with the theme of learning but were less interested in physical activities. Furthermore, the study found that the foreign tourists were more interested in cultural tourism compared to the domestic tourists. Özünel (2011) related cultural tourism with intangible cultural heritage (expressions, intangible expressions, exhibitions, societal practices, rituals, festivals, handcrafts and folklore) and suggested that this type of heritage should be used by tourism sector without degenerating the cultural heritage. Kahraman and Altunel (2012) classified the foreign cultural tourists that visited Istanbul according to their travel motivations and their experiences after consuming cultural services. The authors suggested that the touristic enterprises could benefit from their classification in order to determine the tourist typologies that visited the enterprises. SAFRANBOLU Safranbolu is an important cultural tourism destination, which was admitted to the World Heritage List of the UNESCO on 17 December 1994. The reasons behind the admission of Safranbolu to the World Heritage List by the UNESCO is listed below. That this property be inscribed on the World Heritage List on the basis of criteria ii, iv, and v: Criterion ii- By virtue of its key role in the caravan trade over many centuries, Safranbolu enjoyed great prosperity and as a result it set a standard in public and domestic architecture that exercised a great influence on urban development over a large area of the Ottoman Empire. Criterion iv- The caravan trade was for centuries the main commercial link between the Orient and Europe. As a result, towns of a characteristic type grew up along its route. With the coming of railways in the 19th century, these towns abruptly lost their raison d'être, and most of them were adapted to other economie bases. Safranbolu was not affected in this way and as a result bas preserved its original form and buildings to a remarkable extent. Criterion v: The collapse of the caravan trade bad a catastrophic effect on Safranbolu. Its proximity to the Karabük steelworks bas given it a new socio-economic role, but it is still vulnerable to external pressures, and so continuous efforts must be made to preserve the traditional townscape (URL 1). With its typical Ottoman urban architecture, Safranbolu is an important cultural tourism center. The fundamental difference of Safranbolu from the cities with similar architectural characteristics (Beypazarı, Göynük, Taraklı, Odunpazarı) is related with the landscape characteristics of the city. Safranbolu hosts a canyon that passes through the city and that shapes the development of the ancient city. Protection of the authentic architectural characteristics, closeness of the city to large Turkish cities, such as Ankara and Istanbul, and the admission of Safranbolu to the World Heritage List increased the

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popularity of Safranbolu for both domestic and foreign tourists and turned the city into an important cultural tourism destination, which is indicated by the increasing number of foreign and domestic visitors (Gürbüz, 2009; Türker, 2013). The main theme of Safranbolu is the Safranbolu house. There are about 2000 traditional Turkish houses in the city and 1056 of these houses are under legal protection. The houses are concentrated in two regions of Safranbolu: “Eski Çarşı” (Old Bazaar), which was once called as the ‘city center’; and “Bağlar (Vineyards). Eski Çarşı was used as winter residence whereas the inhabitants moved to Bağlar during the summer. Safranbolu houses were mostly built on hill slopes nearby the valleys and were rotated slightly so that none of the houses hamper one another’s sunshine and view. Since the Safranbolu is found over a rugged area, the houses were constructed over the streets, which are vertical to the slopes. The streets are narrow, sloped and mostly paved with stone. Large gardens of the houses are designed according to the slope. The houses are made of stone, brick, mudbrick, lime and wood with four-sided pitched roof. The houses and their rooms are mostly square-shaped. Yörük village, which is 11 km away from the Safranbolu city resembles Safranbolu with its historical houses and buildings. The houses in Yörük village also contribute to the development of tourism in Safranbolu. Yörük village was formed by the Turkmans in the 14th and 15th century. The oldest house is 450 years old and the newest one was constructed 90 years ago. The houses in Yörük village attract attention with their lattice windows, elegant wooden works, and interesting door knockers and door locks. Buckhorns at the roofs of the houses are hanged with the belief that they will fertilize the household. There are various houses to be visited and the most famous one is the Sipahioğlu house. Since 2003, Safranbolu has become an important destination for foreign and domestic tourists (Türker, 2013). While the number of foreign tourists visiting Safranbolu was 5.876 in 2000, this number reached to 37.204 in 2014. Table 1: Foreign Tourists that visited Safranbolu in 2014 and their Nationalities Rank Country International tourist arrivals 1 Taiwan 13.064 2 Germany 5.398 3 Japan 3.737 4 South Korea 3.703 5 China 3.673 6 Australia 2.122 7 France 1.786 8 USA 1.484 9 Italia 1.238 10 Canada 999 Total 37.204 Source: Safranbolu Tourist Information Office, 2014. Safranbolu, which is a highly important destination in terms of culture and architecture, has started to suffer from problems as a consequence of the increase in the number of visitors. There is a need for studies on determination and classification of the existing intangible and concrete cultural resources. Furthermore, there are deficits regarding the destination image and brand of the historical city. Uncertainties that the decision-makers in Safranbolu face lies at the heart of these problems. In order to protect the advantages that Safranbolu has, the number of scientific studies that will help the implementation of plans for sustainable usage of cultural resources should be conducted. These studies will help Safranbolu to gain a competitive advantage in terms of culture tourism. Furthermore, these studies may constitute resources for the issues of determination of the market potential of Safranbolu, maintaining the support of national and international institutions, and equitable distribution of the benefits provided by the development of tourism.

299 MATERIALS AND METHODS This study reveals the opinions of the stakeholders regarding the problems of Safranbolu as a cultural tourism destination and the suggestions they made. The study, which aims to evaluate the existing situation and the future of Safranbolu from the stakeholders’ perspectives, is expected to guide further studies on sustainable cultural tourism development in not only Safranbolu, but also in other destinations. The study is based on primary data that was obtained by using in-depth interviews with the stakeholders and secondary data that was obtained from the literature. Data obtained from the interviews was analyzed by using content analysis method. Harris (2001) states that content analysis includes the stages of determination of the research problems and questions, sampling, determination of unit of analysis, determination of the categories to be used, coding, and reliability and validity evaluation. Within this context, the primary research question of this study is as follows: -What are the opinions of the stakeholders about the existing situation and the future of Safranbolu as a cultural tourism destination? In-depth interviews were conducted on 29 participants. The participants included district governor of Safranbolu, mayor of Safranbolu, Karabük provincial director of culture and tourism, regional director of cultural and natural heritage, the chairman of Karabük chamber of commerce and industry, former mayors of Safranbolu, president of city council, president of Safranbolu culture and tourism foundation, chair of Safranbolu tourism entrepreneurs’ association, chair of the Safranbolu association of contributors to tourism, academicians, researchers, chair of Karabük chamber of architects, managers of tourism enterprises and professional guides. The participants included 2 district administrators, 2 provincial administrators, 5 representatives of the non-governmental institutions, 3 former politicians, 7 academicians, 2 researchers and 8 managers of tourism enterprises. 55 hours of interviews were conducted on 29 participants. Johnson and Christensen (2004) argued that the number of participants in a focus group for in- depth interview should be between 6 and 12 whereas the numbers were 6-to-10 for Langford et al. (2002), and 6-to-9 for Krueger (2000). On the other hand, Kuzel (1992) argued that the focus group should include 6-to-9 participants and that the number of questions should be between 12 and 20. Morse (1994) argued that in-depth interviews should include at least 6 participants and that the interviews should be conducted between 100-to-200 minutes. Table 2 shows the research theme codes that are used in decoding the in-depth interviews with the participant stakeholders. The study found 154 expressions that include at least one of the thematic codes, which are related with destination management of Safranbolu. In order to maintain the re-coding of the interviews by different researchers, we developed eight categories, namely, touristic product development, tourism marketing, human resources development, tourism infrastructure development, transformation in tourism sector, research and development in tourism, security and safety in tourism and management of tourism sector. In order to assess the validity and reliability of data obtained, we used Cohen’s Kappa analysis. Accordingly, two different researchers were asked to place the theme codes obtained from the expressions of the participants into one of the 8 thematic categories. Table 3 shows the results of Kappa analysis that was conducted in order to test the reliability of the coding process. Researcher A placed 13 theme codes into touristic product development; 23 codes into tourism marketing; 14 codes into human resources development; 31 codes into tourism infrastructure development; 22 codes into transformation in tourism sector; 14 codes into research and development in tourism; 9 codes into security and safety in tourism; and, 24 codes into the category of management of tourism sector. On the other hand, Researcher B placed 13 theme codes into Touristic product development; 23 codes into Tourism marketing; 14 codes into Human resources development; 31 codes into tourism infrastructure development; 22 codes into transformation in tourism sector; 14 codes into research and development in tourism; 9 codes into security and safety in tourism; and, 24 codes into the category of management of tourism sector. Given that the values between 0,41-0,60 indicate medium levels of reliability, between 0,61-0,80 show high, and the values between 0,81-1,00 indicate very high reliability, the findings of this study show that the coding process was highly reliable (Kappa=0,97;

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p<0,001) (Landis & Koch, 1977). Table 2: Research Theme Codes No Theme Code No Theme Code No Theme Code 1 Destination Management 7 Safety 13 Research 2 Product Improvement 8 Hygiene 14 Information Management 3 Promotion 9 Infrastructure 15 Standardization 4 Security 10 Education 16 Sharing 5 Administration 11 Cooperation 17 Planning 6 Human Resources 12 Project 18 Marketing Table 3: Results of Reliability Analysis of Data obtained from the Interviews Researcher B Total A B C D E F G H Touristic product development (A) 13 13 Tourism marketing (B) 23 1 24 Human resources development (C) 14 14 Tourism infrastructure development 31 31 (D) Transformation in tourism sector (E) 22 3 25 Research and development in tourism 14 14 Researcher A (F) Security and safety in tourism (G) 9 9 Management of tourism sector (H) 24 24 Total 13 23 14 31 22 14 9 28 154 p<0,001 Measure of Agreement Kappa: 0,97 / 0,015 / 29,898 / 0,000 Tourism product development is one of the effective factors that us influential over lengthening the stay of the visitors and increasing the expenditures made by the visitors in a tourism destination. The main aim of the process of touristic product development, which may take the form of an increase in the number of existing services and products, or new product delivery, is to maximize the profits of the touristic enterprises. Within this context, marketing program, action plan, and finance for development of products are required for touristic product development. Regarding this important component of cultural tourism, the participants in our study expressed the following statements: Projects on the production of local souvenirs should be developed and implemented. The villages around Safranbolu should be included into the tour programs. While producing touristic products, special emphasis should be placed on handcrafts and local food Sales of foreign products that are not related with the local culture should be prevented. New tour routes that take the natural and cultural beauties (including Yenice district, Eflani Ponds, rock graves in Ovacık Karakoyunlu, Eskipazar Hadrianapolis ancient city, Safranbolu canyons, Hacılarobası Sallar neighborhood, and Pınarbaşı Valla canyon should be developed. Local food products, such as Turkish delight, jam, marmalade, pekmez, tarhana, yayım, and grape leaf should be produced with live performance. While preparing the menu, palatal delight of the foreign tourists should be taken into consideration. Traditional kitchen cultures such as Ottoman kitchen and local Anatolian kitchen should be served in appropriate places. Hunting tourism for the hunting of the wild animals that threaten human life and that live in forests around Safranbolu should be allowed Annual production of saffron should be increased and saffron production should be developed a cultural center for folklore exhibitions, local food production, art exhibition and concerts should be constructed in Safranbolu. In order to perform the traditional cultural rituals and lengthen the staying period, intangible cultural heritage (bath, henna night, folk dance, and other plays) should be performed with the participation of the visitors. New projects on religious places around Safranbolu should be developed and implemented to the service of both the local inhabitants and the visitors. Ironworking, copper working, wood working and hand-printed head scarf making, which constitute essential components of local culture, should be promoted and

301 transformed into cultural tourism products. The project on the construction of Keltepe ski center should be implemented within the context of winter tourism. Parallel to the rapid developments in the global market, new opportunities in tourism sector has been rising. For the tourism destination to adapt to rapid changes, a proper combination of the tourism marketing strategies and technologies should be developed so that the potential customers can be determined and accessed. Tourism marketing is highly important in order to maintain successful branding for the proper market and increase service quality while taking the demands of the visitors into consideration. In addition to the innovative marketing services, consultation is important for the success of the destination. Besides, customer relationship management, strategic planning, branding, strategic positioning and development of personal targets for the individual customers are highly important for the competitive advantage of the destination. The suggestions of the participants regarding the tourism marketing for Safranbolu include the followings: During the process of branding for Safranbolu destination, special emphasis should be made on the concept of city. The slogans may include “The city which lives and enlivens history”, “city of education, culture and tourism”, and “the city that integrates the nature and historical values”. An agreement among the stakeholders on financing the national and international promotion activities should be reached. Not only the Turkish delight or the Safranbolu houses, but also İncekaya Aqueduct, rock graves, caves and canyons should be emphasized during the promotion of Safranbolu. A travel guide on Safranbolu and alternative written materials that promote the region should be prepared in different languages for the service of the visitors coming to Safranbolu. In order to lengthen the stay period of the visitors, promotions for the visitors that stay in Safranbolu for more than one night should be developed. Web-based promotion activities should be developed in order to develop tour programs for Safranbolu region. Social media should be used effectively in order to maintain the branding of Safranbolu as a historical city Visits in order to inform the travel agents should be conducted so that Safranbolu finds its proper place in tourism routes. Standards for the production of local products unique to Safranbolu should be developed. A logo should be registered for these standardized products and the enterprises that produce these products. The enterprises that hold the logo should make the logo visible and inform the visitors about the logo and the standards. Local food products without geographical signs, such as Bağlar fizzy, yayım, Çavuş grape, stuffed vine leaves, Safranbolu bükmesi, walnut bread, Perohi, Safranbolu baklava, saffron and rice dessert, and Safranbolu bagel, should be registered within the context of geographical signs. Special attention should be placed in the inclusion of Safranbolu in the commercial films displayed in visual communication channels. Film plateaus in and around Safranbolu should be constructed and contact with film producers should be established. Visual materials that promote Safranbolu should be broadcasted in public transportation vehicles. While determining the prices, the prices of competing destinations should be taken into consideration. In addition to the International Golden Saffron Film Festival, new festivals that feature cultural values of Safranbolu, such as International Architectural Project Festival, grape harvest festival, saffron harvest festival or local kitchen festival should be organized. Marketing activities for the interest of the third age groups, such as price reductions during the week days, should be developed. Packaging that is unique to the region should be developed as an essential competent of branding strategy. Coordination between the institutions should be sustained so that the national and international scientific or professional meetings may be conducted in Safranbolu. New promotion and marketing strategies should be developed in order to attract the qualified tourists to Safranbolu. Promotional activities that differentiate Safranbolu from similar destinations should be conducted. Documentaries on restoration activities in Safranbolu should be prepared and broadcasted in national and international agencies. Communication with the national educational institutions should be established so that the students may visit Safranbolu. Given that Safranbolu does not attract the attention of international audience compared to the domestic visitors, international promotion activities should be conducted. Tourism sector is a labor-intensive economic sector. Consequently, in order to gain competitive advantage, the human resources in Safranbolu should be developed and employees that provide higher guest satisfaction should be educated. Regarding the issue of human resources development, the participants of our study expressed the followings:

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Tourist guides that take the demands of the visitors into consideration and that reflect the concrete and intangible heritage should be educated. Employees and employers in the region should be educated about the issues of hygiene and sanitation. Local inhabitants should be educated about the issues of tourism, marketing, and protection of cultural and natural heritage. Local artisans that work in restaurants should be educated in qualitative and quantitative terms. In order to maintain communication with the foreign tourists, employees that are able to communicate in different foreign languages should be employed in the touristic enterprises. Furthermore, the employees that are not able to communicate in major foreign languages should be educated. Certificate-based courses should be opened in order to educate qualified tourism employees. Qualified personnel should be employed in tourism enterprises. Qualifications of the employees should be evaluated according to the national and international standards. Police, city police and taxi drivers should be educated in foreign language. Human resources that will produce high-quality local food and that are qualified in mass production should be developed. Students of Safranbolu should be educated as the natural guides of the city and their loyalty to the city should be increased. Mass communication vehicles should be used for education about tourism sector. Services, facilities, and basic physical and organizational structures constitute the parts of tourism infrastructure. Constructions, such as roads, bridges, tunnels, canalization, power lines or telecommunication lines should be developed parallel to the developments in tourism industry. The opinions of the stakeholders about the tourism infrastructures include the followings: Tracks for cycling and extreme sports should be prepared for the service of the local inhabitants and visitors. Transportation routes to the neighborhoods that may be considered as touristic products should be developed in line with the identity of the city. Direction signs and maps about these routes should be placed in appropriate spaces. Besides, these routes should be arranged in line with the internet-based geographical information systems, such as navigation. Touristic direction signs for Safranbolu should be placed in main roads. In order to decrease traffic problems in historical bazaar, alternative routes, car parks and bus stops should be determined and constructed. In order to maintain access to Bulak Cave, direction signs should be placed in proper places. Solar energy water heating systems and the antennas above the roofs of historical houses should be removed and new projects that substitute them should be prepared. In order to revitalize the culture of water, which was a key component of the cultural heritage of Safranbolu, the fountains should be repaired. Landscaped spaces at the entrance of Safranbolu should be improved in order to increase the positive image of the city. QR Code maps about the places to be visited in Safranbolu that works with the smart phones should be prepared. Illumination at the entrance to the city should be improved. Direction signs on the streets and touristic enterprises should be placed in historical city and Bağlar region. The problem of heating for the historical bazaar region should be solved and projects about the heat insulation of the historical houses should be developed. A tourism information center that has a car park and that will inform the visitors should be constructed to the entrance of Safranbolu. New entertainment enterprises should be established in places other than the historical city center. The streets of the historical city should be improved without losing their authenticity. New alternatives that will solve the car park problem should be developed. A new congress center should be constructed in Safranbolu. Museums, such as city ethnography museum, archeology museum, or museum of leatherwork, which will exhibit the historical values of Safranbolu should be constructed. An iron and steel museum that will reflect the history of the iron and steel factory in Karabük, which has been associated with Safranbolu should be constructed at the factory. Telpher lines to the Hıdırlık Hill, Sarıçiçek Mountain and Bulak Cave should be constructed. Observation terraces should be constructed at the foot of Sarıçiçek Mountain. Touristic enterprises should from their own car parks without damaging the historic fabric. Mosques should be restored without hampering their authenticity. Exchange offices should be opened in the historical city. Villages should be integrated to the sewage system of Safranbolu. Sectoral transformation is required to sustain the competitive advantages of the destinations under global competition. It is essential for management control, new employment opportunities, development of qualifications, institutional development and socio-economic development. The destinations that do not rejuvenate and transform themselves are unable to maintain success. Within this context, the

303 participants of this study suggested the followings: Opportunities for the visitors to express their suggestions and opinions, including opinion boxes or web-based applications, should be developed. Mass transportation systems should be provided for the visits to the touristic values in the region. Cooperation and vertical integration with the travel agents that organize visits to the region should be maintained. Digital guides should be delivered to the service of individual visitors. Geographical information systems on the existing and the potential tourism values of Safranbolu should be developed. Touristic enterprises operating in the region should attract attention to the authentic values of Safranbolu. Transportation vehicles that delivery service to the region should provide a comfortable transportation. Besides, the vehicles that transfer the tourists to the historical city should have nostalgic characteristics. The consciousness on the protection of both the concrete and intangible historical values should be increased. The historical houses should protect not only their architectural characteristics but also their ethnographical characteristics and authenticity. The city should be declared as tourism city in order to benefit from tourism investment. The projects of the non- governmental organizations about the development of tourism in Safranbolu should be encouraged. New tourism development plans that include Safranbolu should be prepared in order to maintain better development of regional tourism development in Black Sea region. Historical houses should be used effectively without giving any damage to their characteristics. Restoration works that will contribute to the usage of these houses for not only tourism purposes but also for their daily usage should be maintained so that the traditional lifestyle can be protected. While restoring the houses, original materials that do not hamper the authenticity of the houses should be used. Usage of natural gas in the protected zones should be encouraged. Projects on protection and restoration of the historical values should be implemented at the district level, including the villages. Alternative tourism spaces should be developed by restoration and recreational facilities that will be conducted in Akçasu neighborhood. The houses from the Gümüş primary school in İsmetpaşa neighborhood to the center of the historical city should be restored and their landscape should be improved for touristic usage. Tanning yard building and the buildings nearby should be restored and the region should be used for commercial purposes. No settlement in the region should be used for settlement. Traditional houses in the historical city and the Bağlar region with pool, woodworking or hand-carved should be identified and used as culture and view house. In order to reflect the historical characteristics of Safranbolu, the streets should be named in accordance with their historical properties. Small-sized recreational facilities nearby the Bulak Cave should be constructed and served for touristic purposes. Roof and side elements that hamper the traditional view should be replaced with the proper elements. Local inhabitants of Safranbolu should be prioritized while forming tourism enterprises or travel agencies. Non-historical buildings nearby the former government office should be demolished and the area should be re-constructed in line with the possible demands of the visitors. Learning is a process that requires continuity and adaptation for tourism destinations. Innovations are unavoidable for the tourism sector; whose main element is the human resource. The studies on the improvement of the performance of the entrepreneurs constitute the base of the learning tourism region approach. The learning tourism region approach includes studies on production of high-quality touristic product and service, new approaches to the promotion of the touristic region, and development of new strategies that are appropriate for the maintenance of the competitive advantage of the region under global competition. The followings are the suggestions of the stakeholders regarding the category of research and development in tourism: Opinions of the visitors derived from the visitor satisfaction surveys should be shared with the public and private institutions. Necessary measures for collection of reliable statistical data on tourism in Safranbolu and its sharing with the appropriate institutions should be taken. New systematic methods and techniques should be employed for collection of statistical data. Materials, such as books or articles on Safranbolu should be reviewed and digitalized in order to form an archive and bibliography. Important works on Safranbolu should be translated into foreign languages. Works that will maintain the region to benefit from the investment and modernization incentives should be encouraged and the potential investors should be informed about the potential of the region. Potential concrete and intangible resources as well as archeological resources of Safranbolu should be re-scanned and the

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new resources found should be protected. Natural and cultural resources, such as caves, canyons, ponds, mounds and rock graves in Safranbolu should be re-scanned and used for touristic purposes. International good practices should be implemented in Safranbolu in order to overcome the traffic problem. Studies on regional kitchen and restoration of the historical buildings in Safranbolu should be recorded and achieved. Lobbying activities should be conducted in order to increase the state subsidies and financial resources granted to Safranbolu. Gela revisions should be made in order to improve service quality in the historical buildings Safranbolu Cultural and Architectural Buildings Research Center should be established. Security and safety are highly important for improving quality in the tourism sector. A secure environment constitutes the base for long-term tourism activities. National and regional security and safety planning activities are highly important. The stakeholders expressed the following suggestions regarding the category of safety and security: Commissioners that disturb the visitors by forcing them to shop from particular hotels or shops should be removed. Qualified city police that may provide effective service to the local inhabitants and the visitors in Safranbolu should be employed. Electronic tagging system that will trace the possible fires in the historical buildings and establishment of hydrate points in the city in order to responding to the fires are required. Besides, technological systems that are required for responding to a fire should be established. Ponds nearby the historical city should be constructed so that air intervention to respond to a fire shall be possible. The factors that hamper the development of the pillars in Bulak Cave should be removed and the cave should be protected. Insurances against fires or other disasters in the historical city should be made compulsory and should be encouraged. While deciding for the restorations, laboratories in the universities should be used in order grant permission for the restoration projects. Works that will improve health services for foreign visitors and that will avoid the possible problems should be conducted. Even if they are regulated at the national or international levels, local regulation and planning of the economic activities are highly important for sustainable development. Regional administration of the tourism sector, in which the demand side has been diversified, has become a necessity. Effective administration is required for determining the places for tourism, improving infrastructure, educating the inhabitants in terms of transportation, accommodation or other facilities, providing finance, organizational activities, promotion or planning. The stakeholders in our study suggested the followings in terms of management of tourism: Safranbolu Upper Council for Tourism, which will develop local strategies for the development of tourism and analyze the national and international tourism policies, should be formed. Stakeholders should be informed about the recent books, articles, conferences, congresses and consultation activities throughout the year. Standard Checklist should be formed in order to standardize the regulation of activities conducted by the tourism enterprises in Safranbolu. Tourism information centers should be improved and new tourism information centers should be developed along the alternative routes. Food and beverage enterprises in Safranbolu should be classified according to the standards of their service and they should be frequently regulated. The tour programs should include the characteristics of the Safranbolu region so that the staying period may be increased. Coordination among the university, non- governmental organizations and touristic enterprises should be maintained in order to organize fairs, workshops, festivals or similar organizations in Safranbolu. Projects that are restored should be constantly monitored so that no change against their initial projects can be made. Commercial signs that are not in line with the concept of cultural tourism should be removed. Price-quality balance should be maintained and standard prices for the products that may attract the attention of the tourists should be supplied so that problems about price-quality standards can be eliminated. Physical spaces, hygiene and the products of souvenir shops should be constantly regulated in order to solve the problems about marketing. Furthermore, Garbage collection service by the municipality should be conducted in early hours of the morning or the late hours in the evening. A standard for the accommodation services in Safranbolu should be formed. Fictions about the stories on the tour routes should be written. Sectoral participants should participate in national and international visits in order to increase their experiences. Although the local inhabitants are informed about the importance of

305 cultural heritage, some of them that have historical houses cannot make necessary restorations due to economic difficulties. In such cases, the state should determine the important historical houses and provide financial means to the householders in order to prevent further degeneration of the historical houses. Although modern materials may be used in places that are not visible to the visitors, original materials should be used for the restoration of the sides of historical houses that are visible to the visitors. Furthermore, special emphasis should be placed on the original design and materials of the houses during the restoration projects. Non-governmental institutions should take place in the spatial management of the historical city and the Bağlar region. In case of touristic historical houses that interact with each other, the houses should be run by the same enterprise in order to increase service quality and commercial efficiency. Project-based supports of the financial institutions should be sought. Related faculties of the Karabük University should provide support for protection, restoration and marketing activities of the projects in Safranbolu. RESULTS This study aimed to the literature on cultural tourism by focusing on the management of cultural tourism in a destination, which is included in the World Heritage List of the UNESCO. With this aim, we conducted interviews with the participation of tourism stakeholders in Safranbolu in order to determine the existing situation and the future of touristic product development, tourism marketing, human resources development, tourism infrastructure development, transformation in tourism sector, research and development in tourism, security and safety in tourism and the management of tourism sector. The study found that the problems of Safranbolu were tourism infrastructure development, tourism marketing, management of tourism sector, transformation in tourism sector, human resources development, research and development in tourism, and security and safety in tourism, respectively. Evaluation of these problems according to a pre-defined plan may contribute to the improvement of destination quality of Safranbolu and the public and private institutions of Safranbolu, which provide services to the tourism industry in the region. The findings reveal that most of the participants consider traditions, historical remains, museum, music, folk dance, handcrafts, festivals, historical areas, religious places and regional food and drink facilities as important components of culture tourism. Additionally, the participants drew attention to the problems of carriage capacity caused by the increase in the number of visitors that come to the destination. Different stakeholders, including local administrators, non-governmental institutions, former politicians, representatives of tourism sector and academicians may have a role in the development of cultural tourism in a particular destination. The analysis of the data on the existing situation and the future of the destination obtained from these stakeholders, may help us to analyze the current situation of the destination, to determine the successful national and international practices that are suitable for the destination, determine the possible future investment requirements and development paths, to reconstruct and modernize the enterprises in the destination, to form a strategic framework for the development of the destination, to protect the destination, and to optimize the profits to be obtained from the destination. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Safranbolu is an important cultural tourism destination with its unique historical, architectural and cultural heritage and a popular destination that is highly attractive for the cultural tourists. Further research on the tourists that may visit Safranbolu is highly important for the future and competitive advantage of the destination during the process of the development of cultural tourism. Tourism is an industry that holds both difficulties and advantages. Obtaining economic advantages in tourism sector depends on the protection and revitalization of the cultural attractions. Production of touristic products that are associated with the themes of learning, interaction and participation is highly important for cultural tourism (Lynch et al., 2011). Destination stakeholders, primarily the local administrators, should be informed and their opinions on cultural tourism and the protection of cultural heritage should be taken into consideration. Studies on the management, development and change of cultural tourism, and the studies that promote effective usage of scarce resources and limit waste in order to maintain sustainable touristic development should be conducted (Guidelines for Sustainable

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Cultural Tourism in Historic Towns and Cities, 2009). Safranbolu is an important destination in terms of cultural tourism. However, touristic services for cultural tourism are only concerned with the learning theme (i.e., who was the architecture of a particular building, why were they built etc.). The awareness of the destination stakeholders about the factors that may motivate the participation and interaction of cultural tourists should be increased. Concepts that will revitalize the traditional values in the forms of service of traditional food, saffron harvest or handcrafts, should be unified with the cultural attractions. These activities may lengthen the staying period of the tourists and increase their satisfaction levels in terms of cultural interaction and participation. Appropriate definition and classification of the stakeholders in a destination is an important part of the practices for sustainable development of tourism in a region. LEADER+ Approach, which is widely used for regional cooperation among the countries of the European Union, and the governance approach, integrated approach, and the tourism learning areas, which have successful results in various countries, may be used for further studies on Safranbolu. Acknowledgement This study has been conducted between January and December 2014 with the participation of the local administrators, chairs of non-governmental organizations, former politicians, academicians, researchers and the managers of tourism enterprises. The findings of the study are limited to the expressions of the stakeholders. The participants were selected among the stakeholders within Safranbolu. Consequently, dissimilar results may be obtained when similar questions are asked to the stakeholders in other cultural tourism destinations. REFERENCES Altunel, M. C. & Kahraman N. (2012). Kültür turisti tipolojilerinin belirlenmesi: İstanbul örneği. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 23(1), 7-18. Butcher, J. (2006). Cultural politics, cultural policy and cultural tourism. Smith Melanie K. (Editor). Cultural Tourism in a Changing World: Politics, Participation and (Re)presentation (p.21-35). Clevedon: Channel View Publications. Çetin, T. (2010). Cumalıkızık köyünde kültürel miras ve turizm algısı. Millî Folklor, 22(87), 181-190. Emekli, G. (2006). Coğrafya, kültür ve turizm: Kültürel turizm. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, (15), 51-59. Eser, S.; Dalgın, T. & Çeken, H. (2010). Sürdürülebilir kültür turizmi: Efes örneği. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, 19(2), 27-34. Gülcan, B. (2010). Türkiye’de kültür turizminin ürün yapısı ve somut kültür varlıklarına dayalı ürün farklılaştırma ihtiyacı. İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(1), 99-118. Gürbüz, A. (2009). Safranbolu’yu ziyaret eden turistlerin demografik özelliklerine göre turistik ürünleri algılama durumu. Doğuş Üniversitesi Dergisi, 10(2), 217-234. Harris, H. (2001). Content Analysis of Secondary Data: A Study of Courage in Managerial Decision Making. Journal of Business Ethics, 34(3), 191-208. Johnson, B. & Christensen L. (2004). Educational Research: Quantitative, Qualitative, and Mixed Approaches. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon Kızılırmak, İ. & Kurtuldu, H. (2005). Kültürel turizmin önemi ve tüketici tercihlerinin belirlenmesine yönelik bir çalışma. Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2005(1), 100-120. Kim, H.; Cheng, C. & O’Leary, J. (2007). Understanding participation patterns and trends in tourism cultural attractions. Tourism Management, (28), 1366-1371. Krueger, R. (2000). A Focus Groups: A Practical Guide for Applied Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Kuzel, A. J. (1999). "Sampling in qualitative inquiry." In B. F. Crabtrree & W. L. Miller (Eds.) Doing Qualitative Research (pp. 33-45). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Landis, J. R. & Koch, G. G. (1977). The measurement of observer agreement for categorical data. Biometrics, 33(1), 159-174. Langford, B. E.; Schoenfeld, G. & Izzo, G. (2002). Nominal grouping sessions vs. focus groups. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 5(1), 58-70. Lynch, M.; Duinker, P. N.; Sheehan, L.R. & Chute, J. E. (2011). The demand for Mi’kmaw cultural tourism:

307 Tourist perspectives. Tourism Management, 32(5), 977-986. Morgan, D. L. (1997). Focus Groups as Qualitative Research. Qualitative Research Methods Series 16, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Morse, J. M. (1994). Designing funded qualitative research. In: N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (eds.), Handbook of Qualitative Research (p.220-235). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. Öter, Z. & Özdoğan, O. N. (2005). Kültür amaçlı seyahat eden turistlerde destinasyon imajı: Selçuk-Efes örneği. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 16(2), 127-138. Özünel, E. Ö. (2011). Questioning the locality and authenticity in cultural tourism and arguing the space consuming. Turkish Studies-International Periodical For The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic 6(4), 255-262. Richards, G. (2010). The tradational Quantitative approach. In G. Richards & W. Munsters (Eds), Cultural Tourism Research Methods (p.12-25). Safranbolu Tourist Information Office. (2014). International Tourist Arrivals-2014. Silberberg, T. (1995). Cultural tourism and business opportunities for museums and heritage sites. Tourism Management, 16(5), 361-365. Türker, N. (2013). Host community perceptions of tourism impacts: A Case study on the world heritage city of Safranbolu Turkey, Revista de cercetareşi interventie socialâ. 2013(43), 115-141. URL: Csapó, J. (2012). The role and importance of cultural tourism in modern tourism industry. M. Kasimoğlu & H. Aydin (Eds). Strategies for Tourism Industry-Micro and Macro Perspectives (p.200- 232), http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs-wm/35715.pdf URL: Guidelines for Sustainable Cultural Tourism in Historic Towns and Cities (2009). http://www.historic- towns.org/documents/downloads/SustainableTourismGuidelines.pdf. URL: http://whc.unesco.org/archive/advisory_body_evaluation/614.pdf. URL: Jamieson, W. (1994). The challenge of cultural tourism. http://archive. canada.icomos.org/ bulletin /vol3_no3.html URL: Richards, G. (2005). Cultural Tourism in Europe. http://www.tram-research.com/ cultural _tourism _in_europe.PDF URL: http://whc.unesco.org Uygur, S. M. & Baykan, E. (2007). Kültür turizmi ve turizmin kültürel varlıklar üzerindeki etkileri. Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi , 2007(2), 1-20.

308 Chapter 23

Travel and Accommodation Preferences of Public Employees: A Case Study in Aksaray (Turkey)

Burak Murat DEMİRÇİVİ*, Sait DOĞAN, Mehmet TUNCER*

INTRODUCTION Today’s tourism industry is one of the fastest growing and expanding industries in the world (United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO], 2015: 2). Services of tourism businesses are being varied due to intense competition, and diversified services are making people’s choices difficult. Making right and timely decisions are important for businesses as well as people. To be able to make right decisions, important demand data can include: “(1) how many visitors arrived, (2) by what means of transportation, (3) how long they stayed and in what type of accommodations, and (4) how much money was spent” (Goeldner & Ritchie, 2012: 286). Besides, it is important for businesses to know about customers’ expectations and needs, and to have a sales strategy in accordance with them. Therefore, accommodation businesses must know customers’ preferences and factors playing a role for those preferences which are among the essential points in order to market their services in a straight way. The aim of this study is to assess the importance placed on various choice criteria by public employees in Aksaray and to make some marketing implications. Hotel attributes and priority among them The main purpose of the studies about hotel selection factors (Ananth et al., 1992; Callan, 1998; Callan & Bowman, 2000; Hart, 1993; Imrie & Fyall, 2001; Knutson, 1988; Lewis, 1984, 1985; Lockyer, 2002; McCleary et al., 1993, 1994, 1998; Shanahan, 2003; Wong & Chi-Yung, 2002) has been to present attributes sought by consumers of accommodation establishments and the importance of those attributes. Likert-type scales were used (Ananth et al., 1992; Callan, 1998; Callan & Bowman, 2000; Lockyer, 2002; McCleary et al., 1998) asking respondents to rate the importance of certain attributes to the consumer choices (for example, Ananth et al. (1992) used a scale from ‘1 = not important’ to ‘5 = very important’; McCleary et al. (1993, 1994, 1998) used a scale from ‘1 = very unimportant’ to ‘5 = very important’, Callan (1998) used a scale ranging from ‘1 = little importance’ to ‘7 = extremely important’, and Callan and Bowman (2000) used a scale in which 1 labelled as ‘extremely unimportant’ and 7 labelled as ‘extremely important’). Mean scores (sometimes with standard deviations) were utilized to rank the attributes from the attribute with the highest mean score to the lowest one (Ananth et al., 1992; Callan, 1998; Callan & Bowman, 2000; Lockyer, 2002; McCleary et al., 1998), and some mean scores were defined as ‘important’ or ‘very important’. For example, in Callan (1998: 23-34)’s study “the assumption was made that attributes with scores of 7, 6, or 5 on 75% or more of the cases were important and significant, and scores of 1, 2, and 3 on 50% or more of the items were significantly unimportant”. Similarly, in Callan and Bowman (2000)’s study, a 7-point scale was used and ‘important’ was defined as a mean score of ≥ 4, while ‘very important’ defined as a mean score of ≥ 6. Lewis (1984) used factor analysis to define the importance of an attribute when one staying at a hotel. McCleary et al. (1993) utilized factor analysis and reduced 56 attributes relating to hotel selection to 13. McCleary et al. (1994) used factor analysis, too and took each factor to use in a separate MANOVA design to calculate the differences between male and female business travellers in hotel selection. Findings indicated that “female business travellers consider security, personal services, and low price to be more important hotel-selection criteria than do male business travellers” (McCleary et al., 1994: 51). Lewis (1985) utilized discriminant analysis to show how consumers differentiate between categories of objects weighing one hotel against the other according to perceived existence of specific attributes in

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Aksaray University, Tourism Faculty, Dep. of Tourism Management.  Lecturer, Aksaray University, Tourism Faculty, Dep. of Tourism Management.

each hotel, and cluster analysis to divide the respondents into homogeneous clusters that differed from each other by the attributes considered important in the perceptions of consumers. Table 1: Various attributes identified and mentioned as important in tourism context. Attribute Study Overall feeling; F & B service and beverage quality; security; service quality; restaurant quality and price options; amenities and special conveniences; reputation and image; room and bath furnishings and condition; quiet; building Lewis (1984, 1985) aesthetics; contemporariness and modern conveniences; health facilities; VIP treatment and extra luxury; location; price and value; check-in and check-out Clean/comfortable room; convenient location; safety and security; prompt, Knutson (1988) courteous service; friendliness; room rates Well-lit public areas, restaurants, garages; large-size beds; express check-out; 24- Ananth, DeMicco, hour coffee shop; remote control for TV; legible, visible signs in public areas, Moreo, and Howey hallways, restaurants; 24-hour video security; extra blankets (1992) Security, a convenient location, clean rooms, reasonable cost, a workout facility Hart (1993) Cleanliness; comfortable mattresses and pillows; copy/fax machine; banquet McCleary, Weaver, facilities; hotel programs; travel agent recommendation; convenience to business; and Hutchinson no-smoking rooms (1993) McClearly, Business services and facilities; security facilities; personal services; low price Weaver, and Lan (1994) Standard of housekeeping and cleanliness; clean bathroom; food service efficiency; standard of hotel maintenance; courteous, polite, well-mannered staff; quality of food for the price paid; staff willingness to help with requests for Callan (1998) assistance; communicative ability of staff; staff cleanliness and hygiene; quality of food service equipment, linen, cutlery, glass etc.; efficiency of front desk Cleanliness of hotel; safety and security; comfortable mattress and pillow; friendly service of hotel staff; non-smoking rooms; well-maintained furnishings; McCleary, Choi, free local telephone calls; low price; good reputation of hotel; convenient to and Weaver (1998) business Cleanliness; value for money; comfort of bedroom; politeness of staff; efficiency Callan and of service; safety and security; responsiveness of staff; promptness of service; Bowman (2000) friendliness of staff; location Bedroom facilities; business facilities; bedroom comfort; ease of booking; friendliness of staff; general ambience; high-quality facilities; leisure facilities; Imrie and Fyall management quality; prices charged; restaurants and bars; security; training (2001) standards Cleanliness of hotel; bathroom and shower quality; standard of bedroom maintenance; comfort of mattress and pillow; courteous, polite, well-mannered staff; enthusiasm and commitment of staff; availability of parking; effective room Lockyer (2002) locking systems; soundproofing between bedrooms; food service efficiency; efficiency of front desk; good reputation of hotel; location; services provided as ordered; accuracy of wake-up call; sympathetic handling of complaints Wong and Chi- Room rate; star rating; location; brand; room type Yung (2002) Clean; low price; non-smoking; inside entry; 24-hour security Shanahan (2003)

Hart (1993) reported that women guests were asked to list the 5 most important criteria when selecting a hotel for business travel in order to determine whether the services, facilities, and amenities offered by hotels are appropriate to satisfy the woman traveller. Knutson (1988) used percentages and accepted a ratio of 50% of the responses of 1853 survey respondents to be able to consider an attribute as important. Imrie and Fyall (2001) surveyed product attributes which were the most influential in hotel choice to the 500 customers of independent mid-market (3-star) hotels defining 3 categories of

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positive, neutral and negative and using percentages for the differentiation of each attributes under aforementioned categories. Shanahan (2003) asked respondents, which are 203 drive tourists seeking lodging along the Interstate Highway 20 (USA), to list the most/least important attributes and not to rank them. The author added up the total number of times each attribute was mentioned regardless of position relative to the other attributes. Wong and Chi-Yung (2002) used models of self-explication and conjoint to show from the most important attribute to the least important one among selected 5 hotel attributes after the analysis of 296 usable questionnaires out of 300. Table 1 summarizes a list of attributes of accommodation facilities mentioned as important in a tourism context. METHODOLOGY Population and Sample The public employees in Aksaray were the population of this survey. There were 13,235 public employees (tenured (11,034) and contractual (503) officers, and tenured (1,116) and contractual (582) workers) in Aksaray at the beginning of 2015 according to the Provincial Planning and Coordination Directorate of Aksaray. The participation in the survey was totally voluntary. The survey could be executed with 297 people after visiting main state agencies such as hospital, university, governorate, and municipality. 95 participants are needed for a 95% confidence level with ±10 confidence interval, and 373 participants are needed for a 95% confidence level with ±5 confidence interval. The sample size of 297 for the population of 13,235 is equal to ±5.62 confidence interval at 95% confidence level (http://www.surveysystem.com/), so ±6 confidence interval is acceptable for the survey. Data collection The primary data collection tool of this survey was a questionnaire. That the questionnaire was prepared only for an academic research was stated at the head of the questionnaire paper. The questionnaire consisted of mainly 2 sections. At the first part, there were items about demographics and travel preferences. At the second part, a 20-item scale developed by McCleary et al. (1998) was used to see the participants’ choices of importance among the attributes of accommodation establishments. 2 items in the scale ‘convenient to business’ and ‘hotel frequent travel program’ were removed. Because there are different traveller groups (e.g. holiday, business, and visiting friends and relatives) in the survey, the item ‘convenient to business’ could be an important factor for those who travelled for business purposes, but could be meaningless for the other 2 groups. The item ‘hotel frequent travel program’ was also removed, because some accommodation places in the questionnaire (e.g. state guesthouses and practice hotels) did not have such programs. 4 items in the scale were adapted to today’s circumstances (e.g. free local telephone calls ˃ free wi-fi service), and 6 new items were added (e.g. swimming pool or beach facilities). In the end, a 24-item scale was consisted. This part’s response scale had ‘importance’ as the evaluative component through 5 options (5-point Likert-type scale): ‘(1) very unimportant’, ‘(2) somewhat unimportant’, ‘(3) somewhat important’, ‘(4) important’, and ‘(5) very important’. The Cronbach’s alpha value of the scale was found as α = 0.868, which is considered as good (α ≥ 0.8) (George & Mallery, 2003: 231). Analysis of the data A computer software was used to analyse the data collected. Frequency counts were conducted on the demographical profile and travel and accommodation preferences of the participants. The holiday, business, and visiting friends and relatives (VFR) travellers were compared to one another in terms of their travel mates, accommodation places, average durations of stay, and hotel board preferences by crosstabs and the Pearson Chi-Square Independence Test. Decimal numbers which were the expected counts of test results rounded up or down in the text when mentioning those decimal numbers as people/participants. In this study, instead of using mean scores to rank the attributes from the one with the highest mean score to the lowest one and defining some mean scores as ‘important’ or ‘very important’, frequency counts were once more used in order to see each attribute’s position as to 5 importance categories, namely, for each attribute, which importance category was marked by how many participants. Importance levels such as ‘very unimportant’, ‘somewhat important’, ‘important’ etc. being marked for each attribute are separate categories, and this makes the data categorical. Having numbers

311 from ‘1’ to ‘5’ associated with importance categories/levels, in fact, mean that there are 5 different importance categories. Therefore, instead of using mean scores and mean ranges, frequency counts and modes were used in the study for each attribute and importance category. RESULTS Demographical profile of the participants As seen in Table 2, 64% of the participants were male, 57.2% were at the age range of 28-39 years, 78.5% were married, 55.2% held a bachelor’s degree, 45.8% earned between 2,001 and 3,000 Turkish liras (TRY), and 40.1% were officers. Table 2: Demographic data of the participants. Categories Sub-categories n % Male 190 64 Gender Female 107 36 Total 297 100 17-27 38 12.8 28-39 170 57.2 40-49 71 23.9 Age 50-59 17 5.7 60 and more 1 0.3 Total 297 100 Single 64 21.5 Marital status Married 233 78.5 Total 297 100 Secondary school 3 1 High-school 43 14.5 Education level Graduate 164 55.2 Post-graduate 87 29.3 Total 297 100 1,000-2,000 31 10.4 2,001-3,000 136 45.8 Income (TRY) 3,001-4,000 76 25.6 4,001 and more 54 18.2 Total 297 100 Officer 119 40.1 Worker 10 3.4 Manager 12 4 Health professional 16 5.4 Profession Law professional 7 2.4 Security staff 22 7.4 Education professional 98 33 Other 13 4.4 Total 297 100 Travel and accommodation preferences of the participants Participants were asked about their most travel aims and travel and accommodation preferences. As for travel aims and travel and accommodation preferences of the participants (see Table 3), 40.4% of the participants travelled for visiting their friends and relatives, and 40.1% of them travelled for holiday. They mostly travelled with their family members (54.2%), stayed for 3-4 days on average (40.7%), and preferred half board (32%) and all-inclusive (32%) types primarily. Preferences for accommodation places mostly were state guesthouses (32%) and 5-star hotels (27.9%). Travel and accommodation preferences of the public employees varied in terms of aim of travel. Those who travelled for holiday mostly travelled with their family members (60.5%), preferred 5-star

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hotels (35.3%) to stay in, stayed for 5-6 days on average (43.7%), and preferred all-inclusive packages (40.3%). Those who travelled for business purposes mostly travelled on their own (48.3%), preferred guesthouses (50%) to stay in, stayed for 3-4 days on average (53.4%), and preferred bed and breakfast (BB) board (46.6%). VFR travellers mostly travelled with their family members (65.8%), preferred guesthouses (35.8%) to stay in, stayed for 3-4 days on average (37.5%), and preferred half board (HB) type (32.5%). It could be concluded from these findings that the public employees who travel except for holiday purposes stay shorter, prefer guesthouses and BB or HB boards. The holiday travellers prefer hotels and all-inclusive services much more. Further, the business travellers tend to travel alone, whereas the holiday and VFR travellers travel with their families. Table 3: Travel and accommodation data of the participants. Categories Sub-categories n % Holiday 119 40.1 Business 58 19.5 Travel aim Visiting friends/relatives 120 40.4 Total 297 100 Alone 41 13.8 Friends 58 19.5 Travelling Family (with children) 161 54.2 with… Family (without children) 37 12.5 Total 297 100 1 and 2-star hotels 2 0.7 3-star hotels 22 7.4 4-star hotels 31 10.4 5-star hotels 83 27.9 Accommodation Holiday villages 22 7.4 place Boutique hotels 12 4 Practice hotels 9 3 State guesthouses 95 32 Friend/relatives’ houses 21 7.1 Total 297 100 1-2 days 65 21.9 3-4 days 121 40.7 Average 5-6 days 91 30.6 duration of stay 7 and more days 20 6.7 Total 297 100 Only bed (OB) 35 11.8 Bed and breakfast (BB) 72 24.2 Board Half board (HB) 95 32 preference All-inclusive 95 32 Total 297 100 These frequencies and differences between the groups of holiday, business, and VFR travellers were compared to see if there was a statistically significant difference between them. First, groups were compared by whom they are travelling with. When groups were compared according to their travel mates a statistically significant difference was observed at the significance level of 0.001 (Pearson χ2 = 94.745; p-value = 0.000 < 0.001). Distributions could be seen in Table 4. An outstanding result in Table 4 is that while 16 of holiday travellers were expected to travel alone, only 2 of them did so. Distinctly, while 8 of business travellers were expected to travel alone, 28 of them did their travels on their own. On the other hand, while 31 of business travellers were expected to travel with their families with children, only 10 of them performed it as expected. Moreover, the VFR and holiday travellers exceeded the expected counts of 65.1 and 64.5 for them getting the observed counts of 79 and 72 respectively.

313 Table 4: Comparison of the travel groups according to their travel mates. Categories Holiday Business VFR Total Count 2 28 11 41 Alone Expected count 16.4 8 16.6 41 % 4.9 68.3 26.8 100 Count 28 7 23 58 Friends Expected count 23.2 11.3 23.4 58 % 48.3 12.1 39.7 100 Count 72 10 79 161 Family (with Expected count 64.5 31.4 65.1 161 children) % 44.7 6.2 49.1 100 Count 17 13 7 37 Family (without Expected count 14.8 7.2 14.9 37 children) % 45.9 35.1 18.9 100 Count 119 58 120 297 Total Expected count 119 58 120 297 % 40.1 19.5 40.4 100 When groups were compared by their preferences for accommodation places, a statistically significant difference was observed at the significance level of 0.001 (Pearson χ2 = 59.044; p-value = 0.000 < 0.001). Categories of ‘1 and 2-star hotels’ and ‘3-star hotels’ were compounded as one category of ‘1, 2, and 3-star hotels’ and boutique and practice hotels were taken to the same category, because 12 cells (44.4%) had expected count less than 5 after the first analysis. After the merger of the categories, 4 cells (19% < 20%) had expected count less than 5. Distributions regarding this comparison could be seen in Table 5. Table 5: Comparison of the travel groups according to their preferences among accommodation places. Categories Holiday Business VFR Total Count 9 4 11 24 1, 2, and 3-star hotels Expected count 9.6 4.7 9.7 24 % 37.5 16.7 45.8 100 Count 17 5 9 31 4-star hotels Expected count 12.4 6.1 12.5 31 % 54.8 16.1 29 100 Count 42 15 26 83 5-star hotels Expected count 33.3 16.2 33.5 83 % 50.6 18.1 31.3 100 Count 19 0 3 22 Holiday villages Expected count 8.8 4.3 8.9 22 % 86.4 0 13.6 100 Count 6 5 10 21 Boutique and practice hotels Expected count 8.4 4.1 8.5 21 % 28.6 23.8 47.6 100 Count 23 29 43 95 State guesthouses Expected count 38.1 18.6 38.4 95 % 24.2 30.5 45.3 100 Count 3 0 18 21 Friend/relatives’ houses Expected count 8.4 4.1 8.5 21 % 14.3 0 85.7 100 Count 119 58 120 297 Total Expected count 119 58 120 297 % 40.1 19.5 40.4 100

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As for some remarkable results in Table 5, while 33 of holiday travellers were expected to stay at 5-star hotels, 42 of them were observed to stay at, and 23 of holiday travellers stayed at state guesthouses instead of 38 expected ones. On the other hand, 26 of VFR travellers stayed at 5-star hotels, whereas 34 of them were expected to stay at the aforementioned accommodation category. Correspondingly, and not surprisingly, the VFR travellers are seen to prefer staying at their friends’ or relatives’ houses more than the other 2 groups of travellers, because 18 of them stayed at such houses in contrast to 9 expected travellers of that category. Yet, big proportion, namely 102 of them, stayed at accommodation businesses, particularly at guesthouses. The VFR travellers preferring to stay at hotels, guesthouses, or even at holiday villages give rise to such a question that did they both visit their friends or relatives and have a holiday at the same time? Or, did both travellers and their friends and relatives meet at accommodation places for such visitations? Last, while 19 of business travellers were expected to stay at guesthouses, 29 of them performed such a stay. These are the apparent differences between the traveller groups. Comparing groups by their durations of stay at accommodation places resulted in a statistically significant difference at the significance level of 0.001 (Pearson χ2 = 49.247; p-value = 0.000 < 0.001). Table 6 presents the distributions of this comparison. As seen in Table 6, more than expected (52 > 36.5) holiday travellers stayed for 5-6 days, and the business travellers expected to stay for 5-6 days were less than expected (4 < 17.8). The business travellers were more than expected at the categories of 1-2 (21 > 12.7) and 3-4 (31 > 23.6) days. The VFR travellers were more than expected (36 > 26.3) at the 1-2 days category, whereas the holiday travellers were less than expected (8 < 26). Table 6: Comparison of the travel groups according to their preferences of duration of stay. Categories Holiday Business VFR Total Count 8 21 36 65 1-2 days Expected count 26 12.7 26.3 65 % 12.3 32.3 55.4 100 Count 45 31 45 121 3-4 days Expected count 48.5 23.6 48.9 121 % 37.2 25.6 37.2 100 Count 52 4 35 91 5-6 days Expected count 36.5 17.8 36.8 91 % 57.1 4.4 38.5 100 Count 14 2 4 20 7 and more days Expected count 8 3.9 8.1 20 % 70 10 20 100 Count 119 58 120 297 Total Expected count 119 58 120 297 % 40.1 19.5 40.4 100

A statistically significant difference was observed at the significance level of 0.001 (Pearson χ2 = 25.929; p-value = 0.000 < 0.001) after the comparison of groups by their preferences of hotel board types at accommodation places. Table 7 shows this comparison. As for hotel board preferences of the participants in Table 7, 19 holiday travellers, instead of 29 expected ones, preferred BB board, whereas 27 of business travellers preferred the aforementioned board type instead of 14 expected ones. More than expected (48 > 38.1) holiday travellers preferred all- inclusive service of accommodation establishments in contrast to the business travellers which were less than expected (10 < 18.6).

315 Table 7: Comparison of the travel groups according to their preferences of hotel board types. Categories Holiday Business VFR Total Count 10 7 18 35 Only bed (OB) Expected count 14 6.8 14.1 35 % 28.6 20 51.4 100 Count 19 27 26 72 Bed and breakfast (BB) Expected count 28.8 14.1 29.1 72 % 26.4 37.5 36.1 100 Count 42 14 39 95 Half board (HB) Expected count 38.1 18.6 38.4 95 % 44.2 14.7 41.1 100 Count 48 10 37 95 All-inclusive Expected count 38.1 18.6 38.4 95 % 50.5 10.5 38.9 100 Count 119 58 120 297 Total Expected count 119 58 120 297 % 40.1 19.5 40.4 100 Importance order of attributes of an accommodation place Participants were asked which attributes were to what extent important when it comes to staying at an accommodation place. 5 attributes, ‘(1) cleanliness (80.5%)’, ‘(2) safety and security (78.1%)’, ‘(3) comfortable mattress and pillow (58.2%)’, ‘(4) smiling personnel (56.9%)’, and ‘(5) low price (55.2%)’ were seen as ‘very important’ for more than 50% of the participants. Table 8: Attributes and their categorical importance: ‘(1) very unimportant’, ‘(2) somewhat unimportant’, ‘(3) somewhat important’, ‘(4) important’, and ‘(5) very important’. Attributes 1 2 3 4 5 Total n 2 3 53 239 297 1 Cleanliness - % 0.7 1 17.8 80.5 100 n 1 8 56 232 297 2 Safety and security - % 0.3 2.7 18.9 78.1 100 n 1 3 18 102 173 297 3 Comfortable mattress and pillow % 0.3 1 6.1 34.3 58.2 100 n 2 2 20 104 169 297 4 Smiling personnel % 0.7 0.7 6.7 35 56.9 100 n 3 29 101 164 297 5 Low price - % 1 9.8 34 55.2 100 n 17 20 38 74 148 297 6 Non-smoking rooms % 5.7 6.7 12.8 24.9 49.8 100 n 12 9 32 100 144 297 7 Car parking area* % 4 3 10.8 33.7 48.5 100 n 15 26 36 76 144 297 8 Swimming pool or beach facilities* % 5.1 8.8 12.1 25.6 48.5 100 n 21 16 37 86 137 297 9 Free wi-fi service** % 7.1 5.4 12.5 29 46.1 100 Restaurant (Food and beverage n 9 17 45 92 134 297 10 facilities)** % 3 5.7 15.2 31 45.1 100 n 12 26 40 93 126 297 11 Wellness centre* % 4 8.8 13.5 31.3 42.4 100 Convenient to downtown (Transport n 13 14 42 110 118 297 12 facilities) % 4.4 4.7 14.1 37 39.7 100 n 30 19 49 88 111 297 13 Facilities for children (e.g. games)* % 10.1 6.4 16.5 29.6 37.4 100 n 3 6 48 138 102 297 14 Well-maintained furnishings % 1 2 16.2 46.5 34.3 100

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n 4 9 40 131 113 297 15 Being recommended % 1.3 3 13.5 44.1 38 100 Information (Customer relations) n 11 7 51 121 107 297 16 desk** % 3.7 2.4 17.2 40.7 36 100 n 8 16 50 116 107 297 17 Good reputation % 2.7 5.4 16.8 39.1 36 100 n 22 33 70 105 67 297 18 Room service % 7.4 11.1 23.6 35.4 22.6 100 n 16 31 68 97 85 297 19 Hair dryer % 5.4 10.4 22.9 32.7 28.6 100 Technological support (e.g. copy n 25 32 66 95 79 297 20 machine, PC, printout)** % 8.4 10.8 22.2 32 26.6 100 n 35 49 68 85 60 297 21 Laundry service % 11.8 16.5 22.9 28.6 20.2 100 n 31 34 64 84 84 297 22 Entertainment and animation services* % 10.4 11.4 21.5 28.3 28.3 100 n 42 58 85 58 54 297 23 Beauty centre/facilities* % 14.1 19.5 28.6 19.5 18.2 100 n 79 53 64 57 44 297 24 In-room mini bar % 22.6 17.8 21.5 19.2 14.8 100 * Additional criterion ** Adapted to the present day criterion (concierge floors ˃ information desk; family restaurant ˃ restaurant; free local telephone calls ˃ free wi-fi service; copy machine ˃ technological support (copy machine, PC, printout)

‘Non-smoking rooms’ was seen as very important by 148 (49.8%) participants. Other attributes taking the highest proportions in the ‘very important’ category were ‘car parking area (48.5%)’, ‘swimming pool or beach facilities (48.5%)’, ‘free wi-fi service (46.1%)’, ‘restaurant (45.1%)’, ‘wellness centre (42.4%)’, ‘transport facilities (39.7%)’, and ‘facilities for children (37.4%)’. 8 attributes were most frequent in the ‘important’ category, but none of them got a proportion of more than the 50% of the participants of the survey. Attributes being considered as important by their percentage frequencies were ‘well-maintained furnishings (46.5%)’, ‘being recommended (44.1%)’, ‘information desk (40.7%)’, ‘good reputation (39.1%)’, ‘room service (35.4%)’, ‘hair dryer (32.7%)’, ‘technological support (32%)’, and ‘laundry service (28.6%)’. ‘Entertainment and animation services’ got an equal proportion (28.3%) in both of the categories ‘very important’ and ‘important’. ‘Beauty centre/facilities (28.6%)’ was the only attribute being most frequent in the category of ‘somewhat important’, and ‘in-room mini bar (22.6%)’ was the only one being most frequent in the category of ‘very unimportant’. All proportions for all items in the scale could be seen in Table 8 (modes in bold type). 2 evaluation criteria in the scale, ‘very unimportant’ and ‘somewhat unimportant’, could be merged under ‘unimportant’, and the other 3 items, ‘somewhat important’, ‘important’, and ‘very important’, could be merged under ‘important’ title in order to roughly recognize the attributes as ‘unimportant’ and/or ‘important’. Table 9 shows the frequencies through ‘not important’ and ‘important’ of the attributes. It is seen in Table 9 that the first 5 attributes are ‘(1) safety and security’, ‘(2) cleanliness’, ‘(3) low price’, ‘(4) comfortable mattress and pillow’, and ‘(5) smiling personnel’, which are same as in Table 8 even the rank order of them is different. One can imply that these 5 accommodation attributes are more important than the other attributes for the participants. Since participants were divided into 3 categories according to their aims of travel, attributes could be viewed have ranged by the choices of travel groups. However, 24 attributes with 3 different travel groups and 5 importance categories will result in too many rows and columns or at least 3 more tables because of 3 travel groups. To abridge this, emphasis was only made on which travel group mostly considered which attribute as ‘very important’ by marking the frequencies in bold type (see Table 10, modes in bold type), and evaluations were only made in association with this context. Table 10 presents that all of the 3 groups appraised 10 attributes (first ten) as very important. 6 attributes (being recommended, well-maintained furnishings, room service, laundry service, beauty centre/facilities, and in-room mini bar) were not most frequent at the ‘very important’ category by any

317 of the travel groups. ‘Being recommended’, even it could not get the highest frequency by any of the groups, was evaluated as very important by 38% of the all participants. ‘Wellness centre’ was more very important for the VFR (48.3%) and holiday (44.5%) travellers than the business (25.9%) travellers. Similarly, ‘facilities for children’ was the most frequent in the ‘very important’ category for the groups of holiday (43.7%) and VFR (41.7%) travellers, but it was not same for the group of business (15.5%) travellers. ‘Convenient to downtown (transport facilities)’ was more very important for the business (51.7%) and holiday (37.8%) travellers than the VFR (35.8%) travellers. The very important evaluation proportion of VFR travellers (40%) for ‘good reputation’ was higher than the other 2 groups of travellers (holiday = 36.1% and business = 27.6%). Whereas, ‘information (customer relations) desk (39.7%)’ was the most frequent at the ‘very important’ category for only business travellers, attributes such as ‘hair dryer (35.3%)’, ‘entertainment and animation services’ (38.7%), and ‘technological support (26.9%)’ were the most frequent for only holiday travellers at the aforementioned evaluation category. Table 9: Rank order of attributes by their frequencies after merger of categories. Not Total Attributes Important important n 1 296 297 1 Safety and security % 0.3 99.7 100 n 2 295 297 2 Cleanliness % 0.7 99.3 100 n 3 294 297 3 Low price % 1 99 100 n 4 293 297 4 Comfortable mattress and pillow % 1.3 98.7 100 n 4 293 297 5 Smiling personnel % 1.3 98.7 100 n 9 288 297 6 Well-maintained furnishings % 3 97 100 n 13 284 297 7 Being recommended % 4.4 95.6 100 n 18 279 297 8 Information (Customer relations) desk % 6.1 93.9 100 n 21 276 297 9 Car parking area % 7.1 92.9 100 n 24 273 297 10 Good reputation % 8.1 91.9 100 n 26 271 297 11 Restaurant (Food and beverage facilities) % 8.8 91.2 100 n 27 270 297 12 Convenient to downtown (Transport facilities) % 9.1 90.9 100 n 37 260 297 13 Free wi-fi service % 12.5 87.5 100 n 37 260 297 14 Non-smoking rooms % 12.5 87.5 100 n 38 259 297 15 Wellness centre % 12.8 87.2 100 n 41 256 297 16 Swimming pool or beach facilities % 13.8 86.2 100 n 47 250 297 17 Hair dryer % 15.8 84.2 100 n 49 248 297 18 Facilities for children (e.g. games) % 16.5 83.5 100 19 Room service n 55 242 297

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% 18.5 81.5 100 Technological support (e.g. copy machine, PC, n 57 240 297 20 printout) % 19.2 80.8 100 n 65 232 297 21 Entertainment and animation services % 21.9 78.1 100 n 84 213 297 22 Laundry service % 28.3 71.7 100 n 100 197 297 23 Beauty centre/facilities % 33.7 66.3 100 n 132 165 297 24 In-room mini bar % 44.4 55.6 100 Table 10: Attributes and travel groups’ frequencies for the category of ‘very important’. Holiday Business VFR Total Attributes n=119 n=58 n=120 n=297 n 103 43 93 239 1 Cleanliness % 86.6 74.1 77.5 80.5 n 98 41 93 232 2 Safety and security % 82.4 70.7 77.5 78.1 n 76 31 66 173 3 Comfortable mattress and pillow % 63.9 53.4 55 58.2 n 66 33 70 169 4 Smiling personnel % 55.5 56.9 58.3 56.9 n 62 29 73 164 5 Low price % 52.1 50 60.8 55.2 n 54 30 64 148 6 Non-smoking rooms % 45.4 51.7 53.3 49.8 n 65 21 58 144 7 Car parking area % 54.6 36.2 48.3 48.5 n 77 16 51 144 8 Swimming pool or beach facilities % 64.7 27.6 42.5 48.5 n 58 33 46 137 9 Free wi-fi service % 48.7 56.9 38.3 46.1 n 63 20 51 134 10 Restaurant (food and beverage facilities) % 52.9 34.5 42.5 45.1 n 53 15 58 126 11 Wellness centre % 44.5 25.9 48.3 42.4 Convenient to downtown (transport n 45 30 43 118 12 facilities) % 37.8 51.7 35.8 39.7 n 45 20 48 113 13 Being recommended % 37.8 34.5 40 38 n 52 9 50 111 14 Facilities for children (e.g. games) % 43.7 15.5 41.7 37.4 n 43 16 48 107 15 Good reputation % 36.1 27.6 40 36 n 44 23 40 107 16 Information (customer relations) desk % 37 39.7 33.3 36 n 44 16 42 102 17 Well-maintained furnishings % 37 27.6 35 34.3 n 42 16 27 85 18 Hair dryer % 35.3 27.6 22.5 28.6 n 46 7 31 84 19 Entertainment and animation services % 38.7 12.1 25.8 28.3 20 Technological support (copy machine, PC, n 32 18 29 79

319 printout) % 26.9 31 24.2 26.6 n 28 14 25 67 21 Room service % 23.5 24.1 20.8 22.6 n 24 10 26 60 22 Laundry service % 20.2 17.2 21.7 20.2 n 29 9 16 54 23 Beauty centre/facilities % 24.4 15.5 13.3 18.2 n 21 7 16 44 24 In-room mini bar % 17.6 12.1 13.3 14.8 LIMITATIONS This study could be a starting point. Therefore, a strict interpretation of results would be inappropriate. Replication with other employees apart from those working in state offices and extension in new regions will ensure a more general view. Besides, open-ended questions could be directed to people in order to see if there is/are any other criterion/criteria for choosing an accommodation establishment. This could be important to identify different customer needs in different markets and regions to be able to promote some marketing activities. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Businesses knowing the attitudes and preferences of their potential/effective customers could come to more accurate marketing decisions and strategies. The aim of this study is to present what Turkish public employees’ travel and accommodation preferences with different aims of travel are and the priorities among the participants’ choice criteria for accommodation establishments. Thus, this study could make a contribution to see the travel profiles of Turkish public employees and could be beneficial for tourism businesses with regards to knowing customers’ preferences when it comes to choosing an accommodation establishment to stay at. The participants of this survey were mostly married with children and they travelled for holiday and visiting their relatives and friends. Choosing a place to stay varied according to the aim of the visit. The participants mostly chose state guesthouses (e.g. teacher’s lodge) when visiting their relatives or friends or travelling for business purposes. On the other hand, the holiday travellers mostly chose 5-star hotels with all-inclusive concept and longer stay durations with their family members. Travels for business were shorter and on bed and breakfast (BB) board. These findings indicate some kind of heterogeneity resulting from intents of travel. In this study, modes of 13 attributes out of 24 were 5, namely the category of ‘very important’. One attribute, ‘entertainment and animation services’, got multiple modes: 4 (important) and 5 (very important). ‘In-room mini bar’ was the only attribute with the mode of 1 which was equalled to the ‘very unimportant’. Besides, the top 5 ranked attributes were ‘(1) safety and security’, ‘(2) cleanliness’, ‘(3) low price’, ‘(4) comfortable mattress and pillow’, and ‘(5) smiling personnel’ according to the public employees’ statements. According to McCleary et al. (1998: 34)’s study, ‘(1) cleanliness of hotel’, ‘(2) safety and security’, ‘(3) comfortable mattress and pillow’, ‘(4) friendly service of hotel staff’, and ‘(5) non-smoking rooms’ were the top 5 ranked hotel attributes for the 243 American travellers; and ‘(1) cleanliness of hotel’, ‘(2) friendly service of hotel staff’, ‘(3) safety and security’, ‘(4) comfortable mattress and pillow’, and ‘(5) convenient to business’ were the top 5 ranked ones for the 134 Korean travellers. Attributes such as ‘cleanliness’, ‘safety and security’, ‘comfortable mattress and pillows’, and ‘friendly/smiling staff’ seem to have common importance for the participants from the different parts of the world. ‘Low price’ was an important criterion for the Turkish public employees which should not be omitted. Some participants offered that the government should promote them to take holidays. On the other hand, the last 5 ranked attributes were ‘(1) in-room mini bar’, ‘(2) beauty centre/facilities’, ‘(3) laundry service’, ‘(4) entertainment and animation services’, and ‘(5) technological support’ in this study. While ‘(1) in-room mini bar’, ‘(2) hair dryer’, ‘(3) copy machine’, ‘(4) laundry service’, and ‘(5) travel agent’s recommendation’ were the last 5 ranked hotel attributes according to the American participants; ‘(1) concierge floors’, ‘(2) travel agent’s recommendation’, ‘(3)

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family restaurant’, ‘(4) good reputation of hotel’, and ‘(5) hair dryer’ were the last 5 ranked ones for the Korean participants (McCleary et al., 1998: 34). Hotel attributes such as ‘in-room mini bar’, ‘laundry service’, ‘hair dryer’, ‘technological support (e.g. copy machine, PC, printout)’, and ‘travel agent’s recommendation’ seem somewhat to be unimportant and less appealing for the participants from the different parts of the world. Travellers coming on all-inclusive holiday packages seem not to need in- room mini bars to drink, and therefore, they more prefer drinking outside the rooms and/or drinking outside is more enjoyable for them. Travellers travelling on apart from the all-inclusive holiday packages (e.g. business travellers) may need in-room mini bars if they are not worried about extra charges for the drinks from in-room mini bar. 36% of the participants (107 people) were women in this study. This could be a primary reason for the rank (the last 2) of the attribute ‘beauty centre/facilities’ in the study. Further, may be women do not easily trust a beauty centre which they are unused to because of some suspicious minds about committing their beauty to unfamiliar hands. ‘Entertainment and animation services’ was very important for the 38.7% of the holiday travellers (46 out of 119 people) even its rank was the last 4 in general. The importance of a travel agent’s recommendation could differ whether or not it is used as a source of information before going travel. While ‘wellness centre’ and ‘facilities for children’ were more prior criteria for the holiday and VFR travellers; ‘convenient to downtown’ was more prior for the holiday and business travellers. An interesting finding might be that ‘good reputation’ was more prior for the VFR travellers than the holiday and business travellers. One can infer from this result that VFR groups of travellers may be more sensitive to the reputation of an accommodation place before choosing it to stay at. If they do not prefer staying at a place unless knowing that the place has a good reputation, they may sometimes prefer staying at their friends’ or relatives’ houses then. Businesses could check all the criteria on this study and evaluate themselves to see if there is something missing for them. RECOMMENDATIONS Findings of this research could help businesses when they develop a market orientation and determine which attributes to advertise. If businesses will segment the market (e.g. holiday, business, and VFR travellers), they should take into consider how different aims of travel affect the travellers’ needs and which attributes are important for travellers with different travel aims. Accommodation businesses could pay attention to such criteria as ‘wellness centre’, ‘convenient to downtown (transport facilities)’, ‘facilities for children’, and ‘entertainment and animation services’ when taking their target markets into consideration and emphasize them in advertisements. On the other hand, in order to ensure more participation of public employees to tourism or domestic tourism, some promoting incentives and policies could be provided by the government. For example, domestic holiday packages could be used as an award for successful public employees. Besides, domestic tourism could be seen as a main target market for some businesses instead of seeing it as an alternative at times when inbound tourism falls. Funding This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors. REFERENCES Ananth, M.; DeMicco, F.J.; Moreo, P.J. & Howey, R.M. (1992). Marketplace Lodging Needs of Mature Travelers. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 33: (4), 12-24. doi: 10.1177/001088049203300403 Callan, R.J. (1998). Attributional Analysis of Customers’ Hotel Selection Criteria by UK Grading Scheme Categories. Journal of Travel Research 36: (3), 20-34. doi: 10.1177/004728759803600303 Callan, R.J. & Bowman, L. (2000). Selecting a Hotel and Determining Salient Quality Attributes: A Preliminary Study of Mature British Travellers. International Journal of Tourism Research 2: (2), 97-118. doi: 10.1002/152219702000030422 George, D. & Mallery, P. (2003). SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference. Fourth Edition. Allyn & Bacon. Boston, MA. Goeldner, C.R. & Ritchie, J.R.B. (2012). Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies. Twelfth Edition. John Wiley & Sons. Hoboken, NJ.

321 Hart, W. (1993). What Women Want? Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 34: (5), 10. doi: 10.1177/001088049303400504 Imrie, R. & Fyall, A. (2001). Independent Mid-Market UK Hotels: Marketing Strategies for an Increasingly Competitive Environment. Journal of Vacation Marketing 7: (1), 63-74. doi: 10.1177/135676670100700106 Knutson, B.J. (1988). Frequent Travelers: Make Them Happy and Bring Them Back. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 29: (1), 82-87. doi: 10.1177/001088048802900121 Lewis, R.C. (1984). Isolating Differences in Hotel Attributes. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 25: (3), 64-77. doi: 10.1177/001088048402500316 Lewis, R.C. (1985). The Market Position: Mapping Guests’ Perceptions of Hotel Operations. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 26: (2), 86-99. doi: 10.1177/001088048502600222 Lockyer, T. (2002). Business Guests’ Accommodation Selection: The View From Both Sides. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 14: (6), 294-300. doi: 10.1108/09596110210436832 McCleary, K.W.; Weaver, P.A. & Hutchinson, J.C. (1993). Hotel Selection Factors as They Relate to Business Travel Situations. Journal of Travel Research 32: (2), 42-48. doi: 10.1177/004728759303200206 McCleary, K.W.; Weaver, P.A. & Lan, L. (1994). Gender-Based Difference in Business Travelers’ Lodging Preferences. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 35: (2), 51-58. doi: 10.1177/001088049403500218 McCleary, K.W.; Choi, B.M. & Weaver, P.A. (1998). A Comparison of Hotel Selection Criteria between U.S. and Korean Business Travelers. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research 22: (1), 25-38. doi: 10.1177/109634809802200104 Shanahan, K.J. (2003). The Degree of Congruency between Roadside Billboard Advertisements and Sought Attributes of Motels by US Drive Tourists. Journal of Vacation Marketing 9: (4), 381-395. doi: 10.1177/135676670300900407 Survey System. Research Aids. Sample Size Calculator. http://www.surveysystem. Com /sscalc.htm (Accessed: 23 July 2015). United Nation World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). (2015). Tourism Highlights. 2015 Edition. http://www.e- unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284416899 (Accessed: 20 June 2015). Wong, K. K. F. & Chi-Yung, L. (2002). Predicting Hotel Choice Decision and Segmenting Hotel Consumers: A Comparative Assessment of a Recent Consumer Based Approach. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 11: (1), 17-33. doi: 10.1300/J073v11n01_02

322 Chapter 24

Festivals as Cultural Heritage: The Mesir Festival of Manisa

Uysal YENİPINAR*, Erşan YILDIZ

1. INTRODUCTION Conserving cultural assets and passing them on to the future generations imply not only the preservation of the past but also securing the future. The efforts to safeguard cultural heritage should increasingly continue by means of individual, local, regional, national, and international education and projects. The community’s desire for conservation that arises from environmental consciousness should contain not only natural resources but also cultural assets (Çetin, 2010). In terms of this issue, each part of the community, notably countries and nongovernmental organisations, possesses a significant duty. Accordingly, it is a vital requirement to follow the requests of organisations, such as UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization) and WTO (World Tourism Organisation), which intend to safeguard cultural heritage. Natural and cultural heritage sites and intangible cultural heritage, which are included in the list of World Heritage and Temporary List of World Heritage, should particularly be safeguarded. Remaining tangible and intangible heritage should also be safeguarded urgently, cherishing them as though each one is a world heritage site. Hence, festivals, which are regarded as a part of intangible cultural heritage, are also one of our cultural values that should be passed on to the future in their original forms by conserving their traditional characteristics. A festival is an extensive concept that reflects the perceptions of a community with all its activities and rituals regarding its culture and world vision. Communities in every country, culture and history have celebrated festivals. Nowadays, festivals are also known as fests, carnivals, fairs, festivities, and feasts (İmirgi, 2005). Festivals, which are a significant part of intangible cultural heritage, will continue to reflect the culture of communities in the future, as they did in the past. The aim of this research is to draw attention to the significance of festivals, which are a part of world cultural heritage and intangible cultural heritage of communities, with the example of the Mesir Festival of Manisa, and to provide suggestions to utilize the historic Mesir Festival of Manisa in terms of tourism. The secondary aim of the research is to raise consciousness regarding world cultural heritage and intangible cultural heritage, along with creating awareness in terms of the significance of safeguarding and passing the activities such as festivals, which are the communities’ source of happiness, unity and amusement, on to the future generations. 2. CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK 2.1. Cultural Heritage For centuries, festivals have been a part of intangible cultural heritage that communities have built along with their values. Culture is originally a French word derived from the Latin word “cultura”. It was originally defined as cultivation of crops, raising, bringing up and training (Aman, 2012). Culture is a set of values, ideas and symbols that help individuals communicate with others as a part of the community, evaluate, and, eventually, interpret certain behaviors and events (H. Helmy Baligh, 1998). In other words, culture is the common characteristic that distinguishes a group from another (D. A. Griffith et al, 2000). As for cultural tourism, it is defined as the event in which visitors witness and experience the history and values of the destinations (Öztürk and Yazıcıoğlu, 2002: 188). In this context, cultural tourism contains the aim to visit ancient artworks, historical buildings and their remnants, research and business trips and expeditions, along with the intention of meeting local

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Mersin University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Guidance  Instructor, Erciyes University, Social Science Vocational School, Tourism and Hotel Management

architectural and original characteristics, libraries, local cuisines, festivals and fairs, theatres and cinemas, music and dances, undergraduate and literary studies, and other trips with the intention of experiencing subcultures (Kızılırmak & Kurtuldu, 2005). World Tourism Organisation defines cultural tourism as the movement of individuals based on cultural motivations such as joining in educational and artistic activities and festivals, visiting monuments and sites, examining nature and the folklore, and religious visits (Çetin, 2010). Cultural tourism resources consist of historical places, festivals and special events, business trips, religious places, local language, art and architecture, sports events, special interest trips, modern culture and traditional cuisine and beverage (Uygur & Baykan, 2007). The study of cultural tourism resources reveals that cultural tourism is a significant element in the conservation and management of cultural heritage. Meanwhile, it also reveals that there is a close relationship between cultural tourism and cultural heritage. According to Tahir (2007), cultural heritage, which is closely connected to cultural tourism, can be defined as tangible and intangible cultural heritage that former generations created and passed on to the future generations (as cited in Şahin, 2009). Festivals as a part of cultural heritage are frequently mentioned together with cultural tourism. In the studies about cultural tourism, terms such as cultural tourism, historical tourism and heritage tourism often coexist (Özdemir, 2009). It is considerably difficult to distinguish these terms all of which are entwined (Çetin, 2010). Heritage tourism, which generally falls within the scope of cultural tourism or has an exact opposite situation, is one of the most significant, commonest and oldest types of travel (Timothy and Boyd, 2006). The fact that cultural tourism has started to develop as a result of sightseeing trips to historical places, museums, remnants, fairs and festivals, and tourists’ growing interest in cultural heritage (Çetin, 2010) has motivated a number of organizations and countries, notably UNESCO. In this sense, UNESCO adopted the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage (UNESCO, 1972). With this convention, UNESCO acknowledged tangible cultural remnants such as historical, archaeological, urban and natural sites, monuments, ruins, mounds, tumuli, Islamic social complexes, mosques, and churches as tangible cultural heritage (Gürpınar, 2001). Additionally, Article 1 of this convention defines cultural heritage as works of man or the combined works of nature and man, which are of outstanding universal value from the historical, aesthetic, ethnological or anthropological point of view, along with architectural works, works of monumental sculpture and painting, elements or structures of an archaeological nature, inscriptions, cave dwellings, and groups of separate or connected buildings all of which are of outstanding universal value from the point of view of history, art or science (Akpınar, 2007). As of 1972, national and international studies and projects have continued with the leadership UNESCO. Subsequent to the adoption of the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1972, experts in UNESCO and other intellectuals criticized the notion that cultural heritage which should be safeguarded included only artifacts and buildings. With these reactions, the idea of safeguarding intangible cultural heritage emerged along with the concept of folklore, and developed. This idea has turned into an international means during the preparatory work of the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage in 1972. The term intangible cultural heritage was born out of UNESCO’s works of safeguarding cultural heritage, and has become widespread (Oğuz, 2013b). Yet, a shared conception related to intangible cultural heritage could not be developed until 2003. UNESCO’s adoption of the Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage on 17th October, 2003 in the 32nd General Conference, and the Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expression in the 33rd General Conference are the fruits of 40 years’ worth of efforts (Oğuz, 2009b). The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage is defined as communities’ manners, methods and means that will contribute to the conservation of intangible cultural heritage which is seen as a part of their cultural identity and has reached the present day by its transmission from one generation to another, and the transmission of intangible cultural heritage to the future generations (Özdemir, 2009). The adoption of both conventions constituted solid steps taken towards acknowledging and safeguarding intangible cultural heritage, and transmitting intangible cultural heritage to the future. Consequently, both conventions argue that intangible cultural heritage, which was created by humanity throughout thousands of years and transmitted to the present day by some means or other, is in danger

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of extinction, and that this extinction eliminates diversity of cultural expression. Therefore, they are international documents of reconciliation that try to prevent this (Oğuz, 2009). These kinds of efforts should certainly be appreciated and adopted. Yet, safeguarding intangible cultural heritage is not as easy as safeguarding tangible cultural heritage. Intangible cultural heritage is the set of intangible and invisible values that create a community, such as traditions, language, beliefs, music, songs, dances, performances (festivals, etc.), tongue twisters, stories and poems. Transmitting this kind of cultural heritage to the future can be possible by repeating and cherishing it especially by means of festivals. Therefore, the Mesir Festival of Manisa, which is one of Turkey’s traditional and authentic festivals and has been carried out without delay for 600 years, is selected as the research subject. However, there are many other examples of festivals that have been carried out for many years in Turkey. For instance, Cumalıkızık, a district of Bursa founded 3000 years ago, is a village that has carried out its traditions for 700 years. The Raspberry Festival of Cumalıkızık contributes to the promotion of the village both nationally and internationally, and to the marketing of its local products. First celebrated in 1998, this festival continues to be celebrated in the last week of June. Both Mesir Festival of Manisa and Raspberry Festival of Cumalıkızık provide significant contributions to the conservation of intangible cultural heritage of both regions. Figure 1 provides a holistic representation of cultural and heritage resources as tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Namely, tangible cultural heritage is described as immovable (archaeological sites, locations, buildings, statues, and scenes) and movable (items, artworks, documents, paintings, collections, audio visual elements). Meanwhile, intangible cultural heritage is presented as customs, traditions, art, language, etc. which are transmitted from past to the present by communities and constitute their culture and values.

Figure 1: Holistic Representation of Cultural and Heritage Resources Source: Gala, A. (2002). Culture and Heritage in Development: Ha Long Eco-Museum, A Case Study from Vietnam, Humanities Research, (9)1, 63-76. 2.2. Festivals Starting from early times, people have always held ceremonies or festivities shaped by their culture in order to express their happiness, sorrow and joy, and their successes in acquisition of food and clothes, and achievements. They have been defined differently in accordance with the culture of the community as festivals, carnivals, fairs, festivities, feasts, and carousals. Nowadays, there are plenty of local, regional, national and international activities that take place annually or periodically. As significant motivations of tourism, festivals are the leading figures of the development and promotion plans of numerous destinations (Duran, 2013). They are of universal importance in social and cultural roles; and they have been designed and developed as tourist attractions (Duran, 2013). Festivals provide opportunities to the local people in terms of sharing their culture, experiences and knowledge (Luna,

325 2015). They help tourists observe how a nation celebrates its holidays and carries on its customs and traditions (Luna, 2015). According to Abdulkadir İnan (1954), seasonal ceremonies and celebrations, where group identities are displayed and shared by the group itself as a collective phenomenon on days based on the calendar, are cultural forms containing complex and multipurpose customs originating in the lives of the group. Rituals, celebrations and ceremonies which were carried out in the periods of gathering and transition to settled life later passed on to monotheistic religions acquiring new aspects. The ceremonies were based on a certain calendar in accordance with the regular transitions of months, seasons and years, and, in turn, regular flourishing and decaying of plants (as cited in Erman, Artun, 2015:). The word festival is originally Latin, used for the first time in early 1200s, and also used similarly in Turkish (Çakır, 2009). Etymologically, the word originally meant “a big entertainment and feast” deriving from the Latin word “Festum”. In this sense, a festival can be defined as an outstanding activity that should create a special atmosphere arising not only from art and quality of products but also from rural regions, a city and the traditions of a region (Quinn, 2005). The term festival is defined in the Turkish Dictionary by Turkish Language Association as follows: “an art exhibition with a particular significance and a specified program where the period, location, and the number or characteristics of the guests are predetermined within a program; a festivity or a national or international series of exhibitions carried out where plays and movies of a specific field of art are shown and awarded or placed in a competition; an exhibition or festivity for the most well-known product of a region; a noisy confusion, carousal” (Turkish Language Association, 2016). Additionally, Kladou (2011) defines festivals as affordable means of developing a destination’s product range, and as activities that provide opportunities for exhibiting rich intangible cultural heritage, local traditions, ethnic origins and cultural landscape of the destination (as cited in Şengül & Genç, 2016). “Local values” sinking into oblivion are introduced by revealing and rediscovering them by means of activities such as festivals. Meanwhile, festivals help create original brands from local tastes and carry out studies concerning the transition of the existing and newly-created brands (Çakır, 2009). Along with strengthening the friendship between communities, festivals encourage people to visit new destinations by means of stimulating curiosity towards new cultures and lives (Çulha, 2008). Festivals also have a positive impact on the image of the host city (Yuan & Chong, 2007). As for local and indigenous festivals, they are events that endow a city with the opportunity to be remembered with the aforementioned activities, along with reflecting the soul of a city or a region (Kızılırmak, 2006). According to Jacop Grimm, Max Müller, Andrew Lang, Wilhelm Mannhardt and James Frazer, modern festivals have ensured that magical rituals, which aimed to explain the reasons behind the prolongation of days or the coming of winter, to soothe the gods of fields, forests and the sky, and especially to increase abundance, prevailed (İmirgi, 2005). Hence, as in the past, festivals today are considered as activities carried out through attributing certain meanings to life, seasons and events. The intensity and the meanings attributed to these activities increase in value when they are integrated with communities. Concisely, the support of local people is an indispensible part of the continuity and success of festivals (Şengül & Genç, 2016). For instance, the expression on the website of the long-established Carnival of Venice states that “The Carnival of Venice.... With a history of almost a thousand years, it is a cordial, sincere, superb tradition, and, despite its age, the festival continues to possess its early enthusiasm thanks to the people who feel and share its thrill”. According to Getz, this expression appropriately illustrates the significance of local support in the continuity and success of a festival (as cited in Şengül & Genç, 2016). It is vital to get moral and material support from all relevant stakeholders, especially local people, in local activities and tourism development of the destination (Şengül & Genç, 2016). Santino asserts that festivals penetrate cultures, and, in accordance with the continuation of the festivals, he states that “if festivals are no longer meaningful, they cease to exist” (İmirgi, 2005). Concisely, it is not possible for festivals to carry on their existence and success unless communities embrace and integrate them in their social lives. Therefore, festival planners should plan festivals only after taking the community into consideration. The reason behind this is that collective celebrations on holidays and certain days are the means of rejoicing and feeling proud of one’s nation, along with showing happiness and well-being as a whole nation. These special days have a crucial position and function in strengthening and enhancing national

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unity and helping future generations comprehend their significance. On the one hand, they act as a reminder for individuals that they have social responsibilities, duties, and rights. On the other hand, they remind individuals that they have responsibilities for the environment they live in, the nature and other creatures (Ekici, 2005). Although festivals seem to be carried out with the sole purpose of promoting the cultures of destinations and attracting tourists, they are essentially significant to ensure the continuity of the culture and traditions of local people (Şengül & Genç, 2016). One of the activities which would provide substantial contribution to the continuity of cultural values is culture and art festivals. Nowadays, culture and art festivals as a part of intangible cultural heritage have transformed into strategies of promoting and developing image values of cities (Sazak & Eyüboğlu, 2009). Cities that understand the significance of festivals and develop strategies accordingly have achieved cultural, social, economic and spatial gains (Sazak & Eyüboğlu, 2009). Moreover, local festivals have significant contributions to destinations in terms of extending tourist seasons, reviving the destination in off-season, creating an image, increasing attractiveness of the range of products, and conserving and promoting natural heritage, and customs and traditions (Şengül & Genç, 2016). 2.3. The City of Manisa and Mesir Festival Manisa is one of the old cities in Anatolia. (Özbalcı & Var, 2013). Located at the intersection of main roads linking Anatolia to the Aegean Sea, the city has always been a significant production area and commercial centre ever since antiquity due to its fertile soil and abundant water resources, favorable climate and geographical position (Tokmakoğlu, 2009). With its geographical attractions, historical and cultural values, Manisa has a distinctively unique background (Kuzay Demir, 2015). Along with being home to many civilizations throughout history, today, Manisa is called as “The city of Shehzades (sons of Ottoman Sultans)” due to the fact that it was one of the shehzade sanjaks (provinces where the Shehzades were appointed as the governor to develop their administrative skills) during the Ottoman Empire (Kuzay Demir, 2015). The most significant historic buildings worth-seeing in the city are Muradiye Mosque and Kulliye (a complex with religious and social facilities) from Ottoman era, and Great Mosque of Manisa which is one of the best buildings of the Beylik of Saruhan. Other major historical monuments in Manisa and the surrounding area are as follows: Lydian city of Sardis and Tumuli of Bin Tepe (Lydian royal cemetery), and ancient city of Aigai (Aeolis), ancient city of Philadelphia in Alaşehir and the Hittite relief of Cybele, the mother goddess (fertility deity) (Kuzay Demir, 2015). Additionally, other significant tourist destinations include the Great Mosque, Archaeological Museum of Manisa, Muradiye Mosque and Kulliye, Sultan Mosque and Kulliye, Niobe’s Weeping Rock, and Spil Mount (Özbalcı & Var, 2013). One of Turkey’s special tourist destinations is Sardis, the capital city of Lydia, which invented coinage and facilitated trade (Tokmakoğlu, 2009). The fertile soil irrigated by the Gediz River flowing through Manisa is also worth visiting. Other attractions worth-mentioning are Kula Fairy Chimneys (cone-shaped volcanic rock formations), which is 18 km far from Kula district, Manisa tulips that decorated the gardens of Topkapı Palace during Ottoman Empire, the Sultana Seedless Grapes grown in Sarıgöl and Alaşehir districts, Salihli cherries with a high export potential, Kırkağaç Melons which are named after the district itself, and wild horses called Yılkı which are unique to the fauna of Manisa (Kuzay Demir, 2015). Manisa also has a religious tourism potential. The Aegean Region, also called as the province of Asia (Asiana) during the Roman Empire, possesses the Seven Churches of Revelation (Pergamum, Thyatira, Smyrna, Sardis, Ephesus, Philadelphia and Laodicea) which were influential on the spread of Christianity throughout Anatolia and around the Roman Empire (Yenipınar, 2005). Two of these churches, Akhisar (Thyatira) and Alaşehir (Philadelphia), are located within the border of the city. Due to religious tourism potential of the city, it was included in the list of “Tour Guide for Religious Tourism” in 1996 (Özbalcı & Var, 2013). As for the individuals identified with the city, they are as follows: With her social and cultural donations to the city, the wife of Selim I, Ayşe Hafsa Sultan; with the mesir macunu (paste) he prepared, Merkez Muslihiddin Efendi; and Turkey’s first environmentalist “Tarzan of Manisa” (Kuzay Demir, 2015). In the tourism strategy (2023) of Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Manisa is announced as one of the nineteen brand cities (Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007-2023).

327 According to Artun, 2015; Nowruz, literally meaning “New Day” in Persian, is a compound word and consists of now meaning “new” and ruz meaning “day” It is the first day of the ancient Iranian New Year and the spring (Artun, 2015). Based on religion, New Year ceremonies have been celebrated by communities in Asia and Asia Minor in similar climatic and geographical conditions with a resemblance in terms of the time, name and processes of the event. The religious aspects of these celebrations appear as cultural strengths, feeding myths, which are the retrospective models of the values of a community (Malinowski, 1998), and magic. According to some calendars, Newruz is the first day of New Year, the day of the vernal equinox, and marks the beginning of spring in the Northern Hemisphere, and the moment the sun crosses the celestial equator, equalizing night and day, and the sunlight reaches the poles in equal lengths. The special occasion usually occurs on March 21 (Uca, 2007). Due the aspects of shamanism reaching the present day, Nowruz is considered as the beginning of New Year. Turkish people have celebrated March 21, the beginning of the spring and “new day”, as a social festivity all along. At the same time, March 21 is denoted as the New Year in the ancient Turkish calendar with 12 animals signifying 12 months (Öztürk). Chinese resources state that Turks celebrated Nowruz as a regeneration, refreshment, happiness, social cohesion, revival and spring festival many years Before Christ on March 21 by hiking on fields and eating special food they prepared as a whole community (Öztürk). Nowruz, which coincides with the date of March 21 when the Sun is in Aries, is celebrated with various activities from Balkans to Central Asia, symbolizing the end of the winter, revival of the nature, and regaining the abundance and fruitfulness of the summer (Yılmaz, 2015). The famous Mesir Festival of Manisa is also celebrated on the day of Nowruz. This tradition goes back to the time of Merkez Muslihiddin Efendi who was given the management of a hospital in Manisa founded by Suleiman the Magnificent. The most significant part of the ceremony is carried out on Nowruz. Namely, small pieces of paste prepared from various herbs and spices, and wrapped in small pieces of paper are thrown down from the minarets of mosques, and people waiting down try to get one. Rumour has it that local people in Manisa have been celebrating this festival ever since 16th century. According to Boratav (1997), despite the interruption during the Turkish Independence War and in the subsequent years, the festival revived after 1955 (as cited in Erman, Artun, 2015 ). During the Ottoman Empire, Nowruz was celebrated as a special day. It became a tradition to prepare the paste called “Nevruziyye”, and to eat desserts when the sunlight was on Aries. On Nowruz, Sultan’s chief physicians would annually prepare a red and aromatic paste, called “Nevruziyye”, from various ingredients, and serve them firstly to the sultan, the sons and daughters of the sultan, then to the wives of the sultan, the grand vizier, and the people in the empire, getting presents in return. It was a usual procedure to put a fur coat on the chief physician in the royal palace. As mentioned above, the Nowruz paste was prepared in the palace, which would be of a red-tinged dark colour, with a crispy nature and resembling the density of thickened jam, would consist of 40 ingredients. These ingredients are as follows: Allspice, cloves, ginger, Zedoariae rhizome, black pepper, cream of tartar (Potassium Bitartrate), coriander, galingale, cubeb, coconut, anise, cassia, mastic, saffron, cinnamon, udulkahr, china root, mustard, myrrh, iksir sugar, woad, licorice extract, kalem-i bârid, tiryak (a plant with sedative aspects), yellow myrobalan, fennel, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon blossom, Indian blossom, fructus piperis longi, rhubarb, citric acid, cardamon, senna, vanilla, orange peel, buckthorn, and sugar. The lids of the bowls which include the paste are decorated with ribbons, and a piece of paper noting the hour, minute and second the sunlight would reach the Aries. This tradition was called “Nevruziyye kulağı”. The Nawruz paste of different ingredients was believed to cure various illnesses. Some of them were diseases related to the heart and sanity, upset stomach and indigestion, problems with food consumption, diarrhoea, aphtha, dysentery, fevers and plagues, injuries in bladder, kidneys and intestines, swellings, inflammation, increasing the strength of body and mind, strengthening the heart and the soul. This information instantly brings to mind the Mesir Festival of Manisa. As one of the most widely known Nevruziyye of Ottoman Turks, this festival has been continuously celebrated since 16th century. Although its association with Nowruz is long forgotten, a lot of people attend the long-standing festival to find a cure for their illnesses. Rumour has it that Merkez Musluhiddin Efendi started this tradition in early 16th century. This paste had 61 different ingredients

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(Hallaçoğlu, 2015). Moreover, it is stated that delivering the Mesir macunu (paste) to people on Nowruz is not a coincidence, and that this particular time is chosen for cleaning, strengthening, preparing the body for the spring one more time (Güven, 2010). Additionally, the belief that the Mesir macunu (paste) would treat and cure a lot of serious diseases is the reason behind delivering the paste to others on Nowruz (Özbalcı & Var, 2013). The Mesir Festival: Festivals substantially assist the development of national and local tourism by means of giving tourists opportunities to visit a region they have never visited before, learn about different cultures, and meet people with different life styles (Gül, Erdem & Gül, 2013). Festivals also increase the interest in local products and local people’s quality of life, and extend tourists’ duration of stay (Küçük, 2013). In addition, festivals and special events are stated to have positive effects in terms of completing and promoting the image of a city and reversing the negative image of a city (Yuan & Chong, 2007). Meanwhile, for future generations, a festival is considered as a means of sharing the history, identity and values of the region and the people (Luna, 2015). Festivals also have the ability to bring visibility and awareness to the historical, natural and cultural heritage of a city whilst reviving local culture and economy (Özdemir, 2011).

Figure 2: Symbolic Preparation of the Mesir Macunu, Manisa. Source:http://mesirfestivali.com/tr/mesir-hakkinda/festival-hakkinda The word “macun” (paste), meaning “kneaded” or “made into a dough”, is a derivation of the infinitive verb “acn”, literally meaning “to knead” in Arabic. As for “mesir”, the word literally means an excursion spot, yet, due to its usage with the paste, mesir has assumed a different meaning (Güven, 2010). Among its characteristics are its aroma and pleasant taste. Meanwhile, along with its “strengthening” aspect, the Mesir paste is good for pains, the flue, indigestion, lack of appetite, and halitosis (bad breath) (Özbalcı & Var, 2013). According to Turkish Standards Institute, the Mesir paste is a traditional nutrient cooked until it reaches a certain thickness by mixing 41 different spices such as cloves, ginger, Zedoariae rhizoma, galingale, black pepper, cream of tartar (Potassium Bitartrate), coriander, cubeb, coconut, anise, cassia, mastic, saffron, cinnamon, udulkahr, china root, mustard, myrrh, iksir sugar, woad, mai-leziz (Ottoman Turkish for delicious water), licorice extract, kalem-i bârid, tiryak (a plant with sedative aspects), yellow myrobalan, fennel, cumin, turmeric, cinnamon blossom, Indian blossom, fructus piperis longi, rhubarb, şamlı şaşlı (a kind of herb beneficial for gynaecological diseases), cardamon, senna, vanilla, orange peel, buckthorn, and then adding sugar, honey, glucose syrup, citric acid, and other appropriate ingredients when necessary (Güven, 2010). There are different data regarding the date it was first made, the reason of preparing the paste, and the starting date of the Mesir Festival. For instance, according to some resources, the Mesir paste dates back to 1522 while others state that it dates back to 1527. As for the Mesir festival, it is stated that it started after 1527, in 1539 or 1540. According to folk beliefs, the Mesir paste, which was primarily used for medical purposes, was first used as a remedy for the disease of Hafsa Sultan, the wife of Selim I and the first Valide Sultan of the Ottoman Empire as the mother of Suleiman the Magnificient, while in Manisa (Kuzay Demir, 2015). In the Ottoman culture, history and civilisation, Sufi physician Muslihiddin Merkez Efendi, known as the inventor of the Mesir paste, first mixed the ingredients of the paste in order to cure Ayşe Hafsa Sultan in 1522, and, according to another resource, in 1527 (Güven, 2010). The paste prepared with 41 different herbs and spices cured the Valide Sultan, and then given to

329 other patients, later to the whole public from the dome and minarets of Sultan Mosque enwrapped in paper. (Yılmaz, 2015). This, in turn, endowed Manisa with an annually celebrated cultural festival. Moreover, since then, the Mesir paste is prepared with prayers and thrown to the people with the purpose of sharing the benefits of Mesir with them on 21st March, which is the day of Nowruz, from the domes and minarets of Sultan Mosque (Güven, 2010). The Mesir tradition derives its uniqueness from the fact that it is a very old festival, a special treatment paste, and that it was used as a remedy in an old mental institution (darüşşifa). Even though treating diseases with pastes was used in civilizations of Anatolia, India, Egypt and Mesopotamia, it is stated that the paste that Merkez Efendi prepared is unique due to the ingredients (Özbalcı & Var, 2013). In 2012, the Mesir Festival was registered on UNESCO’s Representative List of Intangible Cultural Heritage (UNESCO 2012; Yılmaz, 2015). The Mesir Festival is carried out during the week of March 21-27 in Manisa by Manisa Governorship, Manisa Municipality, and MAMEDER (The Association of Tourism and Promotion of Manisa and Mesir), and substantially contributes to the cultural, touristic, and economic life of Manisa (Güven, 2010). The activities of the festival, which is 476 years old, starts with preparing and cooking the Mesir Macunu with prayers (Yılmaz, 2015). In the festival, which starts on March 21 with the ceremony of mixing the Mesir paste and continues for a week, there are various sub-activities such as exhibitions, art activities, health days/fairs and various congresses, children’s plays and puppet shows, musical and dance activities, mosque visits and Islamic memorial ceremonies, cooking contest, the Mesir cortege, the torchlight procession, and Mesir distribution (Döner & Tepeci, 2014). On the last day of the festival, there is a role play of Hafsa Sultan giving licence to Merkez Efendi to distribute the paste to the people, and then “Mesir Distribution Ceremony” is carried out from the domes and minarets of Sultan Mosque (Özbalcı & Var, 2013). Traditional “Mesir Stirring and Distribution Ceremony” attracts national attention and Manisa attracts domestic tourists during the festival period. 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Globally, countries and regions, even cities and villages can evolve into tourist destinations by means of effective planning and usage of their assets. One of the effectively used assets is festivals. Festivals contribute to attracting tourists to a region, increasing employment, sale of local products, preserving and developing the infrastructure and superstructure, safeguarding tangible and intangible cultural heritage and maintaining peace. In various places worldwide, particularly in rural areas, large or small festivals, fairs, exhibitions, special events-anniversaries, and festivities act as a facilitator in creating a sustainable city image (Kişioğlu & Selvi, 2013). There are numerous instances to demonstrate the significance of festivals in terms of promoting a city and creating a city image. As a festival of intangible cultural heritage, Rio Carnival has helped the city of Rio de Janeiro to be identified with the festival. Hence, when Rio is mentioned, plenty of people think of Rio Carnival which incorporates music and dance. Therefore, taking into consideration the instance of Rio Carnival, it can be asserted that festivals are the most effective means of tourism marketing of a city and sale of local products (Yuan & Chong, 2007). As for Manisa and İzmir in Turkey, thanks to the Mesir Festival, the Mesir paste and similar products are sold in various sizes and packages. Some local products identified with the city of Manisa are as follows: the Mesir Paste, Mesir chocolate, Mesir candy, Mesir cream, Turkish Delights with the Mesir paste, Mesir tea, herbal cosmetic products with Mesir, and herbal aphrodisiac mixtures. Subsequent to the registration of the Mesir Festival on UNESCO’s Intangible Cultural Heritage List in 2012, the festival has acquired an international aspect. There are not sufficient statistics concerning the number of foreign tourists that visited the city between 2009 and 2013. Considering the number of domestic tourists, there is a proportionate and annual increase. In 2007, the number of foreign tourists visiting the city was 65.501 while the number of foreign tourists was 65.545 in 2008. In 2014, the total number of tourists visiting the city was 319.709; domestic tourists constituting the major proportion with 298.931 visitors, and the number of foreign tourists being 20.778 (Manisa Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2016). The number of foreign tourists has decreased by 2/3 as of 2014. In order to increase the number of foreign tourists and gain momentum, it is crucial to promote and organize the Mesir Festival more effectively. There is a requirement for a national and international

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promotion package that could foster festival motivations of visitors, especially in historical, cultural and medical dimensions due to the fact that the city hosted numerous civilizations (Döner & Tepeci, 2014). Plenty of domestic and foreign tourists share the enthusiasm of the Mesir Festival every year. The sustainability of this enthusiasm is possible only if local people are supported to join in the festival. Local people’s support, cleaning and decorating the streets, the enthusiastic crowd and exuberance in the festival area will also be mirrored to the visitors. In order for the festival to reach a national and international recognition, it is crucial to safeguard the basic activities of the Mesir Festival such as mixing the Mesir paste with prayers, and the historical and religious atmosphere of Sultan Mosque, where the ceremony of throwing the Mesir paste to the people is carried out (Manisa Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2016). The chef who cooks the Mesir paste checks the freshness of the spices and herbs, determines the right amount of the ingredients, and makes sure that the place and the equipment are clean. Moreover, the chef conveys his knowledge and experience to his helpers verbally and practically, and, hence, ensures the continuity of the traditional knowledge (Manisa Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2016). Additionally, the festival should meticulously be held as a Nowruz festivity without politicizing it. The main reason behind this is that if it is introduced as an activity belonging to a particular political or a social group, future generations would not embrace it, and, unfortunately, the festival would be doomed to lose its essence and being a national focus of interest. Safeguarding festival venues and conveyors of traditions is significant. In this regard, it is vital to constitute a training centre for mixing and cooking the Mesir paste where Mesir chefs, who are considered as living legends, could teach the young. Therefore, the tradition of the festival could be carried out by the new and young chefs in the future. The prerequisite for maintaining the elements of traditional knowledge and skills regarding the festival, which are a part of intangible cultural heritage, are identifying the individuals possessing traditional knowledge and transmitting it to the future generations. The experts of tradition are called “living legends”. This notion is also present in the literature. According to Oğuz, the main objectives of the system of living legends are recognizing the experts who produce and maintain intangible cultural heritage, encouraging the sustainability of their skill, making it easier for them to find apprentices, increasing the curiosity and interest of the young generations to these skills, ensuring that these skills reach the masses through formal or informal education (Erkal, 2010). Additionally, it would be beneficial to create a data bank for researchers and future generations, obtain patents by registering the recipes, and prepare festival documents by keeping records of each festival’s formation and development processes, problems and solution suggestions, and aims and visitor statistics. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism declared the cultural space in which the Mesir Festival takes place a protected area in 1988 (Manisa Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2016). The area of the festival and the natural environment around it could be turned into a clean and well-kept festival area where visitors could enjoy themselves and rest during the Nowruz festivities, and eat the Mesir paste, by means of transforming it to a museum keeping its original condition and appropriate for its former function or a health facility (şifahane). It is evident that visitors are in need of large and spacious areas where they could celebrate Nowruz; hence, instead of modern multi-storey buildings, authorities should construct Ottoman style parks and recreational areas. Historical houses and streets around the festival area could be turned into walking tracks. Moreover, roads could be cleared of any traffic, and tourists and local people could comfortably walk together in their traditional outfits without the disturbance of vehicles. In addition, students from the department of gastronomy and chefs of Turkey could be invited to the Mesir cortege and mixing, and gastronomy competitions could be held. A museum for the Mesir Festival could be founded for the visitors. Additionally, in order for the festival to reach a national and international recognition, it is crucial not to make any concessions in terms of authenticity starting from mixing and cooking the paste to the passing out to the people. To further improve the festival, occasions in which visitors could experience the mixing procedures, ingredients, and the aroma of the paste during the cooking process could be created with the help of local authorities and the relevant department. By means of obtaining the patent rights and using geographical indications, the Mesir paste, which is prepared with 41 different spices and ingredients, could be turned into an international “Manisa-Turkey, Made in Turkey” brand. Briefly,

331 improvements without harming the authenticity could be announced in Turkish, foreign and social media. Existing web page of the festival could be developed to a more interactive system, which would make transportation, accommodation and attending events like concerts etc. easier for the visitors. By adding travel agencies, tourism nongovernmental organizations, tourist guides and associations to the festival organisation, a festival organizations team that could improve the quality of projects could be formed. There is strong relationship between tangible and intangible cultural heritage. Mounir Bouchenaki mentions this relationship as follows: “Although tangible cultural heritage and intangible cultural heritage are different, they are two sides of the same coin: They both contain the history and sense of mankind (Bouchenaki, 2003). The starting idea of the Mesir Festival has the characteristics of intangible natural heritage with its ceremonies and celebrations. Several food and deserts produced in Manisa such as the main theme of the festival, Mesir paste, and its spices are introduced and marketed to people from different parts of Turkey visiting the festival, and have started to provide financial profits to the producers in Manisa thanks to the festival. With the right planning methods, the practices regarding the development of local people and transforming the city into a more habitable place by means of the festival would contribute to the national and international recognition and development of Manisa with its cultural richness, especially the Mesir Festival. Hence, other cultural assets and food could turn into brands over time. REFERENCES Akpınar, E. (2007). Türkiye’nin Dünya Mirası Listesi’ndeki Yeri ve Yeni Bir Aday Önerisi. Erzincan Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 9(1), 81-106. Aman, F. (2012). Bronislaw Malinowski’nin Kültür Teorisi. Uludağ Üniversitesi, İlâhiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 21(1), 135-151. Artun, E. (2015). Türk Halk Bilimi, Karahan Kitabevi, 12. Baskı, 312 s., Adana. Atak, O. (2009). Türk Turizminin Tanıtımında Festivallerin Yeri ve Önemi: Antalya Örneği. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Beerli, A. & Martin, J.D. (2004). Tourists’ Characteristics and the Perceived Image of Tourist Destinations: A Quantitative Analysis -A Case Study of Lanzarote, Spain. Tourism Management, 25: (5), 623-636. Bouchenakı, M. (2003). The Interdependency of the Tangible and Intangible Cultural Heritage. URL: http://openarchive.icomos.org/468/1/2_-_Allocution_Bouchenaki.pdf Boratav, Pertev Naili. (1997). 100 Soruda Türk Folkloru, Gerçek Yay, s. 219, İstanbul. (Aktaran Erman Artun, Türk Halk Bilmi, Karahan Kitapevi, Adana,2015:318). Çakır, M. (2009). Festival Turizmi. URL: http://m-cakir.blogspot.com.tr/2009/02/festival-turizmi_04.html Çetin, T. (2010). Cumalıkızık Köyünde Kültürel Miras ve Turizm Algısı. Millî Folklor, 22 (87), 181-190. Çulha, O. (2008). Kültür Turizmi Kapsamında Destekleyici Turistik Ürün Olarak Deve Güreşi Festivalleri Üzerine Bir Alan Çalışması. Journal of Yasar University, 3(12), 1827-1852. Döner, Z.G. & Tepeci, M. (2014). Manisa Mesir Macunu Festivali Ziyaretçilerinin Festivale Katılım Nedenleri ve Memnuniyet Düzeylerini Etkileyen Unsurların Belirlenmesi. 15. Ulusal Turizm Kongresi, 13-16 Kasım 2014, Bildiriler Kitabı, s.782-795, Ankara. Duran, E. (2013). A Swot Analysis on Sustainability of Festivals: The Case of International Troia Festival. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 6 (28), 72-80. Ekici, M. (2005). Bergama Yöresi Hıdırellez Geleneklerinde Toplum ve Çevre Bilinci, Türk Dünyası İncelemeleri Dergisi/Journal of Turkish World Studies, 5(1), 53-60. Erkal, H. (2010). Unesco Yaşayan İnsan Hazineleri Ulusal Sistemleri’nin, Somut Olmayan Kültürel Mirasın Yaşatılmasına ve Gelecek Kuşaklara Aktarılmasına etkisi Üzerine Bir İnceleme, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Türk Halkbilimi Anabilim Dalı, s.8, Ankara. Gala, A. (2002).Culture and Haritage in Development: Ha Long Ecomuseum, A Case Study From Vietnam, Humanities Research, 9: (1), 63-76. Görkemli N. & Tekin G. & Baypınar, Y. E. (2013). Kültürel Etkinlikler ve Kent İmajı- Mevlana Törenlerinin Konya Kent İmajına Etkilerine İlişkin Hedef Kitlelerin Görüşleri. Gümüşhane Üniversitesi, İletişim Fakültesi Elektronik Dergisi, 2(1), 150-171. Gül, K. & Erdem, B. & Gül, M. (2013). Yerel Festivallerin Etkinliğine Bağlı Ziyaretçi Kazanımları: Sındırgı Yağcıbedir Festivali Örneği. Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi,

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18(4), 213-239. Gürpınar, E. (2001). Kültür ve Tabiat Varlıklarını Koruma Üzerine. İstanbul Üniversitesi, Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, (23-24), 185-193. Güven, A. N. (2010). Mesir Macununun Antioksidan Aktivitesinin ve Reolojik Özelliklerinin Belirlenmesi. İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. Hallaçoğlu Y. Osmanlılarda Nevruz Kutlamaları. URL: http://turkoloji.cu.edu.tr/ HALKBILIM/yusuf_ halacoglu_nevruz_kutlamalari.pdf İlban, M. O. & Köroğlu, A. & Bozok, D. (2008). Termal Turizm Amaçlı Seyahat Eden Turistlerde Destinasyon İmajı: Gönen Örneği. İstanbul Ticaret Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(13), 105 -129. İmirgi, A. (2005). Festival Kavramı Üzerine Düşünceler. Millî Folklor, 17 (65), 29-36. Kızılırmak, İ. (2006). Türkiye’de Düzenlenen Yerel Etkinliklerin Turistik Çekicilik Olarak Kullanılmasına Yönelik Bir İnceleme. Kırgızistan-Türkiye Manas Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (15), 181-196. Kızılırmak, İ. & Kurtuldu, H. (2005). Kültürel Turizmin Önemi ve Tüketici Tercihlerinin Belirlenmesine Yönelik Bir Çalışma. Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 1, 100-120. İnan, A. (1954). Tarihte ve Bugün Şamanizm. s. 204, Ankara, (Aktaran Erman Artun, Türk Halk Bilmi, Karahan Kitapevi, Adana, 2015:316). Kişioğlu, E. & Selvi, M. S. (2013). Yerel Etkinliklerin Tekirdağ’ın Destinasyon İmajına Etkisi: Yerel Paydaşlar Açısından Bir Değerlendirme. IAAOJ, SocialScience, 1: (1), 68-102. Köksal, Y. & Sarı S. (2014). Burdur Kent İmajının Yerel Halk İle Üniversite Öğrencileri Arasındaki Karşılaştırmalı Bir İncelemesi. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 42, 279-288. Kuzay, D. G. (2015). Kent İmgelerinin Değerlendirilmesi Bakımından Manisa. CBÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 13 (1), 500-512. Küçük, M. (2013). Kültür Turizmi Kapsamında Yer Alan Festival Etkinliklerinin Yerel Kalkınmaya Katkısı: Uluslararası Beyşehir Göl Festivali Üzerine Bir Araştırma. KOP Bölgesi Üniversiteler Birliği (UNİKOP), Bölgesel Kalkınma Sempozyumu, 14-16 Kasım 2013, Bildiriler Kitabı, s.1-13, Konya. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, (2007-2023). URL: http://www.ktbyatirimisletmeler. gov.tr/TR,11699/turkiye- turizm-stratejisi.html Luna, A. M. (2015). A Festival’s Impact: The Case of The Bañamos Festival. International Refereed Research Journal, 6: (1), 48-58. Malinowsky, B. (1995). İnsan ve Kültür. (Çev. F. Gümüş), V. Yayınları, 152 s., Ankara. Oğuz, Ö. (2009). Somut Olmayan Kültürel Miras ve Kültürel İfade Çeşitliliği. Millî Folklor, 21 (82), 6-12. Oğuz, Ö. (2013). Terim Olarak Somut Olmayan Kültürel Miras. Millî Folklor, 25 (100), 5-13. Öter, Z. & Özdoğan, O. N. (2005). Kültür Amaçlı Seyahat Eden Turistlerde Destinasyon İmajı: Selçuk-Efes Örneği. Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 16 (2), 127-138. Özbalcı, S. & Var, T. (2013). Mesir Festival with an Economic Perspective. CBÜ Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 11(3), 488-497. Özdemir, G. & Çulha, O. (2009). Satisfaction and Loyality of Festival Visitors. Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 20 (2), 359-373. Özdemir, N. (2009). Kültür Ekonomisi ve Endüstrileri İle Kültürel Miras Yönetimi İlişkisi. Milli Folklor, 21(84), 73-86. Özdemir, N. (2011). Kentlerin Gezgin İmgeleri veya Kent İmgeleri Giydirilen Otobüsler. Milli Folklor, 89, 41-53. Öztürk, R. Anadolu’da Nevruz ve Kutlamaları. URL: http://www.turkishnews. com/tr/content/ wp- content/uploads/2014/08/ANADOLUDA-NEVRUZ-VE-KUTLAM ALARI.pdf Öztürk, Y. & Yazıcıoğlu, İ. (2002). Gelişmekte Olan Ülkeler İçin Alternatif Turizm Faaliyetleri Üzerine Teorik Bir Çalışma. Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2, 1-14. Polat S. & Polat S. A. & Halis, M. (2013). Kent Kimliği Kapsamında Festivallerin Değerlendirilmesi: Uluslararası Altın Safran Film Festivali Örneği. Turizm ve Araştırma - TUR&AR, 1(2), 14-25. Quinn, B. (2005). Arts Festivals and the City. Urban Studies, 42 (5-6), 927-943. Sazak, Ş., & Eyüboğlu Erşen, A. (2009). Bir Kültür Endüstrisi Olarak “Kırkpınar Güreş Festivali”.V. Uluslararası Tarihi Kırkpınar Sempozyumu, 15. Mayıs 2009, Bildiriler Kitabı, s.8-9, Edirne. Şahin, G. (2010). Turizmde Marka Kent Olmanın Önemi: İstanbul Örneği. Ankara Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Halkla İlişkiler ve Tanıtım Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. Şahin, H. İ. (2009). Dalyan ve Köyceğiz Çevresinde Gelenek, Turizm ve Folklorizm. Milli Folklor, 21(82), 50-58.

333 Şengül, S & Genç, K. (2016). Festival Turizmi Kapsamında Yöresel Mutfak Kültürünün Destekleyici Ürün Olarak Kullanılması: Mudurnu İpekyolu Kültür Sanat ve Turizm Festivali Örneği. Pamukkale Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 23, 79-89. Tayfun, A. & Arslan, E. (2013). Festival Turizmi Kapsamında Yerli Turistlerin Ankara Alışveriş Festivali’nden Memnuniyetleri Üzerine Bir Araştırma. İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi, 5(2), 191-206. Timothy, D. J. & Boyd, S.W. (2006). Heritage Tourism in the 21st Century: Valued Traditions and New Perspectives. Journal of Heritage Tourism, 1: (1), 1-16. Tokmakoğlu, A. (2009). Yükselen Şehir Manisa. Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 7(2), 169-180. Turizm Yazarları ve Gazetecileri Derneği, (2016). Türkiye festivaller ülkesidir. URL: http://www.tuyed. org.tr /turkiye-festivaller-ulkesidir/ Türk Dil Kurumu, (2016). Festival. URL: http://www.tdk.gov.tr/ Türkkahraman, M. (2004). Günümüzün Büyüsü İmaj ve Gerçek Hayat. Sosyoloji Konferansları Dergisi, 30, 1-14. Uca, A. (2007). Türk Toplumunda Nevruz-I. Atatürk Üniversitesi Türkiyat Araştırmaları Enstitüsü Dergisi, 32, 137. UNESCO, (1972). Dünya Kültürel ve Doğal Mirasın Korunması Sözleşmesi. 14.02.1983 Tarih ve 17959 Sayılı Resmi Gazete. UNESCO Türkiye Milli Komisyonu, URL:http://www.unesco.org.tr/dokumanlar/somut_olmayan_km/sokum _bb.pdf URL: http://mesirfestivali.com/tr/mesir-hakkinda/festival-hakkinda URL: http://mesirfestivali.com/ URL: http://www.manisakulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,151850/istatistik-ve-veriler.html Uygur, S. M. & Baykan, E. (2007). Kültür Turizmi ve Turizmin Kültürel Varlıklar Üzerindeki Etkileri. Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2, 30-49. Yan, Q. & Zhang, H. L. & M. Li, (2012). Programing Quality of Festivals: Conceptualization, Measurement, and Relation to Consequences. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 24: (4), 653-673. Yenipınar, U. (2005). İnanç Turizmi Kapsamında Ege Bölgesindeki Yedi Kiliselerin Turistik Hareketlerinin Yönetimi, III. Ulusal Meslek Yüksekokulları Sempozyumu, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi, Burdur Meslek Yüksekokulu, 28-30 Eylül, Bildiriler Kitabı, s.197-201, Burdur. Yılmaz, M. (2015). Türk Dünyası Somut Olmayan Kültürel Mirasları Envanter Çalışması, İnceleme Araştırma Dizisi, 26, Ankara. Yuan, L. & Chong, C. (2007). The Effects of Festivals and Special Events on City İmage Design. Higher Education Press and Springer-Verlag, 1: (2), 255-259.

334 Chapter 25

The Rising Trend of Tourism: Cruise Tourism

V. Rüya EHTIYAR

INTRODUCTION Tourism is one of the major drivers of countries in terms of economic development and it not only contributes in generating income and employment but also in development of many related industries. Cruise tourism is cited as one of the new frontiers and fastest growing area of this sector (Hall, 2001). Defined as ‘making a trip by sea in a liner for pleasure, usually calling at a number of ports’ (Collins English Dictionary), cruise travel is characterized by transporting passengers from one place to another via “floating hotels” (Dowling, 2006a) which are similar to their counterparts on the land with the facilities they provide to cruisers such as restaurants, bars, shopping centers, entertainment centers, etc. When compared with land-based tourism, which mostly targets mass tourism, cruise tourism is one of the niche markets in the industry. This fast developing and lucrative service sector includes visiting special tourist destination ports and touristic places in those ports and doing shopping. The lines where cruise ships serve can vary from small harbor cruise boats that offer cruise travels lasting for several days to large international operators with cruise travels lasting for several months (Sun, Jiao & Tian, 2011). Thus, it can be both a transportation media and also a destination itself which puts cruise industry among top ten destinations in terms of number of arrivals and receipts (Brida & Zapata, 2010). According to the recent report prepared by Cruise Market Watch (2015a), demand for cruise tourism has displayed a significant increase in the last decades. This demand increase results from the opportunity cruise travel provides in terms of visiting many countries and/or cities in a short time while spending the holiday in a 5-star hotel. Whereas cruise tourism has served 3.7 million passengers in 1990, this number has risen to 22.2 million in 2015, displaying a tremendous increase with an annual growth rate of 6.55%. The number of passengers is expected to exceed 25 million by 2019. It is mentioned in the same report that the growth strategies employed in this period include more local ports, building larger capacity ships, more destinations, new activities that fulfill the needs and desires of consumers. The industry also displays an international expansion. Cruise tourism has displayed a phenomenal growth with a total economic impact of $119.9 billion despite the small part it occupies in the global tourism industry. 0.6% of the hotel beds offered worldwide is provided by cruise ships (Dowling, 2006a, p.3). The data for 2014 regarding cruise travel indicates that 21.5 million passengers cruised, $127 were spent on average daily, 939,232 people were employed and $39.3 billion were given as wages and salaries (CLIA, 2016a). These numbers indicate the growth potential the industry has within global tourism industry. As a rapidly growing industry, cruise travel incorporates several unique features (Najafipour, Marzi & Foroozanfar, 2014). One of them is its uniquely-global nature where it functions in de- territorialized environment with sea-based mobility and limited regulatory regimes. The second feature is the fact that cruise ship is the destination itself. Besides these features, cruise travel embodies some factors that appeal to travellers. Davidoff and Davidoff (1994) list these factors as the following (Dowling, 2006a, p.3): passengers can visit various places in a short period of time, the ships are self- contained, the only responsibility of the personnel is to ensure that the passengers are having enjoyable time, the food is high quality and served elegantly, and all the passengers begin and end their holiday on the same day. In addition to these engaging factors for passengers, cruise tourism enables economic development for related industries from port agents and authorities, transport companies to food suppliers, car-hire agencies and engineering services.

 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management

AN OVERVIEW OF THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND Cruise tourism has its roots in 1840s in trans-Atlantic liners, yet the modern industry as it is known today has started after mid 20th century. Being the preferred mode of travel in the 1900s, cruise travel lost its popularity among the social elites as aircrafts became desirable. Passenger transportation was unable to compete with air transport and therefore, demand for maritime transport has declined. Some companies offered cruises in the winter time to places with favorable climate such as Caribbean Islands. The cruise ships at that time were formal with separate cabins according to passengers and the prices were not affordable for average American families. Only the consumers with both time and money were using it and the number of cruise passengers was limited. Yet, it signified a social status (Kalanj, 2014). Following this decline during World War II, cruise tourism revived in the second part of the 20th century as an alternative tourism instead of a transportation mode (Johnson, 2002). The number of cruise passengers has peaked in 1957 but have decreased quickly due to the international oil crisis in 1970s. Many companies had to stop their operations whilst some of the liner companies transformed from ferry and cargo transporters to cruise liners (Nilsson, 2007). This transformation has resulted in revival of the cruise industry in the latter part of the 20th century where companies realized the need for employing effective marketing strategies in line with the needs and demands of the consumers. They have targeted different market segments, attracted younger passengers, offered fly cruise options, raised cruise capacities and changed cruise durations, prices and itineraries (Johnson, 2002). Thus, some authors cite 1965 as the beginning of modern cruising when Oceanic, which was designed for the North American cruise market, was built. On the other hand, some authors chronicle 1966 as the beginning, which is the date when Norwegian Caribbean Line turned out as the first company to offer a year-round scheduled cruises. These initiatives were followed by the establishment of many other cruise liners (Najafipour et al., 2014). In ten years, the number of cruise passengers has increased from 500,000 in 1970 to 1.4 million in 1980. This is due to the fact that cruise tourism turned into a mass phenomenon, embracing consumers from all segment regardless of socio-economic factors. Moreover, larger ships were built by the companies that target segmented consumers with proper marketing mix elements. The efforts to deter potential market entrants from cruise industry have turned the market in an oligopolic structure (Najafipour et al., 2014). Heavy investments on the fleet size and cruise capacity by the main players of the market are said to result in saturation of the market and the industry experienced a decline in the total number of passengers in 2001 (Parasuraman & Grewal, 2000). CRUISE TRENDS Global Cruise Market The first decade of the 21st century witnessed a praiseworthy growth despite the economic cycles of growth and recession. In 2015, the number of cruise passengers was 22.2 million with an increase of 3.2% when compared with the passenger number who have cruised in the previous year. It is estimated to be over 25 million by 2019 (Cruise Market Watch, 2015a). Figure 1 displays the trend of the passengers cruised globally since 1990 as reported by Pallis (2015) from the data presented by Cruise Market Watch. It is evident that the industry has performed a successful growth tendency and this trend is expected to continue in the same manner. In 1997, more than 5 million people have travelled by cruise ships, whereas the threshold of 10 million was exceeded in 2004. The number of cruise passengers has tripled today when compared with passenger number at the turn of the century in 2000. Since 1990, nearly 300 million passengers have travelled by cruise lines where each of them visited more than one ports. The industry, which serves about 5% of the global tourists, hosts 62 cruise lines, 275 executive partners, 20,000 travel agencies and 30,000 travel agent members in 2015 (CLIA, 2016a). It has generated nearly $40 million revenue in 2015 and it is expected that the subsequent years would bring additional growth thanks to the consumer interest, expansion of new destinations, modernisation of cruise fleets and products (Pallis, 2015). The long term projections of the industry anticipate that the global passengers will exceed 25 million in 2019, while it is expected to surpass 30 million by 2014. It is considered that in addition to

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the above-mentioned improvements in cruise industry, renewal of cruise vessels and berths will result in doubling of the latter to 790,000 by 2024 (MedCruise Report, 2015).

Figure 1: Global Cruise Passenger Growth Source: Pallis (2015) Besides the predictions regarding the digital facts, some estimations in terms of demand and supply side of the industry are also made. They are listed as follows (Kalanj, 2014): The rate of demand growth will decrease in the US market. Demands in European markets, especially Italian, German, French and Spanish markets will increase. Demographic structure of demand will change and younger population will participate in cruise travel. Passengers with lower purchasing power will have the chance to participate in cruise travel. More people will repeat cruise travels and demand for specialized offerings will increase. The prices of cruise travel will decrease and the trip periods will last shorter. The sizes of the ships will increase which indicates environmental and safety concerns. The number of ports included in cruise travel will increase due to market expansion. Demand Side of the Cruise Tourism: Passengers It is essential to have a through insight into the demographic and socio-economic structure of cruise passengers in order to develop proper strategies for further growth. The cruise travellers differ from modern tourist who are described as independent minded, prefer flexible and spontaneous itineraries, expect positive impact on the destination, search for challenging experiences both physically and mentally, sensitive to local cultures and is green, conscious of social justice, makes careful evaluation of tourism products in advance, looks for authentic and meaningful experiences and expects self-fulfillment and learning (Poon, 1993). Cruise tourism does not encompass most of the characteristics developed by Poon (1993). This type of travel does not offer much space for independent-minded travellers asking for flexibility and spontaneity in their itineraries. It is also doubtful that cruise travel, which is criticised in terms of environmental and social concerns, appeals to tourist with care for the world and for social justice. Moreover, the bases of many cruise companies are in destinations such as Bermuda, Mauritius or Malta, which raises concern again in economic and social issues in terms of low wages for employees and low profit taxes (Nilsson, 2007). The matter, therefore, lies in the question of whether it will be possible to design the cruise tourism so that it will appeal to the tourists in the modern sense. A market overview prepared by CLIA (2011) indicates that cruise passengers have median household income, are median aged, have higher education, are mostly married and retired. The gender distribution does not display a significant difference. The average spending patterns of cruisers have displayed a steady increase to $1,500 from $1,303 in 2004. Most of the passengers travel in pairs (80%). The results of the report also reveal that more than half of the travellers research about their trip alone, yet they decide together with their companions. Most affective factor in the decision, according to the findings, is destination website (39%) followed by word of mouth (35%). Accompanying the spouse/partner also affects decision making in the similar degree (36%) and the motivation of decision

337 maker in terms of the desire to the see destination is listed as the fourth affective factor (31%). Analysis of cruise passenger sources reveal that North American cruisers overpower the market with 58.6% as presented in Figure 2. European cruisers follow this group with 25.9%. Within European travellers, passengers from UK have the lead with 29.3%, followed by German cruisers who have a share of 26.7%. Italy (15.9%) and France (12.5%) are listed as the third and fourth sources of cruise passengers in Europe.

Figure 2: Global Cruise Passengers by Source Source: Cruise Market Watch (2015b) A segmentation of market is made in maritime market according to the socio-economic characteristics of travellers. The groups are as follows (Kalanj, 2014): Mass market: The purchasing power of consumers in this group is low, with annual income between $20,000 - $39,000. The cruise trips last for short periods with large capacity ships (>1,200). The cruise travel offers a fully organized program. Average cost of the travel is $125-200 per day per person depending on the cabin category and duration of the travel. Medium market: The consumers in this group have medium purchasing power. This group makes up the largest share of the market. The cruise ships in this group have passenger capacity of 500 to 2,200. Annual income of the cruisers in this group range from $40,000 to $59,000. And the average cost of the cruise travel per day per person is $250-300. Luxury market: Cruise travellers in this group have high purchasing power. The ships used for the travel of this group are smaller, with a capacity of 700 passengers. The cabins have more space and they are larger. There are also more staff serving for passengers. The consumers in this group have annual income higher than $60,000 and the cost of travel per person is more than $350 per day. Special market: Consumers in this group expect adventure and services specially designed for them. The cruise travel is made on small ships and large yachts, with a capacity of 50 passengers. Cruise travellers are also classified in Cruise Market Watch (2015b) according to geographic factors (country of origin, language, culture), economic & demographic factors (income, age, life stage, gender, education, social status) and psychographic factors (interest, life goals, media usage, cruise brand exposure, peer status, active or passive leisure engagement, service expectations, attitudes towards groups and travel, past travel experiences in terms of recency, frequency, amount spent, type and duration) which were then used to establish the segments of cruise travellers listed as explorers, admirals, marines, little mermaids, escapers, souvenirs and adrift. Explorers: Passengers in this group take four or more vacations per year and they take longer, exotic and cultural learning cruises. It is important for them to be involved in a social cause. This small and more saturated segment cares making friend and socializing. This group is considered as the future opportunity, thus it is considered significant to retain them by satisfying their expectations.

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Admirals: Cruise travellers in this group seek traditional experience and they choose their preferred cruise service provider. They are inclined to keep using their favourite cruise provider until the provider becomes incompetent in offering new services or starts offering the attributes in an unrecognizable manner. This group is considered as great consumers yet they display little room for growth. Marines: This segment involves cruisers who are upscale, motivated and active young professionals. The cruisers in this group prefer a cruise holiday with activities and they always look for better ships even if they are new cruisers. This curious and media-involved group considers that not only being active but also being in challenge is important. This group of passengers have the potential to increase market share, especially for the cruise ships offering active sports. Little Mermaids: Upper middle class families make up this segment. The difficulty of being stuck in between the daily activities and limited time, their desire is to maximize the travel experience with leisure activities that can be performed as a family and also involves quality-bonding opportunities. Escapers: Consumers in this group are the most desirable and form the core of the market. All they want is to escape from the harsh conditions they have experienced all year long, and they would like to just sit by the pool, relax and see a few places. They do not expect much and thus, they do not worry or complain much. Consumers in this group are slightly price sensitive.

Figure 3: Key decision making factors of cruise clients Source: CLIA (2016b) Souvenirs: Cruisers in this group are price-conscious and thus, the line of the ship is not important for them. They do not prefer specific destinations or activities. The cruise experience is just a trip for them. They do not have much interest in the world outside and they have the tendency to take a cruise vacation when the price is considered as a good deal. Adrift: This segment embraces consumers who do not have interest in travel experience and who do not have the sufficient income for such an experience. Therefore, they cannot be considered as a target for cruise market. A study which was carried out by CLIA (Cruise Lines International Association) in 2016 with the travel agents of cruise services on the factors that determine the cruise selection behaviour of cruise travellers is presented in Figure 3 (CLIA, 2016b). It is clear that whereas overall experience of the travel and its cost is very important in choosing a cruise holiday, loyalty to cruise brand or the type of the cruise ship is not considered important by the travellers. The plan of the cruise trip is listed as the third significant factor for passengers which is followed by safety, onboard amenities and port of embarkation. It is clear that like in other tourism contexts, cruise passengers have different expectations and desires in terms of experiences the cruise ship offers. This difference results not only from demographic

339 or geographic differences of cruisers, but also the behavioural patterns and personality traits that shape their expectations. The industry has already started adjusting itself by classifying the cruise ships as luxury, premium and standard (CLIA, 2004). The increasing competition in the industry requires cruise companies and tour operators to analyse the passenger types and the factors that affect their purchase and repurchase tendencies. This will result in providing suitable services for the passengers, which will lead to customer satisfaction just like in other marketing situations. Supply Side of the Cruise Tourism: Destinations & Products Cruising is a unique product which is defined, just like tourism, as the blend of 5A’s: attractions, activities, access, accommodation and amenities (Tukamushaba, Xiao & Ladkin, 2016). These aspects are emphasized in the brochures of cruise travels together with the word “luxury”. This intensely service-oriented sector grows with the establishment of new destinations, appreciation of already existing destinations and building new cruise ships tailored according to the current demands and expectations of cruise passengers. Currently the leader of cruise market is Carnival Cruise Lines with a share of 48.1% of passengers and 42.2% of the revenue (Cruise Market Watch, 2015c). The company has 25 ships operating to Bahamas, Caribbean, Europe, Mexican Riviera, Alaska, Hawaii, Canada, New England, Bermuda, Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands. Carnival is followed by Royal Caribbean Cruises whose market share of passengers is 23.1% and revenue is 22.1% globally. The company has 25 ships visiting 77 ports in 6 continents. And the third company competing in the global cruise market with its 13 cruise ships is Norwegian Cruise Line. The market share of the company in terms of passengers is 10.4% and in revenue is 12.4%. In terms of cruise destination, Caribbean has been leading the market. However, thanks to the market expansion strategies of cruise companies, besides Mediterranean, other regions like Australia and Asia, who constitute a smaller part of the industry, have displayed an increasing demand regarding the cruise travel (Pallis, 2015). The changes in terms of regional cruise fleet deployment are presented in Figure 4. It is clear from the figure that the last decade has witnessed the decrease in previously popular destinations and an increase in demand of new cruise ports.

Figure 4: Global Deployment Shares 2005/2015 Source: MedCruise Report, 2015 Increasing number of destinations around the world has resulted in simultaneous increase in importance of the ports. A major factor in the supply side of the cruise tourism, ports can act as determinants of cruise itineraries through five factors (Pallis, 2015). The first one is the location of port which affects its being included in popular itineraries. The second factor is attractiveness of the destination for cruise travellers. Many items can be listed under this title of destination attractiveness such as climate, cultural factors etc. Another factor determining success of the port is accessibility of the

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port which includes proximity or connection to airport, train connections and highway connections. The fourth factor is the facilities and services provided by the port (Table 1). The final factor affecting success of a port is the port fee. It is acknowledged that a port failing to perform successfully in the first three factors could not be chosen as a cruise destination. In addition to these success factors, ports are classified according to various criteria, which again contribute to their success as a desired destination. The first criterion is the nature of the port, which includes dedicated terminal, dedicated pier and multi-purpose facility options. The ownership type of the ports and size are also used in classification. Moreover, factors like function in itinerary, seasonality, destination attractiveness, integration with local and regional destination and ease of accessibility to the port are used in classifying the ports (Pallis, 2015). Table 1: Expected cruise port facilities and services Entrance & Cruise ship & services Passenger services berth facilities Manoeuvrability Dedicated cruise ship piers Separation of pier uses in port Draught Berth reservation process Pedestrian paths Berth dimensions Tug boats Tourist information Anchorages Pilotage Cleanliness Bollards Fuel service Immigration quickness Fenders Fresh water services Port aesthetics Food and drink/beverages Ship to coach quickness Waste reception facilities Sufficient availability of coaches/ taxis Quality of shipping agents Generic Facilities Speed of ship clearance Stakeholders cooperation (port and other local stakeholders) Presence of passenger terminal Parking facilities (short & long term) Shops Passenger throughout range Only Security procedures Home-port Availability of baggage storage Source: Pallis (2015, p.30) The cruise travels are performed by ships which are designed to suit different preferences and needs of travellers. The general categories are ocean voyages, standard cruises, river / canal cruises, destination / expedition cruises, day cruises, contemporary cruises, luxury cruises and specialty cruises. Growth of the cruise tourism resulted not only in the emergence of new destinations and improvement in the services offered by the ports, but also new forms of cruise travels offering opportunities for different experiences were introduced. Cruise markets that have different operations are presented in Table 2. In addition to the above-mentioned alternatives, cruise travel can be classified according to the prevailing cruises offered for different segments (CRISIL, 2005). One of them is cruises for family segment which includes moderately priced holiday targeting young passengers. Senior citizen segment is for the travellers who have considerable purchasing power and are interested in cruise travel. This group is the largest growing segment. Conferences and incentives segment targets travellers who would like to combine business with leisure. Ships featured with modern facilities try to attract the business segment. Theme cruises offer new routes or add specialized products to the current itineraries. This segment can be exemplified by the Paradise ship of Carnival for non-smokers or cruise travels dedicated to wine tasting. Another category is adventure cruises. These cruise travels have modest demand and companies operating with this purpose do not belong to big groups. The trio of cruise travel supply, which are destination, port and ship, have evolved into different forms in the last decades. It is this change observed in the services offered and destinations included in

341 cruise travel that has made cruise holiday a new alternative for most of the passengers who have never cruised before. But the industry still has new markets to expand by attracting new consumer segments through new products and services offered. Table 2: Overview of Cruise Markets Location / Type Comment Supply/markets Several markets according Small, shallow vessels, often domestic River, canal, lake cruises to location markets Special interest (sailing World-wide markets, Purpose-built vessels, specialist crews, degree education, exploration) highly differentiated of monopoly through differentiation Large vessels, often relying on tradition and Long distance ocean cruising Single world market luxury, resources acquired internationally Extended ferry mini-cruises Usually domestic Joint product with car ferries World market, heavily Short ocean cruises Mostly large purpose-built vessels dominated by US Source: Bull (1996, p.29)

Responsible Cruise Tourism The quick growth of cruise industry has brought both economic improvements and concern for social and natural environment. There is debate about the economic impacts of cruise tourism, its impact on local culture and society and about environmental impacts. These concerns are discussed within the concept of responsible tourism. Capetown Declaration, which was avowed in International Conference on Responsible Tourism in Destinations in 2002, defined responsible tourism as having focus on the economical, environmental and social impacts of tourism while considering ethics and human rights from consumers’ and societies’ perspective (Responsible Tourism in Destinations, 2002). The principles discussed in this declaration are also applied to cruise tourism. The effect of cruise tourism on these three main topics is discussed below. Economic Impacts Cruise tourism directly and indirectly affects the economy of a destination (Brida & Zapata, 2010). Direct effect generated from expenditures is on the supplier providing goods and services to cruise vessel, passengers and crew. Cruise vessel expenditures are listed by the authors as port costs, marine expenses, food and beverages, fuel, water and maintenance. Passenger expenditures include the costs incurred by cruisers that are not part of the cruise travel, such as taxis, souvenirs, shore excursions, food and beverages, etc. The authors enumerated crew expenditures as restaurants, retail goods, recreational activities, transport, etc. These direct expenditures result in indirect effect of cruise tourism on the economy of a destination due to the purchases made by the direct suppliers from other companies. A framework was developed by Dwyer and Forsyth (1998) displaying the types of cruise expenditures and their national and regional effects (Table 3). The table details onshore costs that are incurred by the passengers and by the operator. With the changing structure of cruise ships from all- inclusive travel to user-pays situation, the passengers are also spending onboard for facilities like extra tariff restaurants and food outlets, recreational activities, mini bars, same-day newspapers, etc. This structure generates local and regional revenue through land-based tours and shopping programs (Najafipour et al., 2014). Braun and Tramel (2006) state that the economic gain from operator and passenger spending depend on various factors such as expected fleet size, passenger capacity, length of cruise itinerary, port attractiveness for port of call and size of homeport’s industry cluster. In addition to the economic benefits obtained during cruise travel from the expenditures of operator and passenger, cruise tourism also contributes the economy through ship building and maintenance companies. It is approximately 10 times more profitable to build vessels for nautical tourism than to build vessels for other purposes (Kalanj, 2014). Besides building ships for different purposes, it is necessary to provide maintenance services for these cruise ships to serve for repair, spare part, paint needs, etc.

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Table 3: Cruise Expenditures and Their Effects Type of Expenditure Item Purchases Impact Passenger Airfares to/from destination National Internal travel Road, rail, air National, regional fares Accommodation, meals, tours and Add-on expenditure turn around National, regional share attractions Port expenditure Meals, tours, shopping Port region Operator Port expenditure State/government State and regional Port charges Regional Towage Regional Stevedoring Regional Provedoring Bunkering National Stores National and regional Services (waste, water) Regional Crewing National crew National Port expenditure foreign crew Regional Ship maintenance Regional Marketing at the destination National and regional Income tax, customs duty, departure Taxes National and regional tax Source: Dwyer & Forsyth (1998, p.399) The overview presented above indicates the direct and indirect economic contribution of cruise tourism through operator expenditures and passenger spending. It can be deduced that thanks to the growth in the industry, the economic benefits derived from the industry will increase. It is necessary to sustain competitive advantage by the state-of-the-art investments operating in alternative destinations for different consumer segments and thus, it will be lucrative not only for local and regional economies, but also for economic actors in the national level. Social Impacts Cruise tourism enables cultural exchange, revitalization of culture, encouragement of social involvement which are listed among its positive impacts. It contributes in increasing the vitality of the destination. Also both visitors and local people will have the chance of developing sympathy, understanding and tolerance. However, cruise tourism causes more negative perceptions than its positive impacts. In discussing these negative impacts of cruise tourism, three main issues foreground among a range of topics, which are people pollution, cultural heritage degradation and labour issues (Brida & Zapata, 2010; Klein, 2011; UNWTO, 2016). People pollution refers to disruption created by the visitor flows in local traffic and pedestrian roads when the carrying capacity of a destination is exceeded. Overcrowded ports have recently become a problem since the number of ships and their capacities have increased. This situation affects not only the experience of cruisers but also the local people and may generate negative attitude towards tourists. It will also cause problems for stay-over tourists who have to spend more time to experience the destination due to daily cruise visitors. An example of this phenomenon occured in Key West, Florida where curise tourism exceeded the carrying capacity of the city. This affected the residents and land- based tourism alike and the city was labelled as “getting ugly” by National Geographic Traveller in 2004 (Klein, 2011). Tourists are blamed for lowered life standards in such cases. Limiting the number of cruise ships will be a solution for this problem. Yet, in many cities, key-decision makers welcome any cruise ship that wants to visit and they do not consider the social impacts. The impact of cruise tourism to the cultural heritage of a destination results from too many cruisers’ visiting a place in finite periods. This would cause wear and tear on the site. The number of passengers has negative impacts also on the experience. Another point in terms of cultural heritage may

343 be in rural areas where the attraction of the destination will be their intangible cultural heritage and interacting with tourists will be a threat for this. Therefore, local people will be unwilling to interact with cruisers (UNWTO, 2016). Cruise passengers should be careful and treat local cultures respectfully. The increase in the number and size of cruise ships becomes a challenge for such places but as the ship turns out to be the destination itself, most of the passengers do not want to leave the ship for local visits. This indicates the insensitivity of cruise tourism to locals, cultural heritages in the port and the economy relying on this industry. Another negative impact from social perspective is labour issue. ITWF (International Transport Worker’s Federation) affirms the fact that most of the cruise personnel is working for long hours, paid low, is subject to racism and other forms of discrimination (Najafipour et al., 2014). Workers accept these conditions in order to earn money for their families. Employees are also stratified in three groups where the officers are Norwegian or Italian, staff are Western European or North American, and crew are Asian, Caribbean and Eastern European (Wood, 2000). Environmental Impacts Environmental impact of cruise tourism is handled from the perspective of cruise ships, passengers and suppliers. It is important to handle waste and pollutants properly and plan and implement the management process accordingly to eliminate the negative effects of cruise ships on environment. Some of the major cruise lines have taken firm steps regarding this impact but measures should be taken to completely eliminate the negative effects of cruise tourism on environment. The wastes of cruise ship, which damages the environment, are listed as blackwater, graywater, solid waste, hazardous wastes, bilge water, ballast water and air pollution (Brida & Zapata, 2010). Description of each waste and the damage created by a ship for 3,000 passengers in these waste categories are presented in Table 4. Sweeting and Wayne (2006) cited the challenges caused by some of these wastes and responses of the industry in terms of measures taken to prevent the damages. Table 4: Type of waste and damage produced Type of Damage for a large ship Description waste with 3,000 passengers Is sewage, wastewater from toilets and medical facilities, 15,000 to 30,000 gallons per Blackwater which can contain harmful bacteria, pathogens, diseases, day viruses, etc. Is wastewater from the sinks, showers, galleys, laundry and 90,000 to 225,000 gallons Graywater cleaning activities aborad a ship per day Includes glass, paper, cardboard, aluminium and steel cans, 24% vessel worldwide (by Solid waste and plastics weight) comes from cruise ships Includes discarded and expired chemicals, medical waste, Quantities are small, their Hazardous batteries, fluorescent lights, and spent paints and thinners, toxicity to sensitive marine wastes among others organisms can be significant Contains solid wastes and pollutants containing high An average of 8 metric tons Bilge water amounts of oxygen-demanding material, oil and other of oily bilge water for each chemicals 24 hours of operation Often contains non-native, nuisance, exotic species that can Little cruise-industry Ballast water cause extensive ecological and economic damage to aquatic specific data on the issue ecosystems Generated by diesel engines that burn high sulphur content fuel, producing sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and Little cruise-industry Air pollution particulate, in addition to carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide specific data on the issue and hydrocarbons Source: Brida & Zapata (2010, p.219) In addition to the wastes damaging the water, cruise ships also pollute the air by emission from their engines. Cruise tourism is responsible for 60,000 deaths worldwide each year with daily emission

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of a ship likened to the impact of 12,000 automobiles (Klein, 2011). Measures are taken by the governments and regulating institutions to curtail air pollution created by the ships. It is clear that the industry takes necessary precautions to prevent pollution of the environment which is the main attraction for cruise passengers. They are adopting ‘zero discharge’ approach “which means that nothing is discharged into the world’s oceans at any time” (Najafipour et al., 2014, p.221). It is also the responsibility of destination authorities to monitor the cruise ships and take necessary measures. Both industry players and destination authorities should cooperate with NGOs and scientific organizations to determine and overcome the negative impacts of cruise tourism on environment. An overview of cruise industry impacts reveal that it is crucial to ensure responsible cruise tourism and also it will cost high. However, the sustainability of the industry depends on protecting natural and social resources together with local economies. As Hall (2001, p.610) states, an understanding of tourism policy is at the center of the goals of coastal tourism management and planning for tourism is “an amalgam of economic, social and environmental considerations. A framework for sustainable tourism has been developed by Global Sustainable Tourism Council, whose criteria could well be applied to cruise industry. Four key areas of the criteria are (UNWTO, 2016, p.60): Demonstrate effective sustainable management; Maximize social and economic benefits to the local community and minimize negative impacts; Maximize benefits to cultural heritage and minimize negative impacts; Maximize benefits to the environment and minimize negative impacts. CONCLUSION The scope of cruise industry is likely to expand globally with its strong market potential (Sun et al., 2011). The number of cruise destinations has increased in the last decade with similar increase for destinations that have not been so much an attraction for cruisers. Moreover, cruise industry offers alternative products for travellers from different segments with varying needs and expectations. This increase in both supply and demand of cruise tourism is an indicative of its young and evolving nature and the future economic opportunities it provides not only for cruise companies but also for the economies of the destinations. Cruise is defined as a kind of forced relaxation (Berger, 2004) and it is appealing more and more travellers every year. The beginning of the industry has attracted mostly the people with high purchasing power and who were generally retired due to the length of time a cruise travel requires. However, with the changing cruise tour alternatives young people, families with small children or passengers who are expecting to spend an adventurous holiday are beginning to prefer cruise tourism. The industry began to provide solutions for the concerns of travellers regarding the cost, its addressing a certain segment of society, its insufficiency in terms of attractions for families or for young people. The industry has some negative socio-cultural, economic and environmental impacts besides the opportunities it offers. Dowling (2006b, p.424) states that “[d]eveloping sustainable tourism is one of the challenges in working towards an environmentally friendly, economically viable and socially aware future for previously deprived regions. The only way to ensure a positive future is if mass tourism – in its current form and at its current levels – meets the criteria for sustainability with increasing regularity”. Especially in terms of its effects on environment, some strict measures are taken within the last decade. Yet, there still remains much work to be done in order to minimize the negative effects of cruise industry on society, economy and environment. In addition to the above-mentioned effects, cruise industry incorporates concerns on safety and security of the travel. These factors should not be overlooked and necessary precautions should be taken against these points as they are among the items that prevent some travellers from taking a cruise travel. Overall, it is premused that the industry will continue this growth and profit trend if a holistic perspective embodying not only the suppliers but also the demand side of the cruise travel is considered. With the participation of all stakeholders, this growing industry will contribute not only its own improvement but also to the development of destinations and to the protection of environment, which is the main source of this travel type.

345 REFERENCES Berger, A. (2004). Ocean Travel and Cruising: A Cultural Analysis, Haworth Hospitality Press. New York. Braun, B. M. & Tramel, F. (2006). The Sources and Magnitude of the Economic Impact on a Local Economy from Cruise Activities: Evidence from Port Canaveral, Florida. In: Ross K. Dowling (ed.) Cruise Ship Tourism, Chapter 26, p.280-290, CABI, Cambridge, USA. Brida, J. G. & Zapata, S. (2010). Cruise Tourism: Economic, Socio-Cultural and Environmental Impacts. International Journal of Leisure and Tourism Marketing 1(3), 205-226. Bull, A. O. (1996). The Economics of Cruising: An Application to the Short Ocean Cruise Market. Journal of Tourism Studies 7(2), 28-35. CLIA, (2004). 2004 Cruise Manual. Cruise Lines International Association, New York. CRISIL (2005), “Cruise Tourism Potential & Strategy Study”, Ministry of Tourism, India. Dowling, R.K. (2006a). The Cruising Industry. In: Ross K. Dowling (Ed.) Cruise Ship Tourism. Chapter 1, p.3-18, CABI, Cambridge, USA. Dowling, R.K. (2006b). Looking Ahead: The Future of Cruising. In: Ross K. Dowling (Ed.) Cruise Ship Tourism. Chapter 38, p.414-435, CABI, Cambridge, USA. Dwyer, L. & Forsyth, P. (1998). Economic Significance of Cruise Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 25(2),393-415. Hall, C. M. (2001). Trends in Ocean and Coastal Tourism: The End of the Last Frontier? Ocean & Coastal Management 44,601-618. Johnson, D. (2002). Environmentally Sustainable Cruise Tourism: a Reality Check. Marine Policy 26, 261- 270. Kalanj, M. (2014). Development of New Cruise Products. Singidunum University, Department of Postgraduate Studies. Business Systems in Tourism & Hospitality, unpublished Master’s Thesis. Klein, R. A. (2011). Responsible Cruise Tourism: Issues of Cruise Tourism and Responsibility. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management 18, 107-116. MedCruise Report (2015). Cruise Activity in Medcruise Ports: Statistics 2015. Medcruise Association. Najafipour , A. A.; Marzi, V. & Foroozanfar, M. H. (2014). The Future of Cruise Ship Industry: the Challenges of Cruising Market and Operations Management. Journal of Social Issues and Humanities 2(7), 213-224. Nilsson, P. A. (2007). Cruise Tourism and the New Tourist: the Need for a New Typology? In: M. Lück, Elmsford (Ed.) Nautical Tourism: Concepts and Issues. Chapter 7, p.92-106, Cognizant, USA. Pallis, T. (2015). Cruise Shipping and Urban Development: State of the Art of the Industry and Cruise Ports. OECD International Transport Forum, Discussion Paper No. 2015-14. Parasuraman, A. & Grewal, D. (2000). The Impact of Technology on the Qaulity-Value-Loyalty Chain: A Research Agenda. Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 28(1),168-174. Poon, A. (1993). Tourism, Technology and Competitive Strategies, CAB International Wallingford, UK. Sun, X.; Jiao, Y. & Tian, P. (2011). Marketing Research and Revenue Optimization for the Cruise Industry. International Journal of Hospitality Management 30,746-755. Sweeting, J. E. N. & Wayne, S. L. (2006). A Shifting Tide: Environmental Challenges and Cruise Industry Response. In Ross K. Dowling (Ed.) Cruise Ship Tourism, Chapter 30, p.327-338, CABI, Cambridge, USA. Tukamushaba, E. K.; Xiao, H. & Ladkin, A. (2016). The Effect of Tourists Perceptions of a Tourism Product on Memorable Travel Experience: Implications for Destination Branding. European Journal of Tourism, Hospitality and Recreation 7(1), 2-12. UNWTO (2016). Sustainable Cruise Tourism Development Strategies – Tackling the Challenges in Itinerary Design in South-East Asia. World Tourism Organisation and Asia-Pasific Tourism Exchange Center, UNWTO, Madrid. URL: CLIA (2011). 2011 Cruise Market Profile Study, Cruise Lines International Association, New York. Retrieved from http://www.cruising.org/docs/default-source/ market-research/2011-market-profile- study.pdf?sfvrsn=0 (access date: 23.07.2016). URL: CLIA (2016a). 2016 State of the Industry, Cruise Lines International Association, New York. Retrieved from http://www.cruising.org/about-the-industry/research/2016-state-of-the-industry (access date: 22.07.2016). URL: CLIA (2016b). Travel Agent Cruise Industry Outlook, Cruise Lines International Association, New

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347 Chapter 26

Evaluation of Potential Wellness & SPA (Thermal) Tourism in Aydın Province

Gülseren YURCU*

INTRODUCTION Many factors are exposed daily life of modern man brings negative consequences to their health. Individual responsibility intended health enhancer, preservative and preventive services against diseases changes in the population structure andgeneral expenses growing field of health will gain more meaning in the future (Ergüven,2010,93).Wellness practices is important for the prevention of disease and maintaining well-being. After re-definitionThe World Health Organization (WHO) health “is not only the absence of disease and disability, but also physical, mental and social complete well-being” the importance of Wellness&SPApracticeshas increased. Wellness&SPA treatments are examined in a very wide context. In manyways, beautification,health, physical fitness, psychology, socialization, relaxation, etc. the person is treated as a whole. Wellnessrefers being fit in mind,body, spirit and relationships. Wellness tourism is defined as travel for the purpose of enhancing individuals` wellbeing and protecting it (www.itb-kongress.de). In this context,all kinds of massages, such as facials, mud and seaweed baths, bath treatments, balneotherapy, thalassotherapy and body care with nature and natural products, the methods of healthy living that could make the person himself spiritually, physically and mentally feel good and energetic,is within the scope of wellness. The term SPA that refers “good / health coming with water”and formed from the initial letters of Latin word “Salus Per Aquam”, defines healing as a result odf drinking water /hot and cold and in different formats (pouring, dripping, showering, such as injection), the health from water and rest and feeling of relief by dint of water in the early of 19thcentury (Apaydın, 2009)."The goodness that comes with water” is used mainly for thermal or seawater, the care and treatment of the body since Roman times (Yücel,2003). Wellness&SPA treatments date back to Greek civilization.It spreadfrom Romans to the entire world.Mesopotamian, Greek, Romans and other cultures have experienced the completely healing power of regular Bath application. This trend in relaxing and rewarded working individuals increased in 21th century. Wellness today shows itself as new life style, new style in nutrition and a new style of holiday. Wellness is accepted not only as a trend but also as a lifestyle philosophy (Ergüven,2010, 87). According to the report of the world tourism industryin 2013-2014, Wellness&SPAtourism expenditures Wellness & SPA tourism industry also covers 14% of the world tourism expenditure is stated to be 439 billion dollars (Ellis,2013). The average residence time in Wellness& SPA tourism is longer than the others. The average stays in the spa in Germany 6, in France 17-18, in Czechoslovakia 18nights. The number of overnight stays of foreign visitors in Turkey is 4,1 average income is 700 US dollars, it can be considered that Wellness&SPA overall average of incoming foreign visitors have a minimum expenditure of up to two times (Yücel,2003). The average expenditure of wellness tourists in the region and the world is 2066 dollars and the Europeans were the people who are spending most with respect to regions (158.4 billion dollars) (http://www.itb-kongress). International SPA Association (ISPA-EUROPA) classified SPAs according to supply and demand as Club SPA, Cruise Ship-Cruise SPA, Day SPA (The Elements),Visit/ Destination SPA Vacation, Health/ Medical/ Medical SPA, Thermal/ Mineral/ Spring (Geothermal), Vacation/Resort/ Hotel/Resort. Wellness&SPA treatments examine a very broad concept.All these practices allow individuals to feel good about themselves. Individuals want to experience this kind of tourism because they want to

*Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Tourism Faculty, Recreation Management Department

gain back their health, have fun, relax, etc. Due to the individual person to take a holistic approach is offered as private applications / it should be presented. To reassure individuals with a holistic approach, beauty, kindness aimed at improving the wellbeing Wellness & SPA applications can be classified as follows.A classification is split as shown in figure 2.

Figure 1: Global tourism ındustry expenditures (Source: Ellis, 2013).

Figure 2: Wellness&SPA classification

349 Wellness&SPA treatments are used in conjunction with the choice of the individual.For example; Individual relax by taking a walk in nature, balneotherapy (thermal) can take a walk in nature or can relax after the application of a thermal bath center applications. They can do exercises by the sea in the pool (hydrotherapy). SPA Tourism (Thermal) Potentialin Turkey It is expressed that the diversity of the geological features of the different regions of the world cause differences in SPA applications (Schlessinger, 2008: 403-411).In terms of Wellness SPA tourism as new hotels related Wellness SPA are built, existing hotels are also includes “Wellness&SPA” services (Apaydın, 2009: 214).Countries that have cultural, natural, social, historical features are important tourism resources.Located in the Alpine-Himalayan geothermal generation Turkeyhas important advantagesfrom the use of thermal water inWellness SPA tourism. Geothermal energy has a wide range of using from energy production to heating, fishing to thermal tourism. In terms of geothermal water resources Turkey located on Alpine - Himalayan Geothermal Belt is very rich (Aydıngöz, 2005:17).The Alpine orogenic belt, known as a young mountain chain and at the same time, located on an important geothermal belt, thermal waters in Turkey, in terms of flow and temperatures, also carry the more superior qualities of thermal waters than Europe with various physical and chemical properties (Piri, 2011:2). Thermal and geothermal heat applications in the World Top 5 ranking the countries, China, Japan, USA, Iceland and Turkey (Yörükoğlu,t.y,1). Looking at the dispersion geothermal resources by geographic regions in the country,the highest share (77.94%) had taken the Aegean Region, Eastern Anatolia Region with %4.77 is located fourth after the Marmara Region(Toy et al.,2010,1).There are 1300 thermal sources in Turkey with 20-110 C and 2 - 500 l /sec rating. Turkey is in 3rd after Italy and Germany with 190 health resort(Hemidov,2012,33). Geothermal resources in the country are volcanic product that continued activity with breaking points of northern Anatolia, Eastern Anatolia and Western Anatolian. High-temperature contained geothermal field is typically located in the west of the country due to young tectonic effects.Low and medium-temperature areas under the influence of volcanism and the occurrence of the fault and the Middle East are located along the north Anatolian and East Anatolian breaking points(Hemidov, 2012,33). Geothermal systems in western Anatolia are usually a high temperature, and due to opening tectonic they are typically located in grabens. The most important of geothermal systems that located East-west and northwest-southeast trending trending young grabens were developed Menderes and Gediz grabens. The breaking points that forming this grabens active in terms of seismicity and geothermal aspect.Within the Menderes Graben, the highest temperature in Turkey is the Denizli-kızıldere geothermal field (2420C), Aydin-Germencik geothermal field (2320C), Aydin-Salavatli geothermal field (1710C), Aydin-YilmazkoyImamkoy geothermal field (1420C). Geothermal fields in the Gediz graben; Manisa - SalihliCaferbeyli field (1550C), Manisa- Salihli-Kurşunlu court (96oC),Manisa-Alasehir-, Kavaklidere field (1160C) and Manisa-Turgutlu- Urganli field (860C).Developing in similar graben system,the Kutahya-Simav geothermal field (1620C) Gediz and Kutahya –Monument geothermal field (97oC) are in high temperature areas.Gölemezli geothermal area (650C), Karahayıt field (55oC) and Pamukkale (350C) field within the Çürüksugraben usually has lower temperature.Other geothermal systems in western Anatolia are located in fields where northeast-southwest trending grabens and volcanic activity exist.These geothermal fields are Izmir-Urla area (1530C),Izmir Balçova field (130oC), Izmir-standing range (1300C), Izmir Aliaga field (960C) and Izmir Cesme geothermal field (620C). Apart from these fields, Western Anatolia in the northern part of the Çanakkale-Tuzla geothermal field (174oC), Balıkesir-Bigadiçarea (950C), Balıkesir-Hisaralan field (1000C) and Balıkesir-Gönen field (80oC) are significant geothermal areas. Depending on compressive tectonics and young volcanism in the Aegean there are -Gregory (740C) and Manisa-Kula-Order geothermal areas (630C) with lower temperature.Geothermal systems in Central Anatolia are usually depending on volcanic activity and have lower temperatures than in western Anatolia. Major geothermal fields in this region; Ankara-Kızılcahamam field (860C), KırşehirTerme field (570C), Afyon-Omar- Gecekto the field (980C), Afyon-Sandıklı field (700C), NevşehirKozaklı field (930C), Aksaray-Ziga field (650C), Sivas-hot Cermik field (490C) and Yozgat query the field (750C). Volcanic and tectonic activity in Eastern and Southeastern Anatolia developed relating major geothermal fields; Van-Ercis

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field (800C), Agri-Diyadin (780C), Bitlis-Nemrut field (590C), Diyarbakir-Cermik field (510C) and Urfa-Karaali (490C). Developing important geothermal fields along the North Anatolian Fault; Sakarya- Akyazı field (840C), Bursa-Çekirge field (820C), Yalova-Armutlu field (770C), Yalova-Terme field (660C), Çankırı-Kurşunlu field (540C), Tokat-Reşadiye field (470C), Bolu-kaplıca field (450C). Apart from these sitesthere is Rize-Ayder (560C) geothermalfield in Eastern Black Sea (Arslan, Darıcı & Karahan, 2001, 24-26).

Figure 3:Main neotectonic lines and hot spring distribution of Turkey Source: Parlaktuna et.al., 2013. The SPA Tourism Goals ofTurkey between 2000 and 2025 Despite the rich thermal springs that Turkey has, due to the negative effects of reasons such as the lack of facilities located on these resources, infrastructure problems in the region's resources, transportation problems, trained skilled personnel shortages, continued traditional using of SPA use,it is impossible achieved goals unless these resources converted into modern facilities. SPA usage is increasing focus of attention by domestic and foreign tourists (Göçmen, 2008,78). For this reason, tourism diversification across the country is emerging as a sector that should be treated as a priority in studies of thermal tourism. In terms of facility and bed capacity, according to data in 2003, capacity of thermal tourism inTurkey isstated 18585 bed capacity. But according to the Ministry of Culture and Tourism in the number of long-term thermal tourism master plan (2017-2023) is planned to be 500,000 beds (http://www. isktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.t). Culture and Tourism Ministry's "health tourism and thermal tourism" related targets;  Troy, Phrygia and Aphrodisias will be developed as thermal and regional destination, providing integration with thermal and alternative types of tourism; it will be based on the capacity of cultural tourism in the vicinity of other cultural and natural values.  Studies in stages for the evaluation of all areas that have geothermal resources will be continue evaluated.  So far announced by the Ministry of Culture and tourism, thermal tourism center revision and zoning plans, planning studies related to the development will be completed.  It will be provided as the first destination in thermal tourism in Europe.  For the purpose of effective distribution of geothermal water, work will be carried out towards the establishment of the Union and the distribution companies in the designated pilot regions.  Areas that could be announced as geothermal resource-oriented "tourism center" and / or "Culture and Tourism Conservation and Development Area" after the completion of the physical plan,allocation for tourism investors will take place in a short time" (Göçmen, 2008:79). The thermal tourism understanding of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism is to create facilities such as“washing purposes except for Human Health, Wellness, recreation, entertainment, recreation and sports facilities that can provide services for up to 12 months”. In order to improve health and thermal

351 tourism, Culture and Tourism Ministry have been identified new areas of geothermal potential in Turkey within “Thermal Tourism Cities Project"(http://www.kultur.gov.tr). These areas; South Marmara Thermal Tourism Region (in Canakkale, Balikesir.Yalova), Phrygia Thermal Tourism Region (Afyonkarahisar, Kütahya, Uşak, Eskişehir, Ankara), South Aegean Thermal Tourism Region (Izmir, Manisa, Aydın, Denizli) and Central Anatolia Thermal Tourism Region (Yozgat, Kirsehir, Nevsehir, Nigde). It is aimed to develop this areas as destination centers and to integrate them with other tourism types such as nature tourism, water sports and cultural and natural values.In line with this objectives , Culture and Tourism Ministry is planning 250 bed capacity in short term after the creation of the landscaping in the area; taking advantage of the experiences in the pilot area in designated provinces to rich one million bed capacity in the medium term: to make Turkey as a first destination in Europe by the arrival of 15 million tourists and opening 500 thousand thermal tourism facilities in the long–term (Toy et.al., 2010: 3-4). Mineral Properties of the Thermal Waters From the depths of the earth, thermal waters reach the surface. Surface water different elements carries by contact with underground rocks and soil (Camgöz et al., 2010:78). Overall 180ºC thermal springs are used for geothermal energy production, 45-180°C heating fluid and thermal waters for housing and greenhouse, the resources between 30-45°C for bathing and drinking cures and thermal treatment. Thermal treatment according to the standards of internationally German SPA Union recognized, “thermal water” is the healing waters of the natural temperatures over 20ºC, water containing dissolved minerals at lower temperatures and has 1g dissolver minerals per liter is “mineral water”, water containing both heating and 1 g dissolved minerals per liter is “thermo mineral water” (Hot mineral waters) (Özbek and Özbek, 2008). In terms of human health, there are some standards that should have important features of groundwater (Aslan, 1995: 40-42). These standards are evaluated in the following manner for some minerals. pH : pH is a term which represents the intensity of feature of solution of acid or base. According to the standardsTSE-266 pH limit in drinking water has been identified as 6.5-9.2. Nitrate -nitrite: Nitrate (NO3-) and nitrite (NO2-) ions are commonly found .The World Health Organization (WHO) and the United States agencies like the Environmental Protection Agency limit for nitrate in drinking water determined by rearranging the levels. Both organizations determined limit values for nitrate (NO3) 50 mg / L (50 ppm), for nitrite (NO2) 0.1 mg / L (0.1ppm). Table 1: Geothermal power generation in Turkey Reservoir Average Reservoir Power Startup Location Power Plant Temperature Temperature Capacity Date o o ( C) ( C) (MWe) Denizli Kızıldere I Zorlu-Kızıldere 1984 242 217 17.4 Kızıldere II Zorlu-Kızıldere 2013 - - 60 Sarayköy Bereket 2007 - 145 7.5 Aydın/Sultanhisar Salavatlı Dora-1 2006 172 168 7.35 Salavatlı Dora-2 2010 176 175 11.2 Salavatlı Dora-3 2013 - - 17 Aydın/Germencik Ömerbeyli Gurmat 2009 232 220 47.4 Hıdırbeyli İrem 2011 190 170 20 Bozkoy Sinem 2012 - - 24 Bozkoy Deniz 2012 - - 24 Çanakkale Tuzla Tuzla 2010 174 160 7.5 Total 243.35 Source: Baba, 2013.

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Sodium: Sodium, one of the most abundant chemical element elements in the world is very active and has too much water solubility, because of it, sodium found in compounds in nature .According WHO standards, nako standard concentration in drinking water is 200 mg/L. Standard intake of sodium is electrolyte-balancing in the body. It was observed that an excessive amount of NA intake has become corrupted on blood pressure. Potassium (K) is a soft, grayish color and a very active element. According to TSE-266 standards Potassium concentration in drinking water is 12 mg/l. Calcium (Ca): ions physiological role is to decrease the permeability of the cell wall and the cuticula of water and ions.According to standard of TSE-266 Ca concentration in the drinking water is 200 mg / L. Magnesium (Mg): Chlorophyll magnesium in water for plants is vital.According to TSE standards; the standard of magnesium in drinking water is 50 mg/l. Iron (Fe) and manganese (Mg):In terms of drinking or usage waters, it is difficult to use them, because they are found with high-level concentrations in ground waters almost always but in surface waters in some months of year.According to TSE-266 standards for Fe the limit values is 0.2 mg/l and for Mn is 0.05 mg/L. Existing iron regulations in the blood, is good for rheumatism and decrease weakness (Hemidov, 2012,40). Cooper(Cu):Copper has a reddish color, readily soluble and formed metal.For people, the limit values for copper in drinking water is 1.3 mg/L and 0.5 mg/L for the animals.According to TSE-266 standards, limit are determined 3 mg/L. Cobalt (Co): Cobalt and its compounds in nature are found in rocks, soil, water and plants. Co is a necessary element for health and body development.Because it contains vitamin12 that required for nutrition.Cobalt with production of red blood cells is an effective element for the treatment of anemia.However intake in high doses is harmful.It can cause pneumonia nausea, vomiting, and eye diseases. Silver (Ag): Silver is a substance that is usually found in compounds in nature.Ag limit in drinking water, according to TSA-266 standard is 0.01 mg/L. Aluminum (Al): The Al metal in the world which has the features of most founding, is found in soil, water and air.All amounts in drinking water should be around 5% for a human adult. This limit according to WHO standards and TSE-266 is 0.2 mg / L.Al is known as a non-toxic element.Aluminum is an element that is also used in Alzheimer's disease and diabetes. Arsenic (As): Arsenic is known as a poison since ancient times.Asin drinking water is taken to the various organs of body by blood flow. It is found in hair and nails with high doses.In drinking water as long-term intake of Al has been observed to cause thinning and discoloration of the skin, nausea, diarrhea, a fall in the production of blood cells, heart palpitations, numbness in the hands and feet .According to WHO standards, the amount of As must not exceed0.05 mg/l .When standard dose is exceeded, it is found to cause bladder skin, liver, and kidney cancer. Boron (B): boron is very rich in terms of minerals in Turkey and takes the first place in the world. American public health service recommends boron concentration in drinking water 1.0 mg/l (max 5.0 mg/l), and most irrigation waters in the 0.7 mg/L . Barium (Ba): Barium is silvery-white color element, that is mostly found oxygen, sulfur and carbon compounds in nature.according to TSE-266 standards Ba standards in drinking water was determined0.3 mg/l. Nickel (Ni): Nickel concentration in ground water depends on using of the soil, pH and water depth. With acid rain increases the variability of Ni in the soil and hence the concentration of Ni in water also increases.If pH<6.2 in groundwater Niconcentration is over 980 mg/lt. According to WHO standards, Ni concentration is 0.02 mg/L. in drinking water .The level of nickel in humans, is estimated to be in the range of 7-35 mg per body weight. Sulfur (S): Sulfur is a yellow color, solid powder and odorless element and sometimes smells like egg. Zinc (Zn) and lead (Pb): a substantial portion of dissolved zinc metal has a low pH and is found in ground waters at high temperature (Aydıngöz, 2005,27- 36).

353 The TSE-266 standards of these elements; As:0.05 mg/L, Cd:0.005 mg/L, Cr:0.05 mg/L, Pb:0.05 mg/L, Ag:0.01 mg/L, Cu:3mg/L, Fe:0.2 mg/L, Zn:5 mg/L, Ni:0.02 mg/L, Mn:0.05 mg/L’. WHO standartları; As:0.05 mg/L, Cd:0.005 mg/L, Cr:0.05 mg/L, Pb:0.05 mg/L,Ag:0 mg/L, Cu:0 mg/L, Fe:0 mg/L, Zn:0 mg/L, Ni:0.02 mg/L, Mn:0.5 mg/L. These results of the analysis indicate that heavy metal value in thermal waters is not dangerous for public health. (Aydıngöz, 2005,73) Higher degree of Na+ and CL – ions than Ca++ and HCO- ions in hot water indicates that these waters come from a deep magma (Aydın Provincial Directorate of Special Administration, 2008,25). In Turkey thermal waters described as “natural and rich” are rich in terms of mineral melt, sulfur, salt and due to the superior qualities, physical and chemical properties of the thermal springs are higher than Europe. Each spring water is good with physical and chemical properties to different diseases.Ferruginous waters: regulate iron blood, takes weakness and good for rheumatism,arsen waters: removes weakness, strengthens the body,iodised water: is good for respiratory tract, eye diseases, heart and circulatory problems,sulphurous waters: is beneficial for rheumatic diseases, eye, skin, respiratory tract, and female disorders,radioactive (radonlu, youth) waters: all of the organism, stimulates neural fatigue, hormonal imbalance, is good for rheumatic heart diseases, blood circulation and women's diseases,mud and muddy waters: is good for leather, nervous, and rheumatic and women's diseases, and novfatigue,sodium - chloride waters: is beneficial for leather, rheumatic disease, asthma, bronchitis, heart, circulatory system disorders, nervous exhaustion and novretrofit.carbonate and carbonated waters: is good for eating disorders ,kidney and urinary tract disease,sulfate waters: is beneficial for nutritional disorders, kidney and urinary tract infections and rheumatic diseases(Doğan,2000,39-41,akt. Hemidov,2012,40-41). SPA Tourism (Thermal) Potential of Aydın Available resources in Aydin province, is seen as an important source for geothermal energy applications (Toksoy andAksoy,2003,1).Aydin is the leading cities of Turkey in terms of number and quality of geothermal resources (Karamanderesi,2013).Very important geothermal resources are located around 15-20 km of the province of Aydin. Aydın springs, as well as in terms of complementary elements of climate, landforms, population density, educated and young population structure, the structure of conscious people in the tourism, transportation facilities etc. issues has important advantages. 77.94% of Turkey's water source is located in the Aegean region. Hot water supplies in Aydin province as a result of tectonic activity along breaking points are connected to the exit of a large Menderes graben. Menderes base in starting from 900 teams originating from the Aegean Sea to the right and left slopes formed in thousands of years of rich water flow has rich underground water resources.In terms of geothermal resource potential that supply the total 3000 lt\sec. hot fluid flow in various temperature ranges geothermal field (25-2320C) located through in provinces, Ilıcabaş of İmamköy, Germencik, Ömerbeyli, Bozköy, Çamur, Sultanhisar, Salavatli, Malgaçemir, Güvendik, Gümüş, Söke Sazliköy, Buharkent, Ortakci, Nazilli, Gedik and Davutlar, Aydin is most important position in Turkey (http://www. ktbyatirimisletmeler. gov.tr).  Analysis of thermal spring water was made in Aydin and according to the results, with sodium, calcium, chloride, bicarbonate; it is in the class of thermal water. In table 5 hot springs and specifications located within the borders of the province are available.  If Aydın evaluated in terms of climatic data;The average annual temperature is over 18°C, have more sunny days and fertile plains and green vegetation at least. In terms of city noise, pollution, within the provinces.  When SPA centres (for accommodation businesses) are examined, it is observed that the accommodation establishments in accordance with the SPA concept are inadequate.Although there are many sources of thermal SPA it seems to be insufficient investment in the tourism accommodation.  The SPA water cure centers located in existing applications and bathrooms where several auxiliary units, it is observed that they can not capture the full meaning of European standards.  The curing time of the application of hotels l is under 14 days.  The setup that should be provided in hotels a specialist doctor, physiotherapist, social worker,

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psychologist, nurses, medical technicians, masseur, masseuse, and other auxiliary health staff knowledge and practice is known to be incomplete (Çetin&Çolakoğlu, 2010).  Aydın made many civilizations, as well as the thermal water resources; it has a long history with the historical and cultural structures. -Eco-tourism, hunting tourism, mountain tourism, and tourism types such as religious tourism in the province of Aydın aresuitable. Table 2: Aydın thermal facilities and features Thermal Features Natur-Med Total mineralization 711,33mg/l akrato thermal water. In stages of chronic rheumatic Thermal diseases and the rehabilitation of orthopedic and neurological disorders and Plant complementary treatments it can be used in the form of bathes. It is water with totally 6016.97 mg / Lt. the mineralization, sodium chloride (salt-sodium 1167 mg / Lt., chloride 2602 mg / Lt), fluoride (1.6 mg / Lt.) and mixed thermo mineral water quality. The bathroom applications inflammatory rheumatic diseases (mainly romatiartrit, ankylosing spondylitis) in the chronic phase;the noninflammatory joint disease such as osteoarthritis, Chronic low back pain; as a complementary treatment Radon component in the treatment of soft tissue infections such as fibromyalgia syndrome, Thermal myositis, tendinitis, trauma, the long-term inactivity situation, after such as Orthopedic Plant/ surgery, neurosurgery,mobilizationexercises,in selected neurological disorders in Thermal chronic phase, for the purpose of rehabilitation in the treatment of diseases such as Cure cerebral palsy,stress disorder, as integral components of treatment ın general stress Center disorder such as neurovegetative dystonia in the example and sports injuries, as help / integral components of treatment dermatological diseases and in the treatment of itchy rash such as in psoriasis bath and Heliotherapy (sunbathing) with applications;used as complement/supportive therapy elements the catarrhal diseases of the respiratory tract by inhalation the pulverization methods are used to provide the appropriate particle size. Source with total 3777.93 mg/l. İs naturally mineralization, sodium chloride, bicarbonate mixed. It can be used in the form of bath treatment in chronic stages of rheumatic and neurological diseases,also as complementary element in orthopedic sequelae. Hot Springs Physical Features:No unique taste, color (Pt-Co) 31, blur 9, Cure Hotel Chemical properties: thermo mineral water with sodium chloride and bicarbonate. /Alangüllü Physical Chemical Properties: pH: 7.2 Electrical conductivity: 5710 μx / cm Density: Thermal 1.0041 g / cm3 Total mineralization: 3777.93 mg /l Temperature: 65-78°C Temperature 40-41°C and located near the village.Germencik Ortaklar. From the Gümüş foothills of Gümüşdağ, boiling hot water in granite rocks combines and flows like a Thermal creek flows.It does not need to be kept water and added cold for bath.It is good for liver, Germencik gall bladder, gynecological and skin diseases. 38-40 ºC total mineral content 40 283.1mg/L salt concentration 33 g/l It contains minerals; Sodium chloride, magnesium, fluoride, sulfate, chloride, calcium, Caprice ions, necessary for bone and muscle metabolism, calcining and ion are effective for Thermal treating rheumatism. Palace / It can be used in thalassotherapy (therapy with sea water), waist and neck hernia, Thermal arthritis, rheumatic diseases, soft tissue rheumatism (fibromyalgia), tennis elbow, soft Cure tissue problems such as golfer's elbow, fractures and dislocations, rehabilitation, sports Center injuries and orthopedic surgery rehabilitation after stroke and spinal cord injury rehabilitation, neurological disorders, stress and fatigue, psoriasis, skin diseases such as eczema. Magnezköy Magnezkoy Holiday Village is located 19 km away from Kusadasi, 21 km toSelcuk, Thermal Ephesus and Virgin Mary, 55 km to Didim and 97 km to Izmir. Plants

355 Temperature 65°C (source of Iodine), it is in 10 km north of Germencik and near Germencik Chamkoy.The water from hard clay ground creates mud in many places .This mud is Mud Baths good for painful illnesses. Cure for rheumatism, neuralgia, liver, gall bladder, and women’s diseases. The temperature is 19°C and located in the south of Kusadasi.It is a healing water Güzelçamlı coming out from under the rocks. It regulates the working of intestines and stomach. It Hot Springs has a calming effect. Temperature is 36°C, 5 km away from Aydin,Imamkoy.Water is boiling in a domed İmamköyH cave.The taste is not pleasant, but if you drink,it gives you a feeling of comfort.It ot Springs provides good functioning of the intestines. Resting in a bath is good for neuralgia and nerve. It is in boundaries of the district of Aydın Buharkent and on the Denizli road and located 5 km from away from the nearest settlement Kızıldere. It shows that thermal waters have positive effects of complementary therapies against rheumatic diseases, chronic back pain, arthritis, inflammation of non-joint disease, due to the unclear soft tissue disease, orthopedic surgery, after neurosurgery long-term Kızıldere mobilization exercises in inactivity condition, the treatment of diseases such as central Hot Springs nervous system in the brain disturbance stress disorder and sports injury. Physical Properties: Colorless, odorless. Chemical properties: Thermo mineral water with sodium bicarbonate, fluoride Total mineralization: 4164.64 mg /l. Temperature: 102°C It is located in the town of David's city center Aydın, Kuşadası. The SPA area located in 70km to Aydin Province, 17 km to Kusadasi, 120 km to Izmir also is near to archaeological sites such as the Ephesus, the Virgin Mary, Priene, andDilek Peninsula National Park, Miletus, Bafa Lake, Sirince Village. Airport transportation is convenient because access by road to the town of David and SPA facilities are very spacious and convenient and also it is away 1-1,5 km from MuglaDalaman Airport, Izmir Adnan Menderes and Cigli Airport. In terms of yachts and passenger ships it is important border crossings and provides sea Kuşadası transport to Kusadasi that located 17 km away from here. Hot Springs Kusadasi port which is serving with two jetties,for about 650 bed capacity marina and tourist ships makes daily passenger trips to Greek island Samos in spring and summer, but it continues as charter trips in winter months. Physical Features: No unique taste, color (Pt, Co) 5, normal blurring value, Physical Chemical Properties: pH: 6.5 Electrical conductivity: 9730 μx / cm Density: 1.0060 g / cm3 Total mineralization: 6016.97 mg /Lt Temperature: 42.5°C Temperature is 33.5°C Located on Soke –Ortaklar way,9 km away from Sazlık Sokeprovince.Boiling from a flat occupied by the granite rocks, water is quite Sulfur abundant.The smell of sulfur is felt from far away. Also existing of free CO Gas, the Thermal 2 temperature of 33.5 degrees, gives superior value to the SPA. It provides benefit for Village heart rheumatism and rheumatism. Temperature is 50°C. It is next to the village Ortakci, and situated on the Nazili- Ortakçı Hot Burhaniye way. It is one of two sources goes to Ortakci Bath. The water temperature is Springs 74°C that leading to the other bathroom. Thermal water is good for the liver and gallbladder. It also prevents the formation of kidney stones. Kızıl Hot Is in Germencik, Abdurrahman Village. Resource foams continuously. It is good for Springs skin diseases. Source: Ministry of Tourism,http://www.termaloteller-kaplicalar.com, http://www. kaplicabiz, http:// www. caprice. com.tr  SPA is unique for individual with a wide range of applications preferred.  In table 6 it can be seen the business of tourism investment licensed and certified facilities in

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Aydin province. According to the datas of Aydın provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, the tourism business certified bed capacity of the facilities in 2011 is 20.211, in 2015 it was 23.683, but investment certificate in 2011 was 5.879, in 2015 was 16.335.  Aydın has a population with high educational level and tourism-conscious, young, dynamic, preserving cultural values. CONCLUSIONS Tourism made a positive contribution to the country's economy from past to present. Increasing the awareness of individuals to tourism has a positive effect on international tourism movement.Especially in the aftermath of the 1950s with the development of mass tourism, more people have benefited from tourism.Most individuals participate in sightseeing and leisure tourism movement.In 2015, the number of tourists approximately World took place with a growth of 4.4 percent and amounted 1.2 (1.184) billion people. (UNWTO, Ocak, 2016). It is reported that in the vision 2030 the figure will be 1.8 billion people (UNWTO, 2015).Because it provides a significant contribution to the state economy in the countries include tourism to their policy.With the most efficient using of resources that they own the country's tourism supply, countries making plans to make revenue all year. As of year tourism awareness in individuals demonstrates continuous improvement. Parallel to this, tourism is expected to maintain the importance with dynamic effects to the country's economy.Turkey with its cultural and natural resources has in a position to provide significant improvements to the tourism sector.Information society of property to receive high quality service and consumer awareness about different experiences illustrate the differences and gradually increase.Increasing in leisure time, and in income, the desire to get rid of the busy schedule that comes with the technology, increases the demand for tourism. Policies related to tourism product diversification are seen especially in the fifth five-year development plan. Exchanges and tourism promotions in 1980, illustrates the growing importance of tourism. Again,in sixth, seventh, eighth, ninth plan, focused on the need to diversify the tourist product.Mass tourism, as well as efforts to spread tourism activities all year brought up the issue of diversification of tourism products.In line with this, types of tourism such as health, winter, convention, festival tourism have come to the fore in the individual tourism movement.Any developments regarding the diversification of tourism products was observed in the fifth and sixth plan. In the eighth plan, issue about leaving right of health tourism-related business to the private sector has been raised. Desired developments about health and thermal tourism couldn’t occur at the expected level. Lack of infrastructure and qualified staff couldn’t be removed. In terms of geothermal resources, Turkey that in the Alpine-Himalayan belt, ranked 1 in Europeancountries and 5 in the world. Turkey, which has advantages in terms of geothermal resources, cann’t be adequately assessed. Geothermal resources are required to be used primarily for the electrical energy. However plans for Wellness & SPA tourism will make an important contribution to tourism in Turkey as soon as possible. Turkey has 77,94% of the Aegean Coast resources in the regional distribution of geothermal resources. Turkey in the Aegean region located in the first row, is observed positive developments, but has not reached a sufficient level. In terms of geothermal resources, Aegean Region of Aydin province is luckier. Examining thermal properties of water, it is observed that it is rich with minerals.The temperature of thermal water is rather high.Wellness&SPA in Aydın Province has all conditions for tourism but there is no adequate planning and work on the development of this type of tourism.Wellness&SPA tourism cannot be assessed in a short period of urban change that would make the difference. SUGGESTIONS Capturing the changing tourism trends are slowing because of bureaucratic obstacles. In Tourism Diversification (Wellness & SPA Tourism) common remedy is turned into despair due to the lack of coordination between holistic approach and sectors. It would be better financing stakeholders than making everything by government. Inter-sectoral cooperation should be strengthened. The trend of tourism development should be continued bycreatinghigh applicability and realistic policies. Starting

357 from the fifth development plan, Wellness&SPA and planned activities related to tourism should be implemented with more realistic planning.Priority should be given to the protection of our natural and cultural resources.To be disposed of waste in the environment geothermal fluid, reinjection must be made and monitored.to increase the average length of stay of tourism must be ensured in Wellness & SPA. It should be aimed stable gains in the long term rather than instant gains.The opportunity to spread tourism over the entire year must be captured.By shaping the care of the immediate follow-up consumer demand and plan technology to meet the consumer demand, it should be benefited from the features of the technology issues. Changing consumer trends are increasing the demand for Wellness & SPA tourism.Most of the accommodations are made for these types of tourism businesses. (Afyon\Güral).Primarily from nearby countries, developed countries and the health insurance system, diagnosis and treatment rates, technologies should be explored, target countries and markets for Wellness & SPA tourism must be selected.Other countries in the conventional product packaging and promotional materials, as in (traditional) tourism facilities, tours, thermal tourism facilities and medical tourism should be presented together.The share of destination image studies should be carried out and world market share should be increased. Turkey is full of rich natural and cultural beauty,care should be taken to restore and protect this beauty.The use of thermal water should be diversified with thermal tourism products, as well as entertainment, recreation, tourism, trips, and activities supported by the provided setup services. Tourism diversification of tourism products within the scope of an integrated approach should be takenand should be included in planning consideration of regional differences. Emphasis should be on the top –sub structure work, it should be supported and consumer demand should be taken into consideration.In the architectural and other restructuring efforts Wellness & SPA concept should be considered. Foreign tourism investors are directed in the direction of the interests of the country should be provided. The natural environment, infrastructure, superstructure, service quality, and human behavior with the dimensions of holiday experience to tourists, considering that an integral product is that are offered; all these components compatible with each other and in a coordinated manner with development should be provided. Wellness & SPA tourist facilities, trained personnel should be made mandatory to run. The creation of infrastructure facilities and services are not sufficient in terms of quality standards. Staff providing services must meet the standards in the quality and quantity of thermal tourism. Staff must be composed with persons with basic information about their work, must know difference of the services they offer from other tourism services.After worker was recruited, field and job-related information in-service training should be developed. To maximize operational quality standards it should be reconsidered with the logic.Application instead of low price in the international market, enhancing quality, product diversity, and plausible for high levels of customer satisfaction approach should be provided to the provider. For the purpose of the establishment of a network of sales abroad; for tour operators, specialist agencies and health organizations, this issue should be encouraged. By defining geothermal potential located within the boundaries of Aydin province should raise awareness about the province at national and international level in thermal tourism.For this purpose, panel discussions, symposia, congresses etc. should be organized and should raise awareness about this potential. Wellness SPA centers should be established, number of beds, quality of service, capacity must be increased and enriched with various product concepts. REFERENCES Arslan,S.; Darıcı, M. & Karahan, Ç. (2001).Türkiye’ninJeotermalEnerjiPotansiyeli,http://www.mmo.org.tr) Apaydın, B. B. (2009). Türk Hamam Kültürünün SPA&Wellness Mekânlarının Tasarımına Etkileri, Zeitschriftfürdie Welt der Türken Journal of World of Turks, 207-220 Aslan, Z. (1995).Termal Hizmetlerin Oluşturulmasında Termal Suyun Standartlarının Belirlenmesi, D.E.Ü.

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İşletme Fakültesi, Turizm İşletmeciliği Bölümü, İzmir. Ekoloji Çevre Dergisi, Ocak-Şubat-Mart, Sayı: 14, 40-42. Aydıngöz, M. (2005). Afyonkarahisar Bölgesinde Bulunan Kaplıca Sularının Mevsimsel Analizi, T.C., Afyonkarahisar Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Afyonkarahisar. Baba, A. (2013). Environmental Impact of The Utilization of Geothermal Areas In Turkey, Izmir Institute of Technology Geothermal Energy Research and Application Center, http://www.slideshare.net/oncel/ geothermal-areas-in-turkey, date of access:10.05.2016. Camgöz, B.; Saç, M.M.; Bolca, M.; Özen, F.; Oruç, Ö.E. & Demirel, N.(2010).Termal Suların Radyoaktivite ve Kimyasal İçeriklerinin İncelenmesi; İzmir, Seferihisar Bölgesi Örneği Ekoloji 19, 76, 78-87. Çetin, G. & Çolakoğlu, O. E. (2010).Wellness&SPA Yöneticileri Profili ve Eğitim Programları Değerlendirmesi, 11.Ulusal Turizm Kongresi Bildiri Kitabı, 803-816. Ellis, S. (2013). The Global Wellness Tourısm Economy, ITB Experts Forum Wellness, http://www.itb- kongress.de Ergüven, M. H. (2010). Wellness, Medıcal Wellness ve Turizm, Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Dergisi, Cilt 2, Sayı 2, ISSN: 1309 -8012 (Online), 87-95. Hemidov, G.Y. (2012). Avrupa’nın Termal Turizme Olan Talep Analizi ve Türkiye’nin Pazardaki Payı: Haymana ve Balçova Örneği, T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Dış İlişkiler ve Avrupa Birliği Koordinasyon Dairesi Başk. UzmanlıkTezi, Nisan –Ankara. Karamanderesi, İ. H. (2013).Characteristics of Geothermal Reservoirs in Turkey, IGA Academy Report. Göçmen, Z. G.(2008). Turizm Çeşitlendirmesi Kapsamında İzmir’de Termal Turizmin Tedavi Amaçlı Kullanımı ve Ekonomik Değeri, T.C.DokuzEylülÜniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı, Turizm İşletmeciliği Programı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Özbek, D. & Özbek, T. (2008).Jeotermal Kaynakların Sağlık ve Termal Turizme Entegrasyonu. Jeotermal Haber Bülteni, (2-3), 99-114. Parlaktuna, M.; Mertoğlu, O.; Şimşek, Ş.; Paksoy, H.& Başarır, N. (2013). Geothermal Country Update Report of Turkey (2010-2013), European Geothermal Congress, Pisa, Italy, 3‐7 June. Piri, T. (2011).Sağlık ve Termal Turizmi Geliştirme Çalışmaları Raporu, Ankara: Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı. Schlessinger, J. (2008). SPA Dermotology:Past, Present and Future, Dermotology Clin, 26, 403-411. Toksoy, M.&Aksoy, N. (2003).Aydın Jeotermal Gelişme Projesi, Izmır Instıtute of Technology Geothermal Energy Research Development Test and Educatıon Center. Toy, S.; Çatakçı, S.; Eymirli, E. B.& Karapınar, M. (2010). Erzurum Termal Turizm Potansiyeli, Erzurum, Kuzeydoğu Anadolu Kalkınma Ajansı, Turizm Raporları, No: 3. Yörükoğlu, A. (t.y.).Türkiye Jeotermal Enerji Potansiyeli ve Çevre, MTA GenelMüdür Yardımcısı,1-11. Yücel, C. (2003). SPA Turizminde Büyük Olanaklar,TÜRSAB Ar-Ge Departmanı, Eylül. Aydın Özel İdare İl Müdürlüğü, 2008,Aydın İli Germencik İlçesi, Gümüşköyü, Ilıca Mevkii, 8 pafta,133 parsel üzerinde bulunan sıcak su sondajının jeolojik ve hidrojeolojik raporu. http://www.turizm.gov.tr http://www.unwto.org, Ocak,2015, 2016 http://www.kültür.gov.tr http://www.termaloteller-kaplıcalar.com.tr, date of access:13.05.2011 http://www.kaplıca.biz, date of access:13.05.2011 http://www.caprice.com.tr, date of access:13.05.2011 http://www.ktbyatirimisletmeler.gov.tr, date of access:21.03.2016 http://www.globalwellnessinstitute.org/statistics-and-facts, date of access:22.03.2016 http://www.itb-kongress.de, date of access:22.03.2016 http://www.mta.gov.tr, date of access:22.03.2016 http://www.spafinder.com, date of access:22.03.2016 http://www.aydinkulturturizm.gov.tr, date of access:25.03.2016

359 Chapter 27

A View to Tourism Investment Policies in Turkey in the Context of Globalization Process and Sustainability

Düriye BOZOK, Özge GÜDÜ DEMIRBULAT

INTRODUCTION The concept of globalization is a process of change with very arguable and septic approaches in economic, political, socio-cultural and legal areas and it was first used in 1960, more frequently used in 1980s and afterwards (Bozkurt, 2000: 18), then it became more widespread and obvious through the passing time. This change was established after the II. World War, became more efficient especially after 1980 and it is named as the new world order (Rennen & Martens, 2003: 140). Globalization increases the economic scale internationally, causes similarities in consumption habits, increases the product variety as a result of transition from Fordist production to different production forms with a different technology and logic, accelerates the technology transfers and causes fast developments and shares in international communication and informatics. Globalization has become an important fact recently, and even though it was first used as a concept with economic content, it turned into a fact that brought people from different countries together in time and provided them the opportunity to exchange products, services and ideas. In addition with its ability to provide worldwide economic, political and cultural integration, it also causes the world to be smaller and the locations be close to each other, directly effecting unlimited competition and free circulation and therefore it is shortly defined as “turning the world into a single market” (Balay, 2004: 62-63). According to Aramberri (2008) and Hjalager (2007); concept of globalization as one of the mostly argued concepts of our age becomes more blurry day by day due to its utilization in a more uncontrolled way, and “globalization becomes a movement that provides the international flow of currencies, capital and labor through decreasing the man-made and natural barriers; increasing the integration of world, economies, societies and civilizations”. Globalization is a process of “restructuring” that effects every stage of human life. Economically, globalization is defined as “the strengthening of the tendency to make trade, capital, labor and technology subject to international competition due to economic, social and technical reasons and integration of goods/services markets and factor markets” (Bahar, 2006: 36). The developments especially in economic structure caused by globalization have increased the importance of customer- centered service sectors with an importance on information and services. Tourism sector is leading among those. Tourism sector is the leading customer-centered service sector both in terms of demand and supply (Karataş & Babür, 2013: 18). It is widely accepted that tourism is the activity that mostly facilitates globalization in economic and social aspects (Aydemir, Saylan & Özdemir, 2013: 452). Globalization process is intensifying and becoming multi-dimensional. It provides important opportunities for countries in terms of growth and development, and it also brings some risks and threats. Those countries that consider such threats and risks and taking the necessary measures and, by mobilizing their existing potentials, utilizing the possibilities of growth and development at a maximum can successfully sustain the process of development and will be among the outstanding countries in the future (Anon., 2013: 5). At this point; policies such as determination of developmental regions for tourism sector and the quantity and quality of touristic businesses, environment, and participation of local people, organization-management, marketing-promotion and competition should be handled with an integrative approach in the national development plans of countries.

 Assoc. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Tourism Faculty, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department  Res. Assist., Balıkesir University, Tourism Faculty, Tourism Management

Globalization and Tourism Smeral (1998) mentions that globalization has become an umbrella concept for majority of political, sociological, environmental and economic trends worldwide. When we examine globalization from a pure economic perspective; we can name it as crossborder capital flows, international strategic alliances, cooperation, unifications and mutual technology exchange and the increase of production and market solidarity in different countries. Smeral also claims that globalization has affected demand and supply in tourism from various dimensions. These impacts are stated as follows: About Supply; With the total computer reservation systems’ global utilization; airlines, hotel chains and tour operators have been providing their services at global level and therefore they have worldwide branches and are able to reach to a major part of international tourism demand with their global distribution systems. Utilization of modern information and communication technologies along with various horizontal and vertical integrations have expanded the value chain. As the costs of airlines have decreased, the demand of travelling to destinations by individuals with relatively income levels and social standards has increased. New destinations have appeared which are supported by infrastructure investments and the hardware investments of multi-nationals. As these destinations have initially worked together with global parties, they had huge advantages in terms of marketing. About Demand; Increase of income and wealth. As the demand for visiting the traditional European dimensions has reached to full satisfaction, and along with the changes in life styles; new motivations have appeared. This is an important factor that explains the nature of globalization in tourism demand. Tourists have become more experienced and informed. (foreign languages, utilization of transport vehicles, reservation etc.) The most significant impact of globalization is that the destinations which were already in competition with each other have entered into a more intense competition with the expand of market. It is obvious that the concept having global effects on each sector also has obvious impact on tourism. According to Hjalager (2007); tourism and travel are among the reasons and results of globalization process and the globalization phases of tourism can be explained as indicated on Table 1. First phase consists of the attempts of national tourism system in order to reach new markets. Second phase means the integration and cooperation between the countries. Third phase emphasizes the relocation of product during the production process as flexible and divided to its parts. Finally, fourth phase is the new characteristics of tourism in terms of new market types and business concepts, beyond the previous ones. In these phases, individual companies, destinations and countries will be able to control their costs via globalization, obtain new market shares and will reach to other significant resources and qualifications. Globalization will reach to an advanced level due to developments in information and communication technologies and transportation opportunities. When we examine the global tourism market, we see that instead of mass tourism and mass oriented marketing techniques; individual area of interest based and personal marketing techniques have appeared. Within this context; we see another tendency of more tourists planning their travels according to special interests and considering historical and cultural heritage along with various artistic and cultural activities as the reasons of travel (Anon., 2014: 25). As it can be seen, globalization has caused the democratization of transport, speed, comfort, capacity, price and global travel; stronger relations of finance and banking sectors with tourism due to investment, share transfers, capital movement and the innovations in communication technologies have caused the appearance of new distribution channels with different travel motivations (Çeken, 2003: 120). These rapid developments are witnessed throughout the global movements and they have changed the nature of international tourism, bringing tourism as the most important economic sector in the world (Bahar, 2006: 37), and gave acceleration to the development of international tourism as in every sector.

361 Table1: Stages in the Globalization of Tourism

Source: Hjalager, 2007. World Tourism and Turkey As tourism movement has appealed to a certain section of society in the beginning, as the globalization process has accelerated, it started to interest larger masses. As Smeral (1998) has emphasized, the main reasons of this are; the growth of income level of those who live in cities, extension of social security, enhancement of working conditions, faster and more comfortable vehicles with the help of technology and increase in the communication possibilities. Ultimately, the increase in the number of world-wide destinations and the investments in tourism have made it the key for establishment of new businesses and socio-economic progress. Development of tourism creates employment and other numerous opportunities required by many countries and contribute significantly to the economy with foreign currency it attracts. When we look from past to recent events, it is possible to explain this development with touristic indicators. In spite of interval shocks/ crises, world tourism had 4% growth in average. 1950 is the year that is accepted as the beginning of modern tourism and the tourist destinations were 25 million in that year whereas tourism income was 2,1 billion USD; in 2014, tourist destinations were1 billion 184 million people and tourism income was 1 trillion 232 billion USD (URL10, UNWTO, 2016). According to long-term forecast of United Nations World Tourism Organization, tourism will have 3.3% growth

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between the years 2010 and 2030. Worldwide international visitor numbers will become 1.8 billion people in 2030. Income will reach to 2 trillion USD. Tourism has 6% share in world export with its business volume of 1.5 trillion USD. World tourism contributes, directly or indirectly, 9% to Gross Domestic Product and in terms of world tourism, 1 out of 11 people in the world is employed in tourism sector. In 1950s, only fifteen destinations have shared the 98% of international tourist destination points; today we see a variation in this number as new centers of attraction have been preferred (Güneş, 2016: 40). According to UNWTO data, majority of tourist destinations and tourism income was in European continent. In 2015, 608 million tourists have visited the European continent (51% of total number of tourists) and the income obtained in this continent was 509 billion USD (36% of total tourism income). European continent is followed by Asia- Pacific region with 279 million tourist arrivals (24%) and 419 billion USD income (34%) and the American continent with 191 million tourist arrivals (16%) and 277 billion USD income (23%) Middle East had 53 million tourist arrivals (4%) and 55 billion USD income (4%); and African continent had 53 million tourist arrivals, which is slightly higher than Middle East, but only reached to 33 billion USD incomes (3%) (Anon., 2015). Turkey is remarkable as the fast growing and developing country in the Mediterranean region, which includes almost 35% of world tourism. We can say that the development model since the beginning of 1980s which was set as “outward oriented growth” was effective on this growth and development. One of the most important conditions of this model was to supply goods and services which could compete and increase the share of national economy in the international market. The new product supplied by Turkey into the international market was tourism (Bozok, 1996: 68). This period is the time when the concept of globalization, also named as the new world order, was effective in the world. This can be explained with Turkey’s close attention to the acceleration of globalization in 1980s. It is possible to determine the yearly development of tourism in Turkey by using the scales of number of tourists and tourism incomes. When we look at world tourism behavior, we see that tourist flow is in a tendency from developed countries to the developing ones (from USA to Europe, from Northern and Western Europe to the Mediterranean) and from industrial zones to sea shores (from USA and European countries to East Asian Pacific) (Avcıkurt et al., 2009: 3). The number of tourists arriving in Turkey was 28265 in 1950, the starting date of modern tourism age, and we see these numbers increasing to 724.784 in 1970 with an annual increase of 17,54%. Turkey had 0,05 percent share in world tourism and 0,08 in European tourism in terms of foreign tourist arrivals in 1981 with 1405311 people, and this has reached to 1,4% in 1992 within world tourism. Tourism income of Turkey was 5,4 million USD in 1950 and this has increased by 59,7 times in 1980, reaching to 326,7 million USD. Between 1981-1994, this has increased by 13,2 times and reached to 4321 million USD. On the other hand, 1991 Gulf War had a negative impact on Turkish tourism sector and tourism income decreased. In 1991, tourism income has decreased by -21,51%. But, Turkey had a rapid development in world tourism. The ratio of tourism income to export income in Turkey was 2,1% in 1963, this has reached to 16,9% in 1987 and 23,9% in 1994. The ratio of tourism income in Gross Domestic Product was 0,1% in 1963 and it reached to 3,3% in 1994. In 1981, Turkey had 0,3% in world and 0,6% in European tourism income with a total of 381,3 million USD; in 1994 these shares have reached to 1,3% and 2,9%, respectively (Bozok, 1996). As for 2010, it is possible to say that Turkey has a significant place in the world market. In 2015, the number of tourists arriving to the country has reached to 36.244.632 million and tourism income became 31.464 billion USD. In terms of tourist entries, Turkey had 3,5% share from international tourism market and 6,9% from European tourism market. This rate was 2,7% and 6,7% respectively in terms of tourism income. However, tourism income for the first quarter of 2016 (January, February, March) has decreased by 16,5% when compared with the same quarter of previous year and became 4 billion 66 million 384 thousand USD. When we distribute the tourists in 2015 according to their nationalities; we see Germans as 15,4%, Russians as 10% and British as 6,9%; with a total of more than 30% (Anon., 2016). These decreases in Turkish tourism during the last two years until July 2016 ; can be explained by several reasons such as the political crises in Ukraine and Crimea since 2014, the fall of oil prices since 2014, devaluations, political problems between Turkey and Russia, the unstable circumstances in Syria and Iraq and the terror attacks. Russia had 11,4% share of foreign tourists coming to Turkey in 2014, and there was a

363 decrease of 18,2% between January-November 2015. On the other hand, the fluctuations in global financial markets caused by normalization of monetary policy by FED are still ongoing in 2015. This has especially had negative impacts on many developing economies (URL1, 2016). Tourism Policies in the Development of Turkish Tourism Sector Policy is mentioned as the body of rules used as arranging certain issues, providing guidance and directions (Alkan, 2014: 9). Tourism policies are defined as the determined approaches and measures taken by the government and public agencies with an executive and legislative power in order to develop, manage and control the tourism sector within a country (Alkan, 2014: 12; Bozok & Şahin, 2009: 257). On the other hand, tourism policies can also be defined as the interventions that prioritize to maximize the economic, cultural and social benefits of tourism activity and to direct the development of tourism sector with certain goals and by using certain tools (Öztürk Sözen, 2007: 65; Soyak, 2013: 9). The development of tourism was very slow throughout the dissolution of Ottoman State after 1890 and during the establishment of Turkish Republic. We can say that there is no significant development in tourism before the Planned Period (1960-1980). Şahin (1990) states that although there were no major improvements in the tourism sector during the period before plan (1950-1962), the intense efforts on industrialization and the developments in terms of infrastructure throughout that period had brought the advantage of having the awareness that tourism sector was a significant one. When Turkey started with the planned period in 1963, the importance given to the tourism sector can best be understood by looking at the precautions taken about the sector. But, the development of tourism has started since 1980s. As it can be understood from the touristic indicators above; having the desired share from growing and changing world tourism market and providing the competitive advantage under sustainable conditions is a very important subject for countries. Kuşat (2011) has emphasized this and indicates that in order for a country to be successful in tourism sector; natural environment should be preserved and utilized, quality services should be provided by qualified personnel, the developments in the market should be thoroughly analyzed and new products should be developed accordingly. Taking the guiding measures for positive contribution to touristic developments in a country, to make necessary interventions and control the improvements are possible by the policies to be determined by public administration. Also, as a result of liberalization process in tourism sector; globalization of tourism supply and demand, change in customer profile and preferences and technological development indicate that various countries and destinations will compete with a global vacation budget and this competition would mean a global one (Anon., 2014). Each one of the policies in Turkey, determined by Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Development are policies considered in a great scope within the process of Turkish tourism history. This study will consider the competitive environment and developments as a result of globalization; and the investment and finance policies will be mentioned since 1980s. The arrangements about tourism sector in Turkey are contained within the Development Plans, which started with 1961 Constitution. Transition programs were applied in Turkey during the periods without plans. 1978, 1984, 1995 and 2006 were the years of such transition programs. When we make an analysis about the tourism policies before planned period, we do not see any significant tourism movement in the world and in Turkey, as mass tourism has developed after 1950s (Mutlu, 2012: 77). Tourism policy between 1963 and 1983 has aimed to make a positive contribution to balance of payments by tourism incomes, to increase the foreign currency income, to contribute for employment and to provide vacation opportunities for citizens. The most important events for Turkish tourism were of June 24, 1980 Decisions, promotion of foreign capital, liberalization of foreign currency exchange, liberalization of foreign travel, increasing the amount of money travelers can carry and the issuance of Law for the Incentive of Tourism No. 2634 in 1982 (Gülbahar, 2009: 153-154.) Development Plans are mandatory for public and guiding for private sector. Therefore, investments of private sector in appropriate points for the development plan should be encouraged. In order to achieve this, private sector should be directed to make investments in the areas foreseen by the plan through some encouraging provisions. On the other hand, country's finance policy becomes important in order to increase the bed supply according to needs and expectations of tourism demand, to bring the complementary and support investments to required levels and to achieve the expected level of success.

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An Overview of Investment and Finance Policies in Tourism Sector Tourism sector is a sector that necessitates intertwined infrastructural-supra structural and complementary investments. Infrastructure investments contain all types of ground and underground structures required by a tourism settlement. These structures are also the main structures required by local people. Water resources, water grid and sewage, electric and energy resources, secondary supra structure investments and highways, par spaces, railways, ports and airports are included under this category. Supra structural investments consist of accommodation, food and beverage, passenger terminals, entertainment and shopping units in order to meet the requirements of tourists. The main condition to meet the touristic demand is to be ready by infrastructure, supra structure, transportation and some local services. Therefore, there is a very close relation between meeting the requirements and development of tourism for the developing countries (Sönmez, 2012: 47). Infrastructural investments provide the development and continuity of tourism sector. Completion of infrastructural investments is important for profitable operation of tourism businesses and to provide continuity in the competitive environment. During the 7th Plan Period (1995-1999), we see the principle of cooperating with local administrations in the regions where tourism movements are intense, prioritizing the infrastructure investments, and obtain the participation of local administrations and public. There have been various projects in 1990s which were determined by public authorities and implemented accordingly in terms of tourism infrastructure. Accelerating one of these projects, Mediterranean-Aegean Tourism Infrastructure Project (ATAK) is one of the goals determined during tenth plan period (2014-2018). When we consider the significant developments in world tourism; it is obvious that the arrival of tourists for consuming the tourism products in the existing markets depend on the fact that transportation network being cheap and vast, along with the possibilities to carry masses. In fact, a tourism region can develop only if it has a good and sufficient transportation infrastructure and if it has function. If the railway and sea transportation tools are not in a competitive level and if they have low percentage; the visitors’ arrivals will have statistically low levels. 74% of foreign tourist arrivals in Turkey occur through airlines (URL2a, 2016), and this is a clear indicator of the importance of airlines. There are 55 airports in Turkey for civil traffic; 49 of them are public and 6 of them are private (URL1, 2016). Number of ports with business certificate is 17, and they have a capacity of 7.368. There are 6 yacht boatyards with business certificate with a capacity of 1.044 boatyard (Anon., 2014: 14). The number of certified yacht businesses by 2014 is 884, with 857 of them local and 27 foreign (URL3, 2016). According to ERF European Road Federation 2015 report; the total roads of Turkey is 370.276 square kilometer, including the highways, motorways, national roads and second degree roads. The report of Ministry of Transportation, Turkish Transport and Communication Strategy Target 2023 report indicates that Turkey has 65.007 kilometers of road network including the state roads, provincial roads and highways. Also, 2023 targets include; private and public sector cooperation for the realization of various projects in transport sector, taking the necessary measures to contribute the finance needs of private sector and 24 Billion USD investments in 14 years in order to reach 63 million tourists in 2023 (URL4, 2016). The first subject about tourism investments in Turkey has been the investments in hospitality businesses. Hospitality businesses in Turkey are separated into two groups; those with documents from Ministry of Tourism and municipality documented businesses. Those businesses with importance in world tourism market and world standards are the ones with touristic documents. The features of such businesses are determined by the regulation published in Official Gazette No. 18060 in 1983, in accordance with Tourism Incentive Law No. 2634 (Bozok, 1996: 156). The finance of sector was provided by Republic of Turkey, Tourism Bank (1960) as a result of organizing the tourism activities under Ministry in 1963. Since 1989, this duty is carried out by Development Bank. Republic of Turkey, Development Bank has initiated a significant investment process for creating bed capacity with the credit and funding system it implemented between 1967 and 1970. It is possible to say that Turkey has implemented a productive incentive mechanism in tourism investments between 1985 and 1991. Within that period, tourism investments were supported by long- term and low-interest credits and grant-like cash supports (Anon., 2007: 35). The primary incentives in

365 accordance with Tourism Incentive Law No. 2634 include allocation of public lands to investors for tourism investments, utilizing the tourism development fund, low-interest and long-term tourism credits, ability to employ foreign personnel and artisans, customs exemption, investment discount, incentive credits, tax discount, finance fund and incentive premiums. Fourth Five Year Plan (1979-1983) ended in 1983 and we see that period as the year when government has stepped out of supra structural investments and privatizations started. Market mechanisms were initiated and price determination in tourism facilities have gone out of government control and a new incentive system was put into operation (Anon., 2014: 10; Soyak, 2013: 11). Since the beginning of 1990s, cash support was replaced by incentive precautions such as tax exemptions and exclusions. General Incentive System was valid between the period 1995-2009. This incentive system included incentives such as “VAT Exemption” and “Customs Exemption” aiming all investments above a certain amount, with no distinctions between regions and sector. Decision on Government Support in Investments, numbered 2009/15199 was published in Official Gazette dated 16.07.2009 and numbered 27290; and incentives were started to be considered under three main headlines. These are; Regional-Sectoral Incentive System, Major Project Incentive System and General Incentive System. In 2012, strategic investments were included into this system and “Province Based Regional Incentive” was launched (Anon., 2014:12). Recently, tourism investors are using incentives such as; incentives provided within the scope of KOSGEB (Small and Medium Sized Businesses Development and Support Administration) and Decision of Council of Ministers on Government Support for Investments, Tourism Incentive Law No. 2634, exemption in Property Tax, credit opportunities provided by Turkish Export Credit Bank (EXIMBANK), incentive of foreign capital investments and international tourism congresses participation support (URL2b, 2016). However, tourism investments have long return periods, high rate of capital/revenue, and they have a fragile structure against political, social, economic and natural events (Anon., 2001:6). Also, as demand increases in certain periods; there are significantly low capacities in businesses, causing them operate with low productivity. Besides, tourism sector is highly affected by terror and other problems caused by the geographical location of country. All of these constitute the significant risk factors of the sector. Hence, as tourism investments were not considered as risky and non-profitable in short term (Usta, 1988); local initiatives in the beginning of 1980s were not at the required level. Along with these developments, in 1980, the number of total beds in facilities with tourism certificates was 56.044, and this number has reached to 235.238 (Bozok, 1996) in 1993 with an annual increase of 11,67% and to 807.316 in 2014. Total number of beds with tourist investment certificates was 26.288 in 1980 and reached to 309.556 in 2014 (URL3, 2016). Travel agencies have an important place in the development of sector and their number reached to 7.950. Investment incentive document number for sector of services in 1.251 as of January-October 2015. When we look in terms of sub sectors, we see there is a decrease in incentive documents for tourism (URL1, 2016). The share of tourism sector in public sector total fixed capital investments was 0,5% in 2014 and the assumption for 2015 was 0,9%; being one of the sectors with the lowest shares (URL5, 2016). A new investment incentive package was prepared by government after the 2016 Action Plan and Middle Ranged Program. With the social and economic reforms, the incentives in the new package will help to lift the barriers for investments in Turkey, investment process will become easier and investment environment will be enhanced. Some of the arrangements in new incentive package are receiving stamp tax only from a single copy of agreements, tax exemptions in land investments and buildings constructed within the scope of incentive and to add all R&D expenditures as cost. New investment incentive package indicates that the foreigners employed in Turkey will have flexible conditions to obtain a work permit and “Turquoise Card” application will be provided which will permit qualified employees indefinite residency permit (URL6, 2016). The most important development provided by globalization to the markets in terms of economy is the entrance of international businesses to new countries as foreign direct investments. Because markets are satisfied, product variation has increased, a consumer profile with more elite choices and high expectation levels occurred and the competition became more intense. The product life cycle is shortened wit the impact of developments in technology (Ekin, 1999: 52). These developments in the world have affected Turkey due to reasons such as increasing the type and quality of touristic products

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and services, access to productive production and management techniques (know-how), utilizing the resources more efficiently and providing funds to the sector. Bahar (2010) indicates the reasons that necessitate foreign capital as the scarcity of funds for investments in Turkey, the ability of foreign capital to share its experiences on mass tourism needed by local tourism sector, the need to provide risk sharing within the sector, increase of foreign currency incomes, and the necessity of profitability target for creating demand in foreign markets. The Foreign Capital Incentive Law in Turkey was enforced in 1954; and it has new legal framework with 1980 Foreign Capital Framework Decision numbered 8/168 and Decision Number 32 on Preserving the Value of Turkish Currency in 1989. The liberal policies implemented after 1980 and the enhancements conducted in Foreign Capital Law had encouraging impacts on foreign capital entrance (Güven, 2008: 77). However, even though this law was liberal and encouraging, it was not clear enough and this caused it to be interpreted in different ways by different political and bureaucratic circles. The Law No. 6224 was abolished in 2003 and Direct Foreign Investments Law No. 4872 was enforced. By this, it was aimed to reach the desired numbers by enhancing the investment environment and decreasing bureaucracy (Güven, 2008: 80; URL7, 2016). In 1990, there was 264,4 million dollars of foreign investment in tourism sector and the total share of the sector in total foreign capital investments was 14,2% (Bozok,1996: 101). Number of new companies in food and beverage sector between 1991 and 2002 has reached to 264 and to 172 in accommodation. Total foreign direct investments in accommodation and food and beverage sector were 142 million USD in 2013 (URL8, 2016). The activities of foreign capital on this sector in Turkey were realized as operating companies with no physical investments; and a development for cooperation with hotel chains, airlines and tour operators occurred. Such cooperations were realized as management relations with hospitality businesses in Turkey, based on rent and profit share (Bozok, 1996: 161). Concept of Sustainable Growth in Globalization and Its Place in Investment Policies Kaypak (2011) states that globalization has reached beyond the economic interdependence of countries and turned into a concept related with the transformation of time and space and mentions that sustainable growth concept has become important with globalization. The development efforts of developing countries in terms of achieving progress and economic improvements have caused the occurrence of environmental problems. These problems were considered as normal in the beginning and then they have reached from local to regional and global levels, thereby bringing the development efforts based on sustainability (Kaypak, 2011: 19-20.) The environment and ecology dictionary prepared by Collin (2004) uses the concept of sustainability as the complete activities and works that meet the current requirements and preserve the natural resources and leave a better environment for next generations. Rapid economic globalization has impacts on tourism sector such as interrupting the balance between growth and environment. Thus, World Summits and various conferences were organized for preserving the eco-system and better management in order to create a more secure future with high prosperity. World Summit which was organized in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, which was also named as Agenda 21 by participating countries and United Nations Environment and Development Summit in 2002 also known as Johannesburg Summit and the following Rio +20 Conference (June 4-6, 2012) are the organizations that determined the principles and targets for sustainable development and tourism sector. The report has evaluated the impacts of Agenda 21 in cooperation with World Tourism Organization's Travel and Tourism Committee and World Council and the strategic and economic importance of sector for Environmental Sustainable Development was analyzed; and the priority areas for sustainable tourism programs that governments should follow were emphasized. The principles of Rio Declaration were; preserving an improving the existing resources for future and meeting the requirements of tourists and local people and considering this as a method to manage economic, social and aesthetic resources with respect to cultural integrity, necessary ecological processes, biological diversity and life support units (URL9, 2016). In conclusion, the environment friendly, socially coherent, increasing the employment level, decreasing the migration from rural areas to urban areas, to save the local resources from their waste status and to increase the welfare of locals; sustainable green marketing and SME scale investments were emphasized in Eighth Development Plan (2001-2005) and

367 afterwards. The understanding of sustainable growth is considered as a reactionary approach to mass tourism which puts economic profitability before everything, and which neglected the physical, social and economic load capacities since 1960s. Touristic development that continues without planning should not enter into a self-destructing process. Another study conducted by Tosun and Jenkins (1996) states that Turkey has seven different regions with different socio-cultural structures, touristic attractions, development levels and different loading capacities for different tourism types; and they emphasize that a single tourism development plan and policy would not make it possible to improve tourism in different regions. Therefore, the general goals and the paths to reach such goals should be determined for tourism sector and the rate of environmental aspects to be used should be based on scientific research and information. The necessity to make a physical planning including all these aspects is a must (İçöz et.al., 2002: 59). Olalı (1990) defines the concept of physical planning as the planning where the relation between tourism sector and land utilization is arranged, and the distribution of infrastructure and supra structure to physical environment is determined. Appropriateness of regional physical plans with the conditions of that specific region, the determination of opportunities for tourism supply in the region (transport, accommodation, food and beverage, training- employment etc.), and considering the environmental values emphasizing on utilizing-preserving balance are the issues mostly focused by environmentalists. Also, these plans should have the feature of clearly demonstrating the authorities and liabilities and being applicable. By doing this, a tourism volume with elimination of environmental problems that could occur during adaptation to globalization could be provided. The governments have the responsibility to consider the impact of tourism developments on physical environment and society. Implementations aiming at consuming without causing any negative impacts on natural environment and cultural richness, providing income and employment to local public, and creating awareness for environment will definitely have positive impact on tourism. Governments have been acting together in tourism plans and policies recently with environmental awareness and sustainability and they support the projects which encourage the economic and social development of local public. The sustainable global development and information society perspectives in the world have caused Turkey to search for new approaches; and the adoption to globalization had caused the tourism policies to change. Within this context, it is seen that the measures taken in Turkey for the improvement of tourism have basically focused on establishment of infrastructure and supra structure for promoting private sector and that they were included in all plans. However, the physical planning of Turkey in terms of tourism at Development Plans before 1980 were basically in a way to cover all priority tourism areas and tourism investments were done accordingly. However, the distribution of tourism activities to each part of Turkey caused the realization of some unproductive investments and devastations were witnessed in physical environment. The following plans have intensified the investments in certain regions. Thus, Tourism Incentive Law No. 2634 had certain amendments by Law on Amendment in Tourism Incentive Law No. 4957 in 2003 and made the transition from area planning to regional planning possible. The public lands with historical, cultural and tourism potential were defined as Culture and Tourism Preservation and Development Region (Anon., 2014: 11-19). Southern Antalya Tourism Development Project, Side-Belek-Sarigerme Tourism Development Projects, Atak Project, Winter Tourism Centers Development Project, Black Sea Yacht Tourism Project, Eastern Black Sea Plateau Tourism Project, Cappadocia and GAP Region Project and other certain touristic projects indicate that certain locations in Turkey are planned to turn into tourism centers. On the other hand, some other implementations are sen where enironmental values are considered for sustainability. Blue Flag Project, which has been executed by European Environment Training Association since 1987 is one of these. This is an international environmental award given since 1992 to the qualified beaches and marinas for the quality of water used for swimming, directing the environmental training and information, and the standards required for beach and marina order. Again, within the scope of Environmental Awareness since 1993, environment friendly document and platelets are provided for certain businesses because of their standards in contributing the protection of environment. These platelets have “Pine” symbol for accommodation and food and beverage facilities, “Dolphin” for yacht businesses and “Anchor” for yacht ports. Another practice is “Green Star Eco-

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Labeling” implemented in accommodation facilities with documents from Ministry of Culture and Tourism within the scope of 2003/3 communique, considering the EU scales. Within the scope of documenting the environment friendly accommodation facilities, 277 facilities have received Green Star Document. Also, Turkey is among 50 countries included in Blue Flag implementation and it has the second place with 436 beaches in 2015. (Bozok, 1996: 110-111; Kızılırmak, 2011: 8; Anon., 2014: 19). However, instead of all these applications and determined strong investment policies; there have been delays in application of plans and policies, disorder in authorities and responsibilities, and the problems in the functionality of control system are the aspects that interrupt the long-term environmental, socio- cultural and economic sustainability of tourism sector. CONCLUSION Turkey has tried to develop the infrastructure and supra structure in southern beaches in accordance with mass tourism and along with incentives provided to tourism sector by liberal economic policies. The intense interest by European tourists, becoming a trend tourism country, being a heap vacation country and marketing beautiful and clean beaches are closely related with the development of tourism in Turkey. The increase of international tourism demand to Turkey between 1985 and 1987 has caused the sector to live the golden age. During this period, facilities' development has increased between 1988-1990 monetary incentive tools (investment discount, resource utilization support premium, discount in machinery and equipment purchase). However the tendency of incentives for tourism sector has decreased since 1990. Gulf Crisis in 1991 has hardened these problems. The incentive measures for the sector were changed and some of them were removed. The extended general incentive system has included the tourism investments, which caused problems and disorder in implementation. Land prices and construction costs have increased, the capital and interest payment terms of credits have become due and the marketing for increasing bed capacity became a problem. In the following years, a new policy was implemented where the importance of planned and stable development of tourism sector in Turkey was emphasized and the ideas to develop new strategies were claimed. Through sustainable approach, Turkey will be able to utilize the global economic developments in the maximum level. Therefore, with the transition to information society along with development in information and communication networks; tenth development plan (2014-2018) has adopted different policies for tourism sector. This plan has emphasized the aspects such as providing participant administration, determining the threshold values for protecting-utilizing, to make the capacities of regions and provinces measurable, to make routine controls and to determine the strategies for micro and medium sized businesses. This plan also emphasizes that Mediterranean-Aegean Infrastructure Project (ATAK) did not have the desired results in terms of implementation and therefore it should be concluded immediately. In conclusion, as stated in Tenth development plan, mass tourism approach with emphasis on sea- sand and sun has been directed to the beaches of Mediterranean and Aegean. In spite of rapid acceleration in touristic bed capacities and important developments; the problems in terms of technical infrastructure are still ongoing. Because of the policies implemented since 1980s in order to have short- term profits for payment balances; natural, historical and cultural values could not be preserved sufficiently. The developments in the sector have caused capacity gap in businesses, decrease in productivity, general administration and personnel problem, inadequate infrastructure, regional loading capacities, environmental problems, urbanization of tourism centers and regional inflation. When we look at the literature, we see that many studies have focused on these aspects. In order to remove the problems mentioned above is possible if touristic development within the country occurs in a stable and adaptive way. Turkey has a deep rooted history with a past of many civilizations and a cultural richness due to its ethnic variety. Turkey has proper advantages for product variation and unique sources for tourism in its seven regions. It has the possibility to provide various and unique products into the global market. When we include the opportunities brought by globalization, we can say that Turkish tourism sector will be able to have the stable position in world tourism market. Also, country will be able to experience a development unifying with national development which will create value for social, cultural and physical environment. Within this

369 framework; establishing regional policies with long durations, consistent and clear goals which do not only consider the economic contribution of tourism, and adoptive to national plans. Within this context, we can say; As it can be seen in Table 1 from the study of Hjalager (2007), adding value to the sector within the global value chain by the logic an economy integrated with other sectors and international companies is the result of global development. Therefore, marketing efforts were also globalized. But tourism is experimental. In every different travel motivation, the experiences of tourists will also be different in different countries and locations. Therefore, the performance relying on “Think Global, Act Local” should be improved. The developments contributed by globalization to information technology are obvious. The travel preferences, needs and expectations of individuals from different societies are also affected. Conducting detailed analyses of R&D studies for touristic consumer market in different platforms, and to make all stakeholders participate in the policies developed are the goals that should be followed. The completion of physical planning studies in Culture and Tourism Preservation and Development Regions and Tourism Centers, and implementing the investments accordingly, calculating the loading capacities of regions, determination of service types and balancing the infrastructure investments with supra structure investments must be the aspects to be considered. REFERENCES Akın, A.; Şimşek, M. Y.; Akın, A. (2012). Turizm Sektörünün Ekonomideki Yeri ve Önemi. Akademik Araştırmalar ve Çalışmalar Dergisi 4 (7), 63-81. Alkan, C. (2014). Turizm Politikası: Tanımı ve Özellikleri. Alp Timur (Ed.) Turistik Ürün Politikası kitabı içinde (bölüm 1, sayfa 7-28). Detay Yayıncılık: Ankara. Anonymous (2001). http://www.kalkinma.gov.tr/Lists/Kalknma%20 Planlar /Attachments /2/plan8.pdf (24.06.2016). Anonymous (2007). http://www.kalkinma.gov.tr/Lists/zel %20htisas%20Komisyonu %20 Raporlar/ Attach ments/50/oik679.pdf (24.06.2016). Anonymous (2013). http://www.kalkinma.gov.tr/Lists/Kalknma%20 Planlar/Attachments /12/Onuncu %20 Kalk %C4%B1nma%20Plan%C4%B1.pdf (01.07.2016). Anonymous (2014). http://www.kalkinma.gov.tr/Lists/zel% 20htisas%20 Komisyonu% 20/233/TUR %C4 %B0ZM%20%C3%96%C4%B0K.pdf (24.06.2016). Anonymous (2015). UNWTO: Touirism Highlights (2015). http://www.e-nwto.org/doi /pdf/ 10.18111 /9789284416899 (04.06.2016). Anonymous (2016). http://yigm.kulturturizm.gov.tr/TR,161150/ 28062016---giris---cikis-yapan-ziyaretci- yabanci-ve-vat-.html (29.06.2016). Aramberri, J. (2008). The Future of Tourism and Globalization: Some Critical Remarks. Futures 41, 367-376. Avcıkurt, C.; Köroğlu, A.; Sarıoğlan, M. (2009). Türk Turizminin Dünya Turizmindeki Yeri. Şenol Çavuş, Zehra Ege, Osman Eralp Çolakoğlu (Ed.) Türk Turizm Tarihi–Yapısal ve Sektörel Gelişim kitabı içinde (bölüm 1, sayfa 1-14). Detay Yayıncılık: Ankara. Aydemir, B.; Saylan, U. & Özdemir, İ.M. (2013). Turizm Girişimciliği ve Ekoturizm: Kütahya Örneği, 2. Uluslararası Bölgesel Kalkınma Konferansı, 16-17 Mayıs, Bildiriler Kitabı, , s.451-466, Elazığ. Bahar, O. (2006). Küreselleme Sürecinde Türkiye’de Turizm Sektörüne Sağlanan Teşvikler. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 8 (4), 34-53. Bahar, O. (2010). Turizm Sektörüne Sağlanan Doğrudan Yabancı Sermaye Yatırımlarının (DYSY) Ekonomik Büyüme Üzerine Olan Olası Etkisi: Türkiye Örneği (1986–2006). Anatolia: Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 21 (1), 27-40. Balay, R. (2004). Küreselleşme, Bilgi Toplumu ve Eğitim. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Dergisi, 37 (2), 61-82. Bozkurt, V. (2000). Küreselleşme: Kavram, Gelişim ve Yaklaşımlar, Veysel Bozkurt (Der.), Küreselleşmenin İnsani Yüzü kitabı içinde ( bölüm 1, sayfa 1-25), Alfa Yayınları, Bursa. Bozok, D. (1996). Türkiye’ye Yönelik Uluslararası Turizm Talebinin Yapısal Analizi ve Gelişme Stratejileri. Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Balıkesir. Bozok, D. & Şahin, S. (2009). Türkiye’de Uygulanan Turizm Politikaları. Şenol Çavuş, Zehra Ege, Osman Eralp Çolakoğlu (Ed.) Türk Turizm Tarihi–Yapısal ve Sektörel Gelişim kitabı içinde (bölüm 12, sayfa 255-288). Detay Yayıncılık: Ankara.

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A Comparison of Depression and Turnover Intentions of Hotel Employees in All- Inclusive and Non All-Inclusive Hotels

Hakan BOZ*, Özer YILMAZ**, Aytuğ ARSLAN***, Erdoğan KOÇ****

INTRODUCTION Tourism is one of the fastest growing industries in the world, both in terms of income generated and employment created (UNWTO, 2014). According to UNWTO report (2014) tourism industry’s contribution to the worldwide gross domestic product was about 9% in 2014. Moreover, almost 10% of all new jobs in the world was created in the tourism industry. Tourism plays an essential role for countries to achieve economic development by both monetary supplying foreign currency which helps to alleviate deficits in the balance of payments and real economic impacts such as the creation of new jobs, reducing unemployment (Dwyer & Forsyth, 2010). Especially, developing countries view tourism as a generator of jobs for less skilled people and a source of salaries for small enterprises and craftspeople (Mihalic, 2013). It stimulates other economic industries by direct, indirect and induced effects (Brida & Pulina, 2010). Tourism is highly labour-intensive as it is essentially a service industry, which requires personnel at every level (Seth & Bhat, 2007). Therefore, it requires various types of skilled labour and, hence, investment in human capital (Sinclair, 1998). Since tourism and hospitality services are characterized by a very high level of personal contact between service providers and customers, the quality of their social interactions influences the service perceptions (Yvette, 2009) and the quality of service provided by tourism employees profoundly affects the visitors’ level of satisfaction. (Smith, 2005). As tourism is a particularly labour-intensive sector which is dependent on the encounter between employee and customer, the management of human resources is assumed to play a major role for the economic performance of enterprises (Hjalager, 2005). Emotions are crucial for to rule of daily routine and decisions. Emotions regulate the opinions, attitudes and behaviours. Emotions are not only regulating individual acts but also social interactions (Barbalet, 2002). Due to the high employee customer interaction in tourism industry (Henning-Thurau, Gwinner & Gremler, 2002; Koç, 2009; Kılıç, Boz & Koç, 2016) emotions are important too. Especially high interactive jobs with the customers such as waitress, front desk clerk and security play crucial role establishing long-term relationship with the customers and customer attitudes towards service and service quality (Hartline & Ferrell, 1996; Karatepe & Tizabi, 2010).Emotional information is crucial in terms of information transmission in customer-employee communication and interaction (Firoz, 2015). On the other hand, emotional states of employees are determinant in terms of hospitality establishments and customer satisfaction. Emotions could be classified two dimensions as positive and negative emotions. Happiness, joyful and peaceful are named positive emotions. Depression, anxiety, sadness are classified negative emotions. Negative emotions could have many detrimental effects on human health such as breast cancer, lower quality of life (Lieberman & Goldstein, 2006). Also negative emotions such as sadness,

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Department of International Trade, Faculty of Applied Sciences Uşak University. e-mail: [email protected] **Assist. Prof. Dr., Department of International Trade and Logistics, Ömer Seyfettin Applied Sciences Faculty, Bandırma Onyedi Eylül University, e-mail: [email protected] *** Assist. Prof. Dr., Department of Tourism Guidance, Faculty of Tourism, İzmir Kâtip Çelebi University, e-mail: [email protected] **** Prof. Dr., Department of Business Administration, Faculty of Economics and Administrative Sciences, Bandırma Onyedi Eylül University, e-mail: [email protected]

hatred and anxiety are lasts longer than positive emotions (Verduyn & Lavrijsen, 2015). Employee workplace behaviours have been found to be governed by stress, by morale, or by a combination of the two (George, 1996; Ross, 2012). Depression, which is one of the negative emotions, is one of the most common and prevalent mental health disorder among the world (McDowell et al., 2004).Prevalence of the depression ranged from 5% to 49% among the world population (Palsson & Skoog, 1997; Djernes, 2006; Marneros, 2006; Kaya & Kaya; 2007).More than 340 million people are estimated to have depression at any time among the world population (Murray & Lopez 1996). Another study (Djernes, 2006) stated that the prevalence of depression in institutional living such as work environment from 14% to 42%. Depression and Turnover Intention According to the some studies (Marcotte, Wicox-Gök & Redmon, 1999; Lecrubier, 2001) depression is expected to be the second most prevalent health related problem among the world population by 2020. Depression can be defined a serious and generally under-diagnosed and undertreated psychiatric health related problem which may have disastrous consequences and decreased level of mood (Young, Fang & Zisook, 2010). Depression has many serious negative consequences such as absenteeism, inability to feel pleasure, persistent sad and anxious feelings, feelings of hopelessness, loss of interest in daily activities, fatigue and lack of energy, difficulty concentrating and making decisions, slow speech; slow movement and disturbed sleep (Majdi, Ghayour, Salek, Taghi & Mokhber, 2010; Eaton, Anthony, Mandel & Garrison, 1990; Lecci, Okun & Karoly, 1994; Schwartz et al., 2002; Monroe, Skowronski, MacDonald & Wood, 2005; Hysenbegasi, Hass & Rowland, 2005). Depression has many negative consequences not only for individuals but also companies. Depression is prevalent among workers too. Several studies have shown that depression is one of the most common psychological disorders among employees (Iwamasa & Hilliard, 1999). When workers experience work-related stress this may lead to a variety of physiological, emotional, cognitive, and behavioural reactions. Depression is one of the emotional reactions (Houtman & Jettinghoff, 2007) and 8% of depression has been attributed globally to environmental factors, in particular occupational stress (Kortum, Leka & Cox, 2010). Depression has effects on lower rates of labour force participation, reduced work hours, and lower earnings (Broadhead, Blazer, George & Tse, 1990; Frank & Gertler, 1991; Johnson, Weissman & Klerman, 1992; Conti & Burton, 1994; Stansfeld et al., 1995) and. On the other hand, depression has one of the largest impacts on work disability. It’s economic costs as high as $17 to $83 billion loss per year because of work absenteeism (Conti & Burton, 1994; Kouzis & Eaton, 1994; Greenberg et al., 2003; Stewart, Ricci, Chee, Hahn & Morganstein, 2003). Druss, Rosenbeck & Sledge (2000) stated that the cost of depressed employers is greater than any other of medical illness. In Britain, approximately 15-30% of workers experience some form of mental health issues during their working lives (D’Souza, Stradzdins, Lim, Broom & Rodgers, 2003) and self-reported work-related stress, depression or anxiety account for an estimated 12.8 million reported lost working days per year (Blaug, Kenyon & Leghi, 2007). The cost of a depressed employee to establishment is around $6000 due to the work disability (Greenberg et al., 1996). Treatment cost of an employee is around $5415 (Druss, Rosenbeck & Sledge, 2000). Luppa et al., (2007) emphasized that annual cost of a depressed employee due to the loss of productivity as high as $2500. According to the Sipkoff (2006) depressed employees caused to lose around 400 million workdays per year. Result of the Shani & Pizam (2009) study, the occurrence of the work-related depression among hotel employees could be reached as high as %24. One of the negative consequence of depression is turnover intention (Koç & Boz, 2014). Turnover intention can be simply defined as a deliberate willingness to leave the organisation (Tett & Meyer, 1993; Kim et al., 2015) and conscious wilfulness to seek for other alternatives in other organizations (Tettet al., 1993). Some studies describe turnover intention as a precursor of turnover (Mobley, Horner and Hollingsworth, 1978; Schwepker, 2001, Koç et al., 2014). The treatment by superiors, amount of work hours, job pressure, better opportunities elsewhere, and physical demands of the job, bad working environment, low pay, relationship with management and other staff, transport difficulties are noted as the main factors of increased intention to leave the job in the hospitality industry (Lashley, 2000; Hinking & Tracey, 2000; Ogbonna & Harris, 2002; Fallon & Rutherford, 2010). While Horner &

373 Swarbrooke (2004) state that the high staff turnover at the hotels has a negative impact upon customer service, and increased costs in terms of recruitment, training and induction, Lashley (2000) and Dess & Shaw, (2001) suggest two categories as direct cost (temporary staff, advertising, interviews, orientation, training) and indirect costs (lost staff expertise, morale, pressure on remaining staff, decreased quality of service, productivity, customer satisfaction, organisational memory). Early diagnosis of depression can prevent turnover the employee (Shani & Pizam, 2009). There is plenty of researches about organizational commitment (Khatri, Fern, & Budhwar, 2001; Coomber & Barriball, 2007; Yang, 2008; Zhou & Wang, 2009), role conflict (Schaubroeck, Cotton & Jennings, 1989; Schwepker, 2001) and job satisfaction (Tett et al., 1993; Tsai & Wu, 2010). With a high level of work engagement, hotel employees can experience positive emotions in their places of work which leads to better job satisfaction (Yeh, 2013). There has been growing interest in the effect of psychiatric problems on work and employee performance in recent years. Due to the two main reasons depression has become a significant issue in academic researches. First, some studies show that depression not only is a common health related problem among employees, but also is associated with work environment (Gilmour & Patten, 2007). Second, experimental studies show that sufficient depression treatment can reduce work impairment. Due to these reasons this study aims to explore the effect of depression on tourism employees working at All-Inclusive and Non All-Inclusive hotels. On the other hand little research has identified the effect of depression among tourism professionals in particular to turnover intention. MATERIALS AND METHODS Objectives and Data Collection The present study attempted to determine the following aspects: (1) The levels of turnover intentions and depression of hotel employees. (2) The difference between the depression levels of the employees working in different hotel concepts. (3) The difference between turnover intentions of the employees working in different hotel concepts. In the light of these objectives, the following hypotheses were put forward: H1-Employees’ turnover intention differ according to the hotel concepts they are working in. H2- Employees’ level of depression differs according to the hotel concepts they are working in. The data was collected with a questionnaire. The questionnaire was composed of three parts. First part comprised the “Turnover Intention Scale” (Tak & Çitçioğlu, 2009). The5-point Likert scale consisted of five statements against which the respondent was asked to rate their level of agreement. The second part of the questionnaire composed of 14 questions prepared in light of Lovibond & Lovibond (1995)’s “Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale”. Participants were asked to rank their agreement with survey items on a 4-point Likert scale, appointed 0-3 points. According to the score evaluations of the scale, 0-9 points meant that the employee did not have depression, 10-13 points meant that the respondent was slightly depressive, 14-20 points meant that the respondent was moderately depressive, 21-27 points meant that the respondent was highly depressive, and 28 and above points meant that the respondent was extremely depressive. The last part of the questionnaire included descriptive questions to define the participants’ demographic conditions (marital status, age, gender) and working status (job position and job experience). The questionnaire has been sent to 9 hotels in Bodrum which is the district of the province of Muğla, Turkey in the first week of June. While the hotels’ bed capacities are between 300-600 pax, four of these hotels have All-Inclusive concepts. 190 usable responses were gathered (103 from all inclusive hotels and others from non-all inclusive) at the end of 3 weeks data collection period.

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RESULTS Findings The data were analysed by using SPSS 20. For determining the normality of the values, skewness (s) and kurtosis (k) intervals have been checked. All s-k values were in the range of -2,674-2,972. According to De Carlo, (1997) the data’s skewness and kurtosis values should have +3 and -3 range of for normal distribution. Also our sample size (n=190) was enough to assume that the data’s distribution was normal according to central limit theorem; which states that the average of a large number of independent random variables is approximately normally distributed around the true population mean(Lumley et al., 2002: 152). In practice, 30 samples are considered for central limit theorem (Yüzer et al., 2003: 186). The reliabilities of the scales were calculated by using Cronbach’s Alpha (α). The alpha (α) values for “Depression, Anxiety, and Stress Scale” was 0,94 and “Turnover Intention Scale” was 0,64. The participants of the analysis consisted of 135 males (71,1%) and 51 females (26,8%). Also, the majority of respondents (118 participants- 62,1%) were married. The mean age of the sample was 28,88 with a range of 15–61 years. The mean years of working experience was 2,42. Most of the participants (72 participants %70,6) had household income between 3000- 5000 Turkish Liras. 78 of participants (76,5%) graduated from a four year college. Table 1 shows the turnover intention mean of depressive and non-depressive employees. As it is seen in table when people get depressed their turnover intention increases slightly. Table 1: Depression Level and Turnover Intention of Employees Non-Depressive Depressive TOTAL Number of Case (n) 71 119 190 % of total N 37,4% 62,6% 100,0% Turnover Intention 2,6676 2,9261 2,8295 Mean Standard Deviation ,73441 ,77279 ,76703

Table 2 shows level of depression by gender. While depression rate of female employees was 64,7%, this rate is 60,7% for male employees. It has seen that female employees' depression rate was slightly higher to male's depression rate. This finding is consistent with a number of previous studies (Kılıç, Boz & Koç, 2016; Demiaral, Akvardar, Ergör & Ergör, 2006) which found that female employees’ depression rate is slightly higher than male colleagues’. This may stem from the fact that females have more communal (affiliation) orientation while males may have agentic (achievement) orientation (Koç, 2002). Moreover, it is possible to claim that gender discrimination in Turkish tourism sector turns up the pressure on women employees (Demir, 2011). Table 2: Gender and Depression Level Gender Non-Depressive Depressive TOTAL n of case 18 33 51 Female % of n 35,3% 64,7% 100,0% n of case 53 82 135 Male % of n 39,3% 60,7% 100,0% N of case n of case 115 186 Total % of N % of n 61,8% 100,0%

Another descriptive result (Table 3) shows that “other department’s staff” (including housekeeping, guest relations, technical services, security and office works) forms the most depressive hotel employees with 75,0%. While the kitchen department employees have high depression rate, front office department employees have the least depression rate (42,4%).

375 Table 3: Working Department and Level of Depression Department Non-Depressive Depressive TOTAL n of case 19 14 33 Front Office % of n 57,6% 42,4% 100,0% n of case 15 35 50 Kitchen % of n 30,0% 70,0% 100,0% n of case 24 31 55 F & B % of n 43,6% 56,4% 100,0% n of case 13 39 52 Other Dep. % of n 25,0% 75,0% 100,0% n of case 71 119 190 Total % of n 37,4% 62,6% 100,0%

Table 4 shows the results of employees’ turnover intention by working department reveals different results for males and females. While, in all departments, depressed male employees’ resigning intentions were found to be higher compared to the ones who were not depressed; the highest intention to leave the job was found in the group of women working in the kitchen (mean= 3,28). Table 4: Turnover Intention and Working Department Front Office Kitchen Service ( F & B) Other Dep. Tur. Ov. n % Mean n % TM n % TM n % TM (TM) Non 9 69,2 3,07 5 100 3,28 4 33,3 2,65 5 23,8 2,28 Females Depressive Depressive 4 30,8 3,03 - - - 8 66,7 3,22 16 76,2 3,00

Non 10 50 2,32 15 34,1 2,93 20 52,4 2,66 8 27,6 2,43 Depressive

Males Depressive 10 50 2,62 29 65,9 3,06 22 47,6 2,71 21 72,4 2,91 The other results according to the job position and turnover intention show different results (Table 5) for non-depressive and depressive employees. As seen in the table, while executive (upper level) managers were found to have the lowest intention to leave the job among undepressed women, the highest intention to leave the job belonged to mid-level managers. In male employees, a positive correlation was found between the position of the employee and intention to leave the job. The situation was different for the depressed employees. In all these employees, once the status of the employee raises, his/her intention to leave the job decreases. It was observed that the depressed employees with decreasing self-confidence and likely possibility of losing advantages while improving in the position at work less likely risked their jobs. The last descriptive analysis results according to employees’ experience and turnover intention were shown in Table 6. As shown in the table, the lowest intention to work is seen among the people working 5 or more years both in depressed and non-depressed employees. With the increasing years of working, the job becomes easier due to the expertise on it. Moreover, the cost of leaving the job increases due to having higher positions at work and relatively higher income. Therefore, it seems highly probable that the intention to work decreases.

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Table 5: Job Position and Turnover Intention Depression level Sex Job Position Mean n Std. Dev. Non-Management level 2,600 4 ,28284 Females Mid-level Management 2,9455 11 ,55922 Upper-Level Management 2,2667 3 ,57735 TOTAL 2,7556 18 ,55542 Non-Management level 2,600 14 1,05539 Males Mid-level Management 2,6194 31 ,62259

Non- Depressive Upper-Level Management 2,7750 8 ,92852 TOTAL 2,6377 53 ,78843

Non-Management level 3,2882 17 ,90131 Females Mid-level Management 3,0000 10 ,57155 Upper-Level Management 2,7333 6 ,39328 TOTAL 3,1000 33 ,75457 Non-Management level 2,9046 56 ,75689

Depressive Males Mid-level Management 2,8948 21 ,84999 Upper-Level Management 2,600 5 ,63246 TOTAL 2,8793 82 ,76960

Table 6: Experience and Turnover Intention Depression level Sex Experience Mean Std. Dev. n % <1 year 2,7000 ,48990 8 44,40% Females 1-2 year(s) 3,0000 ,55136 6 33,30% 3-4 years 2,5333 ,83267 3 16,70% 5 years and more 2,4000 - 1 5,60% TOTAL 18 100% <1 year 2,5750 ,59940 8 15,10% Males 1-2 year(s) 2,7556 ,81718 9 17,00%

Non- Depressive 3-4 years 2,6800 ,77432 20 37,70% 5 years and more 2,5500 ,92232 16 30,20% TOTAL 53 100% <1 year 3,1500 ,88167 16 48,50% Females 1-2 year(s) 3,2000 ,66933 6 18,20% 3-4 years 3,1200 ,76942 5 15,20% 5 years and more 2,8500 ,54314 6 18,20% TOTAL 33 100% <1 year 2,9167 ,73969 36 43,90%

Depressive Males 1-2 year(s) 2,8714 ,86151 14 17,10% 3-4 years 3,0526 ,83757 19 23,20% 5 years and more 2,8703 ,76960 13 15,90% TOTAL 82 100%

377 Hypotheses Testing In order to test the first hypothesis (H1-Employees’ turnover intention differ according to the hotel concepts they are working in) of this study, independent sample t-test was used and the results were illustrated in table 7. As the table shows, there is no statistically significant difference regarding intention to leave the job between the employees working in all-inclusive hotels and employees who do not work in all-inclusive hotels. Concerning mean scores, it is obvious that both groups’ intention to leave the work shows similarity. So that the first hypothesis (H1) was rejected. Table 7: Turnover Intention Differences among Hotel Concept Concept n Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean t score Sig. (p)

All Inclusive 103 2,8427 ,75856 ,07474

Non All Inclusive ,258 ,796 Score Intention Turnover (BB, HB or FB)* 87 2,8138 ,78105 ,08374

*Note: FB: Full Board, HB: half board, BB: Bed & Breakfast. Chi-square test was used for the test of the second hypothesis (H2- Employees’ level of depression differs according to the hotel concepts they are working in). When the results in table 8 were considered, a significant difference was found between the levels of depression of the employees working in all-inclusive hotels and the employees who do not work in all-inclusive hotels.(x2=63,67, p<005). Table 8: Psychological Mood among Hotel Concept Concept Non Depressive Depressive Chi square Sig. (p)

All Inclusive 65 38

Non All Inclusive (BB, 63,67 0,00 HB or FB)* 6 81

* FB: Full Board, HB: half board, BB: Bed & Breakfast. While only 36,9% (38 people) of the employees working in all-inclusive hotel concepts were in depressed mood, this ratio was 93,1% (81 people) for the people who worked for the hotels which did not have all-inclusive hotel concept. The potential reason for this difference may stem from the fact that many services in hotels which did not have all-inclusive concept were not self-service and for this reason the employees needed to have a heavier work load. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Tourism is seen as one of the most significant export sectors. Its major positive economic impacts are the generation of foreign exchange, helping reduce unemployment and contribution to government revenues. Due to the tourism industry’s micro and macro indicators academic researchers are so significant in this field for competitive advantage. Human resource management facilities and employees are crucial for the hospitality establishments in terms of competitive advantage and customer satisfaction. Depression is one of the most common psychiatric disorders and, from a societal perspective, is perhaps the most costly. Not only have rates of depression among the society notably increased in the decade, but also a much more of employees are becoming depressed. Depression is prevalent among employees and is also the most frequent precursor to many negative consequences including leaving the job. The rates of employee turnover in tourism are among the highest in any industry. This study was carried to determine the levels of turnover intentions and depression among hotel employees by gender, department, position and experience. The hotels that the employee are working at have been categorized as All-Inclusive and Non All-Inclusive to understand the difference between the depression levels of the employees and the turnover intentions of the depressed employees working in

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different hotel concepts because as Swarbrooke (1999) and Swarbrooke & Horner (2007) stated that in the 1990s, all-inclusive resort complexes have increased dramatically in popularity. Many tourists clearly value the concept of paying one price which helps to know exactly how much their holiday will cost when they book it before they depart on holiday and enjoy the fact that they will only need to take a small amount of spending money with them. All-Inclusive concept which is especially prevalent in the coastal regions in Turkey presents different working conditions for the employees. However, there is a lack of literature that is focused on exploring the difference between this concept and the others in terms of physiological, emotional and cognitive behaviours. Therefore, to reach the objectives mentioned above, two hypotheses were put forward in this study. The former ‘employees’ turnover intention differ according to the hotel concepts they are working in’ was rejected that every employee under depression has intention to leave the job regardless of the hotel concept. The latter ‘employees’ level of depression differs according to the hotel concepts they are working in’ was supported by the results of this study. This study revealed that the rate of the depressed employees at All-Inclusive hotels are lesser which seems to be contrary to the general belief that the employees at these hotels work long hours in poor working conditions with low wages when compared to the Non-All Inclusive hotels. The reason for this result seems to stem from the fact that the customers at Non All-Inclusive Hotels expect more detailed high quality service and deep experiences. Therefore, the employees at these hotels should deliver the consistently high level of customer service that the pressure over them to maximise their performances may cause depression because of work-related stress and will affect directly the satisfaction of the costumers. On the contrary, the job definitions of the employees at All-Inclusive hotels do not involve detailed operations. Routine, repeated jobs do not require high-quality performances but standard which means limited contact between employees and consumers. This result necessitates other studies to be done in the future in order to determine the reasons causing the employees at Non All-Inclusive hotels to feel much more depression. The factors such as the amount of work, the nature of the work (not requiring high technical skills), holding no fear of losing job because of being seasonal employment can be evaluated. REFERENCES Barbalet, J. (2002). Introduction: Why Emotions are Crucial. The Sociological Review. 50(2), 1-9. Blaug, R., Kenyon, A. & Lekhi, R. (2007). A Stress at Work: A Report Prepared for the Work Foundation’s Principal Partners. The Work Foundation. London Brida, J. Gabriel; Pulina, M. (2010). A Literature Review on the Tourism-Led Growth Hypothesis, Center for North South Economic Research - Working Paper 2010/17, (1-26). Broadhead, W. E.; Blazer, D. G.; George, L. K.; Kit Tse, C. (1990). Depression, Disability Days, and Days Lost from Work in a Prospective Epidemiologic Survey. Journal of the American Medical Association. 264, (2524–2528). Conti, D. J.; Burton, W. N. (1994). The Economic Impact of Depression in a Workplace. Journal of Occupational Medicine. 36, (983–988). Coomber, B.; Barriball, K. L. (2007). Impact of Job Satisfaction Components on Intent to Leave and Turnover for Hospital-Based Nurses: A Review of the Research Literature. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 44, 2, (297-314). DeCarlo, L.T. (1997). On the Meaning and Use of Kurtosis, Psychological Methods 2, 3, (292-307) Demir, M. (2011). İş Yaşamında Ayrımcılık: Turizm Sektörü Örneği, Uluslar Arası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi, 8, 1, (760-784). Dess, G. G.; Shaw, J. D. (2001). Voluntary Turnover, Social Capital, and Organizational Performance, Academy of Management Review, 26, 3, (446-456). Djernes, J. K. (2006). Prevalence and Predictors of Depression in Populations of Elderly: A Review. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 113, 5, (372-387). Druss, B. G.; Rosenheck, R. A.; Sledge, W. H. (2014). Health and Disability Costs of Depressive Illness in a Major US Corporation. American Journal of Psychiatry.157, (1274-1278). Dwyer, L.; Forsyth, P. (2010).Tourism Economics and Policy, Bristol: Channel View Publications: Eaton, W. W.; Anthony, J. C.; Mandel, W.; Garrison, R. (1990). Occupations and the Prevalence of Major Depressive Disorder. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 32, 11, (1079-1087). Fallon, M. J.; Rutherford, D. G. (2010). Hotel Management and Operations. New Jersey: John Wiley &

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382 Chapter 29

Wine Tourism

Ozlem GUZEL*, Elena GROMOVA**

INTRODUCTION As the tasting wine,participating into the cellar door activities in wine destination, learning about the wine making and the characteristics of the grapes, making wines etc. are the main motivation for the wine tourists, this tourism type consists of a large range ofcharacteristics connected to the destination such as art, wine, history, heritage, local lifestyle and food. Within the wine tourism as being a rural based tourism type, supplies significant benefits to the place where wine tourism is developing. Byrd et al. (2016: 19) state that “the wine tourism is a relatively fledgling industry sector facing a number of important development issues”. These developments supply important contributions for a healthy rural economy (Tassiopoulos and Haydam, 2006). Besides progressing local economy, wine tourism supply many benefits such as generating employment, especially for locals and regional income, protecting their cultural identities. As wine tourism becomes popular in the recent years, wine producing areas and wine tourism regions are existing changing and developing each year. So, it is important to indicate tourist’s profiles, whereas it helps regions and wineries to organize all the facilities, which are the need for successful functioning and attracting more tourists. Moreover, the biggest world wine destinations’ description should be done to understand the latest situation in the world, to see the differences between regions, which lead the tourists flows to wine-producing or wine-disposing destinations. Besides tasting or making the wine, wine tourists also look for a total of unique wine experience. Thus, the overview of the wine tourism experience contributes to better understanding, what are the tourists’ expectations from the destination or from the process. As there are a lot of positive effects on wine tourism industry, sometimes difficulties can exist. So it is necessary to realize this - as wine tourism grows, big regions should have a development plan. Within this realm, the aim of this chapter is to introduce the wine tourism in general, particularly, to present some definitions of the wine tourism; to describe profiles of wine tourists and to indicate their demographic characteristics. Moreover, the popular wine regions will be mentioned and the factors which are needed for success of the wine destination and wine experience is also emphasized in the chapter. 1. Wine Tourism1 Wine and food has become one of the travel motives for tourists around the world (Sharples, 2002) and as a result of this since mid-90s wine tourism has become an important form of tourism (Getz and Brown, 2006). “Wine tourism can be defined in terms of who travels to wineries and what the wine tourists are experiencing at these destinations” (Byrd et al., 2016:20). Mostly known academic definition of the wine tourism is made by Hall et al. (2000) as “visitation to vineyards, wineries, wine festivals and wine shows for grape wine tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of a grape wine region”. Charters and Ali-Knight (2002) state that the wine tourism experience includes many contents such as wine, food, art, tasting experience, cellar door activities, cultural tours. Like other types of tourism, wine tourism has important affections to the sector, as it has many implications, especially on the local economy. That’s why this tourism type is called as the rural-based industry by Tassiopoulos and Haydam (2006). Byrd et al. (2016:19) mention about the “wine tourism industry's ability to foster a

* Assoc. Prof., Akdeniz University, Tourism Faculty, [email protected]. ** Lecturer, Akdeniz University, High School of ForeignLanguages, [email protected]. 1Wine tourism is also known as “enotourism, oenotourism, or vinitourism”. The European Network of Wine Cities has organized the European Day of Wine Tourism since 2009. In 2016, the European Day of Wine Tourism will take place on November 13th (http://www.winetourismday.org/, 26.07.2016).

sustainable revenue base for small and medium wineries”. With a holistic view Williams et al. (2006: 27) lists the wine tourisms “potential contributions as increased markets and sales for winery operators; jobs and income for residents engaged in complementary service activities (e.g. wine product sales and services, restaurants, accommodation); and tax revenues for government agencies supporting broader rural development initiatives” as they highlight that the wine tourisms supply economic benefits for region and local stakeholders. Sparks and Malady (2006) state that there should be a linking between other tourism product and the wine tourism for providing diversity for different market segments. As wine tourists are looking for a total experience, architecture, heritage, local foods, events should be included as part of the wine experience (Dowling and Getz, 2000). So it could be said that “arts, wine, and food are the main elements” of the wine tourism product and these elements provide the lifestyle package for wine tourists who look for unique experience (Carlsen and Charters, 2006). Roberts and Sparks (2006) founded on their research that wine visitors are looking for an authentic experience designed around a number of aspects, from the broader perspective. Moreover, Byrd et al. (2016) shows “relaxation, socializing and wine clubs, customer service, entertainment and events, wine education, customer service, wine education, tasting room, vineyards and landscape, production facility and tours as the core and supplementary services for wine tourism. Getz and Brown (2006), describe the wine country as “rural paradise in which leisure, cuisine, scenery and outdoor activities are bountiful”. That’s why Byrd et al. (2016:20) conceives“the wine tourism more than a perfunctory visit to wineries or vineyards to purchase or drink wine”. Thus, a wine- route should be considered as places not only for viniculture but also for outdoor recreation, heritage and cultural touring. In this sense, a wine route can be described as “a sign-posted itinerary, through a limited area (region, province, denomination area) whose aim is the discovery of the wine(s) product(s) in the region and the activities which are associated with it (Gatti and Incerti, 1997). “The wine route on the market by a brand that conveys the geographical identity and the regional origin of the wine. In some cases, for example in Italy and France, the different territories in which wine is produced are officially demarcated through quality appellation labels. Quality wine strengthens the image of the territories, contributing to the local economic development and the promotion of the tourist offer. Therefore, quality wine plays both the role of the driver of wine routes and of tourist medium” (Asero and Patti, 2009:5). 2. Wine Tourists There is a need to understand the wine consumers and the factors that enhance the overall wine experiences as wine tourism grows rapidly (Roberts and Sparks, 2006). “Wine tourists demonstrate a mix of demographic characteristics, but are often a mix of domestic and out-of-state travelers representing a relatively high socio-economic level in terms of education, income, and profession” (Byrd et al., 2016: 20). Tassiopoulos and Haydam (2006) found in their research that wine tourists don’t travel with the tourists group. Charters and Fountain (2006) founded on their Australian wine region study that “wine tourists are not generationally homogeneous and having varying expectations of the cellar door encounter”. Their findings determined that the overall experience and the service is important for young visitors and wine product is important for older visitors. Themotivations of the wine tourist could be listed according to the literature as “to have opportunity for wine tasting, to experience the attributes of a grape wine region, to take a tour the vineyard, to have a chance to meet the winemaker, to purchase quality wines, to eat at the winery restaurant, to socialize with family/friends and to participate in wine events or festivals on the wine route” (Byrd et al., 2016; Alebaki, et al., 2015; Fraser and Alonso, 2006; Tassiopoulos and Haydam, 2006; Roberts and Sparks, 2006; Hall et al., 2000). Alabaki and Iakovıdou (2010) found in their study that learning about wine, visiting the winery, and purchasing wine were important motives while wine destination attributes of the wine region wasn’t important. Charters and Ali-Knight (2002) classify the wine tourists into four gro as wine lovers, wine interested, wine novices, and the hanger-on. Wine lovers have a rich wine knowledge and their main motivation is gaining wine and food knowledge. They focus only on wine tourism and likely to purchase wine from the cellar. Wine interested tourist have had the wine tasting experience but not wine

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education like wine lovers. Wine novices as being renamed category for the ‘curious tourist’ concentrate on tasting wine and taking tour. They haven’t any education on wine tourism, but may attend some tasting prior experience. The hanger-on tourists visit a winery as with the group without any interest in wine. Another wine touristsclassificationis that of Alabaki and Iakovidou (2010). They classified the wine tourists into four categories, namely the wine lover, the ‘neophytes’, the ‘occasional visitors’, and the ‘hangers-on’. The wine lovers are highly educated and have the high income. They visit the destination for visiting the winery, meeting the winemakers, learning about wine and wine making. The neophytes, who are low-income students, have special interest in wine. The occasional visitors, who are not interested in learning about wine, are attracted by the local gastronomy. The hangers-on are motivated by visiting the wine region but not focused on wine. They are not wine consumers in general and they just see the consider wineries as tourist attractions. Using the previous literature, Pratt (2014) tried to define wine tourists profiles. The four wine touristschracteristics were adapted for descriptions of the wine tourist; (1) The wine lover knows about wines and winemaking points. Their motiovaions are visiting the winery for buying, tasting and learning. (2) The wine interested tourist who likes wine and travel with friends have many wine tasting experience before. (3) The wine curious tourist has low or moderate interest in wine.Visiting just the region is their motivation. Basic wine knowledge is enough for them. (4) The disinterested wine tourist visits wineries as a part of the group for an alternative activity. They have no interest in wine earning. In addition to these classification described, “European researchers have followed a similar line in one instance proposing ‘the formal wine tourist’, the tourist with an acknowledged interest in wine and the general tourist. However, the structure of tourism in different cultures varies for instance, in Europe; the formal wine tourist is perceived to travel on an organized tour, whereas in Australia and New Zealand, the highly wine-educated tourist is much less likely to do this than the wine interested or curious tourist” (Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002). 3. Wine Tourism Destinations Wine is not only a farming activity. Wine is a part of lifestyle for many countries on the Mediterranean shore and is an essential element in expressing the regional cuisine throughout the world. The wine has long been associated with the Mediterranean as the ancient Greeks and Phoenicians traded wine in the history (Hall and Mitchell, 2010). Not only Mediterranean cost countries are now associated with wine and wine tourism, which became one of the popular experiential travel. Wine tourism is a rapidly growing field of industry and interest with changes in the consumer market in recent years. It’s no doubt that up-and-coming wine regions are intriguing, but there are just “10 countries producing 80% of the wine on the planet; France, Italy, Spain, United States, Argentina, Australia, Germany, South Africa, Chile, and Portugal. According to the Wine Institute statistics in 2010, these 10 countries produced in total 35.1 Billion bottles of wine. The top 3 major wine regions of the world are France, Italy, and Spain. They produce almost half of all the wine produced in the world” (www.winefolly.com, 15.06.2016). The widely read international magazine Wine Spectator magazine’s readers selected as their favorite wine regions, Burgundy (France), Bordeaux (France), Tuscany (Italy), Napa (USA) and Sonoma (USA) (Getz and Brown, 2006). Besides this, another popular wine magazine site Winemag readers selected their favorite wine regions of 2015 as Las Vegas (USA), Margaret River (Australia), Alto Adige (Italy), Paso Robles (USA), Basque Country (Spain), Franschhoek (South Africa), Alentejo (Portugal), Burgenland (Austria), Ashland (USA), and Bordeaux (France) (URL 1). In the last years wine tourism become popular in other countries, which are usually not associated with wine, as example China could be shown. The Bohai Bay wine region in Shandong Province is the birthplace of China’s modern wine industry and the largest wine-producing area in China (Zhang-Qiuetet al., 2013).By the data of 2015, “Spain leads the way on this front with 1.02 million hectares of the earth given over to grapes. China now has the second-largest wine growing area with 799,000 hectares of vines compared to 792,000 hectares in France. In fourth place comes Italy with 690,000 hectares and then Turkey with 502,000 hectares. The United States is back in sixth place with 425,000 hectares devoted to wine production. But clearly, size isn’t everything if areas of wine production are compared to how much wine is actually produced. On this front France is leader country, pumping out almost 47 million hectoliters in 2014. That puts France ahead of Italy, which produced almost 45 million hectoliters. Spain

385 came in third place after France and Italy with under 42 million hectoliters and the US in fourth place on 22 million hectoliters. For the record, China produced around 11 million hectoliters in 2014” (URL 2). France is the world’s leading wine producer. Achievement of the wine tourism sector shows that French wine is a considerable source of attractiveness, and it is recognized for its quality through the world. More than 10 million people visit theFrenchwineregions, 39% of them foreign (mainly people from Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and America). The wine sector is expanding every year and local players organize attractive experiences like hikes, cellar visits, concerts and wine-tasting courses (www.diplomatie.gouv.fr, 16.06.2016). Almost in all regions, there are vineyards. Alcase is a land of vineyards. Armagnac is known as the Gascony region. Beaujolais produces wines for celebrations. Bordeaux is known as being the oldest wine vineyard in the world(www.visitfrenchwine.com, 16.06.2016). “Bourgogne offers wine with a unique identity, produced from small plots known as Climats. Champagne produces the world’s most famous sparkle wine. Cognac vineyard makes a brandy with aromas of experience, passion, daring, and talent. Corsica is the unique island vineyard. Other wine-producing places are Languedoc, Loire Valley, Pays d’Oc, Provence, Phone Valley, Roussillon, Savoie and South- West” (URL 3) In the last decade, Italian wine production has been characterized by “an increased quality either of the grapes used to make wine or the technical procedures of winemakers. Italian wineries increased from 1,903 to 3,909 units during the period 2000 – 2009. The Wine Routes have been instituted by the National law and the law aims to exploit the wine growing areas and wineries, including cultural and natural resources, as well to allow the tourists to benefit from these” (Assera and Matti, 2009). One of the most famous wine tourism regions in Italy is Tuscany known for its landscapes, traditions, history, artistic legacy. The other famous Italian destinations are Brunello di Montalcino, Chianti Classico, Nobile di Montepulciano, Vernaccia di San Gimignano and Carmignano(URL 4). Another important destination is Spain with its climate, culture or geography. “From rustic to refined, traditional to innovative, red, white, sparkling and fortified, the wines of Spain along with her legendary cuisine, friendly people and spellbinding natural beauty have something very special to offer visitors” (URL ). Within this realm, “wine has always been a basic element of the culture of the inhabitants of the Iberian Peninsula. The first wine route in Spain was developed in Cambados. In the 1970s, the Rioja region, which is internationally renowned for its red wines, began designing and developing tourist routes. Later, in 1994, and following the creation of the Spanish Association of Wine producing Towns and Cities, the methodology needed to design and make the various wine routes a reality was developed. Official wine routes in Spain were developed following a government initiative in 2000: the Comprehensive Plan for Quality in Spanish Tourism 2000–2006” (Lopas-Guzman et al., 2014). USA is the raising popular wine destinationwithtopographical, geological and climatic diversity. According to statistics, “there are 10.417 bonded wineries in the USA in total. California produces about %90 percent of US wine” (URL 6) Washington, Oregon, New York, Texas and Virginia are other important wine producer destinations. According to the survey made by Wine Spectator, one of the most popular wine destinations in the world was Sonoma(Getz and Brown, 2006) which has a long history as one of the premier agricultural regions of the United States and there are more than 250 wineries (www.sonomawine.com, 08.06.2016). Las Vegas is one of the world’s top stops in the USA for wine lovers without a single vineyard in sight (URL 7). The production and consumption of wine in Argentina started with the Spanish colonizers and consists of three big part North, Cuvo and Patagonia, in each there are a lot of wineries because of good climate (www.winesofargentina.org, 16.06.2016). According to the gain Argentina wine annual report, “grape crop is estimated to be 2.65 million metric tons in 2015. Wine production in 2015 is projected to slightly increase to 1.53 billion liters” (Yankelevich, 2015).Australia wine industry has increased very fast. Anderson (2013) reports that “early in the 20th century, Australia’s production was small relative also to that of Argentina, Chile and the United States, although its exports then and in the latter 1920s and in 2007 were greater than those of other New World producers”. Margaret River has become one of the world’s most renowned regions of Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay (URL 8). The wide range of grape varieties cultivated in Germany is impressive and “German wine differs

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from wines of other countries – it’s light, lively and fruity, thanks to Germany’s unique climatic and geological conditions. The diversity of German wine stems from the many soil types and grape varieties and this diversity is reflected in Germany’s 13 wine-growing regions: Ahr, Baden, Franken, HessischeBergstrasse, Mittelrhein, Mosel, Nahe, Pfalz, Rheingau, Rheinhessen, Saale- Unstrut, Sachsen, Wurttemberg” (www.germanwines.de, 09.06.2016). Each of Germany’s 13 vineyard regions has its own set of customs and traditions. Wineries in Germany are relatively small in scale and still do most of their work by hand that shines through in the quality of wines (URL 9). South Africa’s vineyards territories are currently about 101,000 hectares. As for the world production scale, the country is in first 10 places, with the 3.8 percent of the world’s output. About half of grapes is used for white wines (exactly 56 percent of the total planted grapes), other half are varieties suitable for producing white wine. Owing to the shortage of white wine, the number of plantations of Chenin Blanc, Sauvignon Blanc and Chardonnay had been increased. (Felzenztein, 2011). The Chilean wine industry, has undergone numerous transformations over the past 30.Despite this undeniable success, Chilean wines face very high levels of competition in the different world markets. , the industry’s present profitability levels are low, and there is an urgent need to elevate the premium positioning and to develop a new international marketing strategy (Felzenztein, 2011). Portugal is a country of strong wine tradition, and the excellent quality of its wines is recognized across the world, with numerous awards and distinctions won in international competitions. The country has very beautiful landscapes, reach heritage, and interesting culture (URL 10). Alto Douro Wine Region is dominated by the viticulture and wine production. In the study of Madureiraand Marques (2006) it is described, as the outcome of a remarkable human construction made by winegrowers that reshaped steep and stony hills into vineyards, supported by schist walls and growing in anthrop-soils made with the local geological material, the schist”. 4. Wine Tourism Experience Wine tourists are looking for a total experience with suprising contents as part of the wine experience. So, the wine tourism experiences should be developed and promoted with a diversity of tourist experiences based on the attractions and activities available within the destinations to enrich the wine experience (Tassiopoulos and Haydam, 2006). “The notion that wine tourists solely focus on drinking wine was later refuted by researchers who suggested instead that these tourists want a broader set of wine and tourism experiences” (Byrd et al., 2016: 20). The important question is how to become a successful destination, and how to attract tourists, that is why many researches try to understand and find an answer for it (Boatto et al., 2013). The destination functional and affective attributes of wine destinations were classified by Pratt (2014) in their research and they identified seven important factors.“The first factor, the effective experience comprised items such as the importance of feeling excited, a sense of escapism and indulgence. The second factor, wine experience, comprised of items such as an opportunity to taste lots of wine, purchasing good wine and winery staff knowledgeable about wine. Social experience, comprised entertainment, vibrant atmosphere, an opportunity to socialize; wine festivals and events, and group tours. The fourth factor, the environment, comprised items such as relaxed rural atmosphere, beautiful landscape and a clean environment. Wineries included the importance of large wine companies, with famous and modern wineries. Food and culture included the importance of excellent restaurants, art galleries and antique shops. Finally, the wine region comprised the importance of obtaining information about the region easily and that wine trails are well posted. This factor also includes the opportunity to meet the winemaker” (Pratt, 2014). Byrd et al. (2016) tried to expand the winescape elements and found out that good customer service is important to intentions to visit, revisit a winery and to buy wine. As the wine tourist behavior is motivated bywinescape, in context of hedonic experiences, aesthetically pleasing environment, natural and physical nature make the tourist indulge (Bruwer and Alant, 2009).“The winescape as a destination image has evolved over time from the core vineyard and/or winery facility to the greater conceptualization of a wine region as a tourist destination” (Byrd et al., 2016:20). Another definition of the winescape is made by Bruwer et al. (2013) as “the rural countryside where agriculture is normally practiced, including vineyards, landscape, tasting rooms, tourist facilities, and so on”. Roberts and Deery (2008:11) indicate the factors that are required to generate an effective wine tourism experience

387 as “location (first impressions), authenticity (consistency with brand and regional values), signage (branding, effective directions, good placement, quality), physical appearance (well-maintained, stylish, landscaping, car park), cellar door appearance and facilities, service orientation through skilled staff, lifestyle add-ons (tours, wine and food, galleries, merchandise), restaurants/cafes and/or accommodation, event management, building tourism relationships. The setting of wine experience could attract the wine tourists to“a region and enhanced their experiences, while the weather and the atmosphere could also help to create or enhance the setting” as the wine tourist want their “experience to feel real and to be unique to them” (Roberts and Sparks, 2006:50-51). According to O’Neill et al. (2002), the design, operations, layout, the winery’s appearance, friendly staff, courteousness and knowledgeable staff are all extremely important for wine experience. Dowling and Getz (2000) point out that good wine, quality dining opportunities and other attributes are the contents for creating a unique experience and ambiance. Alabaki and Iakovidou (2010) state that the friendly staff, theirknowledge, professional attributes and service quality are important dimensions for visitors. Therefore, according to them in order to satisfy their customers and achieve marketing benefits the appropriate selection and personnel training is an important dimension for wineries. Griffin and Loersch (2006) have found in their research that wine attributes are the mostimportant for the evelauation of the quality of experience. In their research, they found that visitors had high expectations and considerable importance on the staff (being friendly, knowledgeable, understanding the needs and capable of providing individual attention) and the interior of the tasting room (clean tasting room, well presented and enjoyable atmosphere). Moreover, the quality of the wine was found to be an extremely important attribute.Acoording to the research done by Byrd et al. (2016), the customer service is the most influential factor in decisions to winery visit and tourism services in promoting wine tourism. Fernandes and Cruz (2016) tried to develop a higher-order model of experience quality in wine tourism industry and test it. Acording to the result six-dimensionhad impact on loyalty, satisfaction and advocacy. Dimensions are environment, learning, service providers, entertainment, functional benefits and trust. Quadri- Felitti and Fiore’s (2012) study proposes utilization of pertinent constructs of the experience economy model to explain the experiential nature of wine tourism by using the experience economy model of Pine and Gilmore with four sphere of experience: educational, escapist, aesthetic and entertainment. According to the study this 4E’s model is applicable for wine tourism (Quadri- Felitti and Fiore, 2012). In the recent years for wine producers have been creating a tourist flows to the destination combined of local culture, wine manufacturing, local agricultural traditions, and destination attributues. Moreover, this issue has been supported with tourists activities (Musso and Francioni, 2015). Because “while investment in maintaining high standards of winemaking is vital, it is also worth investing in the aspects of the cellar door that contribute most to wine experience” (Mitchell, 2006: 108). Tassiopoulos and Haydam (2006) suggests that the wine experience should be included personal contact, cellar tours, meeting the wine producers, wine events or festivals, cultural tours, meals and entertainment; and picnic facilities for cellar door experience. Roberts and Sparks (2006: 53) state that the cellar door experiences, such as “learning about the region, eating and drinking in restaurants and getting to know the people were all part of the experience, just as interactions with the winemaker and staff, learning about the history of the winery, how the wine was made and matching wine and food could build memories”. The quality of cellar door service and the uniqueness of the cellar door experience of a winery is very important and plays an important role on wine experience; on emotional attachments; and on future purchase tourists intentions (Charters and Fountain, 2006; O’Neill et al., 2002). For example, Mitchell’s (2006) study demonstrates that the cellar door does indeed play an important role in the ongoing purchase behavior of winery visitors. Moreover, a visit to a wine and food region is a learning experience contributed to personal growth with cellar door (Roberts and Sparks, 2006), it also creates an entertainment experience with wine attributes and cellar door experience. Roberts and Sparks (2006) state that wine region visits is a pleasing experience that takes tourists away from stress of the work and city as in their study tourists described the experience with words included “country, freedom, change of pace, no pressure, indulgence, pampering, relaxing, self-indulgence, decadence, comfort, cosy, service/being waited on, nurturing, social and shopping”.

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5. Success Drivers of the Wine Destinations It has been realized by the wine destination managers that the “benefits of wine tourism extend well beyond the cellar door to virtually all areas of the regional economy and into the urban areas that generate the majority of wine tourists” (Carlsen and Charters, 2006: 2). As tourism destinations “the long-term viability of wine regions depends on implementing regional policies that sustain landscapes conducive to producing top-quality wines and attracting appropriate numbers of visitors” (Williams et al., 2006: 27). The development of wine tourism was studied by Dodd and Beverland (2001), who analyzed the different life cycles, identifying five stages: namely, the winery establishment, the winery recognition, the regional prominence, the maturity, and the decline. In the first stage, the tourism is defined as ‘rural’; there are few reception facilities, wineries are not well known and have a small production, and networks are scarce or do not exist. In the second stage ‘rural tourism’ is referred to, with basic reception facilities, a network of relations that is still being developed, while the strategy is to focus on quality. In the recognition stage, there is cooperation between public agencies and private companies, high production levels, and renown at both national and international levels. In the stage of maturity, the wine tourism is enlivened by festivals and special events and there are no changes at a level neither of accommodation facilities nor of Networks between companies and institutional bodies. In that of decline, lastly, there is a trend toward the closure of some structures, a lack of cooperation, availability in the company sales point only of excess production, and a decreasing production level. It follows that there is the need to consider the different situations in a territory case by case because neighboring wineries may often be at different stages of the lifecycle.Thedestination management model and policy should be planned with the local and national wine tourism actors. “It is important to balance policies that support agricultural land conservation with those that meet the needs of winery, tourism, and local community stakeholders. Weak policies that encourage a ‘creeping incrementalism’ in wine tourism land use development must be avoided if the core viticulture and aesthetic assets of regions are to be sustained. Similar to the challenge for the vintner of balancing flavor to produce a fine wine, there is a need to create equilibrium between the benefits of economic development” (Williams et al., 2006: 27). The wine couldn’t be the main attraction to drive the tourists visit the wine destination. There should be some actions for the success of the wine destination the actions including the identification, organization and management of the array of existing resources, protected designation labels, production facilities, hotels and restaurants, accommodation facilities and educational farms and so on (Bencivenga et al., 2016). Moreover, the images of destinations can help strengthen the wine destination brand equity. Thus, destination and DO (destination of origin) associations should be developed and reinforced for increasing the destination value. Joint campaigns and events such as wine gatherings and gastronomic symposiums should be organized to enhance the images and the values of destinations (Gomez et al., 2015). In order to work collaboratively with stakeholders clustering planning and establishing the newtworks are essential to assist in promotion of the region especially; to understand the needs and expectations of the wine tourist; to inform potential tourists and to create the economic synergies (Asero and Patti, 2009; Tassiopoulos and Haydam, 2006; Dodd and Beverland, 2001; Mitchell, 2006; Hall et al., 2000; Hall et al., 1997). For promoting the image of wine, wineries, and wine regions as well as to ensure quality tourism experiences, building up a system of relations between wineries, organizations and wine associations are the key factors (Asero and Patti, 2009). Boatto et al. (2013) mentions about the good implementations from Australia as example. As they highlight wine tourism supply in Australia is plentiful and attentive to the quality of the service. There is a network of relationships between the wineries, tourist authorities and government agencies, which creates a strong synergy and makes the territory attractive. Musso and Francioni’s (2015) paper aimed to examine the role of network relationships in the internationalization of Italian winemakers. They found that networks are a key factor for internationalization. Firms mostly relied on their relationships with friends, created contacts at trade fairs, tourists visiting the farm, and also local firms and agencies in the tourism industry. Participation in fairs, other initiatives, and international incoming tourism are one of the most important sources for creating contacts with foreign markets. Mitchell (2006) mentions about the importance of the keeping a list of retail outlets that sell wine after the tourists return to their home.

389 Moreover, “it would also be a useful strategy to invite visitors to become part of a list that would inform them of events, tastings and promotions of the winemaker’s wine in their region” (Mitchell, 2006). Tassiopoulos and Haydam (2006:150-151) mention a number of major tasks to undertake in encouraging the development of wine tourism for the tourism authorities through the South African case study. In sum up, these are as below; “1. Innovative promotional strategies should be developed in partnership with provincial tourism authorities. 2. Public tourism infrastructure needs, especially in the smaller wine producing areas, must be expanded to include tourist information and interpretive centers. 3. Regional planning in wine growing areas, with particular focus on the smaller wine producing areas, can foster the development of regional identity, 4. The education and training of regional tourism operators and wine tourism employees are required. 5. The facilitation and promotion of cooperative ventures in the tourism and wine industries are required in order to improve the marketing performance of both sectors. 6. There are substantial benefits from the development of innovative wine tourism publications, whereby a regional audit of tourism attractions and services can draw together wine experiences and the history and culture of the wine region. 7. Longitudinal tracking studies of wine tourists should be conducted. 8. Wine regions should consider embarking on customer relationship programs with different target groups.” Finally, wine tourism development should deal with serious implications for agriculture, the natural environment, and the community. Poitras and Getz (2010) determine the three-pillar approach for sustainable tourism from their study on wine tourism, namely environmental goals, economic goals and social goals. Environmental goals for wine tourism include, protecting the natural resource base, especially water, preserving vineyards, fruit orchards and agricultural land, protecting the rural and small town atmosphere, sustaining resources for future generations; economic goals for wine tourism include improving infrastructure for tourism and residents, sustaining an economically viable wine industry, creating and sustaining viable supporting attractions and services, attracting high-yield tourists; avoiding mass tourism; social goals for wine tourism include supplying benefit for the resident, involving all stakeholders in tourism planning, resolving conflicts openly, creating new employment and business opportunities for residents, protecting and creating cultural and heritage attractions, ensuring high levels of visitor satisfaction. CONCLUSIONS This chapter emphasizes to summarize about what is wine tourism, who is wine tourist, where popular wine destinations are and what are the key success key drivers of wine experience in general with literature review. As the popularity of the wine tourism is increasing among the tourists, the wine tourism provides a competitive advantage for the wine destinations. Moreover, the development of wine tourism can add value and significant benefits to the destination especially for the local economy. Increasing the regional income and human capital, creating a destination image, supporting to the local life quality are some of these benefits as stated in the literature review. Mostly, experienced with rural based activities, the wine tourism can be associated with kind of cultural, agro, and sustainable tourism. This supply to the destination to keep their cultural identifies contents as the wine tourists look for an authentic experience including the local contents. So, the literature review of wine tourism in this chapter highlights that there wine region has to promote wine tourism product as a package of experiences with local food, history, heritage, art, landscape, as well as destination attributes. This issue was highlighted by Asero and Patti (2009) as well as. As they state that wine tourism is “a complex phenomenon” and it doesn’t end with the visit to the cellars, to the places of production and with the tasting, nor it is associated only with forms of rural tourism or of agro-tourism, and directly involves a whole territory and its various components. Moreover, wine tourists are not interested simply in wine tasting, but also seek for a total tourism experience. Thus, history, authenticity, appealing environment, cultural contents and gastronomy should be linked to wine tourism

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for a holistic experience. As Alebaki and Iakovıdou (2010) highlight wine tourism marketers should consider which specific types of activities could be offered complementary to the winery visit itself, in order to increase both the visitors’ interest and the visitation rates. It was noted in the literature review in this chapter there are many classification for wine tourists (Pratt, 2014; Alebaki and Iakovıdou, 2010; Charters and Ali-Knight, 2002). All the segments particularities and characteristics should be analyzed for a holistic wine tourism experience. Then, appropriate touristic products should be designed and marketing strategies should be managed. As Byrd et al. (2016) states that the range of destination benefits believed to attract consumers to visit wine regions and wineries spans across wine products, expanded winery experiences, and other tourism and hospitality features supporting and sustaining general regional tourism. For the destinations which have a convenient environment for grape growing, have to develop a destination management policy and support the wine tourism. Wine destinations should offer many facilities and cellar door activities for tourists. Wine routes are must be well developed and locals have to be integrated into the tourism. On these routes the touristic activities should be integrated into the wine tourism experience and promoted with the partnership of the local and national tourism authorities. For the achievement of this issue, a network is needed to promote the destination collaboratively. REFERENCES Alebaki, M.; Menexes, G.; Koutsouris, A. (2015). Developing a Multi Dimensional Framework for Wine Tourist Behavior: Evidence from Greece. Wine Economics and Policy, 4, 98-109. Alebaki, M. & Iakovidou, O. (2010). Segmenting the Greek Wine Tourism Market Using a Motivational Approach, New Medit 4, 31-40. Asero, V. & Patti, S. (2009). From Wine Production to Wine Tourism Experience: The Case of Italy, http://www.wine-economics.org/workingpapers/AAWE_WP52.pdf, 15.06.2016. Bencivenga, A.; Vollaroa, P. D.; Forte, F.; Giampietro, A. M.; Percoco, A. (2016). Food and Wine Tourism in Basilicata. Agriculture and Agricultural Science Procedia 8, 176 – 185. Boatto, V.; Galletto, L.; Barisann, L.; Bianchin, F. (2013).The Development of Wine Tourismin the ConeglianoValdobbiadene Area. Wine Economics and Policy 2, 93-101. Bruwer, J. & Alant, K. (2009). The Hedonic Nature of Wine Tourism Consumption: An Experiential View. International Journal of Wine Business Research, 21(3), 235-257. Bruwer, J.; Lesschaeve, I.; Gray, D.; Sottini, V.A. (2013). Regional Brand Perception by Wine Tourists Within aWinescape Framework, 7th AWBR International Conference , St. Catherines. Byrd, E. T.; Canziani, B.; Hsieh, Y.; Debbage, K.; Sonmez, S. (2016). Wine tourism: Motivating Visitors Through Core and Supplementary Services.Tourism Management, 52, 19-29. Carlsen, J. & Charters, S. (2006). Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management & Marketing, CAB International, UK. Charters, S. & Ali-Knight, J. (2002).Who is The Wine Tourist?.Tourism Management, 23, 311–319. Charters, S. & Fountain, J. (2006). Younger Wine Tourists: a Study of Generational Differences in the Cellar Door Experience, In: Carlsen, J. and Charters, S. (Ed.) Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management & Marketing, CAB International, UK, 153-160. Dodd, T. & Beverland, M. (2001). Winery Tourism Life-Cycle Development: A Proposed Model. Tourism Recreation Research 26 (2), 11–21. Dowling, R. & Getz, D. (2000). Wine Tourism Futures. In: Faulkner, B.; Moscardo, G.; Laws, E. (Ed.)Tourism in the Twenty-first Century: Reflections on Experience.Continuum, London, 49–66. Felzenztein, C. (2011). The Chilean Wine Industry: New International Strategies for 2020, Emerald Emerging Markets Case Studies, 1(1), 1-12 Fernandes, T. & Cruz, M. (2016). Dimentions and Outcomes of Experience Quality in Tourism: The Case of Port Wine Cellars. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services, 31, 371-379. Fraser, R. A. & Alonso, A. (2006). Do Tourism and Wine Always Fit Together? A Consideration of Business Motivations, In: Carlsen, J. and Charters, S. (Ed.) Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management & Marketing, CAB International, UK, 19-26. Gatti, S. & Incerti, F. (1997). The Wine Routes as an Instrument For The Valorisation of Typical Products and Rural Areas. In:Arfini, F. & Mora, C. (Ed.) Typicaland Traditional Productions : Rural Effect and Agro-Industrial Problems Proceedings of the 52nd EAAE Seminar, 213-224.

391 Getz, D. & Brown, G. (2006). Critical Success Factors for Wine Tourism Regions: A Demand Analysis. Tourism Management, 27, 146–158. Gomez, M.; Lopez, C.; Molina, A. (2015). A model of Tourism Destination Brand Equity: The Case of Wine Tourism Destinationsin Spain. Tourism Management 51, 210-222. Griffin, T. & Loersch, A. (2006). The Determinants of Quality Experiences in an Emerging Wine Region. In: Carlsen, J. & Charters, S. (Ed.) Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management & Marketing, CAB International, UK, 80-92. Hall, C.M. & Mitchell, R. (2000). Wine Tourism in the Mediterranean: A Tool for Restructuring and Development. Thunderbird international Business Review, Vol. 42(4), 445-465. Hall, C.M.; Johnson, G.; Mitchell, R. (2000). Wine Tourism and Regional Development. In: Hall, C.M.; Sharples, L.; Cambourne, B. &Macionis, N. (Ed.)Wine Tourism Around theWorld: Development, Management andMarkets. 196-225, Butterworth-Heinemann. Oxford, UK. Hall, M.; Cambourne, B.; Macionis, N.; Johnson, G. (1997). Wine Tourism and Network Development in Australia and New Zealand: Review, Establishment and Prospects. International Journal of WineMarketing,9(2/3), 5–31. López-Guzmán, T.; Vieira-Rodríguez, A.; Rodríguez-García, J. (2014). Profile and Motivations of European Tourists on The Sherry Wine Route of Spain. Tourism Management Perspectives, 11, 63-68. Madureira, L. & Marques, C. (2006). Tourism Promotion and the Tourist Demand for Landscape Features. The Alto Douro Wine Region, First International Congress of Mountain and Steep Slope Viticulture , ISBN 88-902330-0-1. Mitchell, R. (2006). Influences on Post-visit Wine Purchase (and non-purchase) by New Zealand Winery Visitors. In: Carlsen, J. & Charters, S. (Ed.) Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management & Marketing, CAB International, UK, 95-109. Musso, F. & Francioni, B. (2015). Agri-Food Clusters, Wine Tourism and Foreign Markets. The Role of Local Networks for SME’s Internationalization. 22nd International Economic Conference –“Economic Prospects in the Context of Growing Global and Regional Interdependencies”, Procedia Economics and Finance 27, 334 – 343. O’Neill, M.; Palmer, A.; Charters, S. (2002). Wine Production as a Service Experience - The Effects of Service Quality on Wine Sales. Journal of Service Marketing 16 (4), 342–362. Poitras, L. & Getz, D. (2006). Sustainable Wine Tourism: The Host Community Perspective. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 14 (5), 425 - 448 Pratt M. (2014). Four Wine Tourist Profiles, Academy of Wine Business Research 8th International Conference, June 28-30, Germany,970-980. Quadri-Felitti, D. & Fiore, A. M. (2012). Experience Economy Constructs as a Framework For Understanding Wine Tourism. Journal of Vacation Marketing,18(1), 3-15. Roberts, L. & Deery, M. (2008). Analysing Key Characteristics of Selected Australian Regions,CRC for Sustainable Tourism Pty Ltd, Australia. Roberts, L. & Sparks, B. (2006). Enhancing the Wine Tourism Experience: the Customers’ Viewpoint, In: Carlsen, J. & Charters, S. (Ed.) Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management & Marketing, CAB International, UK, 47-56. Sharples, L. (2002). Wine Tourism in Chile…AbravenewStep for aBravenewWorld. International Journal of Wine Marketing,14 (2), 43-53 Sparks, B. & Malady, J. (2006). Emerging Wine Tourism Regions: Lessons for Development. In: Carlsen, J. & Charters, S. (Ed.) Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management & Marketing, CAB International, UK, 67-79. Tassiopoulos, D. & Haydam, N. (2006). Wine Tourists in South Africa: a Demand-side study, In: Carlsen, J. and Charters, S. (Ed.) Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management & Marketing, CAB International, UK, 141-152. Williams, P. W.; Graham, K; Mathias, L. (2006). Land Use Policy and Wine Tourism Development in North America’s Pacific Northwest, In: Carlsen, J. & Charters, S. (Ed.) Global Wine Tourism: Research, Management & Marketing, CAB International, UK, 27-46. Yankelevich, A. (2015). Argentina Wine Annual Report, USDA Foreign Agricultural service,http://gain.fas.usda.gov/Recent%20GAIN%20Publications/Wine%20Annual_Buenos%20Aires_ Argentina_4-6-2015.pdf, 26.07.2016. Zhang-Qiu, H.; Yuan, J.; Ye, B. H.; Hun, K. (2013).Wine Tourism Phenomena in China: An Emerging

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393 Chapter 30

Gastronomy Tourism: Motivations and Destinations

Berrin GUZEL*, Müge APAYDIN

INTRODUCTION Eating is one of the main needs of a human. And Maslow has described eating as one of the main stages in the hierarchical of needs pyramid as a physiological need (Tikkanen, 2007). As Lowenberg (1970) related Maslow’s motivation theory with food consumption and classified them,the physiological need is to take the basic food elements to survive. The safety stage is considered as storing food for any purpose of security. When the food is used as an interaction and cultural identity medium, then it is considered in the belongingness stage. The fourth stage is status and the place, people who eat with you and what you eat describes your social status. The fifth and the last stage is self-realization and occurs when a person is motivated to experience other cultural and local foods (cf. Karim, 2006). Recently tourism demand is changing significantly thus, the reasons should be taken into consideration as tourism demand is an issue of pull and push factors, in which pull factors are used to define the choice of a destination and push factors are used to define the desire to go for a trip (Crompton, 1979; cf. Smith & Costello, 2009). Today, gastronomy tourism has become an important aspect of tourism to attract international tourists (Horng & Tsai, 2010) and many destinations are using food as a source of attraction in their tourism marketing (Lin, Pearson & Chai, 2011) to differentiate themselves and broaden their market base (McKercher, Okumuş, & Okumuş, 2008). Yet, food tourism has become a critical part of developing the tourist destinations (Kim, Yuan, Goh & Antun, 2009). Therefore, gastronomy should be regarded not only as a key cultural product but also as a beneficial component of these products such as monuments, museums, architecture and events (Correira, Moital, Costa & Peres, 2008). Not only the food is a need and also based on tourism, it becomes a motivation for tourism (Tikkanen, 2007), As gastronomy is an indispensable part of the travelling (Fields, 2002; cf. Sanchez- Canizares & Lopez-Guzman, 2012) it has an important role in the visitors’ experience which helps to enhance the experience of the tourism, more than just being a nourishment (Chaney & Ryan, 2012). Besides it is a source of enjoyment and opportunities that have fine memories for the tourist (Boniface, 2003; Long, 2004; cf. Sanchez-Canizares & Lopez-Guzman, 2012). The expectation about the experience should be either met or exceeded (Henderson, 2009). It is also an expressive form of art. Thus, it is regarded as a symbol to express and enhance the identity which makes food a different motivation for tourists to travel (Gyimothy & Mykletun, 2008). However, it should be known that food can be a primary motivator for some or a secondary for others (Hall & Sharples, 2003) For tourism and gastronomy are considered as hedonic products, they have an impact on tourists’ variety-seeking behavior (Mak, Lumbers & Eves, 2011), especially dining in restaurants is one of the leisure activities of tourists. Food is the second largest expenditure in the travelers budget (Hall & Sharples, 2003) and according to Boyne, Williams & Hall (2002; cf. Horng, Liu, Chou & Tsai, 2012) tourists spend nearly 40% and to Meler & Cerovic (2003) one-third of their budget on food and hotel activities. 1. GASTRONOMY TOURISM The word gastro is derived from the words “gastros” which means stomach and “gnomos” which means knowledge or law in Greek. Apart from gastronomy, the word culinary is a word used as a country or a places dishes, food, food preparation techniques (Kivela & Crotts, 2006) and mostly used under the gastronomy literature. Also, culinary is a Latin word “Culina” that means kitchen or cooking

*Assoc. Prof., Adnan Menderes University, Tourism Faculty.  MA, Adnan Menderes University, Tourism Faculty

and used also for meal, food, and dish (Montarini & Staniscia, 2009) and it refers to ingredients, foods that are prepared, beverages, production process, the activities (Horng & Tsai, 2010). And gastronomy is not only about food but also about beverages (Sanchez-Canizares & Lopez-Guzman, 2012). According to Gillespie, “Gastronomy is about the recognition of a variety of factors relevant to the foods and beverages ate and consumed by a group, in a locality, region or even a nation” (Gillespie, 2002: 5). However, there is a difference between the practice and the study of gastronomy. When gastronomy is considered as a practice, it means the advice and guidance and the exercise of the living skills with knowledge (Gillespie, 2002; cf. Santich, 2004). Gastronomy as a study is a multi-disciplinary perspective that searches the gastronomic life considering the environmental and social sustainability (Boyne, Hall & Williams, 2003). As a consequence, the context of gastronomy is about the variety of food and beverages, the production, microbiology of food and drinks, the dietary, eating habits and, restaurant (Çalışkan, 2013). Eating is not only a physiological need. Due to the developments in food and beverage industry, dining out has become a recreation activity (Yüncü, 2010). Besides people in the modern world are spending less time to cook in order to keep up with time (Su, 2015). As a result of these, people have started to dine out and this activity has become a touristic activity (Yüncü, 2010). Gastronomic tourism is rather a new form of tourism (Chaney & Ryan, 2012) and there are many different terms used for food-based tourism such as culinary tourism, tasting tourism, gastronomy tourism, and food tourism (Hall & Sharples, 2003). Ignatov & Smith (2006) used the term as culinary tourism and defined it as “tourism trips during which the purchase or consumption of regional foods (including beverages), or the observation and study of food production (from agriculture to cooking schools) represent a significant motivation or activity.” (p. 238) and that can be interpreted as a “food culture” with the information transference about the destination and its culture with the traditions (Ignatov & Smith, 2006). Although there are people who seek for similar tastes, there are people who are looking for and interested in different tastes (Karim & Chi, 2010). In this sense, it should be known that food consumption is not as similar as the one in one's everyday routine. And through tourism, different foods, tastes can be experienced apart from the routine (Quan & Wang, 2004). There are many definitions for culinary tourism. According to Long (2004) culinary tourism is based on the food experience (cf. Silkes, 2012) and defines it as participation in the special or unique food experiences related to a tourist destination (cf. Horng, Liu, Chou and Tsai, 2012). Ottenbacher and Harrington (2011) explains culinary tourism as “tourism where an opportunity for memorable food and drink experiences contributes significantly to travel motivation and behavior” (p. 2). As Karim and Chi (2010) uses the terms food tourism, culinary tourism, and gastronomy tourism and explains them as a kind of travel to experience different foods in specific destinations. Besides, Hall & Mitchell (2005) defines culinary tourism as “visitations to primary and secondary food producers, food festivals, restaurants, and special locations for which food tasting and/or experiencing the attributes of specialist food production as the primary motivation for travel” (p. 20; cf. Smith and Costello, 2009). As gastronomic tourism is considered as a subgroup of cultural tourism (Chaney & Ryan, 2012), not only restaurant dining, food festivals, factory tours, educational seminars, and farm visits (Smith and Costello, 2009) but also chefs, media, and tourism providers, catering services, tourism services, governmental regulations, public awareness, food image, promotion and marketing (Wolf, 2002; cf. Chaney & Ryan, 2012) are all covered in it. In other words, gastronomic tourism can be experienced in live-in cooking school, traditional gastronomic feasts and celebrations, grape harvesting, and/or visiting regional wineries and food producers (Santich, 2004). However, at this point, food tourism and consumption of food as a part of the traveling should not be confused. Food in food-tourism is the main motivation for the trip while consuming food is a less important motivation (Hall and Sharples, 2003).Tourism and food are two industries that have an important similarity in which both of them are growing demand and production and interestingly for this growth in production, both of the industries are creating their own style explanations (Hjalager & Richards, 2002; cf. Boyne, Hall and Williams, 2003). As tourism has moved from a large scale Fordist approach to a post-Fordist approach, in which tourists prefer more specialized and more diverse tourism experiences, food tourism can be considered

395 as one of the new tourism forms no matter how expensive it is (Everett & Aitchison, 2008). Until the 1970s–1980s, dining at three-star restaurants of France was considered as gastronomy tourism, but today it has shifted to experiencing different cultures (Santich, 2004). And in this new era, it is not only a food and beverage issue but also a where, how, when and why we eat and drink issue. Thus, gastronomy can be characterized as a social and communicative activity, instead of “solitary” (Santich, 2004). Furthermore, this form of tourism has become an element in the whole travel choice or a decisive reason to visit a destination (Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010). Today, food is more than a nourishment, it is also a part of the local culture, a tool for agricultural and therefore economic development and a local aspect influenced by the eating behaviors of the tourists (Hall & Mitchell, 2001; Misiura, 2006; cf. Tikkanen, 2007).Yet, every country has its own and exclusive gastronomic customs on how to prepare, to eat and to serve (Long, 2004; cf. Horng & Tsai, 2010) and that is what makes a tourist visit the culture (Smith, 2007). Especially the local foods are not only seen as customs but also iconic products about the specific region (Bessiere, 1998). However, globalization is one of the threats to localization, as it is getting hard to sustain the locality (Henderson, 2009). But still, food is a crucial tool for anti-globalization in local environments (Everett & Aitchison, 2008). Certainly, not only globalization but also trading affected the local traditions of the food as it provided the opportunity to have exotic and different foods and preparation techniques from other places and to combine them to produce fusion cuisine (Harington, 2005). As a result, although consumers may accept that there are “pure” cuisines but mostly they are “hybridized” (Chaney & Ryan, 2012).

Figure 1: Food tourism as special interest tourism (Hall & Sharples, 2003). When the definitions of gastronomy tourism are considered, they all have a similar meaning regarding the visit to a place. However, trip to a destination for food reasons may not mean the same. For some, the primary reason may be the food but for others, it may not be the same (Hall & Sharples, 2003).

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In gastronomy, the word “local” has to be discussed too. According to a study by Sims (2009) “local” is a geographical term and defined as products from within a specific area. She also found it too narrowing if it is only the local ingredients. A report by Enteleca Research and Consultancy (2000) defines the food as local if it is not imported or does not need to be imported materials. Again this definition is limited to geography (Montarini & Staniscia, 2009). A local product may be at different levels, such as products that can be bought as a symbol of the destination or a complex product that is totally specific to a destination. Considering the “local” food issue, tourists may go for a “local food” if they want to experience the culture (Sims, 2009). However, not all the cuisines are pure. Multiculturalism is a factor that affects the customs. The immigrants brought their own traditions to their “new” countries, including their gastronomic cultures and the food is grown (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006). Also in multiracial destinations, people are influenced by the other cultures’ production processes or ingredients. Even though cultures may differ, the interaction between cultures may result in familiarity (Chaney & Ryan, 2012). Thus the marriage of different cultures results in different products and know-hows (Harrington, 2005). But still, ethnic food is based on the local foods and traditional preparation techniques. However, this may sound “authentic” to some tourists and “undesirable” to the rest such as finger food, sharing the same plates etc (Cohen & Avieli, 2004). Harrington (2005) models a framework of gastronomic identity. Yet, physical environment and the living conditions of a specific place also affects the food grown, consumption and how it is processed (Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010).

Figure 2: Gastronomy Identity Model (Harrington, 2005) In Figure 1, the gastronomic identity is influenced by the cultural and environmental factors. While geographical conditions and climate affect the food produced, they also limit the flavor. If the destination is an island, then the eating habits will mostly depend on fishing. The food quality is also related to geography, as a food is grown in a place where it belongs, are considered as a good quality. Also, religion (Malkawi, 2014; Henderson, 2009), history and traditions will demark the eating habits (Harrington, 2005). For example for Muslims, halal food is an important issue and defined as the food which is allowed in Islamic terms or conditions (Malkawi, 2014). Besides, the wealth and social status of the society may influence the identity. As stated before, the multiculturalism affects the gastronomic identity. Innovations, the changes in producing and processing food, new foods and products also have significant effects on the identity (Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010). Those environmental and cultural factors do not only influence the identity itself but also give a symbolic meaning (Riley, 2000; cf. Horng & Tsai, 2010). Yet, Cook and Crang (1996; cf. Everett & Aitchison, 2008) states that foods are also “placed cultural artifacts” which symbolize the identity. 2. GASTRONOMY TOURISTS MOTIVATIONS As the motivation of the tourist revolves around food, experiencing new tastes, and exploring the history or culture becomes gastronomic tourism (Hall and Sharples, 2003; cf. Chaney & Ryan, 2012). As this type of tourism has become a new form of tourism, the individual's characteristics and the motivations should be determined. Typical gastronomic tourists are essentially the same market as

397 cultural holidays: above-average-income Professional couples in their 30–50s (Gastronomic Tourism, 2004, 1; also Huang et al., 1996; cf. Fox, 2007). According to the Smith & Costello’s study (2009) food-focused tourists travel as couples, have higher education, spend more than other cultural tourists, stay longer and accommodate in hotels and, the main motivations for them are to have the opportunity for rest, relaxation, and personal indulgence. Similarly, Chaney & Ryan (2012) confirms that gastro- tourists have the experience and knowledge of experiencing the different cultures. As domestic and international tourists seek adventures in which special food events provide the chance to experience new and different ones (Smith & Costello, 2009), and getting more open to new and differents experiences related to food (Henderson, 2009), the food tourist market becomes more heterogeneous. McKercher et al. (2008) have segmented the market into three subgroups. The first group travels to a destination especially for gastronomic reasons who tries to experience local food. Most of their activities during their stay is related to gastronomy. According to the second group, food is important but not that much. It has an important role but gastronomic issues do not direct the holiday decisions. The last group has a continuum from less gastronomic activities to none. According to Boyne et al. (2003), there are four types of cuisine tourists. The Type I tourists are the ones in which gastronomy is crucial during their holidays and they look for gastronomic elements mostly local food. For Type II tourists gastronomy is also important but not as much as Type I tourists. They do appreciate gastronomic elements when it is presented to them. For Type III tourists gastronomy is not an important part of their holiday, however, they may attend gastronomic events during their holidays. Type IV tourists are not interested in gastronomic elements during their holiday. According to the Enteleca Research and Consultancy (2000), the cuisine tourists are divided into five subgroups. Food tourists are the ones who are interested in gastronomic issues and local foods and, represent 6-8% of the sample. For interested purchasers, food is a part of the holiday that affects the satisfaction with the holidays and represents one-third of the sample. For unreached tourists, gastronomy does not have an importance in their holiday, yet they rarely buy local food. The un- engaged and laggards are the fourth and fifth group of gastronomic tourists who have limited or no interest in gastronomic issues, also do not try local food (cf. Okumuş et al., 2007). For Shenoy (2005) there are only three types of gastronomy tourists. The first group is culinary tourists who have a special interest in food-related activities during their holiday, and food has an important role. The experiential tourists are the ones who try local food but not interested in much as the culinary tourists. They do eat in the franchise and/or chain restaurants but also experience the local fares. The third and last group is general tourists group who are totally the opposite of the culinary tourists in terms of gastronomic interests. Despite these taxonomies and although new and different food is an attractive experience, it may also be unfamiliar. Fischler (1988) has proposed two reactions to this unfamiliarity; neophobia and neophilia. Neophobia defines the disgust/intimidation of the unknown, and neophilia defines the passion to the new and unknown food. This results in a contradiction that people wish to experience the new dishes but also trying to avoid the unpleasant tastes (Gyimothy & Mykletun, 2008). 3. DESTINATIONS Gastronomy tourism is a new trend around the World. Italy, France, and Thailand have become very popularly with their cuisines and attracted many tourists (Karim & Chi, 2010). Today, it can be said that food has a significant role to compete with other destinations (Horng & Tsai, 2010). As the destinations are labeled with their cuisines, the destination has a great chance to make a link with the cuisine itself (Okumuş et al., 2007; Karim & Chi, 2010). Although Mallon (1995; cf. Kim et al., 2009) have argued that traveling for food reasons should not be ignored; uniqueness and authenticity of a food is becoming important and destination marketing organizations are getting more interested in this new type of tourism, Harrington & Ottenbacher (2010) states that the destinations that are popular with their cuisines are mostly attracting tourists interested in sports activities, historical places, and conferences. Thus, cuisines are still the secondary factors to attract tourist. As countries started using gastronomy to introduce their own cuisines after gastronomy has become a part of study and art (Küçükaltan, 2009) and that has resulted in using gastronomy to use as a tool in marketing touristic destinations. Travel agencies focusing on this are organizing gastronomic

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trips to destinations such as Asia, Italy, and France. For example, in Toscana region, holiday opportunities are provided together with cooking courses. Restaurants in Melbourne and Sydney are often marketing the destination using food and wine (Kivela & Crotts, 2005). Every year Barcelona is hosting more than 500 food and beverage activities. According to a study by Barcelona University, more than 30% of the city depends on gastronomy (arsiv.sabah.com.tr). By the year 2008, Global Hansik Campaign (Korean Cuisine), popularizing Korean cuisine was aimed and the health benefits and uniqueness of the Korean cuisine were emphasized. By this campaign, Korean cuisine has become a target destination (Williams et al., 2014). Östersund, a small village in Sweden, is one of the gastronomic cities of UNESCO’s “Creative Cities Network” which is an initiative formed by UNESCO in 2004, that aims to integrate various regions, incomes, capacities and populations in working creative industries (www.unesco.org.tr). By using the local food the villagers sustain their traditional meals and are recognized with their gastronomic culture (en.unesco.org). Chengdu is in the list of UNESCO’s gastronomy cities with its eating culture, festivals, the wideness of education opportunities provided in the city and importance given to sustainable agriculture (blog.bavul.com). Moreover, Italy is known with olive oil, spaghetti, pizza; Spain with tapas; France with cheese and wine; Belgium and Switzerland with chocolate; Costa Rica with coffee and Japan and Sri Lanka with tea (Durlu-Özkaya & Can, 2012). As long as gastronomy tourism are attracting tourists, the cuisines of countries or regions will take an important place in destination marketing management (Baran & Batman, 2013). However, countries that are planning to use gastronomy as a destination attraction has to compete with Old World gastronomic destinations such as China, Italy, France and Portugal and that competition will be challenging (Hashimoto & Telfer, 2006). As food is one of the factors for the development of a destination and can be used for economical reasons (Henderson, 2009), and not only push factors, but also pull factors affect the tourist motivation (Chaney & Ryan, 2012), then marketing organizations should be aware that concentrating only on food without considering the other attributes of the destination would not be appropriate (Correira et al., 2008). For example, if the quality of the food is poor, then the tourists and thus the destinations image may be affected negatively (Pendergast, 2006; cf. Sanchez-Canizares & Lopez-Guzman, 2012). Thus a destination interested in developing gastronomy tourism has to consider factors that affect the success of it (Chaney & Ryan, 2012). These factors can be seen in Figure 3 below. Besides these, gastronomy tourism is not only the combination of food and tourism. To obtain sustainability, importance should be given to the locality of the food as it will influence the regional development and help the destination to compete with the global competitors (Montarini & Staniscia, 2009). Thus, destinations that are willing to utilize food to attract tourists have to intensify their culinary identities. Integrating food and local attributes is one of the key points (Tellstroem et al., 2006; cf. Horng & Tsai, 2010). To do this, the destination should introduce its own cuisine before the tourists arrive (Horng & Tsai, 2010). In today’s societies, the tourists have the opportunity to have an idea about the cuisines of the destination they will visit in the future (Debord, 1994; Campbell, 1995; cf. Fox, 2007). And the destinations are institutionalizing, legitimizing and promotionalising the identities (Fox & Fox, 2004; cf. Fox, 2007). And Fox (2007) has named this as “gastrospeak”. If a destination is willing to attract gastro-tourists then, differentiation, aestheticisation, authentication and symbolization should be the catalysts. As well known, globalization has affected the authenticity of a cultures values. However, food is one of the assets of a culture that stayed local which makes a destination different than the other. As people started to dine out, the restaurants gained importance. And by time, the restaurants have changed from a place to eat, to a place that sells “emotions, desires and states of mind” and this is the aesthetics factor. The destinations’ gastronomic authenticity should have a social dimension regarding the gastronomic identity. Menu style and food category of a destination affect the symbolization of a gastro-destination as a gastronomic product finds its way to the customer by the symbols (cf. Fox, 2007). After attracting the gastro-tourists to a destination, the tourists should have the chance to appreciate the locality. Food focused events enhance this and help a destination to supply different attractions which may positively affect its image. Food festivals are suitable for this, as they increase the awareness

399 and visibility of a destination (cf. Smith & Costello, 2009). These events may either be the core product of the destination or the complementing factor (Quan & Wang, 2004). However, the events should be fit the destinations local attributes. Not only local food or destinations itself are used but also restaurants are one of the elements in gastronomy tourism marketing (du Rand et al., 2003; cf. Horng & Tsai, 2010). The well-known chefs and internationalization helped the restaurants to attract tourists (Henderson, 2009). Today, these restaurants make a touristic destination popular (Lin, Pearson & Chai, 2011). In restaurants how, where, when and why we eat and drink it is important to customers. Not only the design and the preparation but also the knowledge of how the meal to be consumed is also important (Harrington, 2005). Thus, Correira et al. (2008) states that restaurants have to be careful about the importance of themselves. In other words, the preparation and ethnic ingredients are not enough, also the dining experience started to gain importance. Yet, Jacobsen & Haukeland (2002) found that the tourists’ restaurant selection criteria depend on the physical conditions and the ambiance of the restaurant, the quality of the food and the service quality and the friendliness.

Figure 3. Supply components of wine and culinary tourism system (Karim, 2006). 4. GASTRONOMY TOURISM EXPERIENCE When the nature of the destination and its people are reflected the tourists, they will find out what they are looking for. The authenticity presented to tourists are explained as the real food experience which has two meanings. The first one is that tourists are looking for local products that are not fake and has the symbols of the culture. The second meaning is that, even if the tourists have doubts about the locality or the authenticity of the products, they still look for the locals (Sims, 2009). Perhaps this search for the unique product may be arises from the reaction to the homogenization due to globalization (Santich, 2004). But one should consider that culinary tourists’ have different motives for experiences (Horng & Tsai, 2010). As food is a part of a tourist experience, a typology has been developed by Quan & Wang (2004). Food is consumed as three experiences; it is either a peak experience, a supporting experience or an

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extension of a daily dining routine. What makes a food experience a peak experience is the motivation and the memorability. However, it should be regarded that, especially the memory of past experiences is crucial for the future experiences. Thus, creating and enhancing positive memories about the gastronomic experiences is unignorable (Horng et al., 2012). As daily routine is a source of comfort, security, and relaxation, then people in holidays may seek for this routine. But daily routine does not mean the same in a holiday. Even it is a routine, people may seek for different and new experiences. The third experience is the supporting one. It is either a tool to meet basic needs or to make the person feel at home comfort during the trip. So that the tourist can avoid the cultural differences (Quan & Wang, 2004). During the gastronomic experience, heritage, and cultural identity, thus the authenticity of the host community is transferred to the tourists (Chaney & Ryan, 2012). But a gastro-tourist does not consider the experience as authentic unless it meets the preconception of the experience; the environment where the experience takes place and the level of friendliness and, features the tradition of the society. Not only these, but also the story and thus the meaning of the local products and therefore the culture. Because while tourists are looking for authenticity, they are actually looking for the meanings, and while consuming the local products, they are consuming the meaning of it (Sims, 2009). Gastronomic experiences affect tourists’ satisfaction and dissatisfaction (Fox, 2007), so that the experience that drives the tourists influences the satisfaction levels. Thus the reasons for satisfaction and dissatisfaction should be taken into consideration,especially in the development and marketing processes (Correira et al., 2008). CONCLUSION Gastronomy tourism is an alternative tourism type for rural areas for its ease of application and interesting nature. Yet, if the region has various types of food, then the society can use it as a tool to attract tourists which may create an economic impact. Besides food can be used as a supporting activity, as well as an activity itself (Quan & Wang, 2004). Thus, food tourism should be considered as an important factor to develop a region. It should be known that gastro-tourist consumption behaviors are affected by some factors such as cultural and religious factors, socio-demographic factors, food-related personality traits, exposure and past experience, and motivational factors. Culture defines whether the food is acceptable or unacceptable; good or bad in the society. For example, for Japanese, French and Italian tourists local food is something that should be avoided while Americans are softer on this. According to socio- demographic factors, age, social status, and income affect the local food consumption. For personality traits which are related to food, tourists are more likely to look for sensory attributes like flavor than non-sensory attributes such as brand. Past experience is another factor that affects the behavior. As the familiarity of the cuisine increases, the tourists tend to experience it again. Ethnic restaurants may provide this opportunity, like making the tourist familiar with the cuisine without visiting the country. However, it should be known that the local food in the host and the tourists’ own country may be different in taste. Last but not least is that motivations also influence the behavior (cf. Mak et al., 2011). However, it should be known that each tourist has its own motivations and reasons to attend a gastronomy tourism activity. Thus, the marketing segmentation should be handled carefully (Kim et al., 2009). Each country has an image in tourists’ mind for their cuisines. According to Karim & Chi (2010)’s study, Italy and France are known for its cuisine in taste, presentation, the variety and the quality of food. Besides they also present food activities such as wine tours, cooking class. Thailand is known for its easy access to restaurants, prices and friendly employees and English menu options. The image in tourists’ mind will set the marketing strategy. If a country has a broad range of heritage, it should spend its effort on promoting its cuisine. For Okumuş et al., (2007) good image increases the destination image, as usual. And this image can also be created by using the promotional materials. However, this creation requires expertise and knowledge. But the image and the reasons of it in the tourists’ mind should be taken into consideration carefully (Karim & Chi, 2010). For example, the use of “iconic” food and beverages of the destination can help to form an image that will increase the tourist's number and income of the locals (Ilbery et al., 2003; cf. Sims, 2009).

401 Ottenbacher & Harrington (2011) highlighted that one of the ways to succeed in gastronomy tourism is that, a cooperative approach has to be adopted. And to enhance this, the value chain has to be understood by every stakeholder. Yet, a successful strategy has to build on the market and the social processes. But differentiating the destination from the others is crucial. Thus, the uniqueness, regional physical resources, and nature should be highlighted. However, as Montanari & Sraniscia (2009) states, the authenticity of the ethnic restaurants are often doubted. Thus they may not be used as a mean to reflect the culture of the society. Although food has various features that can be used in destination branding (Lin et al., 2011), Henderson (2009) reveals that not only food products, but also non-food products should be used integrated with each other which increases the number of tourists and expenditures and, mostly the competitiveness of the destination. As a souvenir is a part of a traveling experience (Pine & Gilmore, 1998), such a culinary souvenir would increase the effect of the whole traveling experience (cf. Horng & Tsai, 2010). Besides, offering food samples and cooking materials would increase the experience of the trip (Smith & Costello, 2009). Tour operators and traveling agents should emphasize the importance of local food and the dining options, as they have an importance during the decision process of the holidays (Henderson, 2009). As gastronomy tourism has a positive impact on economy and environment of the destination and increases the sustainability of the region (Everett & Aitchison, 2008) for further studies, place attachment, involvement, life cycle related to cuisines should be investigated (Harrington & Ottenbacher, 2010). Also, using food and food tourism on websites of the destinations are still not adequate in number and quality. Thus, more research should be made on the efficiency of websites on gastronomy tourism (Kim et al., 2009). REFERENCES Baran, Z. & Batman, O. (2013). Destinasyon Pazarlamasında Mutfak Kültürünün Rolü: Sakarya Örneği, 14.Ulusal Turizm Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, 05-08 Aralık, s.1355-1367, Kayseri. Bessiere, J. (1998). Local Development and Heritage: Traditional food and Cuisine as Tourist Attractions in Rural Areas. European Society for Rural Sociology, 38: (1), 21-34. Boyne, S.; Hall, D.; Williams, F. (2003). Policy, Support and Promotion for Food-Related Tourism Initiatives: A Marketing Approach to Regional Development. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 14 (3-4), 131-154. Çalışkan, O. (2013). Destinasyon Rekabetçiliği ve Seyahat Motivasyonu Bakımından Gastronomik Kimlik. Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies 1 (2), 39-51. Chaney, S.; Ryan, C. (2012). Analyzing the Evolution of Singapore's World Gourmet Summit: An Example of Gastronomic Tourism. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31: (2), 309-318. Cohen, E.; Avieli, N. (2004). Food in Tourism, Attraction and Impediment. Annals of Tourism Research, 31: (4), 755-778. Correia, A.; Moital, M.; Da Costa, C. F.; Peres, R. (2008). The Determinants of Gastronomic Tourists' Satisfaction: A Second‐Order Factor Analysis. Journal of Foodservice 19: (3), 164-176. Durlu-Özkaya, F. ve Can, A. (2012). Gastronomi Turizminin Destinasyon Pazarlamasına Etkisi, Türktarım Dergisi, 206: 28-33. Everett, S.; Aitchison, C. (2008). The Role of Food Tourism in Sustaining Regional Identity: A Case Study of Cornwall, South West England. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 16: (2), 150-167. Fischler, C. (1988). Food, Self and Identity. Social Science Information, 27: 275-293. Fox, R. (2007). Reinventing the Gastronomic Identity of Croatian Tourist Destinations. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 26: (3), 546-559. Gyimóthy, S. & Mykletun, R. J. (2008). Scary food: Commodifying Culinary Heritage as Meal Adventures in Tourism. Journal of Vacation Marketing 15 (3), 259-273. Hall, C.M. & Sharples, L. (2003). The consumption of experiences or the experiences of consumption? An introduction to the tourism of taste. C. Michael Hall, Liz Sharples, Richard Mitchell, Niki Macionis and Brock Cambourne (Ed.) Food Tourism: Around the World: Development, Management and Markets. Chapter 1, p.1-24, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford. Harrington, R. J.; Ottenbacher, M. C. (2010). Culinary Tourism - A Case Study of the Gastronomic Capital, Journal of Culinary Science & Technology 8: (1), 14-32.

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Harrington, R.J. (2005). Defining Gastronomic Identity: The Impact of Environment and Culture on Prevailing Components, Texture and Flavors in Wine and Food. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 4 (2/3), 129-152. Hashimoto, A.; Telfer, D. J. (2006). Selling Canadian Culinary Tourism: Branding the Global and the Regional Product. Tourism Geographies, 8: (1), 31-55. Henderson, J.C. (2009). Food Tourism Reviewed. British Food Journal 111 (4), 317-326. Horng, J. S. & Tsai, C.T.(S) (2010). Government Websites for Promoting East Asian Culinary Tourism: A Cross-National Analysis. Tourism Management 31, 74-85. Horng, J. S.; Liu, C. H.; Chou, H. Y.; Tsai, C. Y. (2012). Understanding the Impact of Culinary Brand Equity and Destination Familiarity on Travel Intentions. Tourism Management 33, 815-824. Ignatov, E. & Smith, S. (2006). Segmenting Canadian Culinary Tourists. Current Issues in Tourism, 9 (3), 235-255. Jacobsen, J. K. S.; Haukeland, J. V. (2002). A Lunch with a View: Motor Tourists’ Choices and Assessments of Eating-Places, Scandinavian Journal of hospitality and Tourism, 2: (1), 4-16. Karim, A.S.; Chi, C. G. Q. (2010). Culinary Tourism as a Destination Attraction: An Empirical Examination of Destinations' Food Image. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 19: (6), 531-555. Karim, S. A. (2006). Culinary Tourısm As A Destination Attraction: An Empirical Examination of The Destination’s Food Image and Information Sources. A Thesis Presented to the Mara University of Technology (Master dissertation). Kim, Y. H.; Yuan, J. (J.); Goh, B. K.; Antun, J. M. (2009). Web Marketing in Food Tourism: A Content Analysis of Web Sites in West Texas, Journal of Culinary Science & Technology 7: (1), 52-64. Kivela, J. & Croots, J.C. (2005). Gastronomy Tourism: A Meaningful Travel Market Segment. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 4 (2/3), 39-55. Kivela, J. & Crotts, J. C. (2006). Tourism and Gastronomy: Gastronomy’s Influence on How TouristsExperience a Destination. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research 30 (3), 354-377. Küçükaltan, G. (2009). Küreselleşme Sürecinde Gastronomide Yöresel Tatların Turistlerin Destinasyon Tercihlerine ve Ülke Ekonomilerine Etkileri. 3. Ulusal Gastronomi Sempozyumu, 17-18 Nisan 2009, Antalya. Lin, Y. C.; Pearson, T. E.; Cai, L. A. (2011). Food as a Form of Destination Identity: A Tourism Destination Brand Perspective. Tourism and Hospitality Research, 11: (1), 30-48. Mak, A. H.; Lumbers, M.; Eves, A.; Chang, R. C. (2012). Factors Influencing Tourist Food Consumption. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31: (3), 928-936. Malkawi, B. H. (2014) Food Labeling and Halal Mark, Intellectual Properties Rights, 2: (1), Editorial. McKercher, B.; Okumuş, F.; Okumuş, B. (2008). Food Tourism as a Viable Market Segment: It’s All How You Cook the Numbers!. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 25(2), 137-148. Montanari, A.; Staniscia, B. (2009). Culinary Tourism as a Tool for Regional Re-Equilibrium. European Planning Studies, 17: (10), 1463-1483. Okumus, B.; Okumus, F.; Mckercher, B. (2007). Incorporating Local and İnternational Cuisines in the Marketing of Tourism Destinations: The Cases of Hong Kong and Turkey. Tourism Management, 28: (1), 253-261. Ottenbacher, M. C.; Harrington, R. J. (2011). A Case Study of a Culinary Tourism Campaign in Germany: Implications for Strategy Making and Successful İmplementation. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Research. Quan, S.; Wang, N. (2004). Towards A Structural Model of the Tourist Experience: An Illustration from Food Experiences in Tourism. Tourism Management, 25: (3), 297-305. Sánchez-Cañizares, S.M. & López-Guzmán, T. (2012). Gastronomy as a Tourism Resource: Profile of the Culinary Tourist. Current Issues in Tourism 15 (3), 229-245. Santich, B. (2004). The Study of Gastronomy and Its Relevance to Hospitality Education and Training. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 23: (1), 15-24. Shenoy, S.S. (2005). Food Tourism and The Culinary Tourist. A Thesis Presented to the Graduate School of Clemson University, (Doctoral dissertation). Silkes, C.A. (2012). Farmers’ Markets: A Case for Culinary Tourism. Journal of Culinary Science & Technology, 10, 326-336. Sims, R. (2009). Food, Place and Authenticity: Local Food and the Sustainable Tourism Experience. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 17: (3), 321-336.

403 Smith, S. Analysis of Tourists Attending a Culinary Event: Motivations, Satisfaction and, Behavioral Outcomes, A Thesis Presented to University of Tennessee (Doctoral Dissertation) Smith, S.; Costello, C. (2009). Segmenting Visitors to a Culinary Event: Motivations, Travel Behavior, and Expenditures. Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 18: (1), 44-67. Su, Y. (2015). Reflections on Local Specialties and Gastronomic Tourism. Chinese Studies 4, 15-19. Tikkanen, I. (2007). Maslow's Hierarchy and Food Tourism in Finland: Five Cases. British Food Journal, 109: (9), 721-734. Williams, H.A.; Williams Jr, R.L.; Omar, M. (2014). Gastro-tourism as destination branding in emerging markets. Int. J. Leisure and Tourism Marketing, 4 (1), 1-18. Yüncü, H. R. (2010). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Açısından Gastronomi Turizmi ve Perşembe Yaylası. Salim Şengel (Ed.) 10.Aybastı-Kabataş Kurultayı: Yerel Değerler ve Yayla Turizmi içinde (s.28-34), Detay Anatolia Akademik Yayıncılık, Ankara. https://blog.bavul.com/dunyadaki-populer-gastronomi-sehirleri/ http://en.unesco.org/creative-cities/%C3%B6stersund http://arsiv.sabah.com.tr/2007/07/08/haberD42FC372DD9645DE98878B92E2FF534A.html

404 Chapter 31

Expectations and Satisfaction Perceptions of Tourists, Who Travel For Purpose of Culture: Case Study of Bergama

S. Banu YILDIZ* & Sultan Nazmiye KILIÇ**

INTRODUCTION Today, the development in international tourism is faster than the trade of many physical goods, and its total export value has reached up to 1.4 trillion US Dollars (UNWTO, 2016). Cultural tourism is one of the most extensive and rapidly growing tourism markets within this global tourism market (OECD, 2009). In addition, cultural tourism is one of the oldest travel forms and it constitutes the basis of the tourism sector in many regions of the world (Richards and Munsters, 2010 1). In recent years different types of tourism continue to emerge in the tourism sector along with disintegration trend in the types of tourists. Cultural tourism or heritage tourism are seen as one of the fastest growing market parts within all these developments (Huh & Uysal, 2008, 178). In parallel with this development, the concepts of "cultural heritage, heritage tourism, historical tourism, culture tourism, cultural tourism" have been started to be used in recent years (Emekli, 2003). The concept of cultural tourism is used for trips in which the cultural resources are visited (Hughes, 1996, 707). In other words, cultural tourism is a form of tourism in which the cultural values of the destination are seen as a fundamental element of attractiveness by the tourists (Kahraman & Türkay, 2012, 51). It has many benefits to economies and societies. For example, cultural tourism increases competitiveness and creates employment, stops migration from rural areas, helps to protect cultural resources and self-esteem of the communities (UNWTO, 2015). Thus, it can benefit to the development of the economies, social development and protection of culture (UNWTO, 2014). Along with all these benefits, the destinations have been trying to gain a niche position in the global tourism market by investing in their cultural attractions and infrastructures (Russo & Borg, 2002: 631). In addition, the opportunity of visited communities to show their culture can be seen as a source of pride (Avcıkurt 2015, 64). When looked at the phenomenon of cultural tourism in terms of visitors, it is seen that the concepts of expectation and satisfaction come to the forefront. Expectations and satisfactions of tourists are associated with the conditions in which they were grown and the prior knowledge they have about the destination. The tourists, who set out to find the return for their needs, want to reach their goal for the cost, time and effort that they laid on. The expectations of tourists are generally associated with their travel motivations (Doğan, 2004, 18-19). The concept of expectation is the desire, that varied based on culture and that is tried to be met (Berber, 2003, 207). Cultural tourism has two aspects covering both the past and today by its structure (Pekin, 2011, 150). It is critical to protect historical and cultural heritage for the sustainability of tourism. When the correct planning and practices are preferred, tourism can increase the interest in cultural heritage and can help its development (Boyacıoğlu, 2015, 205-206). In this study, understanding the expectations and satisfaction perceptions of the tourists, who travel to Bergama for culture, will be able to move this sector forward. Therefore, the expectations and satisfaction perceptions of the tourists, who travel for culture, regarding Bergama will be compared and their demographic characteristics and travel behaviors will be examined in the study. It is considered that the results of the study will contribute to the literature and the sector.

* Assist. Prof., Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Deparment of Recreation Management ** Res. Assist., Balıkesir University, Faculty of Tourism, Deparment of Tourism Management

Literature Review Significant developments were seen in cultural tourism researches because the cultural attraction is one of the most preferred travelling reasons. These developments have attracted the attention of many researchers and decision makers and have broadened the scope of researches. Along with these developments, the methods used in the studies have begun to change. For example, qualitative researches have begun to take the place of quantitative researches. Cultural tourism has begun to be examined from many points of view with its social, cultural, psychological and anthropological aspects (Richards and the Munsters, 2010, 1-2). Despite this trend in research, it was seen that quantitative methods continue to be used in the studies examining the expectations and satisfaction perceptions in cultural tourism. Some studies reached in the relevant body of literature are given below. In the study made by Kılıç and Pelit regarding the examination of satisfaction levels of domestic tourists, it was seen that there is a relationship between the satisfaction levels of tourists and that variables such as the type of accommodation enterprise, purpose of the visit, duration of staying, average expenditure per day, the person accompanying the holiday, the type of transport and source for information about the destination. It was determined that the tourists who come through advice or through travel agents are more satisfied (Kılıç & Pelit, 2004, 122-123). In the study made by Kızılırmak and Kurtuldu, the characteristics of tourists who care about cultural tourism resources were examined. Some of the characteristics of tourists who care about cultural tourism resources more are as follows: Tourists who are 31 years and older, university graduate, joined the trip with friends and tour groups, have high tourism awareness and take account for the recommendations of newspapers or acquaintances (Kızılırmak & Kurtuldu, 2005, 119). In the study prepared by Öter and Özdoğan, it was found that the most satisfied tourists among the tourists who travel for purpose of culture are the citizens of U.S.A., United Kingdom, Germany, the Netherlands and France, respectively. Differences were seen in perceptions according to gender and age variables. Local traditions and local cuisine were perceived more positively by female participants and the participants representing the 3rd age group (Öter & Özdoğan, 2005).

Figure 1: “Ancient Pergamon” Source: Bergama Governorate (2016). In the study of Huh, Uysal and Mccleary regarding evaluation of expectations and satisfactions of the tourists on tourists’ cultural destinations, a grid was established by taking the average of expectations and satisfaction scales and by determining the coordinates. In addition, it is seen that the characteristics consist of four factors. A significant and positive relationship was found between the culture or heritage characteristics of the selected region and the satisfaction (Huh, Uysal & Mccleary, 2006, 81-96). In the study of Uygur and Baykan, positive and negative effects that the tourism development may cause on cultural assets were examined. Suggestions were made regarding the adoption of the sustainable development model, inclusion in the planning process of local people and the training (Uygur & Baykan, 2007, 30-47). Although in the study of Huh and Uysal, in which satisfaction for cultural areas was examined, it was understood that the satisfaction may vary depending on gender and duration of stay. Huh and Uysal

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based this study on a consumer behavior model (Huh & Uysal, 2008, 177-179). In this model, it is assumed that customer satisfaction is a function consisting of expectation of tourists about the specific features and performance evaluation regarding these features (Clemons & Woodruff' as cited in Huh & Uysal, 2008). In the study made by Aksu, İçigen and Ehtiyar, in which tourists’ expectations and satisfaction levels were compared, two groups were formed including tourists with high expectations and tourists with low expectations. A matrix containing expectations and satisfactions on features of destination was prepared by making a clustering analysis (Aksu, İçigen & Ehtiyar, 2010). As a result of the research made by Emir and Avan, the effects of cultural assets were seen in the buying decision process of the tourists (Emir & Avan, 2010, 203). In the study of Jusoh, Masron, Hamid and Shahrin, expectations and satisfaction regarding the elements of physical infrastructure and heritage were compared. It was seen that the museums are the most dominant feature within the features understood to be consisting of 3 dimensions. In addition to this, it was understood that accommodation centers are dominant in the aspect of infrastructure as well as are the tricycles in the aspect of services (Jusoh, Masron, Hamid & Shahrin, 2013, 733). Teo, Khan and Rahim examined the behaviors of visitors coming for the cultural purpose. When foreign and domestic tourists are compared, it was seen that foreign tourists participated more in the statements regarding the protection, sharing of cultural heritage, and feelings to be belong to the culture and history of a community (Teo, Khan & Figure 2: Bergama, District of Izmir Province Rahim, 2014, 6-7). In the study of Jusoh, Abd Hamid and Najib, it was aimed to examine the expectations and satisfactions of the tourists who came to the city of Melaka, which is the city of heritage, for the first time and of the tourists who came back. It was seen that the tourists have different expectations for attraction elements of the heritage but they show similar levels of satisfaction (Jusoh, Abd Hamid & Najib, 2015). In the study of Yıldız and Kılıç, the perceptions of domestic tourists who participated in cultural tourism were examined and significant differences were found in terms of variables such as gender, marital status, age, type of hotel, objective of visit, frequency of visit, travel organizational form and duration of stay. It was determined that the most important factors affecting tourists’ behaviors of revisit and recommendation were the guidance services, touristic attractions and infrastructure dimensions (Yıldız & Kılıç, 2016, 166). In this study, Bergama district of Izmir province was selected. Bergama has reached the population of 101,917 people by the year of 2015 and it is one of the important areas for the tourism sector (TUIK, 2016). In 2014, it was taken into UNESCO's World Heritage List. In the region, Hellenistic, Roman, East Roman and Ottoman Period layers are present (Fig. 1). In addition, the region, which was the education and health center in the past, was the capital of the Hellenistic Pergamo Kingdom and Asian State of Roman Empire (T. R. Ministry Culture and Tourism, n.d.). It therefore, cultural tourism provides an important contribution to the economy and development of Bergama. A large part of people of Bergama district see the tourists as "people who provide development and leave foreign currency" (Emekli, 1998, 294). There are 53 protected areas in Bergama (Izmir Development Agency, 2014). Bergama (Fig. 2) is also one of the first destinations in which the cultural tourism has started in Izmir (Izmir Development Agency, Aegean Association & T.R. Ministry of Development, n.d.). Bergama is Turkey's 13th and Izmir's first UNESCO World Heritage (Bergama Municipality, 2015). In the doctoral thesis prepared by

407 Emekli prepared in order to examine the socio-economic effects of tourism in Bergama, it was seen that the tourists visit Bergama with one-day or half-day tours. Therefore, the number of coming tourists does not reflect the accommodation rates. This case also affects the development of tourism in Bergama (Emekli, 1998, 290). When evaluated in terms of touristic opportunities, it is seen that there are 2 facilities, 127 rooms and 258-bed capacity in Bergama with Operation License (Izmir Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, 2016). The number of coming to the facilities in Bergama, number of overnight stayings, average duration of staying and occupancy rates are given in Table 1. Table 1: Number of Arrivals, Nights Spent, Average Length of Stay and Occupancy Rates of Establishments in Bergama (data of the year 2014) Average Lenght Occupancy Number of Arrivals Nights Spent of Stay Rates (%) Citizen Citizen Citizen Citizen Foreigner Foreigner Foreigner Foreigner Accommodation Establishments 5165 15943 6488 22475 1.3 1.4 7 24.24 Certified by the Ministry Accommodation Establishments 7781 35652 10931 91691 1.4 2.6 4.44 37.25 Certified by the Municipality Total 12946 51595 17419 114166 Source: T.R. Ministry of Culture and Tourism Directorate General of Investments and Enterprises, 2016 According to data obtained from Bergama Tourism Table 2: Number of visitors to museums and ruins in Bergama Information Office, it was seen that a total of 352 830 tourists including 119.324 domestic tourists and 233.506 Visited Places Number of visitors % foreign tourists visited in 2015. The income derived from in 2015 those visits is 1.823.410.00 TL. There are also 2 facilities with Tourism Operation License and 16 facilities with Bergama 25.287 7 Municipality License and their capacities are 310 and 544 Museum respectively. There are 18 facilities with a capacity of 854 Acropolis 188.777 54 persons in total. The number of visitors to museums and historical sites which are important for Bergama tourism Asklepion 110.187 32 are given in Table 2. Accordingly, a total of 347.841 people visited museums and historical sites in Bergama in Basilica 23.590 7 2015. Total 347.841 100 MATERIALS AND METHODS Source: T.R. Ministry of Culture and Population and Sample Tourism Central Directorate of Revolving Fund Management, 2016 The aim of the research is to detect foreign tourists' expectations and perceptions related to Bergama who are traveling with cultural purposes. In line with this purpose, the study's population is the tourists visiting Bergama. The sample is foreign tourists who are willing to fill in the survey since reaching the whole main mass exceeds the current opportunities in terms of time and cost. Survey form prepared in English was applied to foreign tourists in Bergama Castle (Akropol) via guides by using face to face meeting method. The data were collected in the dates of April-June 2015. In this study, totally 270 tourists were applied survey, 206 valid surveys were taken to the evaluation. The Improvement of Measurement Tool In the research, survey technic was used as a data collection tool. The survey consists of two parts; in the first part, there are questions about demographic features and holiday profile and in the second part there are two mutual scales about the expectations and perceptions of tourists about Bergama. In the

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evaluation of this scale expressions, “Five-point Likert Scale” was used (5:very high, 4: high, 3: moderate, 2: low, 1:very low). Questions about holiday profile have been prepared by making use of Pedersen (2002), Aksu, İçigen and Ehtiyar’s (2010) study. The scale expressions for the expectations and perceptions about Bergama have been formed by using Jusoh et al. (2013), Huh& Uysal's studies (2004). The Data Collection and Analysis In the analysis of the data, the SPSS 21.0 statistics program was utilized. In order to calculate internal consistency coefficient (for 23 expressions) Cronbach Alpha test was used and Cronbach Alpha coefficient was found to be 0.881 Cronbach Alpha Coefficient has high level of reliability in the range of 0.80 to 1.00 (Ural & Kılıç, 2005, 258). According to the obtained data, the scale can be said to have a high level of reliability. In the interpretation of the data related to demographic variables, frequency and percentage analysis were utilized. The expressions were subjected to factor analysis with the aim of defining what the dimension of Bergama perceptions of foreign tourists are. Skewness and Kurtosis values of the scale were detected to range from +1 to -1 and show normal distribution thus they can make parametric tests. Whether there is a statistically significant difference between the expectations of tourists coming to Bergama and the perceptions about meeting the expectations has been analyzed with “Paired Samples T-Test”. The reason of making paired samples t-test results from taking two different measurements for different times of the same tourists (Büyüköztürk, 2002, 64). Whether there is a statistically significant difference between the expectations of foreign tourists participated in the research and the perceptions for meeting the expectations has been analyzed in all dimensions separately. FINDINGS Demographic findings of the foreign tourists participated in the research are given in Table 3. 54% of those who joined in the research are men and 54.9% of them are single. When the age distributions of the participants are examined, 35.9% of them are in the range of 36 to 45, 28,2% of them are in the age range of 25 to 35. In terms of educational status, 51.9% of the participants were detected to be university graduated and in terms of professions, 31.1% of them were detected to work in private sector. As the income status of the participants is considered, it has been stated that 38.8% of them have the monthly income less than 2000 £. In terms of nationality, 37.4% of them are German, 35% of them are English and 21.8% of them are from other nationalities. Table 3: Demographic Characteristics of Respondents Characteristics Variable N (% ) Characteristics Variable N (% ) Female 94 45.6 Retired 36 17.5 Gender Male 112 54.4 Official 36 17.5 18-24 27 13.1 Private sector 64 31.1 25-35 58 28.2 Occupation Self-employed 25 12.1 Age 36-45 74 35.9 Student 38 18.4 46-55 23 11.2 Other 7 3.4 56 above 24 11.7 Under £ 2000 80 38.8 Married 113 54.9 £ 2001- 3500 57 27.7 Marital Average Single 93 45.1 £ 3501- 5000 51 24.8 status income by Primary School 7 3.4 month £ 5001- 6500 11 5.3 High school 62 30.1 Over £ 6500 7 3.4 Educational Undergraduate 107 51.9 English 72 35.0 background German 77 37.4 Graduate 30 14.6 Nationality French 12 5.8 Other 45 21.8

409 Holiday profile findings of foreign tourists participated in the research are given in Table 4. 67% of the participants have stated that it was their first coming to Bergama and 19.9% of them stated to have been for the second time. For the question how many days they were planning to stay in Bergama; 42.7% of the participants answered 1 day and 23.8% of them answered to go for an excursion. 41.3% of the participants stated that the information source about Bergama is agency. 86% of the participants stated that their purpose of coming to Bergama is to visit the historical and cultural assets of Bergama. Organization type has been stated as package tour by 63.1% of the participants whereas 57.3% of them stated the package tour type as bed-breakfast. 32% of the participants travelled with their friends, 30.1% of them travelled on their own. Table 4: Travel Behaviour Information of Respondents Variables N (%) Variables N (%) 1 time 138 67.0 Organization Individually 76 36.9 Frequency 2 times 41 19.9 mode Package tour 130 63.1 of visits 3 times 11 5.3 Travel alone 62 30.1 4 times and more 16 7.8 Spouse 49 23.8 Accompanying Spouse and 1 day 88 42.7 person 29 14.1 children 2-4 days 44 21.4 Friends/relatives 66 32.0 Length of Bed and Stay 5-7 days 13 6.3 118 57.3 Form of breakfast 8 days or above 12 5.8 package tour Half board 37 18.0 0 (day visitor) 49 23.8 Full board 22 10.7 Travel agent 85 41.3 All- inclusive 5 2.4 Holiday 32 15.5 Hotel 104 50.5 experience Media/ Internet 17 8.3 Motel 71 34.5 Accommodation Home of Other………….. 6 2.9 13 6.3 friends/relatives Information Tour operator 40 19.4 Other 18 8.7 sources Leisure, Relatives/ about 16 7.8 recreation and 27 13.1 friends Bergama holiday Bergama’s Main purpose history and 177 85.9 of visit Tourist culture 10 4.9 brochures/ book Visiting friends - - and relatives Other - -

It is seen that 50.5% of the participants preferred to stay in the hotel whereas 34.5% of them preferred to stay in the motel.Factor analysis results of the perceptions of foreign tourists participated in the research related to Bergama, Cronbach Alpha values are given in Table 5. As a result of the factor analysis applied, KMO (Kaiser-Meyer- Olkin Value) has been calculated as a satisfactory value at the levels of 0.803. Sphericity level indicating that it can be concluded meaningful factors or variables from research data (Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity) has been calculated to be 1477.403 and these values obtained have seen to be statistically significant at the level of 0,000. As a result of factor analysis applied to 23 questions in the scale, five factors (dimensions), the Eigenvalue of which is bigger than one. As a result of the content analysis performed for these five factors, three expressions having lower loading values (<.40) have not been included in the next factor analysis. As a result of the fact that the remaining 20 expressions were subjected to factor analysis, four factors explaining approximately 54.585% of total variant, the Eigenvalue of which is bigger than 1 and loading factor is bigger than .40 have been obtained.

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Table 5 shows item loading value in each factor, Eigenvalue of each factor and the explained variant. In the analysis of the data, Factor 1 explaining the highest variant has been named as Touristic Services, it explains 15.564% of the variant and it is formed by 5 items. Factor 2 Main Components explains 14.242% of the variant and it composed of 6 items. Factor 3 Historical Attractiveness and Accessibility explains 12.723% of the variant and composed of 5 items, Factor 4 Supportive Services explains 12.057% of the variant and it is seen to be composed of 4 items. Table 5: Factor Analysis Results Factors Communality Eigenvalue Variance Cronbach Alpha Factor 1: Touristic Services 5.665 15.564 .795 Souvenirs & Gifts .760 Quality of infrastructure .698 Location and Number of Public Toilets .687 Signage for tourists .667 Unpolluted and unspoiled environment .508 Factor 2: Maintenance Elements 2.001 14.242 .763 Friendly people/hospitality .787 Shopping Facilities .733 Cultural Villages .632 Climate/Weather .552 Accommodation .543 Varieties of Food .411 Factor 3: Historical Attraction and 1.897 12.723 .697 Accessibility Historical Building .800 Architecture of building .647 Reputation of the Bergama .623 Traditional Handicraft .594 Accessibility .493 Factor 4: Supporting Services 1.355 12.057 .695 Guides & Assistance .772 Traffic Congestion .722 Museums .612 Standard hygiene and cleanliness .579 Cumulative variance (%) %54,585 Extraction Method–Principal Component Analysis Rotation Method- Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy= .803, Bartlett ’s Test of Sphericity: p<.000 (Chi-Square 1477.403, df=190). Cronbach alpha : .864

For reliability study of the scale, “Cronbach Alpha” internal consistency coefficients have been calculated. Internal consistency/reliability coefficient formed by totally 20 expressions have been calculated to be alpha α=0.864. That the reliability coefficients of the factors are between .795 and .695 is seen in Table 3. It is understood that Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient obtained for the expressions in the survey is understood to be statistically at sufficient level and it is seen that the scale is consistent and reliable (Ural and Kılıç, 2005, 258). In order to detect whether there is a statistically significant difference between the expectations of foreign tourists participated in the research in the dimension of touristic services and the perceptions for meeting their expectations, paired t-test analysis has been made. Analysis results have been given in Table 6. Accordingly, a difference between the perception of the items of “location and number of public toilets”, “signage for tourists”, “unpolluted and unspoiled environment” in terms of meeting the expectations of foreign tourists participated in the research. In the items having difference, it has been detected that the expectations of foreign tourists have not been met. In the other items of touristic

411 services factor, no difference has been found. It has been seen that the highest mean of tourists in the dimension of touristic services is the item of “souvenirs”. Table 6: Touristic Services Analysis Results Expectation Perception Mean Touristic Services Df t p Mean Mean Differ. Souvenirs & Gifts 3.43 3.54 .116 205 -1.454 .148 Quality of infrastructure 3.54 3.47 .072 205 .921 .358 Location and Number of 3.56 3.12 .436 205 5.077 .000* Public Toilets Signage for tourists 3.69 3.43 .257 205 3.186 .002* Unpolluted and unspoiled 3.79 3.25 .543 205 6.761 .000* environment Paired samples t-test results of the Main Components factor of foreign tourists who participated in the research are given in Table 7. Accordingly, the difference between expectations and perceptions in only the "cultural villages" item in terms of meeting the expectations of foreign tourists who participated in the research occurred under the expectations. In the other items, no statistical difference has been found. In general, in basic components factor, the foreign tourists' expectations have been seen to be met. The highest mean in tourists' satisfaction perceptions has been detected to be respectively in “climate”, “hospitality”, “varieties of food”, “accommodation”, “shopping facilities” items. Table 7: Maintenance Elements Analysis Results Expectation Perception Mean Maintenance Elements Df t p Mean Mean Differ. Hospitality 3.74 3.85 .106 205 -1.516 .131 Shopping Facilities 3.49 3.58 .087 205 -1.281 .202 Cultural Villages 3.31 3.13 .179 205 2.069 .040* Climate/Weather 3.83 3.86 .038 205 -.543 .587 Accommodation 3.77 3.66 .101 205 1.385 .168 Varieties of Food 3.75 3.72 .029 205 .385 .701

In order to detect whether there is a statistically significant difference between expectations and perceptions of foreign tourists who participated in the research about meeting their expectations in the dimension of Historical attraction and accessibility, paired t-test analysis has been made. Analysis results have been given in Table 8. As a result of the analysis, no difference has been found between the expectations and perceptions. In Historical Attraction and Accessibility factor, the expectations of tourists have been seen to be met. The highest means in historical attraction and accessibility of tourists have been detected to be respectively in “architecture of building”, “historical building”, “traditional handicraft”, “reputation of Bergama”. Table 8: Historical Attraction and Accessibility Analysis Results Historical Attraction and Expectation Perception Mean Df t p Accessibility Mean Mean Differ. Historical Building 4.08 4.00 .077 205 1.575 .117 Architecture of building 4.12 4.13 .009 205 -.198 .844 Reputation of the Bergama 3.81 3.77 .033 205 .508 .612 Traditional Handicraft 3.71 3.80 .092 205 -1.182 .239 Accessibility 3.64 3.54 .097 205 1.418 .158 Paired samples t-test analysis results of Supportive Services factor of the foreign tourists participated in the research have been given in Table 9. Accordingly to the results of the analysis, a difference was found between the perception of “Museums”, “Standard hygiene and cleanliness” items in terms of meeting the expectations of foreign tourists who participated in the research.

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Table 9: Supporting Services Analysis Results Expectation Perception Mean Supporting Services Df t p Mean Mean Differ. Guides & Assistance 3.59 3.62 .029 205 -.367 .714 Traffic Congestion 3.44 3.44 .000 205 .000 1.000 Museums 3.60 3.43 .169 205 2.240 .026* Standard hygiene and 3.84 3.62 .223 205 2.976 .003* cleanliness

In the items having difference, the expectations of foreign tourists have been seen not to be met. In the other items of supportive services factor, no difference has been found. In supportive services, the highest mean has been seen to be the item of “guides”.In order to detect whether there is a statistically significant difference between the expectations of foreign tourists participated in the research and the perceptions to meet their expectations in all dimensions, paired samples t-test analysis has been made. Analysis results have been given in Table 10. Only in touristic services dimension, it has been found a significant difference. Accordingly, the perceptions of the foreign tourists in terms of meeting their needs occurred below their expectations. In the other items, no statistically significant difference was found. In the other factors, the expectations of foreign tourists have been seen to be met. In the satisfaction perceptions of the tourists, the highest mean has been detected to be in historical attraction and accessibility factor and as second, it is the basic components and as the third one it is the supportive services factor. Table 10: Expectation and Perception of Tourists according to Factors Expectation Perception Mean Elements Df t p Mean Mean Differ. Touristic Services 3.60 3.36 .238 205 4.223 .000* Maintenance Elements 3.65 3.63 .012 205 .285 .776 Historical Attraction and 3.87 3.85 .021 205 .502 .616 Accessibility Supporting Services 3.62 3.53 .091 205 1.608 .109

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION The results of the study aiming to detect Bergama-related expectations and perceptions of foreign tourists who travel with cultural purposes are as follows. 65.1% of foreign tourists participated in the research were detected to be in the age range of 25 to 45. In terms of educational status, around 60% of them have been seen to be graduated from the university. In the studies in literature, it is seen that the tourists participated in the cultural tourism have high level of education status (Çakıcı & Özdamar, 2014; Mishra, 2013; Richard, 2001; Öter & Özdoğan, 2005; Yıldız & Kılıç, 2016). When the nationalities of foreign tourists participated in the research are analysed, the first row belongs to the German (37.4%), the second row belongs to the English (35%) and the third row belongs to those who are of the other nationalities (21.8%). A part of those who are of the other nationalities stated that they were from Korea and Australia. When the statistics of foreign tourist coming to Izmir are examined, it has been detected that the German mainly comes in the first row, the English in the second row and the French in the third row (The Directorship of Izmir Provincial Culture and Tourism, 2016). The reason why the German visits Bergama more frequently may be resulted from the fact that they know Bergama due to the Altar of Zeus. Most of the foreign tourists who participated in the research stated that this is the first visit of them to Bergama. The duration of stay in Bergama was stated as for one day by 42.7% of the tourists, and for excursion by 23.8% of them. While a total of 347841 people (domestic and foreign tourists) visit museums and archaeological sites in Bergama, it is seen that 12946 foreign and 51595 domestic tourists accommodated and most of them left Bergama without accommodating. In the study carried out by Emekli (1998) in Bergama, it was reached to similar results. The biggest problem experienced in

413 Bergama about tourism is the dominance of tourism activities for an excursion. This situation that has not changed for years constitutes an obstacle to the development of tourism in Bergama. For extension of tourists' accommodation time in Bergama, it may host various international organizations; festivals, activities and fairs can be organized; again various tourism types such as rural tourism and thermal spring can be combined with cultural tourism in accordance with the available capacity of Bergama and holiday villages including various animation enjoyment activities can be constructed as accommodation facilities. Besides, tour planning can be changed by getting in touch with guides and tour operators for longer stay of tourists in Bergama. In tour routes, instead of being a place for only being dropped by, accommodating in Bergama for longer by tourists will contribute to the tradesmen and local people in the region and develop tourism. Most of the foreign tourists participated in the research stated their purpose for coming to Bergama as visiting historical and cultural assets. Asklepion, Acropolis, Kızılavlu, and the constructions remained from the tome of Seljuks and the Ottomans did groundwork for the initiation of tourism before years. It is seen that the historical and cultural assets of Bergama have an international fame (Emekli, 1998, 290). The information resources of tourists about Bergama are traveling agencies and most of them have come by package tour. It has been mentioned that tourists prefer to stay in hotel and the pension status is bed and breakfast. As a result of factor analysis, the satisfaction perceptions of foreign tourists about Bergama have been composed of the dimensions of touristic services, basic components, historical attractions and supportive services. As of the dimensions, whether there is a difference between the expectations and perceptions of foreign tourists has been examined. In the dimension of touristic services, the places and number of toilets, markings for tourists, unsoiled and untainted environment items for tourists, it has been detected that the expectations have not been met, therefore they are not satisfied. Increasing the number of toilets in the region, being meticulous about rubbish and environment cleaning, increasing the number of waste bins, the presence of warning plates and disincentive punishments for those who pollute the environment, increasing the number of signs and plates for tourists and preparing them in different languages will increase the satisfaction of tourists. Besides, it can be made regular controls with the cooperation of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism and local administrations. In the dimension of basic components, while “cultural villages” do not meet the expectations, climate, hospitality, food variety and shopping opportunities are seen to meet tourists' expectations. Those foreign tourists mostly accommodate for a night or come to the region only for excursion causes them to leave the region without identifying the traditions and customs of Bergama or seeing the cultural villages. These places constituting the cultural heritage can be included in tour routes. In historical attraction and accessibility dimension, it has been seen to meet the expectations of tourists and the highest mean occurred in this dimension. Historical attraction is an important factor for tourists who want to visit historical and cultural places. At the same time, the accessibility of the region is also important. Bergama has been detected to meet the expectations of foreign tourists in this sense. In the dimension of supportive services, while museums, hygiene and cleaning factors are not meeting tourists' expectations, the expectations of tourists have been met in guidance services. For the protection of historical and cultural values in Bergama and transferring to the next generations, the importance of protection and keeping clean must be told to both the public and tourists. When all dimensions are evaluated as a whole, it has been reached to the conclusion that foreign tourists' expectations have been met. This research gives an opinion about foreign tourists’ perception of Bergama and constitutes reference for the next studies. The research has been kept limited with foreign tourists. The next researches can be suggested to be carried out at different time intervals by including domestic tourists. REFERENCES Aksu, A.; İçigen, E.T.; Ehtiyar, R. (2010). A Comparison of Tourist Expectations and Satisfaction: A Case Study from Antalya Region of Turkey. Turizam, 14: (2), 66–77. Avcıkurt, C. (2015). Turizm Sosyolojisi. Detay Yayıncılık: Ankara. Berber, Ş. (2003). Sosyal Değişme Katalizörü Olarak Turizm ve Etkileri. Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi (9), 205-221.

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416 Chapter 32

Social Security Rights of Tourist the Guides and Taxation of Their Earnings in Turkey

Ö. Hakan ÇAVUŞ*

INTRODUCTION Tourism is being defined in many ways. According to the United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) “tourism” is the sum of activities and relationships arising from the temporary accommodation of individuals, within the conditions that it do not turn into the form of a continuous settling, and the individuals do not get involved in income earning activities during their visit (WTO, 2006). On the other hand, “tourist” is the individual who is participating in the tourism event, the one that is directing it, the one traveling and accommodating by temporarily leaving the place he/she continuously living in— except the purpose of income earning—, the one searching for psychological satisfaction, and finally, the one consuming within his/her limited spending power and with using his/her time (Usta, 1994). The tourism sector, in which 1.2 billion people is involving annually, and providing an income of $1.24 trillion worldwide, is creating 9.6 per cent of all the global revenue (as of 2014) (World Tourism Organization, 2014; World Travel and Tourism Council, 2014). The tourism sector which is having a vital role in the world economy has begun to develop rapidly in Turkey since the 1980s. Over the last 35 years, while the number of visitors arriving to Turkey has increased by 40 fold and reached to approximately 41 million and 415 thousand in number, the revenue for these activities has also increased by 35 fold and reached to approximately $34.0 billion (Anon., 2012; Anon., 2014). The tourist guides are one of the major actors in the tourism sector. As tourist guides have experience about touristic desire features in the destination, as well as about expectations and preferences of the tourists, they are deemed as employees which are in a key position to aid tour operators and travel agents while managing package tours. As tourist guides can be able to work full- time or part-time under an employment contract to a travel agent, they can be able to work on their own behalf as independent workers (as self-employed) as well. When researches that are being carried out in Turkey regarding problems of the tourism guidance occupation are being reviewed, it is being detected that negative results are appearing—such as employment of tourist guides as informally and with low wages, payment to them below the daily minimum wage, existence of long and irregular working hours, problems for utilizing from the job security, and society’s perception about the tourist guidance as being not a profession (Güzel, Atilla & Büyüker, 2013; Çetin & Kızılırmak, 2012). 1. THE CONCEPT OF TOURIST GUIDE According to the internationally accepted definition of the World Federation of Tourist Guide Associations, the term “tourist guide” is defined as the person who guides a group of visitors or an individual visitor from home or abroad in a language of preference, regarding the monuments, museums, natural and cultural environments, and historical places that are present in a region or city; who supply these services to the visitors with an entertaining interpretation, and who is recognized by the relevant authorities (WFTGA, 2014). According to the Article 2/h of the Tourist Guide Profession Act No. 6326—which is regulating the principles regarding the acceptance to the tourist guide profession, the execution of the profession and the foundation and operation of the professional bodies of tourist guide profession—, the term “tourist guide” defines a person who have the right and the authority to execute the services of tourism guidance.

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Katip Çelebi Üniversity, Faculty of Tourism, İzmir, Turkey

In-line with this definition, the Act No. 6326 additionally provides the definitions of ‘active tourist guide’ and ‘inactive tourist guide’. According to the Article 2/ç of this Act, the term of ‘active tourist guide’ refers to the tourist guide who is obtaining a working authorization card, and, by this way, who has the right and authorization to actually provide the service of tourism guidance in the market. On the other hand, according to the Article 2/d of the Act, the term of ‘inactive tourist guide’ is being defined as the tourist guide who obtains a license for the profession, but does not have a working authorization card. Alongside the Act, in the Regulation on Tourist Guidance Profession (‘the Regulation’ henceforth), alongside the similar definitions, the additional definitions of “the regional tourist guide” and “the national tourist guide” can be found. According to the Article 3/c of the referred Regulation, a regional tourist guide is defined as the one having the right and authority to work in a geographical region or in several regions that is being specified in his/her license and his/her working authorization card, and according to the Article 3/ç of the Regulation, a national tourist guide is defined as the one having the right and authority to work across the country that is being specified in his/her license and his/her working authorization card. Additional to these definitions, with the Decision No. 1 of the Coordination Board on Determining Artisans, Craftsmen, Tradesmen and Industrialists, which is being published at the Turkish Official Gazette dated to 13th of June, 2007 and issue number 26551, the tourist guides are being enlisted as the 26th the Article of the Artisan and Craftsmen Occupational Codes List within the services of “communication, recreation, accommodation and entertainment”. 2. WORKING METHODS OF TOURIST GUIDES According to the Article 2/ğ of the Act No. 6326, the document that is given by the Ministry of Culture and Tourism to those tourist guides who are meeting the acceptance criteria to the profession is called the license. The primary right of a tourist guide who obtains a license is the right to demand wage due to the services he/she performs. If the tourist guide is performing his/her profession as employed by an employer, he/she can be able to demand his/her wage from the employer in accordance with the employment contract he/she signed with the employer. On the other hand, in case that the guide is not working as subjected to an employer—in other words, working as independently—he/she will have the right to demand fee from the sum that is being defined in the minimum fee tariff (Tetik, 2006). In addition, according to the Article 28/2 of the Regulation, the profession of tourism guidance can be performed by the active tourist guide as a self-employed, or as an employer subjected to an employment contract as that is being designated in the Labour Act No. 4857. 2.1. Tourist Guides who are Working in Accordance with an Employment Contract and Their Social Insurance Statue According to the Article 8/1 of the Act No. 4857, “employment contract” is the contract which consists of the employee is undertaking the obligation of execution of the work as dependently, and the employer is undertaking the obligation of paying the wage for this service. The employment contract, unless otherwise stated in the law, is not subjected to a specific form. According to these provisions, for an employment contract to be able to emerge, some specific conditions has to be met. The first condition is that; the employee must be working as dependently to the employer. As the second condition; the employee must be a natural person, it cannot be a legal person. Finally; the employee has the right to demand his/her wage from the employer in this kind of contracts (Demircioğlu and Centel, 2015). According to the Labour Act No. 4857, just as the employment contracts can be signed as full- time, they can also be made as part-time in accordance with the Article 13/1 of the Act. According to the Act, a part-time employment contract is the contract when the normal weekly working time of the employee has been fixed considerably shorter in relation to a comparable employee who is working full- time. With the part-time employment contract, it can be decided that the employee to work full-day on certain days of the week, or to work in certain hours of each day of the week. According to the Labour Act No. 4857, in a workplace in which the working time is 45 hours in a week, the work that is being carried out up to 30 hours in a week is accepted as part-time employment (Baysal, 2012).

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According to the Labour Act No. 4857, the part-time employment contract has various types. Work sharing, flexible working time, and on-call employment models are among the types of part-time employment contract (Sümer, 2015). According to the Article 14 of the Labour Act, the part-time employment contract based on work on-call is the contracts in which the employment relationship foresees the execution of work by the employee upon the emergence of the need for his/her services, as agreed to in the written employment contract. In the event that the length of the employee’s working time has not been determined by the parties, the working time is being considered as fixed to at least twenty hours a week. Unless the contrary has been decided, the employer who has the right to request the employee to perform his/her obligation to work upon the call has to make the call at least four days in advance. If the daily working time has not been decided in the contract, the employer must engage the employee in work for a minimum of four consecutive hours at each call (Süzek, 2015). The overwhelming majority of tourist guides in Turkey are working in the nature of on-call work as being associated with more than one travel agent within the same season (Akbulut, 2006). At this point, it is necessary to underline that, the on-call work and seasonal employment are different types of works. Employment of tourist guides is naturally increasing during the start of the tourism season. This fact leads to a wrong perception that tourist guides work only seasonally (Güzel, Türker & Şahin, 2014). Tourist guides are offering a service which requires expertise. According to the Article 3 of the Regulation, –within the condition of not acting as a travel agency—the service of tourism guidance consists of showing and informing about cultural, touristic, historical, environmental, natural, social or similar values and resources of the country within the direction of the culture and tourism policies of that country to the domestic or foreign tourists, as individuals or as a group, by using the language that they have chosen prior to the trip, or refers to carrying out and managing the trip programmes of tours, that are being arranged by travel agencies, as they are defined in the written documents of the travel agency and as promoted and sold to the customer. The nature of the service of tourism guidance is consisting the dependency element of employment contract clearly, as well. In the Turkey’s tourism sector, tourist guides are generally giving guiding services within the scope of full-time or part-time employment contracts for one or more travel agent or tour operator (Demircan, 2007). It is obligatory for guides who are working full-time or part-time to make a contract with a travel agent or with the tourist. As a result of this contract, the tourist guide is giving the service of guidance and in return receiving the fee (or the wage). In this regard, according to the Article 6/3 of the Act No. 6326, it is compulsory for the tourist guides to sign a written tourist guidance contract which also contains the fee that is determined for the tour. As in the same direction, according to the Article 38 of the Regulation too, tourist guides are obliged to cut a written tourist guidance contract which also contains the fee that is determined for the tour. The contract must be made between the travel agent and the tourist guide or directly between the tourist guide and the tourist(s) himself/herself, prior to the beginning of the service. In the case where there are cogent grounds, and with the condition to prepare it in written-form at the latest within seven days starting by the date in which the valid excuse has ended, the contract can be made via e-mail, fax, SMS or alike mediums. The insurance status of tourist guides who are working with a full-time or part-time employment contract is being determined in accordance with the subparagraph (a) of the first paragraph of the Article 4 (‘4/a’ henceforth) of the Social Insurance and General Health Insurance Act No. 5510. According to this article of the Act No. 5510, in terms of the application of short- and long-term insurance branches, those are being employed by one or more employer under a service contract or employment contract are being deemed as within the scope of the compulsory insurance status of 4/a. According to the provision of the Article, for those tourist guides who are working full-time or part-time employment contracts, it is obligatory that they should be notified to the Social Security Institution (SSI) with a notification of employment by the agents or tour operators which are accepted legally as their employers. Although the legal provisions are such as, in practice, employing tourist guides informally is appearing as a common occurrence in Turkey. For avoiding the informal employment of tourist guides, the SSI has implemented several applications so forth. According to the SSI Circular No. 2011-51, which is entitled “The Struggle with Informal Employment”, the guides are to be subjected to inspection

419 by the commission that is to be formed by the General Directorate of Research and Education under the Ministry of Culture and Tourism. To be used in these inspections, it is compulsory for the Provincial Directorates of Culture and Tourism to give the identification information of the guides, the workplace titles and addresses of the agents that they are working at, and additionally, the workplace titles and addresses of tour agents and identification info of the tourist guides who are working at these agents with a wage, to the Provincial Directorates of the SSI. By this way, the SSI can be able to inspect whether they are insured or not via the Institution’s own system for those tourist guides whom identification info is given. 2.2.Self-Employed Tourist Guides and Their Social Insurance Statues For a person to be qualified as a self-employed, it is necessary to carry out the work he/she is doing on his/her own behalf (Çakmak, 2014). In this case, the tourist guide who is working on his/her own behalf will be deemed within the status of self-employed guide. According to the Article 38 of the Regulation, prior the start of the service, the self-employed guides are also obliged to sign a written tourism guidance contract directly with the tourist(s) which also contains the fee that is determined for the tour, on the condition of the fee to be at least at the minimum level. The compulsory ‘customer- guide service contract’ is being used between the self-employed tourist guide and the customer (Tureb, 2015). In addition to this, it has to be underlined that, the self-employed guides shall not be providing service in the nature of tour agency. According to the second and the third paragraphs of the Article 28 of the Regulation, freelance tourist guides can carry out their professions as self-employed. The term ‘self-employed’ is being defined as “those performing his/her freelance activity as a permanent profession” in the Article 2 of the Income Tax Code. According to this article, continuously engagement in some other job or duty alongside the self-employed profession of tourist guidance does also not change the situation. The Article 155 of the Tax Procedures Code outlines the criteria for the self-employed to start working. According to this Article, the criteria for being a self-employed are presented as follows: 1. To open a private sector workplace such as a clinic, office, workshop, etc. 2. To hang out symbols such as signboard, plate, etc. that are expressing that a professional activity is being executed in this address. 3. To make announcement in any mediums which are showing that he/she is involving in a continuous professional activity. 4. To get enrolled into professional bodies in order to execute a professional activity independently. According to the Article 66/5 of the Income Tax Code, from the freelance guides those are obtaining at least two of those criteria that are presented above (the criteria that are specified in the Article 155 of the Tax Procedures Code), are being regarded as self-employed. Therewithal, according to the General Communique of the Income Tax Code No. 289, which is being issued within the aim of eliminating the hesitations about taxation of tourist guides that are executing guidance services, and is being published by the Ministry of Finance Department of Revenues at the Turkish Official Gazette dated to 19th of November, 2015 and issue number 29537, by the Article 66/5 of the Income Tax Code the earnings of those tourist guides who are not obtaining at least two criterion (among the criteria which are shown in the Article 155 of the Tax Procedures Code) are being exempted from the income tax liability. Whether or not self-employed tourist guides working on their own behalf are exempt from income tax is affecting their insurance statuses. The insured within the status formerly known as Bag-Kur (those are within the scope of the Craftsmen and Artisans and Other Self Employers’ Social Insurance Act No. 1479) are being defined in the subparagraph (b) of the first paragraph of the Article 4 (‘4/b’ henceforth) of the Act No. 5510. According to the Article 4/1-(b) of the Act No. 5510, the tourist guides are within the scope of the compulsory social insurance status of 4/b as long as they are either taxpayer of income tax, in real or basic procedures, due to their commercial income or self-employment income, or although they are exempt from income tax being enrolled to the artisans and craftsmen registration. Those are in these cases are being deemed as within the scope of the compulsory social insurance status of 4/b, in-line with the Article 4/1-(b) of the Act No. 5510. According to this article, from the self-

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employed tourist guides who are meeting two criteria of (i) being exempt from income tax, and (ii) being enrolled to the artisans and craftsmen registration together will be able to be insured within the status of 4/b insurance; however, the tourist guides who are exempt from income tax duty but not enrolled in the artisans and craftsmen registration are being excluded from the compulsory social insurance status of 4/b. Chambers of Tourist Guides, which are established according to the Union of Chambers of Artisans and Craftsmen, are lost their status as a chamber with the enactment of the Act No. 6326 as of the date of 22nd of June, 2012. As a result of this, the registration records of the guides who are exempt from the income tax are being deleted form the artisans and craftsmen registration database. This has caused the tourist guides who are exempt from the income tax liability to lose their status of being compulsory insured within the scope of the 4/b insurance status. As a result of this development, the referred tourist guides, for whom the SSI are suggesting to get an optional social insurance, have become unprotected against the risks of work accidents, occupational diseases, maternity and diseases (Öztürk, 2016). In addition, according to the Article 6/k of the Act No. 5510, from the self-employed tourist guides who are exempt from income tax and enrolled to the artisans and craftsmen registration, those documenting that the remaining amount after subtracting expenditures from their monthly activity incomes is less than 30 times of minimum daily earning based to social insurance premium, are not being deemed as within the scope of compulsory social insurance. The tourist guides, who are obtaining the mentioned criteria, cannot be able to get insured within the status of 4/b as well. 3. THE STATUS OF TOURIST GUIDES WHO ARE WITHIN THE SCOPE OF TEMPORARY EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP One of the employment relationships which has being presented to the Turkish employment life with the Labour Act No. 4857, which is being published in 2003, is the ‘temporary employment relationship’. The referred concept of temporary employment relationship is being arranged in the Article 7 of the Labour Act. Within the temporary employment relationship, the employee is being transferred by the employer he/she is subjected to another employer, temporarily. While the relationship of the employee with the employer who is transferring him/her is based on the employment contract, the employee’s relationship with the employer who has temporarily got him/her is based on the “temporary employee contract” which is signed between the parties of the transferee employer and the transferor employer (Caniklioğlu, 2008). The temporary employment relationship is established when, in order to have work performed similar to what the employee was doing, the employer transfers the employee, upon obtaining his/her written consent at the time of transfer, to another establishment within the structure of the same holding company or the same group of companies, or to another employer. Additionally, the temporary employment relationship may be established in written form for a period not to exceed six months, and it may be renewed twice in maximum, if required (Demir, 2016). The transferor employer’s obligation to pay the employee’s wages shall continue. The transferor employer kept on being responsible for the wage of the employee that is not paid, for the liability of protecting the employee, and for the social insurance premiums, together with the other employer (Kılıçoğlu & Şenocak, 2013). The temporary employment relationships appear in two types: First of these types is the simple form of temporary employment relationship as arranged in the Article 7 of the Act No. 4857. The second type of temporary employment relationship is the one that is being carried out as a ‘professional sector’. In case that an employer allocates its workplace for transferring employees within the aim of obtaining an earning, it can be said that he/she is doing this employee transferring as a profession. In this case, the employer who is performing the work of supplying employees to other workplaces is signing employment contracts with his/her employees solemnly for the aim of transferring them to other workplaces. In this model, the employees that are being employed for this purpose, are not expected to work for the employer, but they are employed for being transferred to other workplaces which are in need of employee. The employee is not working, at all, under the command of the employer he/she is being subjected to with the employment contract (Odaman, 2007).

421 Previously, the temporary employment relationship which is carried out as a profession was not arranged in the Article 7 of the Labour Act. With the Act No. 6715 Regarding Amendments in the Labour Act and in the Turkish Labour Agency Act, the temporary employment relationship which is being done as a profession is being brought to Turkish legislation. The mentioned act also brought many new radical changes in the application of the temporary employment relationship. As generally in accordance with the Directive of the European Union 2008/104/EC, the Act No. 6715 has arranged that, the temporary employment relationship can be established in two forms; one as via private employment offices, and the second as assignment of the employee within a holding or to another workplace which belongs to the same group of companies. According to the Act No. 6715, for being able to build temporary employment relationships through private employment offices, it is necessary that the private employment office has taken an authorization for this purpose from the Turkish Labour Agency. In this context, the term “private employment office” is being added to the Article 2 of the Turkish Labour Agency Act No. 4904. According to this article, the private employment offices are the offices which are authorized by the Turkish Labour Agency and being established by the real or legal persons within the aim of giving mediating services for jobseekers to be placed in the suitable jobs, and for finding suitable employees for various jobs, and/or for establishing temporary employment relationship. When the case of tourist guides is being evaluated together with the arrangements that are brought with the Act No. 6715, it appears that, while previously it was not be possible to employ a tourist guide with a simple temporary employment relationship, from now on, it has become possible to employ them through a private employment office. In this regard, the guide’s employer will be the private employment office. The agent, institute, organisation, person or unit which needs a tourist guide, can be able to directly obtain the guide from a private employment office, and can be able to temporarily employ the tourist guide in his/her workplace or in his/her work, on the condition of not exceeding the time limitations of the law. 4. THE SOCIAL SECURITY RIGHTS OF TOURIST GUIDES According to the Social Insurance and General Health Insurance Act No. 5510, those insured who are deemed as within the scope of 4/a and 4/b compulsory insurance statuses can be able to benefit from the short-term insurance branches (the work accident insurance, the occupational disease insurance, the sickness insurance, and the maternity insurance), long-term insurance branches (the invalidity insurance, the old-age insurance, and the survivors’ insurance), and additionally, from the general health insurance. Tourist guides can also be able to benefit from the rights that are being provided from these insurance branches, according to their social insurance status. 4.1. In Terms of Short-Term Insurance Branches In the Act No. 5510, the leading short-term insurance branch is the insurance of work accidents and occupational diseases. In the Article 13 of the Act No. 5510, no definition is being stated for the term “work accident”, but only, the situations that are deemed as work accident are being counted. According to this article; the work accident is the incident which occurs; a) when the insurance holder is at the workplace, b) due to the work carried out by the employer or by the insurance holder if he/she is working on behalf of his/her own name and account, c) for an insurance holder working under an employer, at times when he/she is not carrying out his/her main work due to the reason that he/she is sent on duty to another place out of the workplace, d) for a breastfeeding female insurance holder at times allocated for nursing her child in accordance with the labour legislation, e) during insurance holder's going to or coming from the place, where the work is carried out, on a vehicle provided by the employer, and which causes, immediate or delayed, to a physical, mental or psychological handicap of the insurance holder. If a tourist guide who is an insured within the scope of 4/a insurance status will be exposed to one or more of the five states and cases that are enlisted above, he/she will be deemed as someone

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encountered with a work accident. However, the tourist guide who is an insured within the scope of 4/b insurance status will be deemed as encountering with a work accident only in the first two of the enlisted five states and cases (in other words, if the accident happens when the insurance holder is at the workplace, or if the accident happens due to the work carried out by the insurance holder if he/she is working on behalf of own his/her name and account) (Güzel, Okur & Caniklioğlu, 2012). When it is considered that tourist guides are working at transport vehicles, or in busy and tough working conditions, it is being revealed that their probability to encounter with a work accident is high. Additionally, if the tourist guide is being employed as informally, he/she cannot be able to benefit from the rights obtained from the work accident insurance branch, and, first of all, it would be necessary for him/her to make a plea to the competent labour court for proving his/her work. Since this case requires very long lawsuit processes, the guides who are being employed informally are often being victims of this situation. Another risk that tourist guides may exposed to, is the risk of encountering with an occupational disease. The term “occupational disease” is being defined in the Article 14 of the Act No. 5510. According to this article, occupational disease refers to the temporary or permanent disease or physical or mental handicapped status that is caused by a repetitive reason due to the nature of the work or the nature of the duty of the insurance holder, or by the working conditions he/she exposed to. When a tourist guide, who is within the scope of compulsory insurance statuses of 4/a and 4/b, temporarily or permanently becomes sick or handicapped due to the job he/she is doing or due to the execution conditions of the work, he/she will be deemed to have encountered with an occupational disease, in the case that the situation is proven by a medical report. The Act No. 5510 hold the employer responsible from the work accident or occupational disease in some cases. According to the Article 21/1 of the Act, if a work accident or occupational disease occurred due to the employer's intention or the insurance holder’s action that is contrary to the legislation of protection of labour health and safety, then the sum of payments which are and will be made by the Social Security Institution to the insurance holder or rights holders of him/her and the first advance capital value as of the starting date of granted income shall be collected by the Institution from the employer, limited with the amounts that the insurance holder or rights holders may request from the employer. The principle of inevitability shall be considered in determining the responsibility of the employer. In other words, according to the Article 21/1 of the Act No. 5510, if the employer has an intention or defect in the work accident or occupational disease, or if the employee will encounter with a work accident or an occupational disease due to the employer’s act which is contra to the occupational health and security legislation, he/she is being legally hold responsible from the consequences. In the cases of work accidents and occupational diseases, an investigation is being done to identify defect rate of the employer (Aslanköylü, 2010). The responsibility of the employer in the scope of occupational health and safety is being analysed from the point of, at what degree he/she performed his/her liabilities within the framework of the Occupational Health and Safety Act No. 6331, which has entered into force at the date of 30th of June, 2012 within the aim of preventing work accidents and occupational diseases, and according to the regulations issued in accordance with this Act. According to the Article 4/1-(a) of the Act No. 6331, the employer, also in the tourism sector, is primarily responsible for providing health and safety of employees. In addition, the employer is obliged to perform many duties such as making a risk assessment, training the employees, and employing safety specialists and workplace physicians for giving occupational health and safety services (Narter, 2014). In the Article 15 of the Act No. 5510, the sicknesses of the insurance holder who is within the statuses of 4/a and 4/b, other than work accident or occupational disease and which causes the incapacity to work for the individual is labelled as ‘sickness’, and, in addition, state of maternity is also being arranged in this Article. When a tourist guide who is within the scope of 4/a and 4/b becomes ill (during the period of incapacity to work) or get pregnant (for pregnancy during the pre-natal and post- natal periods), he/she can be able to get the benefits that are specified in the concerned article. According to the Article 16 of the Act No. 5510, in cases of a work accident or occupational disease, just as the other insured people who are in the scope of 4/a and 4/b insurance statuses, the

423 tourist guides within the scope of 4/a and 4/b insurance statuses can be able to benefit the following rights that are provided by work accident and occupational disease insurance: a) Giving daily temporary incapacity allowance to the insurance holder during the period of temporary incapacity to work. b) Putting the insurance holder on permanent incapacity income when the conditions are met. c) Putting the dependents of the deceased insurance holder on income (for those who have died due to work accident or occupational disease). d) Giving marriage bonuses to female children who were getting income. e) Giving funeral benefit for the insurance holder who died of work accident or occupational disease. Daily temporary incapacity allowance shall be given to the insurance holder, during the temporary incapacity period arising due to sickness or maternity statuses, from the sickness and maternity insurance. Additionally, a breastfeeding allowance shall be given from the maternity insurance to the female insurance holder or to the male insurance holder whom spouse has given birth, within the condition of meeting the criteria. 4.2. In Terms of Long-Term Insurance Branches In the Turkish social insurance legislation, the long-term insurance branches are being arranged as the invalidity insurance, the old-age insurance, and the survivors’ insurance. Those insured who were subjected to the repealed acts of the Act No. 506, the Act No. 2925, the Act No. 1479, the Act No. 2926 and the Act No. 5434, are keep on being subjected to these laws in terms of the conditions that have to be met for being able to benefit from the aids that are provided from the long-term insurance branches. On the other hand, those are being insured as to start from the date of 1st of October, 2008 (including this date), are being subjected to the Act No. 5510 in terms of benefiting from the long-term insurance branches (Ertürk, 2008). The first of the long-term insurance branches is the invalidity insurance. For being able to benefit from the invalidity insurance, it is necessary primarily that the insured to be deemed as a disabled, and additionally, a certain premium payment period is also required (Sözer, 2015). According to the Article 25 of the Act No. 5510, the insurance holder, who is determined by the Social Security Institution’s Health Committee to have lost at least 60% of his/her working power or his/her earning power in his/her profession due to work accident or occupational disease is deemed as a disabled. Alongside the condition for being deemed as disabled, according to the Article 26 of the Act; if the insured also fulfils the conditions of being an insurance holder for a period of minimum ten years and being paid totally 1,800 days, or, in the case that the insurance holder is a disabled in the need of permanent care of another person, fulfils the conditions of being paid at minimum 1,800 days of invalidity, old-age and survivors insurance premium, without seeking any period of holding insurance. Tourist guides, who can be able to fulfil these conditions, can be able to utilize the benefits from the invalidity insurance too. However, for the self-employed tourist guides who are within the scope of the 4/b insurance status, it is compulsory that they have paid the debts arising from their insurance, including the general health insurance premiums, in-full, for being able to utilize from these benefits. Another long-term insurance branch is the old-age insurance branch. Tourist guides who are within the scope of 4/a and 4/b insurance branches and who fulfil the conditions in the Article 28 of the Act No. 5510, can be able to benefit from an old-age pension, as to be effective from the date of 1st of October, 2008. The last one of the long-term insurance branches is the survivors’ insurance. According to the Article 32 of the Act No. 5510, a survivors’ pension shall be payable to the rights holders of the deceased insurance holder upon the written request, within the condition that either at the minimum 1,800 days of invalidity, old-age and survivors’ premiums are notified for the deceased insurance holder, or, excluding any kind of debt periods, there is an insurance status of minimum 5 years and totally 900 days of invalidity, old-age and survivors’ insurance premiums are being paid for the deceased insurance holder who is within the scope of the 4/a insurance status. However, for the rights holders of the deceased tourist guide who was insured within the scope of the 4/b insurance status, it is obligatory that the entire premium or any kind of debts related to the premiums, including the universal

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health insurance premiums of the deceased insurance holder, should not be present or should be paid in- full (Göktaş, Çakar & Erden, 2011). 4.3. Tourist Guides Statuses According to the Optional Insurance According to the Article 50 of the Act No. 5510, “the optional insurance” is the insurance which allow individuals to be subjected to long-term insurance branches and universal health insurance by paying optional premiums. For being able to be an optional insurance holder, the following conditions are sought: a) Being a resident in Turkey or being from Turkish citizens who, while residing in Turkey, are residing at foreign countries with which a social security convention is not signed between the country and the Republic of Turkey. b) Not working in a manner to require being subjected to compulsory insurance according to the Act No. 5510 or working as an insurance holder but less than 30 days a month or not working full time. c) Not being put on pension due to his/her own insurance. d) Being over the age of eighteen. e) Applying to the Institution with a petition for holding an optional insurance. Those are paying optional insurance premiums cannot be able to benefit from the short-term insurance branches. They can only benefit from long-term insurance branches and the general health insurance. Those paying the optional insurance premiums are being deemed among those insured who are within the 4/b insurance status, as to be effective as of the date of 1st of October, 2008. If a self-employed tourist guide, who is exempt from the income tax, is not enrolled to the artisans and craftsmen registration database, he/she is not evaluated within the scope of the compulsory 4/b insurance. The tourist guides who are in this situation, are becoming optional insurance holders for being able to benefit from the long-term insurance branches and the general health insurance (Şakar, 2014). 4.4. Detection of the Earning that will be Subjected to the Social Insurance Premium and the Number of Premium Payment Days According to the Article 80 of the Act No. 5510, the accrued wages (the wages that are being deserved to be paid) are within the scope of the earnings that are being subjected to the social insurance premium, primarily. The wages shall be subjected to premium by attributing to the month they are deserved at/ accrued at. According to the Article 80/g of the Act No. 5510, the daily earning to be base for the calculation of premiums shall be one thirtieth of the earning subject to premium in a month of the insurance holder. However, the daily earning of an insurance holder who did not work on certain days of a month and did not receive wage for not worked days, the daily earning for that month shall be calculated by diving the earning that is subjected to premium of the concerned month by the number of wage paid days. Moreover, according to the Article 80/h of the Act, number of days used in calculating the daily earnings of insurance holders are also indicating the number of premium paid days of these individuals. However, provided that the part time service contract between the employer and the insurance holder is in written format, the number of premium paid days of in that month of the insurance holder who works at certain hours of the day and receives hourly wage shall be calculated by the total number of hours worked in that month divided by the daily working hour (7.5 hours daily) which is calculated according to the weekly working time determined pursuant to Labour Act No. 4857. The tourist guide, who is within the scope of compulsory 4/a or compulsory 4/b insurance statuses, works continuously for full-month, it is necessary that he/she would be notified to the Social Security Institution through 30 days of service for each such month. However, if a tourist guide who is within the scope of 4/a insurance status, for instance, working 5 hours at six days of a week, the number of premium payment days for this guide will be calculated as follows: The weekly working time of this guide is 6 days x 5 hours = 30 hours in a week. His/her monthly working time is 30 hours x 4 weeks = 120 hours. The premium payment days for this month will be notified as: 120 hours / 7.5 hours = 16 days (While calculating, the decimal figures are to be completed to the upper numeral). According to the Article 80/I of the Act No. 5510, if the working time is not determined as day,

425 week or month between the parties in the written labour contract which is based on work on-call between the employer and the insurance holder, then the premium paid days of the insurance holder in that month shall be considered that the weekly working time is decided to be minimum twenty hours. For example, if a tourist guide who is within the scope of 4/a insurance who has worked on-call during the month as mentioned in the Article, the number of premium payment days will be calculated as and reported to the Social Security Institution as the 20 / 7.5 = 3 days in a week and 3 x 4 = 12 days in a month. There is an important point that should be emphasized at this point. The premiums of the general health insurance, which is being arranged in the Article 60 of the Act 5510, has to be paid as 30 days in a month, compulsorily. If a tourist guide who is within the scope of 4/a or 4/b insurance statuses is being notified to the Social Security Institution as 30 days every month, then he/she would not be paying extra general health insurance premium (Sözer, 2014). But, according to the Article 80/I of the Act No. 5510, general health insurance premiums of the missing days, for those whose number of premium paid days are less than 30 in a month, shall be calculated considering the missing working periods. Based on this Article, according to the example that is given above, if a tourist guide who is within the scope of 4/a is working 16 days in a month as part-time, he/she will not have to pay extra general health insurance premium if he/she is working 14 more days (for the missing days of the month) at another workplace, or if he/she is paying 14 days of optional health insurance. However, the tourist guide who works only 16 days in a month (whose premium payment days is 16 in a month) is obliged to pay 14 days of general health insurance premium on his/her behalf for not-worked days of the month, by taking an income test. 5. THE TAXATION OF THE EARNINGS OF TOURIST GUIDES 5.1. For the Active Tourist Guides According to the Regulation, those having the right and authorization to actually execute the service of tourism guidance, enrolled to the occupational chamber, obtains a license and obtains a working authorization card is called as an “active guide”. According to the Paragraph (5) of the Article 66 of the Income Tax Code, from the freelance guides those are not obtaining at least two criteria that are specified in the Article 155 of the Tax Procedures Code (the criteria which are the symbols of start of working), are being exempted from the income tax liability for their incomes regarding this freelance work. Those active guides who are actually executing the service of guidance are those carrying the criteria that are presented in the Article 155/1 of the Tax Procedures Code. Hence, it is impossible for those active guides, who are actually executing their profession, to benefit from the exemption provisions that are arranged in the Paragraph (5) of the Article 66 of the Income Tax Code. In this regard, from the active tourist guides who are identified by the tax office that they are actually executing the service of active tourist guiding on their own name and account as a continuous occupation are subjected to taxation in the framework of the provisions regarding the self-employed earnings in the Income Tax Code. On the other hand, those are doing the tourism guidance activities in a way not to constitute a continuity are being evaluated within the scope of the exemption of the paragraph (4) of the Article 82/1 of the Income Tax Code. Additionally, in accordance with the Tourist Guide Profession Act No. 6326, and the Regulation of Tourist Guide Profession which is based on this law, signing more than one “guide-agent service contract” with the same agent does not change the nature of the agent’s income of being a self-employment earning. According to the General Communique of the Income Tax Code No. 289, if those active tourist guides who are providing guiding services actually, will start to work based an employment contract which is obtaining all the elements of the wage, in this case, the earned income of them will be regarded as wage and the payment that are being made to these people will be regarded within the framework of the provisions regarding the wage earnings in the Income Tax Code. 5.2. For the Inactive Tourist Guides The tourist guides who are not obtaining a working authorization card, despite being licensed and

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have enrolled to the occupational chamber, are being defined as inactive guides. The tourist guides in this situation will not be able to benefit from the income tax exemption in accordance with the General Communique of the Income Tax Code No. 289, because among the criteria of starting to work they are obtaining only the one of being enrolled to the occupational chamber. 5.3. The Obligation of Preparing Self-Employment Receipts According to the Article 236 of the Income Procedures Code, the self-employed are obliged to cut a self-employment receipt in two separate copies, and to give one copy to the customer for every kind of his/her collection of money that is associated with his/her occupational activity, and the customers are obliged to demand and receive this receipt. In this regard, due to the self-employment activities, the active tourist guides are obliged to prepare a self-employment receipt for the payments to be made for them, and they are obligated to fulfil their tax liabilities in this way. According to the Communique General of the Income Tax Code No. 289, in the case, if tourist guides are carrying out these guiding activities temporarily, or if they are within the scope of income tax exemption, they would not be preparing self-employment receipt. But, it is still compulsory for those income tax or corporation tax taxpayer to document their payments to tourist guides with preparing a note of expense, and the tourist guides who are obtaining the payment are obliged to keep these note of expenses. CONCLUSION It can be concluded that with the Tourist Guide Profession Act No. 6326, tourist guides in Turkey have achieved a professional status, and that the rights of tourist guides are taken under legal protection. Tourist guides can be able to work full-time or part-time in exchange of wage as subjected to an employment contract at the workplace of one or more agent or tour operator. In these cases, tourist guides are within the scope of the compulsory 4/a insurance status of the Act No. 5510. Out of these cases, those self-employed tourist guides who are both exempt from the income tax liability and enrolled to the artisans and craftsmen registration are deemed within the scope of compulsory 4/b insurance status of the Act No. 5510. However, self-employed tourist guides who are not enrolled to the artisans and craftsmen registration—although they are exempt from the income tax—are not deemed as within the scope of the compulsory 4/b insurance. If the tourist guides who are in this situation choose to get a voluntary insurance, they can be able to utilize from the benefits that are obtained from the long-term insurance branches, and from the healthcare benefits that are being obtained from the general health insurance. However, these tourist guides are not being able to benefit from the short-term insurance branches. Therefore, it is necessary to include the tourist guides who are not enrolled to the artisan and craftsmen registration, to the scope of the compulsory 4/b insurance status, by making an amendment in the Article 4/b of the Act No. 5510. Last of all, in-line with the Act No. 6715, tourist guides can be able to work within the scope of temporary employment relationship through private employment agencies. REFERENCES Anonymous, (2012). Turkish Statistical Institute (TurkStat), Anononymous, (2014). Akdeniz Turistik Otelciler ve İşletmeciler Birliği, 2014a). Akbulut, O. (2006). Ege Bölgesindeki Profesyonel Turist Rehberlerinin Mesleki Sorunları ve Çözüm Önerilerine Yönelik Bir Araştırma.Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Akdeniz Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Antalya. Aslanköylü, R. (2015). Sosyal Sigortalar ve Genel Sağlık Sigortası Kanunu Şerhi, Ankara: Bilge Yayıncılık. Baysal, U. (2014). Türk ve Alman Hukukunda Çağrı Üzerine Çalışma, Tühis, Şubat-Mayıs 2012. ( 99 ) Caniklioğlu, N. (2008) Geçici (Ödünç) İş İlişkisinin Taraflar Açısından Hukuki Sonuçları Prof. Dr. Nuri Çelik’e Saygı. Legal Yayıncılık. Çakmak, İ. (2014). Şerhli Bağ-Kur Kanunu (1479 sayılı ve 2926 sayılı Kanunlar) Ankara: Bilge Yayıncılık. Demir, F. (2016). İş Hukuku ve Uygulaması.İzmir: Birleşik Matbaacılık. Demircan, M. (2007) Vergi Hukuku Açısından Profesyonel Turist Rehberliği. Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Anadolu Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Eskişehir. Demircioğlu, M. and Centel, T. (2015). İş Hukuku. İstanbul:Beta Basım.

427 Ertürk, Ş. (2008). 5510 sayılı Sosyal Sigortalar ve Genel Sağlık Sigortası Kanunu’nda Değişiklik Öngören 5754 sayılı Kanun’dan Sonra Uzun Vadeli Sigorta Kollarına Bir Bakış. Legal İş Hukuku ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku Dergisi. 19 (1), 1048-1049 Gök, A., Büyükerişler, D., and Güzel, O. F. (2013). Relationship of emotional display rules and job oriented attitudes: A research on tourist guides, The International Journal of Multidisciplinary Thought (IJMT). 3(3), 291–296. Göktaş, M., Çakar, E.; and Özdamar, M. (2011). Türk Sosyal Güvenlik Sisteminde Emeklilik ve Primsiz Rejim. Ankara: Yaklaşım Yayıncılık. Güzel, A., Okur, A., and Caniklioğlu, N. (2012). Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku, İstanbul: Beta Basım. Güzel, Ö.F., Türker, A., and Şahin, İ. (2014). Profesyonel Turist Rehberlerinin Algıladıkları Mesleki Engelleri Belirlemeye Yönelik Bir AraştIrma, Gazi Üniversitesi Turizm Fakültesi Dergisi, 2 (2), 179-180. Güzel, F. Ö., Atilla G., and Büyükerişler, D. (2013). Duygusal emek ve işten ayrılma niyeti ilişkisi: Turist rehberleri üzerinde bir araştırma, Seyahat ve Otel İşletmeciliği Dergisi. 10 (3), 107- 122. Kılıçoğlu, M. and Şenocak, K. (2013). İş Kanunu Şerhi, İstanbul: Legal Yayıncılık. Narter, S. (2014). İş Sağlığı ve Güvenliğinde İdari, Cezai ve Hukuki Sorumluluk. Ankara:Adalet Basım ve Yayın. Odaman, S. (2007). Türk ve FransIz İş Hukukunda Ödünç İş İlişkisi, Legal Yayıncılık. 12 (2), 46-47 Öztürk, M. (2016). Turist Rehberlerinin Sosyal Sigorta Statüleri. Legal İş ve Sosyal Güvenlik Hukuku Dergisi. Özel Sayı, 617-618 Sümer, H. H. (2015). İş Hukuku. Konya: Mimoza Basım ve Dağıtım. Sözer, A. N. (2014). Türk Genel Sağlık Sigortası. İstanbul: Beta Basım. Sözer, A. N. (2015). Türk Sosyal Sigortalar Hukuku. İstanbul: Beta Basım. Süzek, S. (2015). İş Hukuku. İstanbul: Beta Yayıncılık. Şakar, M. (2014). Sosyal Sigortalar Uygulaması, İstanbul: Beta Basım. Tetik, N. (2006). Türkiye’de Profesyonel Turist Rehberliği ve Müşterilerin Turist Rehberlerinden Beklentilerinin Analizi (KuşadasI Örneği). YayInlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Aydın TUREB (2010). http://tureb.org.tr/sayfa_detay.aspx?id=10 Usta, Ö. (1994) Turizm, Ankara: Altın Kitaplar. World Federation of Tourist Guides Associations (WFTGA) (2011). EUROPEAN STANDARD EN13809: 2003 Tourism services - Travel agencies and tour operators Terminology, http://www.wftga.org/ sites/ default/files/imceuploads/documents/DEFINITIONS%20OF%20TOURIST%20GUIDE- TOUR%20MANAGER-TOUR%20ESCORT-FINAL.pdf World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) (2008). International Recommendations for Tourism Statistics, http://unstats.un.org/unsd/publication/Seriesm/SeriesM_83rev1e.pdf #page=2 (accessed: 10 January 2015) World Tourism Organisation (WTO) (2014). Exports from international tourism rise to US$ 1.5 trillion in 2014. Available at: http://media.unwto.org/press-release/2015-04-15/ exports - international-tourism-rise- us-15-trillion-2014 (accessed : 10 January 2015) World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (2014). Travel & Tourism, Economic Impact 2014. Available at: http://www.wttc.org/~/media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20 research/regional %20reports/ world2014.ashx (accessed at: 15 December 2014)

428 Chapter 33

Sustainable Practices at Tour Operators: Case of Kuoni Group

Halil KORKMAZ*, Lütfi ATAY**, Serdar SÜNNETÇİOĞLU***

INTRODUCTION Tourism products like accommodation, transportation, entertainment, food and beverage etc. can be bought as linked products, or they can be purchased separately from producers or intermediaries. However, the distribution channels are imperfect between tourists and tourism service providers. Therefore, it is the role of tour operators to bring buyers and sellers together with one single product and single price (Tepelus, 2005). Tour operators and travel agencies have more power to affect and shape supply and demand than do peer intermediaries in other industries. Also they are in a position to influence pricing, product policies and promotional activities (Buhalis, 2001). In this view, they have the opportunity to guide tourism demand toward a more sustainable level. Since the 1980s, sustainable tourism has grown and it has reached a peak today. Although tour operators have an important motivation to reach sustainability in the tourism industry, they have lagged considerably behind other tourism businesses in this respect. Additionally, tourism academics have conducted much research about sustainable tourism; especially in order to formulate sustainable tourism strategies. However, less research has examined how to implement these strategies into practice at the enterprise level (Tepelus, 2005). A recent study in Turkey found that the vast majority of travel agencies lack environmental programs, are not members of environmental organizations, or allocate budget to environmental protection and sustainability in their daily practice (Erdoğan, 2013). Another study examined web sites of 1382 travel agencies operating in Turkey by content analysis. This research asserted that only 2.7% of the web sites have presented narratives related to environment. In the context of sustainability and ecotourism indicators, only 2.4% of the web sites addressed environment/nature protection, respect to local people, alternative tourism, ecotourism and sustainable tourism subjects (Erdoğan, 2012). Travel agencies must develop ecotourism marketing activities in their internet web pages not only to meet tourists need and expectations, but also to increase activities and interest related to the environment. Because, while the content of the website shows the interest of travel agency, it can also play an important role in the decision-making of environmentally conscious consumers (Erdoğan, 2012). In Turkey, there is no tour operator. According to the law no: 1618, travel agents of group (A) may act as tour operators in Turkey. So that, hereafter in this study tour operators meant also travel agents of group (A) in Turkey. The purpose of this study is to put forth as “good practice” (particularly about ecotourism) towards sustainability in the tour operating industry worldwide. Thus, drawing tour operators’ attention to this aspect of sustainable tourism. 1. LITERATURE REVIEW 1.1. Tourism and Sustainability The tourism industry is one of the largest industries of world. It has grown more than 40 times from 1950 to 2015. International tourist arrivals have been reached 1133 million visitors in 2014. In the same period, international tourist receipts were US$ 1245 billion (UNWTO, 2016a). Travel and tourism

*Res. Assist. Dr., Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Tourism Faculty, Department of Travel Management, Tour Guidance **Assoc. Prof. Dr., Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Tourism Faculty, Department of Travel Management, Tour Guidance ***Res. Assist. Dr., Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Tourism Faculty, Department of Tourism Management

generated US$ 7.6 trillion in revenue, nearly 10 % of global GDP in 2014. Globally 227 million jobs were created directly and indirectly, which was nearly one of every 11 jobs. In recent years, the travel and tourism sector have grown more than the global economy and other significant sectors like public health, automotive and financial services (WTTC, 2016). Tourism is an interrelated industry with the environment. Therefore, with the growth of tourism, its impact on the environment has increased as well. UNEP declared depletion of natural resources, pollution, and physical impact as three main impact areas of tourism on the environment. Fresh water, which is one of the most essential natural resources is overused by the tourism industry especially for hotels, swimming pools, and golf areas. Tourism also causes the decrease in vegetation, loss of ground cover, increased erosion and loss of biodiversity. In addition, tourism causes air pollution, noise, solid waste, release of sewage and other types pollution (UNEP, 2016a). According to UNWTO, 75% of CO2 emissions are generated by transportation, mostly because of aviation (40%) (UNWTO, 2016b). The concept of the importance of sustainability has increased since the 1970s. The United Nations Conference on the Human Environment was done in Stockholm in 1972. The purpose of the conference was to set out common a guide about the protection and development of human environment (UNEP, 2016b). However, the conference was not bound for nations. The concept of sustainability became an international dimension with World Conservation Strategy Living Resource Conservation for Sustainable Development prepared by Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) with the cooperation of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Wildlife Fund (WWF) in 1980 (IUCN, 2016). The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) published the Report of Our Common Future also known as the Brundtland Report in December 1987 (WCED, 2016). Five years later the Brundtland Report in 1992, United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (the Earth Submit 1992) was carried in Rio de Janeiro. As a result of this conference, Agenda 21 was published in 1993. The document consists of four sections which are Social and Economic Dimension, Conservation and Management of Resources for Development, Strengthening the Role of Major Groups, and Means of Implementation (United Nations, 2016). The Kyoto Protocol which is about greenhouse gas emissions was adopted in Kyoto, Japan in 1997. The World Summit on Sustainable Development (also known as the Earth Submit 2002 or Rio +10) was held in Johannesburg, South Africa in 2002. Twenty years later first Rio Conference, United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development, was carried in 2012. The report of this conference shows that, although some sustainable developments progressed, unsustainable trends continue in terms of climate change (United Nations, 2016). Sustainable Development was defined by the Brundtland Report as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, 2016). After the Brundtland Report, economic, social and environmental developments have been recognized as three pillars of sustainable development. According to UNESCO, political sustainability is the fourth dimension of sustainable development (UNESCO, 2016). The idea of sustainability in tourism has increased with the Brundtland Report and accepted in World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) in 1987. In the 1990s, the negative impact of mass tourism was taken into consideration. Ceballos-Lascurain highlighted that an environmentally friendly or sustainable tourism approach has been needed to prevent the negative impacts of mass tourism on nature and culture of destinations, and consequently income lost (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). According to World Tourism Organization, sustainable tourism is "tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities" (UNWTO, 2016c). According to Dillon (2010) sustainable tourism is those (Dillon & Diebel, 2010):  Staying at locally owned accommodation facilities where keepers work to reduce negative impact on the environment.  Eating at locally owned restaurants that serve fresh, sustainably and locally grown food.  Joining farm tours to see new interesting people (e.g. farmers, cheesemakers) who live in respect to earth.  Going around on, bicycle, on foot or by public transportation in destination.

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 Joining low impact sports like biking, hiking, canoeing etc. while enjoying the beautiful nature.  Taking home a different skill and different knowledge rather than a new souvenir.  Shopping for local arts and crafts instead of industrial products.  Attending low-impact local activities and events. 1.2. Ecotourism Some terms like ecotourism, green tourism, nature based tourism, and community based tourism are generally used as synonyms for sustainable tourism. However, De Kadt (1990) addressed sustainable tourism in the broadest way as to include all types of tourism that provide sustainable development (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). It can be said that sustainable tourism focuses on environmental, social and economic sustainability while ecotourism is about generally ecologic sustainability. Hector Ceballos-Lascurain (1983) used the term "ecotourism" firstly different from other terms that were used to describe travel to natural areas (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). According to him, ecotourism is "environmentally responsible travel and visitation to relatively undisturbed natural areas, in order to enjoy and appreciate nature (and any accompanying cultural features — both past and present) that promotes conservation, has low visitor impact, and provides for beneficially active socio- economic involvement of local populations" (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) which is the authority on ecotourism, modified the definition in 2015 to "responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-being of the local people and involves interpretation and education with the specification that education is to staff and guests" (TİES, 2016a). After this definition, the International Ecotourism Society (TIES) announced following ecotourism principles (TİES, 2016b):  Minimize physical, social, behavioral, and psychological impacts.  Build environmental and cultural awareness, and respect.  Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts.  Produce direct financial benefits for conservation.  Generate financial benefits for both local people and private industry.  Deliver memorable interpretative experiences to visitors that help raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social climates.  Design, construct and operate low-impact facilities.  Recognize the rights and spiritual beliefs of the Indigenous People in your community and work in partnership with them to create empowerment. Ecotourism emerged against the negative impacts of mass tourism. Ecotourism has positive effects on environment and local community. According to Almeyda et al. (2010) study in the Nicoya Peninsula - Costa Rica, ecotourism improved welfare of local people in terms of employment, education, reduction in alcohol and drug consumption and prostitution. However, ecotourism caused increase in land and product price in the peninsula. On the other hand, ecotourism has been bringing some threats while it becomes more popular. For the last 15 years, ecotourism has increased three times more than the overall tourism industry. Erdogan (2015) claimed that the purpose of the expanding tourism market and the creation of new profit areas lies behind the environmentalist (ecotourism) discourse. Thus, tourism investments have been shifted to rural and natural areas. Eventually, many laws related to environment and tourism have been made in both national and international areas. Erdogan (2015) emphasized that ecotourism can be dangerous for the environment in the future because ecotourism activities are carried out in or around the protected areas, and ecotourism destinations would be damaged more as they become more popular. 1.3.Sustainability at Travel Agencies and Tour Operators Tour operators and travel agencies working in the ecotourism field are often small and medium sized enterprises (Bozok and Yilmaz, 2008). Because, sustainable tourism was seen as the opposite of mass tourism when the term first appeared, sustainable tourism was taken into consideration as small solutions to struggle with the macro problems of mass tourism’s negative effects. In this point of view, tour operators were held responsible for mass tourism and consequently these problems. Even so, the main objective of sustainable tourism is the sustainability of the environment and industrial structure

431 (Erdoğan, 2013). Ziffer (1996) categorized tour operators into four groups according to environmental behaviour:  Opportunistic: This group is unconscious about the environment and local culture, and only cares about selling nature and making profit.  Sensitive: These tour operators tend to make low impact trips but profit is still the main motivation for them.  Constructive: This group sacrifices their revenue for the environment and local community.  Pro-active: These tour operators play a significant role in conserving and improving quality of destinations where they organize tours. Even, they lead preservation initiative in community. Travel agencies must transform their knowledge and information to environmental sensitivity and determine and implement operation policy that concern the environment (Erdoğan, 2013) and reflect their commitment to the environmental activities on their web sites. Furthermore, travel agencies must develop not only themselves but also tourists in the context of environment (Erdoğan, 2012). A survey of 1,300 US travellers conducted by tripadvisor.com in 2013 revealed that 62% of respondents often or always consider the environment when choosing hotels, transportation and meals. Moreover, 69% of participants declared that they would make more eco-friendly choices in the next year (planyourmeetings.com, 2016). According another survey in 2014 from Blue and Green Tomorrow’s, 43% of the participants agreed to consider the ethical or environmental footprint of their main holiday, while 10% of the respondents partially agreed to this (Blue and Green Tomorrow, 2014). For example, Transat is an integrated tour operator company which has launched a funding program for sustainable tourism projects and donation programs to benefit local communities. This company trained about 500 employees about child sex tourism and published awareness messages in magazine. Moreover, it has been partner with SOS Children’s Villages which cares for 80,000 orphan children, in order to prevent poverty. It has LEED Platinum for head office and it was awarded for fuel management program lowering CO2 emission (Sustainable Tourism Forum, 2011). Tour operators have organized in order to support sustainable tourism activities as well as accommodation facilities, transportation businesses, and destinations. The Tour Operator’s Initiative for Sustainable Tourism Development (TOI) was established in Berlin in 2000 under the auspices of the World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). The main objectives of the Initiative were (UNWTO, 2016d):  Practice of environment management in tourism operations  Development of responsible tourism considering destination life stage  Education of tourists in terms of environmentally responsible decisions and behaviors. The initiative began with 20 signatories’ tour operators from Europe, Asia, Africa and US. Then, all tour operators from different location and in different major were welcomed to TOI (Tepelus, 2005). In December 2014, the Tour Operator’s' Initiative for Sustainable Tourism Development (TOI) was merged with the Global Sustainable Tourism Council (GSTC) which operates under the auspices of UNWTO, UNEP, the Rainforest Alliance and the United Nations Foundation. The GSTC “establishes and manages global sustainable tourism standards with the aim of increasing sustainable tourism knowledge and practices among public and private stakeholders” (GSTC, 2016a). Therefore, GSTC authorizes other organizations in order to increase sustainable tourism knowledge and practices. The following standards are recognized as aligned with GSTC criteria for Hotel & Tour Operators in terms of Tour Operators (GSTC, 2016b):  Biosphere Responsible Tourism  Ecotourism Australia's Ecotourism Standard  Ecotourism Ireland Certification Programme  Fair Trade Tourism  GREAT Green Deal Certification Program  Green Globe  Green Growth 2050  Rainforest Alliance Standard for Tourism Operations

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 TOFTigers Initiative’s Pug mark Eco Certification  TourCert Standard for Tour Operators  Travelife Standard for Tour Operators & Travel Agents 2. METHODOLOGY The design of this study was defined as single case study from qualitative research designs. Kuoni Group Travel Industry Services, which was the winner of World's Leading Green Tour Operator 2015 Award was selected for the case. The award is a reputed award about sustainable actions of tour operators worldwide. The award Document Analysis was used for data collection. Content analysis applied the data collected from tour operator’s website. Global Sustainable Tourism Council’s criteria and indicators for Hotel & Tour Operators were used to determine themes of study. 3. RESULTS 3.1. Sustainable Management Five taps as group, investor relations, corporate governance, and people and corporate responsibility are outstanding when looking at the main page. Sustainability related issues are given under the corporate responsibility tab. The organization claims to act as a good corporate citizen which considers environmental, social and economic sustainability. In addition, the Code of Conduct is reviewed by organization and it is based on the following principles:  behaviour with integrity and in compliance with the law  the recognition of universal human rights principles  respect for other cultures and opinions  responsibility towards society  care for the environment. The organization declares that it is compliant with the Global Code of Ethics for Tourism of the UNWTO. This document is binding on all employees. It aims to constantly improve sustainability performance. Group Corporate Responsibility officers develop, coordinate and monitor sustainable activities of the organization. Divisional CR officers and local CR ambassadors are responsible from implementation of sustainable actions. The organization commits to be transparent against to internal and external stakeholders about organization's activities. The all suppliers (e.g. tour providers) have to sign the Kuoni Supplier Code of Conduct to improve sustainability performance. Respect and promotion of human rights are affirmed on the code of conduct. It is announced that the fair, healthy and safe conditions are aimed for organization's all employees. The organization employs different nations all over the world. It brings diversity which requires openness, tolerance and empathy from all employees. Harassment and discrimination against anyone for race, sex, age or disability is prohibited by the organization. Kuoni Group Annual Report 2015 is available at the main page as well as previous years' annual reports can be reached from the investors tab. In 2015 Annual Report, there is a corporate responsibility section contains human rights, labour, environment and anti-corruption as four areas defined by United Nations Global Compact. Before the sections, the organisation announces that it was rewarded with C+ and put into Prime category by Oekom Research Company. Also, it was rated as "most sustainable travel company" by the same company. In the human rights section, it is announced that 53,215 EUR - within Kouni Group's Global Giving Programme - was donated to ECPAT which is a charitable organization work against child prostitution and child sex tourism in 75 countries. Also the organization promises to comply following principles about human rights:  the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)  the International Labour Organization’s Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work (ILO Core Conventions)  the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights (UNGP)  the UN Global Compact Ten Principles  the UN Tourism Organizations (UNWTO) Global Code of Ethics

433  the UN Children’s Rights and Business Principles (CRBP)  and the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises. 3.2. Sustainable Supply Chain Management The group expects compliance with the Supplier Code of Conduct from business partners (hoteliers, cruise ship operators, tour providers etc.). The suppliers must obey international, national and local laws and regulations especially against anti-bribery and anti-corruption practices. Minimizing negative impact on the environment is expected from suppliers in terms of monitoring and reducing energy and water usage, decreasing chemical usage and proper discharge of solid waste. Suppliers should follow animal welfare standards stated in Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) and Animal Welfare Minimum Requirements. In human right terms, any discrimination is based on race, gender, religion and disability. Any force labour is prohibited to suppliers by the organization. The business partners cannot employ children less than 15 years of age with the exception of developing countries where the age limit is 14 years of age as determined by ILO. Suppliers should provide a safe workplace to employees. The wages should be at least industry standard. Female employees should have maternity leave and other rights in case of pregnancy. The organization issued the Guidelines for Sustainable Excursions especially for tour providers and tourists. They should be polite and respectful to the local community and traditions. Tourists have the opportunity to purchase local traditional handicrafts and local food. Tour providers should follow rules and regulations while visiting protected areas (e.g. national parks). Slow and non-motorized travel is advised. Unless it is possible, small sized and low emission vehicles could be used. Excursions which cause environmental degradation are prohibited by the organization. Group size should be limited because of carrying capacity. Actions should be taken to save energy and water like training drivers to save energy. Suppliers are encouraged to comply with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). During the excursions, any captivity, sale, consumption of an animal species is prohibited. Tourist should keep a safe distance from wildlife and should not make noise or feed animals during the excursions in animal welfare terms. Also, the organization declares safe distance to marine wildlife which is a minimum distance 100 m. to any whale and 50 m. to any dolphin. Tourist should be taken to locally owned restaurants and shops. Staff employed by business partners should be trained about sustainable tourism awareness. Tour guides, who are licensed officially, should have security and first aid knowledge about animal attacks. Drivers must not drive more than nine hours per day and minimum 45 minute breaks should be given after 4.5 hours driving period. All staff should work according to the written employment contract and they should be provided fair working conditions (e.g. legal wage and overtime requirements). Tour provider should inform tourist about culturally proper behaviours as well as history, religion and traditions of the local community before the excursions. They should instruct about wildlife and how to minimize negative effect of excursions on the environment. Environmental impact and carbon footprint of the organization is reported to Carbon Disclosure Project (CDP) every year. CDP announced Kuoni as sector leader in Germany, Austria and Switzerland region in 2015. VFS Global owned by Kuoni Group supported my climate carbon offset project in Karnataka State of India that saved 70,724 tons of firewood and 92,230 tons of CO2. Kuoni Group technically encourages supplier hotels to reduce water consumption. The organization published a handbook of water management and promotes a reward system. The participants who implement water management procedures rewarded with Water Champion Award. In November 2015, the seventeen participant hotels saved total amount of water equivalent to 32,200 people’s monthly water need. In Phuket, a hotel monthly saved 35 trucks of fresh water with rainwater harvesting system. In the manual, some benefits of water award programme are given. For example, Amari Water Gate hotel in Bangkok decreased water consumption per bednight from 720 litres to 600 litres by water management programme which means 20% savings. Indra Regent Hotel in Bangkok also decreased

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water consumption per bednight from 740 litres to 622 litres. Katathani hotel in Phuket also decreased water consumption per bednight from 500 litres to 425 litres. These savings were achieved by installing of water meters, efficient showerheads, low flush capacity toilets, implementing towel and bed linen reuse programs, and training staff on water saving. The water saving process is examined under seven steps as planning, data collection, cost benefit analysis, defining the action plan, monitoring, training staff, and creating customer awareness. 3.3. Personnel Awareness Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), media and employees are defined as stakeholders by the organization as well as investors, customers, suppliers and business partners. In 2014, the organization committed an online learning course which was developed to train the staff about sustainability in daily routine and apply the Supplier Code of Conduct and Sustainable Excursion Guidelines in business transactions. A study which is given on the website, revealed that 75% of Kuoni employees think that their company is highly interested in sustainability. In addition to this, the organization informs all staff about sustainability and opportunities on corporate responsibility issues via intranet of the organization. The organization claims that it is dedicated to engage employees on sustainability. Every year, it organizes corporate responsibility activities where employees experience sustainability, including responsible travel and tourism. In 2014, within online engagement campaign 94,447 sustainable actions have been completed. The "We Act Challenge" campaign in 2014 resulted with an outcome of saving 9,75 tons of CO2 which is equivalent to emission of 37,395 km car drive. The organization introduced Corporate Volunteering in 2013, and, along with its employees supports charity organizations such as Paneco, Grünwerk, Bergwald project and the Swiss Parks Network to conserve nature in Switzerland. Corporate Volunteering programme launched with 140 employees from different countries over world. One day for a year is given to volunteer employees for reading for children with reading disorder, helping elders to understand modern technology, supporting homeless at Christmas and cleaning local parks and community open areas. 3.4. Projects and Certification In 2016, Kuoni Congress has started a three-year plan to have a more sustainable management system and to certify to highest standards of ISO 20121. The standards will provide to become events more sustainable and to better meet customer demands. The organization advertises membership of three corporate reporting standards and memberships. The first one is Carbon Disclosure Project which combats against climate change and especially depends on open emission communication. The second one is Global Reporting Initiative (GRI G4 Index) which is an international independent reporting system that helps organizations to reduce impact on sustainability issues as human rights, climate change and corruption. The third one is UN Global Impact which is a commitment link to 10 universally recognized principles about human rights, labour, environment and anti-corruption. Kuoni Group announces that they have a sustainable supply chain strategy which is aimed at raising a sustainable level of the group’s business partners. So that, the suppliers have to agree to report their progress and also inspection by the organization. The group also is an active member of Travelife which is a certification scheme to evaluate tour operators and accommodation suppliers on sustainable tourism issues. It is recognized by Global Sustainable Tourism Council. Moreover, it encourages hotel partners to join and to be certified by Travelife. The hoteliers and local experts on sustainable hotel management meet to increase awareness about sustainability and business benefits such as cost reduction, improved customer and employee satisfaction. The organization has carried out the Toward Travelife projects in Spain, Tunisia and Morocco in order to improve socially and environmentally and capacity to reach the Travelife award. Partner hotels in Tunisia have audited in accordance to Travelife criteria in 2015. Five Partner hotels in Morocco have been supported by experts in social and environmental improvement since 2014. During 2016 year, those hotels will be ready to achieve the Travelife award.

435 3.5. Sustainable Goals and Performance Under the Corporate Responsibility tab, the goals of 2016 year and performance previous years are given in terms of environment and labour. According to 2015 numbers, 18,803 tonnes CO2 emissions were produced from purchased electricity, steam, heating and cooling that means 1.35 tonnes CO2 per one full time equivalent staff. For the same period, 18,583 tons of CO2 were generated due to air travel by Kuoni Group that is also means 2.38 tonnes of CO2 generation per one FTE staff. In 2015, Kuoni Group purchased 92,497 Gigajoule of which 2.66 percent was generated from renewable resources. The group consumed 525,407 kg of paper of which 1.88 percent was purchased from recycled material. Kouni Group employed 7,968 full time equivalents in 2015. In Senior Management, 57 female managers are employed, meaning 51% of senior management were female for the same period. The organization employed 7,987 (97%) full time persons and 266 (3%) part time persons. Totally, 55% of all employees are female. Employee turnover rate is 30.6% in 2015. 3.6. Natural Resources Concern The organization manifests that climate change, water and biodiversity are three prior areas they concern. The group also declares its aim to reduce greenhouse gas emissions due to its operations. A recent project of the group in India is biogas production from cattle manure and wastewater. As a result of the project, one single biogas plant saves 5,4 tons of CO2 emissions per year and 450,000 tons of CO2 has been saved from the beginning of the project. With another project in Bali, the group supports a waste disposal project which provides jobs to 120 people and recycles 50 tonnes of solid waste every day. The majority of waste is composted and sold to farmers because 85% of the total waste produced on island is organic. Another project in Bali is the construction of a biodiesel recycling plant. This plant creates 20 jobs and is expected to reduce approximately 8500 tonnes of CO2 equivalent emissions during its lifetime. In Kenya Gold Standard carbon offset project aims to sell efficient cook stoves. Because, local women cook over open fire which causes harmful emission and causes 1.6 million deaths every year. During the project 60,000 tonnes of CO2 has been reduced. Water is another issue addressed by the organization. According to European Environmental Agency, tourists consume 400 litres of water daily while local people consume 250 litres of water daily in Mallorca, Spain. The organization warns partners in the supply chain about water consumption with a statement of Commitment on the Environment which was published 2013. Especially in water scarce areas, the organization encourages to measure, report and reduce fresh water usage, do appropriate water treatment, increase awareness of employees, support local community for planning water management about accessing drinking water, sanitation and hygiene issues. The organization carries out Kuoni Water Champion award. Kenya and Thailand was selected as two pilot destinations for the project and two manuals were prepared for water management in these destinations. The group also supports a rainwater harvesting project near Amboseli National Park in Kenya. Rainwater harvesting tanks were placed on 4 public schools which had water scarcity problem. 1711 students got access to fresh water and 262 trees were planted against climate change and erosion. Biodiversity is another issue the group gives importance. With Kouni Group's Statement on the Environment and Supplier Code of Conduct support ecosystems in protected and high biodiversity areas. The group promotes responsible wildlife excursions, increased awareness of customers and employees to promote sustainable ecotourism development. For this purpose, the organization collaborated with International Union for Conservation of Nature in a project which is aimed to improve business skills of ecotourism organizations. In 2012, the group published a textbook about ecotourism to support business skills into ecotourism operations. In addition to this, the organization held various workshops in Kenya (2011), Laos (2012), South Korea (2012) and Sri Lanka (2013) with approximately 100 participants from more than 50 local organizations. 4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Tourism and environment are in an interdependent relationship. Due to the sustainability of tourism, the environment should be protected by all stakeholders of the tourism industry. Therefore, sustainable tourism, especially the ecotourism concept, has become famous in recent decades. As actors in the tourism industry, tour operators who have the power to shape touristic demand should not only

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conserve the natural, social, cultural and historical environment but also should guide tourists and employees toward sustainable and responsible tourism. In this study, a website of a tour operator who won World's Leading Green Tour Operator in 2015 was examined. The results showed that the organization informs tourists and employees as well as other stakeholders via website. The group has adopted a transparent management approach, so recent years’ annual reports like financial reports, market reports and corporate responsibility reports (GRI) are revealed on website. The organization reports not only to be sustainable by itself but also in the whole supply chain. Business partners have to sign the Supplier Code of Conduct and statement of Commitment on the Environment. In addition, business partners have to be willing to be audited by the organization. The corporate responsibility policy of the company is seen as sincere by 75% of the employees. As a result, the majority of the staff are highly motivated in workplace. The company has carried out international standards and international certifications which help tourists to identify sustainable companies. The group informs and trains tourists before excursions about how to behave during the excursions, eating locally owned restaurants, buying traditional souvenirs and how to minimize negative impact on environment. As customers of the tourism industry, tourists should be aware of sustainable businesses. The real green or sustainable businesses should be distinguished from green painted businesses for tourists. Water management, biodiversity conservation and emissions are seen three major subjects of sustainability. The company advertises projects of these subjects that supported by the group. Social charities that combat against child sex tourism have been supported by the organization as well. Tour operators should take examples from such practices as a goals. Moreover, they should create sustainable management, concern about welfare of local community, cultural heritage and minimize environmental impact. REFERENCES Almeyda, A. M., Broadbent, E. N., Wyman, M. S., & Durham, W. H. (2010). Ecotourism impacts in the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica. International Journal of Tourism Research, 12(6), 803-819. doi: 10.1002/jtr.797. Blue and Green Tomorrow. Sustainable Tourism: January 2014 3. Edition. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://3hky4v206jda3tityl3u622q.wpengine.netdna-cdn.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/01/01.2014- sustainable-tourism-guide-10MB-dbl-pg-sprd.pdf Bozok, D., Yılmaz, Ö. (2008). Turistik Ürün Çeşitlendirmesi. Editör: Hacıoğlu, N. ve Avcıkurt. C, İçinde,“Ekoturizm” Nobel Yayınları, Ankara. Buhalis, Dimitrios. "Tourism distribution channels: practices and processes." Tourism distribution channels: Practices, issues and transformations (2001): 7-32. Ceballos-Lascurain, H. (1996). Tourism, Ecotourism, and Protected Areas: The State of Nature-Based Tourism Around The World and Guidelines for Its Development: IUCN. Dillon, P., & Diebel, L. S. (2010). Green Travel Guide to Southern Wisconsin : Environmentally and Socially Responsible Travel. Madison, WI, USA: University of Wisconsin Press. Erdogan, N. (2015). Ecotourism: Conceptual and Critical Approaches. Centre for Policy and Research on Turkey (ResearchTurkey), IV(9), 15-29. Erdoğan, N. (2012). Çevre Duyarlılığı Bağlamında Seyahat Acentelerinin Web Siteleri Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme/An Evaluation of Environmental Concerns of Travel Agencies in Their Web Sites. Tarih Kültür ve Sanat Araştırmaları Dergisi, 1(4), 247-265. Erdoğan, N. (2013). Seyahat acenteleri örneğiyle turizmde sürdürülebilirlik: Ekoetiket, sertifikasyon ve akreditasyon programı. Verimlilik Dergisi, 2013(3), 65-92. GSTC. (2016a). GSTC Objectives. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://www.gstcouncil. org/en/about/gstc- overview/gstc-objectives.html GSTC. (2016b). Recognized Standards for Hotels & Tour Operators. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://www.gstcouncil.org/en/gstc-partners-2/gstc-recognized-standards/gstc-recognized-standards-for- hotels-tour-operators.html International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. World Conservation Strategy. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from https://portals.iucn.org/library/efiles/edocs/WCS-004.pdf

437 Plan Your Meetings. “Survey: 62 percent of travellers go green; hotels could do more.” Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://planyourmeetings.com/2013/05/08/survey-62-percent-of-travelers-go-green- hotels - could-do-more/ Responsible Travel and Tourism Forum. Travel Press. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://www.travelpress. com/subscription/IDEA/RTTF-Showcase-2011/#?page=6 Tepelus, C. M. (2005). Aiming for sustainability in the tour operating business. Journal of Cleaner Production, 13(2), 99-107. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2003.12.018 the World Commission on Environment and Development. Our Common Future. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://www.un-documents.net/our-common-future.pdf TIES. (2016a). TIES Announces Ecotourism Principles Revision. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from https://www.ecotourism.org/news/ties-announces-ecotourism-principles-revision TIES. (2016b). What is Ecotourism? Retrieved 25.02.2016, from https://www. Ecotou rism.org/what-is- ecotourism. UNEP. (2016a). Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://www.unep.org/documents.multilingual/default .asp?documentid =97 &articleid =1503 UNEP. (2016b). Tourism's Three Main Impact Areas. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://www.unep.org/ resourceefficiency/Business/SectoralActivities/Tourism/FactsandFiguresaboutTourism/ImpactsofTourism /EnvironmentalImpacts/TourismsThreeMainImpactAreas/tabid/78776/Default.aspx UNESCO. (2016). Sustainable Tourism. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://www.unesco.org/educa-tion/ tlsf/mods/theme_c/mod16.html?panel=2#top United Nations. (2016a). United Nations Sustainable Development. Agenda 21. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from https://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/ Agenda21 .pdf United Nations. (2016b). United Nations Sustainable Development: From Brundtland to Rio 2012. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://www.un.org/wcm/webdav/site/climate change/ shared/gsp/docs/GSP1- 6_Background%20on%20Sustainable%20Devt.pdf UNWTO. (2016a). Tourism Highlights 2015 Edition. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://www.e-unwto.org/ doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284416899. UNWTO. (2016b). Climate Change and Tourism Responding to Global Challenges. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://sdt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/climate2008.pdf UNWTO. (2016c). Sustainable Development of Tourism Retrieved 25.02.2016, from http://sdt.unwto.org/ content/about-us-5 UNWTO. (2016d). Tour Operators’ Initiative for Sustainable Tourism Development. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from WTTC. Travel & Tourism Economic Impact 2015 World. Retrieved 25.02.2016, from https://www.wttc.org/- /media/files/reports/economic%20impact%20research/regional%202015/world2015.pdf Ziffer, K. A. (1996). In Tourism, Ecotourism, and Protected Areas: The State of Nature-Based Tourism Around The World and Guidelines for Its Development. H. Ceballos-Lascurain (Ed.): IUCN.

438 Chapter 34

Dynamic Capabilities: A Theoretical Framework for Tourism Destinations

Emre ERBAŞ*

INTRODUCTION Tourism industry has undergone a surpassing degree of switch in the recent years in consequence of decidedly unpredictable environmental dynamism. As a result of this volatile and turbulent dynamism, from fierce fluctuations in supply of materials to assertive variations in customer demand, firms are under pressure more than ever. Deriving from the reality that the long-term competitive advantage in rapidly changing environment is harsh to maintain, recent competitiveness research points out what makes companies sustain competitive advantage in an average period (Wiggings & Ruefli, 2005). While all firms have access to similar resources, the capability of assembling, integrating and deploying them efficaciously distinguishes those (Singh et al., 2013). Therefore, this distinctiveness could be thought as an answer to why some firms are successful in a dynamic atmosphere when others not? In essence, one can assume that even though firms compete in the same environment, some of them perform superior, which brings to mind that what distinguishes them are their internal and heterogeneous capabilities. Lately, researchers have broadened RBV (resource based view) to dynamic markets (Teece et al., 1997). Therefore, businesses are more disposed to be in search of finding their way to build their resources and/or capabilities by effectively developing and fitting the changing environment. Lately, concepts and models referring the issue have more and more gathered around the dynamic capabilities (DCs) (Arend & Bromiley, 2009). According to this paradigm, the focus should be on the firm’s capability to change, innovate, to be elastic and to be conscious of how to fit to a quickly shifting atmosphere. Hence, some scholars urge upon the definition of firms should be made by what they are capable of doing, rather than by the needs of they seek to satisfy (Grant, 1991). How can businesses prosperously develop competitive advantage is to be answered by three different perspectives, which are positioning view, the resource-based view (RBV), and dynamic capabilities view. While the positioning perspective relies on the market standing of firms (e.g., cost leadership) and resource-based perspective relies on the firm’s resources (e.g. sources that are valuable and inimitable), the dynamic capabilities perspective builds on both of these perspectives. The logic base is that RBV has not adequately simplified how and why specific organizations have competitive superiority in contexts of fast and unforeseen changes. The source of sustainable competitive advantage is determined through DCs clarifying of how the organization decision makers build, assemble and recombine internal and external capabilities to answer quickly shifting environments (Teece et al., 1997). As from Teece et al.’s (1997) signature study, the DCs view has inspired a stimulating stream of research. To them, the ability of a firm to revitalize and reanimate its strategic capabilities to fit the hypercompetitive market environment is identified as DCs as a source to achieving competitive advantage. Different from usual capabilities, DCs are idiosyncratic and unique to each organization and aged with the organization’s lifetime. What makes them imitable is that they are internalized within the business intelligence that is radicicolous in business mission. While these capabilities could be regular like organizational systems related to different product creation or standardized paths for consensus for allocation of assets, they could also be a guide to direct strategic actions, such as acquisitions or alliances by which novel capabilities are gained by the firm (Johnson et al., 2005). As we see today, new mergers or acquisitions are applied intensively in hotel industry with billions of dollars in deals such as Marriot and a Chinese insurance company Anbang in competition to buy Starwood hotels group recently which, as a tool to develop DCs in firms’ marketing strategies.

*Assist. Prof. Dr., Gaziosmanpaşa University, Tourism and Hotel Management Department.

Because built-in, possession of a capability cannot easily be transmitted from one firm to another without also transmitting possession of the organization itself, or some fairly self-controlled subunit of the firm (Makadok, 2001). On the other hand, since the conditions and preferences change along with the conditions of competition, the analysis of the critical factors of success must also be dynamic (Rodrigues & Dorrego, 2008). Due to these circumstances managers should implement greater focus on increasing the flexibility in their strategy, since flexibility in an organisation’s strategy is necessary to keep up with competitors and be able to switch level of production to respond to external threats (Singh et al., 2013). According to Helfat & Peteraf (2003) it is always possible to make your existing capabilities dynamic, as it is a matter of adapting and change the usage of them. Research Orientation in DCs In key DCs studies, researchers have pictured DCs as heading antecedences of competitive superiority, as prerequisties, moderators, mediators and mediated or moderated boosters of organizational performance or organizational switch, and as layouts thereof (Arend & Bromiley, 2009). Research on the DCs view govern streams that embody the nature of DCs (Teece, 2007), factors affecting DCs (Li & Liu, 2014; Pandza & Thorpe, 2009), the process of DCs (Harreld et al., 2007; Narayanan et al., 2009), performance and DCs (Tseng & Lee, 2014; Huang et al., 2010). Even though DCs is extensively researched in different industries, empirical research that addresses tourism industry is limited. Because, the resource-based view is still dominating the competitiveness theories and models and studies put more focus on testing these models especially at destination level (Crouch, 2010; Dwyer & Kim, 2003; Kozak & Rimmington, 1999). Therefore the focus is more on resources rather than on how to dynamize them. In this context, which factors make the destinations’ capabilities dynamic is a substantial question to be answered especially in context of destination competitiveness. Therefore, this study aims to take attention to potential DCs that have relevance in tourism destinations under the light of prevalent literature. Within this aim, the potential antecedents of DCs for tourism destinations will be discussed in context of three levels: individual, firm and network levels as similar to Rothaermel and Hess (2007). CONCEPTUAL BACKGROUND Since the DCs is proposed as an expansion of the resources-based view of the organization (Teece et al., 1997), it is significant to distinguish the two concepts, resources and capabilities. While the know-how, financial or physical assets and human capital could be thought as examples of resources, capabilities, as opposed, attribute to an organization’s capacity to disseminate these resources in a holistic way through organizational processes, to reach the targeted purpose (Amit & Schoemaker, 1993: 35). In their original proposal, Teece et al. (1997) identified DCs as “the firm’s ability to integrate, build, and reconfigure internal and external competences to address rapidly changing environments”. Similarly did Helfat et al. (2007), “the capacity of an organization to purposefully create, extend, or modify its resource base”. In a broad definition Eisenhardt and Martin (2000) identify it as “the firm’s processes that use resources-specifically the processes to integrate, reconfigure, gain, and release resources to match and even create market change; DCs thus are the organizational and strategic routines by which firms achieve new resource configurations as markets emerge, collide, split, evolve, and die”. In a more detailed manner Teece (2007) disaggregates DCs into the capability (a) to sense and form opportunities and threats, (b) to seize opportunities, and (c) to sustain competitiveness through augmenting, integrating, guarding, and, when essential, reshaping the organization enterprise’s intangible and tangible assets. To be obvious, the term is most often used as a description of strategic capabilities that firms rely on to develop competitive advantage in such dynamic conditions (Johnson et al., 2005). It is not a creation of a good or a service; it is construction, integration or reconfiguration of operational capabilities (Helfat & Peteraf, 2003). Based on ideational origins that incorporate the resource-based and knowledge-based views, evolutionary economics, hypercompetition, real options and the innovation literature at large, the DCs strive to delineate how an organization may appreciate better performance in a fast shifting sector through constant change (Teece, 2007). In this manner, DCs are not straightly associated with competitive advantage, rather, DCs may have an effect on performance through reshaping an

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organization’s resources, and organizations with indistinguishable DCs may differentiate themselves with the creation of different bundles of resources (Eisenhardt & Martin, 2000; Zott, 2003). Dimensions of DCs Teece (2007) has placed the DCs framework on the primary dimensions being sensing opportunities and threats, seizing opportunities and managing threats and transforming whereas sensing makes reference to making strategic decisions based on the knowledge through significant marketing intelligence. Seizing, on the other hand, refers to deploying collectivity and mobility to organizations to advance ecosystem readiness to capture the opportunity while transforming puts emphasize on the continuous reconfiguration of tangible and intangible assets to sustain strategic relevance in turbulent market conditions. In brief (Feiler & Teece, 2014: 15), “DCs are the orchestrated and managed clusters of activity that empower and help guide decisions about direction (sensing), that prepare, plan and align stakeholders, engendering organizational readiness for change (seizing), and that actually change the organization so that it can capture opportunities and create value through efforts to mitigate risks (transformation)”. As can be seen from Figure 1, these three generic and corporate level capabilities take the center stage in understanding the formation of competitive advantage (Kindström et al., 2013). However, as implied in Figure 1, the good strategy is another necessary antecedent of competitive advantage besides the dynamic capability (Teece, 2014). In the figure, ordinary capabilities need to be integrated with DCs especially focusing on intangible assets to create long term survival and growth, preserving competitive advantage in fast-shifting and knowledge-based economies (Teece, 2014).

Capabilities Build (Dynamic)

Buy? Organizational (Ordinary) Capabilities Strategy, Heritage; (Prescient Managerial Diagnoses Competitive Decisions Guiding Policy; Advantage (Sensing, Seizing, (Generic) Coherent Transforming) Resources Action) Buy?

Resources (VRIN) Build

Figure 1: Logical Structure of the Dynamic Capabilities Paradigm Source: Teece, 2014: 22. Evolution of DCs Heading away from an attribution of DCs as systematized models and learning process of firm’s activities targeting the constitution and adjustment of maintaining routines. Zollo and Winter (2000: 340-342) suggested that they expand through the coevolution of three structures: i) tacit accumulation of past experience (the main learning process by which maintaining routines have conventionally been thought to advance based on perennial implementation of equivalent duties) ii) knowledge articulation (building collective competence, the process through which implicit knowledge is disseminated through concerted debates, debriefing sessions, and performance evaluation processes and therefore is concluded as customizable adjustments to the existent group of routines) and iii) knowledge codification processes (having identified and determined the adjustments in routines, the firm should generate a guide or a vehicle to ease its iteration and deployment). In a specific manner, they imply that the DCs are formed

441 as a learning process which transform into operational routines unique to firms. DETERMINANTS OF DYNAMIC CAPABILITIES IN DESTINATIONS Destination, as a service product, is identified as an interdependent mixture of tangible and intangible components comprising physical products, people, packages and programmes (Morrison, 2013: 112). For this study, it is defined as a combination of resources, knowledge, experiences, technologies, abilities and competencies of a region (Pechlaner, et al., 2005: 46). Because of the complexity of destination product and intrinsic characteristics of tourism, especially as a multilevel- stakeholder-driven product (e.g. hotels, DMO’s, and local dealers etc.), tourism destinations could be thought as a network of independent companies and other actors (Moilanen & Rainisto, 2009). In this manner, within the context of the current study, tourism destinations, as a service product, could be defined as an amalgam of different stakeholders’ capabilities that collaboratively create total service experience to the visitors. Therefore, in this study, the antecedents of DCs are evaluated in multilevel manner in destinations. In this context, the multilevel theoretical model similar to approach of Rothaermel and Hess (2007), who investigated the relationship of dynamic capability with innovation, is adopted. Hence three distinct levels when explaining and evaluating the antecedents of DCs in destinations: the individual level, indicating internal investments such as intellectual capital; the firm level, indicating internal investments such as market orientation; and the network level, indicating external investments such as strategic alliances.

Figure 2: Three Levels of Analysis of DCs in Destinations Among these and other DCs studies, researchers have depicted DCs as direct antecedents of competitive superiority and firm performance in different roles (etc. preconditions, moderators, mediators) (Arend & Bromiley, 2009). Besides, in Figure 2, the main target in the logical structure of DCs is creating competitive advantage. In tourism destination competitiveness (TDC) models, the factors are mostly based on the resources that the destinations have to compete. However, in today’s turbulent competitive environment, discussions about the resource-based view have chiefly center upon the view’s keen internal locus and its absence of dynamics (Foss, 1997). Therefore, different from widely accepted TDC models (i.e., Crouch & Ritchie, 1999, Dwyer & Kim, 2003) the drivers of DCs for destinations were derived from DCs literature as different from usual competitiveness indicators in TDC models under three distinct levels as in Figure 2. To remind, dimensions in these three different levels are not stable, for example, while intellectual capital could take part at individual level, it could also be at the firm level since the unit of analysis is determinant when investigating these constructs. For instance managerial capabilities could be analyzed at the firm level when its function is based on

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organizational environment that creates employee learning while it could function as destination decision makers’ capability. There are other studies that investigate DCs in different levels. In a more specific manner, Eriksson (2014) make this classification under two main levels with two sublevels; i) internal antecedents (a. structural, i.e., employee capabilities and organizational structure, and b. social, i.e., managerial and collaboration) and ii) external antecedents (a. environment, i.e., market and technological and b. networks and relationships, i.e., asset complementarity and learning from partners). On the other hand, Teece (2007), the originator of this theory, has summarized the antecedents of DCs as microfoundations; the distinct skills, processes, procedures, organizational structures, decision rules, and disciplines. More specifically, in DCs literature, other drivers of DCs are social capital (Byler & Coff, 2003), experience and managerial choice (King & Tucci, 2002), entrepreneurship (Zahra et al., 2006), adaptive, absorptive and innovative capabilities (Wang & Ahmed, 2007), governance of R&D (Kor & Mahoney, 2005), structural inertia (Schreyögg & Kliesch-Eberl, 2007), modularity in product design (Pil & Cohen, 2006), and exploitation capability (Cabiddu, 2014). Individual-Level Intellectual capital. Intellectual capital is accepted as a substantial asset for hospitality firms (Rudez & Mihalic, 2007). In a definition, intellectual capital is stock knowledge in the firm and is exhibited both in individual (i.e., knowledge, skills and talents) and organizational level (i.e., customer data bases, organization processes, culture) (Hannes & Lowendahl, 1997). Barney takes attention to the intellectual capital as one of the most important resources meeting his famous VRIN criteria (valuable, rare, inimitable, and non-substitutable). For instance, Hilton hotels frequently expertise in certain field, such as human resources, thus creates its main competence of management as market entrance/development strategy. Since the intellectual capital needs to be updated and modified lastingly in a way that other rivalries are unable to imitate it, intellectual capital is also dynamic in nature (Skaggs & Youndt, 2004). The pattern and settings of intellectual capital value-laden and formation cannot be trimmed to individual qualities, yet have to be examined in their own right as capabilities assembled by social engagement and knowledge flows, as empowered by the dynamic approach (Kianto, 2007). Therefore managers need to see the DCs as a consequence of learning by including the recognition of intuition, and respecting and encouraging conflicting ideas, and making the experimentation as a learning norm (Johnson, Scholes and Whittington, 2005). More specifically, the calming locus of groups of employees that go extra-miles within an organization engender profoundly planted knowledge that is not simply codified, and therefore is hard to imitate or transfer (Rothaermel & Hess, 2007). Entrepreneurial Orientation. Entrepreneurs are important for DCs in a way that it provides a balance in endeavoring for characteristic capabilities that brings competitive advantage and the practice and improvisation needed to adapt to shifts in the market (Boccardelli & Magnusson, 2006). Schumpeter (1934) defines entrepreneurship in context of presenting new mixtures of products, processes, organizations and distribution channels when confronting the needs of markets. Enterprises with powerful DCs are heavily entrepreneurial. They not only fit to business ecosystems, but also form them through innovation and through establishing strategic alliances (Teece, 2007: 1319). As an activity of utilizing and creating opportunities holistically by sensing and seizing like DCs, entrepreneurship presents the entrepreneurial facet of management (Teece, 2007). Value creation through the crediting of entrepreneurial opportunity is a substantial element in the dynamic-capability framework (Jantunen et al., 2005). Entrepreneurial orientation is a multi-dimensional frame that covers the dimensions of innovativeness (as a predisposition for creativity, prospering new products through research and development in new processes), risk-taking (committing important resources to venture in unpredictable environments) and proactiveness (launching of novel products and services leading of the competition) (Rauch et al., 2009). In an empirical study by Komppula (2014), it was pointed out that without any of these three dimensions, destinations are not able to flourish. Firm-Level Market Orientation. In empirical studies, entrepreneurial orientation is showed to be an antecedent factor to market orientation (Matsuno, Mentzer and Özsomer, 2002). To Narver and Slater (1990, p. 21),

443 market orientation is “the organization culture that most effectively creates the necessary behaviours for the creation of superior value for buyers and, thus, continuous superior performance for the business”. Market orientation is a critical resource that affects an organization’s operation, but the potential value of market orientation should complement with other firm resources and capabilities (Ngo & O’Cass, 2012: 182). It should not be forgotten that market orientation necessitate complementary organizational capabilities if its value to the firm is to be totally realized (Morgan, Vorhies & Mason, 2009). In their empirical study, Menguc and Auh (2006) investigated that transformation of market orientation into dynamic capability was mediated by innovativeness. To them reconfiguration of resources provides a strong effect just when integrated with a tendency to make market-oriented decisions. Managerial Capabilities. When firms need to respond to change, by adapting operational capabilities, they rely on DCs which require substantial managerial involvement (Arend & Bromiley, 2009). Managerial capabilities appear to affect DCs in terms of influencing resource-allocation decisions, organizational path-finding strategies and managers may have positive or negative impact on DCs (Eriksson, 2014). How DCs are identified, built and fostered depends on managerial processes (Feiler & Teece, 2014). Adner and Helfat (2003) moved it forward and presented the concept of dynamic managerial capabilities and identified it as “the capabilities with which managers build, integrate, and reconfigure organizational resources and competences”. Pablo et al. (2007) detected that managerial skills were necessary in determining, enabling and managing the use of a dynamic capability as a strategic approach, and therefore DCs demands remarkable levels of time and energy from dedicated managers. Network-Level Strategic Alliances. The significance of collaboration capability is being recognized progressively as the business world becomes increasingly networked, but also at the same time increasingly fragmented (Blomqvist et al., 2004). Importance of networks is emphasized as the substantial driver of DCs and therefore firms need to persist on the complementary resources and capabilities through alliances (Chang, 2003). In complex knowledge-intensive industries innovation is to be developed within the network of learning consisting of organizations, new entrants, and research centers, instead the limits that individual organizations set (Powell et al., 1996). DCs could be formed as primary strategic moves, such as acquisitions or alliances by which new capabilities are developed by the organization (Johnson et al., 2005: 133). No matter firms start up to cluster with the focus of cost, they may end up with a learning cooperation and this creates a knowledge platform to build new capabilities and resource configurations (Eriksson, 2014). On the other hand, alliances qualify stakeholders to share technological knowledge, utilize scale economies in research, and leverage complementary resources (Teece 1992). In tourism literature, studies focus on alliances from marketing perspective (i.e., Wang & Xiang, 2007). However, in real life, there are some examples that looks at the alliances from other perspectives such as management and resources cooperation or product development. For example, Erciyes winter tourism destination and Cappadocia culture tourism destination came together to form a package tour named Culture-Skiing to benefit from each other. Destination Governance. Corporate governance has a substantial role in deploying assets and responsibilities within and across firms, therefore influencing strategic choices as well as value creation and distribution within individual firms, alliances, and even across countries (Aguilera et al., 2016). Analyzing how firms advance and sustain firm-level capabilities necessitate research focus on both how much firms venture and how efficaciously these strategic investments are administered and governed (Kor & Mahoney, 2005). Kor and Mahoney (2005) found that the governance of resources is an important antecedent in building DCs. especially in the context of R&D activities of firms. In their empirical study, Beritelli et al. (2007) found different patterns in destination governance structures deriving from; i) destination’s long-term development (dynamic perspective of networks) and ii) current environment (affecting governance structures and their evolution by determining the mutual trust and internal mood). They concluded that creating dynamic dimension is vital for the analysis of the formation and evolution of the network, and informal connections, knowledge, and trust are the components in the development process. Therefore, since the DCs. is about how to dynamize the resources to current customer needs, influence of corporate governance on the success of resource

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deployments needs to be addressed carefully (Kor & Mahoney, 2005). CONLUSIONS In a rapid and fluctuate economic environment of today, firms need not only focus on market orientation alone, but they also need to consider their capabilities through which they succeed to compete in this world. Besides, their capabilities must be dynamic to compete in a sustainable way. The DCs theory explains how firms sustain competitive advantage through modifying their capabilities as an answer to environmental changes. In this context, we should not infer that the resource-based theory is outmoded but it makes sense when the resources turn into managerial processes (core competences) and that process is constantly dynamic (DCs). Therefore we can conclude that, when many factors such as market orientation, intellectual capital, governance, strategic alliances etc. integrated successfully by firms, these turn into DCs that is vital for the firms to be competitive. Because of its characteristics (i.e., intangibility and perishability), same is more relevant for tourism destinations which are the final leisure experience and/or service product for visitors. To be successful in building and sustaining DCs for competitive advantage, destinations need to focus on the effective learning strategies and thereby empower stakeholders to collect, disseminate and internalize the knowledge in both individual (firm level) and collective (network level) manner. Because, knowledge is the basic foundation on which the DCs are built. When it is looked at the synthesis of DCs research (Eriksson, 2014); the antecedents (i.e., social, structural, inter-organizational structures), the processes (i.e., knowledge accumulation, knowledge transformation) and the outcomes (i.e., adaptation to change, operational capabilities) conclude with competitive advantage. Hence the studies focusing on destination competitiveness models and theories (i.e., Chen et al., 2016; Dwyer et al., 2014; Erbas, 2016) need to put more emphasize on how destinations’ resources are dynamized rather than to compare the performances of destinations according to the resources they own. Therefore the direction of destination competitiveness studies should be shifting from destination performance and competitiveness measurement to destination performance (DCs) building. For example, the determinance of the distance signifies nothing if a visitor has to make a choice between two holiday destinations that have the same distance. Hence, destinations should design their resources in a different manner that creates value to the visitors through DCs building. Because in dynamic conditions, firms may not able to control the stability of their strategic capabilities (Johnson et al., 2005). The decision makers in destinations should not only to overcome marketing difficulties; they must also build and strengthen resources, signature processes, and signature business models, and integrate assets internally and externally, under the light of a farsighted strategies as Teece (2014) proposed for the multinational enterprises. Further, the future studies, as proposed here, should pay attention to the various interchangeable relationships between the levels of analysis when they measure the DCs as preconditions in creating DCs for tourism destinations. Because the DCs levels of analysis in tourism destinations are interchangeable because of their characteristics as a service product. For example intellectual capital can be evaluated at the individual level as from the perspective of employees, yet, it could also indicate the destination decision makers as firm level. REFERENCES Adner, R. & Helfat, C. E. (2003). Corporate Effects and Dynamic Managerial Capabilities. Strategic Management Journal, 24, 1011-1025. Aguilera, R.; Florackis, C.; Kim, H. (2016). Advancing the Corporate Governance Research Agenda. Corporate Governance: An International Review 24 (3), 172-180. Amit, P. & Schoemaker, P. J. H. (1993). Strategic Assets and Organizational Rent. Strategic Management Journal, 14 (1), 33-46. Arend, R. J. & Bromiley, P. (2009). Assessing the Dynamic Capabilities View: Spare Change, Everyone?. Strategic Organization 7 (1), 75-90. Beritelli, P.; Bieger, T; Laesser, C. (2007). Destination Governance: Using Corporate Governance Theories as a Foundation for Effective Destination Management. Journal of Travel Research 46 (August), 96-107 Blomqvist, K., Hara, V., Koivuniemi, J., & A¨ijo¨, T. (2004). Towards Networked R&D Management: The

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448 Chapter 35

The Effect of Work Related Smartphone Use during Vacation on Recovery Experience: Mediating Role of Work-Travel Interference

Mustafa C. ALTUNEL*, Ebru ULUCAN**

INTRODUCTION Developments in technology have helped the mobile phones to evolve into smartphones which can be used in everywhere at any time and smartphones are perceived as miniaturized computers. With high-definition large screens, fast and unlimited internet connections and powerful processors, they provide the users numerous possibilities (Want 2009; Wang, Xiang & Fesenmaier, 2014). The increased capabilities of smartphones can now support lots of mobile applications that allow users to utilize the services of information searching, social networking and navigation (Wang, Park & Fesenmaier, 2012) and smartphones have become a big part of our lives. The involvement of technology and internet to people’s lives has brought some advantages and disadvantages. According to Parasuraman and Greenhaus (2002), smartphones provide the users an extended availability, real time information access, productivity and efficiency. On the other hand; while Shaffer (1996) emphasizes that people became addictive to their smartphones as a result of being reachable easily, Kennedy-Eden (2014) underlines that technologic addiction can depart families from each other. Another research shows that the adoption of smartphone makes people stay connected to the work in everywhere all the time and results in work-home interference which damages the balance between their work and home domains by creating the perception of work never ends (Derks, van Duin, Tims & Bakker 2014; Derks & Bakker, 2014). The effects of smartphones are not only limited with work life but also have effects on social life with numerous applications which help people to communicate by using social networks. With the latest developments; some applications created to provide users the chance of online booking, information search about touristic attractions and thereby smartphones involved tourism and travel industry. As a result of this involvement, the researches have started to examine the impact of smartphone use in tourist behaviors and their experiences. The previous studies mostly focused on the advantages of smartphone use in travel. For example; when the studies of Eriksson and Strandvik (2009) have accepted the smartphones as general information communication tool and Gretzel, Fesenmaier and O’Leary (2006) argued that this experience has been shaped in three stages of travel such as pre-consumption, consumption and post- consumption (Wang, Xiang & Fesenmaier, 2014); Kramer et al (2007), Kim, Park and Morrison (2008), Paris (2012), Rasinger, Fuchs, Beers and Hopken (2009), Tussyadiah and Zach (2012) have focused on how smartphone use makes the travel process easier in terms of online bookings, navigation and social sharing (Wang, Xiang & Fesenmaier, 2014). Although these effects seem advantageous; when people continue using their smartphones intensively during their vacation, it will also prevent them from being avoid of work after the working hours and damage their recovery experience during travel as well as their personal home life. Therefore, by developing the work-home interference, a new concept has been defined as “Work – Travel Interference (WTI)” which can be described as the interference of work and leisure time that causes a damage on people’s recovery by using smartphones intensively on work related purposes (Ulucan & Altunel, 2016). In this paper, the impact of work related smartphone use in travel on recovery experience and work-travel interference and the impact of work-travel interference on recovery experience has been

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Kırklareli University, Faculty of Tourism. ** Lecturer, Istanbul Ticaret University, Faculty of Management.

studied. Also the mediating effect of work-travel interference between work related smartphone use in travel and recovery experience has been examined. LITERATURE REVIEW There are numerous arguments about how smartphones affect our lives; while some studies focus how smartphones make our daily life easier, the others take attention how they can damage especially the social life. A smartphone is a wireless device which the users can manage their calendars, make phone calls, use internet facilities by browsing or social networking and receive and reply their e-mails in everywhere at any time (Derks & Bakker, 2014). It can also be defined as a miniaturized computer that includes various digital components such as camera, MP3 player, GPS and an operating system which helps the mobile applications work properly (Wang, Xiang & Fesenmaier, 2014). Although the growth in technology drives the mobile application market to grow faster, the use of smartphones depends on the specific functions and applications adopted and as part of this process, the use of technology may depart from originally determined purposes, resulting in higher heterogeneity of smartphone uses among users (Kennedy-Eden & Gretzel 2012; Wang, Xiang & Fesenmaier 2014). By providing instant access to information and communication, the smartphones have become more prevalent among employees as they can receive and reply their work-related e-mails (Lanaj, Johnson & Barnes, 2014) which can cause imbalance between work and personal life. This negative interaction between work and personal life generates a work – home interference which can be defined as a form of inter-role conflict in which the role pressure from the work life is incongruous with the role pressure from the family life (Derks et al, 2014). Greenhaus and Beutell claimed that this interference can exist in three different ways which is firstly, time demands can make employees impossible to be in two places physically at the same time. Second, the spillover of strain from work to home may occur which makes people difficult to relax at home after work. And finally, the behavior expected at work may be incompatible with the behaviors expected at home (Derks & Bakker, 2014). It is also obvious that smartphones’ effects are not only for work life. The smartphones can ease people’s social lives by numerous applications like surfing the web, using social media for communication and etc. With the latest updates, the smartphones have involved in tourism and travel industry by developing applications which helps people to make online bookings for flights, accommodation and searching the information or reviews for the touristic places during vacation. During the research it has seen that people can use their smartphones for many reasons during a day life. As previous studies have mostly focused on intensive work related smartphone use at home, in this paper the focus is on the smartphone use at vacation and therefore work – travel interference concept is preferred (Ulucan & Altunel, 2015). This concept can be defined as integration of work life and vacation when people use their mobile devices intensively for work related purposes during their trips. This interference may decrease their recovery experiences because visitors cannot find enough time to explore the touristic destinations with their families, to join daily activities of the hotels, and so on. Recovery is defined as the process that people’s physiological and psychological functions returns to its previous levels (Chen, Petrick & Shahvali; 2014). It can also be considered as opposite of strain process which results in remediation of damaged mood and action which reflect a decrease in physiological strain factors (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2007). There are lots of definitions about recovery but the most common idea is that recovery occurs when the stress source is no longer available (Derks & Bakker, 2014) According to Chen, et al. (2014) recovery generally occurs during non-work time which can be considered in micro and macro levels. Micro levels of recovery includes the shorter periods of non-work time such as evening hours or weekends; while macro levels or recovery consists of longer periods such as vacations which provides people more opportunities for full recovery by being uninterrupted and long. The Relationship between Variables Smartphones have lots of advantages among users such as being reachable at anytime and anywhere (Kennedy-Eden, 2012) or creating new communication styles and better cooperation between colleagues (Lyytinen and Yoo, 2002). But technological growth changes the intensity of smartphone use and causes a heterogeneity among users by perverting the main purpose of this use (Kennedy-Eden &

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Gretzel, 2012). The most known theory which helps to explain the people’s smartphone use intensity is the Technology Acceptence Model – TAM which developed by Davis in 1986 as an extension of Fishbein and Ajzen’s (1975, 1980) Theory of Reasoned Action model. TAM is described by Davis as the best model to study about the attitudes of people towards accepting or denying technology and is based on two independent variables which consist of perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. Perceived ease of use is described as a level of people’s belief on technology use would not need any effort and perceived usefulness described as a level of belief on technological acceptance would increase their performances at work (Eltayeb & Dawson, 2016). By using these variables this theory tries to explain people’s thoughts, expectations and needs about technology by focusing on the effective external factors on them (Serçemeli & Kurnaz, 2016). Fishbein and Ajzen’s Theory of Reasoned Action model claims that people’s behaviors comprise from the intention of acting the behavior where this intention is considered as an outcome of an attitude regarding people’s subjective norms (Sheldon, 2016). TRA model can be is applied in three different situations where the behavior does not occur under the user’s own control, includes a choice dilemma and the intentions occur if only it is impossible to reach the necessary information to create that intention. And according to this model, the people’s evaluations according to a behavior can be determined with the belief of having an outcome based on their perceived benefits (Sheppard, Hartwick & Warshaw, 1988). Thereby; TRA model is also associated with behavioral addiction which differentiates from alcohol or drug addictions. Behavioral Addiction is defined as a behavioral disorder characterized by acting stress relieved and pleasure creating behaviors and inability to control the actions although they have harmful consequences (Shaffer, 1996). In behavioral addictions smartphone use becomes a habit which is used for relieving the pain and escaping the reality and at the end, it causes harmful impacts in financial, physical, psychological and social life of people (van Duersen, Bolle, Hegner & Kommers, 2015) which is also related their recovery. In the light of this background, the intensity of work related smartphone use during vacation is measured and it is assumed that there could be a relationship between work related smartphone use and recovery experiences. Hypothesis 1: Work related smartphone use during vacation is negatively related with recovery experiences. People aim to manage their well-being by determining some boundaries between their work and personal life. Intensive work related smartphone use can damage these boundaries and the relation between smartphone use and Work-Travel Interference (WTI) can be described with Boundary Theory which has used for work-home interference in previous studies. Boundary Theory is a theory of social segmentation based on subjects such as the meanings that people assign to work and home domains and the possibility of role transition between these variables. According to this theory; the permeability of boundaries differs from people’s allowance to which different roles will be integrated and depends on the nature of work and personal preferences of the employees (Derks et al., 2014; Ashforth, Kreiner & Fugate, 2000). Boswell and Olson-Buchanan (2007) and Ashforth et al. (2000) claim that the organizations, environmental circumstances and situational differences may affect to create and protect these borders between work and personal life. In the light of this theory; it is possible to say that the sources of conflict, which are defined by Greenhaus and Beutell in 1985, may obscure the boundaries between work and home domains. As smartphones foster the work-related behaviors at home, this permeability will be easily associated with smartphone use and causes a time and stress based work-home interference (Derks et al., 2014). Besides the theoretical studies about the effects of smartphone use on WHI, there are some studies proved that smartphone use and WHI has been already linked. According to the studies of Boswell and Olson-Buchanan (2007), Chesley (2005) and Duxbury, Higgins and Thomas (1996); people who use technology on work related purposes after working hours can perceive greater integration between work and family roles. As people assign boundaries between their work and home domains, they also create borders between their work and leisure time and when they keep on using their smartphones during their vacation they will damage these boundaries as well. Therefore, in this study it is assumed that work-

451 related smartphone use in vacation could be related with work travel interference. Hypothesis 2: Work-related smartphone use during vacation is positively related with work-travel interference. The relation between work – travel interference and recovery experience can be described with two theories which are originally used to explain the relationship between WHI and recovery. The Effort- Recovery Model (E-R Model) is based on the relationship between workload and well-being (Meijman & Mulder, 1998). The Effort – Recovery Theory assumes that effort spent at work can cause physiological reactions such as exhaustion. Normally, when employees are no longer come under work demands, these reactions disappear and recovery occurs and this feeling of recovery can cause satisfaction. Regarding the research of Chen and his colleagues (2014) the theory claims that psychological detachment should help people to feel more relaxed and satisfied because it shows that there are no more demands on people’s performances or actions at work (Chen, Petrick & Shahvali, 2014). When people’s reactions of worry reverse, they can find the chance of relaxation and occupational disengagement during their vacation; thus, their disengagements can help their recovery with a full satisfaction (Chen et al., 2014). The psychological detachment can be defined as a feeling of being mentally away from work which means a lot more than being away physically. It suggests people should stop considering about work at home by avoiding the actions, which can make the detachment impossible, such as answering the work-related phone calls or e-mail at home (Derks & Bakker, 2014). The second theory lies beneath the relationship between work – travel interference and recovery is The Conservation of Resources Theory which implies that people try to protect their resources such as financial assets or personal attributes. According to this theory, stress can damage especially personal resources and damage their well-being. To recover from stress people should obtain new resources such as positive energy and motivation (Chen, Petrick & Shahvali, 2014; Derks & Bakker, 2014; Sonnetag & Fritz, 2007). Therefore it is accepted that The Effort Recovery Theory and The Conservation of Resources Theory should be processed together by avoiding work related activities and then by having new internal resources to repair the damaged ones (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2007) in order to increase the level of recovery. This can be in two different ways such as taking a rest after a stressful working day by avoiding work-related actions and taking a long relaxing leisure trip with recreational activities to gain more resources (Chen, Huan & Petrick, 2016; Chen, Petrick & Shahvali, 2014). As a result, as long as people continue using their smartphones on work related purposes during their vacations, the process of gaining new resources and their recovery will be prevented Therefore it is assumed in this study that work-travel interference will have negative effects on people’s recovery. Hypothesis 3: Work-travel interference is negatively related with recovery experience In previous studies work-home interference is generally considered as a source of stress which has negative impacts on people’s recovery process such as dissatisfaction, anxiety, and exhaustion while the other studies accept the WHI as an outcome of stress. Whether source or outcome of stress, all those studies focused on the mediating role of the WHI on personal well-being or recovery (Parasuraman, Purohit, Godshalk & Beutell, 1996; Burke, 1998; Geurts, Kompier, Roxburgh & Houtman, 2003). According to the results of studies focused on mediating role of WHI; Geurts et al. (2003) found that the WHI played full mediating role in the impact of workload on people’s recovery. Similarly, Schaufeli, Bakker, van der Heijden & Prins (2009) found that the role conflicts have a significant role in mediating the impact of workload on worker’s recovery and well-being in the frame of workaholism and burn-out. Regarding these studies, it is assumed that work travel interference has a mediating role on the impact of work related smartphone use during vacation on people’s recovery experience. Hypothesis 4: Work-travel interference is mediating the relationship between work related smartphone use and recovery. METHOD Empirical data were collected in Istanbul using a self-administered questionnaire survey from foreign tourists visiting Sultanahmet district and Taksim square. The questionnaire consisted of four parts. Part 1 measured level of work related smartphone use during vacation with four items derived from a previous study (Derks & Bakker, 2014). Part 2 measured work-travel interference using five

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items derived from a previous study (Geurts, Taris, Kompier, Dikkiers, Van Hooff & Kinnunen, 2005) which originally measured work-home interference (SWING-Survey Work-home Interaction NijmeGen). Part 3 measured recovery experience with three items derived from previous study (Sonnentag & Fritz, 2007). Finally, part 4 collected respondents' demographic information including gender, marital status, age, educational level, personal monthly income, and occupation. All scale items are measured using a five-point Likert-type scale from 'totally disagree (=1)' to 'totally agree (=5)'. To test the measurement and structural model, structural equation modeling is used. Structural equation modeling is a family of statistical models that aims to explain the relationships between multiple variables (Hair, Black, Babin, Anderson, & Tatham, 2006). AMOS 22 program is used in the analysis process. Descriptive statistics have been analyzed by SPSS 22. The questionnaire survey was conducted during August and October 2015 in Taksim square and Sultanahmet district which contains tourist sites such as the Hagia Sophia, Topkapi Palace, Hagia Irene, Great Palace Mosaic Museum, Istanbul Archeological Museums, the Blue Mosque, Basilica Cistern, the Turkish and Islamic Art Museum, the Byzantine Hippodrome, and the Spice Bazaar, all of which are visited by the majority of cultural tourists in Istanbul (Tonguç & Yale, 2010; Yenen, 2009). During face-to-face interactions, data were collected by one of the authors and a master student. Convenience sampling was preferred because of limited time and manpower. A total of 390 questionnaires were conducted, and 381 usable responses were obtained after incomplete samples were removed from the analysis process. In the respondents’ profile, 36 % were female, approximately 44.4 % were aged between 30 and 39, 56.7 % were married, and 57 % held a university degree or higher. Employed individuals accounted for 65.4%, while approximately 38% had a monthly income of 1001-3000 USD. EMPIRICAL RESULTS Measurement Model To ensure the appropriateness of the research instrument reliability and construct validity scores were examined. The internal consistency for reliability of the measurement models was tested using Fornell’s composite reliability (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Discriminant and convergent validity were examined to check construct validity (Chin, Gopal, & Salisbury, 1997). Discriminant validity is the measure of constructs that, theoretically, should not be related to each other and convergent validity is the measure of constructs that theoretically should be related to each other (Kim, 2012). Item loadings and their associated t-values were examined and convergent validity was assessed. Indicator loadings must be greater than 0.50 (Wixom & Watson, 2001). Table 1 shows factor loadings, t-values, Fornell’s composite reliability scores, and AVE and indicates adequate internal consistency. The AVE is also used for evaluating discriminant validity. The square root of AVE from the construct should be higher than the variance shared between the construct and other constructs in the model (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). Table 2 shows the square root of the AVE of the constructs compared to the correlations and results indicate a good discriminant validity. Data were analyzed with structural equation modeling (SEM) using the two-step approach (Anderson & Gerbing; 1988). The performance of the measurement model is evaluated by the confirmatory factor analysis on the sample data (N= 381) using AMOS 22. As maximum likelihood estimation method relies on data normality, both skewness and kurtosis were examined to check the distribution of collected data. As a result, AMOS skewness and kurtosis results suggested that the assumption of normality is satisfied. The measurement model resulted in a significant chi-square value of 149,652 (df= 49, p< 0,001), which is accepted as a highly sensitive measure to sample size. The ratio of the chi-square to degrees of freedom (x2/df= 3,054) is slightly above the cutoff point of 3 (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988). Overall, the measurement model achieved a good fit to the data, with comparative fit index (CFI)= 0,974, goodness of fit index (GFI= 0,940), adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI)= 0,905, and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA)= 0,074.

453 Table 1: Measurement Model Average Factor Composite Construct & Indicators t-value Variance Loadings Reliability Extracted Work Related Smartphone Use 0,901 0,748 At vacation, I use my smartphone 0,853 λ set to 1 intensively for work related purposes. I feel obligated to reply to work related 0,927 24,412 messages, e-mails, etc during my vacation. At vacation, I am online for work related 0,851 21,253 purposes until I am going to sleep. When my smartphone blinks to indicate 0,825 20,160 new messages, l cannot resist checking them at vacation. Work Travel Interference 0,890 0,661 I am irritable at vacation because my work 0,694 15,324 is demanding. I find it difficult to concentrate on my 0,818 19,920 vacation because l am sometimes thinking about my work. At vacation, I don't have the energy to 0,893 λ set to 1 engage in leisure activities with my spouse/family/friends because of my job My work obligations make it difficult for 0,833 20,290 me to feel relaxed at vacation At vacation, my work takes up time that l 0,813 19,453 would have liked to spend up with my spouse/family/friends Recovery Experience 0,916 0,841 At vacation, I forget about work. 0,912 λ set to 1 At vacation, I don't think about work at all 0,966 32,815 At vacation, I distance myself from work 0,870 26,070 Table 2: Correlations of latent variables Variables WTI WRSU RE WTI 0,813a WRSU 0,454 0,865 RE -0,458 -0,358 0,917 aDiagonal elements are the square root of AVE Structural model and hypothesis testing Standardized path coefficients, their significance level (t-statistic), and R2 estimates are used to evaluate the structural model. Figure 1 provides details on the parameter estimates for the model and R2, and Table 3 reports the results of the hypotheses tests. The R2 s of work-travel inference and recovery experience are 0.206 and 0.238. R2 values are greater than the recommended value of 0.10 (Falk & Miller, 1992). All of the hypotheses predicting a direct effect are supported. H1 predicts that a high level of work related smartphone use during vacation has a direct negative effect on recovery experience. The analysis results support H1 because a negative and statistically significant relationship was found (b= -0.189, t= - 3.393, p<0.001). H2 predicts that a high level of work related smartphone use during vacation has a direct positive effect on work-travel interference. The analysis results support H2 (b= 0.454, t=8.451, p<0.001). H3 predicts that work-travel interference has negative effect on recovery experience. The results support H3 (b= -0.372, t= -6.457, p<0.001).

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Table 3: Hypotheses Tests Research Hypothesis Path coefficient t-Value Result H1: WRSU - RE -0.189 -3.393 Supported H2: WRSU - WTI 0.454 8.451 Supported H3: WTI - RE -0.372 -6.457 Supported Mediating effect of Work-Travel Interference H4 predicts that work-travel interference is mediating the relationship between work related smartphone use during vacation and recovery experience. To investigate the mediation effect, firstly the indirect and total effect between work related smartphone use during vacation and recovery experience were measured. Standardized total effect is -0.358 and standardized indirect effect is -0.169. Nearly half of the total effect is comprised of the indirect effect and it could be an indicator of a mediating effect. Next, a bootstrap (2000 resamples) analysis is conducted to test the mediation effect. According to the result of the analysis, the standardized indirect effect (mediated) of work related smartphone use during vacation on recovery experience is significant (p=0,001). As a result, a partial mediation has been found and the final hypothesis is supported.

Figure 1: Estimated Results of the Model RESULTS Modern world has made stress an inseparable part of the professional/daily lives and tourism activities are evaluated as an important stress reliever (Chen, Petrick & Shahvali, 2014) and beneficial for mental and physical health (Richards, 1999). The purposes of the current study was to test the impact of work related smartphone use in travel on recovery experience and work-travel interference and the impact of work-travel interference on recovery experience. Additionally, the mediating effect of work-travel interference between work related smartphone use in travel and recovery experience has been examined. This study demonstrates a significant negative effect of work related smartphone use in travel on recovery experience. There is no previous study in the tourism literature examining this negative effect where some studies have only focused on positive effects of smartphone use in travel such asin Wang, Xiang and Fesenmaier (2014) found that people, who use their smartphones during travel, felt more confident, safe and flexible because of finding a chance to gather all the information about their trip. On the other hand some researchers like Jarvenpaa and Lang (2005, and Middleton (2007) have studied the negative effects of smartphone use on people’s well-being on qualitative basis. But according to the results of Derks and Bakker’s (2014) research, which is also the first diary study in literature about this

455 negative effect, showed that people who use their smartphones intensively can decrease their potential of well-being and recovery after business hours and they cannot be engaged with the activities of psychological detachment from work. A positive effect of work-related smartphone use in travel on work-travel interference was also found. This relationship was investigated by a previous study (Ulucan & Altunel, 2015) and the result is consistent with this study which emphasized when the intensity of work-related smartphone use increased, the perceived work-travel interference would be increased as well. Additionally, this study demonstrates a significant negative effect of work-travel interference on recovery experience. There is no previous study in the tourism literature examining this relationship. However previous studies have focused on the effects of work-home interference on daily recovery experiences and as a result Derks et al. (2014) found that work-related smartphone use after business hours caused WHI and WHI was positively related to people’s recovery and well-being, whereas smartphone users with high WHI perception could not engage with these kind of recovery activities. Therefore, it is possible that the results of this study are consistent with the previous studies as both have examined these relationships in similar frames. One of the major finding of this study is that work-travel interference is mediating between work related smartphone use in travel and recovery experience. There is also no previous study in the tourism literature examining this relationship. However the previous studies have examined this mediating effect in the role conflicts between the work and home domains. As Geurts et al. (2003) have analyzed three different occupational group samples and found that work-home interference had a full mediating role on people’s work detachment and recovery. According to our findings, work-travel interference is partially mediating between work related smartphone use during vacation and recovery experience. Hence, a direct effect of work related smartphone use during vacation on recovery experience exists. But, there is also an indirect effect. A person who use his/her smartphone related with work feels work- travel interference and this interference also negatively affects his/her recovery experience. Our findings have also some managerial implications. It is obvious that modern technology, especially smartphones, influence visitors’ travel experiences both in positive and negative directions. Management of tourism business should find ways to maximize the advantages of smartphone use to enrich the travel experience and also strive to diminish the negative effects. A negative travel experience originated from work related smartphone-use will reduce visitors’ recommendation and revisit behavior. Hence it is crucial for managers searching ways to prevent negative effects of smartphone-use in travel. A simple solution may be to warn visitors about the negative effects and encourage them to use it less frequently during vacation. For example a tour guide may advise visitors: “don’t let smartphones and works to damage your experience”. Another way may be to organize a prize competition related with the smartphone use frequency. As a result, managers must find more creative ways to increase recovery experience of their customers during their vacation and deals with the negative effects of technology and modern life. REFERENCES Ashforth, B.E., Kreiner, G. E. & Fugate, M. (2000). All in a Day's Work: Boundaries and Micro Role Transitions. The Academy of Management Review. 25(3), 472-491. Boswell, W. R. & Olson-Buchanan, J. B. (2007). The Use of Communication Technologies After Hours: The Role of Work Attitudes and Work-Life Conflict. Journal of Management, 33, 592-610. Burke, R. J. (1988). Some Antecedents and Consequences of Work–Family Conflict. Journal of Social Behavior and Personality, 3, 287–302. Chen, C.-C., Petrick, J. F., & Shahvali, M. (2014). Tourism Experiences as a Stress Reliever: Examining the Effects of Tourism Recovery Experiences on Life Satisfaction. Journal of Travel Research, 1-11. Chen, C.-C., Huang, W.-J., & Petrick, J. F. (2015). Holiday Recovery Experiences, Tourism Satisfaction and Life Satisfaction – Is There a Relationship? Tourism Management, 53, 140-147. Chesley N (2005) Blurring boundaries? Linking Technology Use, Spillover, Individual Distress and Family Satisfaction. Journal of Marriage and the Family 67(5): 1237–1248. Chin, W. W., Gopal, A., & Salisbury, W. D. (1997). Advancing the theory of adaptive structuration: The development of a scale to measure faithfulness of appropriation. Information Systems Research, 8(4),

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458 Chapter 36

Event Tourism

Ömer ÇOBAN*

1.INTRODUCTION It was particularly by the 1980s that public bodies started to understand the importance of events because creating positive impacts (Mair & Witford, 2013). Subsequently, over the first decade of the twenty-first century in the whole world, there has been attention and participation in events as the events go on not only to have a potential to create positive impacts but also to take a critical part in creation of culture, arts, urban development, educating the society and travel & tourism (Bowdin, Allen, O’Toole, Harris & McDonnell, 2011). In the meantime, event studies started as a field in tourism literature by the second half of 1970s, also by the 1980s that event research emerged significantly in tourism literature (Hede, 2007). The potential social value of various types of events (e.g. sport, culture, business events, among others) has been investigated in several fields (e.g. sports and business management, anthropology, tourism and leisure, recreation and regional studies, etc.) (Mair & Witford, 2013). Participating to the events has been accepted as a major motivation in travel and tourism (Getz, 2008) and thus events have been seen as an important destination image creator and marketing facilitator (Ritchie, 1984; Chalip & McGuirty, 2004; Lucia, 2013). Furthermore, in tourism, roles and effects of organized events are well studied, and also those roles and effects have vital position in destination competitiveness (Getz, 2008). Within this positive frame, events are widely positioned as a strategic tool for challenging disadvantages of seasonality (Connell, Page & Meyer, 2015). Correspondingly, public bodies encourage and popularize events as a strategy for economic development, tourism marketing and creation of national identity (Allen, O’Toole, Harris & McDonnell, 2011). Fourie and Santana-Gallego (2011) emphasizes events especially the mega and hallmark ones are seen as a significant tool for tourism development because those events can increase in tourist numbers, creating a positive destination image, and regional development. Likewise, economic contribution of events to a country or a region could not calculate only by numbers or in quantative manner. Because, once a huge event is organized, there will be new business startups, new jobs, business potentials and multiplying effect of economic receipts (Ferdinand & Shaw, 2012). In this chapter, firstly we defined what is an event and how can we classify the events. Then event management framework and concept of event tourism was explained. That is followed by a discussion on both positive and negative impacts of events in terms of economic, social and environmental issues. Also in this chapter, size and future of event industry are being addressed. Chapter ends up with conclusions on event tourism. 2.EVENTS & EVENT INDUSTRY Events as a type of planned performances and acts have historical roots in ancient times. Their history goes back to the before fall of the Western Roman Empire (AD 476) (Raj, Walters & Rashid, 2013). Attending events has been a key leisure activity since early times. However, recent increases in leisure time, due to reductions in working hours, increased unemployment and increasing numbers of old and retired people, as well as increased disposable income for some social groups, lead growth in attendance of events (Richards, de Brito & Wilks, 2013). In modern societies, events continue to serve economic and social functions and events are more complex and detailed and the number of attendants have grown dramatically (Ferdinand & Shaw, 2012). Today in western societies, events serve functions such as celebrating collective or individual milestones, anniversaries and achievements. Even, small events as birthday parties, house-warming parties, and wedding ceremonies are bringing people together

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Batman University, School of Tourism and Hotel Management, Tourism and Hotel Management Department, [email protected]

(Raj et al., 2013). Events not only bring physically together, but also do that mentally and sometimes create collective inspires which other media tools (Allen et al., 2011) cannot duplicate. In addition to that events can have some deep meanings for communities (Ferdinand & Shaw, 2012). There is no agreement on definition and classification of events (Kılıç, 2012). Because it will be very difficult to suggest a standard definition covering all type events in this diverse event industry (Edizel, 2009). There are many definitions of “event” made by various scholars. Events can be defined as temporary and purposive gatherings of people (Bladen, Kennell, Abson & Wilde, 2012). According to Getz (2007) event is: “a one-time or infrequently occurring event outside the normal program or activities of the sponsoring or organizing body” and “an opportunity for an experience outside the normal range of choices or beyond everyday experience”. Also, Shone and Parry (2004) defined events as “non-routine occasions which have leisure, cultural, personal or organizational objectives set apart from the normal activity of daily life, whose purpose is to enlighten, celebrate, entertain or challenge the experience of a group of people”. Events generally possess the following characteristics (Bladen et al., 2012):  Events are temporary in nature.  Events are gathering of people  Events are often displays of ritual.  Events are, in some sense, unique occurrences. Events have been classified by several authors in tourism literature (Jago & Shaw, 1998; Armstrong, 2001; Shone & Parry, 2004; Tassiopoulus, 2005; Getz, 2008; Raj et al., 2013). Early works on events are going back to the 1970s concentrated on events in a touristic manner and focused on classification of events according to their duration (i.e. long-term, short-term events…etc.) and size (i.e. mega, hallmark, prestige etc.). Then, 1980s event studies focused on some variable for differentiating events; size or scale (Erten, 2008). Bladen et al. (2012) classified events according to the scale of events as local, regional, national, international, global (mega) events. According to the scale there is another classification as major, mega, hallmark events (Ferdinand & Wesner, 2012). Major events as events those are successful in attracting high number of visitors, high media popularity and giant economic advantages (Bowdin et al., 2011). Mega events are the ones those large and significant events generate high number of tourist arrivals, media popularity, positive image or huge economic benefits for destination and local residents (Getz, 2005). In order to call an event as mega event volume of some variables should be considered. Volume of this variables include visits (over one million), capital costs (around 750 million Euro), psychology (to have an image containing a must-see event) (Quinn, 2013). Additionally, Ritchie (1984) defined; “hallmark events as major one-time or recurring events of limited duration, developed primarily to enhance the awareness, appeal and profitability of a tourism destination in the short and/or long term”. In Getz’s seminal work (2008) he categorized events depending on their scale as; local, regional, periodic hallmark and occasional mega-events. His classification is presented in Figure 1. Event classification framework of Getz (2008) is one of the most widely cited classifications. Getz (2008) classified events according to their content as; cultural celebrations, political and state, art and entertainment, business and trade, educational and scientific, sport competition and private events as are shown Figure 2. According to this classification; cultural celebrations contain festivals, carnivals, commemorations and religious events. Oktoberfest, Rio carnival, Anzac (Australian and New Zealand Army Corps) Day and Hajj can be given as an example for cultural celebrative events. Oktoberfest is the world’s largest public festival which organized by Germany in Munich, Bavaria and takes 16 day, with more than 6 million people from all over the world attending the event year. Likewise, Rio Carnival is also the world’s largest street carnival held every year in Rio de Janerio, Brazil. Anzac Day is a national commemoration day for Australians and New Zealanders. The Hajj in Makkah, Saudi Arabia is the one of the largest religious events in the world. The Hajj is the last pillar of the Islam and is undertaken nearly 3.4 million Muslims every year as a pilgrimage ritual (Raj et al., 2013).

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Figure 1: The portfolio approach to event tourism strategy-making and evaluation Source: Getz (2005)

Figure 2: Typology of planned events Source: Getz (2005) Political and state events contain summits, royal occasions, political events and VIP visits. This group of event is very diverse ranging from annual political party meetings and business union conferences organized by public bodies can be commercial and very costly; but main purpose of organizing this type of event is not only dealing with financial currency, it mainly deals with political change (Raj et al., 2013). World Economic Forum is a good example for political events. The World Economic Forum (WEF) is a Swiss nonprofit foundation and it’s known for its annual winter meeting for five days in Davos. Arts and entertainment events are concerts and award ceremonies. The most famous award event in the world is “The Academy Awards (Oscar)” is held every year and broadcasted live by over the one hundred TV channels. Business and trade events contain meetings, conventions, consumer trade shows, fairs and markets. Major exhibitions/trade shows such as auto shows bring together important business buyers,

461 intermediaries and manufacturers also those shows are open to the public and attracts thousands people paying for tickets (Raj et al., 2013). ITB (International Tourism Bourse) is known as the biggest tourism fair in the world with regard to the numbers of international visitors and participants. Educational and scientific events contain conferences, seminars and clinics. Every year thousands of scientific events are organized all over the world and academicians, scientists are participated these scientific events. Sport competition events cover regional, national and international events. The testing of players’ prowess by a competition is one of the oldest and popular human activities, dating back to the ancient Olympics and beyond (Allen et al., 2011). Event such as the Olympic and Paralympic Games and the FIFA World Cup are well established mega-sport events that take place once in four years. Many other international sports event organizers also host their major events in similar format (Ferdinand & Shaw, 2012). Within this field there are two main categories of organizational actors: sports organizations (participant), sports customers (spectators). History of events dates back to the ancient times, but as the way what we call the “event industry” consists of wide range of events, career opportunities and huge economic size goes back to the 1980’s (Allen et al., 2011). In event industry cover the events and economic relation related to the events ranging from a special wedding ceremony to an Olympic Game. This shows that there are wide varieties of stakeholders in events industry. Allen et al. (2011) in their seminal work listed the stakeholders in event industry as followed:  Host organization; setting objectives and managing the event,  Host community; giving a context to the event and facing the impacts of the event,  Participants and spectators; supporting and participating the event and gaining entertainment/reward from the event,  Co-workers; mutual labor and payment relationship with the event,  Media; giving support to events in terms of promotion, gaining advertising receipts/revenues,  Sponsors; proving money or non-monetary support to the events, gaining prestige,  Public Organizations; providing public service and facilities to the events, gaining taxes and contributing creation of positive state image  Event Associations; giving technical, morale support the event organizers, gaining new members and membership fees. Size of event industry is growing year by year and the industry generates a huge economic volume. For example, every year in the USA, 1.8 million meetings and events occur and meeting and event industry creates $280 billion in spending, it covers total $393 billion in the USA includes direct, indirect and induced effects. The industry generates 1.8 million jobs and the employment rate is projected to rise 33 percent from 2012-2022 according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics of USA (MPI, 2016). In 2012, meeting and convention market reached $900 million, mobilization based on attending meeting and convention generated a $8 billion income consist of hotel rooms, tour packages, transport, food, event registration, etc. in Argentine (UNWTO, 2016). 3.EVENT MANAGEMENT The term event has been coined to describe “specific rituals, presentations, performances or celebrations that are planned and created to mark special occasions or achieve particular social, cultural or corporate goals and objectives” (Allen et al., 2011). Events have to be organized and managed by professionals. It can not only be public organizations such as governments or municipalities but also be done by non-governmental organizations or businesses. Event management is planning and organization ability of setting people, purpose and place for an event (Raj et al., 2013). Bladen et al. (2012) defined event management as “the organizations and coordination of the activities required achieving the objectives of events. Another definition of event management belongs to Quinn (2013). According to Quinn (2013) event management refers to the practice of managing events. It involves researching, designing, planning, coordinating and evaluating events. It’s clear that managing events differ from other management areas. Mules (2004) emphasized that the different nature of event management is based on two main folds: (1) events have a unique nature and this differentiate event management other management field and, (2) most events are staged performances and provide a form of entertainment to participants. During recent decades, popularity of

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event management sector rose up in leisure and tourism industries (Lassila, Lindroth & Rantanen, 2013). Similarly, event management and event organizers became a profession and important stakeholders in tourism industry due to their success. Also tourists are a huge potential market for event tourism industry (Getz, 2008). The event management industry is becoming increasingly professionalized and with that increased professionalism comes an understanding that research can contribute to events’ success (Richards et al., 2013). Event management industry provide many career opportunities such as; event professionals, event producers, event manager, event coordinator, event support (services), event bidding, event tourism policy analyst and researcher (Getz, 2008; Allen et al., 2011). But recent years there is another position gaining popularity in event industry; it is event planners. 4.EVENT TOURISM The usage of the term “event tourism” was rarely till broadcasted report of The New Zealand Tourist and Publicity Department in 1987. In this report, event tourism mentioned as a vital and fast growing sub-segment of global tourism. Getz published an article in 1989 in Tourism Management. In his article Getz, purposed a framework for understanding nature of event tourism (Getz, 2008). Thus, it can be said that the relationship between events and tourism is not new. The phenomenon of event tourism has proliferated since the late 1980s (Quinn, 2013; Raj et al., 2013). As far as events and tourism are concerned, the role and responsibilities of the government, private sector and society in general have significantly changed over the last decade (Raj et al., 2013). Event tourism takes part the nexus of tourism and event management and contains event planning and marketing in the pursuit of tourism and destination marketing targets (Getz, 2008). In other words, tourism management efforts involve developing tourism system based on examining tourist behavior and motivation. On the other side, event management involves designing, marketing and managing events. The event tourism has become one of the most important aspects among the types of special interest tourism of the tourism industry (Crompton & McKay, 1997). Fig. 3 depicts the set of interrelationships occurring at the nexus of tourism and event studies (Getz, 2008). Accordingly, tourism management/studies contain/s developing and promoting tourism and understanding tourists. Conversely, event management contains designing, planning, managing and coordinating events and understanding planned event experiences. Event tourism occurs in interclusion between tourism management/studies and event management/studies by being a market for event managers and a tool for destination development.

Figure 3: Event tourism at the nexus of tourism and event studies / Source: Getz (2008) There is a growing body of literature in event tourism field. Existing literature in event tourism deals with different aspects of events. Those are ranging from participant motivations to impacts of events both on host communities and local economies. A brief literature review on event tourism is presented in Table 1.

463 Table 1: Research in the field of event tourism studies Research Theme Authors Gartner & Holecek (1983), Lynch & Jensen (1984), Ritchie (1984), Burns et al. (1986), Centre for Applied & Business Research (1986), Burns (1987), Hall (1987, 1992), McCloud & Syme (1987), Long & Perdue (1990), Briassoulis (1991), Burgan & Mules (1992, 2000), Turco & Kelsey (1992), Faulkner (1993), Hinch & Delamere (1993), Soutar & McLeod (1993), Crompton & McKay (1994), Mules & McDonald (1994), Uysal & Gitelson (1994), Crompton (1995), Crompton & Love (1995), Walo et al. (1996), Noll & Zimbalist (1997), Alston (1998), Hiller (1998), Kim et al. (1998, 2010), Andersson & Solberg (1999), Andersson et al. (1999), UK Sport (1999, 2002, Economic Studies: 2004), Dwyer et al. (2000, 2004, 2005, 2006), Gratton et al. (2000, 2005), Yu Impact and evaluation & Turco (2000), Tyrrell & Johnston (2001), Madden et al. (2002), Matheson studies including (2002), Thrane (2002), Chhabra et al. (2003), Coleman (2003), Daniels & forecasting, assessing Norman (2003), Felsenstein & Fleischer (2003), Matheson & Baade (2003, and evaluating 2004, 2006), Shaffer et al. (2003), Scherer & Strauf (2003), Daniels (2004), economic impact Fletcher (1994), Gursoy et al. (2004), Blake (2005), Jackson et al. (2005), Lee & Taylor (2005), Preuss (2005), Shibli & Coleman (2005), Soonhwan (2005), Cela et al. (2006), Jago & Dwyer (2006), Stynes & White (2006), Jae Lee (2006), Morgan & Condliffe (2006), Wilson (2006), Giesecke & Madden (2007), Charles & Patterson (2008), Gil & de Esteban Curiel (2008), McCartney (2008), Dwyer & Forsyth (2009), Coleman & Ramch&ani (2010), Dai et al. (2010), Davies et al. (2010), Henderson et al. (2010), Lee et al. (2010), Abelson (2011), Briedenhann (2011), Bojanic & Warnick (2012), Li & Jago (2012), Mosely & Chancellor (2012), Ramch&ani & Coleman (2012), Trosˇt & Milohnic´ (2012) DaMatta (1984), Falassi (1987), Hall (1992), Earls (1993), Hinch & Delamere (1993), Soutar & McLeod (1993), Essex & Chalkley (1998), Green & Chalip Socio-cultural Studies: (1998), Burgan & Mules (2000), Delamere (2001), Dwyer et al. (2000), Impact and evaluation Fredline & Faulkner (2000), Harcup (2000), Hiller (2000, 2006), Roche studies including social (2000), De Bres & Davis (2001), Delamere et al. (2001), Burbank et al. development, structure (2001), Gratton & Henry (2001), Deccio & Baloglu (2002), Carlsen & Taylor of a community, social (2003), Fredline et al. (2003), Kim & Uysal (2003), Waitt (2003), Xie (2003), capital, Gursoy et al. (2004), Richards & Ryan (2004), Sims & D’Mello (2005), Bob commercialization of et al. (2005), Chalip (2006), Arcodia & Whitford (2006), Misener & Mason culture, social renewal, (2006), Picard & Robinson (2006), Butler & Hinch (2007), Carlsen et al. group and place (2008), Pettersson & Viken (2007), Small (2007), Smith & Fox (2007), Hede identity, urban (2007), Moscardo (2008), Collins et al. (2009), Baumann et al. (2009), regeneration Robertson et al. (2009), Schulenkorf (2009, 2010), Deery & Jago (2010), Balduck et al. (2011), Gibson & Connell (2011), Minnaert (2011), Rogers & Anastasiadou (2011), Schulenkorf et al. (2011) Soutar & McLeod (1993), Backman et al. (1995), Jeong & Faulkner (1996), Mihalik & Simonetta (1998), Fredline & Faulkner (1998, 2000, 2002a, b), Motivation and Delamere (1997, 2001), Delamere et al. (2001), Fredline et al. (2003), perceptions and Cegielski & Mules (2002), Xiao & Smith (2004), Ohmann et al. (2006), attitudes of visitors and Gursoy & Kendall (2006), Fredline (2006), Monga (2006), Yuan & Jang residents (2008), Boo et al. (2011), Pauline (2011), Wysong et al. (2011), Hixson et al. (2011), Son & Lee (2011) Environmental Studies: May (1995), Fabricius & Goodwin (2002), Harris & Huyskens (2002), Hede Impact and evaluation (2007), Collins & Flynn (2008), Raj &Musgrave (2009), Mair & Jago (2010), studies including: Jones (2010), Goldblatt & Goldblatt (2011) Sofield & Li (1998), Getz (2000, Sustainability and 2007, 2009), Bramwell & Alletorp (2001), McKercher et al. (2006), Quinn greening of events, e.g. (2006), Hede (2007), Sherwood (2007), Getz & Andersson (2008), Raj & environmentally Musgrave (2009), Dredge & Whitford (2010), Dickson & Arcodia (2010),

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friendly practices, Mair & Jago (2010), Ensor et al. (2011), Gration et al. (2011), Lawton management processes, (2011), Mair (2011), Merrilees & Marles (2011), Rogers & Anastasiadou reducing waste (2011) ecological footprint Political Studies: Studies including Gnoth & Anwar (2000), O’Sullivan & Jackson (2002),Weed (2003, 2006), power and politics Ali-Knight & Robertson (2004), Pugh & Wood (2004), Thomas & Wood relationships between (2004), Whitford (2004a, b, 2005, 2009), Reid (2006), Getz (2007, 2009), governments, event Stokes & Jago (2007), Getz & Andersson (2008), O’Sullivan et al. (2009), organizers and Dredge & Whitford (2010, 2011), Ziakas & Costa (2011) communities, governance Ritchie & Beliveau (1974), Getz & Frisby (1988), Frisby & Getz (1989), Management Studies: Janiskee (1994, 1996), Walle (1994), Formica & Uysal (1996), Getz (1997, Studies including 2002, 2005), Goldblatt (1997), Faulkner et al. (1999), Nicholson & Pearce festival management, (2001), Day et al. (2002), Hoyle (2002), Green et al. (2003), Jago et al. destination (2003), Prentice & Andersen (2003 ), Green & Chalip (1998), Hemingway & management, Maclagan (2004), Hede & Jago (2005), Kim & Morrison (2005), Monga stakeholders, (2006), Getz et al. (2007, 2010), Hede (2007), Pavicic et al. (2007), Swart & marketing, corporate Bob (2004), Getz & Andersson (2008), Stokes (2008), Andersson & Getz social responsibility (2009), Jaeger & Mykletun (2009), Karlsen & Nordstro¨m (2009), Xing & and competitive forces Chalip (2006), Gibson et al. (2010), Drengner et al. (2011), Ziakas & Costa (2011), Parent et al. (2012) Source: Mair & Whitford (2013) Existing literature indicates that event tourism scholars examine different aspects of event tourism. Mostly studied aspects presented in Table 1 are economic, socio-cultural, environmental, political and management studies. In addition to those motivation and perceptions and attitudes of visitors and residents are also take part as an important research topic. 5.IMPACTS OF EVENTS All human activities have some impacts in different contents. Events as organized human activities also have some impacts. Impact studies in tourism literature show that impacts of any tourism activity could be examined under three headings (social, environmental and economic) both in negative and positive manners (Goeldner & Ritchie 2012). Thus, it is possible to analyze impacts of events or event tourism in these three headings. Table 2, figures out social, environmental and economic impacts of events in positive and negative manners. Understanding the impacts of events has become a greater priority for both practitioners and academics (Deery & Jago, 2010). As presented in Table 2, impacts of events are wide variety and multifaceted. Since the 1980s, there has been a growing interest towards investigating the impact of events, from beginning to maturity both positive and negative social, economic and environmental contents (Quinn, 2013). Events not only have an impact on the economy of the hosting country, city or community but they also have a positive or negative impact on the hosting community itself, its culture and its naturel environment (Cavagnaro, Postma & Neese, 2012). Economic impacts of events are mostly studied context by scholars. Economic impacts of events widely depend on expenditures of governments, attendants, organizers etc. Bladen et al. (2012) examined economic impacts of event under aspects such as; direct spending (event attendance cost: transport, ticker price, etc.), indirect spending (circulation of event income), induced spending (wage impact of events on related businesses). It is possible to say that when scale of event rises, the economic impacts of events rise as well. Economic impacts of events also help development of host communities. As positive impact, major events have come to be seen as a facilitator for urban regeneration (Garcia, 2004). On the other hand, negatively, events can cause the flow of large debts for local communities and the evacuation of local residents to leading for infrastructural improvements (Quinn, 2013).

465 There is also wide range of social impacts of events. Mainly, those are including induced development and construction expenditure and long-term promotional benefits. Additionally, events can enhance the international image of the local community and the creation of long and short term visitor flow (Quinn, 2013). Deery and Jago (2010) studied social impacts of events and they classified extant research into (1) social impacts of events on communities and (2) social impacts of events on visitors, attendees and other stakeholders. Events have a number of social outcomes such as creating for remarkable communities of people and for society more generally. Once social impacts of events measured, this will lead to an understanding of the social gains or social value of an event. Measuring social impacts of events can also lead to an understanding of how events may have negative consequences for society (Quinn, 2013). Local residents intensively face social impacts of events. So, many scholars developed scales to measure residents’ perceptions of events (Delamere, 2001; Delamere, Wankel & Hinch, 2001; Fredline, Jago & Deery, 2003; Small, 2007). Events can benefit community well-being through increases in output, income, employment, investment, extra services as well as new sources of entertainment and enhancements to quality of life (Deccio & Baloglu, 2002). Table 2: Social, Environmental and Economic Impacts of Events Social Impacts Environmental Impacts Economic Impact Induced development and Raising awareness of Direct/Indirect expenditure construction expenditure environmental issues Long-term promotional Development of waste land Increased property value due to benefits regeneration Civic pride Long-term conservation of Additional trade and business Positive area development Community development Induced development and construction expenditure Increased employment Event product extension opportunities Future use of infrastructure Site/location damage- Cost of event failure to not maximized short and long-term local/national economy Interruption of normal Waste and pollution Inflated price of products, business services and amenities Resident exodus Noise pollution Unequal distribution of wealth Disruption of lifestyle Traffic disruption and congestion Negative Media impacts Increase in energy demands and other natural resources Community apathy and antagonism Increased risk of security issues Unequal issues distribution of wealth Source: Musgrave & Raj (2009) Sustainability plays very critical role in every aspect of our lives. All events should be managed and organized in a sustainable manner. Because all events will have impacts both on natural and social environment. Negative impacts of events on natural environment occur mainly such; site/location damage, waste and pollution, noise pollution. There are also positive environmental impacts of events such; raising awareness of environmental issues, development of waste land, long-term conservation of area. In order to enhance positive impacts and reduce negative environmental impacts of events, there should be some strategies to take into consideration. Getz (2007) suggest these strategies as;  Impacts of Event Travel: Supporting mass transit travel solutions, concentrating multiple events in one location, stress small-scale events.

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 Investment in Event Infrastructure and Venues: Avoid sensitive areas, impose design standards and implement sustainable development practices.  Event Activities: Require green event practices, clean up after events and educate visitors. Rising negative environmental impacts of events force organizers to take some actions. There is increasing pressure on event organizers to (Chard & Dolf, 2013):  reduce direct harm caused to the environment,  satisfy ethical interest of stakeholders (both internal and external),  integrate risk management,  communicate in a credible manner,  ensure that events can operate in a safe and healthy environment and  meet new legal requirements. Due to the perceived positive impacts of events that governments are becoming increasingly active in bidding for hosting rights and creating ‘the right’ conditions for the staging of major events. This government attention has increased as evidenced by a growing legislation on event industry, designed to support the bidding for and staging of events, increase in public investment in events, and the supporting and usage of public assets (i.e., stadia, temporary infrastructure, emergency services) (Phi, Dredge & Whitford, 2014). 6.CONCLUSIONS Events are organized activities providing unique experiences to the participants/spectators. The event industry is a key player within the key economic sector of creative industries (Raj et al., 2013). Importance and popularity of events are rising regularly. Cities and destinations have assigned a strategic role to the events in tourism and place marketing (Lucia, 2013). Also, public organizations have increasingly come to see events as potential tools for urban regeneration and renewal (Allen et al. 2011). Main reason of these efforts is to improve competitiveness of tourism destinations. Event industry is fast growing industry and event tourism plays a big role in making significant contributions to travel industry by becoming a creator of a strong tourism demand and is an important tool to catch the various economic, social and environmental aims and to make benefits for the communities and destinations (Arcodia & Robb, 2000). In this chapter we have tried to give a brief framework of events, event tourism, event management and impacts of events. In order to understand the event industry we firstly need to define clearly what an event is? Then management process of events should be studied. Just like any other human activity events have some impacts. Also in this chapter we have discussed possible impacts of events. There are some issues which the event industry will challenge in the future. Raj et al. (2013) suggest a number of issues that the event industry will face in the future. These are;  Shifting Cultural Class; changing consumer attitudes, cultural values, life-styles  Search for Original Experiences; search for unique and memorable experiences from events  Sporting Events and the Changing Economy; hosting mega-sport events and changing nature of experience economy, rising importance of sport economy  Development in Technology; Virtual events, webinars, virtual conferences, 3-D virtual world applications  Climate Change; climate change will effect locations of events and travel routes of event attendances  Downturn in the Global Economy; event tourism is related to business travels especially, trade shows and fairs. So, a downturn in global economy will negatively affect number of business travelers Event tourism has huge impacts and economic volume. This situation brings a growing academic and practitioner interest to the event tourism phenomenon. Sustainability is a critical factor in the future of event industry. So that, it is possible to say a number of studies dealing with events and sustainability will rise.

467 REFERENCES Allen, J.; O’Toole, W.; Harris, R. & McDonnell, I. (2011). Festival and Event Management. Fifth Edition. Jon Wiley & Sons: Quennsland. Arcodia, C. & Robb, A. (2000). Future For Event Management: A Taxonomy of Event Management Terms, Events Beyond 2000: Setting The Agenda Proceedings of Conference On Event Evaluation, Research and Education, 2000, Sydney, Proceedings p. 154-160. Armstrong, J. S. (2001). Planning Special Event. John Wiley & Sons: California. Bladen, C.; Kennell, J.; Abson, E. & Wilde, N. (2012). Events Management An Introduction. Routledge, London. Bowdin, G.; Allen, J.; O’Toole, W.; Harris, R. & McDonnell, I. (2011). Events Management. Third Edition. Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford. Cavagnaro, E.; Postma, A. & Neese, T. (2012). Sustainability and the Event Industry. In Ferdinand, N. & Kitchin, P. J. (Eds.) Events Management An International Approach. Chapter 10, p. 199-213, Sage: London. Chalip, L. & McGuirty, J. (2004). Bundling Sport Events with the Host Destination. Journal of Sport Tourism 9: (3), 267–282. Chard, C. & Dolf, M. (2013). Safeguarding The Natural Environment in Event Management. In Mallen C. & Adams, L. J. (Eds.) Event Management in Sport, Recreations and Tourism. Chapter 8, p. 166-180, Routledge: Abingdon. Connell, J.; Page, S. J. & Meyer, D. (2015). Visitor Attractions and Events: Responding to Seasonality. Tourism Management 46, 283-298. Crompton, J. L. & Mckay, S. L. (1997). Motives of Visitors Attending Festival Events. Annals of Tourism Research 24: (2), 429-430. Deccio, C. & Baloglu, S. (2002). Non-host Community Resident Reactions to the 2002 Winter Olympics: The Spillover Impacts. Journal of Travel Research 41: (1), 46-56. Deery, M. & Jago, L. (2010). Social Impacts of Events and the Role of Anti-social Behaviour. International Journal of Event and Festival Management 1: (1), 8-28. Delamere, T. A. (2001). Development of a Scale to Measure Resident Attitudes Toward the Social Impacts of Community Festivals, Part II: Verification of the Scale. Event Management 7: (1), 25-38. Delamere, T. A.; Wankel, L. M. & Hinch, T. D. (2001). Development of a Scale to Measure Resident Attitudes Toward the Social Impacts of Community Festivals, Part I: Item Generation and Purification of the Measure. Event Management 7: (1), 11-24. Edizel, H. Ö. (2009). Mega Events as a Place Marketing Strategy in Entrepreneurial Cities: Stakeholder Analysis of Izmir Expo 2015 Candidacy. Master of Science in City and Regional Planning. Middle East Technical University, Ankara. Erten, S. (2008). Spatial Analysis of Mega-Event Hosting: Olympic Host and Olympic Bid Cities. The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in City and Regional Planning. Middle East Technical University, Ankara. Ferdinand, N. & Shaw S. J. (2012). Events in our changing world. In Ferdinand, N. & Kitchin, P. J. (Eds.) Events Management An International Approach. Chapter 1, p. 5-22, Sage: London. Ferdinand, N. & Wesner, S. (2012). The International Events Environment. In Ferdinand, N. & Kitchin, P. J. (Eds.) Events Management An International Approach. Chapter 2, p. 23-47, Sage: London. Fourie, J., & Santana-Gallego, M. (2011). The Impact of Mega-Sport Events on Tourist Arrivals. Tourism Management 32: (6), 1364-1370. Fredline, L.; Jago, L. & Deery, M. (2003). The Development of a Generic Scale to Measure the Social Impacts of Events. Event Management 8: (1), 23-37. Garcia, B. (2004). Cultural Policy in European Cities: Lessons from Experience, Prospects for the Future. Local Economy 19: (4), 312-326. Getz, D. (2005). Event Management and Event Tourism. Second Edition. Cognizant: New York. Getz, D. (2007). Event Studies. Theory, Research and Policy for Planned Events. Butterworth-Heinemann: Oxford. Getz, D. (2008). Event Tourism: Definition, Evolution and Research. Tourism Management 29: (3), 403-428. Goeldner, C. R. & Ritchie J. R. B. (2011). Tourism: Principles, Practices, Philosophies. Twelfth Edition. John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken.

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469 Chapter 37

Potential of Gastronomy Tourism within Culture Tourism and Developing

Neslihan ONUR* & Fatih ONUR**

INTRODUCTION Tourism is one of the most dynamic sector in world economy with its growing, developing and changing structure. The main reason that countries do policy for applications for develop tourism sector and create demand is taking more share from tourism incomes which grows day by day in worldwide. Because of this, there is constantly growing competition between countries, destinations (vacations spots) and businesses about varying tourism activities and innovation. Lots of tourism type appeared as reaction to mass tourism as a result of diversified tourism and increasing demand to tourism. Gastronomy tourism is the newest kind of all tourism types. Gastronomy tourism can be described as; a tourism type that for experience unprecedented food and drink experiences, help to create significantly travel motivation. Nowadays, richnesses belong to gastronomy represents cultural experience, cultural identity, communication and share, and these facts significantly attract people to choose destinations. “Gastronomy Tourism” appeared as a large tourism activity around food and drink. Gastronomy tourism has effective importance on determining global and national tourism flow within it’s sources. These sources includes restaurants that contain national or local kitchen, hotel restaurants, airlines, gourmet restaurants of international brands. Also it provides a source to tourism sector with a wide range like visiting planting and producing places of food and drinks (for example spice, honey etc.), organizing tours that based of cuisine culture, telling food’s story (for example vine), preparing fairs and conferences about gastronomy, visiting thematic museums about food-drinks, perform congresses, conferences and workshop activities about gastronomy, organizing cooking classes and seminars. CULTURE AND TOURISM Culture is a term that has large means and includes lots of mean from scientific, humane, esthetic, technologic-biologic, psychologic fields (Güvenç 1994:98). In spite of lots of mean and definition exist, all means and definitions united in one point: culture is a whole of all material and nonmaterial values that society have. Also it involves knowledge, interest, habit, value judgement, general maners, opinion- thought and all behaviours that society have. Culture’s definition took part in result manifesto of World Conference about Culture Policies which in 6th August 1982 Mexico City by United Nations Education, Science and Culture Organisation (UNESCO). In this manifeste, culture is, “culture is whole of material, unmaterial, sophisticated and emotional distinctive features that marked to a society or social group’s character. Culture is not just include art and literature, it also includes life style, human’s basic rights, value system, traditions and beliefs.” (UNESCO 2016). Experience, discipline and habits form society’s culture thas can subsist, can be transformed between generations via language, and also habit’s durableness connected to society’s durableness. In this regard, society and culture can not be considered separate. Culture also has the feature of provide vital and social needs, consolidation of social satisfaction level and habits in time with tried solutions (Güvenç 2002:101-104). Culture is a complicated whole that formed with a lot of factors. One society’s culture comprise of material and unmaterial factors as basic. Material factors include using machines to buildings, from road

*Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Manavgat Faculty of Tourism, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department ** Scientist, Antalya Manavgat Evliya Çelebi Anatolian Vocational and Technical High School, Teacher of Food and Beverage Services

and bridges to cloth and foodstuffs; unmaterial factors are include, from thought and belief types to folk and proverbs, from social and proprieties to fashion and ceremonies (Almerico 2014:5, Emekli 2006:53). Diversifying means of two different cultures can be explained with value based integrated culture model (Erkenekli 2013:156). This model handles as three layers. Symbolic forms take part in culture factor which seen in third layer. This layer is the whole of first perceptions when somebody first meet. These are, language, food-drink, buildings, architecture, monuments, agriculture, graves, clothing, fashion, art, stores, carpets and a lot more empiric symbols. Behavior is one of the culture factors in second layer. In this layer, actual or verbal social formations that includes distinguished and/or audible behavior patterns. Values which invisible culture factor take part in model’s first layer and basic assumptions, beliefs and norms take part in bottom core layer (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Value Based Culture Model Tourism activities appeared as result of cultural exchange between different social type of people with the help of wondering different people’s different culture structures and arts. Thus, people can learn other cultures while travelling, seeing and living (Zengin&Eker 2014:3; Uygur&Baykan 2007:45). People move different places from where they live because of various reasons and purposes. Tourism contains lots of factor like social, cultural, economic, politic and psychology because of based on human self (Öztaş 2002:2). Cultural values like folklore, traditional handicrafts and rich cuisine culture are the factors that increase Turkey’s attraction. People who want to meet wondered cultures, learn their history and beliefs, stay healthy, benefit from adventure and sport oppurtunities, improve their personality in the way of education are increased nowadays. This relation between tourism and culture, forms one of the most important cause of toruism activities. In spite of tourism contains the mean of welcoming guest and care with their peace, make them satisfied and provide needs about eat-drink, housing, also has lots of purposes. This help to appear lots of tourism types like health, culture, thermal, winter, tableland, cave, hunt, congress, golf, yatch, silk, belief, air sports, climbing, rafting, scuba diving, bird watching and gastronomy (Figure 2). Nowadays, sea-sand-sun tourism centers’s importance get lower, different understanding take its part such knowing cultural and natural attractions, eat-drink, pleasure and habits (Berber&Ünüvar 2000:314-315). Interesting life styles, different cultures, different tastes, foods, clothes, touristic products, image or creating brand are using more in last years and make tourism activites diversified. Like lots of tourism

471 types come up with all by itself, also they have varieties inside. In spite of gastronomy is a new type of tourism, it is exist for a long time abroad and tour operators and travel agents already offering destinations (Chaney&Ryan 2012:315).

Figure 2. Factors That Affect Tourism Types GASTRONOMY TOURISM IN CULTURE TOURISM TERM Culture tourism is a tourism type that provide information to people about architecture from former periods, archeological and historical places, different life styles of different people, their costome, traditions, physical environment and vantage points (Emekli 2006:53). Historical places, festivals, special places, local language, art, architectural structure, sport activities and trips take part in culture tourism sources. Also knowing, tasting and experiencing exotic and nostalgic meals abide by areas take part in this with the light of expectations when traditional meals get in favour. Thus, life styles, traditions, customs, agriculture, meal types and habits that related to past and present civilizations started to take part in the most important tourism products within culture tourism understandings. While people who joined culture tourism visit cultural values in different regions, also interest in local resident’s identity, natural life styles, eat-drink habits, local product agriculture, producing meals, cuisine culture and traditions (Emekli 2006:53). Till 1980’s, gastronomy was just a term that explains having meal in three and five stars hotels in France, but lately it started to include activities of attend other cultures and exploring their identities and also became a sub classification of cultural tourism (Santich 2004:17). In this respect, some of writers evaluate relation between gastronomy and tourism in cultural tourism (Hjalager and Corigliano 2000:283). Because culture is unignorable part of gastronomy tourism (Du Rand and Heath 2006:209). Production of food-drink, preparing, presentation, cooking and eating feature in short consume is take part in gastronomy term. Maintain human’s existence, fed, obligated to food and beverage explains gastronomy’s consume aspect, make various foodstuffs consumable which using as raw material is explains gastronomy’s production aspect (Moira, Mylonopoulos&Kontoudaki 2015:135, Küçükaslan&Baysal 2009:20). For describe travel dynamism to witness the production of original and different food and taste, “gastronomy tourism”, “cuisine tourism”, “nutrition tourism”, “gourmet tourism”, “gastronomic tourism” and “food tourism” terms are using with various purposes. Culture, value, identity, tradition, life style and habits components which are influence to create this tourism type are located in all term’s basis (Figure 3).

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Gastronomy tourism that can be evaluated within culture tourism developing in whole world and creates an alternative tourism out of mass tourism because taking part in all tourism activities and also a tourism type all by itself. Gastronomy tourism is a component of culture tourism which is growing fast and significantly contribute social, economic development and communication between cultures (Yun, Hennessey & MacDonald 2011:1). Gastronomy tourism contains food and beverage activities in its basis. But alongside this activity answers physiological and social needs and also explore and taste local food and beverages, see different production methods and learn cultures of food-beverages. Gastronomy tourism which prioritize innovation and be original features, be restpectful to nature and cultural values and protect richness, gain importance at the present time.

Figure 3. Effective Components That Form Gastronomy Tourism A SOCIAL NEED AND THE SYMBOL OF CULTUREL INTEREST: GASTRONOMY TOURISM When the data is analyzed, throughout the history, starting from the first existence of mankind, till the Ancient Greek period, where the first cooking methods have been discovered, gastronomy has been written up with topics about food and wine (Sarıışık &Özbay 2013: 4-5, Santich 2004:17). The word "Gastronomy" is derived from Ancient Greek γαστήρ, gastér, "stomach", and νόμος, nómos "laws that govern", and therefore literally means "the art or law of regulating the stomach" and finds its first use in French Language with a meaning of "the science of good eating". The culinary term appears, for the first time, in a title in a poem by Joseph Berchoux in 1801 entitled "Gastronomie ou L’Homme des Champs a Table" (Gastronomy or human from the field to the table), afterwards the French Academy officialized the term "Gastronomie" by adding to dictionary in 1835 (Gürsoy 2014: 12, Göker 2011:28). In its extended definition, Gastronomy is a discipline that studies the art of eating which can be defined as a system of sanitized, well regulated, fine and delicious order of kitchen and food. At the same time, gastronomy can also be explained as the relationship of food and drink with the culture as well as the tradition and the style of a certain area. (Durlu Özkaya& Can 2012:30, Çavuşoğlu 2011:527, Kivela&Crotts 2006:354). Gastronomy tourism is the type of tourism which is compelling and attractive, that consists of values and cultural components, that has important values such as architecture, arts, museums, activities which actually are the traditional pioneers of the cultural assets. When the motivation of the tourists is examined, it will be found out that the relationship between gastronomy and tourism supports this thesis. Among the touristic expenditures, food and beverage expenditures have a substantial proportion. It is defined as a field of science that covers the studies on food and beverage together with whole the artistic and scientific elements within the historical process; to comprehend the characteristics,

473 implement, develop and improve to adapt them to present conditions (Hatipoğlu 2010:4, Eren 2007:80). Tourism, being a social and economic activity, contains a lot of motivational factors. The source of motivation is certain needs. Gastronomy tourism has four different motivational sources that are physical, cultural, social and prestige (figure 4). First one of these sources is the physical motivation. This motivation is food's being essential for the continuation of life and people's will to eat for living and travelling. The second one is the cultural motivation, where the people are willing to eat to learn about a certain culture. At this point, the local products and food are motivational for the people. For this purpose, the visits that are paid to the production areas, the restaurants that are serving the regional foods and the local festivals play an important role. As third, the social motivation of the tourist is the point of question. The individual by actively participating in the gastronomy activity is in return motivated. Fourth and the final tool of motivation is the prestige. The individual gains prestige by sharing the region specific experiences he gets (Guzman & Canizares 2011:65).

PHYSICAL MOTIVATION CULTURAL MOTIVATION

Motivation Aspects of Gastronomic Tourism

SOCIAL MOTIVATION PRESTIGE

Figure 4. The Motivational Aspects of the Gastronomy Tourism Gastronomy is related to the pleasure of food and beverage. Food, on the other hand, is the form of expression of the society itself and the life style. Mankind enjoys eating and drinking. All by itself, gastronomic values are based on many basic factors such as culture, geography, society and social feeding. Eating culture, which comprises the accumulation and the variety of the centuries as a cultural part of the society, rather than eating one's fill, is the irrevocable part of a lot of social behaviors such as weddings, ceremonies, amusements, funerals and festivals (Beşirli 2010:160). The food and the beverage carry a symbol value depending on the cultural identity of the society where they were produced. As the geography changes, the society together with its values, habits, foods and culinary cultures are changing. Actually, in all the societies, gastronomy tourism creates environments for cultural interaction. From this point of view, it is clear that gastronomy tourism is both being affected and also affecting the culture. THE SOURCES OF GASTRONOMY TOURISM - ITS POTENTIAL AND DEVELOPMENT Gastronomy tourism creates an experience for people. When used as a tool, its social and economical value is very important. It is not only a tool for killing time but a very effective tool for economic development and branding. By this means, it helps in expediting the urban development by protecting the existing cultural properties and by gaining revenue from them. Another important effect is its contribution in extending the tourism season. In other words, gastronomy, contrary to the other travel activities and their attractive sides, is a type of tourism which is propitious during any time of the day and in any weather condition (Kivela&Crotts 2006:360). A "gastro-tourist's" expectation who participates in Gastronomy tourism is making use of its resources (figure 5). These resources can be listed as follows: Watching a meeting or a cooking performance of a famous chef, dining in a new and famous restaurant or a bar, participating in an opening or a special program, visiting a restaurant or a bar which only the locals go or somewhere which is hard to find. Aside from these, eating, participating in wine or bear festivals, researching the local fresh food (groceries, bazaars, self picking farms, fruits and vegetables), visiting wineries, following up the wine making process, attending culinary courses (couple days, weeks or months) can

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be counted among these expectations (Wolf 2006:3).

•to watch the cooking performance a famous chef or restaurant Hotels, Gourmet and Local owner Restaurants •to eat and drink new and in a famous restaurant •only go to a restaurant where locals go

•to participate such as food, wine, beer, honey, spices festivals Festivals‐Fairs •to travel themed food and beverage fairs.

Cultivation and Production •to investigate indigenous fresh food and beverages •to visit the places where the production of food and beverages Areas‐Thematic Museum •to follow the process of production of food and beverages

•to participate in the cooking courses (a few days, weeks and Courses months) •to participate cooking workshops

Congress, Conferences, •to participate in a meeting with a famous chef or restaurant owner Seminars •to participate in a special program or a restaurant's opening night

Figure 5. Resources and Potentials of Gastronomy Tourism Hotel, Local and Gourmet Restaurants Hotel cuisines and local restaurants are the attractive places that provide gastronomic tastes. A hotel cuisine that has international goals, is face to face with two types of customer demands. First, for the customers who wants to taste the local and national cuisine, they are obliged to offer their countries tastes. In the light of this, the cuisine has three possible choices: a) Offering both national and international cuisine b) Making arrangements which emphasizes on international cuisine c) Becoming specialized on regional products, local tastes and food. Offering national or local tastes and drinks is also an appealing target for tourists who are using land, sea or airway transportation. The quality and the increasing variety of food offered in the airway and the cruises helping the customer base to increase which in turn helps the revenues to boost. This being the case, cuisine is a supplementary factor for tourism. Cultivation and Production Sites - Thematic Museums This activity is mainly visiting the places where food and beverages are produced. (eg. wineries, breweries, olive oil presses, organic farms, dairy farms, bazaars, etc.). During this visit, tourists may have extensive knowledge on the production process, and even try to use the production tools and machines. Afterwards, they may also have the chance to purchase the product from the factory sales points. Festivals - Expositions - Tours Local, regional or national trade bodies or tourism organizations offer cultural/gastronomic/wine tracks and tours with various themes and costs which attract great attention in terms of presenting the local gastronomy and the culture. Harvest festivals and celebrations, gastronomic festivals, culinary contests, expositions with special themes play a very important role.

475 Courses In recent years, there is a big demand for learning culinary arts. In the tourism market, courses and seminars with themes of cooking, tasting food and beverages are offered. These type of seminars the length of which may vary from couple hours to couple days are organized by hotels, restaurants, private tour organizations and local authorities. Again lately, use of food and beverages as cosmetic products in spa applications emerged as a new movement which combines the health and gastronomy tourism. Congresses, Conferences, Seminars National and international conferences and congresses relevant to gastronomy with the content of introducing national or regional / local cuisine can be performed in hotels, independent convention centers or conference centers. These types of organizations are the activities made to promote the food and beverage culture. Thus, gastronomy becomes an interesting activity where the place of mythology of a food and drink in history, geography, cultural heritage and the stories related to cooking is narrated. Also, culinary lessons and shows, sales activities of cookbooks and books on healthy nutrition, food and beverage tasting can be made (Moira, Mylonopoulos & Kontoudaki 2015:140). The signs of a polls made among United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) members can be found. According to this poll, among the participants, %79 voted for eating activities, %62 voted for gastronomy tours, %59 voted for regional food festivals, %53 voted for paying visits to producers and the bazaars, %12 voted for existence of museums related to cuisine and %6 voted for presentation for the level of importance. Considering the effects of marketing activities relating to the gastronomy tourism, %91 voted for activities, %82 voted for brochures and advertisements, %78 voted for private web pages, %61 voted for gastronomy guides, %43 voted for blogs, %13 voted for tour operators (UNWTO 2012: 12-13). Gastronomy tourists can be classified in three; tourists who are consciously planning their visits focusing on food; identifying the eating experiences on their way without a source of motivation and tourists taking immediate decisions on where and what to eat. According to this, in "Global Report of Food Tourism" of United Nations World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) 2012 the conscious gastronomy tourist is identified is defined as follows. Gastronomy tourist is a person who is interested in the origin of food and beverage, who uses food and beverage as a tool for exchanging experiences and socializing, having more expenditures than average during vacations, over-addicted and re-visiting the same places for gastronomy. Gastronomy is getting attention of the local population and the special classes with its economic and cultural potential. On this stage, gastronomy tourism with the production of local food products together with the experiences of tourists is having an indirect positive effect on development of rural areas. Also, it creates a competitive advantage and branding opportunity to the region and the country. With the help of gastronomic identity, a distinction for the region, development and evolving processes are provided. In other words, gastronomy tourism will evolve and develop pursuant to the regions resources and potentials. Gastronomy tourism development indicators are examined in the quad hierarchy below. These indicators are also shape the futures of the national and international strategies (Hjalager ve Richards, 2002:22, Table 1). Gastronomy culture is an intangible cultural asset that enlightens the societies' cultures, lives, histories. Gastronomy tourism, as it is in all the other tourism types, has a wide supply chain, and respectively a huge multiplier effect. Among the other touristic companies, it contains a lot of contributors such as food guides, restaurants, culinary institutions, cookbooks and bookstores, tour operators, media companies related to gastronomy, gastronomy themed vacations, gastronomy festivals, wine and beer factories, owners of vineyards and farms. Gastronomy has a great potential of providing great advantages on regional development when correct politics and strategies between these partners and shareholders are put in place to balance the imbalance of developments in between regions. Also, the contribution of tourism investments and incentives in reducing the crime rate should not be neglected (Ersun & Arslan 2011:235).

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Table 1. Gastronomy Tourism Development Indicators- Quad Hierarchy Web Sites Brochures Introduction of Local Products/ Promotion Quantity of Local Brands Number of Restaurants 1st Degree Recognition of Restaurants / Image Indicators New Restaurants Planned Accommodation Facilities (Urban and Rural) Presentation Styles of Local Products (Esthetics, Packaging) Local Gastronomic Activities Efforts in Presenting the Local Products Presentation Quality of the Local Products Existence of Bodies that set the Quality Standards and Audit the Products and the Restaurants 2nd Degree Existence of the Quality Certified Products in Tourism Brochures Indicators Transmitting the Brochures to Tourists by the Local Tourism Authorities (Agencies, Management) Local Cuisines' being Adapted to the Requirements of Today and the Customer Needs and Expectations Foods Presentation by means of Local Activities Existence of Competitions, Amusement Activities which may Attract Tourists to the Restaurants Existence of all Natural Cuisine - Farm Concept Vacation Options 3rd Degree Number of Different Languages in which Touristic Gastronomy Brochures and Websites Indicators Visual Richness of Gastronomy Brochures Giving Touristic Access to Wineries Creation of Wine Centers Existence of a Gastronomy Museum Tourism Educational Institutions and R&D Studies Regarding Gastronomy 4 th Degree Existence of Local Gastronomy and Gastronomy Tourism - Organising Indicators Appearance of Gastronomy in National and Local Media Number of Local Academic Studies and Thesis on Gastronomy

EVALUATION AND SUGGESTIONS Gastronomy tourism is a cultural tourism travel aiming to experience another region's unique, different and unforgettable food, wine or other gastronomical assets. Gastronomy tourism can be privatized in different themes such as wine, food, olive oil, beer, chocolate. Considering the economical and socio-cultural benefits, it is clear that it is a type of tourism which needs to be developed. For the development of gastronomy tourism, locals must be convinced on the benefits and the importance of this. Afterwards, it needs to be protected, lived and transferred to the next generations and tourists. Every society and ethnical group must be encouraged to develop the tourism activities to present their own cultural heritage in their own way. In a country, places that are candidates to become a gastronomy town must be identified and in this context, the cultural and historical places must be renovated, new facilities that the cultural activities will take place must be constructed, local activities and cultural characteristics must be protected and the cultural heritage of the places where cultural tourism will be initiated must be internationally promoted and publicized. When marketing gastronomy tourism a great attention must be paid. Especially, it must be focused on the target audience and the levels of satisfaction must be well determined. The needs and expectations of the potential audience that will participate in gastronomy tourism must be well analyzed and the touristic presentation must be made pursuant to this analysis.

477 REFERENCES Almerico, G. M. (2014). Food and identity: Food studies, cultural, and personal identity. Journal of International Business and Cultural Studies Volume 8:1-7. Berber, Ş.&Ünüvar, Ş. (2000) “Dünya Turizminde Gelişme Eğilimleri İçerisinde Kültür Turizminin Yeri: Konya İli Örneği”, 1. Ulusal Türkiye Turizmi Sempozyumu Tebliğ Kitapçığı, Türkiye Turizmini Araştırma Enstitüsü Yayını, İzmir. Beşirli, H. (2010). Yemek, Kültür ve Kimlik. Milli Folklor, yıl:22. sayı:87:159-169. Chaney, S.& Ryan,C. (2012). Analyzing the evolution of Singapore’s world gourmet summit: An example of gastronomic tourism. International Journal of Hospitality Management (31), 309– 318. Çavuşoğlu, M., (2011), ‘’I. Ulusalararası IV. Ulusal Eğridir Turizm sempozyumu Bildiriler Kitabı ‘’içinde N. Avcı ve Ö. Kürşat (Editörler), ‘’Gastronomi Turizmi ve Kıbrıs Mutfak Kültürü Üzerine Bir Araştırma’’,ss. 527- 538, Isparta: Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Basımevi. Çakır, N. (1999). Eski Kentsel Yerleşim Birimlerimizin Kültür Turizmimizdeki Yeri ve Önemi (Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi), Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Turizm İşletmeciliği ve Otelcilik Anabilim Dalı, Balıkesir. Du Rand, G.E. & Heath, E.T. (2006). Towards a framework for food tourism as an element of destination marketing. Current Issues in Tourism, 9:206-234. Durlu Özkaya, F.& Can, A. (2012), “Gastronomi Turizminin Destinasyon Pazarlamasına Etkisi”, Türktarım Dergisi, Sayı: 206, ss.28-33. Emekli, G. (2006). Coğrafya, Kültür ve Turizm: Kültürel Turizm. Ege Coğrafya Dergisi, 15: 51-59. Eren, S. (2007). Türk Mutfağı ve HACCP Sistemi; Mutfak Pro- fesyonellerinin Haccp Bilgilerinin Ölçülmesi, I. Ulusal Gastronomi Sempozyumu, 4-5 Mayıs 2007, Antalya, 79-83. Erkenekli, M. (2013). Toplumsal Kültür Araştırmaları İçin Değer Merkezli Bütünleşik Bir Kültür Modeli Önerisi. Savunma Bilimleri Dergisi The Journal of Defense Sciences Mayıs/May 2013, Cilt/Volume 12, Sayı/Issue 1, 147-172. Issn: 1303-6831. Ersun, N.&Arslan,K.(2011). Turizmde Destinasyon Seçimini Etkileyen Temel Unsurlar ve Pazarlama Stratejileri.Marmara Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi Yıl 2011, Cilt Xxxı, Sayı II, S. 229-248 Göker, G. (2011). Destinasyon Çekicilik Unsuru Olarak Gastronomi Turizmi: Balıkesir İli Örneği. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Balıkesir. Guzman, L.T.&Canizares, S.S. (2011). Gastronomy Tourism and Destination Differentiation: A Case Study in Spain. Review of Economics& Finance. September. 2011. Gürsoy, D. (2014). Deniz Gürsoy’un gastronomi tarihi. İstanbul: Oğlak Yayıncılık ve Reklamcılık. Güvenç, B. (1996). İnsan ve Kültür, 7. Basım, Remzi Kitabevi, İstanbul, s:95-100. Güvenç, B. (2002). İnsan ve Kültür. (9.bs.). İstanbul: Remzi Kitabevi. Hatipoğlu, A. (2010),‘’İnançların Gastronomi Üzerindeki Etkileri:Bodrum’daki Beş Yıldızlı Otellerin Mutfak Yöneticilerinin Görüşlerinin Belirlenmesine Yönelik Bir Araştırma’’, Yayımlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Sakarya Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Sakarya. Hjalager, A. M.&Corigliano, M.A.(2000). Food for Tourists-Determinants of an Image. Internatıonal Journal of Tourısm Research Int. J. Tourism Res. 2:281-293. Hjalager, A. M.& Richards, G. (eds) (2002). Tourism and gastronomy. Routledge Kivela, J.&Crotts, J. C. (2006). Tourism and Gastronomy: Gastronomy’s Influence on How Tourists Experience a Destination, Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research 30: 354–377. Moira, P., Mylonopoulos, D.& Kontoudaki, A. (2015). Gastronomy As A Form of Cultural Tourısm. A Greek Typology. S T R U Č N I Č L A N A K. Fakultet Za Sport İ Turizam, Novi Sad, Tıms Acta 9, 135- 148. D O I : 1 0 . 5 9 3 7 / T İ M S A C T 9 - 8 1 2 8. Sarıışık, M.& Özbay, G. (2013). Uluslararası Gastronomi (Temel Özellikler-Örnek Menüler ve Reçeteler). Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara, S.4-5 Santich, B. (2004). The Study of Gastronomy and Its Relevance To Hospitality Education and Training. Hospitality Management, (23), 15–24. Öztaş, K. (2002). Turizm Sektöründe Mutfak Hizmetleri. Nobel Yayın No:424. Ankara. UNESCO (2016). Mexico City Declaration On Cultural Policies. 30 Mart 2016 Tarihinde Unesco Web Http://Portal.Unesco.Org/Culture/En/Files/12762/11295421661mexicoien.pdf/mexicoien.pdf adresinden erişilmiştir. Usta, Ö. (1992). Turizm, Altın Kitaplar Yayınevi, İstanbul.

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479 Chapter 38

Economic Impacts of Tourism and Its Place In Turkish Economy

Kamil UNUR*, Hasan KÖŞKER**, Ferhat ŞEKER***

INTRODUCTION Tourism is quite a longstanding activity when considered in terms of people’s getting beyond the scope of their usual environments for different purposes. However, this activity in which a rather small and privileged mass was able to participate did not use to have a remarkable impact in terms of national economies (Unur, 2002). The industrial revolution, as in several other sectors, prepared the required infrastructure for the modern tourism sector to arise and develop as an industry1 and played an important role in allowing tourism movements to gain momentum as time went by (Kozak, Kozak & Kozak, 2014: 31). As the result of the development of touristic activities, starting from 1920s onwards, tourism and travel industry has gained the quality of being a rapidly-increasing activity for some national economies, and its impacts on the balance of payments in particular have attracted attention. In parallel to the development of tourism and travel industry, not only the impacts of tourism on the balance of payments but also all of its economic effects have started to be comprehended better (Toskay, 1989:54). From the second half of 20th century onwards, in other words, following 2nd World War, the importance of tourism and travel industry within global economies has continued increasingly. When this subject is considered in terms of international tourism, which can be characterized as income transfer from one country to another, then economic impacts posed by tourism gain even much more importance (Unur, 2002). Today, tourism is used as a means for national and regional economic development (Blaguer & Jorda, 2002: 877; Çimat & Bahar, 2003:2), for covering the deficits in the balance of payments as well as increasing employment pertaining to several countries including Turkey (Robinson, 2001:34); such that it is evaluated as an alternative or the main sector in the development of some regions, as in the region of Antalya in Turkey (Garcia, Fernandez & Fernandez, 2015:92).In recent years, the share of the service sector, the main sector of economies along with industry and agriculture, has been on the increase within the global economy. Within the service sector, on the other hand, the share of tourism and travel industry is on the increase (Sugiyarto, Blake & Sinclair, 2003:683). Indeed, the tourism sector comprises more than 1/3 of the global trade in services and continues to be the most rapidly-growing sector in the world, as well (Seetanah, 2010:291). This rapid development also increases the contribution of tourism sector to national economies as well as its total share in GNP/GDP (Gross National/Domestic Product) (Blaguer & Jorda, 2002:877). The revenue from the tourism sector in 1996 comprised 9.8% of GNP in France, 11.3% of GNP in Italy and 14.8% of GNP in Spain (WTTC, 2016), whereas they comprised 3% of GNP in Indonesia in 1997 (Sugiyarto, Blake & Sinclair, 2003:685). In the year 2000, the rate of incomes from tourism and travel activities, among all the incomes of Saudi Arabia, was 33% (Albqami, 2004:6). The total contribution of tourism and travel sector to the USA’s GNP was 8.9% in 2000, 7.5% in 2010, and 8.1% in 2015. On the other hand, the total contribution of tourism and travel sector to the GNP of the Republic of China was 8.1% in 2000, 6.7% in 2010, and 7.8% in 2015. The total contribution of tourism and travel sector to Spain’s GNP was 16.1% in 2000, 14.6% in 2010, and 16% in 2015. The total contribution of tourism and travel sector to France’s GNP was 10.9% in 2000, 8.9% in 2010, and 9.1% in 2015. Today, the contribution of tourism and travel industry to the global and national economies as one of the 11 sectors that has made the most rapid advancement around the world is on the increase with each passing day. According to the

* Assoc. Prof. Dr., Mersin University, Tourism Faculty, Department of Tourism Management ** Lecturer Dr., Bitlis Eren University, Vocational School of Adilcevaz, Tourism and Hotel Management *** Res. Assist., Mersin University, Tourism Faculty, Department of Tourism Management 1 In this study, the concept of industry was used as the production side of an economic sector, whereas the sector was used as the production and consumption sides/dimensions.

data of the year 2015, the share of the tourism and travel sector in the global GNP is 9.8% ($7.2 trillion). In 2016 and in the succeeding years, it is expected that the share of tourism sector in the global GNP continue increasingly despite the current diplomatic, political and economic troubles and difficulties experienced throughout the world. It is foreseen that the share of tourism and travel sector in the global GNP will be 10.1% ($9.45 trillion) in 2020 and 10.5% ($11.38 trillion) in 2025 (WTTC, 2016). The importance of tourism and travel sector in Turkey was always highlighted when the period of planned development began in 1963. However, the real transformation began in the mid-1980s. The share of tourism and travel sector in GNP - the share of which used to be 1% among the total fixed investments before 1980 and the share of which used to be 0.08% in GNP - went up to 4% at the beginning of 2000s (Yağcı, 2003:17-18). In 2014, however, the share of tourism and travel sector in GNP proved to be 4.3% (Turkish Statistical Institute, 2014). In 2023 Turkish Tourism Strategy, it is targeted that natural, cultural, historical and geographical assets be utilized in the economic development in a balance of protection and usage, and that Turkey’s share to be obtained from the global tourism be increased by developing the alternatives tourism products. In line with this, 63 million tourists, 86 billion-foreign tourism income and 1350 dollar-expenses per tourist are predicted for the year 2023 (The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, 2007). The main objective of this section is to provide information about the economic impacts of the tourism industry as well as its place and importance in Turkish economy. Separately, the objective is also to provide information, considering the years involved, about the number of tourists visiting Turkey, tourism income, the share of tourism income in GNPs, export proceeds, the share of tourism in covering the foreign trade deficits, and the mean number of overnight stays. TOURISM, ECONOMY AND TURKEY Tourism is a socio-economic event with economic aspects, such as investment, consumption, employment and public revenues, which starts with an economic decision regarding how leisure time and savings will be used (Aksu, Temeloğlu & Taşpınar, 2012: 1159). The economic contributions of tourism to any country or region can be defined as the increase that takes place in the total income and welfare of the country/region as the result of the visits made and the money spent by the tourists in that country/region (Unur, 2004:115). Since the expenses pertaining to tourists are a liquidity injection into the economy of the country that admits the entry of tourists into their land, net tourism revenues (incomes) comprise the incomes of the production factors used by the tourism sector of that country as well as the secondary sectors that serve this sector. The revenues generated indirectly by direct tourism revenues obtained by those that operate within the sector also comprise perquisites (side incomes) by passing into other hands within economy. The final/ultimate tourism revenue emerging along with the performance of this mechanism proves to be quite higher than the initial revenues/incomes (Olalı & Timur, 1988:112). The revenues obtained from the tourism sector have macro- and micro- economic effects, as well. Among the macro-economic effects of tourism revenues are their effect on the balance of payments, their income-generating effects, employment effect, their effect on the inter-regional balanced economic growth, their effect on the other sectors of economy as well as the improvement of infrastructure and superstructure. On the other hand, among the micro-economic effects of tourism revenues can their effects on real wages and prices and cost of opportunity as well as the endogenous and exegenous economic effects be listed (Bahar & Kozak, 2006:129). The positive economic effects of tourism on macro and micro levels are of great importance in terms of all national economies, notably the underdeveloped and developing national economies in particular. Today many countries on any level regard tourism sector as one of the corner stones of economic growth due to macro- and micro- economic effects of tourism. The underdeveloped and developing countries even evaluate tourism as a driving force for economic development. The developed countries, however, evaluate tourism industry as a balancing element to be able to sustain their economic stability (Çeken, Ateşoğlu, Dalgın & Karadağ, 2008: 74). The number of tourists participating in international tourism activities as well as tourism revenues throughout the world are on a continual increase. The number of international tourists, which used to be

481 merely 25 million people world-wide in 1950, (Seetanah, 2011: 291), reached up to 100 million people in 1960 (Akın, Şimşek & Akın, 2012: 65). As the result of this continuous increase, the number of tourists in 2012 and the expenses performed by this figure exceeded billions, hence, the number of tourists reached 1.035 billion people, while tourism revenues reached $1.075 billion (The Annual Activity Report of World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 2012). In 2014, however, the number of tourists reached 1.135 million people, whereas tourism revenues reached $1.245 million (Activity Report of World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 2014). In 2015, the number of international tourists throughout the world increased by 4.4% in comparison with the previous year and were 1.814 billion people (World Tourism Organization (UNWTO), 2015). It is anticipated that tourism and travel sector will grow by 30.8% between the period of 2010-2020 (The Tourism Report by TUROFED (Turkish Hoteliers Federation), 2015/2:4). This 4.4%-growth in 2015 can be accepted as the indicator of the fact that this anticipation will come true. According to the report of Tourism 2020 Vision by The World Tourism Organization, it is expected that the number of tourists will reach 1.5 billion people and the tourism revenues will reach $2 trillion in 2020 (Akın, Şimşek & Akın, 2012:66). The development regarding the tourism sector in Turkey started in 1963, when the period of planned development began. Starting from 1980s onwards, Turkey has shown a continuous and rapid development in the international tourism market. It is important to know the place of tourism within the international tourism market so as to be able to better evaluate the place and significance of tourism in Turkish economy. While Turkey was on 21st rank in the world in terms of the number of tourists that visited this country in 1985, it reached 20th rank in 1995 (Avcıkurt, Köroğlu & Sarıaslan, 2009:11), then 17th rank in 2002, then 7th rank in 2009 (The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, General Directorate of Promotion, 2016), and finally 6th rank in 2014 (Table 1). The share of the number of foreign tourists that visited Turkey proved to be at the rate of 0.3,5% in the world tourism market (World Tourism Organization, 2014:10). Table 1: Most-Visited Countries by International Tourist Arrivals in 2014 Rank Country Number of Tourists (Million) 1 France 83,7 2 USA 74,8 3 Spain 65,0 4 Republic of China 55,6 5 Italy 48,6 6 Turkey 39,8 7 Germany 33,0 8 The United Kingdom 32,6 9 Russia 29,8 10 Mexico 29,1 Rource: World Tourism Organization, 2014. The World Tourism Organization reports that the tourism revenues in 2014 have increased by 3.7% in comparison with the previous year and that they have reached up to $ 1 trillion and 245 billion. 41% of tourism expenses were performed in the European countries, 30% of them in Asian and Pasific regions, 22% of them in the American Continent, whereas 4% of them were performed in the Middle East and 3% of them were performed in the African market (World Tourism Organization, 2014:10-11). In terms of the tourism revenues in 2002, Turkey ranks 12th place in the world, while ranking 9th place in 2009 (The Ministry of Culture and Tourism, General Directorate of Promotion, 2016) and ranking 10th place in 2014 (Table 2). Turkey’s share among the world tourism revenues proved to be 0.2,36%. Turkey’s Tourism Revenue, The Number of Foreign Visitors, Avarage Touristic Expenses and Avarage Number of Overnight Stays The number of foreign tourists visiting Turkey, the tourism revenues and the avarage touristic expenses are generally seen to have increasingly continued although recessions were experienced in a couple of years, starting from 1980 until 2015, as in the example of the year 2006 (Table 3).

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Table 2: International Tourism Receipts in 2014 Rank Country Tourism Revenue ($Billion) 1 USA 1.177,2 2 Spain 65,2 3 Republic of China 56,9 4 France 55,4 - Macao 50,8 5 Italy 45,5 6 The United Kingdom 45,3 7 Germany 43,3 8 Thailand 38,4 - Hong Kong 38,4 9 Australia 32,0 10 Turkey 29,5 Source: World Tourism Organization, 2014. Table 3: Tourism Revenue, Number of Foreign Tourists, Avarage Touristic Expenses and Avarage Number of Overnight Stays Avarage Touristic Avarage Tourism Revenue Number of Foreign Year Expenses Number of ($ Million) Tourists $ Overnight Stays 1950 6 28.625 - - 1962 7,3 172.867 - - 1970 50 720.000 - - 1980 326.654 1.288.060 253,6 - 1985 1.482.000 2.614.924 566,7 - 1990 3.225.000 5.389.308 621,3 - 1995 4.957.000 7.726.886 648 - 2000 10.428.153 7.636.000 764 - 2001 10.450.728 13.450.127 777 - 2002 12.420.519 15.214.514. 816 - 2003 13.854.868 16.302.053 850 11,1 2004 17.076.609 20.262.640 843 10,7 2005 20.322.111 24.124.501 842 10,4 2006 18.593.950 23.148.669 803 12,0 2007 20.942.501 27.214.988 770 11,3 2008 25.415.067 30.979.979 820 11,0 2009 25.064.481 32.006.149 783 11,2 2010 24.930.996 33.027.943 755 10,8 2011 28.115.994 36.151.328 778 11,0 2012 29.007.003 36.463.921 795 10,8 2013 32.308.991 39.226.226 824 10,2 2014 34.305.904 41.415.070 828 10,0 2015 31.464.777 41.617.530 756 10,1 Source: Çimat & Bahar, 2003; Avcıkurt, Köroğlu & Sarıaslan, 2009; compiled from the data of the Turkish Statistical Institute, 2016. While the number of foreign tourists who visited Turkey in 1950 was 28.625 and the tourism revenue was $6 million, the number of foreign tourists that visited Turkey in 1980 was 1.288.060, and the tourism revenue was $326.654.000, whereas the avarage touristic expenses was $253,6. On the other hand, the number of foreign tourists that visited Turkey in 2000 reached 7.636.000, while the tourism revenue went up to $10.428.153.000, and the avarage touristic expenses went up to $764. Finally, the number of foreign visitors in 2015 was 41.617.530, while the tourism revenue was $31.464.777.000, and the mean touristic expenses was $756. Breaking the record in the mean touristic expenses in 2003, the avarage expense per capita was $850. By breaking the record in the total tourism revenue in 2014, a

483 total of $34.305.904.000 tourism revenue was achieved. The year 2015, on the other hand, seems to be the period when, again, the record was beaten along with the number of foreign tourists who visited Turkey, which is seen to have reached 41.617.530 people. It is seen that there have not been many changes in the number of the avarage overnight stay since 2003, that the number of overnight stays has varied between 10 and 12, and that the mean value is 10,7. The Share of Turkish Tourism Industry Within Gnp/Gdp and Export Revenues GDP (Gross Domestic Product) is the sum of the figure, which is obtained as the result of multiplying the final goods and services produced by the country’s citizens within the country with the market price, as well as the earnings transferred into the country by the citizens living abroad. However, due to globalization experienced in economy, in other words, due to the fact that foreigners have a major share in the productions performed within the country, the term ‘Gross Domestic Product (GDP)’, which represents the figure obtained as the result of multiplying the market price with the final goods and services produced by the residents living in this country, is used instead of Gross National Product/Income (GNP) in today’s current calculations. Indeed, The Turkish Statistical Institute has been calculating GDP rather than GNP since 1987 (TSI). In this study, both of the concepts are used since the given statistics include the period before and after 1987. Exportation means selling the goods and services produced in any country to other countries. Tourism revenues/incomes are the functions that generate the foreign exchange supply of tourism as a form of exportation and are characterized as invisible exportation and additional exportation in terms of national economy. Since tourism movements cannot be determined and calculated as easily as goods, tourism revenues are, in this respect, referred to as invisible exportation. Apart form the invisible exportation, the expenses performed either directly or indirectly through the use of foreign exchange/currency by the tourists to buy goods, such as beverages-foods, souvenirs, etc., in the countries they visit comprise the additional resource of exportation for national economies (Olalı & Timur, 1988:97-98). Table 4: The Share of Tourism Revenues within GNP/GDP and Export Revenues The Share of Tourism The Ratio of Tourism Years Revenues within GNP/GDP Revenues to Exports % % 1963 0.1 2.1 1966 0.1 2.5 1970 0.5 8,8 1975 0.5 14.3 1980 0.6 11.2 1985 2.8 18.6 1990 2.1 24.9 1995 2.9 22.9 2000 2.9 27.5 2005 4.2 24.7 2006 3.5 19.7 2007 3.2 17.3 2008 3.4 16.6 2009 4.1 20.8 2010 3.4 18.3 2011 3.6 20.8 2012 3.7 19.2 2013 3.9 21.3 2014 4.3 21.8 Source: The Association of Turkish Travel Agencies, 2016. It becomes possible through the tourism sector to bring more foreign exchange flow into the national economy by performing services export (Fayed & Fletcher, 2002:210). The popularity of tourism has made its impact on the balance of payments, exportation and GNP/GDP more important (Toskay, 1989). It is known that tourism has a major effect on the balance of payments in some

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countries, such as Spain, France, Italy, China and Saudi Arabia. From this perspective, Turkey can be said to be one of the countries that uses the tourism sector in an effective way. Since 1963 until 2014, the share of tourism revenues in GNP/GDP and in exportation has shown an increasing trend. As can be seen in Table 4, the ratio of tourism revenues to GDP in 1963 was 0,01%, whereas their rate in exportation was 2,1%; in 1980, on the other hand, the ratio of tourism revenues to GDP was 0,06%, whereas their rate in exportation was 11,2%; later on, in 2000, the ratio of tourism revenues to GDP was 2,9%, whereas their rate in exportation was 27,5%; the ratio of tourism revenues to GDP was 3,4% in 2010, whereas their rate in exportation was 18,3%; and finally, in 2014, the ratio of tourism revenues to GDP was 4,3%, while their rate in exportation 21,8%. The Share of Tourism Revenues in Covering the Foreign Trade Deficits in Turkey Foreign Trade Deficit (FTD) can be defined as the fact that the monetary value of all the goods and services purchased by any country from other countries within a year, that is to say, the monetary value of the importation performed by any country is greater than the monetary value of all the goods and services sold to other countries within the same year; in other words, it is the debt that emerges as the result of performing less exportation than importation. The major problem confronted by the countries which have a deficit in foreign trade and capital movements is the deficit in the balance of payments. The disorder in the foreign trade balance causes the competitive power of a country to weaken as well as giving rise to a growth in the deficit of the balance of payments and an increase in the debt burden (Öztürk, 2012:30-31). International tourism, as an export item, can be a significant tool for economic policy in resolving the economic problems confronted by countries, in covering the foreign trade deficits, and in overcoming economic downswings (Bahar & Kozak, 2006:130). Table 5: The Share of Tourism Revenues in Covering the Foreign Trade Deficits in Turkey The Share of Tourism Foreign Trade Deficit Year Tourism Revenue Revenues in Covering FTDs (FTD) $ % 1996 20.402.178 7.970.722 39.07 1997 22.297.649 9.233.503 41,41 1998 18.947.440 8.878.840 46,86 1999 14.084.047 7.069.293 50,19 2000 26.727.914 9.990.841 37.38 2001 10.064.867 13.450.127 133,63 2002 15.494.708 15.214.514 98,19 2003 22.086.856 16.302.053 73,81 2004 34.372.613 20.262.640 58,95 2005 43.297.743 20.322.111 55.72 2006 54.041.498 18.593.950 42.82 2007 62.790.965 20.942.501 43.34 2008 69.936.378 25.415.067 44.30 2009 38.785.809 25.064.481 82.52 2010 71.661.113 24.930.996 46.09 2011 105.934.807 28.115.994 34.13 2012 84.066.659 29.007.003 43.75 2013 99.858.613 32.308.991 32.35 2014 84.508.918 34.305.904 40.59 2015 63.268.398 31.464.777 49.73 Source: The Association of Turkish Travel Agencies, 2016. The share of tourism revenues in meeting Turkey’s foreign trade deficits is shown in Table 5. As will be understood from the data in the Table, the share of tourism revenues in meeting FTDs is quite high. The share of tourism revenues in covering FTDs for the past 20 years is at the rate of 52,46% on the average. Their share/part in covering FTDs was 39,07% in 1996, 50% in 1999, 133,63% in 2001, 98,19% in 2002, 82,52% in 2009, and 49,73% in 2014. These figures clearly put forward to what extent

485 tourism sector is important for the Turkish economy. The Rate of Turkish Tourism Revenues In Export Revenues The rate of Turkish tourism revenues in the export revenues is given in Table 6. There was the tendency of a continuous increase in the tourism revenues since 1963 till 2013. Yet, a decline in the tourism revenues is observed during the years 2014 and 2015 when compared with the year 2013. The reason for this decline may have been the impact of regional troubles of Syrian and Iraqi origin that have been experienced in recent years. A continuous rise is observed in the rate of tourism revenues among the export revenues since 1963 until 2006. While the rate of tourism revenues among the export revenues was 2,1% in 1963, this rate went up to 27,7% in 2005. Except for the year 2009, the rate of tourism revenues in the export revenues follows a horizontal course (crawl) from 2006 towards 2015. When the mean value of these years are examined, the rate of tourism revenues in the export revenues is seen to be 21,8%. Table 6: The Rate of Tourism Revenues/Incomes in Export Revenues Export Revenue Tourism Revenue The Ratio of Tourism Revenues Year ($ Million) ($ Million) to Export Revenues % 1963 368 8 2,1 1969 537,0 36,6 6,8 1975 1.401,1 200,9 14,3 1980 2.910,1 326,7 11,2 1985 7.958,0 1.482,0 18,6 1990 12.959,3 3.225,0 24,9 1995 21.637,0 4.957,0 22,9 2000 27.774,9 7.636,0 27,5 2005 73.476,4 20.322,1 27,7 2006 85.534,7 18.594,0 21,7 2007 107.271,8 20.942,5 19,5 2008 132.027,2 25.415,1 19,2 2009 102.142,6 25.064,5 24,5 2010 113.883,2 24.931,0 21,9 2011 134.906,9 28.115,7 20,8 2012 152.478,5 29.351,7 19,2 2013 157.610,2 34.305,9 21,3 2014 151.802,6 32.309,0 21,8 2015 143.934,9 31.464,8 21,9 Source: The Association of Turkish Travel Agencies, 2016. Employment In Tourism Sector Employment has broad and narrow meanings in terms of economy. In a broader sense; it means utilizing or operating all the production factors, whereas in a narrower sense, it means utilizing or operating only the labour factor in the production of goods and services in order to obtain income (Bahar & Kozak, 2006: 16). The income impact caused by touristic consumption expenditures affects the total employment by posing a direct effect on employment in the tourism sector and an indirect or stimulated effect on employment according to the characteristics of touristic activities in the sector or sectors that provide input for the tourism sector. The direct and the secondary effects on employment may vary by depending on the development of tourism as well as the intensity of demand in tourism (Olalı & Timur, 1988:146-151). The fact that tourism is a labour-intensive system, that the automation potentials / resources are limited in the services provided, and that it is based on human labour and effort in general increase the effect of tourism on employment (Olalı & Timur, 1988; Mill & Morris, 1992; Şener, 2001; Baum, 2006; Kozak, Kozak & Kozak, 2014). There are three types of employment resulting from the labour-intensive structural characteristic of the tourism sector, which are as follows (Akın, Şimşek & Akın, 2012:75-76; Olalı & Timur, 1988:146-151):

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1.Direct Employment stands for the affairs/labours resulting from and dependent on the structure of the tourism sector, which are accommodation, catering, travel companies, etc. Due to the fact that the tourism sector operates through the labour-intensive production style and that mechanization and automation fail to be performed on a large scale in the production of touristic goods and services, the direct effect of tourism on employment is even more. 2.Indirect Employment, on the other hand, involves the employment in the sectors supplying inputs to the tourism industries. Also it refers to the employment created by other industries such as construction, manufacturing industry, etc., depending on the development of tourism sector. The increase in the investments on touristic facilities also increases the employment in construction, manufacturing and etc. 3.Stimulated Employment represents the increase in the additional employment that takes place as the result of re-spending the incomes obtained from the tourism sector. The increase in the touristic demand and in the consumption expenditures along with the places, such as supermarkets, greengrocers, jewellers, souvenir shops, etc., brings in vitality in terms of economy and leads to an increase in the labour intensity of the places like supermarkets, greengrocers, jewellers, souvenir shops, etc., hence, to a stimulated employment process. Table 7: The Share of Tourism Sector in the Total Employment in Turkey and throughout the World The Total The Rate of Tourism The Rate of Tourism Sector Number of People Sector in Direct in Direct Employment Year Employed in Employment in Turkey throughout the world Tourism (%) (%) 1990 1.244.630 1,56 3,05 1995 1.525.570 2,31 3,36 2000 1.535.200 2,52 3,78 2005 1.733.760 2,40 3,75 2006 1.687.490 2,44 3,81 2007 1.687.940 2,15 3,71 2008 1.741.550 2,22 4,65 2009 1.824.640 2,18 3,55 2010 1.609.310 2,09 3,51 2011 1.854.590 2,09 3,51 2012 1.815.110 2,11 3,53 2013 1.980.700 2,15 3,55 2014 2130.230 2,23 3,58 2015 2.209.550 2,30 3,60 2020* 2.598.260 2,69 3,74 2025* 2.817.270 2,92 3,90 Source: WTTC, 2014. *: Estimated Data of Employment

All around the world, 277 million people are being employed in tourism and travel sectors. It is expected in 2020 that the number of people to be employed in the tourism and travel sectors be 318,6 million, while the number of those to be employed in 2025 is expected to rise up to 356,9 million (WTTC, 2014). Despite the fact that the number of people employed in the tourism sector throughout the world is on a continual increase, the rate of the tourism sector among the total employment usually follows a horizontal course (crawl). The rate of the tourism sector among the total employment in Turkey and the number of employed people generally showed an increase since 1990 till 2015, apart from a few exceptions (Table 7). The rate of the tourism sector in the total employment was 1,56% in 1990, whereas the total number of employed people was 1.563.760; on the other hand, the rate of the tourism sector in the total employment was 2.52% in 2000, whereas the total number of employed people was 1.535.200; however, in 2015, the rate of the tourism sector in the total employment was 2,30%, while the total number of employed people reached up to 2.209.500. WTTC foresees that the rate of the tourism sector in the total employment in Turkey along with the number of employed people

487 will continue increasingly, since the rates in question suggest that the employment rates created by the Turkish tourism sector still fall behind the world average. REFERENCES Akın, A., Şimşek, M.Y. & Akın, A (2012). Turizm Sektörünün Ekonomideki Yeri ve Önemi. Ekonomik Araştırmalar ve Çalışmalar Dergisi, 4(7), 63-81. Albqami, R. (2004, September). Economic impact of tourism sector on Saudi Arabian economy. In Brussels, International Conference on Input-output and General Equilibrium, discussion paper (www.ecomod.net/ conferences/iioa2004/). Association of Turkish Travel Agencies (TURSAB). http://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/turizm-verileri/istatistikler/ gsmh-icindeki-payi-1963-79.html (retrieved on 08.03.2016) Association of Turkish Travel Agencies (TURSAB).http://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/turizm-verileri/istatistikler/ turizmin-ekonomideki-yeri (retrieved on 08.03.2016). Association of Turkish Travel Agencies (TURSAB).http://www.tursab.org.tr/tr/turizm-verileri/istatistikler/ turizmin-ekonomideki-yeri/dis-ticaret-aciklarini-kapatmada-payi_916.html (retrieved on 08.03.2016). Bahar, O & Kozak, M. (2006) Turizm Ekonomisi, Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. Baum, T. (2006). The future work and employment in tourism. In D. Buhalis & C. Costa (Eds.), Tourism Management Dynamics (pp.130-136). Elsevior Butterwort-Heinemann Blaguer, J. & Jorda, M.C. (2002). Tuorism As A Long-Run Economic Growth Factor: The Spanish Case. Applied Economics, 34, 877-884. Çeken,H.; Ateşoğlu, L.; Dalgın, T. & Karadağ, L. (2008). Turizm Talebine Bağlı Olarak Uluslararası Turizm Hareketlerindeki Gelişmeler. Elektronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Güz 7(26), 71-85. Çımat, A. & Bahar, O. (2003). Turizm SektörününTürkiye Ekonomisi İçindeki Yeri ve Önemi Üzerine Bir Değerlendirme. Akdeniz İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, 6, 1-18. Fayed, H. & Fletcher, J. (2002). Globalization of Economic Activty: Issues for Tourism. Tourism Economics,10 (4), ss. 389-401. Garcia, P.J.C., Fernandez, J.I.P. & Fernandez, A.B.M. ( 2015). Direct Economic İmpact of Tourism on World Heritage Cities: An Aproach to Measurement in Emerging Destinations. Czech Journal of Tourism, 3(2), 91-106. Kozak, Kozak & Kozak (2014). Genel Turizm İlkeler-Kavramalar, Gözden Geçirilmiş 16. Baskı, Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi 2023 (2007). T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yayınları, (Yayın no: 3085). Mill, R.C. & Morrison, A.M. (1992). The Tourism Sistem, 2. Edition, New Jersey, USA, pp.294. Olalı, H. & Timur, H. (19988). Turizm Ekonomisi, Ofis Ticaret Matbaacılık Şti., İzmir. Öztürk, N. (2012). Dış Ticaret Kuram Politika Uygulama, Ekin Basın Yayın Dağıtım, Bursa. Robinson, M. (2001). Tourism Encounters: Inter and İntra Cultural Conflicts and The World’s Largest İndustry. Nezar AlSayyad (Eds.) Consuming tradition, manufacturing heritage: Global norms and urban forms in the age of tourism (pp.34-67). Newyork: Routlegde Seetanah, B. (2011). Assessing The Dnamic Economic İmpact of Tourism For İsland Economies, Annals of Tourism Research, 38(1), 291-308. Sugiyarto, G., Blake, A. & Sinclair, M.T. (2003). Tourism and Globalization Economic İmpact in İndounesia. Annals of Tourism Research, 30 (3), 683-701. Surigiu, C. (2009). The Economic İmpact of Tourism. An İnput- Output Analysis. Romanian Journal of Economics, 29(2), 142-161. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism (Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı), Tanıtma Genel Müdürlüğü, http://www.tanitma.gov.tr/Eklenti/2032,turizm-alaninda-gelismelerpdf.pdf?0 (retrieved on 09.03.2016). The Turkish Statistical Institute (TUİK). Üretim ve Harcama Yöntemi ile Gayri Safi Yurtiçi Hasıla Tahminleri: Kavram, Yöntem ve Kaynaklar www.tuik.gov.tr/Icerik Getir.do?istab_id=248 (retrieved on 01.06.2016). The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). http://media.unwto.org/press-release/2016-01-18/international- tourist-arrivals-4-reach-record-12billion-2015 (retrieved on 15.03.2016). The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO).http://www2.unwto.org/annualreport2014 (retrieved on 07.03.2016). Toskay, T. (1989). Turizm: Turizm Olayına Genel Yaklaşım. Der Yayınları, İstanbul.

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TurkishHoteliersFederation(TÜROFED) http://www.turofed.org.tr/galeri/cop/gtm_gyp034fpv63fqsp4bcgzkav9d967j4pb0e1.pdf (retrieved on 07.03.2016). Unur, K. (2002). Turizmin Ekonomik Etkilerini Ölçmede Kullanılan Yöntemler ve Türkiye’nin Aktif Dış Turizm Gelirlerinin Ölçümü için Bir Model, Yayınlanmamış Doktora Tezi, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi, Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir. Unur, K. (2004). Turizmin Ekonomik Etkilerinin Ölçülmesi. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 6(4), 114-142. World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC). http://www.wttc.org/datagateway/ (retrieved on 03.06.2016). World Travel & Tourism Council (WTTC). http://www.wttc.org/research/economic-research/economic- impact-analysis/ (retrieved on 07.03.2016). Yağcı, Ö. (2003). Turizm Ekonomisi, Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara.

489 Chapter 39

Turkish Cousine’s Importance and Tourism Potential

Faruk SEYITOĞLU and Osman ÇALIŞKAN

INTRODUCTION By travelling to destinations, tourists move away from their home environment and culture for a limited time. Staying, eating and drinking at these destinations and participating in activities there are all part of tourists’ experiences. These experiences can also be explained as the combination of all the factors shaping tourists’ perceptions of their visits (Larsen, 2007; Jeuring & Peters, 2013). Although gastronomy is generally defined as the art of cooking and eating well, some researchers prefer to explain gastronomy as the study of the relationship between a culture and its food (Johns & Clarke, 2001; Johns & Kivela, 2001). Gastronomy can be an attraction that motivates tourists to visit a wide range of places. In addition, food is a significant element in terms of the pleasure gained from destinations (Hall & Mitchell, 2001; Fields, 2002). Gastronomic tourism can extend beyond general settings including food and beverages to production and geographical factors of facilities or diversity in destinations’ cuisine, as well as gastronomy’s relationship with structural features of local cultures (Hjalager, 2002). Managers have become to understand that destinations’ food consumption opportunities should include establishing a relationship between local food and the surrounding region and society, as a way to meet the needs of gastronomy tourists. Establishing this relationship effectively is seen as a key method of making destinations attractive (Hillel et al., 2013). In this way, gastronomy plays a crucial role in marketing tourism destinations. Food and beverage as motivation tools have become significant elements in the tourism sector (Hall & Mitchell, 2001; Boniface, 2003; Cohen & Avieli, 2004). These also account for an important share of total tourist expenditure, as much as 25% (Hudman, 1986). According to the Minister of Industry of Canada (2003) the money spent by local and international tourists in Canada on food was – 45,966 million Canadian dollars – came second in importance after transportation expenses at 16.2% of total expenditures between 1987 and 2003. Singapore Tourism Board reported, in 2007 (https://www.stb.gov.sg/statistics-and-market insights/marketstatistics/x1annual_report_2007.pdf), that the money spent by tourists on food and beverages in 2006 exceeded 1 billion United States dollars and accounted for 12% of international tourists’ total spending. According to the same report, food and beverage consumption would continue to be a key attraction, reaching a targeted figure of 17 million tourists and 30 billion dollars by 2015 (Kim & Eves, 2012). A study of food tourism conducted by the World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO, 2012) on 18 countries with at least 3,500 restaurant owners revealed that 79% offer food activities centred on gastronomic tourism products at destinations, 62% have gastronomic routes and cooking classes and workshops and 59% host food festivals focused on local products. In addition, 53% offer visits to local food producers and markets and 12% organise gastronomy museum visits. This situation indicates that the diversity of gastronomical activities is gradually increasing, and, in particular, food activities, gastronomic routes, cooking classes and workshops and activities centred on local products are given top priority (UNWTO, 2012). Because the great majority of people worldwide enjoy food and beverage oriented trips, tourist destinations are driven to offer food and beverage tourism, seeking to enrich their gastronomic domains and increase their attraction factors from a destination marketing perspective (Plummer et al., 2005). Within this context, local food and beverages play a significant role in promoting tourist destinations and differentiating them from direct competitors. Plummer et al. (2005) state that developing food and beverage, tourism can have benefits, including that tourists enjoy differentiated experiences, cultural

 PhD. Candidate, Akdeniz University, Faculty of Tourism, Antalya, Turkey Assoc. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Faculty of Tourism, Gastronomy and Culinary Arts

values are promoted and preserved, festivals and similar tourism attractions are created, rural areas are effectively promoted and the host country or region’s image is developed. Tourist destinations promoting cuisine culture as part of their cultural values can increase tourists’ interest in local cuisine. Studies have found clear evidence that international tourists visiting Turkey have expectations about their holiday destination and want to learn about Turkish cuisine culture (Akman, 1998; Özdemir & Kınay, 2004; Şanlıer, 2005). Before examining how local cuisine can become an attractive element of host countries and what recent authors have written about this in the tourism literature, the importance and definition of this concept needs to be discussed. In the literature, cuisine as a concept is associated with specific physical areas or sections of society in which the relevant production takes place within the associated culture (Boniface, 2003; Özdemir & Kınay, 2004). When cuisine is defined as a physical area, it can be described as a place where all kinds of food is prepared, cooked and consumed, varying according to the structure of the businesses in question. If the concept of cuisine is described through its relationship with culture, cuisine includes cultural tools and materials used to prepare food and beverages. Cuisine is also seen as an important aspect of the art of cooking and food ceremonies. In general, cuisine thus includes not only a country’s food and beverages but also the methods, tools and materials used and locations, food ceremonies and similar activities related to preparing and serving dishes and drinks (Özdemir & Kınay, 2004). Gastronomic tourism is not restricted to supplying food to tourists in restaurants, hotels and holiday destinations. Furthermore, cuisine can be one of the most important travel motivations of tourists (Çalışkan, 2013). In addition, increasing numbers of tourists derive pleasure from enjoying food and beverages and looking for local gastronomy in destinations (Hall, 2004). Boniface (2003), who sees culture as an integral part of food tourism both in the past and today, states that food reflects the lifestyle of a society. Long (1998) emphasises that food and beverage experiences are sensorial, applying to all levels of sense perceptions. Taking into consideration that countries’ local cuisine has tourism potential and that this is a factor in destinations’ attractiveness, the present study sought to explain the importance of Turkish cuisine and its tourism potential based on research reported in the literature. In this context, the importance of Turkish cuisine in the tourism industry is emphasised. The above section has explained the relationship of gastronomy with tourism and the importance of local cuisine as a significant element in gastronomic tourism. In the next sections, the development of Turkish cuisine and its tourism potential are discussed as so far as this is relevant to the study’s purpose. TURKISH CUISINE Cultural values and lifestyles of a society are the indicators of eating habits. The cuisines of the societies interact with each other and they gradually prospers as well as the lifestyles, cultural values and social status of the societies affected by different cultures or having a different culture. Turkish society is different from the others in terms of its types of food, taste and features. This difference has arisen since Turkish society was the migrant settler, met different civilizations by preserving its own culture and it is a community giving importance to geography, religion and nutrition (Güler, 2010). Since Turkish cuisine has a long history of interactions with many civilisations, this means it has deep and diverse cultural roots, making it one of the most significant cuisines in the world (Gürcan & Özcan, 2014). Broadly speaking, Turkish cuisine can be defined as the food and beverages that provide nutrition to the people living in Turkey, as well as preparation and cooking styles, eating manners, techniques, tools and materials needed for these processes and all the beliefs about, and applications of, this cuisine. The diversity of the products provided by Central Asia and Anatolian lands, interactions with many other cultures and tastes developed in Seljuk and Ottoman palaces are elements that shaped Turkish gastronomic culture (Maviş, 2003; Aktaş & Özdemir, 2007). The cited authors identify the factors that helped create and diversify Turkish cuisine as Turkish society being one of the oldest at this stage of history and Anatolian cuisine, which includes Mesopotamian cuisine. Other factors are relationships with many societies during and after the migration starting in Central Asia and ending in Anatolia, the gathering together of many cultural features of Asian, European and African countries during the expansion of the Ottoman Empire – including being affected by the cuisines of these countries – and the contributions of cooking methods taken from those developed for French cuisine.

491 By choosing moorlands in Central Asia as a homeland, the early Turks were able to maintain a nomadic life based on horses. The Turks’ food was limited to mutton, pastry made from wheat flour, products made from milk and certain types of fruit and associated products. These people’s livelihood was later also based on agriculture and animal husbandry in both Central Asia and Anatolia. As Turkey is at the junction between Europe, Asia and Africa, this is reflected in Turkish food culture, effectively making this cuisine rich and broad (Akman, 1998; Ciğerim, 2001). As it is known today, Turkish cuisine consists of two sections. The first is Ottoman cuisine, and the second is Turkish local cuisine. The latter includes the region’s traditions and habits, economic opportunities and distinctive food preparation styles. Ottoman cuisine developed out of Anatolian cuisine (Ciğerim, 2001). In parallel with the Ottoman Empire’s expansion, both kinds of Turkish cuisine went through important changes (Köymen, 1982; Ciğerim, 2001). Table 1. The studies carried out on Turkish Cuisine in Tourism Literature Source Main Aim Content international tourists’ recognition levels of Turkish determination of tourist cuisine, their views related to Turkish cuisine and perspectives and Akman, 1998 the place of Turkish cuisine within the food and examination of Turkish beverage services provided in a Turkish tourism cuisine practices region. comparison between Turkish, French and Italian examination of Turkish Özdemir, 2003 cuisines. cuisine practices Özdemir & the views of German and Russian tourists visiting determination of tourist Kınay, 2004 Antalya about Turkish cuisine. perspectives the views of local and foreign tourists about Turkish determination of tourist Şanlıer, 2005 cuisine. perspectives promotion of Turkish cuisine and how it came to promotion of Turkish Güler, 2007 our day from its historical development process. cuisine Okumuş et al., the use of food and beverage in marketing of Turkey examination of Turkish 2007 and Hong Kong’s destination. cuisine practices Köroğlu et al., the role of professional tourists guides in promoting promotion of Turkish 2007 Turkish cuisine. cuisine Schulp & Tirali, the state, authenticity and adaptation level of the examination of Turkish 2008 restaurants operating in Netherlands. cuisine practices views of foreign tourists visiting Alanya about food determination of tourist Arslan, 2010 and beverage enterprises, personnel and Turkish perspectives cuisine. the status of Turkish cuisine culture, eating and promotion of Turkish Güler, 2010 drinking habits in historical process. cuisine the attitudes of students having tourism education at Güler & Olgaç, promotion of Turkish the level of bachelor degree towards Turkish 2010 cuisine cuisine. promotion problems in Turkish cuisine culture promotion of Turkish Arman, 2011 according to the cooks from Mengen. cuisine determination of tourist Albayrak, 2013 the views of foreign tourists about Turkish cuisine. perspectives emphasizing Turkish food culture features and the promotion of Turkish Cekal, 2014 importance of traditional food in terms of Turkish cuisine cuisine. Durlu-Özkaya aroma compounds of some traditional Turkish promotion of Turkish & Gün, 2014 cheese and their importance for Turkish Cuisine cuisine gastronomical experiences of foreign tourists Birdir & Akgöl, determination of tourist visiting Turkey and their views about Turkish 2015 perspectives cuisine Source: Adopted from Seyitoğlu & Çalışkan, 2014

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After tasting Turkish food and being impressed by it, international statesmen coming to visit the Ottomans in that period sent their cooks to observe Turkish cooks as part of their training (Köymen, 1982). After the Turks accepted Islam, the effect of this religion on food and beverages could also be seen. Pork does not have a place in Turkish cuisine nor does the meat of donkeys, horses and mules. Reciting bismillah (an invocation used by Muslims at the beginning of any undertaking) before eating and praying at the end of the meal are other examples of this influence. After the Turks converted, they had more opportunities to become more closely acquainted with Arabian culture. Thus, this cuisine, combined with the guidelines of Islam, had an extremely strong influence on Turkish cuisine. The effect of Arabian cuisine culture is more noticeable in the southeastern region of Turkey, for example, in a heavy use of spices and hot pepper (Güler, 2007). As can be seen from the above discussion, historical background, diversity, geographical location and relations with other cultures took centre stage in the foundation and creation of Turkish cuisine. From some viewpoints, Turkish cuisine is a fusion cuisine that developed automatically due to interactions with other cultures (Kırım, 2005; Mil, 2009). Other researchers (Doğdubay et al., 2007; Denizer, 2008; Gonca, 2009; Can et al., 2012) argue that Turkish cuisine is a conscious combination of the food of different cultures on the same plate, a fusion cuisine that developed through the Turks’ interactions with the other Turkic tribes during the migration to Anatolia. Still other scholars (Arlı, 1982; Araz, 1990; Bulduk, 1992; Akman & Mete, 1998; Sürücüoğlu & Akman, 1998; Baysal, 2001) argue that Turkish cuisine is one of the three richest and most nutritious cuisines of the world. Basic features of Turkish cuisine that help make it one of the richest cuisines are as follows (Maviş, 2003; Aktaş & Özdemir, 2007):  The main dish is many types of bread that are consumed frequently.  Many vegetables are used, which are commonly cooked with onions, tomatoes and tomato paste, as well as herbs, mushrooms and roots that are used especially in rural areas.  Of the different types of dishes, pastry is predominant. Apart from this, the use of various spices and salt in dishes is extremely common.  Oil is quite important, with those obtained from milk, tallow or tail fats used in nearly every region. Olive oil is used especially in Western Anatolian.  Generally, the onion, minced meat, tomato paste and vegetables used in dishes are sautéed before adding water. Yogurt and ayran also have an important place. In addition, Özdemir & Kınay (2004), state that the taste of dishes is given more importance than their appearance. Desserts have an important place, with syrup and milk puddings, compote and fruit stew given the most attention. Products such as pickles, jam, sausages and pastrami are among the most important Turkish ingredients. Based on the studies carried out on Turkish cuisine reported in the literature on tourism (table 1), previous research can be grouped into three foci: determination of tourist perspectives, promotion of Turkish cuisine and examination of Turkish cuisine practices. In the studies seeking to determine tourist viewpoints, the researchers have examined visitors’ general opinion of Turkish cuisine and made suggestions to improve how enterprises provide food and beverage services. Approaches such as tourist oriented points of view and a contemporary understanding of management and marketing related to these types of studies have pushed researchers to conduct relevant studies, but the amount of research on this issue is still low. Studies aimed at promoting Turkish cuisine have focused on the history and development of this gastronomy and publicising Turkish cuisine culture. Experiment-based studies have concentrated on the point of view of tourism students and guides on Turkish cuisine. Finally, the research conducted regarding Turkish cuisine practices are experimental studies that focus on tourist profiles, differences in terms of destinations and the importance of Turkish restaurants. CUISINE AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH TOURISM Food and beverages are accepted as an important component of tourism, along with transportation, accommodations, activities provided at destinations and other attractions. Food tourism can be described as tourism that seeks to discover the preparation and presentation of food and meal systems and eating styles in different cuisine cultures (Long, 2003). As well as being an important tool to learn about other cultures, food provides an opportunity for individuals to experience another culture not only

493 with their mind but also their perceptions. Therefore, while forming an important part of features belonging to particular tourism regions, local food adds attractions and diversity to tourists’ experiences in these regions (Shenoy, 2005). According National Restaurant Association (2005), the most popular activity carried out in tourist destinations is eating food, and tourism food and beverage enterprises can charge more because people prefer to go out to eat when they are in places away from their home. The study also found that a high correlation exists between tourists travelling to enjoy food and beverages and tourists interested in historical and cultural places. In addition, an analogy was revealed in other research between the amount spent by tourists on food and the amount they spent on cultural activities (TAMS, 2001). As well as being a factor affecting travel decisions about destination regions or countries, food also helps explain tourists’ satisfaction with their journeys (Du Rand & Health, 2006). The place of food and beverages in total tourist expenditures also is extremely significant (Kim et al., 2009). According to the latter authors, the money spent on food amounts to one-third of tourists’ total expenses. In addition, food and beverages expenses are a spending item that individuals are less likely to give up (Özdemir & Çalışkan, 2011). The relationship between food and tourism is a deep, two-way relationship affecting both levels of satisfaction related to destinations and tourists’ selection of destinations. This relationship is clearly not a superficial and one-way relationship, with food consumption being merely a compulsory need during trips. Karim & Chi (2010) state that, in the relationship between gastronomy and tourism, cuisines has an important function in the creation of national identity, taking shape according to gastronomy’s place in each country’s sociocultural structure. Given this role, food can be an effective factor in exposing tourists to the cultural identity of the host country and region. Destinations’ cuisine also can help the regions in question to become more attractive. According to a study carried out by Kivela & Crotts (2005) in Hong Kong, 20.8% of the tourists visiting the region had the primary goal of travelling for ‘food’. Clearly, while travelling, individuals cannot do without eating since this is a primary need of humans, so travellers always need to budget for food and beverages. In this respect, tourists are extremely likely to encounter the local cuisine of their destinations. All around the world, special attention is given to the subject of food and beverages. Nearly all countries seek to promote their cuisine, bringing local gastronomy to the forefront of their offer. Gastronomic tours have increased in number in countries such as Italy, France and Spain. In this context, as Turkish cuisine is quite rich and diverse, tourism managers should take into consideration that it can be promoted worldwide and become an attractive component in tourism (Akman, 1998). TOURISM POTENTIAL OF TURKISH CUISINE According to empirical studies on this topic, tourists visiting Turkey are interested in identifying and trying Turkish cuisine culture (Akman, 1998; Özdemir & Kınay, 2004; Şanlıer, 2005; Arslan, 2010; Albayrak, 2013; Birdir & Akgöl, 2015). Akman (1998) specifically sought to examine international tourists’ recognition levels of Turkish cuisine, their views related to Turkish cuisine and the place of Turkish cuisine within the food and beverage services provided in a Turkish tourism region. The cited study was carried out on 1,000 international tourists staying at five holiday villages in the province of Antalya. Reasonable prices rank first among tourists’ reasons for choosing Turkey as a holiday destination. The number of tourists who stated that they came to experience Turkish cuisine puts this reason in fifth place. More than half (56%) of the participants said that they wanted to visit Turkey again. While appreciating Turkish cuisine ranks fifth as the reason for revisit intentions, the hospitality of the Turkish people comes first among the reasons for visiting Turkey again. The percentage of tourists willing to try Turkish cuisine is 62.9%, but the segment of tourists interested in their own cuisine in the destination is only 26.3%. The researchers found that participants had not consumed any Turkish food and beverages until the day of the survey, although 45.7% of those who had consumed Turkish food and beverage had some knowledge about this cuisine before coming to Turkey. Moreover, 57.5% of international tourists were thinking of positively mentioning Turkish cuisine to others. In another study (Özdemir & Kınay, 2004), a questionnaire was distributed to 313 German and Russian tourists visiting Antalya. According to the results, views about Turkish cuisine were found to

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be generally positive. The vast majority of German and Russian tourists found Turkish cuisine to be delicious, diverse, attractive in appearance, hygienic, digestible, nutritious, suited to their tastes and satisfying. In related research, Şanlıer (2005) conducted a study on 1,027 tourists: 553 international and 474 local tourists who accepted taking part in this study, which sought to identify tourists’ opinions of Turkish cuisine. The tourists’ age varied from 18 to 65, and they had come from 14 different countries to spend their holiday in various tourist destinations in Turkey (i.e. Ankara, Alanya, Antalya, Aydın, Istanbul, Izmir, Muğla and Nevşehir). While local tourists found the food provided at these facilities to be delicious, appetising, sweet-smelling, satisfying, pleasant and high in calories, international tourists evaluated the food as delicious, interesting, oily and spicy. Based on another study, Arslan (2010) states that a meaningful difference exists – in relation to Turkish cuisine, food and beverage enterprises and their employees – between tourists’ impressions before coming to Turkey and their views after visiting Turkey. When international tourists’ responses to the questionnaire about Turkish cuisine were evaluated, their answers emphasise that Turkish food looks appetising, the food is richly diverse and delicious, its nutritional value is high and it includes unique tastes. In the tourists’ assessment of food and beverage enterprises, common comments were that these businesses provide quick service, give importance to customer satisfaction and have an entertaining atmosphere. Evaluations of the employees working in food and beverage enterprises were generally positive. In addition, the results confirm that the service staff were found to be friendly, helpful, cheerful, kind, clean, well-groomed and interested. Another study (Albayrak, 2013) also confirmed that tourists generally find Turkish food delicious, pleasant-smelling, appetising, satisfying, good-looking, different from other cuisines, healthy, safe, good quality and diverse. A more recent study (Birdir & Akgöl, 2015) revealed that the majority of international tourists (84.3%) know about Turkish cuisine before visiting Turkey. These tourists have most often acquired their knowledge from advice given by people who have sampled this cuisine (49.8%). The majority of the participants in the study (72.2%) prefer restaurants that provide only local food and beverages (48.8%). In addition, when international tourists evaluate Turkish food in terms of factors such as taste, fat and/or sugar content, appearance, portions, diversity, nutritional value, quality and general hygiene, the portion sizes and the food’s taste were appreciated more than other features were. The statements associated with the highest average tourist satisfaction with gastronomic experiences in Turkey’s food and beverage enterprises and with their employees included ‘employees greeting the guest while entering into food and beverage enterprises and seeing off the guest when leaving’ and ‘freshness and taste of the food and beverages’. As mentioned previously, historical experiences, cultural diversity, geographical location and relationships with other civilisations have played a significant role in the foundations and creation of Turkish cuisine (Kirim, 2005; Mil, 2009). Further, the relevant literature argues that Turkish cuisine can be ranked among the three richest and most nutritious cuisines of the world (Arlı, 1982; Araz, 1990; Bulduk, 1993; Akman & Mete, 1998; Sürücüoğlu & Akman, 1998; Baysal, 2001). Accordingly, Turkish cuisine has a significant potential in tourism as an attraction factor based on researchers’ findings about the rich cultural infrastructure of Turkish cuisine. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS The present study sought to analyse the tourism potential and importance of Turkish cuisine in the literature about tourism. In the light of this literature review’s results, some recommendations can be made to the actors associated with Turkish cuisine. For both hotels and restaurants, Turkish cuisine offers benefits, so it should be included on menus more often in food and beverage enterprises. According to the studies reviewed, Turkish gastronomy is not rated highly enough among the reasons why international tourists choose to visit Turkey. The richness of Turkish cuisine could, therefore, receive wider recognition through effective advertisement and promotional activities. Another issue that must be considered is staff education. Employees working at food and beverage establishments, travel agency employees and tourist guides should be educated about Turkish cuisine through seminars and courses and the number of errors made in the promotion and presentation of

495 Turkish gastronomy can be reduced greatly. In addition, marked attention needs to be paid to the appearance of food, as Turkish cuisine produced at food and beverage enterprises should be properly served to represent its authentic values and avoid diminishing its originality. Making costly products in different ways that dilute their originality in order to decrease their cost should be prevented to preserve the originality of Turkish cuisine. Better control of accommodations and food and beverage enterprises also needs to be effectively implemented, and factors such as hygiene and physical environments should not be neglected. The issue of promotion is, therefore, crucial, and the above recommendations need to be appropriately followed. In addition to promotional materials being distributed to advertise Turkish cuisine in international platforms, empirical research needs to be given more importance. In this way, Turkish gastronomy can be more fully promoted and represented abroad. The managers of food and beverage enterprises abroad should be supported, and Turkish cuisine needs to be promoted in its original, authentic form. Education, promotional campaigns and briefings could be provided, and activities and projects centred around Turkish cuisine could be prepared with the support of the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Ministry of National Education, local and national media, universities, non- governmental organisations, associations, institutions and chambers of commerce. The final issue seen as important in the literature is the elements of Turkish cuisine to be transmitted to future generations. Research units can be established that focus on Turkish cuisine, such as Turkish culture research institutions cooperating with universities, to recover lost and forgotten tastes and transfer Turkish gastronomy to the next generation. REFERENCES Akman, M. (1998). Yabancı Turistlerin Türk Mutfağından Beklentileri, Yararlanma Durumları ve Türk Mutfağının Turizme Katkısı Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Yayınlanmamış doktora tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Akman, M. & Mete, M. (1998). Türk ve Dünya Mutfakları, Konya: Selçuk Üniv.Basımevi. Aktaş, A. & Özdemir, B. (2007). Otel İşletmelerinde Mutfak Yönetimi. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Albayrak, A. (2013). Farklı Milletlerden Turistlerin Türk Mutfağına ilişkin Görüşlerinin Saptanması Üzerine Bir Çalışma. Journal of Yasar University. 30(8), 5049-5069. Araz, N. (1990). 21. Yüzyılın Eşiğinde Örf ve Adetlerimiz, Türk Kültürüne Hizmet Vakfı Yayınları, İstanbul. Arlı, M. (1982). Türk mutfağına genel bir bakış. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Milli Folklor Araştırma Dairesi Yayınları. No: 41. Arman, A. (2011). Türk Mutfak Kültürü Tanıtım Sorunu: Mengen Mutfağı Örneği. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Düzce Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Düzce. Arslan, Ö. (2010). Yabancı Turistlerin Yiyecek-İçecek İşletmeleri, Personeli ve Türk Mutfağına İlişkin Görüşlerinin Değerlendirilmesi: Alanya Örneği. Yayınlanmamış yüksek lisans tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Baysal, A. (2001). Türk ve Çin Mutfağının Karşılaştırılması. Türk Mutfak Kültürü Üzerine Araştırmalar. Türk Halk Kültürünü Araştırma ve Tanıtma Vakfı Yay. No:28. Ankara. Birdir, K. & Akgöl, Y. (2015). Gastronomi Turizmi ve Türkiye’yi Ziyaret Eden Yabancı Turistlerin Gastronomi Deneyimlerinin Değerlendirilmesi. İşletme ve İktisat Çalişmalari Dergisi, 3(2), 57-68. Boniface, P. (2003). Tasting tourism: Traveling for food and drink. Burlington: Ashgate Publishing. Bulduk, S. (1993). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Geleneksel Türk Tatlılarını Bilme Durumu Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Türk Mutfak Kültürü Üzerine Araştırmalar, Edt. Kamil Toygar, Ankara: Türk Halk Kültürünü Araştırma ve Tanıtma Vakfı Yayını, 22-26. Can, A., Sünnetçioğlu, S. & Durlu-Özkaya, F. (2012). Füzyon Mutfağı Uygulamalarının Gastronomi Turizminin Gelişimine Katkısı, 13. Ulusal Turizm Kong., 6-9 Aralık, Antalya. Cekal, N. (2014). Traditional Foods of Turkish Cuisine. The Social Sciences,9(1), 1-6. Ciğerim, N. (2001). Batı ve Türk mutfağının Gelişimi, Etkileşimi ve Yiyecek-İçecek Hizmetlerinde Türk Mutfağının Yerine Bir Bakış. Türk Mutfak Kültürü Üzerine Araştırmalar (48). Ankara:Türk Halk Kültürünü Araşt. ve Tanıtma Vakfı Yayın No:28. Cohen, E. & Avieli, N. (2004). Food in tourism: Attraction and impediment. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(4), 755-778. Çalışkan, O. (2013). Destinasyon Rekabetçiliği ve Seyahat Motivasyonu Bakımından Gastronomik Kimlik.

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497 Larsen, S. (2007). Aspects of a psychology of the tourist experience. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 7, 7–18. Long, M. L. (1998). Culinary Tourism: A Folkloric Perspective on Eating and Otherness. Southern Folklore, 55(3), 181-204. Long, M. L. (2003). Culinary Tourism. ABD:University Press of Kentucky. Maviş, F. (2003). Endüstriyel Yiyecek Üretimi. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık. Mil, B. (2009), Yemek Pişirmede Gastronomiye Uzanan Bakış Açısıyla Küreselleşen Yemek, 3. Ulusal Gastronomi Semp. ve Sanatsal Etkinlikler, 17–18 Nisan, Antalya. Minister of Industry of Canada. (2003). National tourism indications. Quarterly Estimates Fourths Quarter, System of National Accounts, Catalogue No. 13-009-XPB. Okumuş, B.,Okumuş, F. & Mckercher, B. (2007). İncorporating Local and İnternational Cuisines in The Marketing of Tourist Destinations: The Cases of Hong Kong and Turkey. Tourism Management, 28, 253- 261. Özdemir, B. & Kınay, F. (2004). Yabancı Ziyaretçilerin Türk Mutfağına İlişkin Görüşleri: Antalya’yı Ziyaret Eden Alman ve Rus Turistler Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Gazi Üniversitesi Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2,5-28. Özdemir, B. (2003). Antalya Yöresindeki Konaklama İşletmelerinde Türk, Fransız ve İtalyan Mutfaklarının Karşılaştırılmasına Yönelik Bir Araştırma. DAÜ Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 4(1-2), 37-58. Özdemir, B. & Çalışkan, O. (2011). Otel Dışı Yemek Deneyimi. Pırnar, İ., (Editör.), Uluslararası Turizm İşletmeciliği. Ankara: Nobel Yayıncılık. Plummer, R., Telfer, D., Hashımoto, A. & Summers, R. (2005). Beer Tourism in Canada Along The Waterloo-Wellington Ale Trail. Tourism Management, 26(3), 447-458. Schulp, J.A. & Tirali, İ. (2008). Studies in İmmigrant Restaurants I: Culinary Concepts of Turkish Restaurants in the Netherlands. Journal of Culinary Science and Technology, 6(2-3), 119-150. Seyitoğlu, F. & Çalışkan, O. (2014). Turizm Literatüründe Türk Mutfağı Üzerine Yapılan Araştırmaların Değerlendirilmesi (The Evaluation of Studies About Turkish Cuisine in the Tourism Literature). Journal of Tourism and Gastronomy Studies 2/4 (2014) 23-35. Shenoy, S. (2005). Food Tourism and The Culinary Tourist. Yayınlanmamıs Doktora Tezi, Amerika Clemson Üniversitesi, ABD. Singapore Tourism Board. (2007). (https://www.stb.gov.sg/statistics-and-market-insights /marketstatistics/ x1annual_report_2007.pdf accessed in May, 2016). Sürücüoğlu, M. S. & Akman, M. (1998). Türk mutfağının tarihsel gelişimi ve bugünkü değişim nedenleri, Standart Dergisi, 439, 42-53. Şanlıer, N. (2005). Yerli ve Yabancı Turistlerin Türk Mutfağı Hakkındaki Görüşleri. GÜ, Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 25(1), 213-227. Travel Activities and Motivation Survey (TAMS). (2001). Wine & Cuisine Report, Lang Research.Kanada.http://www.mtc.gov.on.ca/en/research/travel_activities/wine.pdf (Accessed in March, 2016). UNWTO. (2012). Global Report on Food Tourism, Gaztelumendi, İnaki Global Trends in FoodTourism.http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/global_report_on_food_tourism.pdf (Accessed in Sptember, 2015).

498 Chapter 40

Cruise Tourism in the World and in Turkey

Elif Tuba BEYDİLLİ & Ömer Zafer GÜVEN

INTRODUCTION Tourism has increased significantly over the past decade, and international tourist arrivals are estimated to increase by 1.8 billion until 2030 (WTO, 2011). This increase which is expected to occur in tourism movements will affect both classic mass tourism (sea-sun-sand) and alternative tourism movements. One of the alternative types of tourism that will be affected by this increase is considered to be the cruise tourism. Cruise tourism is regarded as one of the world's fastest growing tourism activities (Dwyer & Forsyth, 1998; WTO, 2012; Larsen & Wolff, 2016). The cruise tourism achieving an average annual growth of 7.8% over the world will also continue to grow in the coming years. In this context, many countries that want to receive a share from tourism revenues focus on cruise tourism product diversification. According to the 2015 data, the Caribbean and Bahamas take the first place with 35.5%, and the Mediterranean region that involves Turkey takes the second place with 19.5% among cruise destinations. It has become a necessity for destinations wishing to get a share from cruise tourism which has shown a significant increase over the world to make investments in the fields that need to be developed by examining the current situation. In this context, the current situation related to cruise tourism in the world and in Turkey was evaluated, and the suggestions for the development of cruise tourism in Turkey were included in this study. 1.CRUISE TOURISM Cruise is used to refer to ships with accommodation and certain standards of sizes and comfort conditions which are used for holiday purposes (Dilek et al., 2015). The cruise ship has a large resort hotel, an outstanding gastronomy and various entertainment venues (Robles, Galvão and Pereira, 2015). The sea voyages made with these ships having all kinds of service equipment constitute the main axis of the cruise tourism (İncekara & Yılmaz, 2002). In this context, cruise tourism is expressed as staying in a floating hotel and the realization of international travels (Dilek, Kaygalak, Türksoy & Timur, 2015). Cruise tourism involves numerous activities for travelers in addition to its traditional functions related to providing transport and accommodation (WTO, 2012). In other words, cruise tourism product consists of numerous services ranging from luxury and personalized services to basic services related to the accommodation of tourists (Robles, et al., 2015). Tourists who purchase cruise travel have also purchased transportation, accommodation, refreshments, activities and tour operations within a package (Brida&Zapata, 2010) and begin their travel within a program. When and at which port tourists will go on board the ship, which ports and in how much time they will visit, in which activities they will participate during these visits and to which port and when they will return are determined under normal conditions (İncekara & Yılmaz, 2002). In this context, the features of cruise tourism can be expressed as following (Güzel, 2006).  Travel time is given for the passenger (5, 7, 10, 15 and 30 days).  Passengers know the place where they go on board the ship. That is to say, turnaround ports are same.  The calling ports during trip are based on the tariff.  The calling ports are mainly selected among tourism centers (beach, sun, history, nature,

 Assist. Prof. Dr., Dumlupinar University Kütahya Vocational School of Social Sciences, Department of Hotel, Restaurant and Catering.  Assist. Prof. Dr., Dumlupinar University Kütahya Vocational School of Social Sciences, Department of Hotel, Restaurant and Catering.

shopping, etc.).  It has the feature of traveling rather than delivering service. Although transportation and accommodation have created separate industries in other types of tourism, cruise tourism and sea excursions have created their own industry by combining transportation, accommodation and entertainment activities (Çimenoğlu, 2011). In this context, the economic impacts of the cruise industry also differ from other types of tourism. The expenditures incurred in cruise tourism can be examined in two parts as passenger expenditures and operator expenditures as it is shown in Table 1 (Dwyer&Forsyth, 1998). Passenger expenditures represent the expenditures made by the passengers who will travel by cruise ship during their trip. While some of these expenditures consist of expenditures (such as travel, accommodation, meals and shopping) made for going to the port of departure of the cruise, the other part of these expenditures consists of expenditures (such as meals, excursion and travel and shopping) made by the passengers at the port. Port expenditure is one of the expenditures of the operators. The pilotage, towage, moorings, harboring and city toll charges paid during the entry and exit of cruise ships to the port can be shown as the examples of these expenditures. Another expenditure is the expenditure for bunkering. These expenditures consist of stores for the passengers and crew on cruise ships and the oil and fuel expenditures of the ships. Ship maintenance and repair expenditures are the other expenditure items. The expenditures made by the crew as a result of payments made to the ship's crew are the other expenditure items. Another type of expenditure consists of income tax, customs duty and departure tax (Dwyer & Forsyth, 1998; DTGM, 2014). Table 1: Cruise Related Expenditures Passenger Expenditures Air Fares to/from Base Country Internal Travel Add-on Expenditure: Accommodation Meals Shopping Excursions Port Expenditure: Meals Excursions and travel Shopping Operator Expenditures Port Expenditures: Government Charges Port Charges (incl. Terminal) Towage Provedoring: Stores and Provedoring Bunkering Purchase of Services (Waste Disposal, Water) Crew Expenditure: Local Crew Port expenditure by Foreign Crew Ship Maintenance Marketing in Base Country Taxes: Income Tax Customs Duties Departure taxes Source: Dwyer&Forsyth, 1998: 395. Cruise tourism contributes to the national and regional economy in line with the expenditure items mentioned above (Dwyer&Forsyth, 1998; Birida&Zapata, 2010). The contributions of cruise tourism to economy occur as the direct economic contribution, the indirect economic contribution, and the induced economic contribution. The direct economic contribution results from the expenditures of the cruise industry, cruise passengers, and crew. The indirect contribution is derived from the subsequent request

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for goods and services constituted by the businesses which are directly affected. The expenditures of the personnel of the cruise lines and their suppliers constitute the induced contribution (CLIA, 2015a). 2. CRUISE TOURISM IN THE WORLD Today, the ships developed for passenger transportation form the basis of the rapidly increasing cruise travels. Although these ships have been used for centuries in maritime transportation, the concept of the cruise (Pavlić, 2013) appeared as a tourism activity when wealthy people began to choose ships in their travels for entertainment. The first cruise was carried out by the Ceylon ship owned by Peninsular & Oriental Steam Navigation Company Limited (P&O) transporting British passengers in the Mediterranean in 1857 (Robles, et al., 2015). Cruise industry continued to grow with regular cruises held by White Star Line, P&O, and Hamburg America Line until the early 1900s (Pavlić, 2013). Passenger ships were used for transporting people between different destinations all over the world until the end of the 1950s. The intercontinental flights were preferred more than sailing ships along with the development of airline transport in the 1960s. The numbers of passengers of the cruise lines began to decrease along with the growth of the airline companies in the tourism industry. In this process; while some companies made changes regarding transportation, the others began to take steps as new cruise lines (Robles, et al., 2015). In 1965, the first ship which was built specially for cruising (in the North America), m/v Oceanic, was introduced. In 1966, the Norwegian Caribbean Line presented the first annual cruise program including 540 passengers. The first modern cruise began with the North American tourists in the Caribbean in the early 1970s (Pavlić, 2013). The cruise organized by the Carnival Cruise Line, which was founded in 1972, in the Caribbean achieved significant success in the North America. The Carnaval Cruise Lines tended towards the mass market with the American-style cruise. In 1996, they laid the foundations of mega-ships that began to compete with amusement parks and club hotels with the “Destiny” ship with 3350 person capacity which is the world's first 100,000-ton ship due to its sizes and features (Güzel, 2006). The cruise tourism, which had an average growth period in the 1970s and 1980s, was preferred by half a million passengers in 1970, 1.4 million passengers in the 1980s and 3.8 million passengers in the 1990s (Brida&Zapata, 2010). The industry reached 4.5 million passenger capacity in 1993 and 8.5 million passenger capacity in 1997 (Güzel, 2006). According to the data of the Cruise Line International Association (CLIA), the cruise industry achieved an average annual growth of 7.6% between the years 1990-2009 (DTGM, 2014). This growth took place by 18% between the years 2009 and 2013 (FCCA, 2015; CLIA, 2015b). This increase that occurred in the cruise industry by years has also provided an increase in the number of those who prefer cruise tourism. So much so that, 13.07 million people in 2004 and approximately 23 million people in 2015 participated in the cruise tourism. As it is seen from Table 2, the number of those who preferred cruise tourism increased with each passing year between 2004 and 2015. Table 2: Numbers of Cruise Passengers by Years 2004-2015 (million) Years 2004 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Number of 13.07 19.1 20.5 20.9 21.3 22.04 23 Passengers Sources: CLIA, 2016; ECC, 2010; ECC 2013. The regional distribution of the numbers of cruise passengers between 2004-2014 given in Table 2 is presented in Table 3. According to Table 3, the demand for cruise tourism over the world was increased from 13.1 million passengers in 2004 to 22.0 million passengers in 2014 with a growth by 68% (CLIA Europe, 2015). In a ten-year period, the demand for North America showed an increase by 33% and the demand for Europe showed an increase by 128%. An increase in the ratio of 208% took place in the demand for other destinations outside of North America and Europe.

501 Table 3: International Demand for Cruises 2004-2014 (million passenger) Region 2004 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 North America 9.14 11.00 11.44 11.64 11.82 12.16 Europe 2.80 5.67 6.15 6.23 6.39 6.39 Rest of the World1 1.13 2.40 2.91 3.03 3.09 3.49 Total 13.07 19.07 20.49 20.90 21.30 22.04 %NA 69.9 57.7 55.8 55.7 55.5 55.2 1 Australia, China, South America, Other Asia, Singapore, Taiwan, Japan, Hong Kong, New Zealand, Others. Source: CLIA Europe, 2015 The increase seen by years is also expected to continue in 2016. According to the CLIA, it is estimated that approximately 24 million people will prefer cruise tourism in 2016 (CLIA, 2016). This situation is gaining importance in terms of the destinations wishing to get a share from cruise tourism. Among these destinations, North America and the Mediterranean are regarded as the most important destinations of the cruise tourism. North America and the Mediterranean region continued to be the most requested regions in 2015. According to the distribution of cruise tourism destinations in terms of capacity given in Table 4, it is seen that the Caribbean/Bahamas and Mediterranean had a share of 55% in 2015. This result indicates that more than half of the market is present in these two regions. Besides, the Caribbean/Bahamas showed a decrease by -22,3% by having a ratio of 45,7% in 2003 and a ratio of 35,5% in 2015, the Mediterranean showed an increase by 69,5% by having a ratio of 11,5 in 2003 and a ratio of 19,5 in 2015. As it is seen in Table 4, the most significant increase took place in Australia/New Zealand/South Pacific region by 275% between 2003-2015. Table 4: Cruise deployed capacity share per region Variation Region 2003 2008 2012 2013 2014 2015 2003/2015 Caribbean/Bahamas 45,7 37,2 37,3 34,4 37,3 35,5 -22,3% Mediterranean 11,5 17,6 19,9 21,7 18,9 19,5 69,5% Europe w/o Med 10,9 8,3 9,8 10,9 11,1 10,6 0 Asia n.a n.a n.a 3,4 4,4 6 n.a. Australia/New 1,6 2,2 4,1 5 5,9 6 275% Zealand/S. Pacific Alaska 7,4 7,6 5,4 4,8 4,5 4,5 -39,1% South America 2,4 2,9 3,4 3,9 3,3 2,9 20,8% Other Programs 20,5 24,2 20,1 15,9 14,6 15 -26,8% Sources: Robles, Galvão and Pereira, (2015); FCCA (2015). The demand for cruise tourism in the world showed an increase by 68% in a 10-year period. In 2014, 11.21 million people from the US, 1.77 million people from Germany, 1,61 million people from the UK, 1 million people from Australia, 840,000 million people from Italy, 800,000 million people from Canada, 700,000 million people from China, 590,000 million people from France, 450,000 million people from Spain, 180,000 million people from Norway and 2,84 million people from the rest of the world participated in cruise tourism (CLIA, 2016). The increase that occurred in the cruise demand has provided an increase in the capacities of the cruise lines. There has been an increase in the global supply of bed days by 83.9% from 2004 until 2014, increasing from 77.2 million bed days to 142 million bed days which comprises an increase by 5.6% for 2014 (CLIA, 2015a). In the cruise industry, the Carnaval Cruise Lines, the Royal Caribbean Lines and the Norwegian Cruise Lines constitute three major companies in the world market. According to the 2014 data; regarding the number of passengers, the Carnaval Cruise Lines (47,7%), the Royal Caribbean Lines (22,7%) and the Norwegian Cruise Lines (9%) have 79.4% of the market (Robles, et al., 2015) and 71.8% of the revenue (DTO, 2015).

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The cruise industry having a significant impact in the economic sense created a total economic impact of 117 billion dollars in 2013 (CLIA, 2015b) and 119.9 billion dollars in 2014 (CLIA, 2016). The economic contribution of cruise tourism over the world is presented in Table 5. Table 5: Total Global Economic Contribution of Cruise Sector Category 2013 2014 Passenger and Crew Onshore Visits (US Million) 114.87 118.03 Total Direct Expenditures (US$ Billion) $52.31 $55.77 Total Output Contribution (US$ Billion) $117.15 $119.90 Total Income Contribution (US$ Billion) $38.47 $39.34 Total Employment Contribution 891.009 939.232 Source: BREA, 2014; CLIA, 2015a. As it is seen in Table 5, 114.87 million passengers and crew made a total of $52.31 direct expenditure in 2013, 118.03 million visitors and employees made an expenditure of $55.77 billion dollars in 2014 (BREA, 2014; 2015). The cruise industry's contribution to the global economy was $117.1 billion dollars in 2013 and $119.9 billion dollars in 2014. Although 891.009 full-time employees generated $38.47 billion income in 2013, this ratio reached 939.232 employees and $39.34 income in 2014. The global and regional distribution of cruise tourism regarding its total economic contribution are presented in Table 6. Table 6: Total Cruise Sector Economic Contribution – Global and Regional Market - 2014 Billions of US$ Category Global Regional Markets United Rest of North Europe Rest of the States1 America2 (EU+3)3 World4 Output ($ Billion) $119.90 $46.09 $1.21 $48.73 $14.87 Share of Global 38.4% 8.5% 40.6% 12.4% Income ($ Billion) $39.34 $19.43 $2.15 $12.54 $5.22 Share of Global 49.4% 5.5% 31.9% 13.3% Employment 939,232 373,738 95,412 348,930 121.152 Share of Global 39.8% 10.2% 37.2% 12.9% 1 United States consists of all US ports including those in Alaska and Hawaii. 2 Rest of North America consists of ports in Bermuda, Canada, the Caribbean, Central America and Mexico. 3 Europe EU+3 includes the ports of the 27 member states of the EU plus Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland. 4Rest of the world consists of ports in South America, Asia, and the South Pacific, excluding Australia. Source: CLIA, 2015a. According to the data in Table 6, the total output contribution of Europe is $48.73 billion, and this corresponded to approximately 41% of the total global output contribution of the cruise sector. This output brought about an employment of 348.930 full-time employees paying approximately $12.54 billion in employee revenue. The employment and income contribution were in the second rank after the US which corresponded to 32% of the employment contribution and 37% of the total global income (CLIA, 2015a). It is seen that the total output contribution was $46.09 billion in the United States, this accounted for 38.4% of the total global output contribution. The $46.09 billion in the total output constituted a predicted 373,738 FTE jobs paying $19.43 billion in employee revenue. As it was stated above, the employment and income contributions had the highest contributions between four regional markets and corresponded to 49.4% of the employment contributions and 39.8% of the total global income (CLIA, 2015a). 95.412 FTE jobs paying $2.15 billion in employee revenue was created by the total output contribution of $10.21 billion of the cruise sector in some other places in North America. In this region, the share of the global economic contribution varied between 5.5% for the income contribution and 10.2% for the employment effect (CLIA, 2015a).

503 Lastly, in the Rest of the world, 121,152 FTE jobs paying $5.22 in employee revenue were created by the total output contribution of $14.87 billion. The share of the global contribution varied between 12.4% for the total output contribution, 13.3% for the income contribution, and 12.9% for the total employment contribution (CLIA, 2015a). 3.CRUISE TOURISM IN TURKEY Destinations dominated by natural beauties where there are undisturbed, clean sea or ports are preferred for cruise travels. The Mediterranean Region, as well as the Caribbean, Alaska and the Far East region, is included in these types of destinations. The Mediterranean region that involves Turkey is one of the important regions where natural beauties and historical and cultural richness are all together and these touristic factors are located in coastal towns or their immediate vicinity. (İncekara&Yılmaz, 2002). In other words, Turkey is located in the Mediterranean region which is in the second rank in cruise visits by 19,5% and in a region which is included in the programs of cruise lines. In this context, it competes with other Mediterranean ports in terms of ports, one of the basic preconditions for the development of cruise tourism (Gökgöz, 2010). When appropriate existing ports for cruise tourism in Turkey are analyzed, there are 3 ports which are large enough to compete with the major cruise ports in the Mediterranean region. These are Istanbul, Izmir and Kuşadası ports. Following these three ports, Antalya, Marmaris, Bodrum, Alanya and Çeşme ports are our ports that host over 15 thousand cruise passengers and are characterized as Group 2 ports. We have 17 ports that are characterized as Group 3 ports and generally provide service to below 5 thousand cruise passengers (DTGM, 2014). However, our ports which are included in these three groups are not enough for such a fast-growing sector. The lack of available ports in Turkey also affects the numbers of cruise ships and passengers that arrive in Turkey. Besides, although there was a decrease in the numbers of cruise ships that arrived in Turkey in 2009, 2013 and 2014, there was an increase for the other years. So much so that, this situation can be seen when the numbers of cruise ships and passengers that arrive in Turkey given in Table 7 are analyzed. Table 7: The Numbers of Cruise Ships and Passengers that Arrive in Turkey Number of Rate of Number of Rate of Years Ships Change % Passengers Change % 2006 1317 1.016.314 2007 1421 7,8 1.368.400 34,4 2008 1612 13,4 1.605.372 17,3 2009 1345 -16,5 1.484.194 -7,5 2010 1368 1,7 1.719.098 15,8 2011 1623 18,6 2.191.420 27,4 2012 1685 3,8 2.095.673 -4,3 2013 1542 -8,4 2.240.776 6,9 2014 1385 -10 1.790.125 -20 2015 1456 5,1 1.889.370 5,5 Sources: DTO, 2015; DTGM, 2015. As it is seen from Table 7, 1.016.314 passengers came to Turkey with 1317 ships in 2006, 1.889.370 passengers came with 1456 ships in 2015. However, the cruise tourism which continues to grow every year all over the world and is considered as an important type of tourism has not been able to achieve a steady growth in terms of the numbers of ships and passengers coming to Turkey. Although there was an increase in the number of ships by 13,4% and in the number of passengers by 17,3% in 2008, there was a decrease in the number of ships by -16,5% and in the number of passengers by -7,5% in 2009. In addition, there was an increase in the number of ships by 18,6% and in the number of passengers by 27,4% in 2011 compared to the previous year. While there was an increase in the number of ships by 3,8% and a decrease in the number of passengers by -4,3% in 2012, there was a decrease in the number of ships by -8,4% and an increase in the number of passengers by 6,9% in 2013. In 2014,

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there was a significant decrease in the number of cruise ships coming to Turkey by -8,4% and in the number of passengers by -20%. In 2015, there was an increase of 5% on an average in the numbers of ships and passengers. In general, the share that Turkey gets from the world cruise market is increasing with each passing year. The fact that the European Cruise Association has stated that Turkey is involved in the developing cruise tourism market (Dilek et al., 2015) and cruise lines have included Turkey into their cruise programs can be considered as important indicators of the increase in Turkey's share. The high security at ports ensured by the application of the International Ship and Port Facility Security Code (ISPS Code) that came into force in 2004 has contributed to the development of cruise tourism and allowed big cruise lines to include Turkey into their cruise programs (Dilek et al., 2015). Turkey is one of the countries that have shown a significant development in cruise tourism in recent years (DTGM, 2014; DTO, 2015). In Turkey, Istanbul, Izmir, Kuşadası, Çeşme, Antalya, and Marmaris are the most important and frequented cruise ship ports. In addition, Istanbul, Izmir, and Antalya ports have the feature of turn-around ports. In particular, Istanbul is a port which has been included in the development program by the World Cruise Lines by being declared as the turn-around port. In order for a port to become a home port; (DTO, 2015) (i) It needs to be a world city, (ii) It needs to have a modern airport close to the cruise port, (iii) There should be hotels close to the port, (iv) Transportation roads should be sufficient, (v) There should be a modern passenger terminal appropriate for the cruise ship passenger traffic, and it needs to have a wharf appropriate for the ships with 2500-5500 passenger capacity. Istanbul, Izmir, and Antalya ports have all these conditions. However, the fact that it can operate as a home port depends on cruise programs determined by the cruise lines that largely dominate the cruise tourism market. The preferability ratio of the ports in question will also increase along with the increase in the numbers of cruise ships and passengers coming to Turkey. In this context, the numbers of ships and passengers coming to Turkey are gaining importance. The distribution of the cruise ships coming to Turkey on the basis of ports is presented in Table 8. As it is seen from Table 8, Istanbul, Izmir, and Kuşadası ports are in the first three ranks when the numbers of cruise ships coming to Turkey is analyzed. Table 8: Numbers of cruise ships arriving at ports Ports 2006 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Alanya 114 2 19 22 53 23 34 Antalya 32 41 64 55 64 58 52 Bodrum 66 89 82 131 114 78 90 Çeşme 0 16 1 25 54 57 41 İstanbul 306 342 420 382 381 317 345 İzmir 105 159 262 288 190 124 114 Kuşadası 471 517 568 464 428 448 506 Marmaris 83 84 84 88 112 82 83 Source: DTO, 2015; DTGM, 2015 Upon analyzing the distribution of the cruise ships coming to Turkey on the basis of ports, 28% of the ships coming in 2013 visited Kuşadası, 25% of them visited Istanbul, 12% of them visited Izmir, 7% of them visited Marmaris, 4% of them visited Antalya and 24% of them visited the other ports. In 2014, the ratios of those visits were 32% for Kuşadası, 23% for Istanbul, 9% for Izmir, 6% for Marmaris, 4% for Antalya, 4% for Çeşme and 22% for the other ports. In 2013, Istanbul was in the first place in terms of passenger distribution by 31%. Istanbul was followed by Kuşadası by 26%, Izmir by 22%, Marmaris by 7%, Antalya by 7% and the other ports by 7%, respectively. In 2014, the ratios were 31% for Kuşadası, 29% for Istanbul, 14% for Izmir, 10% for Antalya, 6% for Marmaris, 4% for Çeşme and 6%

505 for the other ports (DTO, 2015). The numbers of cruise passengers coming to Turkey's ports are presented in Table 9. Table 9: Numbers of passengers arriving at ports Ports 2006 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 Alanya 80.440 1.071 22.324 25.743 40.843 18.556 22.332 Antalya 13.015 103.859 127.250 159.430 163.575 175.778 168.538 Bodrum 10.478 31.700 46.031 52.832 28.546 32.879 62.050 Çeşme 0 9.247 89 4.787 62.741 62.115 40.772 İstanbul 273.553 508.246 627.897 596.027 689.417 518.935 595.880 İzmir 184.797 378.266 493.533 552.764 486.493 257.233 241.716 Kuşadası 368.696 493.911 662.456 564.317 577.685 556.745 567.315 Marmaris 65.265 146.531 170.021 110.279 152.685 107.724 129.126 Source: DTO, 2015; DTGM, 2015 As it is seen from Table 9, Istanbul, Izmir, and Kuşadası ports are also in the first three ranks in terms of arriving passengers. However, according to the European Economic Contribution Report prepared by CLIA (2015), it can be stated that Istanbul, Izmir, and Kuşadası ports are not at sufficient levels yet in 2012 - 2014 compared to their rivals such as Marseille (France), Naples (Italy), Dubrovnik (Croatia) and Mykonos (Greece) located in the Mediterranean Region (CLIA, 2015a). Therefore, it is necessary to ensure that more ships and passengers visit these ports by initially improving these three ports which are important for cruise tourism in Turkey and then the other ports. Increasing the port capacities of the other ports mentioned above will also increase the share that the ports get from cruise tourism. However, it should be noted that although there was an increase in the cruise tourism by 5% in Turkey in 2015, it is almost taken for granted that a serious decrease will be experienced in 2016. Maritime News Agency (Turkey) has stated that cruise ships have canceled their excursions to Turkey for security reasons. The world's leading cruise lines MSC Cruise, Costa, Aida Cruises, Thomson, Crystal, the Norwegian Cruise Line, Oceania Cruises, Regent Seven Seas, Celebrity Cruises and Disney Cruise Line have stated that Turkey has been removed from the 2016 tour schedule by showing the increased terrorist incidents as the reason. It has been stated that Turkey will lose 450 thousand visitors this year and Turkey will turn back to the figures in 2006 in terms of cruise tourism because cruise lines have canceled their excursions to Istanbul, Izmir, and Kuşadası (DHA, 2016). CONCLUSION Cruise tourism is considered as one of the fast developing alternative types of tourism nowadays. Over the world, the number of passengers has reached from 3.8 million to 23 million people between 1990 and 2015. The cruise tourism achieving a growth of 68% in the past decade is anticipated to reach the level of 30.1 million passengers until 2020 (Gökgöz, 2010). Many regions of the world generate incomes from this sector. In 2015, the Caribbean and Bahamas were the most preferred route by the cruise tourists by 35.5% , and this was followed by the Mediterranean region that involves Turkey. Turkey attracts the interest of the Mediterranean cruise operators with its natural and cultural potential. Besides, it is necessary to complete the infrastructure and superstructure investments, which are important for cruise tourism, and especially to improve the capacities of the ports for Turkey to get a share of the cake. Thus, first of all, it should be aimed to increase and improve the capacities of Istanbul, Kuşadası and Izmir ports that have a share in the cruise tourism revenues and then to transform the ports that get little or no share into destinations preferred by cruise ships and tourists. The fact that Turkey can increase its share from cruise tourism essentially depends on increasing the number of ports and the service and quality offered at ports, and making ports have international standards. In Turkey's Tourism Strategy 2023, it is aimed to renovate and extend the existing ports accepting cruise ships located in Trabzon, Kuşadası, Samsun, Izmir, Antalya and Mersin. In line with this aim, the transformation of home ports in Turkey into turn-around ports is gaining importance by

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means of making ports reach the desired level. Istanbul is a port which has been included in the development program by the World Cruise Lines by being declared as the turn-around port. Besides, it is necessary to make the necessary effort for Izmir and Antalya ports with the features of being home ports to become home ports. Therefore, Turkey should be promoted for cruise tourism and proper marketing strategies should be developed for these three ports and the other ports which are planned to be developed. REFERENCES BREA (2014). The Global Economic Contribution of Cruise Tourism 2013. Business Research&Economic Advisors. (online), available at: http://www.cruising.org/docs/ default-source/research/ global_cruise_ impact_analysis_2013.pdf?sfvrsn=2. (05.05.2016). BREA (2015). The Global Economic Contribution of Cruise Tourism to the Destination Economies – A Survey-based Analysis of the Impact of Passenger, Crew and Cruise Line Spending, Volume I Aggregate Analysis. Business Research&Economic Advisors. (online), available at: http://www.f-cca.com/ downloads/2015-cruise-analysis-volume-1.pdf. (05.05.2016). Brida, J.G.& Zapata,S. (2010). Economic Impacts of Cruise Tourism: The Case of Costa Rica. Anatolia: An International Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research, 22: (2), 322-338. Çimenoğlu, G. (2011). Kruvaziyer Turizmin Kent ile İlişkisi Bağlamında “Karaköy – Salıpazarı Bölgesi” [“Karaköy – Salıpazarı Region” Within the Context of the Cruise Tourism's Relation with the City], (Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). T.C. Yıldız Teknik Üniveristesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. CLIA (2015a). The Global Economic Contribution of Cruise Tourism 2014, Cruise Lines International Association (online), available at: http://www.cruising.org/docs/default-source/market-research/clia_ 2014eis_global.pdf?sfvrsn=2. (05.05.2016). CLIA (2015b). 2015 Cruise Industry Outlook, Cruise Lines International Association Inc. (online), available at: http://www.cruising.org/about-the-industry/research/2015-state-of-the-industry. (01.05.2016). CLIA Europe (2015). The Cruise Industry – Contribution of Cruise Tourism to the Economies of Europe. Cruise Lines International Association Inc. (online), available at: http://www.cliaeurope.eu/images/ downloads/reports/CLIA_Europe_Economic_Contribution_Report_2015.pdf. (05.05.2016). CLIA (2016). 2016 Cruise Industry Outlook, Cruise Lines International Association Inc. (online), available at: http://www.cruising.org/about-the-industry/research/2016-state-of-the-industry. (01.05.2016). DHA (2016). Türkiye’den Vazgeçen Kruvaziyer Gemileri Rotalarını Yunanistan’a Çevirdi. Deniz Haber Ajansı. (online), available at: http://www.denizhaber.com.tr/turkiyeden-vazgecen-kruvaziyer-gemileri- rotalarini-yunanistana-cevirdi-haber-66334.htm. (05.05.2016). Dilek, E., Kaygalak, S., Türksoy, S.S.&Timur, S. (2015). Kruvaziyer Turizmi: İzmir Merkez Liman Olabilir mi?. Batman Üniversitesi, Yaşam Bilimleri Dergisi 5(2), 33-56. DTGM (2014). 2013 Kruvaziyer Sektör Raporu. T.C. Ulaştırma Denizcilik ve Haberleşme Bakanlığı, Deniz Ticareti Genel Müdürlüğü (online), available at: http://www.kugm.gov.tr/BLSM_WIYS/DTGM/tr/ Kitaplar/20140613_165336_64032_1_64480.pdf (15.03.2016). DTGM (2015). Kruvaziyer Istatistikleri, T.C. Ulaştırma Denizcilik ve Haberleşme Bakanlığı, Deniz Ticareti Genel Müdürlüğü (online), available at: https://atlantis.udhb.gov.tr/istatistik/istatistik_kruvaziyer.aspx (15.03.2016) DTO (2015). 2014 Deniz Sektörü Raporu. İstanbul, Marmara, Ege, Akdeniz, Karadeniz Bölgeleri Deniz Ticaret Odası. (online), available at: http://www.denizticaretodasi. org.tr/Shared%20Documents/ sektorraporu/2014_sektor_tr.pdf. (15.03.2016). Dwyer, L.&Forsyth (1998). Economic Significance of Cruise Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 25(2), 393-415. available at: http://www.denizticaretodasi.org.tr/Shared% 20Documents/sektorraporu/ 2014_sektor_tr.pdf. (05.05.2016). ECC (2010). The Cruise Industry – Contribution of Cruise Tourism to the Economies of Europe. European Cruise Council. (online) avaliable at: http://www.cruise-norway. no/viewfile.aspx?id=3022. 15.04.2016. ECC (2013). 2012/2013 Report. European Cruise Council. (online) avaliable at: http://www. ashcroftandassociates.com/downloads/ECC-Report-2012-2013.pdf. 15.04.2016. FCCA (2015). Cruise Industry Overview – 2015, Florida-Caribbean Cruise Association, (online), available at: http://www.f-cca.com/downloads/2015-Cruise-Industry-Overview-and-Statistics.pdf, (15. 05.2016). Gökgöz, B. (2010). Dünya’da ve Türkiye’de Kruvaziyer Turizmi ve Endüstrisi: Karadeniz’e Yönelik Bir Destinasyon Modellemesi. (Yayınlanmamış Uzmanlık Tezi), T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı, Ankara.

507 Güzel, K. (2006). Kruvaziyer Turizmin Türkiye’deki Geleceği. (Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi). T.C. İstanbul Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. İncekara, A. & Yılmaz, S. (2002). Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Kruvaziyer Turizmi. İstanbul Ticaret Odası, Yayın No: 2002-42, İstanbul. Larsen, S.&Wolff, K. (2016). Exploring Assumptions about Cruise Tourists’ Visits to Ports. Tourism Management Perspectives, 17, 44-49. Pavlić, I. (2013). Cruise Tourism Demand Forecasting – The Case of Dubrovnik. Tourism and Hospitality Management, 19 (1), 125-142. Robles, L.T., Galvão, C.B.&Pereira, S.R. (2015). Cruise Shipping in Brazil: An Emergent or Establish Market?. Tourism Management Perspectives, 16, 298-305. WTO (2011). Tourism Towards 2030 – Global Overview, UNWTO: Madrid. WTO (2012). Special Report: Cruise Tourism Current Situation and Trends in Asia and The Pacific, UNWTO Asia-Pacific Newsletter, Issue 25 (online), available at: http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/all /files/pdf/unwtoapnewsletter25contents.pdf (10.05.2016).

508 Chapter 41

Relationship Marketing in Tourism Sector

Kaplan UĞURLU*

INTRODUCTION There are a lot of definitions about marketing, however, there are not enough talks on its negotiation affects that is also important on wellbeing of companies. Kotler’s definition of marketing fills the gap on the issue. “Marketing is a social and managerial process by which individuals and groups obtain what they need and want through creating and exchanging products and value with other” (Kotler, 1988: 3). This definition of marketing consists of needs, wants, and demands of customers and their satisfaction. The definition, on the other hand, also point out exchanges, transactions, negotiations and relations within the markets too. Customers wish to satisfy their needs and wants while sellers wish profitable earning and there are always negotiations between parties during the relationship process. According to Kotler, negotiation leads to either mutually acceptable terms or a decision not to transact. Transactional marketing is the part of a larger idea, that of relationship marketing (Kotler, 1988: 3-11). The fundamental concept of marketing mix (Product, Price, Place and Promotion) is still applied today, but marketing applications of companies change according to the changes in customer wants, needs and behaviours and changes in environment (competition, welfare of societies, technology, laws, etc.). Today, for example, hotels, restaurants, transport companies, and tourism destinations are more market- oriented than it was during 19th century. Those tourism companies and destination managers are closer to customers and try more to build and maintain good relations with them. This may be the reason why relationship marketing has become a new considerable marketing strategy. This new paradigm which is called relationship marketing fulfilled the gap between the company and customers. While traditional marketing is more sophisticated and less responsive, relationship marketing is more friendly and close to customers. 1. THE RELATIONSHIP MARKETING CONCEPT 1.1. The Development of Relationship Marketing Concept Relationship marketing emerged as a new form of 4p’s of transactional marketing by adding relationship issue. Kotler and Armstrong claims that relationship marketing presents creation and maintenance of relationships with customers, as well as with other stakeholders (Murphy, et.al., 2005: 1050). Relationship marketing concept aims to keep good relationship with customers and others in the market, and then satisfy them while providing quality service and making profit. In other words, relationship marketing concept will create performance of relations will create satisfaction, customer loyalty, profit, quality of service, high business performance and on-going relationship between each other. Some authors have referred relationship marketing concept on different subjects such as a business partnership (Anderson and Narus, 1990), cooperative marketing networks (Varadarajan and Rajanatrom, 1986), strategic alliances and combination of strategic marketing (Bucklin and Sengupta, 1993) and relationship marketing (Dwyer, Schurr and Oh, 1987). Studies show that relationship marketing involves relationships between customers, producers, sellers, distributers, and other stakeholders. Relationship creates business between customer-seller, producer-seller or seller-distributer, etc. According to exchange of products, services and money, parties fit out their wants, needs and wishes. Relationship also creates emotional ties between parties that extend into the long-term relationships. Relationship marketing concept necessitates strong market orientation and long term relationship. Thus,

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Tourism Faculty, Kirklareli University, Kirklareli, Turkey, [email protected]

it can be said that due to its inclusiveness and long term relations, relationship marketing is a unique construct for analysing the marketing process. Contemporary marketing techniques are useful in competitive markets since successful performance of company depends on up-to-date information about the market and long term relations with customers. When viewed from this aspect, relationship marketing is a contemporary marketing strategy and replace or exists traditional transactional marketing. Traditional marketing practices of companies’ neglect on-going and long-term relations while dealing with daily or short-term transactions or exchanges. For example, any advertising or reduced price campaigns may be successful in short-term but there is not a guarantee for long-term period within the competitive market. Bowen and Shomakers’ (1997) comparison of the relationship marketing with transactional marketing is particularly useful in understanding this new paradigm better (Table: 1): Table 1: A Comparison between Transactional Marketing and Relationship Marketing Relationship Marketing Transactional Marketing Orientation to customer retention Orientation to single sales Continuous customer contact Discontinuous customer contact Focus on customer value Focus on product features Long-time scale Short-time scale High customer service emphasis Little emphasis on customer service High commitment to meeting customer Little commitment to meeting expectations customer expectations Quality is concern of all staff Quality is the concern of the production staff

Source: Bowen, J., Shomaker, S. (1997). Relationship in the Luxury Hotel Segment: A Strategic Perspective, Research Paper, Centre for Hospitality Research (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University).

Table 1 indicates that relationship marketing is more suitable for today’s business environment. Companies have to focus on markets and customer relationships in order to establish long-term quality relations with customers. It is clear that applying to relationship marketing concept may increase companies’ business performance, number of customers, customer loyalty, customer satisfaction and competitive advantage. 1.2.The Definition of Relationship Marketing In the literature, there is no agreement on a definition of relationship marketing. Some of the definitions are termed as customer relationship marketing, direct marketing, micro marketing, one to one marketing, interactive marketing or loyalty marketing, etc. These definitions are more likely refer to traditional transactional marketing than relationship marketing and there are still differences in scope. Berry (1983: 25) was among the first to introduce the term “relationship marketing” as a modern concept in marketing and suggested it to be defined as “attracting, maintaining and enhancing consumer relationships”. This definition distinguishes relationship marketing from traditional marketing by making explicit recognition of long-term value of customer. A comprehensive definition states that, according to a relationship approach; “Marketing is the process of identifying and establishing, maintaining, and enhancing, and when necessary also terminating relationships with customers and other stakeholders, at a profit, so that the objectives of all parties involved are met; and this is done by a mutual exchange and fulfilment of promises” (Grönroos, 1997: 407). Grönross (1994a: 9) also defines relationship marketing as a relationship between buyer and seller: “the process whereby the seller and the buyer join in strong personal, professional, and mutually profitable relationship overtime so that the objectives of both parties are met”. Grönross emphasizes in this definition that sale transaction is not the end of relations, but it is a new start for stronger relationship with customers. Most of the concepts, ideas and developments discussed briefly above are present in the following refined definition which describes the objectives of relationship marketing as “to identify and establish, maintain and enhance and, when necessary, terminate relationships with customers and other

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stakeholders, at a profit so that the objectives of all parties involved are met; and this is done by mutual exchange and fulfilment of promises” (Grönroos, 1994a: 9). 1.3. Scope of Relationship Marketing Definitions have limited or broader scopes. While some definitions deal with the relationships with the customers, some of them include not only customers but also producers, sellers, distributers, and other stakeholders. Murphy et.al., (2005: 1050)’s following definition of relationship marketing provide broader scope: “Stakeholder relationship marketing involves creating, maintaining and achieving strong relationships with customers, employee, supplier, community, shareholder and stakeholder of a business with the goal of delivering long term economic, social and environmental value to all stakeholders in order to enhance sustainable business financial performance”. Scope of relationship marketing can be considered in two broad approaches. First, the company is in more or less relationships with customers, producers, sellers, distributers or other stakeholders. Second, the relationship should only be used in proper measure, with regard to the needs of the company and the dictates of the market. Definitions and its scope show that relationship marketing has several principles and these play an important role for company’s success in the competitive market. These are;  Relationship marketing focus on long-term relations rather than traditional transactional approach.  People and Process should be added to traditional marketing mix (4 P’s) because relationship marketing depends on on-going human and business relations.  Company’s success also depends on both internal and external relations of the company, i.e. relations with employees, customers, suppliers, producers, and other stakeholders, etc.  In the case of market segmentation and target marketing strategies, external relations should be considered and differentiated properly for each segment.  Relationship marketing helps to understand better of customer buying behaviours, demands and attracting them to buy their products and services by focusing on markets.  Relationship marketing should be integrated with total quality management and customer services management for successful business purposes. In this view, it can be said that, marketing is not only responsible of a marketing department but everyone in the company.  Maximising the lifetime value-losing an existing customer means losing the entire revenue stream that customer represents not just that single encounter or sale-of a customer is a fundamental goal of relationship marketing (Christopher, Payne, and Ballantyne, 2008: 5). 1.4.Negative Aspects of Relationship Marketing The benefits of relationship marketing will be discussed in the following sections. However, we should also mention some of the negative aspects of relationship marketing. Relationship marketing approach is the promise concept that is first emphasized by Henrik Calonius in 1988. According to him the responsibilities of marketing do not only, or predominantly, including giving promises and thus persuading customers as passive counterparts on the market place to act in a given way. The fact that promises are mutually given and fulfilled (Grönross, 1994b: 355). If the company cannot keep its promises, then formed relations with customers can be damaged. None of the companies wish to damage long-term relations with customers and therefore they will continue to effort their marketing strategies in order to fulfil their promises to them. Long-term relations may create trust among customers and the company’s sales people that may affect negatively their flexibility and creativity. Sales people may fail to make limited investigation about customers and customers may leave to search alternative sellers/companies for their own sake. By focusing too much on how relationships help sellers, research fails to consider how these same relational effects might negatively influence a salesperson, for example, to offer a price below established pricing levels to a customer with which they have a strong relationship. From a customer perspective, the implication that some try to avoid interpersonal relationships suggests that norms of reciprocity make for high-maintenance interactions. Even if that customer, out of courtesy or reciprocity, permits the salesperson to visit, it delivers unwanted relationship marketing benefits, or

511 performs insignificant services and the unnecessary costs and lack of relational benefit these efforts imply may prompt the customer to seek a less demanding interaction with a competitor. This dark side of strong interpersonal relationships interactions demands much more investigation (Palmatier, 2008: 94). Another point is that the loyalty and satisfaction may not be at the deserved level for both customers and sellers. There are three main reasons that companies should not base the foundation of their relationship marketing strategy on satisfaction and loyalty (Kumar et al., 2009: 150-151):  Satisfaction and loyalty are often perceptual and attitudinal measures that look back into the customer's past behaviour. This makes it difficult for companies to develop any methods to predict future customer behaviour based on satisfaction and loyalty metrics.  Satisfaction and loyalty focus only on current customers and often ignore potential customers. This can be problematic since potential customers can be and are often just as important to future company profitability as current customers.  Satisfaction and loyalty do not incorporate competitive effects, which play a key role in customer churn (i.e. customer defections to competitors). Many satisfied customers and customers who say they have a high intention to repurchase can still be lured away by competitors who make better offers. 2.THE IMPORTANCE OF RELATIONSHIP MARKETING 2.1.The Purpose of Relationship Marketing Relationship marketing aims to integrate and involve customers, suppliers and other stakeholders into company’s business activities. Company and its business partners already wishes to achieve sustainable profits within the competitive markets and so relationship marketing is inevitable for the cooperation of all business partners. The company will be closer to customers with partner’s cooperation and it will result in to get valuable interactive relationships between parties. This relationship will make everyone satisfied. Relationship marketing may create long-term business cooperation and hinder conflict among the parties. As indicated by Sheth and Parvatiyar (1995: 399), interactive relationships between marketing actors are inherent as compared to the arm's length relationships implied under the transactional orientation. Therefore, the development of relationship marketing points to a significant shift in the axioms of marketing: Competition and conflict to mutual cooperation, and choice independence to mutual interdependence, as illustrated in Figure: 1 (Sheth and Parvatiyar, 1995: 400). According to Goldsmith and Tsiotsou (2012: 140-143), relationship marketing has five sequential stages in managing customer relations. These are:  The first stage is to acquire customers: Companies will employ promotional strategies and tactics to attract and acquire the customers. This strategy seems traditional transactional marketing strategies.  Second stage is, as soon as company acquire the customers, they must retain them. Customer retention is “the continuing, active relationship with a customer that yields a stream of revenue from the sale of the initial product or service”.  Third stage is, development, proposes that companies and customers can benefit when managers engage more completely with their customers by offering them additional benefits associated with the primary product. Company implies up selling and cross selling tactics with additional benefits for customers. This strategy gives an opportunity to the customers to purchase additional products.  The fourth stage is, customer consultation, is consistent with recent theoretical developments in marketing management theory, which emphasize the key role in customer participation in creating the value of the product, termed co-creation. Marketers have long been urged to seek input from customers to help them develop new products and improve old ones.  The final stage is customer conversion. Companies convert some of its customers into customers of other companies (brands). These customers may promote and have an impact on the sales of companies’ products.

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Relationship Marketing Mutual Interdependence

Competition and Conflict Mutual Cooperation

Transactional Marketing Independence and Choice

Figure 1: Axioms of Transactional Marketing and Relationship Marketing Source: Sheth, J. N., Parvatiyar, A. (1995). The Evolution of Relationship Marketing, International Business Review, Vol. 4, No: 4, pp. 400.

2.2.The Importance of Relationship Marketing It is possible to see the importance of relationship marketing within and outside the company. Since company’s marketing activities is not only the responsibility of the marketing department but everyone in the company, Thus, all staff should be motivated, trained, monitored, employed, etc. These managerial transactions are based on relationships with each other. Company has also been concentrated on dynamics of the markets such as customer behaviours, population movements, competition, etc. Company should be in relationship with consumers, producers, sellers, distributers, and competitors via face to face, media or other communication technologies like internet and mobile. Hashem’s (2012: 129-130) four key dimensions of the relationship marketing emphasize better to understand the importance of relationship marketing:  Trust has been defined as “A willingness to rely on an exchange partner in whom one has confidence”. Trust is an important component in establishing and maintaining successful inter- organizational systems”.  Commitment is another important determinant of marketing relationship strength and useful construct for measuring customer loyalty likelihood and predicting future purchase frequency.  Social Bonding - bonding is defined as the dimension of a business relationship between parties acting in a unified manner toward a desired goal. Various bonds exist between parties and indicate different levels of relationships. Bonding controls social and business behaviour in society, and may remove doubt, creates trust and forms close relationships.  Communication is a vital component in business relationships establishment. Communication is important in marketing relationships; it plays a central role in providing an understanding of the exchange partner's intentions and capabilities, thus forming groundwork for building trust among exchange partners.  Companies which apply relationship marketing strategies retain, attract and satisfy customers, improve the quality of products and services and profit by enhancing long-term relations with customers, partners and stakeholders. By establishing good relationship with parties, companies will also be able to increase value brand and bring new investors, new partners and new stakeholders to the company.

513 2.3.The Benefits of Relationship Marketing The purposes of the companies are to make profitable business with applying relationship marketing. However, success of the company is being affected by a number of variables which may also affect positive outcomes of relationship marketing activities. When evaluating outcomes of relationship marketing activities, it should be investigated possible antecedents affecting those activities before come to right decision. Two constructs are referred to in the marketing literature as key relationship marketing outcomes. (Hennig-Thurau, Gwinner and Gremler, 2002: 231-232):  Customer loyalty focuses on a customer’s repeating purchase behaviour that is triggered by a marketer’s activities. Customer loyalty positively influence profitability through cost reduction effects and increased revenues per customer. With regard to cost reduction effects, it is widely reported that retaining loyal customers is less cost intensive than gaining new ones and that expenses for customer care decrease during later phases of the relationship life cycle due to the growing expertise of experienced customers. Customer loyalty is also reported to contribute to increased revenues along the relationship life cycle because of cross-selling activities and increased customer penetration rates.  Positive Customer word-of-mouth communication, defined as all informal communications between a customer and others concerning evaluations of product and services including experiences and recommendations to others. Word-of-mouth communication is a powerful force in influencing future buying decisions, particularly when the service delivered is of high risk for the customer. Positive word-of mouth communication helps to attract new customers as relational partners to a company’s offerings. Word of mouth communication, for these reasons, can be seen as an important relationship marketing outcome aimed at replacing lost customers. Relationship marketing benefits to both the companies and customers. According to good and long relationships between buyer and seller, customers will buy quality products and services with cheaper price and company will be able to remain their customers, acquire new customers, crate customer loyalty and produce less cost. Without relationships, company may suffer high cost to attract new customers and customers may spend more time and money to purchase better products. Relationship marketing, on the other hand, supports company’s financial situation and Increase the company’s competitive advantage against competitors. Finally, since both company and customers know each other well, and then risk perception for both will be less worrying. 3.THE ROLE OF RELATIONSHIP MARKETING IN TOURISM 3.1.Relationship Marketing in Service Relationship Companies may be confronted with problems during the application of relationship marketing because many factors may affect the relationships between company and the others in the market. Relationships are therefore should be maintained and built strongly. Companies before start a business with customers or other stakeholders, first has to cement customer service encounter. Service encounter is the interaction between customers and service provider employees. The simultaneous production and consumption process, the presence of the customer and customer’s role as co-producer form the pivotal distinguishing properties between goods marketing and services marketing. The encounter also includes customer to customer interaction, interaction with the physical products and environment as well as the whole system (Gummesson, 1999: 76). Customer service encounter is an exchange process that occurs between company’s staff and customers, suppliers and even suppliers’ suppliers in friendly manner before, during or after shopping. Companies' long term relationship strategies play important role for customers' purchasing decisions. Companies therefore have to maintain and build long term relationships, improve continuous service quality and control the service encounter. Establishing a good service encounter is very important in cementing relationships in case of its impacts caused by relations.

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3.2.The Economic Impacts of Relationship Marketing For Tourism Companies Since services are intangible and service companies primarily in tourism sector which sale products and intangible services, companies always carry out risks associated with this intangibility. For instance, tourists who buys tourism products or services that cannot see or taste until consume it. Service encounter is a key linkage between the company and customers. It is a exchange relationships that customer pays for the benefits they purchase and on the other hand, the company expects to gain profit and loyal customer. According to Christopher, Payne, and Ballantyne (2008: 8), relationship marketing consists of value that includes not just product benefits but a number of less tangible benefits relating to the quality of the experience within a wider customer service context. So the challenge to the company is to align marketing, quality and customer service strategies more closely. Bowie and Buttle (2004: 301-303) state that service culture is a genuine customer-oriented service philosophy that delivers the service quality customer expect. If the company cannot deliver the service experience customers expect, it cannot hope to develop long-term relationships with them. The segmentation strategy should focus on customers who have a potentially high lifetime value, or are strategically significant in other ways. For example, they might be reference customers (customers that other customers copy), or customers that initially enable a hospitality company to enter a market segment. The Pareto’s principle of 80/20 suggests that the top 20 per cent of customers generate 80 per cent of sales and profits. Database is a prerequisite for multiunit companies interested in developing a relationship marketing strategy. The role of the database is to record customer information, monitor consumption activity and facilitate marketing communication activity to relational target markets. It is difficult for tourism companies to maintain their economic existence under competitive conditions. The purpose of relationship marketing is to attract customers to ensure the continuity of economic existence and establish long-term relationships with customers. Because customers of tourism companies often switch from a brand to other or change their demands, relationship marketing strategies of companies has to find out most economic results. However, all customers are all or of equal important for the company. Some customers may not be worth recruiting or retaining at all; for example, those who have a high cost-to-serve, are debtors or late payers, or are promiscuous in the sense that they switch frequently between suppliers (Bowie and Buttle (2004: 300). 3.3.Relationship Marketing Practices of Tourism Companies Tourism is at the forefront of other industries adopting relationship marketing as indicated by practices such as airline frequent flyer programmes, hotel frequent guest programmes and car rental company customer preference programmes. Several recent published studies attest to the growing importance of relationship marketing in the hospitality and tourism industries (Goldsmith and Tsiotsou, 2012: 143). Since the tourism is in the services sector, tourism companies should consider firstly customer attitudes and behaviours which are often changes and secondly tourism products and services some of which are intangible, perishable, etc. It is very important to communicate and cooperate with customers and other stakeholders. That's why tourism companies have to adopt relationship marketing strategies to minimize the risk. Companies should establish best relations with customers to attract and make them loyal. It is therefore important to consider relationship marketing activities in the general marketing strategies of the companies. If tourists are satisfied by purchasing of quality products or services of a tourism company, their interest to companies' product and services will increase. Increasing demand and motivation of customers will emerge the loyalty to the company. Loyalty depends on how much tourists expectations against company's products and services are satisfied. As long as company continue good relationship with customers and provide quality of products and services will be beneficial for both company and customers. For example, it is well known that a tourist who is satisfied with the services rendered by a tourist unit will surely come to it again. They will also tell their friends or colleagues about that particular tourist structure, convincing them to visit it. Tourism companies always use relationship marketing programs. For example; some hotels or restaurants presents to their customers “club cards” or “loyalty cards” which offers a variety of benefits

515 for the loyal customers including; discounts in outlets (restaurant, bar, spa, laundry, etc.), priority for the reservations or choice of favourable room or any food and beverage from menus, additional bonuses (free weekends, free dinners, free reserved parking, free short trips, gifs, home delivery, etc.), free bulletin of the company news, company promotions, etc. These are positive retention strategies that add value to sold product or service with highest level of customer satisfaction. On the other hand, these kinds of relationship marketing strategies are being used for winning back to lost customers. For example, the default products are replaced by other not defected products and customer gets a small gift or discount for other products and/or company get actions for repairing default products for improving services or solving problems of unsatisfied customers. 4. CONCLUSION In conclusion, it can be said that companies are more aware of relationship marketing concept and today, in return they are more concentrated on long-term relations with customer that is a return to nature way of marketing applications. Because traditional marketing with 4P’s will still be needed, but along with a host of other activities and resources. Relationship marketing concept is a new and growing complement of traditional marketing. Relationship marketing paradigm is a market oriented and where the customer indeed is the focal point as suggested by marketing concept. As Coviello and Brodie (2001: 396) note “it is important to understand both similarities and differences in marketing practice across contexts, including when and why different approaches to marketing are being practiced, how multiple approaches can be practiced simultaneously, and how these practices might be influenced by other firms, market or managerial characteristics”. It is not easy to build and maintain successful relationship marketing concept in a tourism company or a destination. Relationship marketing aims to create customer loyalty through some strategies such as recognition and award that can be achieved by company’s database. Data obtained from customers can be stored and used again in order to get in touch with the customer. For example, frequent fliers of an airline company, regular customers of a hotel or restaurant are always rewarded by these companies. Considering the relationship marketing strategies of a tourism company, it will particularly deal with attracting and encouraging customers, conveying useful information and appropriate product and services for optimizing and identifying customers’ desires and recording their behaviours during their shopping for identifying future trends in the industry. Using relationship marketing strategies, they will not only improve quality, customer satisfaction and profit but also cause development of tourism sector and its increase of income. REFERENCES Anderson, J. C. and Narus, J. (1990), A Model of Distributor Firm and Manufacturer Firm Working Partnership, Journal of Marketing, V: 54, No:1, pp. 42-58. Berry, L. L. (1983), Relationship Marketing, in Berry, L.L., Shostack, G.L., Upah, G.D. (Eds.) Emerging Perspectives on Service Marketing, Chicago, IL: American Marketing Association, pp. 25-28. Bowen, J., Shomaker, S. (1997). Relationship in the Luxury Hotel Segment: A Strategic Perspective, Research Paper, Centre for Hospitality Research (Ithaca, NY, Cornell University). Bowie, D. and Buttle, F. (2004), Hospitality Marketing An Introduction, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, UK., pp. 297-311. Bucklin, L., Sengupta, S. (1993), Organizing Successful Comarketing Alliances, Journal of Marketing, V: 57, No: 2, pp. 32-46. Christopher, M., Payne, A. and Ballantyne, D. (2008a), Relationship Marketing-Creating Stakeholder Value, Butterworth Heinemann, Oxford, UK, pp. 1-38. Coviello, N.E., Brodie, R.J. and Munro, H.J. (1997), Understanding Contemporary Marketing: Development of a Classification Scheme, Journal of Marketing Management, Vol. 13, pp. 501-522. Dwyer, F. R., Schurr, P. H. and Oh, S. (1987), Developing Buyer Seller Relationship, Journal of Marketing, V: 51, No: 2, pp. 17-27. Goldsmith, R. E. and Tsiotsou, R. H. (2012), Implementing Relationship Marketing in Hospitality and Tourism Management, In Tsiotsou, R. H. and Goldsmith, R. E. (Ed.). Strategic Marketing in Tourism Services, Emerald Group Publishing Ltd., UK.., pp. 139-146. Grönroos, C. (1994a), From Marketing Mix to Relationship Marketing: Towards a Paradigm Shift in

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Marketing, Management Decision, 32 (2), pp. 4-20. Grönroos, C. (1994b), Quao Vadis, Marketing? Toward a Relationship Marketing Paradigm, Journal of Marketing Management, 10, pp. 347-360. Grönroos, C. (1997), Value-Driven Relational Marketing: From Products to Resources and Competencies, Journal of Marketing Management, 13, pp. 407–419. Gummesson, E. (1999), Total Relationship Marketing: Experimenting With a Synthesis of Research Frontiers, Australasian Marketing Journal, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 72-85. Hashem, T. (2012), The Impact of Customer Relationship Marketing on Customers’ Image for Jordanian Five Star Hotels, International Journal of Business and Social Science, Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 129-134. Hennig-Thurau, T., Gwinner, K. P. and Gremler, D. D. (2002), Understanding Relationship Marketing Outcomes-An Integration of Relational Benefits and Relationship Quality, Journal of Service Research, Vol. 4, No. 3, pp. 230-247. Kotler, P. (1988), Marketing Management Analysis, Planning, Implementation, and Control, Prentice-Hall International Inc., New Jersey, USA., pp. 3-11. Kumar, V. at. al. (2009), Reversing the Logic: The Path to Profitability through Relationship Marketing, Journal of Interactive Marketing, 23, pp. 147-156. Murphy, B.P., at.al. (2005), Stakeholders Perceptions Presage Holistic Stakeholder Relationship Marketing Performance, European Journal of Marketing, 39(9/10), pp. 1049-1059. Palmatier, R. W. (2008), Relationship Marketing, Marketing Science Institute, Cambridge, MA, USA., pp. 91-99. Sheth, J. N., Parvatiyar, A. (1995), The Evolution of Relationship Marketing, International Business Review, Vol. 4, No: 4, pp. 397-418. Varadarajan, P., Rajanatrom, P. (1986), Symbiotic Marketing Revisited, Journal of Marketing, V: 50, No: 1, pp. 7-17.

517 Chapter 42

Informal Employment in Tourism

Sabriye ÇELİK UĞUZ*, İsmet KAYA

INTRODUCTION The definition of informal employment is expressed differently by various organizations and researchers. Informal employment, generally meaning the employment that is not included in the evaluation within the overall employment quantities of the population of the country in an official respect (TİSK, 2000), is the employment carried out beyond official economic activities without being subject to taxation or other legal regulations and/or legislations (Ilgın, 1999; Altuğ, 1999; Güloğlu, Korkmaz & Kip 2003; ILO, 2012; OECD, 2015). Moreover, the European Union Committee defines the informal employment respect to its properties as paid activities that are legally compliant but not reported to the authorized organizations (Vermeylen, 2008). These activities are carried out without the conclusion of an agreement, without taxation and in violation of legal regulations (Portes & Sassen- Koob, 1987; Sassen, 1999; Carr & Chen, 2004). Thus, informal employment that is not acknowledged and regulated by the public authorities and institutions causes serious financial, economic and social issues. Because agricultural activities are generally carried out not by an individual but by whole families, it is considered to be the sector with highest non-paid family labor. Therefore, it is also the sector with the most extensive informal employment. When statistical data relating to the employment life is examined, generally the non-agricultural employment life is addressed. Table 1 shows the ratios of overall non-agricultural employment to informal employment throughout the world. It is obvious from the table that informal employment has a very close relationship with a country's level of development. Most of developing countries have a higher rate of informal employment than that of formal employment (ILO, 2012). Table 2 shows the rate of informal employment in non-agricultural work life of several developing countries. It can be observed that Turkey has achieved a very good position in terms of the formalization of overall employment within the developing economies. Again, this table shows a clear correlation between the level of development of a country's economy and its rate of informal employment. As it is in the rest of the world, informal education is at the head of the greatest issues in Turkey. This issue causes the employment as a part of economic activities to remain beyond the control of public authorities and institutions and leads to the loss of taxes in the country, while also depriving employees of social securities. Informal employment generally occurs regardless of the will of employees and the most common occurrences are as follows: respective public authorities and institutions are not being informed regarding the employment, declaration of a lesser amount of pay issued to employees, declaration of a lesser amount of employment days, non-declaration of employment at a second job, employment of individuals informally by the employers by taking advantage of the probation period (Alper, 2009). Prevalence of informal employment in Turkey is attributed by researchers to such social-economic factors as population growth, domestic migration, income distribution, unemployment, inflation and changes in economic structure (Güloğlu et al., 2003). According to the data of Turkish Statistics Institute (TUIK), as of 2014 agricultural, forestry and fishery sectors have the highest rate of informal employment among the group of 18 economic activities with a rate of 49.6%. It is followed respectively

*Assist. Prof. Dr., Balıkesir University, Burhaniye School of Applied Sciences, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management Assoc. Prof.. Dr., Balıkesir University, Burhaniye School of Applied Sciences, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management

by production sector with a rate of 10.9%, wholesale and retail trade with a rate of 10.4%, construction sector with a rate of 7.7%, and accommodation and food industry with a rate of 4.9%. (URL 1). Table 1: Informal Employment as a % of Non-Agricultural Employment Regions 2004-2010 (%) Latin America and the Caribbean 51 Sub-Saharan Africa 66 Middle East and North Africa 45 Eastern Europe and Central Asia 10 South Asia 82 East Asia and Southeast Asia (excluding China) 65 China 33 Source: Vanek, Chen, Carre, Heintz & Hussmanns (2014). Table 2: Informal Employment as a % of Non-Agricultural Employment in Selected Developing Countries Countries 1994-2000 (%) 2000-2008 (%) 2009 Algeria 43 41.3 49.7 Egypt 55 45.9 51.2 South Africa 51 50.6 32.7 Argentina - 53.3 49.7 Brazil 60 51.1 42.2 El Salvador 57 56.6 66.4 Mexico 55 50.1 53.7 Venezuela 47 49.4 47.4 India 83 83.4 83.6 Indonesia 78 77.9 72.5 Thailand 51 51.5 42.3 Turkey - 33.2 30.6 Source: * ILO (2002); **OECD (2009); ***ILO & WIEGO (2013). In general, the most important issue in our work life being the informal employment, it comprises an even bigger issue especially in the tourism industry given the extensive prevalence of small sized businesses that are distanced from the corporate structure of the industry with its seasonal occupancy. Seasonal properties of services provided in the tourism industry and the fact that employment at small sized businesses is often unsecured causes the rate of informal employment to rise. As a natural result thereof we are faced with an irregular employment structure with difficult working conditions, which do not provide sufficient income and deprive of social security in the industry. The study aims to identify the extent of informal employment in Turkey and examine the costs caused by the issue to the industry and the state economy by means of the descriptive method. In order to achieve this goal the data set of 2013 Household Work Power Survey (HIA) prepared by TUIK was utilized and the attempt was made to determine the extent of informal employment in the tourism industry. Findings obtained during the study show that there is a high rate of informal employment in the tourism industry. In this regard the study suggests several recommendations as to how the informal employment in the tourism industry shall be addressed. INFORMAL EMPLOYMENT IN TOURISM Employment in the tourism industry has certain structural properties. These are: excessive amount of unskilled work force, high rate of turnover in work force, seasonal concentration of employment (seasonality), prevalence of small sized businesses in the industry, longevity of working hours, low wage rates, low age average in the employed population, and informal employment (Olalı & Timur, 1986; Sinclair & Stabler, 1997; Jollife & Farnsworth, 2003; Shaw & Williams, 2004; Silva, 2006;

519 Tüzünkan, 2015). As a result of these structural properties and the fact that individuals employed at most of the businesses are distanced from regulation, the informal employment has a high rate (İzgi & Olcay, 2008). Due to the high rate of informal employment and therefore provision of insufficient security to employees, it is impossible to determine working standards and to protect the employee rights in tourism industry (Tüzünkan, 2015). The high rate of informal employment in the tourism industry brings with it the lack of social securities for those employed in the industry. Various types of informal employment observed in the tourism industry can be listed as follows:  Non-declaration of employees to the public authorities and institutions;  Willingness of young employees, who enter the employment market for the first time, to work without insurance due to unemployment;  Declaration of lower wages and work days for insured employees to the official institutions;  Declaration of the wages for upper-level management as minimum wage;  Appointing interns with tasks that exceed the educational purpose and extensive labor;  Besides extensive working hours, employees are deprived of work securities and leave rights. Rates of informal employment at businesses in terms of the fields of activity in the tourism industry for the year 2010 are presented in Table 3. The informal employment in the industry has a high rate of 57.2%. Informal tourism employment has a prevalent rate of 74.6% in businesses providing cultural, sporting and recreational services and a rate of 70.3% in food-beverage businesses. It is seen that the values above are followed by tourism agencies with a rate of 53.1%, transportation with a rate of 44.9%, and accommodation with a rate of 27%. Table 3: Informal Tourism Employment/ by Regions, 2010 (Jobs) Travel Cultural, Accommod Food and Agencies Sports and ation Beverage Transport and Other Total Recreational Serving Reservation Activities Regions Services North 43.5 85.9 59.5 85.1 80.8 75.7 North-East 30.4 82.2 63.8 47.3 84.3 69.3 South-East 22.7 63.8 38.9 41.1 66.9 51 South 25.4 60.4 43.8 37.7 72.6 48.9 Central-West 32 72.6 43.9 39.9 72.5 59.5 Total 27 70.3 44.9 53.1 74.6 57.2 Source: UNWTO & ILO (2014) 60 50 49,8 48,7 40 45,6 43,1 42,7 42,5 40,3 30 34,9 31,2 33 20 10 0 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Figure 1: Informal Employment Rate in Accommodation and Food Services Activities (2005-2014 /%) / Source: (URL 1). When the informal employment rate in the tourism industry of Turkey is examined (Figure 1) it is seen that while the rate of informal employment in 2005 was at the upper level of 50%, it has declined to 30% during the past years due to the new economy policies and precautions adopted. According to data presented in Table 4, while the amount of employment in accommodation and food services was estimated at 1.5 million in July 2015, 29.3% of the overall employment was informal.

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Despite the fact that the rate of informal employment in July 2014 amounted to 32.8%, Table 1 shows that level of formal employment in tourism industry during the year 2015 had increased. Table 4: Employment and Informality Rates in Accommodation, Food Services Activities (Thousands of people / ages 15 and older) Years Formal Informal Total July 2014 976 477 1453 July 2015 1076 451 1527 Source: (URL 1). Another reliable source of information in this issue is the data of Social Security Institution (SSI). According to the insured employee statistics published by the SSI, the annual increase in registered employment in tourism industry during July 2015 amounted to 7% (Table 5). This increase is conditioned by the increase in the number of businesses included in the SSI. The number of insured employees in the tourism industry has a rate of 53% in food and beverage businesses, 35% in accommodation businesses, 5.5% in travel agencies, 4.3% in sporting, recreation and entertainment businesses, and 2.3% in airlines transportation. Table 5: Number of Insured, Growth and Share Ratio In Registered Employment In Tourism Change Ratio Operating Segments July 2014 July 2015 (%) (%) Total 1,020,584 1,091,569 6.96 100 Food and Beverages Service 532,848 577,022 8.29 Activities 52.86 Accommodation 365,260 383,029 4.86 35.09 Travel Agents, Tour Operator and 57,667 60,033 4.10 Reservation Services 5.50 Sports, Entertainment and Leisure 42,205 46,529 10.25 Activities 4.26 Air Transport 22,604 24,956 10.41 2.29 Source: URL 2 METHODS AND FINDINGS Data Set The study utilizes a data set provided by the 2013 HIA Survey prepared by TUIK. The data set was prepared by surveying a total of 379442 individuals at the age of 15 and above from 146055 households (www.tuik.gov.tr). Data were obtained from TUIK with the purpose of conducting an academic research. Data were filtered using the SPSS software and portions pertaining to individuals employed in the tourism industry were determined. As a result of the filtering process 8388 individuals were found to have been employed in the tourism industry. 6291 individuals participating in the survey were employed at accommodation, food-beverage and travel agencies and tour operator businesses. Method Cross-table forming and arithmetical average methods were implemented while utilizing the SPSS 16.0 Statistics software for data analysis. Informal employment rates of individuals (in other words, being employed under any social security institution) were analyzed in terms of three categories: demographic and professional characteristics of employees and geographical properties of respective businesses. Demographic properties were separated into five groups during the study: sex, marital status, age, education and income level. Professional characteristics of paid employees were also analyzed in five groups: whether they occupy a managing position, whether they are under a permanent or temporary employment, whether they are employed part or full-time, whether they are registered in any SSI and in terms of their terms of employment. Businesses form the third group included in the analysis by fields of operation (accommodation, food-beverage, travel agencies and tour operators),

521 number of employees and their geographic location.

Findings and Evaluation When the general situation is evaluated, the rate of informal employees in the tourism industry is 31.2%. 3 individuals out of every 10 employed in the tourism industry work without being registered at any social security institution. This is a quite high rate. Table 6: Distribution of SSI registration rates of employees in terms of their demographic characteristics (%) Demographic groups and employee numbers Are they registered to SSI? Groups Employee numbers Yes No Total Gender Number % % % % Male 4763 75.7 67.0 33.0 100.0 Female 1528 24.3 74.5 25.5 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Marital Status Number % % % % Married 2281 36.3 59.1 40.9 100.0 Single 3678 58.5 75.6 24.4 100.0 Widowed 332 5.3 61.1 38.9 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Age groups Number % % % % Younger than 18 353 5.6 25.2 74.8 100.0 Between 18-34 3177 50.5 71.8 28.2 100.0 Between 35-49 2219 35.3 76.4 23.6 100.0 50 and Over 542 8.6 49.1 50.9 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Education levels Number % % % % Uneducated 297 4.7 46.5 53.5 100.0 Primary and elementary 3804 60.5 64.4 35.6 100.0 General and vocational high schools 1553 24.7 75.9 24.1 100.0 University and over 637 10.1 88.4 11.6 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Income Groups (TL) Number % % % % Unspecified income 422 6.7 32.5 67.5 100.0 Less than 1000 TL 3604 57.3 62.2 37.8 100.0 1000-1499 1414 22.5 83.7 16.3 100.0 1500-2499 721 11.5 90.0 10.0 100.0 2500-3999 118 1.9 90.7 9.3 100.0 4000 and over 12 ,2 91.7 8.3 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Table 6 shows informal employment rates of tourism industry employees in terms of their demographic characteristics. Thus, it can be observed that the informal employment rate of males (33%) is higher than that of females (25.5%). Similarly, the informal employment rate of married individuals (40.9%) is significantly higher than the rate of single individuals (24.4%). When the informal employment rates are examined in terms of age groups, it can be seen that the highest rate of informal

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employment occurs within the 15-18 age group at 74.8%, followed by 50.9% within the age group of 50 and older. The lowest informal employment rate (23.6%) occurs within the age group of 35-49. The most important finding that draws attention in the table is the fact that as the level of education among the tourism industry employees increases the level of informal employment decreases. Whereas informal employment is prevalent among individuals with no education (53.5%) and among primary school graduates (35.6%), while the rate dropped to 11.6% among university graduates. Similarly, there is a reverse relation between the level of income and the rate of informal employment. As the payroll of employees increases, their informal employment rates clearly decreases. Table 7: Distribution of SSI registration rates of employees in terms of their professional characteristics (%) Professional characteristic groups and number of employees Are they registered to SSI? Groups Employee numbers Yes No Total Are they managers? Number % % % % Yes 417 6.6 93.3 6.7 100.0 No 5874 93.4 67.1 32.9 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Permanent? Number % % % % Permanent? 5446 86.6 72.4 27.6 100.0 Temporary 845 13.4 45.8 54.2 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Full-time/part-time Number % % % % Full-time 6023 95.7 71.0 29.0 100.0 Part time 268 4.3 19.0 81.0 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Term of employment Number % % % % Less than 1 year 2253 35.8 51.5 48.5 100.0 Between 1-5 years 2941 46.7 75.1 24.9 100.0 Between 6-10 years 634 10.1 87.4 12.6 100.0 Between 11-15 years 254 4.0 87.4 12.6 100.0 Between 16-25 years 203 3.2 89.7 10.3 100.0 More than 25 years 6 ,1 33.3 66.7 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Informal employment rates of tourism industry employees according to their professional characteristics and employment terms are presented in Table 7. As can be seen from the table, while the informal employment rates among manager employees are extremely low (6.7%), the rate increases up to 32.9% among non-manager employees. The informal employment rates among temporary employees (54.2%) are higher than those of permanent employees (27.6%). Similarly, the informal employment rates of part-time employees are significantly higher than those of full-time employees (81.0%). The highest rate of informal employment is observed among part-time employees. When informal employment rates are examined in terms of employment terms, it is seen that as employment terms increase the informal employment rate decreases. As an exception, the informal employment rate of those with an employment term of over 25 years does increase. The reason is that the majority of such individuals have retired and work in the tourism industry for extra income. When employees are compared in terms of sub-industries it is observed that the highest informal employment rates occur in the food-beverage industry (39.3%) while these rates are significantly lower in accommodation and tour operators/travel agencies (Table 8). When informal employment rates are analyzed in terms of the number of employees in a business, it is observed that businesses with the number of employees below 10 have significantly higher rates of informal employment, nearly half of

523 their employees have no social security. These rates sharply decrease as the number of employees increase. That is because with the increase of corporate structure in a business, the compliance with legal procedures also increases. According to Table 5, the informal employment analysis of available data in terms of regions shows that the highest rates are recorded in Eastern Anatolia and Southeastern Anatolia regions, hence, informal employment has higher rates in rural areas in comparison to urban areas. Table 8: Distribution of SSI registration rates of employees in terms of Businesses and Geographical Regions (%) Businesses/Regions and employee numbers Are they registered to SSI? Groups Employee numbers Yes No Total Field of activity Number % % % % Accommodation 1556 24.7 90.7 9.3 100.0 Food and Drink 4565 72.6 60.7 39.3 100.0 Travel Agents and Tour Operators 170 2.7 87.6 12.4 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Number of employees Number % % % % Less than 10 2998 47.7 49.5 50.5 100.0 10-49 Employees 2191 34.8 82.5 17.5 100.0 50-249 Employees 795 12.6 93.7 6.3 100.0 250-499 Employees 209 3.3 95.7 4.3 100.0 500 and Over 98 1.6 94.9 5.1 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Regions Number % % % % Marmara 2082 33.1 74.6 25.4 100.0 Aegean 867 13.8 70.0 30.0 100.0 Mediterranean 1020 16.2 72.6 27.4 100.0 Inner Anatolia 1024 16.3 71.5 28.5 100.0 Black Sea 588 9.3 68.5 31.5 100.0 Eastern Anatolia 378 6.0 44.7 55.3 100.0 Southeastern Anatolia 332 5.3 37.7 62.3 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 Rural / Urban Number % % % % Rural 998 15.9 62.1 37.9 100.0 Urban 5293 84.1 70.1 29.9 100.0 Total 6291 100.0 68.8 31.2 100.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The tourism industry experiences the issue of employment with no social securities due to lack of regulation among businesses operating in the industry, its structural properties such as multitude of small sized businesses and due to seasonality. While the informal employment rate throughout the world in terms of 5 fields of activities in the tourism industry amounts to 57.2%, the informal employment in Turkey can be said to be at a fair level of 31.2% within 3 fields of activities. However, it shall be kept in mind that the situation will change if these data are supplemented with the transportation businesses and cultural, sporting, recreational services. The goal of this study is to determine the informal employment in Turkey's tourism industry and to disclose these findings. The findings indicate that the rate of informal employment in tourism industry is

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31.2% with every 3 persons out of 10 are employed with no social security and that the said rate is quite high. The highest informal employment rates were observed among males, married individuals, age group of 15-18, part-time employees, food-beverage businesses and rural areas. At the same time, when the employees' level of education, social status and their payrolls, as well as their employment periods increase, their informal employment rates increase. While the informal employment rates in tourism industry during 2005 was 50%, the rate has decreased to 30% during past years and despite a significant progress regarding this issue, the desired level has not been achieved yet. As much as discounts implemented for such payments as tax and insurance liabilities for the purposes of resolving this issue, it is also very beneficial in terms of young employees' first job experiences. Moreover, part-time job opportunities are provided for students in the tourism industry, thus giving them a chance to continue their education and provide more job opportunities for the younger generation (Tezcan, Karadeniz, Kandır & Önal, 2008). When the results of the study are taken into consideration, it is very important to provide recommendations for the resolution of this situation. Because informal employment negatively affects the public budget, while also causes increase in unemployment, low-quality produce, narrowing of the social security concept and deterioration in job health and safety. Therefore, certain suggestions can be made as a result of the study:  First, legal regulations need to be made and enforcement of these regulations shall be ensured,  Penalties shall be imposed effectively,  New regulations shall be made in relation to tax and insurance shares retained from employment,  Employees shall be educated and their awareness on the subject shall be increased  Employment terms shall be monitored continuously. REFERENCES Alper, Y. (2009). Kayıtdışı İstihdam ve Sosyal Güvenlik Reformunun Başarısı, Sosyal Güvenlik Dergisi 2, 21-32. Altuğ, O. (1999). Kayıtdışı Ekonomi, 2. Baskı. Türkmen Kitabevi, 11 s., İstanbul. Carr, M. & Chen, M.A. (2004). Globalization, Social Exclusion and Gender. International Labor Review 143 (1-2), 129–160. Güloğlu, T., Korkmaz, A., Kip, M. (2003). Türkiye'de Kayıtdışı İstihdam Gerçeğine Bir Bakış, Sosyal Siyaset Konferansları, 45. Kitap, 53-54 s., İstanbul. Ilgın, Y. (1999). Kayıtdışı Ekonomi ve Türkiye'deki Boyutları. Uzmanlık Tezi, DPT Yayın No: 2492, 39 s., Ankara. ILO (2012). International Standard Classification of Occupations, ISCO-08, Geneva. ILO (2002). Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture. http://www.ilo.org/dyn/ infoecon/docs/441/F596332090/women%20and%20men%20stat%20picture.pdf . ILO & WIEGO (2013). Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture. http://www.ilo.org/wcmsp5/groups/public/---dgreports/---stat/documents/publication/wcms_234413.pdf . İzgi, B.B. & Olcay, A. (2008). Çalışma Koşullarının Önemi: Gaziantep İlindeki 4 ve 5 Yıldızlı Otel İşletmesi Çalışanlarına Yönelik Bir Araştırma, Gazi Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi 10(1), 43-62. Jolliffe, L. & Farnsworth, R. (2003). Seasonality in Tourism Employment: Human Resource Challenges, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management 15(6), 312-316. OECD (2015). OECD Employment Outlook, 251 p. http://www.oecd.org/els/oecd-employ ment-outlook- 19991266.htm, OECD (2009). Overview: Data on Informal Employment and Self Employment. https://www.oecd. org/dev/poverty/42863997.pdf. Olalı, H. & Timur, A. (1986), Turizm Ekonomisi, Ofis Ticaret Matbaacılık, 102-103 s., İzmir. Portes, A. & Sassen-Koob, S. (1987). Making It Underground: Comparative Material on the Informal Sector in Western Market Economies, The American Journal of Sociology 93(1), 30-61. Sassen, S. (1999). The Mobility of Labor and Capital: A Study in International Investment and Labor Flow. 67-68 p., Cambridge University Press, UK. Shaw, G. & Williams, A.M. (2004). Tourism and Tourism Spaces, SAGE Publications Ltd., London.

525 Sinclair, M.T. & Stabler, M. (1997). The Economics of Tourism, Routledge, London. Silva, P. (2006), Effects of Disposition on Hospitality Employee Job Satisfaction and Commitment, International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 18(4), 317-328. Sosyal Güvenlik Kurumu (SGK) (2016). Aylık İstatistik Bültenleri, www.sgk.gov.tr, Tezcan, K.; Karadeniz, E.; Kandır, S.Y.; Önal, Y.B. (2008). Türk Turizm Sektörünün Gelişimi Açısından Uygulanan Vergi Politikalarının Değerlendirilmesi, IV. Lisansüstü Turizm Öğrencileri Araştırma Kongresi. 827-851 s., 23–27 Nisan 2008, Belek, Antalya. Türkiye İşveren Sendikaları Konfederasyonu (TİSK) (2000). Avrupa Birliğinde Kayıtdışı Çalışma. TİSK Yayını No:199, 39 s., Ankara. Tüzünkan, D. (2015). Düzgün İş’in Hedefleri Açısından Türk Turizm Sektörünün Genel Özellikleri, Selçuk Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi 15 (29), 241- 251. UNWTO & ILO (2014). Measuring Employment in the Tourism Industries, Guide with Best Practices. http://www.e-unwto.org/doi/pdf/10.18111/9789284416158. URL 1 (2016), TUIK, Labour Force Statistics, http://www.tuik.gov.tr URL 2: (2016), SSI, Monthly Statistical Bulletins, www.sgk.gov.tr Vanek, J.; Chen, M.A.; Carre, F.; Heintz, J.; Hussmanns, R. (2014). Statistic on the Informal Economy: Definitions, Regional Estimates & Challenges. WIEGO Working Paper (Statistics) No:2. 8 p., http://wiego.org/sites/wiego.org/files/publications/files/Vanek-Statistics-IE-WIEGO-WP2.pdf . Vermeylen, G. (2008). Informal Employment in the European Union, 5-6 p., http://wiego.org/sites/ wiego.org/files/publications/files/Vermeylen_European_Union.pdf

526 Chapter 43

Cruise Tourism in the Mediterranean

Kamil YAĞCI and Gürkan AKDAĞ

INTRODUCTION Tourism started to boom in the whole world in the aftermath of the Second World War. Particularly the increase in the leisure time and personal wages of the people has positively affected the demand towards tourism and mass touristic movements have developed since then. Diversifying tourism, creating spaces for different demands in tourism and establishing tourism types for those eager to experience different favors resulted in that tourism progressed for many more people and today very different tourism types draw attention of people in the world. One of such tourism activities shining in the recent years is cruise tourism. This type of tourism, which both includes the sea voyage and a number of entertainment facilities, attracts more attention in the world day by day and the number of people participating in the cruise tourism increases every year (Sezer, 2014:51). Cruise tourism is defined by Wild and Dearing (2000:319) as “travel which is performed by the guests to visit various destinations by getting on a ship, not routed in a single itinerary, for a charge on their leisure time and the main purpose of which isn’t normally transportation but to host the guests”. Today it takes place in all oceans, inland seas and big rivers available for the cruise tourism with remarkably luxurious ships. Cruise Tourism is a type of tourism bringing a considerable exchange profit to the relevant destinations, countries and regions. While North America, South America and tropical islands were popular among the cruise destinations until recent years, today Far East, Poles, Baltic Sea Region, Arabian Peninsula, Red Sea, Black Sea and especially Mediterranean Region have a growing attention (Oral and Esmer, 2010:826). Cruise tourism is included in the sea based tourism category. The cruise tourism covers the visits to ports as well as activities of local visits and shopping to/in the areas close to the port. The ports stopped by the cruise ships and the touristic services offered to the tourists in such ports constitute the fields significantly invested by the hosting countries (Kuto, 2013:4). Cruise tourism is the fastest-growing sector within the tourism industry, having grown at approximately double the rate of international tourism as a whole during recent decades with an average annual growth rate of approximately 8.1 % since the 1980s (Wood, 2004; Hung and Petrick, 2010; Marusic et al., 2012). Climate is a major determining factor in ship destination deployment. This leads to the relocation of fleets from one destination to another (Dowling, 2006:9). The Mediterranean has always been an interesting alternative for cruise tourism thanks to its suitable climate conditions. Since the countries with a coast in the Mediterranean have a voice in the world trade beginning from the early ages and the Mediterranean has evermore been close to the great empires, the Mediterranean Sea is an important travel destination both historically and culturally. DEVELOPMENT OF CRUISE TOURISM IN THE MEDITERRANEAN The Mediterranean Sea is the biggest inland sea in the world and has 2.5 million square meters surface area. Ports or destinations play a major role in itinerary development; they are an attraction basis for the enrichment of the cruise passengers’ travel experiences and they provide a unique opportunity for cruise passengers to learn about the local community’s history, culture and lifestyle, as well as experience its natural attractions (Marusic et all.2012:4). In this perspective, cruise tours change depending on the geographical characteristics of the destinations on the itinerary. The factors such as

 Assist. Prof. Dr., Pamukkale University, Faculty of Tourism, Denizli, Türkiye, e-mail: [email protected]  Assist. Prof. Dr., Mersin University, Faculty of Tourism, Çiftlikköy Campus, Yenişehir Mersin, Türkiye. e-mail:[email protected]

distance of destinations to the main land, climate conditions, moist or windy air, cloudy or sunny climates and even the risk of tornado and storm may change the itinerary of cruise travels. Considering the general preferences, Cruise ships tend to focus on the hot and tranquil seas (Gibson, 2006: 44). Moreover, 77% of the world capacities of cruise ships are located in warm and sunny areas, even though other areas are not any less important (Stojanovic et al., 2014:41). The Mediterranean Region is known as a significant alternative since the first days of cruise tourism due to its suitable climate conditions and variety of available ports for cruise tourism in large part of the year. The Mediterranean can be defined as the classic venue for destination cruising. Many see lots of potential in the Mediterranean generally as a cruise destination with a wealth of itinerary variations, packed with a deep historical interest. There is, in fact, no other area in the world that can equal the Mediterranean for the number of cultures and civilization that have sprung from the shores of the countries that lie on this sea and that have moved across its almost tideless waters to cross-fertilise one another. Its richness stems largely from the fact that the sea is almost totally enclosed by three continents. This has led to a constant interaction between the races inhabiting them (Medcruise, 2015). The cruise tourism in the Mediterranean stared it rapid growth in the 1990s. In the period 1993- 2010 the demand for cruise trips in the Mediterranean increased significantly, from 3.6 million pax/nights to 27.69 million pax/nights (Wild, 2011:8; Perucic and Puh, 2012:215). Today, despite the fact that American continent sustains its leadership in the cruise tourism, the Mediterranean Region comes second among the top visited destinations of cruise travels in the world and it is expected that this demand for cruise tours in the Mediterranean shall increase more in the coming years (Kılıçhan, 2012:13). CRUISE SEASON IN THE MEDITERRANEAN Cruise tourists thoroughly concern the zones in which cruise lines operate. The time of year and the climate conditions are key factors in selecting a zone as of selecting a destination on land. The Caribbean remains the leading zone in cruise tourism especially during the winter- winter period (UNWTO, 2012:29). Also, the Mediterranean allows the cruise tourism to be held for longer periods in seasons. Comparing to the oceans, the Mediterranean, generally closed to the emergence of storms, is an important sea for the cruise tourism. Last few years have shown an increase in demand for Mediterranean cruises from all the world markets, especially European. The European market increase in demand for cruising is closely connected to the development of the Mediterranean as a cruise region because travelers mostly decide to cruise in the areas closer to their place of residence. One of the main shortcomings of Mediterranean as a cruise region is seasonality. On the other hand, Some European companies leave their ships in Mediterranean throughout the year and Figure 1. Aerial viewpoint of Kuşadası Port, Kuşadası- promote the concept of a whole year Aydın/Turkey cruising in the region (Perucic and Puh, 2012:215). The focus is on the overall picture of how cruise traffic is distributed on a monthly basis, as well as on trimester basis, along with the variation observed depending on the size or the region where a port is located. Figure 2 illustrates the shares variation of both passenger movements and cruise calls per month in 2013. The highest share of cruise passenger movements in 2013 was registered in October (14.9%). In 2012, the month when the major percentage of cruise passenger movements was concentrated was August (14%). Only 6.2% of the total passenger movements was registered during the winter months,

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whereas 75.52% of cruise traffic happened during the period May to October. The 12% share of total passenger movements that was registered in May remains at the same level in July, and surges at 14.92% in October (Medcruise, 2014:42). Figures Relevant to the Cruise Travels in the Mediterranean Sea The Mediterranean and its adjoining seas stand as one of the most dynamic cruise regions of the world in recent years. The deployment patterns around the globe indicate that the share of the Mediterranean increased from 17,6% of the total in 2008 to 21.7% in 2013. The dynamics in the second major region of the world (following Caribbean) indicate, beyond the increased demand for the destinations that ports and other stakeholders have worked in an effective way to promote cruise activities and satisfactory serve the increasing demand. At the same time, request further efforts in order for this growth to sustain (Medcruise,2014:8). Within Europe the Mediterranean accounted for 72% of the capacity deployed in Europe during 2013 with 35.7 million bed days. The Mediterranean is a fairly self-contained market with most cruises originating and terminating within the region. As noted previously the major home ports in the Mediterranean are Barcelona, Civitavecchia, Venice and Piraeus (Athens). Major destination or transit ports include Marseille, Naples, Dubrovnik, Santorini, Corfu and Livorno (BREA, 2014:15). With the increasing interest to the cruise tours in the Mediterranean Sea, many ports started innovation works to host the cruise ships. Hence, the number of destinations available to cruise ships is increasing every year (Gedik, 2011:17). In fulfilling the increasing cruise demand, it is estimated that more than 150 ports in the Mediterranean can facilitate cruise ships (Marusic et al.2012:6). Moreover, there has been a great rise in the number of cruise tours in the Mediterranean, specifically the southern part of Europe. The number of cruise tourists doubled in this period. Additionally, the cruise sector, bringing nearly 1 million non-European tourists every year, directly contributes to the tourism incomes thanks to the spending of tourists in the ports (UDH, 2014:23).

Figure 2. Distribution of cruise tours held in the Mediterranean by months In 2013 a total of 166 cruise ships were active in Mediterranean waters with a capacity of 220,352 lower berths with an average of 1,327 berths per ship. Collectively these ships carried a potential 3.86 million passengers on 2,619 cruises, offering a total capacity of 31.47 million passenger-nights, giving an average cruise length of 8.15 nights. Additionally in 2013, North American operators deployed 56 ships with 83,137 lower berths in the Mediterranean, including some ships targeted at European markets. In comparison, European domiciled lines operated 110 vessels, which offered 137,215 lower berths (CLIA, 2014:9). In the Mediterranean basin, the most preferred region is the Western Mediterranean. The demand for the ports in the Eastern Mediterranean has increased compared to previous years. However, the recent wars and economic crisis have caused the fluctutation of demands to the Western Mediterranean in years. Even so, the ports in the Mediterranean region started to establish their own strategies to be included in the itinerary of the cruise ships due to the increasing demand and focused on the

529 advertisement and marketing activities to increase such demand. In this process, the investments on establishing specialized passenger terminals to meet the services of tourists during their visits to the ports servicing to the cruise ships in the Mediterranean, and other infrastructure and superstructure works gained momentum to meet the expectations of the cruise tourists. Since the Western Mediterranean has an earlier history in the cruise tourism, they have no infrastructure problem, but Adriatic and Eastern Mediterranean ports had to invest rather more in this regard. Important Cruise Ports in the Mediterranean The cruise tourism in the World is improving at a high speed. The importance of the cruiser tourism is increasing with each passing day. Thanks to cruiser tourism which can be defined as appraising in its own location, the introduction and advertisement of the countries and locations are being realized (Kadıoğlu, 2007:78). The Mediterranean is divided into three regions as of Western Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean and Adriatic Sea with regards to the Cruise travels. Western cruise tours cover the part of European Continent extending through the Middle-Southern Mediterranean and Strait of Gibraltar. This region is an attractive travelling centre for the cruise passengers with the historical city and ports, elegant shopping centers, gastronomic routes, high-quality wines and famous cuisine which host many rich culture and live styles, create a cultural mosaic where modern life and the past embrace each other in harmony. Western Mediterranean cruise tours are generally held in Spanish cities of Barcelona, Almeria, Malaga, Alicante ports and Balearic islands region; French cities Marseille, Nice, St. Tropez, Cannes, Italian cities Genoa, Savona, Civitavecchia ports, Tunisian cities La-Goulette-Tunis and Algeria’s Algiers ports. Adriatic Sea is located in a region which can geographically be considered as middle and east Mediterranean. Adriatic Sea, mainly bordered by Italy, old Yugoslav States (Croatia, Slovenia, Bosnia- Herzegovina, Montenegro) Albania and Greece, hosts the routes increasingly preferred by many in the cruise tours every year. Adriatic Cruise tours generally focus on Split, Pola, Zadar, Rovinj, Kotor in Croatia, ports of Italy such as Venice, Brindisi and Bari and especially Corfu, Patras, Cphalonia, Katakolon Ports of Greece. The Eastern Mediterranean is a region which covers the eastern coasts of Mediterranean, some part of Greece, Turkey, Cyprus, Egypt, Libya and even Malta. The cruise tours organized in the Eastern Mediterranean are typically held in many island ports of Greece like Samos, Rhodes, Crete islands, Turkey’s İstanbul, Kuşadası, İzmir, Mersin ports, Cyprus’s Limassol, Malta’s La Valletta, Egypt’s Alexandria and Libya’s Tripoli ports (Akyüz, 2011:39). The Eastern Mediterranean Region is geographically located in the southeast of European Continent, in an area close to Africa and Asia. This region is considered to be the oldest land of the world with regards to human settlement and emergence of civilizations. Many ancient civilizations (Babel, Hittite, Assyria, Lydia, Egypt) were founded, lived and ended up in here. Hence, it has a very rich and still alive historical and cultural background. Other than the above-given ports, cruise tourism is organized at many ports and the cruise ships carry the tourist in almost all seasons of the year. On the other hand, though they are located out of the Mediterranean borders, Canary Islands and Black Sea are also the favorite destinations for lots of cruise ships and they host the ports connected to the routes to the Mediterranean. Investigating the shares of ports in the Mediterranean Cruise Tourism, as seen on Figure 3, the Western Mediterranean owns a big share of the Mediterranean Cruise market. Among all cruise travels in the whole Mediterranean, the Western Mediterranean’s share reaches to 67.4% as the leader. Adriatic cruise tours take the second with a share of 19.4% while the last one is Western Mediterranean with 12.6%. On the other side, the 0.6% of the cruise tours associated with the Mediterranean is also associated with Black Sea, and so Black Sea has a share in this market, even if just a drop.

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Figure 3. Regional Market Share in the Mediterranean (Stojanovic et al., 2014:46). The cities which have been popular since the beginning of cruise tourism and are the most popular in cruise tourism in the Mediterranean are given in the Table 1. Table 1. 10 most popular ports of the Mediterranean. Revenue Passangers, 2013 Port Embarking Disembarking Port Call Total Mediterranean Top Ten Barcelona 754 752 1,093 2,599 Civitavecchia 496 494 1,548 2,538 Venice 752 761 303 1,815 Piraeus 149 160 994 1,303 Palma Majorca 245 246 755 1,246 Marseille 191 191 807 1,188 Naples 58 52 1,064 1,175 Dubrovnik 12 12 1,112 1,113 Genoa 327 324 401 1,051 Savona 337 333 269 939 Barcelona is the leading port in the Mediterranean. Second place is held by Civitavecchia, followed by Venice and Pireus. Palma Majorca comes five in the list and shows that it is one of the important alternatives for the cruise tourism. Marseille, which has been an outstanding seaport throughout the history, is followed by the historically known Naples, Dubrovnik, Genoa and Savona ports respectively. The general features of the 10 most popular ports of Mediterranean are as following: a) Barcelona Barcelona is one of the most significant cities of Spain and the gate of the country to the West. In addition to its status as a major base port, the city offers a broad range of attractions to make it a destination in its own right. The city is peppered with characterful architecture that was designed by Antonio Gaudi and many tours visit his unfinished cathedral, the Sagrada Familia. The Ramblas provides a main walkway through the center of the city past the Barrio Gótico, the medieval core of old Barcelona (Boniface and Cooper, 2005; Gibson, 2006:54). b) Civitavecchia This unfamiliar Italian port provides the gateway into Rome. The city of Rome is a “must see” destination for travelers to Europe. The city boasts a veritable cornucopia of classical ruins and architectural gems, including the Forum, the Colosseum, the Vatican, and St. Peter’s Square, all within a modern metropolitan setting (Gibson,2006:54). c) Venice Founded in the 5th century, Venice is a historical city which was established by bridging hundreds of small islands divided by the channels in the Northern Italy. Venice, one of the most important destinations of Adriatic tours, is located in between the Po and Piave river deltas in the Venetian Lagoon swamp, extending along the coastal section. With the mask festival held in every February,

531 Medieval cafes with amazing arhitecture, San Farco Square and the gondoles, Venice is a destination hosting the cruise tours in large part of the year. d) Piraeus Piraeus is a very popular seaport located in the Attika region of Greece. Being one of the most crowded ports of the Aegean Sea since the early ages, Piraeus is 12 km away from the city center of Athens and characterized as an outstanding port for the cruise travels in Greece. It is a very precious port for touristic purposes, because of being close to the Capital, having small restaurants and being easy to reach the historical and archeological values. e) Palma de Majorca Palma Majorca is the largest of the Balear islands located in 150 kilometers east of Valencia. The island provides a variety of resorts and accommodation for this type of package. Palma, the capital of Majorca, is an attractive city that has a typical Spanish atmosphere, an impressive cathedral, a variety of shopping options, and close proximity to the beaches and other attractions (Gibson,2006:54). The island completely under the influence of Mediterranean climate hosts millions of tourists coming particularly from Europe all around the year. f) Marseille Located in the south of France and being one of the most distinguished ports of Europe since the medieval ages, city of Marseille is well-known today for its popularity as a cruise travel destination. Marseille, which is asserted to be among the earliest cities established in Europe, is also a host to one of the biggest marinas of Europe. Notre Dame de la gadre and Palais de Longchamp are popular symbols of the city both religiously and culturally. g) Naples Naples is located 250 km south of Rome, the capital of Italy. The city is overshadowed by the ominous presence of Mount Vesuvius. This slumbering giant of a volcano provides a most impressive backdrop to Naples and is responsible for creating two of the area’s attractions—the excavated Roman ruins of Pompeii and Herculaneum. The port gives easy access to the vast city, which can appear both lively and chaotic. Napoli port is one of the greatest ports in the Mediterranean and Europe and the central port for the ferries routing to the many small Mediterranean islands, Sardinia, Sicilia, Aeolian Islands, Corsica and Tunisia. Because it allows easy transfer to the historical and touristic places, Naples keeps its popularity since the beginning days of Cruise tourism in the Mediterranean. h) Dubrovnik Dubrovnik is the leading Croatian cruise destination with 80% of traffic in Croatian part of Adriatic. Taking the advantage of its extraordinary tourist potential with the cultural, historic and natural resources as well as geographical; being the most convenient station between Venice and Greek ports; Dubrovnik became a must see destination in the itineraries of cruise ships in Mediterranean. Dubrovnik, as a cruise destination, is mainly developed as a transit destination (port of call) and it is rarely the home port in itineraries. Dubrovnik is among top 10 ports with the highest traffic in Mediterranean (Perucic and Puh, 2012:215). i) Genoa Genoa is the center of the Genoa province, bearing the same name, located in the Liguria region in the Northwest of Italy and is the capital of Liguria Region. The city of Genoa located in the Western Mediterranean has been a popular seaport since medieval ages. Being an important city of trade in the course of history and therefore known as a very rich town, Genoa started to be preferred for its tourism capacities especially the Cruise Tourism since the twentieth century. The antique port of Genoa, the Porto Antico, today, hosts many touristic elements (for example: acquario de genova, biosfera). j) Savona Savona is a seaport in the northern Italian region of Liguria. Savona, a popular port for the Western Mediterranean Cruise tours, has been a host to the merchantships since the medieval age. With the rise of tourism in Italy and Europe, Savona has also focused on tourism and, today, it is a preferred destination for both the mass tourism and the cruise tourism activities. Primar Castle and Capella Sistina are the most known historical and cultural symbols of the city.

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1. Discussion and Conclusions Cruise tourism has been in a rising trend for the last 20-25 years when compared to other types of tourism due to its superior quality service, ability to visit many countries in a relatively short time span and entertaining passangers while transporting them during a pre-programmed itinerary. During 2012, 20,9 million passengers cruised the world. The main receptive region or destinations for attracting passenger flows on cruises are the Caribbean with a share of 37.3%, the Mediterranean with a share of 19.9% and Northern Europe with 9.8%. There is an expressed upward trend in demand for cruises in the Mediterranean, which is a leading European region for cruising, followed by the Caribbean as the second most visited region in the world (Stojanovic et al., 2014:46). Cruise tourism brings many benefits to home ports, ports of call and coastal regions. Positive impacts of cruise industry on visited ports are: significant economic impact in port regions, cities and countries, positive promotion of ports/cities, significant number of jobs generated by the cruise industry, cruising is an important vehicle for sampling destination areas to which passengers may return on a land-based vacation (Perucic and Puh, 2012:215). The high rate of spenditure of cruise tourists at ports greatly emphasizes the importance of getting a share from the market. Mediterrranean ports should be expected to increase their physical infrasturucture in order to fulfil the demand from the increased number of cruise ships as well as an increase in ship sizes. On the other hand, reaching standards that would satisfy customers’ service quality and security expectastions will be more important (Güzel, 2006:63). Mediterrranen region is of great importance in terms of cruise tourism. The historical, cultural and economical features as well as climatic characteristics of Mediterranean countries would lead to more developed cruise tourism in the following years. Geographically speaking, it is appropriate to say cruise tourism is mostly observed in the western ports of the Mediterranean. Specifically, ports like Barcelona, Civitavecchia and Palma Majorca are leaders of cruise tourism in the Mediterranean. Cities and ports of former Yugoslavian Republic that are located in the Adriatic Sea leading by Dubrovnik are destionations that cruise tourism is rapidly developing. With the help of new investments in infrastructure it may be possible for Aegean Sea and Eastern Mediterreanen regions to gain more share from the cruise tourism market in the following years. Climatically speaking, for the Mediterranean there is a temporal bimodal submarket, with peaks in late spring and midfall, and a somewhat more limited offer in the summer months indicating a quite long cruise season (April to mid-November). In contrast, the winter months have a very limited, yet nonnegligible offer (Charlier and McCalla, 2006:24). In terms of tourist behaviour, it may be possible to say Mediterranean regions hosts relatively short term cruise tours with respect to other world destinations. European tourists mostly prefer Pacific and Far East regions for their long term cruise tours but Mediterranean countries are still attractive destinations for short term holidays (Güzel, 2006:32). In terms of structure, an increase in the familiarity and popularity due to crusie tourism and economical benefits drives most cities that have shore to the Mediterranean to build infrastructures that will satisfy cruise demands. On the other hand, most cruise ships are built in European shipyards. Until 2016, a total of 24 ships which will have 67.000 passanger capacity will be delivered to cruise lines and are expected to generate $12 billion in revenues for the European economy (UDH,2014:23). Overall, it is appropriate to say cruise tourism will develop more throughout the world in the future years and Mediterranean region will be among the leaders that will get the lion’s share from the cruise market. Western Mediterranean, mostly due to its historical and economical heritage will secure its position as the leader in the whole Mediterranean Basin. Adriatic Sea will witness a Croatia based rapid development while Eastern Mediterranean will be open to development if the civil war in Syria ends soon. REFERENCES Akyüz, B. (2011). The Effects of Cruise Ports on the Urban Waterfront Spaces: The Case of Istanbul Zeytinburnu Kazlıçeşme Ataport Cruise Port Project, (Unpublished Master Thesis) Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Boniface, B., and Cooper, C. (2005), Worldwide destinations (4th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth Heinemann. BREA, Business Research Economic Advisors (2014). The Global Economic Contribution of Cruise

533 Tourism 2013, EXTON, USA. Charlier, J.J. and McCalla, R.J. (2006). A Geographical Overview of the World Cruise Market and Its Seasonal Complementarities pp.18-30. (Ed. R.K. Dowling), in Cruise Ship Tourism, CABI International, U.S.A. CLIA, Cruise Lines International Association (2014). The Cruise Industry, Contribution of Cruise Tourism to the Economies of Europe 2014 Edition. Dowling, R. K. (2006). The Cruising Industry, pp.3-17. (Ed. R.K. Dowling), in Cruise Ship Tourism, CABI International, U.S.A. Gedik, S. (2011). Marketing Operations of Cruise Journeys and Field Study on Turkey, (Unpublished Master Thesis) İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Gibson, P. (2006). Cruise Operation Management, The Management of Hospitality and Tourism Enterprises Series, Butterworth-Heinemann, Oxford, Güzel, K. (2006). The Future Prospects of The Cruise Tourism in Turkey, (Unpublished Master Thesis) İstanbul Üniversitesi Deniz Bilimleri ve İşletmeciliği Enstitüsü, İstanbul. Hung, K., and Petrick, J. F. (2010). Developing a measurement scale for constraints to cruising. Annals of Tourism Research, 37(1), 206–228. Kadıoğlu, M. (2007). The Projects of Turkiye In The 2023 For Cruıse Tourısm, Journal of Maritime Research, Vol. IV.No. 1, pp. 77-88, 2007 Kılıçhan, R. (2012). The Relationship Between Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction and Customer Loyalty In The Food and Beverage Department of Cruise Ships: A Research On Cruise Ships in Ketchikan, Juneau and Skagway Harbours, (Unpublished Master Thesis), Nevşehir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Nevşehir. KUTO, Kuşadası Ticaret Odası (2013). Dünyada ve Türkiye’de Kruvaziyer Turizmi ve Kuşadası Limanı, KUTO Araştırma Yayınları, Kuşadası,Aydın. Marusic, Z., Sever, I, and Ivandic, N. (2012). Mediterranean Cruise Itineraries and the Position of Dubrovnik, In, A, Papathanassis, T, Lukovic and M. Vogel (Eds.). Cruise Tourism and Society, A Socio- economic Perspective (pp.3-16). Berlin: Springer. Medcruise (2014). Cruise Activities in Medcruise Ports: Statistics 2013, A Medcruise Report,Piraeus, Greece. Medcruise (2015). The Association of Medditerrenean Cruise Ports. Erişim Tarihi 05.05.2015. http://www.medcruise.com/node/19. Oral, E. Z. and Esmer, S. (2010). Ege Bölgesi Kurvaziyer Turizminin Mevcut Durumu ve Geleceği, 8. Türkiye’nin Kıyı ve Deniz Alanları Ulusal Kongresi Bildiriler Kitabı, pp.825-834. ODTÜ: Ankara Perucic, D. and Puh, B. (2012). Attitudes of Citizen of Dubrovnık Towards The Impact of Cruıse Tourısm On Dubrovnık, Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 18, No. 2, pp. 213-228. Sezer, İ. (2014). Destination Attracting Great Deal of Attention with Cruise Tourism: Port of Kuşadası, Eastern Geographical Review,32,49-78. Stojanovic, M., Jugovic, T.P, and Jugovic, A. (2014). Indicators of Passenger Flows Movements on the World and Mediterranean Cruise Market, Scientific Journal of Maritime Research, 28,40-48. UDH, Ulaştırma, Denizcilik ve Haberleşme Bakanlığı (2014). Kruvaziyer Sektör Raporu, Deniz Ticareti Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara. UNWTO (2012). United Nations World Tourism Organization, Asia Pasific Newsletter, 25, Madrid,Spain. Wild, Peter; Dearing, John (2000). ”Development of and prospects for cruising in Europe”, Maritime Policy and Management, Vol 27, No.4, 2000, Pp.315–337. Wild, G.P. (2011). Limited and Business Research & Economic Advisors. Contribution of Cruise Tourism to the Economies of Europe, West Sussex, UK Wood, R. E. (2004). Cruise ships: Deterritorialized destinations. In L. Lumsdon & S. J. Page (Eds.), Tourism and transport: Issues and agenda for the new millenium (pp. 133–145). Oxford: Elsevier.

534 Chapter 44

Equine Tourism: Nature, Sports and Travel

Kemal YILMAZ*, Gülşen GONCAGÜL

INTRODUCTION Many special and technical definitions on tourism concept are proposed, besides, in today’s world, it is hard to mention a comprehensive definition of tourism. The problem arises from the fact that tourism brings many social, psychological, economical, political factors together and its subject is human (Kozak, 2012). “Horse Trekking”, which aims to explore and exists in ecotourism variety, comes up frequently in recent years. “Horse Trekking” provides exploration of regions, especially where historic and natural beauties exist, and a touch with a nature. Historically, horses are the classic component of human and load transporting system, equestrian sport, is the only sport that doable with any other living being. In addition to this, many natural beauties, which are hard to reach with any means of transportation and stay virgin as a result, are reachable with horse trekking. Moreover, rider acquires a different perspective with broad sight on the top of horse. Equestrian tourism, which is an important fact of sustained tourism, is able to contain many facts of alternative and ecological based tourism. Wide breed ranges of horses are used in different countries as a part of different equestrian tourism and they can be complementary of tourism products that offered in urban, rural, sporting or remote adventure settings. All these products are connected each other by one cardinal factor, the horse itself (Fenell’le, 1999; Ollenburg, 2005). Spending time with touristic and recreational activities on horse, at different destinations, creates a significant dynamic in many parts of tourism. Therefore, this situation takes nature, sport and travel concepts to another dimension and develops tourism area widely. Evaluation of equestrian tourism with respect to mass and alternative tourism The concept of alternative form of tourism, which includes all types of tourist activities such as soft tourism, small-scale tourism, green tourism, nature tourism, integrated tourism etc. Due to problems that came out in mass tourism, high criticism led to birth of alternative tourism. Additively, alternative tourism has been a great way that to establish consistency with natural, social and community values. Major indication and promotion of alternative tourism is “Alternative forms of tourism and tourist will have fewer and less severe negative effects on destination areas, environment and their populations without diminishing the positive economic effects” (Smith & Eadington, 1992). Equestrian tourism exists under the umbrella of alternative tourism options, besides in wide frame, it has a flexibility that can create an area for itself in the sustainable areas of mass tourism. When we examine tourism as mass tourism and alternative tourism, according to settlement areas which exists in sustainable forms of mass tourism, it reaches nearly everywhere in rural tourism. In other sides, it includes natural heritage, which exists under the sustainable tourism model, and features that can be articulated tourism characteristics in the form of cultural heritage. Ecological tourism, which was developed as a reaction to mass tourism, is evaluated as sum of environmental, social and economical relationships. In basic, it can be defined as small scale tourism type that aims to protect ecological system balances, tries to keep the dynamic effect in minimum, supports economical development moderately, local entrepreneur dominant, sensitive to environment, socio-cultural structure and can be established by gradually in the long term (Ovalı,2007).

* Lecturer, Uludag University Mennan Pasinli Vocational High School, Department of Equine and Horse Training Program Assist. Prof. Dr., Uludag University Mennan Pasinli Vocational High School,

Table 1: Forms of mass and alternative tourism that create equestrian tourism

United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development, declared year of 2002 as ecological tourism year, tasked World Tourism Organization (WHO) with the related subject. World Tourism Organization, states the components of ecological tourism as (Ovalı, 2007) Contributing to the protection of biological diversity, By paying regard to well-being of local communities, raising awareness of tourist and local people, Establishing the responsible movement of local people and tourists in tourism sector, Providing services to small tourist groups with small scale enterprises, Emphasizing the participation of small scale participation in management of tourism Look out for the development of ownership and employment opportunities in favor of local community, Minimizing the usage of sources that cannot be recycled. Again, according to World Tourism Organization, purpose of ecological tourism (UNTWO, 2002) Minimization of devastation of tourism on natural and traditional structured environment to the lowest level. Education of tourist and local people on the topics related to protection of natural, structured and socio-cultural environment Bringing out tourism as a trade action that provides the needs of local people, and needs develop with the local people and local authority concertedly, Development of tourism in such a way that benefits local community economically, Development of tourism in favor of locals social and environmental capacities, Actualization of upper-lower structure investments in harmony with environment, natural and socio-cultural structure in a protecting way, Creation of sources for management of the areas which are in the protection area. In this context, it is expected that environmentalist tourists must carry out the actions that stated below in a protective awareness, in the aim of nature based sport and cultural learning, with necessary psychological preliminary preparation (Ovalı, 2007) Sustainable Tourism and Equestrian Tourism World Tourism Organization (WTO) defines sustainable tourism as follows: Sustainable Development in Tourism; adopts the principle that providing the needs of tourists and tourism regions by looking out development and protecting future opportunities. In this manner, management of all sources; cultural unity, mandatory ecological processes, biological diversity and life support systems continuity achieves and economical, social and esthetic needs come out as to be provided. Sustainable

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tourism products; processed products were produced in a harmony with local environment, society and cultures instead of getting harmed with touristic development. Based upon this definition, equestrian tourism contains all the items of sustainable tourism concept (Demirel, 2010). Different tourism classifications are existed and there is no one and only tourism classification, Batman (2013), created a tourism classification that based on various criteria, which is presented at Table 2. Table 2: Tourism Classification based on Different Criteria

Equestrian Tourism in Alternative Tourism Options Equestrian tourism exists under the umbrella of alternative tourism options, besides in wide frame, it has a flexibility that can create an area for itself in the sustainable areas of mass tourism. There are limited writings about equestrian tourism or horse tourism (Newsome et al. 2008). Equestrian tourism was born by enthusiasm of horses; Strong traditional relationships with horses, historical events and cultural background. Equestrian tourism is a part of active tourism and it is mainly leisure time tourism which exits with a closeness to nature, culture and traditional characteristics of countryside, folk culture, handicraft, local gastronomy have already appeared (Gyôrffi-Villám 2001).

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Figure 1: Winter Horse Back Riding Equestrian tourism is modern form of entertaining recreational, therapeutic tourism that practiced by different types of tourists who are in a wish for adventure or activities in the open. Equestrian tourism is an equine sub sector and one of the most appreciated forms of tourism by young people that has not been affected by economic crisis. In Table 3, relationship of equestrian tourism with other tourism types was presented. (Petroman,2015) Table 3: Place of equestrian tourism among other tourism Agri-Tourism Ecotourism Active Tourism Adventure Tourism Educational Tourism Nature Tourism Farm Tourism Recreational Tourism Rural Tourism Specialised Tourism Sports Tourism ↓ Horse Tourism Equiestrian Tourism Equine Tourism

According to recent studies of Petromann, equestrian tourism packages should include one or more horse work activities though this form of tourism assumed by some of modern tourism in protected areas or on an agri-tourism farm; agri-tourism on a horse farm, adventure tourism or ecotourism though it has three well defined sub-types of tourism,: horse tourism, equestrian tourism and equine tourism (Petroman, 2015). In horse tourism, horses are used as a part of tourism product. They are creation of an “adventure”, a memorable experience and essential element of tourism activity. Program services produced in a environmentally responsible way in natural and /or human-made environments. Horse tourism is very broad and according to the Federation Internationale de Tourisme Equestre (FITE), horse tourism can be classified in two categories: 1) horseback holidays and 2) horse-related events and tourism. FITE defines horse tourism as follows: “recreational horse-related activity practiced away from the customer’s usual place of residence. Target group range of horse tourism varies widely from

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professionals of equestrian sector to beginners with no prior experience of horses or riding. Horse tourism products contain horseback hiking, cross-country horseback riding, sleighing, horse sledding, workhorse shows, assisted horseback riding, horseshows and other horse tourism activities (for example moving logs and ground handling). Horseback riding training holidays and courses, skijoring and other horse related events such as trotting and other competitions are included (Aalto et al. 2013). According to Birovescu et al., equestrian tourism is the main “knowledge-activity” of recreational equestrian sport, in today’s world. Recreational sports does not refer a sustained activity, but adversely, a sporadic activity that allow riders to taste to delight of riding in the trails of nature when time and financial resource allows this. Equestrian tourism farms offer the chance to enjoy horses and proper equipment, and offering a variety of recreational activities on a horseback (Birovescu et al, 2011). In world, there are countless tourism facilities that offer trips on horseback. Tourists that wanted to go valuable point for travelling, made this alternative tourism type famous and appealing tourism type. Because of the nature trips on horsebacks, individuals meet with natural beauties and cultures at the same time doing sports. As a result of studies, intense regions, where facilities those offer horseback trips, were determined. These are; Turkey, Jordan, India, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, Botswana, Kenya, Malawi-Zambia, Morocco, Namibia, the United Kingdom, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Iceland, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Scotland, Spain, Canada, United States, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Mexico and Peru (Oruç, 2004). According to Buchmann, horses have been used for tourism activities and destination branding strategies by such diverse countries as Australia, Canada, Finland, France, Hungary, Ireland and Iceland. Although, the study of horse tourism challenged by undetermined capacity of horse-related tourism. Instead of various definitions and interpretations, diverse terminology including horse-based tourism, equestrian tourism, equine tourism, riding tours, horse rental, horseback riding, horsemanship travel, equestrian vacation, riding vacation and equestrian holiday. The International Federation of Equestrian

Tourism includes “all equestrian activities undertaken by tourist outside their normal Figure 2: In The Saddle in Cappadocia, Turkey place of residence” for example, training courses, improvement courses and other aspects of diverse types of vacation principally revolving around the horse (Buchmann, 2014). Equestrianism, as an Olympic sport, came together with modern Olympics after 1912 Stockholm Olympic Games, dressage, show jumping and 3 days Competition became a part of modern Olympics. In addition, usage of equestrian sport as recreational activity and supportive treatment method (hipotherapy) is getting wider and wider everyday (Ünver, 2006). Horsemanship connected with recreation and tourism and they show their functions of healt and recreation, natural and cultural education, educational and cognitive function as well as economic and psychological (self-realizational) one that shapes ecological awareness (Lobozewicz, 2001). Hippocrates (440-337 BC) saw the health values of riding. He considered it as highly appreciated form of gymnastics which stimulates functions of an organism that affects man’s psychic positively and soothes symptoms of many diseases. Moreover, this form of movement recreation is preferred for the purpose of improving general psychophysical condition, mood, for health relaxation, body shaping and due to attractiveness of this very form of activity. A great positive influence of systematic riding practice on relaxing, development of motor skills, balance, space orientation and agility is observed as well as it answer the needs of activity, social acceptance and belonging. Horse riding is “a value in itself due to, among others, health environmental, cognitive and social qualities.” It offers a big range of

539 possibilities for expressing the personality, ambitions of people and lead a way to self-realization (Rokicha-Hebel 2004).

Figure 3: Horse Riding Holiday According to a Turkish proverb “A person who rules the horse, rules the world. “Equestrianism; is the art of using horse in condition, this condition is the ability of using horse calmly, in safety, time and with necessary power. This art; asks for knowledge, skills, persistence, patience, discipline, love, communication, commitment, sense, courage, compassion and a sense of freedom. Equestrian Tourism, which contains both nature and animal love, provides learning of learning to rider, self-regulation, lifelong learning, critical thinking, creative thinking abilities, besides, exploration of regions that historical and natural beauties exist, and provides touch with nature to people. Additively, in sportive aspect, it supports individuals’ mental, physical and psychological development. Horse riding, is one of the unique sports that can be done with another living being. With horse riding, individuals can go many natural beauties which are non-accessible with other means of transportation and as a result, stays virgin. Horse trekking, which remains in eco-tourism, with the attractiveness of horse riding, provides exploration local culture and geographical structure by travelling around nature and region by tourists. Tourism Destinations and Equestrian Tourism Destinations must have touristic attractiveness with internal and external factors, in order to tourism purposed travelling to take action. According to factors that are affective on travelling with a tourism purpose and destination appealing, touristic choices and destinations to be travelled is decided. Destination means a place that real or sensed form in minds (Keskin, 2008). Destination is an area that contains natural beauty, features and attractiveness, served for non-local tourists or day-trippers. Tourism destinations, which carry the meaning of the places that visited, can be defined as a geographic place that has various touristic values and features and serves all the products or some which tourist may need during travelling (Atay, 2003). Big part of tourism activities means the usage of resources that environment presents or service, as well as affection of tourism activities in different shapes. These effects can be negative as destruction of historic and archeological environment also can be positive like taking serious cautions in order to protect these values. This mutual interaction presents tourism and physical environment relationship (Can, 2013). In terms of tourism and physical environment relationship, horse riding to different destinations as a touristic and recreational activity, gives a wide perspective to riders in visual area. Exploration of seaside, mountains, countryside, authentic, unique, exotic, exclusive destinations and usage of horse as transportation mean, efficient usage of time, visual wellness, effort that people spend and usage of natural resources and local dynamics, come out with the advantages. Thereupon, with these reasons, equine tourism is not only a activity tourism, it is applicable in alternative and sustainable tourism’s

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every destination. Sport and art facilities also have potential for tourism. If an art or sport activity is sufficiently special and high-toned, people can travel long distances in order to join this activity (Law, 1993). Equestrian Tourism and Sport Increase in culture, education and welfare have increased the expectance of consumers from tourism. Now, tourists are not only travel for relaxing, having fun, travelling, sightseeing, at the same time, they want to establish themselves, be in the nature, participate in sportive activities, meet with new cultures (Öztürk & Yazıcıoğlu, 2002). In recent years, it is seen that relationship between tourism and sport is increasing. Especially, the last part of 20th century, defined as a term that witnessed increase of sport and tourism rapidly (Higham & Hinch, 2002). As can be understandable from definitions, sport tourism exists in three types. Firstly; tourism activities that created by participants who participate actively in sport activities, second, tourism activities by viewers of sportive activities, and third one is the tourism activities that people, who want to participate in sportive activities, is made (Öztürk & Yazıcıoğlu, 2002) Equestrian Tourism’s Environmental, Social and Economical Effects Equestrian tourism, as a type of alternative tourism, creates constructive effect on the promotion of local culture, customs, and traditions. Thus, by increasing the dynamism of local people, positively affects the continuity of local culture in the region. As a result, it positively affects the transition of cultural heritage of region and socio-cultural environment. Other tourism types that observed in regions, creates bad consequences such as, expel of local people from their own lands, usage of best seaside and most beautiful places by tourism sector with legal ways without letting usage of local people, serious effects on local economic structure, increase in child workers, failure to receive the response of the woman's labor, besides, in equestrian tourism does not contain these negative results, it is such a tourism type that by preventing physical destruction it protects environment, increases local communities’ welfare and with the protection of natural places, contains a dominancy. So-called industry without a chimney, tourism developed with amazing speed for last 30-40 years and became the most efficient locomotive of growing with tourism activities in many countries. In other words, tourism is the focus of millions of travelers, tourism providers, supporters of industry and service sector workers. According to WTO (World Tourism Organization), nature tourism increases per year with a rate between 10-50% (Başak, 2014). In the developing tourism sector, nature tourism is 10.3% of total world income by the year 2006 and with 234 million employees, travelling and tourism sector, which provides 8.2% of total employment, is one of the key sectors for development and improvement economically (Havyalı, 2009). Nature tourism is an important factor in economical development because it fastens socio-economical and cultural development, production at the sub divisions of service industry, increases in employment opportunity through country, foreign capital flow and foreign currency flow (Özgen, 2010). As well as with all these, in 1990s, the general grow rate was averagely 4%, meantime this speed goes around nature between 10 to 30 percent at nature travels. WTO, stated that travelling expenses which were made for ecotourism is five times bigger than world tourism averages and increasing. This increase corresponds to yearly 20% (Özgen, 2010). Equestrian Tourism that exists under ecological based tourism clearly can show economical improvement to local people with huge benefits and when we think where these people from, especially the poorest part of society, mountain and forest villagers and family groups that run lodgings. In addition, usage of some part of incomes that comes equestrian tourism, on protection of natural values and preservation of traditional cultures will benefit to region. Another fact that affects the demand related to ecological based tourism, is exploration of the world and Turkey mainly becomes a main conversation topic for travelers. Horse trekking which exists under the alternative tourism is tourism type that contains social and cultural activities, includes many activities in many areas. In order to promote these tourism activities to country, to benefit from the developments that can provide by tourism to region, equestrian tourism must be evaluated as proper tourism branch, with paying regard to

541 nature trend of tourists. CONCLUSIONS Horse trekking, which exist under the eco-tourism diversity, in addition to sportive and mental gains of riding, provides opportunity to exploration of nature, local culture, and geographical structure of region in different dimensions. Thereupon, in order to increase eco-tourism variety and its prevalence, qualified work force that can provide service in this sector must increase. Especially in recent years, existence of education courses that gives “tourist guidance in horse trekking” and diploma will play an important role in development of this tourism branch. In interaction of nature, sport and travel, with equestrian travel culture, which humanity used commonly in historical process, and its universal values, today’s human world appeals with equestrian tourism activities. Acknowledgement: Special thanks for Fig. 1 to Erdem Kizilkaya; Fig 2. to Olwen Law and Fig. 3 @Akhal-Teke Horse Center REFERENCES Aalto, H., Haagmann, S., Louhelainen, S., Leppänen R, .Päivä M.M, Mikkola H., Mäkinen P, Peltonen T, Prepula H, Vesterinen N, Vuori R, (2013) .”Development Strategy of Horse Tourısm 2009-2013” http://www.visitfinland.fi/ wpcontent/uploads/2013/ 11/ Development-strategy-of-horse-tourism-2009- 2013-eng.pdf?dl (Accessed:16.June.2016) Atay, L. (2003) Turistik Destinasyon Pazarlaması ve Bir Alan Uygulaması, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, İzmir, 27. Başak, E. (2004). “Eko-Turizm; Tüketmeden Keşfetmek”. http: //www. bugday.org/ article. php? ID= 43 (Accessed: 16. June. 2016). Batman, Z.P. (2013) Altındere Vadisi (Trabzon-Maçka)’nde Ekolojik Temelli Turizm Planlama Yaklaşımı ve Alternatif Turizm Olanaklarının Araştırılması. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Doktora Tezi, Trabzon. Bırovescu, A., Sâmbotın, L., Dıncu, A.M., Cıolac, R., Gherman, R.(2011) Ferma De Turısm Ecvestru. Lucrărı Ştıınţıfıce, 13(4), 203-210 Buchmann, A. (2014) Insights into domestic horse tourism: the case study of Lake Macquarie, NSW, Australia, Current Issues in Tourism, 2-18 Can, E. (2013). Turizm Destinasyonlarında Sürdürülebilir Turizmin sürdürülebilir rekabet açısından değerlendirilmesi. İstanbul Journal of Social Sciences, 4, 23-40. Demirel, H. (2010). Turizmde Sürdürebilirlik.T.C. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Tanıtma Genel Müdürlüğü Uzmanlık Tezi, Ankara. Fennell, D. (1999) Ecotourism: An Introduction. New York: Routledge. Gyôrffy-Villám, A. (2001): The reference book of equestrian tourism. Mezôgazda Kiadó. Budapest. Havyalı, A. (2009). Turizm Sektörü. http://webcache. googleusercontent. com/search?q =cache (Accessed: 12. May. 2010). Higham J. and Hinch T. (2002). Tourism, sport and season: The challenges and potantial of overcoming seasonalitiy in the sport and tourism sectors. Tourism Management, 23(2), 175-185. Keskin, S. (2008). Destinasyon odaklı gelişim açısından turizm planlaması: İstanbul örneği Uzmanlık Tezi. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yatırım ve İşletmeler Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara. Kozak, N. (2012). Genel Turizm Bilgisi. Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayını, Ünite (1-8), 1. Baskı, Eskişehir. Law C. M. (1993), Urban Tourism: Attracting Visitors to Large Cities,Mansell Publishing Limited, London, 88. Lobozewicz T., Bienczyk G., Basics of tourism, Warszawa: WSE, 2001. Newsome,D.,Smith,A.,&Moore,S.A.(2008).Horseridinginprotectedareas:a critical review and implications for research and management. Current Issues in Tourism, 11(2), 144–166. Ollenburg, C. (2005). Worldwide Structure of the Equestrian Tourism Sector. Journal of Ecotourism, 4:1, 47-55. Oruç, M.O. (2004). Bir Alternatif Turizm Türü Olan Doğa-Atlı Spor Turizminin Kastamonu Örneği Üzerinde İrdelenmesi. Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü. Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Ovalı, P.K. (2007). Kitle Turizmi ve Ekolojik Turizmin Kavram, Mimari ve Çevresel Etkiler Bakımından Karşılaştırılması. YTÜ Arch. Fac. E-Journal 2 (2), 64-79.

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Özgen, N. (2010). Doğu Anadolu Bölgesi’nin doğal turizm potansiyelinin belirlenmesi ve planlamaya yönelik öneriler .Uluslararası İnsan Bilimleri Dergisi 7(2),1407-1438. I Öztürk, Y. & Yazıcıoğlu, Ġ. (2002). Gelişmekte Olan Ülkeler İçin Alternatif Turizm Faaliyetleri Üzerine Teorik Bir Çalışma. Gazi Üniversitesi Ticaret ve Turizm Fakültesi Dergisi, 2, 183-195. Petroman, I. (2015). Impact of Equestrian Tourism on the Environment. Animal Science and Biotechnologies. 48 (1), 333-337. Rokicka-Hebel M., Horse riding as a form of leisure time chosen by the Tri-city citizens Recreation, Tourism, Culture, Gdañsk: AWFiS, 2004, 57-62. Smith, V.L & W.R. Eadington. 1992. Tourism Alternatives:Potentials and Problems in the development of tourism.Philadelphia:University of Pennsylvania Press. UNTWO (2002). http://sdt.unwto.org/content/ecotourism-and-protected-areas (Accessed: 13 June 2016). Ünver, F. (2006) Antik Çağdan Modern Olimpiyatlara Binicilik Sporu ve Türk Biniciliğinin Olimpik Gelişimi. Ankara Gazi Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Enstitüsü Doktora Tezi, Ankara.

543 Chapter 45

Casino Gaming Tourism: A Case of Macau

Burak MIL* & Derman KÜÇÜKALTAN

1. INTRODUCTION Nowadays gaming industry provides differentiated products and services to consumers from different market segments and with various daily routine, lifestyles. Casino and Resort destinations are giving to chance to their guests to satisfy variety of necessity and desires in the same locations (Hung, Lin, Yang, & Lu, 2012).While doing this, some important impacts and influences of casino gambling properties need to be examined. Related literature focused on economic, social and environmental impacts and influences that effects people pro and con opinion to casino gambling and destination selection (Caneday & Zeiger, 1991; Hsu, 2000). The casino gaming industry has showed quick growth in the past four decades. The number of legal casinos were only 15 in 1970 and 2010 the were nearly 1000 casinos in the US alone (Siu, 2007; AGA, 2011). Although 130 of 202 countries have legal casinos worlwide, in the asia-Pacific region, casino establishment has made rapid progression with the introduction of South Korea, New Zealand, Australia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Cambodia and Singapore (Hsu, 2006). Distinctively casinos have been authorised to legal gambling since the 1850’s, but recent years, number of casinos and visitors has rapidly grown of late years (Wan, 2012). Casinos and gaming activities have been convenient and well-liked in many parts of the world, and showed huge expansion in the United States, Singapore,Canada, Macau, Monte Carlo during the past decades. In 1931, gaming became legalized in Nevada to haul people during deppression years. In those years only few people has realised that several variety of gaming activities would be opportunity for some locations. On 2003, similar situation happened in Macau, after simplifying visa process by China, has created enormous number of casino tourists in Macau (Cook, Hsu &Marqua, 2014). “A casino, which is a place that legally allows people to engage in the activities of gambling and recreational consumption, can also directly and indirectly cause impacts.” (Wu and Chen, 2015). Peter Mason has created a conceptualization on gambling. Some impacts of gambling can ocur in the host community and they also carries tangible and intangible effects on daily life. According Gu (2004), modern casino business matchless industry in Las Vegas and Macau. Some researchers use the term “casinopolitanism” to define the linkage of gaming, resorts, entertainment and shopping in behalf of emphasizing the socio-economic impacts of casino gaming (Luke, 2011). Casino gaming is one of the most regulated field of operation all around the world.Gaming businesses must comply with laws and regulations. These include taxlaws, treasury department regulations, and rules governing alcohol consumption, types of gamesallowed, and sizes of bets. The size of casino activities is measured by gross gambling revenues (GGR). GGR is the amount wagered minus the winnings returned to players (Cook, Hsu & Marqua, 2014). 2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF CASINO GAMING Casino gaming started in the US. New Orleans, St. Louis, Chicago and San Francisco were the four cities where the American saloon type gaming. During the early 20th century, gaming was illegal and banned by the state laws. Table 1 shows that the milestones of casino gaming history at a glance. First legalization of casino gaming has been actualised at Nevada in 1931. After a quite waiting, Canadian government approved casino gaming regulations in Canada, 1969. Several years later, in 1978, casino gaming gained legislation in Atlantic City, US. The years of 80’s and 90’s witnessed crucial developments in the casino gaming history. Tribal areas, almost every state in the US, became legislated

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Istanbul Arel University, School of Applied Science, Dept. of Tourism.  Prof. Dr., Istanbul Arel University, School of Applied Science, Dept. of Tourism.

by Indian Gaming Regulatory Act in 1988. According the Public Law “The Indian Gaming Regulatory Act was enacted by the United States Congress on October 17, 1988, to regulate the conduct of gaming on Indian Lands. IGRA establishes the National Indian Gaming Commission and the regulatory structure for Indian gaming in the United States.-Public Law 100-497-Oct. 17, 1988 100th Congress Sec. 2701” (http://www.nigc.gov/general-counsel/indian-gaming-regulatory-act, 11.07.2016). One year after, limited-stakes gaming started in Deadwood-South Dakota. Riverboat casinos and limited-stakes gambling has been legellized at Iowa in 1989. But the gaming limit regulations terminated (limited- stakes on riverboats) in 1994. In the years of followed, some Colorado cities such as Black Hawk, Cripple Creek and Central City were introduced limited-stake gaming in 1990. Same year of that, first government operated casino opened in Winnipeg in Canada. The years of 90’s were important for new developments of casino gaming in the US. In 1990, “Riverboat gaming” gained legislation in Illinois and Mississippi. Not only riverboat gaming became legal, but also dockside gaming was permitted. Louisiana legislated riverboat gaming in 1991 and consecutive years, cruise ships authorised to run gaming business on the open sea and New Orleans’ were free to operate the casinos. When it comes to the 2000’s, Macau started to become a star in Casino business. In 2002 Casino enterprises in Macau has been liberalised after 40-year of monopoly. Liberlaization made Macau rising valued-destination in gaming industry. Mainland China relaxed visa regultions to Macau and Hong Kong for travelers that caused Macau flourished as a new gaming destination not only in Asia region, but also all over the world. In pursuit of developments in Macau, some other asian countries reralised the revenue generated facts of casino gaming and Singapore legislated casino gaming in 2005. One year later, Singapore government issued only two license to the casinos subject to being a part of intergrated these establishments to the resort developments. and when it comes to year of 2006, Macau’s gaming revenue surpassed the Las Vegas Strip, then the destination became a number one in the world. 2.1. Basic Segments of Gaming According Cook, Hsu and Marqua (2014) five elements clarify the current successful and future positive prospects of casino gaming industry. Firstly, casino gamblers and visitors have increasingly willing to try new gambling alternatives, since this kind of gaming activities have to be perceived as “voluntary tax”. Second, more visitors are choosing casino gaming or “casino visits” as a leisure activity. Some researches reported that 80% of adults assume casino gaming “fun night out”. Third, old- age pensioner are the single market of casino gaming and their numbers and spendings are increasing year by year. Fourth, casinos are aiming to gain “low roller” and tend to include their marketing programs. Fifth, gaming opportunities is attracting lots of tourists for visiting the new destinations. In consideration of new developments in technology, more locations where have never before visited were added the itinenary. When it is taken into consideration of changing characteristics of leisure-time activity, four wide categories have been accepted: 1. Choosing traditional type of gaming alternatives. Traditional type of gaming alternative is containing full scale and well-established casino locations such as monte carlo, New Orleans, Macau or Vegas Strips. 2. Historical places where provide gaming facilities such as Colorado’s mining towns. 3. Dockside or riverboat casinos operating in Mississippi or Illinois. 4. Gaming alternative in native american reservation such as Connecticut, Ignacio or Colorado settlements. The development of new gaming acitities and expanding industry has created some gaming segments, each with a distinctive profile from others. First segment of gaming is “High rollers”. High rollers are comprised of a man of parts gamblers. Those are spending much more money (wager) than other segments and they called as “professional gamblers”. High roller players are wealthy, male and older in general. According some reports, casinos outside of the US have been serving for this segment. Second segment accepted as “day-trippers”. Those are dominately consist of retirees and the casinos pull short term trippers to operations within near distance. Day-trippers tend to play video gaming

545 alternatives and slot machines. Third group of segments are low-stakes or new adopters. Low-stakes are tend to explore and admit gambling as an interesting experience. Low –stakes or new adopters seeking for entertainment by using gaming activities such as associated gamings, video games and computers/online gaming. Family vacationers take gaming notion in part of complemenary facility of tourism attractions. Theme parks, sport parks, themed hotel properties where have casinos are suitable places for both vacation and gaming (Desmond, 2005; Dennis, 2008). Table 1: Years and Actions of Casino Gaming Year Action 1931 Casino Gaming gained legislation in Nevada. 1969 Casino Gaming gained legislation in Canada. 1978 Casino Gaming gained legislation in Atlantic City. 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act make gaming lawful on tribal areas in nearly all state in the US. 1989 Limited-stakes gaming started in Deadwood-South Dakota, US. 1989 Limited-stakes riverboat gaming became legalized in Iowa, US. Limited-stakes gaming started in Black Hawk, Cripple Creek and Central City-Colorado. 1990 Government-operated casino opened in Winnipeg, Canada. 1990 Riverboat gaming gained legislation in Illinois. 1990 Riverboat and dockside gaming gained legislation in Mississippi. 1991 Riverboat gaming gained legislation in Louisiana. 1992 Cruise ships authorised to run gaming activities on the open sea. 1992 Casino Gaming gained legislation in New Orleans. 2002 Liberalization of Casino Enterprises in Macau, after 40 year monopoly. Visa Process were eased to Hong Kong and Macau for Chinese Travelers. 2003 Macau flourished as a new gaming destination. 2005 Casino Gaming gained legislation in Singapore. 2006 Macau's gaming revenue surpassed of Las Vegas. Source: Cook, Hsu &Marqua, 2014. 2.2. Casino Developments in Hotel Properties Casino gaming industry and casinos made great opportunity to generate excessesive revenue for hotel properties. Wu and Chen (2015) said that integrated casino-hotel establishments created huge contributions to the tourism industry in recent years. Specific areas there are specified for gaming industry including Singapore, Myanmar, South Korea, Australia, New zealand and Macau boosted the number of casinos in addition to enhancing hotel developments. According the statistics of UNLV Center for Gaming Research (2014) Gaming revenue has reached nearly 45 billion US Dollar in Macau besides Singapore made more than 4 billion US Dollar in 2013. Beside that, consideration tax revenue also crucial for local authority or governments. Gu & Tam (2011) argued that gaming tax is major source of economic funds for Macau’s government. Nevertheless, taking into account these entire positive economic impacts, it should not be forgotten that growing and enhancing gambling industry and casinos had many positive and negative social, cultural, economic and environmental impacts. While, increasing household income, social diversification and adapting to new life style, and enhancing infrastructure investments as taken for positive impacts, increasing inflation rate, rise in crime, pollution and corrosion of environment impacts are arguably negative effects (Wu and Chen, 2015). 3. GAMBLING TOURISM IN MACAU “Macau, located on the Southeast coast of China, is a special administrative region of the country. Being Asia's well-known gambling Mecca, it is a place to find the traditional Chinese culture while enjoying the exotic Portuguese buildings. The name of the city is derived from the word Magao (A- MaTemple), which was the shrine dedicated to Mazu, a sacred sea goddess respected by the local people. It was said that in the middle of sixteenth century when the Portuguese first set foot there, one of the officer sasked a fisher manthe name of the land. The man misunderstanding the officer's meaning, answered 'Magao' - the name of A-Ma Temple in front them. The word became the

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Portuguese name for the land and for nearly 400 years, the Portuguese ruled here prior to its official return to the People's Republic of China on December 20, 1999 as a special administrative region. The land of the city is quite small covering an area of just 27,5 squarekilometers. The total population is 469,800 of which 95% are Chinese, the remainder being Portuguese and other westerners.” (www.travelchinaguide.com, 2016) Macau has settled in history with the joint decleration agreed upon China and Portugal. The district of Macau was setle on the Chine coast as a Porteguese territory for nearly 450 years. After that, Portuguese and China recognized Macau Special Administrartive Region of the People’s Republic of China as similar as Hong Kong statute (Porter, 1993). Gambling in Macau began in the 1850’s legally for aiming to feed the fundings for some colonies such as Timor. During the period of 1850’s to 2002, gaming in Macau has operated in monopolistic condition. After being liberization of gaming industry in Macau, has taken the advantage of comparative supremecy, since gaming activites has not been permitted in Mainland China (Mc Cartney, 2005). This caused to Chinese travelers flood to Macau for gaming, gambling and related activities. Macau –as Oriental Monte Carlo- became one of the important preferences of Chinese and Asia- Pacific travelers. Excessive groth of Macau’s gamin revenues caused to excite attention and Macau has returned to China as one of the unique destination. According the some experts, gaming, tourism and entertainment type leisure and meetings, intencives, conventions and exhibitions (MICE) were the three major column of Macau’s economy (du Cros, 2009).

Figure 1: Map of Macu Liberalization of gaming industry in Macau, multi-purposed leisure-gaming complexes were started to be constructed. Macau’s new generation properties attracted people not only for gaming locations, but also pulled the visitors for shopping and leisure. In first years, casinos, hotels, and other complexes are aimed mostly Chinese and other Asian visitors instead of international tourists, to whom searching for novelty and smart experiences (du Cros, 2009). The government has decided for further tourism development (re-development) in Macau to support gaming industry besides shopping, leisure and MICE. Typical Vegas experiences resort investors invited and they tended to construct the new properties for new aims. New investors planned to transform Macau’s gaming frastructure for international tourist and they surely knew that if one would create a new destination for international base, it was not quite possible for achieving that strategy for a long time. It needs to be offered some promotive or differant kind of activities for people who would like to visit Macau or their accompanies. After being recognized, besides casino based complexes with its luxury class service, wide range of family attractions, resorts, cuisine, cultural and

547 environmental heritage based and shopping facilities came into account (du Cros, 2009). 3.1. Numeric Datas and Statistics of Gaing Industry of Macau According the Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau Macau SAR (2016), there are 36 casinos are providing gaming servise to all segments of players or gamblers. Table 2 showed that the late 5-yeared numeric distribution of casinos in Macau among the years of 2011 to 2015. The past couple of years, most of the Macau’s casinos operated by SJM Holdings Limited and the SJM have 20 casino establisments in Macau. Table 2: Number of Casinos in Macau (2011-2016) 2016 Concessionaires 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 1st Qtr. S.J.M. 20 20 20 20 20 20 Galaxy Casino, S.A. 6 6 6 6 6 6 Venetian Macau, S.A. 3 4 4 4 4 4 Wynn Resorts (Macau) S.A. 1 1 1 1 1 1 Melco Crown (Macau) S.A. 3 3 3 3 4 4 MGM Grand Paradise, S.A. 1 1 1 1 1 1 TOTAL 34 35 35 35 36 36 Source: Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau Macau SAR (2016) Galaxy Casinos are following S.J.M. with 6 casino operations and other operators are Venetian Macau (w/5 casinos), Melco Crown (w/4 casinos), Wynn Resorts (w/1 casino) and MGM Grand Paradise (w/1 casino). According the data of bureau, 3 casinos of 36 got suspension. After being liberalization, gaming industry in Macau has showed swiftly rising. In 2007, gross reneue from gaming facilities actualised at a level of 10,38 billion US dollars including games such as games of fortunes, greyhound racing, horse racing, chinese lottery, instant lottery and sports lottery (football, basketball… etc.). In the years that followed, in 2008, revenue has jumped 31% step-up and reached 13,6 billon US Dollars. After a tiny decrease in 2009, the year of 2010 testified the maximum revenue increasing in Macau’s gaming history that has never done before. In 2010 gross revenue from gaming has boomed 57% and it equaled to 23,55 billion US Dollars yearly base. This was a record of all times. In 2011, revenue registered as 35,5 billion US Dollars and it was second highest growth in Macau’s gaming revenue. After that year, Macau’s gaming economy paused in 2012 and the year of 2013 made the highest nominal revenue as 45,13 billion US Dollars. Some economists supposed that the revenue in 2014 was a perfect seemed as 44 billion US Dollars but it corresponed with decreasing - 0,28% according the data which of that year before. When it comes to 2015 Macau’s gaming revenue showed drastic decrease by -35% and it was 28,21 billion US Dollars. In the first half of 2016, revenue decrease went on (Table 3). Table 3: Gross Revenue of Gaming Industry in Macau Year Revenue (Billon US. Dollar) Change (%) 2007 10,38 - 2008 13,6 31% 2009 14,93 0,9% 2010 23,55 57,70% 2011 35,5 50,70% 2012 38,4 0,8% 2013 45,3 17,90% 2014 44,01 -0,28% 2015 28,21 -35,90% Source: Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau Macau SAR (2016)

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According to Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau reports revenue fell 9,6% in may, 2016, compared with 9,5 decrease of april, 2016. Reasons of dramatic decreasing of Macau’s gaming revenues correlated with several factors. Some experts revealed that Macau economy has been under stress of Chinese economic slowdown due to political corruption allegation in mainland China and it affected the high-stakes gamblers to keep out largest gaming destination of world. Macau is te unique place where casinos and gambling are legal. As a result of, casino operators in Macau intensely feel China’s economic uncertainity. Tourism operators are focusing new area of tourist attractions for getting out of the tight spot. Operators argued that inclining new tourist markets and recreational gamblers or family vacationers can resolve the problem (www.bloomberg.com, 2016). Family vacationer and leisure gamblers are tend to play a game besides using other facilities of hotel properties. Macau has also advantageus features which are attrack people to extend their stay in Macau. City sighting, swimming, excursions and visiting historical places can evaluate as alternative activities for tourist. Cuisine has another important asset for boyh Chinese and Macaun culture. Searching statistics in recent years indicated that there are many restaurants started to make operation in Macau Casino-based or independently. Because of that great numbers of tourists who are visiting Macau are taking the opportunity to taste local and international cuisine samples. Considering Figure 2, non-gaming visitor spending is decreasing regularly 10the years of 2014 and 2016’s first quarters. When we compare spending datas, convincingly overall visitors’ non gaming spending is diminishing. Chinese visitors spending decreased as well. Unlike overall and Chinese visitors, Hong Kong and Japanese visitors had spent in the first qurter of 2016 little more than the first qurter of 2015. Taiwanese travelers spending had been kept up with for 2014, 2015 and 2016’s first quarters. pacatas 3000 2014 2015 2016 2500

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0 Overall Mainland Hong Kong Japanese Taiwanese Visitors Chinese Visitors

Figure 2: Non Gaming Visitors Spendings in Person *1 US Dollar=8 Patacas Source: Macau Statistics and Census Service 3.2. Impacts of Gaming in Macau Gaming activites have some positive and negative impacts on people who lives in Macau. Those impacts come up mainly at three pillars: Economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts.The most distinct positive economic impact of gaming activities is large tax income for Macau government. Macau District has been living very limited and solid conditions for long years before liberalization. Especially rising tax imcome in Macau helped the government to cope with global economic crises. Besides tax income, overall personal income has been increased. While the median worker yearly

549 income was nearly 6500 Us Dollars in 2002, when come into the year of 2009, personal income has increased to 12.000 US Dollars. For those who are employed in the tourism related services such as gaming, leisure or recreational industry, average income enhance from 29.400 US Dolars in 1999 to 43.344 US Dollars in 2008. Economic development brought some infrastructural investment to the Macau. Light Trail Transit system (LRT) construction has been sterted up in 2006. The LTR will provide a easy transportation option among Macau Peninsula, CoTai and Taipa Island. Thus, larger amounts of visitors willbw able to use the LTR to reach main destinations of Macau Peninsula. Also the the Hong Kong–Zhuhai–Macau Bridge (HZMB) opened to enable the quick transportation between Hong Kong to Macau. Inherently expenditure of budget, public services and environmental protection costs enabled more than doubled between the years of 2004 and 2006 (Environmental Council of the Macau Government (DSPA), 2014). Recreation and entertainment investments have been constructed in Macau. Casino properties had let to other facilities related tourism and leisure. Each casino business has to be paid its 2.4% annual gross revenue to the government for supporting infrastructure, urban and tourism promotion, safety and social security. Also they have to pay their 1.6% of gross revenues for education, cultural development science and social funds. Growing in gaming industry has some negative impacts on residence of Macau. Education and Youth Affairs Bureau cleared that high-school drop rate increased 26.6% from 2002 to 2007 (DSEJ, 2009). Researchers argued that main reason of this was good standarded employment estimation. Another negative effect has been occurred in Macau. Problematic gaming habits have been risen. In 2003, 4.3% of problem gamblers shifted to 6% in 2007. Another negative impact has appeared crime rates. Crime rates intensely concerning with the community and after liberalization, crime rates in Macau flied out 52.5% during 6 years (2002-2008). That was enormously dramatic and terrifying fact that affects the host community and outbounders. Higher crime rate is another concern of the community. Since the liberalization of casino licensing in 2002, crime in Macau has increased drastically, from 9088 incidents in 2002 to 13,864 in 2008 (Wan, Li and Kong, 2011). Especially gaming related crime rates have been risen 37.8% from 2005 to 2008 (Judiciary Police of the Macau SAR Government, 2010). European Climate Assesment (ECA) has implemented a survey in 2010 in which categories health services, housing and utilities, leisure facilities, air quality, safety, infrastructure, climate and political situation. Findings have indicated that Macau is ranked seventh best destination to live in Asia (IPIM, 2010). After a short time, tourism developments and limited source of land have caused the decreasing the total quality of life. Traffic congestion, pollution of air and land had been worsened. These conditions of environment indicate the total quality of life, life expectancy and destination image. 4.DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Gaming industry has been providing several products and services to different market segments just as tourism industry. First casinos or gaming saloons has operated separately for several decades. After understanding their contrubition to states economy and horizontal benefits, governments improved some laws and regulation to discipline and control. That’s why, gaming industry had been regulated by the laws all around the world. Gaming industry is affiliated with tourism industry, especially transportation, accommodation and food and beverage sector. Thus, entrepreneurs decided to create hotel related casinos to satisfy their guests better. Now, we can see casino based hotel properties all around the world, as accommodation facilities provide the longer stay period for gaming visitors. Gaming industry began in the US, then Australia, Canada, New Zealand, Asia-Pacific countries and Macau followed. In 90’s riverboat and dockside gaming has been regulated and gaming industry went on growing. After economic liberalization of Macau, casino gaming world gained a new actor in its stage. Starting with the early operations in Macau, gaming industry has made progress over the years and passed the famous Las Vegas Strips and Atlantic City. Gamin revenue in Macau has been consistently growth the period of 2002 to 2013. On 2015. Macau gaming industry felt over 35% and in the first quarter of 2016 decreasing continued. Some experts argued that it relevant to economic slowdown in mainland china and some political and

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economic scandals. As a result of thaht manner, tourism professionals are trying to find a solution. Tourism operators are focusing new area of tourist attractions for getting out of the tight spot. Operators argued that inclining new tourist markets and recreational gamblers or family vacationers can resolve the problem. In the beginning of 2000’s Macau is a destination for only Chinese, Japanese and Asia-Pacific origin tourists. However, the destinations attract greater visitors both from Asian countries and all around the world. On 2012, Macau gaming industry and properties has became a number one in the world. Statistically Macau has been the most popular destination for gamblers. It has contunied to 2015. That year industry showed a drastic decrease and this regression not a latest, to be continued on the occasion of economic slowdown and competition. Gaming industry has some positive and negative economic, socio-cultural and environmental impacts on the area where it complexed. In Macau, increasing tax revenue, rising personal household income, higher employment rate and visible frastructural and infrastructular developments has called as positive impacts of Gaming industry in Macau. Nevertheless, expanding gaming facilities have caused some problems to the connumity and land of Macau such as increasing of high school drop-rate, boosting crime-rates, air pollution and traffic density. Ultimately gaming industry is one of the most revenue generator industry in the world and it is very close relation with tourism. Over the 3 decades, casinos have been constructed associated with hotels, food and bevarege units, fair and conventional facilities and sport centers. That’s why casino gaming industry has very unique and special place in economic and social life. REFERENCES AGA (American Gaming Association). (2011). The AGA Survey of Casino Entertainment. Washington, DC: AGA. Retrieved from: http://www.americangaming.org/files/aga/ uploads/docs/sos/aga-sos- 2011.pdf Caneday, L., & Zeiger, J. (1991). The Social, Economic and Environmental Costs of Tourism to a Growing Community. Journal of Travel Research, 30 (Fall), 45–58. Cook, R. A., Hsu, C. L. & Marqua, J. J. (2014). Tourism: The Business of Hospitality and Travel, 5th Edition, Pearson. Dennis. C. (2008). Slots fill niche, deal blow to table games. USA Today, p. 3A Desmond, L. (2005). Slot or Table? A Chinese Perspective. UNLV Gaming Research & Review Journal, 9(2), 69–72. DSEJ (Education and Youth Affairs Bureau of the Macau SAR Government). (2009). General Survey of Education in Figures. Retrieved from http://www.dsej.gov. mo/∼webdsej/ www/statisti/2008/ edu_statistics08_e.html DSPA Preface (2014). Environmental protection planning of Macau From http://www.dspa.gov.mo /EnvPlanningBook/a/en Du Cros, H. (2009). Emerging Issues for Cultural Tourism in Macau, Journal of Current Chinese Affairs, 38, 1, 73-99. Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau Macau SAR (2016). Gu, Z. (2004). Macau Gaming: Copying the Las Vegas Style or Creating a Macau Model? Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 9 (1), 89–96. Gu, X. & Tam, P. S. (2011). Casino Taxation in Macau: An Economic Perspective, Journal of Gambling Studies, Volume 27, Issue 4, pp 587–605. Hsu, C. (2006). Casino Industry in Asia Pacific: Development, Operation, and Impact. Binghampton, NY: Haworth Hospitality Press. Hung, J. Y., Lin, F. L., Yang, W. G. & Lu, K. S. (2012). Construct the Destination Image Formation Model of Macau: The Case of Taiwan Tourists to Macau Tourism and Hospitality Management, 18 (1), 19–35. IPIM- Macau Trade and Investment Promotion Institute (2010). http://www.ipim.gov.mo/en/ Judiciary Police of the Macau SAR Government. (2010). Annual Reports (2005–2008). Retrieved from http://www.pj.gov.mo/1024/pj_ch/magazine_publish.htm Luke, T. W.(2011). Gaming Space: Casinopolitan Globalism from Las Vegas to Macau, Globalizations, 7 (3), 395–405. McCartney, G. J. (2005). Casinos as A Tourism Redevelopment Strategy: The Case of Macau, Journal of Macau Gaming Research Association (2).

551 Porter, J. (1993). The Transformation of Macau, Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia. Siu, R. (2007). Is casino gaming a productive sector? A conceptual and cross-jurisdiction analysis. Journal of Gambling Business and Economics, 1(2), 129–146. UNLV Center for Gaming Research. (2014). Macau gaming summary, University Libraries, University of Nevada. from http://gaming.unlv.edu/abstract/macau.html Wan,Y. K. P., Li, X.C. & Kong, W.H. (2011). Social Impacts of Casino Gaming in Macau: A Qualitative Analysis, Tourism: An International Interdisciplinary Journal, 59 (1), 63–82. Wan, Y. K. P. (2012). The Social, Economic and environmental Impacts of Casino Gaming in Macau: The Community Lerader Perspective, Journal of sustainable Tourism (20): 5, 737-755. Wu, S. T. & Chen, Y. S. (2015). The Social, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Casino Gambling on the Residents of Macau and Singapore, Tourism Management, Volume 48, 285–298. http://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2016-06-01/macau-casino-revenue-falls-more-than-estimates-on- tighter-rules. Retrieved on: Jul. 6, 2016. https://www.travelchinaguide.com/cityguides/macau/. Retrieved on: May. 13, 2016.

552 Chapter 46

Backpackers’ Travel Motivations and Experiences

Kadir ÇAKAR, Faruk SEYITOĞLU & Nazlı SAYAR

INTRODUCTION In recent decades, the classic paradigm of mass tourism has transformed itself into niche tourism, in which multiple and diversified tourism products and services are offered (Novelli, 2005). The backpackers niche market is a form of youth tourism whose significance derives from its social and economic contributions to special interest tourism (SIT) (World Tourism Organisation [UNWTO], 2016). A backpacker is defined as ‘a person who spends at least one night in either backpacker or hostel accommodations’ (Tourism Research Australia, 2009). The backpackers market were first evaluated as significant at the end of World War II (Carr, 1998). Travellers participating in youth tourism activities are generally young people between 15 and 29 years old (Horak & Weber, 2000). However, in their research, Nash et al. (2006) suggest that backpackers can be from 15 to 60 years of age. Not surprisingly however, most backpackers are younger, with 68% below the age of 30 (UNWTO, 2011). Based on the rapid development of the Internet and information communication technologies, blogs and several online platforms have been part of a significant evolution of the ways travellers exchange ideas, opinions and experiences about trips (Amaral et al., 2014; Buhalis & Licata, 2002; Lee et al., 2011; Miguéns et al., 2008; Munar & Jacobsen, 2013; Roberson, 2015; Schmallegger & Carson, 2007). TripAdvisor, which is commonly described as one of the most important recommender platforms (Law, 2006; O’Mahony & Smyth, 2010), is the main source of the invaluable data analysed and interpreted in the present research. The influence of online blogs is indisputable as they provide customers with opportunities to post their travel-related experiences and opinions, sharing much needed ideas with others (Xiang & Gretzel, 2010). Moreover, hotel establishments and other tourism enterprises or companies can get better insights into customers’ needs and expectations, thereby benefiting from online platforms such as TripAdvisor or VirtualTourist (Leung et al., 2013). The present study sought to improve the understanding of backpackers’ tourism motivations as conceptualised and evaluated within the concept of youth tourism. In light of the research objectives, data were gathered from TripAdvisor to identify more clearly customers’ views on their motivational factors and experiences during trips. To report this research’s results, the following chapter is organised so that the second section provides the relevant literature divided into two segments. The next section describes the methodology. An evaluation of results follows, and the chapter concludes with research implications and recommends for directions in future studies. LITERATURE REVIEW The concept of mobility has been fostered by globalisation processes that have led people to move from one place to another, including geographically far distances in terms of where people live (Cohen, 2011). In recent years, contemporary tourism has shifted from mass to niche tourism markets in which differentiated tourism products and services are offered, in contrast to other types of tourism. Therefore, niche tourism is in essence defined by heterogeneous features rather than homogenous ones in terms of experiences (Maoz, 2007; Marson, 2011). Similarly, general interest tourism has tended to evolve into contemporary leisure tourism activities geared towards SIT, in which youth tourism is included (Novelli, 2005; Trauer, 2006). Due to its significance, youth tourism has attracted considerable attention over the last decade (Bizirgianni & Dionysopoulou, 2013; Boukas, 2013; Helenius, 2012). One possible definition of youth tourism is tourism activities that involve groups between 15 and 29 years old (Horak & Weber, 2000).

 PhD Candidate, Akdeniz University, Faculty of Tourism, Antalya, Turkey  Graduate Student, Akdeniz University, Social Sciences Institute, Antalya

Recently, as part of the growing interest in youth tourism, research on backpacker tourism has been conducted within the field of youth tourism (Richards & Wilson, 2005). According to Cohen (1972), a relevant distinction can be made between two categories, namely, institutionalised and non- institutionalised tourists. The cited author states that organised and individual mass tourists can be referred to as institutionalised while drifter and explorer tourists are categorised as non-institutionalised. Backpacker tourists belong among Cohen’s (1972) drifter and, thus, non-institutionalised tourists. More specifically, the cited author’s study dealt with backpackers under the more general notion of drifters, describing them as self-organised tourists who often plan their own trip schedules, including keeping these plans flexible (Sørensen, 2003). In addition, Cohen (2011) calls these backpackers ‘lifestyle’ travellers. In recent years, various studies have focused on the concept of backpackers from different perspectives (Brochado et al., 2015; Chitty et al., 2007; Firth & Hing, 1999; Hampton, 1998; Hecht & Martin, 2006; Murphy, 2001; Muzaini, 2006; Ooi & Laing, 2010; Paris & Teye, 2010; Uriely et al., 2002). Murphy and Pearce (1995) characterise backpacker travellers by five key features. First, they often choose to stay in budget accommodations. Second, they consider cultural and environmental tourism environments important, and, therefore, they are keen to interact with both locals and other travellers. Third, they organise their trips independently. Fourth, they are willing to participate in and experience all tourism activities wherever they spend their holiday. Last, the duration of their trips is usually longer as compared with other travellers (Murphy & Pearce, 1995). It is widely held that differences exist among backpacker holidaymakers since these have distinct backgrounds, expectations and experiences (O’Reilly, 2006). More specifically, backpackers have several distinct travel motivations, including those who tend to choose places where they can experience nature-based activities, such as bushwalks, safaris and rainforest visits (Pearce & Son, 2004). In the end, two major factors predominantly determine backpackers’ attitudes towards places and sites to be visited: individuals’ social and cultural backgrounds (Noy & Cohen, 2005). TOURISM MOTIVATIONS The concept of motivation has been examined from various academic disciplines including sociology, anthropology and psychology (Cohen, 1972; Crompton, 1979; Dann, 1977; Gnoth, 1997). Motivation as a driving force behind human actions within tourism has always been crucial to understanding why people travel (Pearce, 2005). For tourism academic researchers since the 1960s, travel motivation has been considered a key approach by which to understand tourists’ behaviours, as well as their travel needs (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). In the existing literature, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is widely adopted within motivation theory, indicated as a pyramid consisting of levels of needs (Pearce, 1982a). The pyramid’s levels go from basic physiological needs through to higher cognitive function needs, and individuals are motivated to complete their basic needs first before moving on to others (Maslow, 1970). Mill and Morrison (1998) state that travel is a need or desire to be satisfied. ‘Push’ and ‘pull’ factors have a role in motivations during travel decision processes (Dann, 1977). Push factors make individuals desire to travel more, while pull factors affect the completion of individuals’ needs or desires. Pull factors, which are based on destinations’ features, are internal, and push factors are external forces (Baloglu & Uysal, 1996; Jang et al., 2009). The extant literature confirms that tourist motivations are based on these two dimensions (i.e. push and pull factors) (Uysal & Hagan, 1993; Yuan & McDonald, 1990). Even though push and pull factors play a crucial role in understanding individuals’ travel behaviour and explaining destination attributes (Goossens, 2000; Jang & Cai, 2002; Bansal & Eiselt, 2004; Jang et al., 2009), many theoretical classifications and models exist so that no widely accepted conceptual or theoretical framework exists by which to understand travel motivation (Huang, 2010). For example, Burkart & Medlik (1981) classify travel motivation into two major categories: ‘wanderlust’ (i.e. the desire to explore the unknown) and ‘sunlust’ (i.e. the desire to travel to better facilities for a specific purpose). Crompton (1979) emphasises nine motives, including relaxation, escape from perceived mundane environments, exploration and evaluation of self, regression, prestige, enhancement of kinship relationships, novelty, education and facilitation of social interaction, as the

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push and pull factors for travelling. Mayo and Jarvis (1981), in turn, place travel motivations into four categories, namely, physical, cultural, interpersonal and status and prestige motivations. Furthermore, tourist behaviour is mainly influenced by long-term rather than short-term motivational control (Pearce, 1982b). BACKPACKERS’ MOTIVATIONS AND EXPERIENCES As mentioned previously, mobility is fostered by globalisation processes leading individuals to move from one place to another, even across geographically far distance in terms of where travellers live (Cohen, 2011). Within this trend, backpackers are defined as self-organised pleasure tourists on extended journeys with a flexible road-map (Pearce, 1990). Researchers are interested in why backpackers travel or individuals choose backpacking – behaviours created by backpackers’ motivations (Chen et al., 2014). While some of these travellers are motivated by pleasure, others are interested in memorable experiences for personal development (Riley, 1988). Despite having various motivations, backpackers usually seek local experiences, and their key motivation is meeting new people (Maoz, 2007). They prefer to travel by themselves or with a friend (Loker-Murphy 1996). Moreover, they want to be relaxed and independent during their journey (Cohen, 2003), and they are not motivated by luxury services (Larsen et al., 2011). Backpackers prefer to eat in cheap restaurants, stay in smaller and inexpensive accommodations and use public transportation (Cohen 1972; Loker-Murphy & Pearce 1995; Riley 1988; Uriely et al., 2002). The basic motivational factors of backpackers’ travellers are described as sensation seeking, learning about different cultures and communicating with host communities (Uriely, 2002). In addition, relaxation and the search for experiences, sociability and contributions to destinations have been found among backpackers’ motivational factors (Paris & Teye, 2010). Several different major determinants exist regarding motivational factors for backpackers’ trips: needing economical offers, meeting different people, providing authentic experiences, enabling longer trips and maintaining independence, flexibility and convenience (Murphy, 2001; Ooi & Laing, 2010). Backpackers’ main motivations can be further extended to include novelty seeking and experiencing nature (Pearce & Son, 2004). The concept of experiences was first dealt with by MacCannell (1976). According to the cited author, tourists often seek to experience authentic things and places, which motivates their trips. From this point of view, backpackers desire to experience adventure products and environment in which they can socialise and which they also define as memorable experiences (Ryan et al., 2003). In essence, their motivations are derived from their desire to enjoy experiences (Helenius, 2012). They have further been described as seekers of novel and risky experiences (Fuchs, 2013). Backpackers are usually motivated to experience local life and interact with host communities (Hsu et al., 2016). METHODOLOGY Various websites relating to backpackers’ reviews and comments provide content encapsulating these travellers’ experiences post-travel, which is called user-generated content (UGC) and which proffers rich travel information (Cox et al., 2009). The present study adopted a purposeful sampling approach, drawing data from TripAdvisor to be analysed in order to understand better backpackers’ insights regarding their travel experiences and motivations. The search for, and analysis of, backpackers’ motivations and experiences was conducted in English. In recent years, researchers’ growing interest in TripAdvisor has become more apparent. This growing interest in harnessing UGC has made this website a significantly important source of data that serves to analyse and explore customers’ views more thoroughly from a holistic perspective within tourism studies (Akehurst, 2009). Therefore, TripAdvisor as a social media platform is a major source of rich content in which travellers share their opinions and ideas and interact with each other in related informational activities within tourism contexts (Hays et al., 2013; Kang & Schuett, 2013; Leung et al., 2013). Through purposeful sampling, 142 out of over 400 positive and negative reviews were selected and downloaded from TripAdvisor to be examined. Thus, travellers’ reviews and comments were gathered from TripAdvisor to be identified and interpreted by using the keywords of backpackers’ motivations and experiences for text analysis of UGC. These travellers’ reviews were then analysed to identify relevant categories relating to motivational factors and experiences. While analysing the

555 collected data, all the researchers performed manual coding independently (Vásquez, 2011). RESULTS Given travellers’ experiences described in comments on TripAdvisor, from which motivational factors were extracted, the main categories found are encounters with people, affordable prices, sociability, relaxation and safety. After analysing 142 reviews, it was found that the words ‘meet new people’ (36), ‘cheap’ (29) and ‘social environment or atmosphere’ (28) were widely used in the text as positive comments, as well as in a few negative posts. Moreover, the majority of travellers seem to be satisfied with the place where they stayed and mention the idea of relaxation (17) in comments, while others refer to the cleanliness of places in which they stayed (64). The number of those who assessed locations where they spent their holidays as safe was 14. The country of origin of most travellers are Australia, the United Kingdom and the United States, followed by New Zealand, Germany, Slovakia, Argentina, Indonesia, Spain, Ireland, Poland, Brazil, Finland, Russia, Malesia, India, Sweden, Switzerland, Singapore, China, Canada, Belgium, South Korea, Thailand, Jordan, Taiwan, the Netherlands, South Africa and Austria. Significantly, recommendations with positive wording were found to be the most frequently used statements meant for other travellers, which were left by reviewers at the end of their comments – with the exception of a few complaints and negative reviews. In addition, statements that signal the intention to revisit destinations are one of the most widely shared forms of feedback. Some examples, with the number of instances in parentheses, are:  ‘The food is surprisingly good and very affordable. The staff is friendly, and the atmosphere here is very relaxed.’ (2)  ‘I’m a backpacker so [I] wanted a cheap place to stay to visit the city and to meet some people, so I chose this hostel.’ (14)  ‘We stayed here for 4 nights last September [and] paid a nice cheap rate, and it was very basic accommodations.’ (15)  ‘I was a solo traveller, and [I] would go back to the same place again.’ (39)  ‘It is a beautiful place to relax and enjoy your holidays and meet other people.’ (71)  ‘If you are a solo traveller, then I would recommend this place. Most of the people there were travelling by themselves, and this made it easier to socialise.’ (88)  ‘Just outside the craziness of Miraflores in a safe residential area, it was like coming home after a day’s sightseeing.’ (92)  ‘The hostel also has a pool and bar area which is great for socialising and meeting people. Deejais is definitely a good place to stay if you fancy a few days just to relax and meet new people.’ (116)  ‘The upcoming district of Maboneng is absolutely safe, and, at night, there are security guards on the street.’ (138) Based on the reviewers’ positive comments, ideas and opinions examined above, their primary motivational factors are to meet new people, travel cheaply, enjoy sociability and relax – all motivations supported by the existing literature on this topic (Cohen, 1972; Loker-Murphy & Pearce, 1995; Maoz, 2007; Riley, 1988; Uriely et al., 2002). In addition to positive reviews, a few negative comments were also found caused by several issues mentioned by travellers. Examples are given with the number of instances in parentheses: ‘We bought a map at our hostel for MK1000, which was published by the wildlife and environmental society of Malawi. Unfortunately, it turned out to be highly inaccurate with some of the trails on these simply not existing.’ (1)  ‘Some things just seemed very suspicious. We believe the owners weren’t honest. We would never recommend this place to anyone.’ (21)  ‘A place where you SHOULD NOT go!’ (22)  ‘NO HELP for working holiday backpackers!!’ (24) Concerning the length of entirely negative reviews, on average, these reviews were almost 125 words in length while the shortest was approximately 77 and the longest was 204 words. It should be kept in mind that the number of positive reviews was much greater than that of negative ones.

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CONCLUSION The present research sought to explore and analyse backpackers’ motivations and experiences. From this perspective, the existing literature in the field was first examined in terms of motivational factors of backpackers, and it was found that meeting new people, learning something about different cultures, communicating with host communities, experiencing novelty and enjoying affordable prices were the main motivations. Second, the experiences of backpackers were reviewed and adventure, authentic experiences, independence, convenience, flexibility, authenticity, environments in which travellers can socialise, nature-based activities and risky experiences were found to be priorities in their experiences. To fulfil the present research’s purpose, the data were collected from TripAdvisor as this website provides invaluable data and information that identifies travellers’ perspectives through experiences shared on this platform. The results reveal that the vast majority of travellers’ motivations are meeting new people from different cultures, staying in cheap accommodations or places, socialising and relaxing, all of which are supported by the extant literature (Cohen, 1972; Loker-Murphy & Pearce, 1995; Maoz, 2007; Riley, 1988; Uriely et al., 2002). In addition, the present study’s findings show that backpackers often seek to stay in safe places during their holidays, since they consider health and safety issues important (Adam, 2015). Furthermore, one of the most crucial implications of the current study is that some backpackers were 30 years old or more, as justified by relevant studies (Hecht & Martin, 2006; Nash et al., 2006). The present study could be useful to destination marketers and tourism enterprises seeking to understand better backpackers’ motivations and experiences in order to meet their demands more effectively. The present research obtained data from travellers’ reviews and comments on TripAdvisor. While this study provided valuable findings, these have some limitations. The study sample may not be generalisable to all backpackers as this research only used TripAdvisor data. Future research needs to conduct face-to-face interviews to obtain deeper insights into backpackers’ motivations and experiences. REFERENCES Adam, I. (2015). Backpackers' risk perceptions and risk reduction strategies in Ghana. Tourism Management, 49, 99-108. Akehurst, G. (2009). User generated content: the use of blogs for tourism organisations and tourism consumers. Service Business, 3(1), 51-61. Amaral, F., Tiago, T. & Tiago, F. (2014). User-generated content: tourists’ profiles on Tripadvisor. International Journal of Strategic Innovative Marketing, 1(3), 137-145. Baloglu, S. & Uysal, M. (1996). Market segments of push and pull motivations: a canonical correlation approach. International Journal of contemporary Hospitality Management, 3 (8): 32-38. Bansal, H. & Eiselt, H. A. (2004). Exploratory research of tourist motivations and planning. Tourism Management, 25(3), 387–396. Bizirgianni, I. & Dionysopoulou, P. (2013). The influence of tourist trends of youth tourism through social media (SM) & information and communication technologies (ICTs). Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 73, 652-660. Boukas, N. (2013). Youth Visitors' Satisfaction in Greek Cultural Heritage Destinations: The Case of Delphi. Tourism Planning & Development, 10(3), 285-306. Brochado, A., Rita, P., & Gameiro, C. (2015). Exploring backpackers’ perceptions of the hostel service quality. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 27(8), 1839-1855. Buhalis, D. & Licata, M.C. (2002). The Future eTourism Intermediaries. Tourism Management, 23(3), 207- 220. Burkart, A.J. & Medlik, S. (1981). Tourism: Past, present and future. London: Heinemann. Carr, N. (1998). The Young Tourist: A Case of Neglected Research. Progress in Tourism and Hospitality Research, 4(4), 307-318. Chen, G., Bao, J.. Huang, S. S. (2014). Segmenting Chinese backpackers by travel motivations. International Journal of Tourism Research, 16(4), 355-367. Chitty, B., Ward, S. & Chua, C. (2007). An application of the ECSI model as a predictor of satisfaction and loyalty for backpacker hostels. Marketing Intelligence & Planning, 25(6), 563-580.

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560 Chapter 47

Sensory Marketing in Tourism

Ceren IŞÇI*

INTRODUCTION Sensory marketing is a marketing technique which combines the five senses in order to create total experience (Hinestroza & James, 2014). The concept of sensory marketing is originated from the experience economy which is qualified as a new economical era brought to the literature by Pine & Gilmore in 1998 and its marketing extension experiential marketing. Human senses are a part of the essential foundation of the experience economy and experiential marketing. Thus, according to Pine & Gilmore (2011) the most direct way to make a product experiential is to make it sensual in other words to add factors which will reinforce the sensory interaction of the customer with the product. The sensory stimulants which accompany an experience should support and reinforce the theme. An experience is remembered as effectively as it addresses the senses (Pine & Gilmore, 2011). Pine & Gilmore (1998) conceptualized the four essential realms of the experience as; education, aesthetics, entertainment and escapism. The aesthetics experience is manifested through sensory stimulants (Agapito et al., 2012). The aesthetics dimension of the experience is described as the interpretation of the physical environment by the customers (Hosany & Witham, 2009). As the interpretation and the conception of the physical environment is realized through human senses the aesthetics experience and the senses are closely related. In this experience type, the customer passively likes or is impressed the way that the product/service addresses his/her senses (Oh et al., 2007). Recently it is realized that the concept of atmosphere which describes the physical environment of the aesthetics experience (Kotler, 1973) and the concept of servicescape (service environment for service marketing) (Bitner 1992) are causing positive effects on consumers' purchasing behaviors (Odabaşı & Barış, 2002). Similarly, in his work Schmitt (1999) presents the sensory marketing as the essential component of the experiential marketing. Schmitt (1999:60), proposed the Strategic Experiential Modules (SEMs) which is the strategic conceptual framework in order to manage the experiences and stated that marketing experts who benefit from the components which form the module would be able to gain success. Module components: are presented as: (i) sense; (ii) feel, (iii) think; (iv) act; (v) relate. The module components of the said study, are also described as sensory experiences with experiential dimensions (sense), emotional experiences (feel), creative cognitive experiences (think), physical experiences, behavior and life style (act), social experience, experiences by being related to a group or a culture. The sense module or sensory marketing is described as to appeal senses in order to create sensory experiences (Schmitt, 1999). Sense or sensory marketing have the purpose of creating sensory experiences by appealing senses related to seeing, hearing, touching, tasting, smelling (Schmitt, 1999). With this emerging technique, stimulation of the five senses is aimed in order to draw the attention of the customer (Hinestroza & James, 2014). Hinestroza & James (2014) determines the essential foundations and principles of the sensory marketing as follows: (i) consumers are emotional beings, their decisions are more emotional and sentimental than rational (ii) consumer's feelings are important during purchase decisions, they can establish a bond between product and the consumer; (iii) it is necessary to understand consumer emotions, beliefs and cultures; (iv) sensory communication becomes important in persuasion strategies between the brand and the consumer; (v) by creating pleasant and memorable moments in relation with products and services, the loyalty can be created and a positive effect can be realized. Sensory marketing, can be used to motivate the consumer and to add value to the product (such as aesthetics or entertainment) by different kinds of businesses and product groups (Schmitt, 1999).

* Lecturer, Dr., Ege University, Bergama Vocational School, Department of Tourism and Hotel Management.

1. LITERATURE REVIEW Krishna (2012:333) defines the sensory marketing as “marketing, that engages the consumers’ senses and affects their perception, judgment and behavior”. The concept is expressed as the total of the actions controlled by the producer or the distributor in order to create special multiple senses in the product attributes or advertisement messages or in sales points environments (Filser, 2003). According to Schmitt (1999), sensory marketing can be used in differentiating the businesses and products, motivating the customers and adding value to the products (such as entertainment or aesthetics). In sensory marketing senses have essentially three functions (Schmitt, 1999). The differentiating function of the senses means the creation of appeal with the use of the most appropriate stimulant; the motivating function of the senses means making the customer motivated in trying and buying the products through campaigns which use stimulants aiming the senses; the value adding factor of the senses means to be able to provide unique experiences to the customers. The sensory marketing serves two purposes when considered from administrative perspective. The first purpose is brand personality and the second purpose is create effect through product attributes such as color, taste, smell and shape, on the product quality perceived by the consumer (Krishna, 2012). Advertisement should create a strong visual effect or should show what it is desired to be shown, say what it is desired to be said and feel what it is desired to make people feel (Odabaşı & Barış, 2002:148). The insensitivity of today’s post-modern consumer to advertisement stimulant forced the decision makers into a tough competition in preparing an effective advertisement. The sensory marketing plays a strategic role in that point. Sensory marketing, provides businesses the opportunity to maximize (the profitability of) their products and also to differentiate from their competitors. Skinner & Stephens (2003), in their study, underline that the sensory language preferred by the target group should be understood in creating an effective advertisement communication. When the increasing and high costs of the advertisements and their powerful effects are taken into consideration it is seen that the senses have a vital importance for businesses. Hultén (2010) provides the three phase explanatory sensory marketing model in order to describe the reason why the businesses focusing on sensory marketing. The phases of the sensory marketing are defined as follows: (i) sensorial strategies expressed though sensors; (ii) sensations; (iii)sensory expressions in relation to the five human senses (see Table 1). According to Hultén (2010) model, the brands should develop sensory strategies which will let them to be differentiated from their competitors. These strategies should include emotional/ psychological elements which could reveal the brand value and identity rather than functional/rational qualities. The main purpose of the strategies is to create a multi-sensory brand experience. The created strategies are transmitted to the customers through communication mediators. When the message is transmitted a connection in other words a sensation is created between the human sense or perception and the sense. This sensation provides the creation of an open brand personality and the possibility to leave an impression on customer's mind for the brand. In advertisement messages how much a sense should be used and/or should be repeated, which sense or sense combinations should be use are as important as the use of the senses. Also the quality of the sense which is used should not be ignored. For example, the belief that the mechanical or monotone voices that the consumer frequently encounters will create the desired effect or the evaluation of this within sensory marketing context would be an unrealistic point of view. According to Pine & Gilmore (2011), the senses should be reinforced starting from the four realms of the experience. For example, how an automated voice can become fun through humor? How the tone of the voice can be formed in an aesthetic way which people would like to hear? These kind of questions should be replied. By taking care of not suffocating the guests with more than necessary sensory loads, every sign should be studied according to the effects which they might create on the five senses (sight, sound, touch, taste, smell) (Pine & Gilmore, 2011). Within this context, the cognitive consistency which is the essential principal of the senses and the sensory variety should be taken under consideration (Schmitt, 1999). The ideal sense approach, should underline the concept, should be easily recognizable and should always be fresh and new (Schmitt, 1999).

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Table1: Sensory Marketing (SM) Model

Source: Hultén, B. (2010). Sensory Marketing: The Multi- Sensory Brand-Experience Concept, p. 264.

According to Filser (2003), the sensory marketing has three main research area; first one is the use of sense elements in the attributes of the product (see for example Raz et al., 2008), the second one is the use of sense elements in the atmosphere of the sales points (see for example Turley & Milliman, 2000) and the third one is the use of sense elements in the advertisement communication (messages) for which there are really few researches on sensory marketing terminology (see for example Işçi, 2016). Also in sensory marketing researches, the effects of the senses on consumer behaviors form a significant research area (Filser, 2003). Lots of researcher examined the effects of the different sensory stimulants on consumer behaviors. These stimulants include voice/music (Vida, 2008; Yalch & Spangenberg, 2000; North & Hargreaves, 1998; Milliman, 1986;), odor (Chebat & Michon, 2003; Spangenberg et al., 1996), color/form (in relation with sight sense) (Raz et al., 2008; Shankar et al., 2009), physical contact (in relation with touch sensation) (Peck & Childers, 2006). In the literature, the effects of the different sensation combinations on consumer behaviors are also examined (Krishna, 2012; Grebosz & Wronsko, 2012). In the sensory studies, it is specified that the sensory marketing has effects on conception, cognition, sensation, learning, preference, choice, evaluation, remembering, purchasing decision and product/ service/brand experience (Latasha et al., 2016; Hultén, 2010; Krishna, 2009; Coulter & Chowdhury, 2006). In their research on Thailand's fast food facilities Hinestroza & James (2014)

563 determined that the sensory marketing is effectively applied and that the sensory marketing increased the purchasing. In an other research Shabgou & Daryani (2014), proved that all of the five senses affected the consumer behavior and that there is a strong relationship between the consumer behavior and taste sense. Other than these effects, in his study Hultén (2010), underlines the effect of the sensory marketing in creating value and activating the positive feelings. In their study, Hinestroza & James (2014) states that sensations are producing emotions. The senses are the connection between the memory and the individual and also connect the individual to their emotions (Lindstrom, 2005). 1.1. Touristic Experience and Five Sense Perceiving is the period in which humans try to understand their environment (Koç, 2016: 86). Solomon et al. (2006) determines that, in the processes of perception the stimulants reach the five senses, the individual pays attention to them (in other words select them), organize them and interpret them (see Figure 1). The stimulant is the input into the senses and products, brands, packages, store designs work as a stimulant. The consumer contacts with the stimulant in a physical way and this process is realized through sensory organs (Odabaşı & Barış, 2002). There are two theories that form the essential pattern of perception trough through senses, Information Process Theory (Atkinson & Schiffrin, 1968) and Embodied Cognition Theory, these clarify the relationship between sensory recording and body-concepts, which is the first point that the stimulants perceived through the individual’s sensory organs will reach.

Figure1: An Overview of the Perceptual Process Source: Solomon et al.,2004. “Consumer Behavior: A European Persfective”, p.37.

When human beings use their all five senses reach the highest activity and perception level (Lindstrom, 2005:22). But, advertisement campaigns, communication programs or brand creation practices are using lots of different channels other than visuals and sounds (Lindstrom, 2005:22). The traditional marketing, only focuses on audio and visual communication (Hinestroza & James, 2014). Even though most of the mass communication tools (these include advertisement messages) reaches via two channels not five channels every day, actually the registration process is realized through five channels (Lindstrom, 2005). The events which are part of the human life, moods, emotions, even products are continuously registered by the five channel recording tool from the moment human wakes up until the moment he/she sleeps (Lindstrom, 2005). When the academical researches are evaluated, it is seen that they focused on one or two of the taste, smell, touch and sight senses (Coulter & Chowdhury, 2006). Theoretically, the powerful brands appeal all of the senses, weaker brands appeal one or two of the senses (Lindstrom, 2005). Therefore, the combination of all senses is very important (Lindstrom, 2005; Schmitt, 1999). Markwell (2001) determined that the touristic experience is strongly related with human senses not because it is totally physical. Thus, Agapito et al., (2012) in their study determined that all of the senses are important

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during touristic experience. In the same study it is specified that the sight sense produces a high sensory effect and the touch sense produce less effect. Agapito et al. (2013), determines that the multi-sensorial structure of the tourism destination, creates a multi-sensorial perception and therefore multi-sensorial informations have a significant importance for destination marketing and administration. 1.2 Sensory Marketing in Tourism Pan & Ryan (2009) determine that the tourist experience is physical and multi-sensorial and for that reason tourism facilities should attach importance to sensory content in their advertisement messages. Giant facilities existing in the tourism sector are using the senses as a marketing tool. For example, the Hyatt chain provide the hotel rooms and lobbies with a special scent that they manufacture (Lindstrom, 2008). In a similar way, Pera Palace Jumeirah Hotel, gives the experience of a unique touch sense to the hotel guests through silk materials which reflect the femininity of the actress in its suite named after Greta Garbo (Işçi, 2016). The same hotel, provided in the Hemingway suite a masculine scent and covered the Pierre Loti suite with the smoky grey of the Golden Horn. In this way it is aimed to reflect the personality the passion of the celebrity guests into the suites. Lindstrom (2005) provides a similar example for Singapore Airlines brand. Singapore Airlines started a campaign based on the sensory experience of the air travel. According to this campaign, the cabin crew dressed elegant silk uniforms in perfect harmony with the lines of the cabin decor, a specially designed scent is turned into the perfume of the cabin crew and it is sprayed on the towels within the plane. The consumer describes this unique scent as “soft, exotic Asian, feminin” (Lindstrom, 2005). The said brand reached an extraordinary success through sensory marketing (Lindstrom, 2005). In the advertisement campaigns the numbers of the brands the senses are getting higher every day. According to Agapito et al. (2012) materials including sensory information provides benefit to the decision makers in developing their communication and brand strategies, increasing their destination performance and touristic experience. As an example to the sensory slogans and presentations in touristic destination descriptions the following statements can be shown: “The scent of jasmine… taking you back to that peaceful, perfect spa in Thailand (scent), “…glowing gold from the roaring campfire within while tribal dancers fill the still, silent night with music of their ancestors ” (sound), “…The touch of fresh, clean, crisp white cotton linen sheets” (touch), “…The sight of sunburnt orange and red and yellow leaves on the ground… taking you back to autumn in London’s Hyde Park, …” (sight) and “The taste of cardamom… instantly bringing back the soothing flavour of authentic Indian chai(taste)” (Mendiratta, 2010:3-4), “Morocco- A Feast for the senses (all senses)”, “… aromatic Arabic food and fragrances, heat and colorful surroundings (taste, scent, touch and sight)”(Govers et al.,2007:988). When we move away from the marketing concern, it is seen that the consumers also use the sensory descriptions/sensory expressions when describing these experiences. This is undoubtedly caused by the fact that the human senses are the essential foundation of the perception and product/service/brand are formed with the effect and/or sensory combination of the sensory stimulant(s). For example, Pine & Gilmore (2011) states the sensory experience in Rainforest Cafe as: “It is first apparent as a sound: Sss-sss-zzz (hearing). Then you see the mist rising from the rocks (sight) and feel it soft and cool against your skin (touch). Finally, you smell its tropical essence (smell), and you taste (or imagine that you do) its freshness (taste). What you can’t be is unaffected by the mist”. Dündar (turkish journalist, author) in his work entitled Uzaklar (2012) in which he compiled his travel notes, uses a sensory language in describing Seferihisar-Sığacık touristic destination. “ North wind carries in turn the smell of iodine from the sea or the smell of thyme from the prairie (smell)..., Orhanlı village with the sound of the swashbucklers' knees beating the ground (hearing)...,The immortal olive trees, almonds and poplars with the thousand kind of green: emerald, opaque, dark green, khaki, light green…(sight).” When travel blogs, forums are examined it is seen that the consumers use frequently sensory expressions when interchanging touristic experience. In order to better understand this field will provide clues related to application to the related institutions during effective material structuring. When the academic researches on tourism field are evaluated it is seen that their numbers are continuously increasing. For example, Işçi (2016) in their research examined the flow experience, sense of presence, mental imagery, attitude toward to the ad and the intention to purchase of the sensory metaphors which are effective marketing tools used by the sensory marketing. Within the context of the

565 said research, an hotel presentation material containing sensory stimulants is formed. “ Feeling the carefully selected cold White Carrara marbels (touch)... listening to the water sound chandeliers manufactured from distinguished Murano glass (sound)...Ernest Hemigway sipping from his whiskey while sitting on the chairs in Orient Bar (smell)...The combination of the authentic taste heritage with the contemporary flavors (taste)....Watching the sun set coloring everywhere from historical peninsula to the crests of Eyüp with a golden color from the French balcony of your deluxe room with a view of Golden Horn (sight)”. As a result of the research it is determined that the senses increase the flow experience and the flow towards the senses have a direct positive relationship with mental imagery, sense of presence, attitude toward to the ad (cognitive, sentimental) and the intention to purchase. There are lots of empirical studies which research touristic experience within the context of the five senses. Kim & Fesenmaier (2015), Agapito et al., (2013); Agapito et al. (2012), Govers et al. (2007) Markwell (2001), researches can be presented as example. 2. DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION The sensory marketing is a marketing technique which aims to make the senses which are the foundation of the human perception a part of the product/service, and to use these in the atmosphere where the products/service is presented and/or in marketing communication tools. This technique is presented as a component of the experience economy which is evaluated as a new economical value. When the sensory marketing is evaluated from the tourism industry point of view it is seen that the senses and the tourism shareholders are ideal partners. This view can be approached from multiple perspectives. The tourism product is situated within the hedonic product category. Therefore, the tourists desire to be in relation with the sensory sides of the services and to imagine and fantasize about those (Hirschman & Holbrook, 1982). This desire, when combined with the multi-sensorial quality of the tourist destinations, it strengthen the role of the senses in the communication between tourist and destination/product/service. Thus, the tourists are frequently using a sensory language. The powerful effects of the senses in touristic experience, direct the tourism facilities and their destination administration to add the senses in their product/services and/or to the environment and/or presentation materials where they are presented. The sensory marketing provides value adding strategies for the businesses' products/services in order to differentiate themselves from their competitors. In the related literature it is stated that the brands who use the sense in an effective way gain success. When academic researches are taken into consideration in relation with the sensory marketing, it is determined that the sensory stimulants effects on consumer behavior, perception, emotion etc. are frequently researched. Also, it is seen that in tourism field the number of the researches on sensory marketing are increasing but it is not sufficiently researched yet. Especially, the researches examining the multi-sensorial structure of the tourism experience will guide the way in advertisement message structuring of the related institutions. When it is taken under consideration that big budgets are reserved for the promotion costs of the tourism destinations, it is a necessity to explore the senses to realize an effective advertisement communication. Within this context, it is expected that qualitative techniques such as keeping a diary, narrative will bring a deeper perspective on revealing the sensory quality of the experience. The sensory marketing is also closely related with the neuromarketing techniques. Hultén (2010) determines that the human brain's sensory, cognitive and sentimental processes are in relation with neuromarketing and the foundation of sensory marketing are human mind and senses. Neuromarketing studies, knowing which part of the brain to sensory stimulant(s) will play a significant role in creating the ideal sense combinations and in measuring the effect of the sensory stimulants for the brand. REFERENCES Agapito, D.; Mendes, J.; Valle, P. (2013). Exploring the Conceptualization of the Sensory Dimension of Tourist Experience. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management, 2(2), 62-73. Agapito, D.; Valle, P.; Mendes, J. (2012). Sensory Marketing and Tourist Experiences. Spatial and Organizational Dynamics Discussion Papers, 10, 7-19. Atkinson, R. C., & Shiffrin, R. M. (1968). Human Memory: A Proposed System and Its Control Processes. Spence, K. W. & Spence, J. T. (Ed.), The Psychology of Learning and Motivation Advances in Research

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and Theory (vol. 2), Academics Press, 90-197pp, New York. Bitner, M.J. (1992). Servicescapes: The Impact of Physical Surroundings on Customers and Employees, Journal of Marketing, 57-71. Chebat, J-C., Michon, R. (2003). Impact of Ambient Odors on Mall Shoppers’ Emotions, Cognition, and Spending A Test od Competitive Causal Theories, Journal of Business Research, 56, 529-539. Coulter, R. & Chowdhury, T.G. (2006). Sensory Metaphor and Meanings: Development of a Cross- Sensory Heterogeneity Index, Association for Consumer Research, 453-455. Dündar, C. (2012). Uzaklar, Can yayınları, 175 s., İstanbul. Filser, M. (2003). Le Marketing Sensoriel: La Quete de L’intégration Théorique et Managériale. Revue Française du Marketing, 194 (4/5), 5-11. Govers, R., Go, F., & Kumar, K. (2007). Virtual Destination Image: A New Measurement Approach. Annals of Tourism Research, 34 (4), 977-997. Grebosz, M. & Wronska, B. (2012). Sensory Impact on Customer Behaviour, Konssumpcja I Rozwoj, 2, 67- 77. Hirshman, E., & Holbrook M.B. (1982). Hedonic Consumption: Emerging Concepts, Methods and Proposions, Journal of Marketing, 46 (3), 92-101. Hinestroza, N.B.; James, P.TJ. (2014). The Effects of Sensory Marketing on the Implementation of Fast- Food Marketing Campaigns. Journal of Management and Marketing Research 14 (January). Hosany, S., & Witham, M. (2009). Dimensions of Cruisers’ Experiences, Satisfaction and Intention to Recommend.School of Management, Royal Holloway University of London Working Paper Series, 2-31. Hultén, B. (2010). Sensory Marketing: The Multi-Sensory Brand-Experience Concept, European Business Review, 23(3), 256-273. Işçi, C. (2016). Duyusal Metaforik Tanıtımın Ön Deneyim, Reklam Turumu ve Satın Alma Niyetine Etkisi: Akış Deneyimi Yaklaşımı, Adnan Menderes Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi. Kim, J.J., & Fesenmaier, D.R. (2015). Designing Tourism Places: Understanding the Tourism Experience Through Our Senses. Krishna, A. (2012). An Integrative Review of Sensory Marketing: Engaging the Senses to Affect Perception, Judgment and Behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 22(3), 332-351. Krishna, A. (2009). Sensory Marketing: Research on the Sensuality of Products, Routledge. 395pp., New York. Koç, E. (2016). Tüketici Davranışı ve Pazarlama Stratejileri Global ve Yerel Yaklaşım. Seçkin Yayıncılık, (7. Basım), Ankara. Kotler, P. (1973). Atmospherics as a Marketing Tool. Journal of Retailing, 49(4), 48-64. Latasha, K.; Tooraiven, P.; Monishan, B.; Randhir, R. (2016). Analyzing the Impact of Sensory Marketing on Consumers A Case Study of KFC, Proceesings of the International Conference on Tourism, Hospitality and Marketing (IC16 Mauritius Conference), 21-23 January. Lindstrom, M. (2005). Duyular ve Marka (Çev. Şensoy, Ü.), Optimist Yayınları, İstanbul. Lindstrom, M. (2008). Buyology: Truth and Lies About Why We Buy and the New Science of Desire, Doubleday, NewYork. Markwell, K. (2001). An Intimate Rendezvous with Nature? Mediating the Tourist-Nature Experience at Three Tourist Sites in Borneo, Tourist Studies. 1(1), 39-57. Mendiratta A. (2010). The six senses of travel, CNN's TASK Group. March. 1-7, http://commercial. cnn.com/resources/task/compass/11.pdf. Milliman, R.E. (1986). The Influence of Background Music on the Behavior of Restaurant Patrons, Journal of Consumer Research, 13 (September), 286-289. North, A.C., Hargreaves, D.J. (1998). The Effect of Music on Atmosphere and Purchase Intentions in a Cafeteria, Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 28 (24), 2254-2273. Odabaşı, Y. & Barış, G. (2002). Tüketici Davranışı, Mediacat, (12. Baskı), Eskişehir. Oh, H., Fiore A. M., & Jeoung, M. (2007). Measuring Experience Economy Concepts: Tourism Applications, Journal of Travel Research, 46, 119-32. Pan, S., & Ryan, C. (2009). Tourism Sense-Making: The Role of The Senses and Travel Journalism. Journal of Travel &Tourism Marketing, 26(7), 625-639. Peck, J.; Childers, T.L. (2006). If I Touch it I Have to Have it: Individual and Environmental Influences on Impulse Purchasing, Journal of Business Research, 59, 765-769.

567 Pine, J.P., & Gilmore, J.H. (1998). Welcome To The Experience Economy. Harvard Business Review, July- August, 97-105. Pine, B.J., & Gilmore, J.H. (2011). Deneyim Ekonomisi (Çev. L. Cinemre), Optimist Yayınları, İstanbul. Raz, C.; Piper, D.; Haller, R.; Nicod, H.; Dusart, N.; Giboreau, A. (2008). From Sensory Marketing to Sensory Design: How to Drive Formulation Using Consumers’ Input?, Food Quality and Preference, 19, 719-726. Schmitt, B. (1999). Experiential Marketing, Journal of Marketing, 15, 53-67. Skinner, H., & Stephens, P. (2003). Speaking the Same Language: Exploring the relevance of Neuro- Linguistic Programming to Marketing Communications, Journal of Marketing Communications 9(3), 177-192. Shabgou, M., & Daryani, S.M. (2014). Towards the Sensory Marketing: Stimulating the Five Senses (Sight, Hearing, Smell, Touch and Taste) and Its Impact on Consumer Behavior, Indian Journal of Fundamental and Applied Life Sciences, April-June, 4 (S1), 573-581. Shankar, M.U.; Levitan, C.A.; Prescott, J.; Spence, C. (2009). The Influence of Color and Label Information on Flavor Perception, Chem. Percept., 2, 53-58. Solomon, M.; Bamossy, G.; Askegaard, Hogg, M.K. (2006). Consumer Behaviour A European Perspective, Prentice Hall Europe, 731pp., (Third Edition). Spangenberg, E.R.; Crowley, A.E.; Henderson, P.W. (1996). Improving the Strore Environment: Do Olfactory Cues Affect Evaluations and Behaviors?, Journal of Marketing, 60(2), 67-80. Turley, L. & Milliman, R.E. (2000). Atmospheric Effects on Shopping Behavior: A Review of the Experimental Evidence, Journal of Business Research, 49(2), 193-211. Vida, I. (2008). Atmospheric Music Fit As A Driver of Shopper Store Evaluations and Their Behavioral Responses, The Journal of Applied Business Research, 24(2), 97-102. Yalch, R.F.& Spangenberg, E.R. (2000). The Effects of Music in a Retail Setting on Real and Perceived Shopping Times, Journal of Business Research, 49, 139-147.

568 Chapter 48

The Leadership Orientations of Tourism Managers of the Future

Halil AKMESE*, Ahmet BUYUKSALVARCI**, Sercan ARAS***

INTRODUCTION Leader is the person who reveals the common ideas and desires, as an acceptable purpose, which haven’t been clarified, felt by the members of the group and actuals the potential of the members around this purpose (Eren, 2008). Leadership is to use force in accordance with influencing ideas and actions of audience (Zaleznik, 1977). If it is thought that the leadership phenomenon has a direction based on the power, leadership can be defined as the process of using owned force to ensure interactions between individuals and also the person who has this ability is called leader. Another definition of the leader may be a person, leading the members of the group to be successful in accordance with the identified purposes, coordinating and controlling their work and having enough features and capabilities to carry out these efforts. In the aspect of understanding of organizational climate in which leader’s personal characteristics could be particularly effective, features that the leader should have can be listed as; to have ability and clairvoyance, persuasion skills, learning ability and self-development, understanding mission and responsibility, initiative, ability to solve the basic elements of the problem, to help others and the desire to serve, to have sufficient motivation, provide positive relationships with the group members (Rıza, 1996; Pazarbaş, 2012). Table 1: Features of Manager and Leader according to Bennis Features of Manager Features of Leader Manages Makes innovations He/she is a copy Original Continues Improves Focuses on system and structure Focuses on people Based on control Inspires confidence Short-term perspectives Long-term perspectives Asks how and when questions Asks what and why questions See subordinates See everyone Imitates Creates Accepts the status quo Struggles with status quo Works correctly Does the right works A good, classic soldier Has a personality of its own Appreciates stability, order and Appreciates flexibility, innovation and effectiveness adaptation

Leadership and management are two concepts that are too much confused. Imprecise description and drawing of exact scope of these two concepts are among the causes of confusion. Today, successful managers regarded as strong leaders (Taşkıran, 2005). But, how a strong leader does not qualify as a strong manager, in a similar way, a successful manager does not qualify as a strong leader. Leader is open to change, creating new ideas and sharing them with the subordinates (audience) and is a person who motivates and directs them to achieve identified purposes (Duncan, 1999). On the other hand, manager can be defined as a person working on behalf of others, actively participating in the

* Assist. Prof. Dr.; ** Assoc. Prof. Dr.; *** Res. Assistant Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management, Konya, Turkey

management process and who has the authority to audit the results of implementation and planning. Bennis and Nanus (1995) defined the managers as “people who works correctly” and the leaders “people who does the right works” In this context, the following table lists the features of manager and leader according to Bennis. An effective leader, by contributing to employees to be more successful, would allow the company to make a difference in the level of competitive advantage. Effectiveness and efficiency of the leader on the company depends on the success of the leader. The successful leader is expected to play the following roles (Aytek, 1983):  to combine individual goals with organizational goals  to provide a positive communication environment with subordinates, equals and superiors.  to ensure increasing of productivity and efficiency  to represent organization successfully  to run informal groups within the organization  to organize subordinates  to evaluate the success of subordinates with objective criteria  to use initiative  to use authority and power in a balanced way  to ensure coordination between subordinates while implementing duty. The effect of the group’s leader in mobilizing and gain the purpose, depends on the ability to use the strength effectively which depends on the characteristics of the group. French and Raven (1959) argues) that the leader takes power from 5 sources. These power sources are; legal power, reward power, coercive power, proficiency power and charismatic power. Legal power: This source represents the power that as a consequence of being in a particular role or a position in the administrative leader of the organization (Feldman & Arnold, 1983). Legislative power is a power that based on the leader’s authority over subordinates and it’s considered by them (Donnely, Gibson & Ivancevich, 1998). Reward power: The power of award and keep the awards on hand belongs to the leader. This type of power refers to, complying with the wishes of leader, getting awards, classification and self- actualization expectations of subordinates. If a leader has sources to be able to award or give penalties, has the significant power to influence the subordinates. Because award has a significant impact on the motivation levels of employees and helps to increase their commitment to the development against the person providing that (Pazarbaş, 2012). Leader, together with appreciating and honoring his employees, can use tangible awards because of his employees’ being dependent and efficient on their works. Measure of awards, should be based on total performance of employees, more than the limited aspect of works. An effective leader is capable of exploring things that are valuable for employees. These can be much more resting periods, better working programs or more attractive work tasks (Mullins, 2010). Coercive power: This is the power of leader or manager can force and punish their subordinates. Thus, it can be said that the opposite of award power of leader. Coercive power based on fear. Everything scares subordinates are considered as a source of strength (Feldman & Arnold, 1983; Taşkıran, 2005). An effective leader, except for absolutely necessary situations, avoid to use force, oppress. Because oppression or using force can lead to anger and reduce the efficiency of employees. Punishment can be used to prevent harmful behavior for the organization. These are the behaviors such as not to comply with safety rules, irresponsible behavior that may endanger the lives of employees own or colleagues, to give harm to valuable tools and equipment, disobedience to lawful requests that should be considered. It is necessary that the leader, before criticizing employees, whether they really delinquent are. Leader, acting hasty and condemning the employees unduly, may lead to some serious deterioration relations. Warnings should be far from a hostile image. Leader should be calm and help in a friendly manner to make employees avoid compulsory punishment and to ensure compliance with the rules (Yalınkılıç, 2010; Eraslan, 2004). Proficiency power: Proficiency power, depends on the perception of employees about their

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leader’s information and being able to give the best response according to the situation. A leader’s proficiency power increases when she/he ensure a great success; decreases when he-she make mistakes or decisions that causes a failure. Therefore, leadership, should encourage authority and experience to increase the proficiency power, refrain from making hasty decisions and using careless expressions. Leaders must continue to learn about technical issues and external factors affecting business. In a crisis, it is necessary that to stay calm and act thoughtfully and secure. A leader, changing decisions constantly, seen unstable or panic, will soon lose his proficiency power. Leader should consider the ways to make the best and what steps to be taken to minimize the possible risks (Mullins, 2010; Buchanan & Huczynski, 1992; Pazarbaş, 2012). To address the presence proficiency power of a leader, it is required that the leader must be an expert, have special skills, experience and detailed knowledge. In the presence of such features, leader may be admired and shown respect the subordinates. If a manager is perceived as wise, knowledgeable and experienced he will be able to easily influence subordinates (Koçel, 2001; Taşkıran, 2005). Charismatic power: Leader’s (manager’s) ability, thanks to his own characteristic and charisma, to influence subordinates. Subordinate inspiring characteristic of leader, to express subordinate’s desire and hopes are the basis of the charismatic power. As proficiency power, charismatic power also depends entirely on the personal characteristics of the leader, and this power can’t be recovered due to managerial positions within his organization (Feldman & Arnold, 1983; Holdford, 2003). As it can be seen, five different powers, that can be used by leaders to influence subordinates, has been identified. These power types can be divided in two groups, organizational and personal. According to this, award power, legal power and coercive power constitutes the organizational power group resulting from a hierarchical structure within the organization, proficiency power and charismatic power constitutes the personal power group originating from the leader’s knowledge and experience. It is important for a successful leader that to be aware of both personal and organizational power and to use that powers effectively to achieve the goals and identified purposes (Taşkıran, 2005; Terry & Franklin, 1982). Today’s business managers, must be the people who can combine managerial skills with leadership qualities and use it effectively. Tourism businesses can provide outstanding performance and continuity with a management that can foresee dangers, follow change and innovation and practice in business convert threats in to opportunities, be closely interested with the employees. Based on this requirements, it’s aimed to clarify the trends of leadership of tourism managers of the future. MATERIALS AND METHODS Questionnaire technique is used for determining of future tourism managers’ tendency of leadership. Questionnaire used in research is adapted from Nigmentullina (2011) work. Questionnaire is formed due to gaining necessary information for determining leadership tendency, is applied Tourism Management and Gastronomy and Culinary Art are included in Necmettin Erbakan University of Tourism Faculty and gained number of 102 feedback total. In this research, like a lot of research, it has been taken Likert Scale as a model. In 1932, with this scale which is thrown out by Likert’s article titled “A technique for measuring attitude” and is fed from Spearman’s Factor Theory, it is expected an individual’s reacting a series of proposition prepared about topic and showing acceptance degrees of all proposition. Statements in scale are evaluated according to pentad scale. Beside all proposition there are scales “Strongly Agree, Agree, Neither Agree nor Disagree, Don’t Agree, Strongly Don’t Agree” (Özdamar, 2004). SPSS v.21 statistic packet program has been used in analyzing data collected from research. Reliability and validity of datum collected is limited to feature of questionnaire technique, a person who applied it, Persons’, scope of sample, answering. Application area forms another limitation. Before data collected is analyzed, whether data is normal distribution or not should be determined ve analyses should be done according to this. In this direction, on the purpose of determining whether this data shows normal distribution or not, both Kolmogorov-Smirnov and Shapiro-Wilk testes are performed and it is concluded that Data were not normal distribution. Because of that, in analyzing of data, non-parametric tests have been used.

571 Table 2: The differentiation of participants according to the gender Gender Frequency Percent Male 52 51,0 Female 50 49,0 Total 102 100,0 RESULTS According to findings reached as a result of data collected, from persons who are joined research, are compared to %51, there are 52 males, and are compared to %49, there are 50 females. In Table 3, peoples who joined research distribution is shown according to studying faculty. while %47 of person answered questionnaire study Tourism Management, %52,9 study Gastronomy and Culinary Art. Table 3: The differentiation of participants according to their departments Departments Frequency Percent Tourism management 48 47,1 Gastronomy and Culinary Art 54 52,9 Total 102 100,0 In Table 4, it is shown whether people’s, who joined research, leadership tendency differentiate or according to studying faculty. According to this, in answers of “Has leadership an essential role in job satisfaction?” it is shown that there is no significant distinctness statistically between Tourism Management and Gastronomy and Culinary Art. (p>0,05) In data were collected in a result of questions about leadership tendency, there is no significant distinctness between Tourism Management and Gastronomy and Culinary Art too. In a result of data, people who joined research revealed that leaders need to be close relationship with other directors and strongly revealed if required, they need to receive opinion from other directors (m=4,48). Otherwise it is determined that leader need to promote workers’ efforts with reward and leader need to meet requirement both their needs and business’ needs (m=4,36). Among people who joined research are thought also that leadership has an essential role in job satisfaction (m=4,33). Table 4: The differentiation of participants of survey according to the department of participants Mean Mean Department N U p (m) Rank Tourism 48 48,76 Leadership plays a key role in business Management 4,33 1164,500 ,328 satisfaction Gastronomy and 54 53,94 Culinary Arts Tourism Leader must protect the distance with 48 52,84 Management his employees and mustn’t contact 2,56 1231,500 ,656 Gastronomy and without work hours 54 50,31 Culinary Arts Leader should determine his own Tourism 48 51,72 responsibility and jurisdiction, should Management 3,20 1285,500 ,942 never be entered into other Gastronomy and 54 51,31 jurisdictions. Culinary Arts Leader must be in close relationship Tourism 48 52,84 with other managers and, if it is Management 4,48 1231,500 ,912 required, must take views of other Gastronomy and 54 50,31 managers. Culinary Arts Tourism Leader should be though with his 48 50,68 Management 2,52 1256,500 ,783 orders given to the subordinates. Gastronomy and 54 52,23

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Culinary Arts Tourism 48 52,82 Leader must keep his workers under Management 3,69 1184,500 ,533 strict control. Gastronomy and 54 49,35 Culinary Arts Tourism Leader must delegate less and shouldn’t 48 46,48 Management left the employees free to make them 2,56 1055,000 ,094 Gastronomy and do the works on their way. 54 55,96 Culinary Arts Tourism 48 53,40 Leader must act without considering Management 1,44 1109,000 ,231 the personal needs of subordinates. Gastronomy and 54 47,92 Culinary Arts Tourism 48 53,27 Leader yields much from his employees Management 1,72 1211,000 ,530 if he keep them far from controlling. Gastronomy and 54 49,93 Culinary Arts Leader must be a person who increase Tourism 48 53,95 employee’s efforts with award, also Management 4,36 1178,500 ,374 satisfy the needs of both business and Gastronomy and 54 49,32 employees. Culinary Arts Tourism A good leader, according to the 48 51,31 Management characteristics of his employees, must 3,85 1287,000 ,950 Gastronomy and change his behavior. 54 51,67 Culinary Arts Table 5 shows that the leadership trends of participants of survey whether differ from by gender or not. According to the results of Mann Whitney U test, applied for the data which is not in normal range, it is concluded that, according to the gender of participants who surveyed, leadership trends have not the significant difference statically (p>0,05). Table 5: The differentiation of participants surveyed according to the gender Mean Department N U p Rank Male 52 55,34 Leadership plays a key role in business satisfaction 1100,500 ,139 Female 50 47,51 Leader must protect the distance with his Male 52 47,51 1092,500 ,153 employees and mustn’t contact without work hours Female 50 55,65 Leader should determine his own responsibility Male 52 54,35 and jurisdiction, should never be entered into other 1152,000 ,309 Female 50 48,54 jurisdictions. Leader must be in close relationship with other Male 52 55,22 managers and, if it is required, must take views of 1106,500 ,128 Female 50 47,63 other managers. Leader should be though with his orders given to Male 52 52,82 1231,500 ,634 the subordinates. Female 50 50,13 Leader must keep his workers under strict control. Male 52 48,80 1159,500 ,415 Female 49 53,34 Leader must delegate less and shouldn’t left the Male 52 48,22 employees free to make them do the works on their 1129,500 ,238 Female 50 54,91 way. Leader must act without considering the personal Male 51 52,48 1148,500 ,376 needs of subordinates. Female 49 48,44

573 Leader yields much from his employees if he keep Male 52 49,02 1171,000 ,342 them far from controlling. Female 50 54,08 Leader must be a person who increase employee’s Male 52 51,32 efforts with award, also satisfy the needs of both 1290,500 ,943 Female 50 51,69 business and employees. A good leader, according to the characteristics of Male 52 51,88 1280,000 ,888 his employees, must change his behavior. Female 50 51,10

Table 6: The necessary features to be an efficient leader N Percent (%) Percent of Cases (%) Experience 81 15,5 79,4 Characteristic 73 13,9 71,6 Business ethic 56 10,7 54,9 Education 68 13,0 66,7 Transparency 39 7,4 38,2 Creativity 69 13,2 67,6 Morality 69 13,2 67,6 Organizational skills 69 13,2 67,6 Total 524 100,0 513,7 Table 6 shows that, to the question of what are the features that are necessary to be an effective leader, % 79,4 of participants answered experience, % 71,6 of them answered characteristic. The feature, has the least necessity, to be an efficient leader according to the participants is transparency/clearness with % 38,2 rate. According to the results obtained, after transparency, ethic has the least necessity with the rate % 54,9. In table 7, it is shown that the ideas of participants about whether they will be a good leader in the future. Based on this survey, with % 92,2 of participants surveyed, 94 person noted that they believed in that they will be good leader, on the other hand with the rate of % 7,8, 8 participants noted the opposite. Table 7: Ideas of the participants about whether they will be a good leader in the future Do you believe that you will be a good leader? N Percent (%) Yes 94 92,2 No 8 7,8 Total 102 100,0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION In the service sector, particularly tourism industry, rapid increasing competition make it necessary for more effective management of enterprises operating in this sector. Due to tourism enterprises are labor intensive businesses, much more care should be shown to retain the morale and motivation of employees. In order to ensure this, it’s becoming obligatory that businesses to be managed by efficient and effective, creative leaders. In this research conducted on future leaders in the tourism sector, it is demonstrated that leadership trends of tourism students. As a result of this research, it can be said that necessities emerged as; the leader should be in a good communication with other managers and consult them if it’s required, as well as, increase the efforts and motivation, of employees with awards in addition, by a majority of the participants, leader ship is thought to play a major role in satisfaction of business. As a result of the research, the conclusion reached that participants’ gender and the departments which they are educated don’t cause any difference in leadership trends. It can be said that the great majority of the participants thought that to be an effective leader, experience and characteristics are necessary. It is highlighted by the participants that it is the least important feature that a leader should be in transparency and have business ethics. According to the research result, the great majority of participants indicated that they can be good leaders in the future. This study, revealing the leadership trends of leaders of the future in the tourism sector, was

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conducted on tourism management, gastronomy and culinary art departments of Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Tourism in researches, that will be conducted in the future, the area of research can be expanded or can be conducted on students in other departments. REFERENCES Aytek, B. (1983). İşletme Yönetimi. Ankara: Turhan Kitabevi. Bennis, W., & Nanus, B. (1985). Leaders: The Strategies of Taking Charge. New York: Harper & Row Publishing. Buchanan, D., & Huczynski, A (1992). Organizational Behavior an Introductory Text. U.K: Prentice hall. Donnelly, H.J., Gibson, L.J., & Ivancevich, M.J. (1998). Fundemendtals of Management. California: McGraw Hill. Duncan, J.W. (1999). Management: Ideas and Actions. New York: Oxford Press. Eraslan, L. (2004). Liderlik olgusunun tarihsel evrimi, temel karvamlar ve yeni liderlik paradigmasının analizi. Milli Eğitim Dergisi (162). Eren, E. (2008). Yönetim ve Organizasyon. İstanbul: Beta Yayıncılık. Feldman, C.D., & Arnold, J.H. (1983). Managing individual and group behavior in organizations. New York: McGraw-Hill. Holdford, D. (2003). Leadership Theories and Their Lessons for Pharmacists. American Journal of Health- System Pharmacists, 60(1), 1780-1786. Koçel, T. (2001). İşletme Yöneticiliği. İstanbul: Beta Basım Yayım. Mullins, L.J. (2010). Management%Organisational Behaviour. Milano: Pearson. Özdamar, K. (2004). Paket Programlar İle İstatistiksel Veri Analizi. Eskişehir: Kaan Kitabevi. Pazarbaş, M. (2012). Liderlik ve Otorite: Lise Öğrencilerinin Liderlik ve Otorite Algısı Üzerine Bir Araştırma. Doktora Tezi. Konya Selçuk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Halkla İlişkiler ve Tanıtım Anabilim Dalı. Rıza, E. (1996). Sosyal Psikolojiye Giriş. İzmir: Anadolu Matbaacılık. Taşkıran, E. (2005). Otel İşletmelerinde Liderlik ve Yöneticilerin Liderlik Yönelimler: İstanbul’daki Beş Yıldızlı Otel İşletmelerinde Bir Araştırma. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Bolu: Abant İzzet Baysal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Turizm İşletmeciliği Anabilim Dalı. Terry R.G., & Franklin, G.S. (1982). Principles of Management. IIionius: Richard Irwin Inc. Yalınkılıç, R. (2010). İşletmelerde liderlik anlayışı ve yöneticilerin liderlik özellikleri ve davranışı üzerine bir araştırma. Yüksek Lisans Tezi. Hatay: Mustafa Kemal Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Işletme Anabilim Dalı. Zaleznik, A. (1977). Managers and leaders: Are They Diferent? Harvard Business Review, 55.

575 Chapter 49

Agriculture-Tourism-Exchange (Ta Tu Ta)

Fatih TÜRKMEN*

INTRODUCTION Changes in tourist preferences, goal of spreading tourism throughout the year, and promotion of sustainable tourism with environment-friendly activities increased the importance of the alternative tourism types. However, existing studies found that all alternative tourism types are not sustainable or environment-friendly. Although alternative tourism has developed as an alternative to the concept of mass tourism, there are differences among the types of alternative tourism in terms of sustainability and their benefits to the environment (Erdoğan, 2003: 105). Agro-tourism, which is also known as farm tourism, may be considered as one of the alternative tourism types with high potential of sustainability and the least damage to the environment. Visitors participating in this type of alternative tourism either take part in agricultural works or observe these work. As such, the tourists, who aim to achieve tranquility away from technology, share the experiences of interaction between different socio-cultural structures. Consequently, on the one hand, the local inhabitants are pleased with the visitors and on the other hand, the visitors experience a different holiday. Due to these reasons, agro-tourism, which is a sustainable and environment-friendly alternative tourism type that satisfies both the local inhabitants and the tourists, holds a special place in tourism. THE CONCEPT OF AGRICULTURE-TOURISM-EXCHANGE (TA-TU-TA) With the global change in tourist preferences, sea-sand-sun touristic visits and the visits for entertainment are gradually being replaced by the visits to the rural areas, which are less stressful and more peaceful. The desire to feel better in nature, relaxation and the interest in living in rural areas are the main motivations of the visitors that engage in rural tourism. Additionally, various activities and festivals in rural areas and the interest in natural agricultural products have diverted the attention of the tourists to rural tourism (Albayrak, 2013: 132) Consequently, in order to meet this new demand, agro- tourism has become an important and environment-friendly alternative tourism type. Agro-tourism provides touristic products about accommodation and other activities. Accommodation facilities, farm roads, agro-museums, parks, opening days of the farms, educational visits and trekking tours constitute the facilities provided by agro-tourism (Busby and Rendle, 2000:637). Agro-tourism, which resembles ecotourism type of alternative tourism, is a type of rural tourism. Agro-tourism has developed as a consequence of the search for sustainable tourism development and has been adopted as a means of sustainable economic development based on nature. In this sense, agro- tourism promotes visits sensitive to natural areas, which protect nature and contribute to the welfare of the local inhabitants (Kahraman & Türkay, 2006: 37; Türkben, Gül and Uzar, 2012: 47). Here, we should note that the concepts of agro-tourism and farm tourism refer to the same types of tourism since both of the tourism types are conducted at farms and serve the same purpose. However, there is a minor difference in terms of activities conducted by each tourism types. While farm tourism includes activities such as serving local food, animal husbandry, horse rising, fruit picking and weeding (Kılıç and Kurnaz, 2010: 45) agro-tourism comprises activities such as making and tasting local cheese, conserve and pastry or observing regional culture and activities (Gündüz, 2004: 40). Despite this minor difference, both the farm tourism and agro-tourism aim to provide visitors experiences about daily life in the rural area. Due to this, these two concepts may be used interchangeably. Agro-tourism provides additional benefits to the farmers and contributes to the development of rural tourism (Kunasekaran, Ramachandran, Yacob and Shuib, 2011: 10). Outdoor recreation, direct selling from the farm, educational experiences, production, accommodation, and direct selling outside

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Karabük University, Safranbolu Tourism Faculty, Department of Tourism Management

the farm are the agro-tourism types that are practiced within the context of agro-tourism. Different agro- tourism types involve various different activities, which may be conducted in nature and which provide visitors entertainment and experiences about local culture (fairs, festivals, historical sites etc.). Table 1 shows the details of the agro-tourism types and the activities that they involve. Table 1: Agro-Tourism Types and Touristic Activities Tourism Types Touristic Activities Riding, Wildlife observation and photography, line fishing, camping, picnic, Outdoor Recreation hunting, skiing, tobogganing, model car driving, off-road vehicles, Direct Selling from the Farm sales, sales on booth, agricultural gifts, fruit and vegetable picking Farm School tours, plantation tours, vineyard tours, agricultural training, agricultural Educational fairs, product promotion programs, wine factory tours, animal husbandry, helping Experiences for agricultural works Production Farm visits, self-picking, tree renting etc. Accommodation Farm accommodation, holidays at farms, student exchange, dormitories for Facilities young tourists, etc. Direct Selling outside Concerts, special events, fairs, pet garden, hunting training, dog training, harvest the Farm (Invitations- fest, etc. Entertainment) Visits to historical and cultural sites, guide/equipment operations, riding groups, Other producer markets, etc. Source: Gündüz, 2004: 43; Uygur and Akdu, 2009: 149). Within this context, we may list the advantages and the disadvantages that agro-tourism provides to the region and the local inhabitants as the followings (Uygur and Akdu, 2009; Aslanoğlu and Yavuz, 2012; Ahmadovaa and Akova, 2016): Advantages of Agro-tourism:  Contributes to the protection of biological diversity  Contributes to local welfare and the awareness of tourists and local inhabitants  Maintains service to small groups of tourists by small-scale enterprises  Maintains responsible behaviors of local inhabitants and tourists  Provides information about food production and natural methods  Increases interest in nature and contributes to the development of a critical stance towards modern life and modern food production methods  Leads to changes in social interaction and culture  Leads to changes in awareness of the farmers  Supports environmental regions, decreases migration and contributes to the development of infrastructure. Disadvantages of Agro-tourism:  Disobeying the routes and the instructions of the tourist guides in regions that agro-tourism is conducted.  Damage to the flora and fauna during the agro-tourism activities, mostly due to information deficits  Pollutes the environment during agro-tourism tours and causes environmental and noise pollution harming the wild animals Accommodation is secondary for agro-tourism. Tourists that stay in a luxury hotel may engage in agriculture affairs during their stay. However, this is far from developing an environment-friendly agro- tourism activity, since agro-tourism aims to enable the visitors to completely experience the farm life.

577 Therefore, the visitor should stay on a farm, and participate in daily agricultural and husbandry affairs so that they may feel as a farmer. AGRO-TOURISM AROUND THE WORLD The countries that diversify tourism activities gain a competitive advantage (Ongun, Gövdere and Kaygısız, 2015: 100). In order to maintain economic development, these countries attract tourists from other countries by using their environmental, historical and cultural values (Öztürk and Yazıcıoğlu, 2002: 184). It is estimated that future tourism will be based on natural resources even though the sea-sand-sun tourism still prevails. During the Earth Summit held in Rio in 1992, participating countries agreed on ‘Agenda 21’, which implies the development of policies in line with the national development plans and goals of the countries. One of the decisions taken at the Rio Summit was the development of agro- tourism within the context of rural tourism. The countries decided to promote non-agricultural rural economic activities, such as rural industry, textile industry, fishery and rural tourism, in order to avoid further encroachment of the marginal lands (Gündüz, 2004; Gümüş, 2015:26). Urban inhabitants, who want to escape from the problems of urban life, may change their touristic preferences and demand to have a holiday in nature. Within the context of changing touristic preferences, new plans and policies on alternative tourism destinations should be developed and applied. Although most of the countries recognize the importance and the potential of rural tourism, they do not place emphasis on gathering statistical information about rural tourism so that this important sector cannot be fully evaluated. Our understanding of the rural tourism is based on a limited number of studies on the subject (Aydın, 2012: 39-40). Based on the review of the literature, we provide information about the policies and practices of some of the countries about agro-tourism (Akça, Esengün and Sayılı, 2001: 32; Kiper and Arslan, 2007: 147; Uygur and Akdu, 2009: 156-157; Aydın, 2012: 41-42). Germany: Germany is one of the few countries that have integrated the benefits of agriculture to tourism sector and the benefits that the agricultural sector expects. With the promotion of the Federal Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Forestry in the early 1970s, interest in rural tourism, specifically agro-tourism has dramatically increased in Germany. An important number of studies on European countries have primarily focused on agro-tourism. Consequently, farms and farmers have become the focus of interest of rural tourism in the 1980s and early 1990s. Agro-tourism in Germany primarily serves the internal market and agro-tourism products are promoted by the German Agricultural Society. Since German agro-tourism enterprises provide one-to-two weeks of accommodation, this tourism type has an important market share. Agro-tourism in the country, which is heavily influenced by seasonal changes, provides income for local inhabitants and attractive facilities for urban inhabitants. United States of America: Farm markets, farm tours and half-pension accommodation facilities, which are promoted by the Cooperation Extension Offices in the USA, are provided to the visitors. The slogan “U-Pick” is used to promote agro-tourism and advertising activities are organized by the local governments. France: Not only the farms but also the Chambers of Agriculture provide accommodation facilities in France. The country has a well-developed national network of microenterprises. Green holiday resorts, and the family pensions near the regional and national parks, lakes or damns are common in the country. This tourism type, in which the local producers and the tourists meet, gives visitors the chance to taste and purchase farm products. United Kingdom: English tourists mostly prefer one-day recreational activities. Consequently, demand for the farms and rural areas either in short-term or long-term is high. The United Kingdom earns high revenue by using a very limited area of rural tourism. Spain: Rural tourism activities in Spain, which became more frequent since the 1980s, were first perceived as an opportunity for a cheap holiday. State promotions increased the quality of services and physical space of agro-tourism. The consequences were the prevention of migration from rural areas and cultural interaction between the local inhabitants and the tourists. Italy: Between 1960 and 1980, about five million rural inhabitants migrated from rural areas in Italy. In order to solve the migration problem, National Association of Agriculture and Tourism (Agriturist) was formed. The association promoted the idea of Agri-tourismo and supported the

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activities, such as rental of the rooms of farm houses and commercialization of agricultural products. These strategies contributed to the development of rural tourism since the 1980s. Currently, rural tourism activities are conducted in an area that constitutes nearly 30% of Italy. Iceland: Farm holidays are considered as a tradition in Iceland. The country provides the best examples of rural tourism accommodation facilities. Icelandic Farm Holidays Association organizes activities that are suitable to the landscape, including line fishing, horse riding or boat tours, and promotes Icelandic agro-tourism worldwide. Canada: Agro-tourism in Canada has been integrated to the traditional local culture in Evangeline region. The visitors plan their trips to observe the local culture and participate in activities of organic agricultural tourism. Poland: Farm tourism in Poland has a tradition that dates back to the 19th century. Consequently, rural tourism has been a part of the rural life and the national tourism policies. The strengths of Poland in terms of agro-tourism include authentic rural lifestyle, unpolluted natural environment and the quality of hospitality. European Center for Ecological and Agricultural Tourism of Poland serves as a non- profit, civil society organization that promotes small-scale ecological tourism in the country. Organic agricultural farms, which invite the tourists to these farms, protect the traditional lifestyle and culture. New Zealand: Tourists in New Zealand mostly prefer agro-tourism. Various regions of the country are associated with agro-tourism products, including trout, horse or regional fruits. Voluntary associations organize national festivals for exhibition of agricultural products and promote agro-tourism activities. AGRO-TOURISM IN TURKEY AND Ta Tu Ta The concept of rural tourism in Turkey mostly refers to outdoor recreational activities, including trekking and outdoor sports, and to the day trips to villages during which the tourists purchase or taste local products. Additionally, rural tourism has developed in villages nearby the ancient cities and in areas with historical and cultural beauties (Aydın, 2012: 43). Ta Tu Ta is the name of the project on “Eco-Agro Tourism and Voluntary Knowledge and Skills Exchange on Organic Farms” organized by the Association for Supporting Ecological Living, which is also known as the Buğday (Wheat) Association. The project aims to promote agriculture and sustainable development of tourism by providing financial support, voluntary labor and learning opportunities to the farmers. (Ekolojik Yaşamı Destekleme Derneği, 2016). The Ta Tu Ta system includes two types of visitors. The “voluntary” visitors provide voluntary labor during their stay whereas the “guests” pay for the service and accommodation facilities that they receive (Artuğer, Özkoç and Kendir, 2013: 2). The Ta Tu Ta system is based on voluntary knowledge and experience exchange, which links the farmers that engage in ecological agriculture and the experienced voluntary experts. The project aims to maintain material support for ecological production by the farmers, who have dedicated themselves to ecological agriculture. Besides, it supports the stay of the visitors at farm houses so that cultural exchange may be maintained and the responsibility for ecological cycle and the responsibility between the producers and consumers may increase (Ekolojik Yaşamı Destekleme Derneği, 2016). Table 2 and 3 shows the names and the regions of the eco-farms operating in Turkey within the context of Ta Tu Ta project. Table 2 shows the eco-farms operating in the Mediterranean East Anatolia Central Anatolia and Southeast Anatolia regions of Turkey. The numbers of the eco-farms operating in the Mediterranean East Anatolia Central Anatolia and Southeast Anatolia regions are 11, 6, 6 and 2, respectively. Table 3 shows the names of the eco-farms that operate in Aegean, Black Sea and Marmara regions of Turkey. The numbers of the eco-farms located in Aegean, Black Sea and Marmara regions are 24, 23 and 19, respectively. When the potential of Turkey in terms of rural tourism is considered, the total number of 91 eco-farms that operate within the context of the Ta Tu Ta project is very low. The attempts to increase the number of eco-farms and the awareness of the local inhabitants will contribute to the competitive advantage of Turkish tourism.

579 Table 2: Regional Distribution of Agro-tourism Farms in Turkey Region Mediterranean East Anatolia Central Anatolia Southeast Anatolia Ali Koçak Çiftliği Beypazarı Doğa Evi Ata'dan Çiftliği Codron Ailesi Çiftliği 1 (Tortum/ (Beypazarı/ (Bismil/ (Çakırlar/Antalya) Erzurum) Ankara) Diyarbakır) Birecik Doğa Hakan Yazıcılar Cevizbağı Çiftliği 2 Çalatlı Çiftliği (Kozan/ Adana) Evi (Birecik/ (Merkez/Kars) (Kaman/ Kırşehir) Şanlıurfa) Hüseyin Saydam Hüseyin Genç Eflatun El Bademi Çiftliği 3 Çiftliği (Pasinler/ Çiftliği (Yapraklı/ (Kaş/Antalya) Erzurum) Çankırı) Latif Yalçıner Ekotepe Ekolojik Yaşam Çiftliği Kapor Çiftliği 4 Çiftliği (Kemaliye/ (Karaisalı/ Adana) (Avanos/ Nevşehir) Erzincan) Recep Kantar Necmi Nacak Flora Akdeniz Bahçesi (Kemer/ 5 Çiftliği (Uzundere/ Çiftliği Antalya) Erzurum) (Beypazarı/Ankara) Turan Pansiyon Süleyman Orhan Hidayet Itaatlı Çiftliği (Kemer/ 6 (Uzundere/ Çiftliği (Bünyan/ Antalya) Erzurum) Kayseri) Lisinia Yaban Hayatı 7 Rehabilitasyon Merkezi (Merkez/ Burdur) Ormancı Ali Çiftliği 8 (Kadirli/Osmaniye) Rasayana Çiftliği (Geyikbayırı/ 9 Antalya) Tanal Ailesi Çiftliği 10 (Elmalı/Antalya) Vakıflı Köyü Tarımsal Kalkınma 11 Kooperatifi (Samandağ/Hatay) Source: (TaTuTa, 2016). Table 3: Regional Distribution of Agro-tourism Farms in Turkey Region Aegean Black Sea Marmara Number Adnan Erdoğan Çiftliği ve Ahmet Bağ Çiftliği Ali Taşköylü Çiftliği 1 Organikoop Permakültür (Canik/SAMSUN) (Savaştepe/ BALIKESİR) Çiftliği (Urla/İZMİR) Ali Kışlak Orman Ali Yazıcı Çiftliği (Terme/ Belentepe Çiftliği 2 (Fethiye/ MUĞLA) SAMSUN) (Osmangazi/ BURSA) Ali ve Cennet Şener Ayhan Kalalı Çiftliği (Yusufeli/ Cem Birder (Bayramiç/ 3 Çiftliği (Salihli/ MANİSA) ARTVİN) ÇANAKKALE) Ayşe-Cengiz Genç Bahri Kayıkçı Çiftliği Chevrel Traher Çiftliği 4 (Fethiye/ MUĞLA) (Şebinkarahisar/ Giresun) (Kurtköy/ YALOVA) Cevdet-Fatma Türk Bayrak Ailesi Çiftliği Dedetepe Çiftliği (Ayvacık/ 5 (Bodrum/ MUĞLA) (Gümüşhacıköy/ Amasya) ÇANAKKALE) Datça Çiftlik Evi (Datça/ Beşikçi Ailesi Çiftliği Dhara Zeytinlikleri ve 6 MUĞLA) (Çarşamba/ SAMSUN) Yağhanesi (Ayvacık/ Çanakkale) Fadime-Kaplan Zülfikargil Demirer Ailesi Çiftliği Ekodanitap (Çamlıhemşin/ 7 (Foça/ İZMİR) (Şebinkarahisar/ Giresun) RİZE)

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Gürsel Tonbul Çiftliği Fatma Gülbin (Maçahel/ Gürcan-Filiz Durmazbilek 8 (Kuşadası/ AYDIN) ARTVİN) (Avşa / BALIKESİR) İbrahim Ohan Çiftliği Hıdır Murat Bağ Çiftliği (Canik/ İstafil Bio-dinamik Tarım 9 (Datça / MUĞLA) SAMSUN) Çiftliği (Çatalca/ İSTANBUL) İmece Evi (Menemen/ Hindiba Doğa Evi (Mengen/ Jade Çiftliği (Söğütlü/ 10 İZMİR) BOLU) SAKARYA) Kargıcak Vadi Organik İsmail Taş Çiftliği (Terme/ Narköy Çiftliği (Kandıra/ 11 Tarım Çiftliği (Dalyan/ SAMSUN) KOCAELİ) MUĞLA) Knidia Çiftliği Lütfü Keçeci (Yusufeli/ Ormanevi (Biga/ 12 (Datça/MUĞLA) ARTVİN) ÇANAKKALE) Marmariç Ekolojik Macahel Pansiyon (Borçka / Ormanya Gıda Ormanı Projesi 13 Yerleşimi (Bayındır/ ARTVİN) (Ayvacık/ ÇANAKKALE) İZMİR) Mehmet Demirtaş Çiftliği Muhtarın Çiftliği (Terme/ Serim Çiftliği (Merkez/ 14 (Ağlasun/ BURDUR) SAMSUN) ÇANAKKALE) Mustafa ve Ayşe Şener Murat Kahveci Çiftliği (Terme/ Sevinç Özkaya (Bayramiç/ 15 Çiftliği (Salihli/ MANİSA) SAMSUN) ÇANAKKALE) Pastoral Vadi (Fethiye/ Mustafa Akbulut Çiftliği Şaban Burhan Çiftliği 16 MUĞLA) (Terme/ SAMSUN) (Karacabey/ BURSA) Pigs Bay Camp Ünsal Yener (Alaplı / Şebnem Eraş Köy Evi 17 (Datça/MUĞLA) ZONGULDAK) (Küçükkuyu/ÇANAKKALE) Refikler Çiftliği (Fethiye/ Yarışkaşı Konağı (Mudurnu/ Yeniköy Çiftliği 18 MUĞLA) BOLU) (Bayramiç/ÇANAKKALE) Saklı Bahçe (Fethiye/ Yavuz Özden Çiftliği Yoga Evi Çiftliği (Yalova/ 19 MUĞLA) (Şenpazar/ Kastamonu) YALOVA) Sardunya Pansiyon (Datça/ Yeşilbağ Kamping (Yusufeli/ 20 MUĞLA) ARTVİN) Sevgi Ana Çiftliği Yusuf Coşkun Çiftliği (Hemşin/ 21 (Urla/İZMİR) RİZE) Tangala Çiftliği (Fethiye/ Yüksel Baba Çiftliği 22 MUĞLA) (Merkez/SİNOP) Tangala Keçi Çiftliği Yüksel Erdoğan Çiftliği 23 (Fethiye/ MUĞLA) (Şenpazar/ Kastamonu) Yonca Lodge 24 (Fethiye/Muğla) Source: (TaTuTa, 2016). RESULTS Changes in tourist preferences as a consequence of the dynamic structure of tourism sector have resulted in the rise of new touristic products as well as changes in tourism competition. Support to mass tourism and wrong tourism policies in Turkey, a country characterized by sea-sand-sun tourism, has damaged the existing touristic resources. Besides, unconscious violation of the carriage capacity of touristic regions has amplified the negative effects of tourism. Promotion of touristic activities in rural areas as in the case of most of the developed countries, and development of environment-friendly and ecologic farm tourism are highly important for sustainable tourism development. Damage caused by natural factors or humans hinder sustainable development of tourism. In order to leave a livable environment to the next generations, environment-friendly activities should be supported and tourism should be designed according to the principles of sustainable development so that historical and natural values may be preserved. Turkey, which hosts various historical, cultural and natural attractions, have a high potential for sustainable tourism activities. However, tourism policies that promote mass tourism negatively influence these attractions in all touristic regions of the country. Mass touristic visits of the visitors, who are unaware of the importance of environmental protection, disturbs both the tourism sector and the

581 local inhabitants. The all-inclusive system further damages the touristic values. In order to maintain better usage of touristic resources, increase satisfaction levels of the tourists and the local inhabitants and maintain sustainable economic development, strategies and policies supporting agro-tourism within the context of rural tourism should be developed. Agro-tourism, which may be developed in all regions of Turkey, may decrease regional disparities in terms of development, increase tourism revenues of Turkey and income earned by the rural inhabitants, and maintain competitive advantage in a world, where touristic preferences are rapidly changing. In order to realize all these expectations, cooperation between the local inhabitants, entrepreneurs and governments should be maintained so that touristic activities may be spread throughout the year. Besides, agro-tourism should be promoted in every region. Given that the tourists that participate in agro-tourism prioritize natural life, demand holiday away from stress and wonder the farm life, it may be concluded that agro-tourism may develop without any serious efforts. In addition to the academic studies on agro-tourism, marketing and advertising efforts to promote agro-tourism will contribute the sector to realize its goals in domestic and international markets. However, we should also note that the success of agro-tourism depends on determined implementation of appropriate tourism policies. REFERENCES Akça, H., Esengün, K. ve Sayılı, M. (2001). Kırsal Alanların Kalkınmasında Kırsal Turizmin Rolü”, Standart Dergisi, Şubat 2001, 29-35 Albayrak, A. (2013). Alternatif Turizm, Detay Yayıncılık: Ankara. Artuğer, S., Özkoç, A. G. ve Kendir, H. (2013). Ta-Tu-Ta (Tarım-Turizm-Takas) Çiftliklerinin Pazarlanması ve Tanıtılması İçin Öneriler, Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi, 3(1), 1-5. Aydın, O. (2012). AB’de Kırsal Turizmde İlk 5 Ülke ve Türkiye’de Kırsal Turizm, KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 14(23), 39-46. Busby, G. ve Rendle, S. (2000), “The Transition From Tourism on Farms to Farm Tourism”, Tourism Management, 21(6), 635-642. Ekolojik Yaşamı Destekleme Derneği (2016). http://www.bugday.org/portal/projeler.php? pid=41 Web sitesinden 01.06.2016 tarihinde alınmıştır. Erdoğan, N. (2003). Çevre ve (Eko) Turizm, Erk Yayın Dağıtım: Ankara. Gümüş, M. (2015). Yerel Halkın Bakış Açısıyla Kırsal Kalkınmada Tarım Turizmi: Tekirdağ İli Örneği, Namık Kemal Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Tarım Ekonomisi Anabilim Dalı, Yayınlanmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi. GÜNDÜZ, S. (2004). “Ankara İli Kalecik İlçesinde Tarımsal Turizme Uygun Alanların Saptanması ve Tarımsal Turizm Modelinin Oluşturulması Üzerine Bir Araştırma” Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi. Kahraman, N. ve Türkay, O. (2006) Turizm ve Çevre, Detay Yayıncılık: Ankara. Kılıç, B. ve Kurnaz, A. (2010). Alternatif Turizm ve Ürün Çeşitliliği Oluşturmada Ekolojik Çiftlikler: Pastoral Vadi Örneği, İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(4), 39-56. Kiper, T. ve Arslan, M. (2007). Safranbolu-Yörükköyü Tarımsal Turizm Potansiyelinin Kırsal Kalkınma Açısından Değerlendirilmesi, Süleyman Demirel Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, A(2), 145-158. Kunasekaran, P., Ramachandran, S., Yacob, M. R. ve Shuib, A. (2011). Development of Farmers’ Perception Scale on Agro Tourism in Cameron Highlands, Malaysia, World Applied Sciences Journal 12 (Special Issue of Tourism & Hospitality): 10-18. Ongun, U., Gövdere, B. ve Kaygısız, A. D. (2015). Burdur İlinin Kırsal Turizm Potansiyelinin Değerlendirilmesi: Sorunları ve Çözüm Önerileri, Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 7(12), 99-116. Öztürk, Yüksel ve Yazıcıoğlu, İrfan (2002), Gelişmekte Olan Ülkeler İçin Alternatif Turizm Faaliyetleri Üzerine Teorik Bir Çalışma, Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 2002(2),183-195. TaTuTa, (2016). http://www.tatuta.org/?p=1&tc_aratext=&sayfa=1&sayi=81&lang=tr Web sitesinden 01.06.2016 tarihinde alınmıştır. Türkben, C., Gül, F. ve Uzar, Y. (2012). Türkiye’de Bağcılığın Tarım Turizmi (Agro-Turizm) İçinde Yeri ve Önemi, KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 14(23), 47-50. Uygur, S. M. ve Akdu, U. (2009). Çiftlik Turizmi, Kırsal, Tarım ve Ekoturizmin Kavramsal Açıdan İrdelenmesi, Ticaret ve Turizm Eğitim Fakültesi, Yıl: 2009 (1), 143-166.

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Chapter 50

Annus Fidei 2013 in Rome: An opportunity for Pilgrimage Tourism in Italy

Daniela LA FORESTA

1. EMOTION, FEELING AND IDENTITY Emotions, love, faith, fear are feelings that are becoming more and more common and evident in the current society. These dimensions have their effects also on tourism and they condition the choice of a destination, the buying process, and also on the promotion and design of local tourism offer and tourism product itself. The tourism offer is no more made only of places related to a specific landscape, to a monument rather than to a historical city centre: what becomes important in order to build a tourism product are emotions, feelings, experiences of local culture and traditions, foods and products. This new approach, more emotional than rational, together with the widespread development of global tourist flows and the growing of a more qualified tourism supply, has contributed to the increase of the demand for touristic experiences on the theme of the sacred and, therefore, it urged the academic debate in order to rationalize and give a scientific organisation to this tourist phenomenology. The scientific literature in recent years has been particularly interested in the systematization of the tourism based on faith, for someone comparable to a broader category of cultural tourism and for others, however, to be identified as an autonomous and unique phenomenon, which can be then further articulated in religious tourism and pilgrimage tourism. However, it is very difficult to make a clear distinction within the macro tourist category and have a clear identification of it. Given the overlap and interchange of roles of religious tourists, this difficulty is amplified in cases of "multilevel" destinations, like Rome, where the offer is both varied and interconnected and where, indeed, the "pilgrim tourist" can choose among a multitude of complementary products, not directly related to travel main motivation. Nevertheless, beyond the academic debate and the objective difficulty of defining and specifying the concept of tourism motivated by religion, the tourism characterized by spiritual motivations reports a strong growth and is increasingly looking to offer a structured tourist product related to specific needs. In addition to journeys organised by parish and religious communities, there are also more and more tour operators and agencies able to offer specific tourist products to these kind of demand1. The contemporary pilgrim has, in fact, enough cultural tools to appreciate additional aspects, indirectly connected to the pilgrimage and, consequently, during his journey on the footsteps of the sacred, he chooses places relevant in the context of his religious culture. His choices are the result of a process in which faith and culture are closely interconnected, which starts also, and perhaps primarily from a personal and emotional point, often long desired. The religious journey is a cultural, spiritual and educational route, aimed to rediscover the personal sense of belonging and identification to a community, through participation in the rites and in line with the deepest spiritual feelings. This perspective may lead to choose both untraditional and traditional destinations. In fact, according to recent research, "religious travellers are not only interested into the classic destinations, but they have attention to all those religious and historical events that are combined with a good quality of accommodation/reception.” As a result, the quality of travel organisation has particular importance in the evaluation of the service and, consequently, in the perspective of repeating

 Prof. Dr., Department of Political Science, University Federico II, Naples – Italy 1Several recent studies, have described the profile of religious tourists: they belong to a younger age group, they have a higher cultural profile then the national average, they are not necessarily believers they are eager to experience local gastronomic aspects, to enjoy moment of shopping and to visit the surroundings to deepen their knowledge of the area, its landscapes and other tourist resources.

583 the experience. This kind of religious journey is a way to enrich himself, so the destination is just a part of the process of inner searching that takes place, however, also beyond the journey and the specific experience; so the religious tourism supply has to be able to respond to traveller’s spiritual quest, and also to a deep desire of experiences. The scientific perspective, enables us to consider a further aspect relevant to the management process of tourist areas, especially that are characterized by important religious sites, related to relationship between real and perceived spaces. Starting from the premise that the human environment is the spatial expression of individuals' decisions and that these decisions are related to the particular perception we have of space (Gould 1966), it can be said that the tourist, and particularly the pilgrim, strongly characterized by a specific imaginary, transforms the environment by filtering it through defined subjective experiences. Tourists by faith, perhaps even more then secolar tourists, visit the places of faith bringing with them precise symbolic values, an imaginary which is the result of a system of expectations, often built from very far distances, stratified in time and amplified by the processes of digital communication (the smaller the portion of the territory is, the greater will be the influence of their own personal experience (Gould 1974). Even the very specific nature of the journey for faith and the peculiarities of the organisational factors that characterize this experience, contribute to a perception of the environment organised on mental categories, repeatedly described in literature. Consequently, more than in other travel experiences, the discovery of a territory is based on the visit of several places, carefully selected according to the religious motivation and, at first, not interested to further values that the territory expresses. Such a synthetic perception of the city, often built before the visit itself on the basis of cultural filters that act on the definition of the mental image, has to be considered equal to all other variables in the planning of tourism city in order both to respond to the several travellers demands and to orientate efficiently the spatial development of social and economic activities. 2. RELIGIOUS TOURISM AND ITALIAN PUBLIC POLICY The Italian market, by the few currently collected data, shows that in 2014 4.9% of tourists (5.5% of those Italians, 4.2% of foreign ones) has witnessed events of a religious nature in holiday destinations (about 3 million tourists), 29.3% visited cathedrals, churches and other holy places (20.1% of Italians, 39.7% of foreigners), about 18 million visitors. The main sacred sites visited were those of Lazio, Veneto and Tuscany in places where religious tourists spent an average of 7.7 nights (Italians 8.8 nights, 6.2 nights foreigners). Regarding their profiles, the limited researches until now realized, reveal a religious tourist profile less and less responding to traditional imagery. The new contemporary pilgrim holds, in facts, cultural tools to appreciate all pilgrimage's indirectly connected aspects; therefore, seeking the footsteps of the holy, chooses places where it is possible enriching sacred experience with cultural factors. The Italian tourism system has traditionally shown a disconnected approach to real market dynamics and has been often based on specific market conditions, eg poor dynamism of the competitive system and a superabundant demand; This resulted in a lack of attention to the customer, a restrict commercial attitude and a limited focus on innovation and risk. This difficulty to adapt and innovate strategies, is reflected also in difficulties for public tourism stakeholders which, frequently, are anchored in administrative / bureaucratic positions, who still find hard to imagine possible alternatives and aren't able to intercept requests and opportunities offered by new cultural and technological paradigms. With reference to religious tourism segment, despite the encouraging national and international data, confirming the positive trend in this segment, it is still not widespread perception of its specific value and of opportunities related to it. It is still retained a sparsely populated niche, except for a small number of elderly with low capacity for spending and reduced cultural interests. This approach has resulted in a lack of institutional care that is reflected on the paucity of descriptive statistical documentation of the phenomenon as well as by the absence of regional planning documents.

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However, despite delays, on the national scene are beginning to be numerous institutional portals that show a sensitivity to new communication instances. Even the perception of demand, is experiencing a peculiar transformation witnessed by online community, specific blogs and travel sites growth. Some breaking signal compared to the past are evident, probably as a result of the Jubilee of Mercy promoted by Pope Francis, who led the general public attention to the importance of religious motivation behind the trip,. We are witnessing, in fact, a sudden transition from a passive approach to a proactive one, willing to intercept new segments of tourists sensitive to this kind of tourist experience, but not yet ready to buy. The sensitivity to this thematism is relatively recent and that new awareness is shown, almost exclusively, by the increase of communication and promotion of religious routes, mainly through Internet sites. Almost all regional institutional tourist sites have, in fact, have adapted itself to the new demand by offering religious paths and walk of faith, even where the tourist offer has never shown particular sensitivity to this type tourism, mainly because absorbed by other significantly, more profitable, attractors. The adaptation of tourist portals to new instances, however, is not significant to a general change in perception and the value of the segment or the websites can be considered an efficient, only indicator to include a so widespread problem and so complex for definitional aspects: digital communication is characterized by being particularly susceptible to sense, detect and use the dynamic activity and new instances that cross the community and to adapt in real time and with a very limited economic effort its contents. Despite the introduction of new routes and destinations correlated to tourism by faith, but communication in most cases is mainly founded on a rational basis and the dissemination and promotion of the territories still it takes place through strongly linked to traditional dynamic models, characterized as liabilities, and static content, reduced range of evocative images, rare opportunity to share content or self-generation of the same and, above all, limited use of the potential of social and interaction with users. In a nut hell, emerges, a limited solicitation to the communication's lever, realized only through internet channel, while very little is done in terms of product design. Again it seems that it was not a planning effort and that the offer is limited to catalog main religious emergencies. It records, in conclusion, the absence of a planning process of building a singular memorable and unique experiences. 3. TOURISM IN ROME: PLANNING, INNOVATION NEEDS, DELAYS Within the framework of religious tourism, in particular Christian tourism, the city of Rome plays a leading role. Home to the Chair of Saint Peter (also known as the Throne of Saint Peter), Rome has always been on the must-see lists of pilgrims and tourists. At the same time, thanks to its thousand-year old history, it is a major cultural, historical and artistic tourist destination and, being the capital of Italy, it also hosts visitors for political, administrative and business purposes. According to the data provided by Euromonitor International’s Top City Destinations Ranking (Euromonitor International 2015), Rome is the third Europe’s leading city in terms of international tourist arrivals, after London and Paris, with more than 8,6 million visitors per year. Since every year huge flows of visitors chose the Eternal City as their destination, official figures for religious tourism are hard to come by. However, the significant increase in tourist arrivals to the Italian capital between 2012 and 2013 (approximately 6%), can be partially attributed to the Year of Faith. That, in addition to the charisma of the latest pontificates, from Pope John Paul II to Pope Francis, contributed to the steady increase in visitor arrivals even during the world economic crisis, in contrast with other national figures. Nevertheless, visitors’ participation in mass events of this nature, is the subject of sharp debates within both the scientific and the socio-political community; in addition to the unquestionable contribution of religious tourism, (and tourism in general) to the social and economic growth, the complex problems created by tourist flows, require alternative solutions and advanced organisation models. As we already said, Rome attracts tourists for several reasons: as capital of culture and faith, it is both a laic and a religious symbol (following the capture of Rome), where religious tourists merge with other travellers, placing firmly in the public debate and at the heart of any territorial planning action a

585 sharing issue between residents and temporary visitors and, in practice, the problem of sustainability in all its aspects. The different components of temporary mobility create a “temporary city”, which overlaps with the community of residents and has its own habits and needs, organisational arrangements and models. Such an overlapping, which is making the urban centres “besieged” by these processes gradually less liveable, poses several threats, according to Kotler et al. (2014), and could generate hidden conflicts between two opposed social structures sharing the same area. As far as Rome is concerned, the overlapping and the resulting risk of conflict are made even higher because the resident community is aware that, despite accounting for a significant percentage of local income generation, the disadvantages brought by the consumption of tourist destinations are not sufficiently compensated by benefits. A “conflict” that seems to be paradoxical, considering Rome’s strong potential for development as “open city” and a rooted hospitality values, brought about also thanks to the cultural contribution of Christian religion. Disagreement, contrast and lack of a shared vision, also characterise the relationships between local operators involved in the creation of urban products and services, despite official commitments have been made in relation to participation and shared goals and strategies. Therefore, the actual participation of all operators in charge of city organisation, transports, security, environment and/or, in general, urban services, is essential to reduce problems and intolerance. What appears very evident then, especially in comparison with other European capitals, it is the relative weakness of the Roman reception model that has left largely unheeded all the recent contributions made by the scientific reflection to better understand and manage the tourism phenomenon. This dynamic continues, and in some ways is even amplified, also with reference to religious tourism, especially during major events of Christianity, which also represent an extraordinary source of income and opportunities arising above all from international tourism expenditure. The peak evenemential represented by an event like Annus fidei, must be able to provide a stimulus for intervention in terms of active policies. However Rome, the city which is most called to articulate organizational models able to withstand this kind of pushes, lives the contradiction of being organized according to unquestioned organizational structures, not adapted to the new instances or mainly directed to a purely logistics management of the phenomenon. Therefore the Italian capital becomes an example of problems affecting all Italy, a country with long-standing tourist tradition, which is not able to convert challenges and ideas in operational tools and models. That inability is thus a crisis indicator: there is no governance model, and the case of tourism in Rome highlights the problems of the entire country in seizing innovative opportunities and passing from the old organisation and communication patterns to new forms and models of local action. In this respect, the capital of Christianity can be a huge laboratory to test innovative trends affecting the tourism industry and, in particular, religious tourism, meeting demands of spatial planning and reorganisation of the range of tourist offers– which have not been tackled yet. That means adopting a functional approach instead of a bureaucratic one, overcoming obsolete positions and defining in a clear manner shared goals and actions. 4. RELIGIOUS TOURISM AND EVENTS: ANNUS FIDEI 2013 The Year of Faith, when approximately 8,542,933 pilgrims have flocked to Rome in 2013 because of the Year of Faith proclaimed by Pope Benedict XVI to "rediscover the content of the faith professed, celebrated, lived and prayed", has forced policy-makers and local authorities to a rethinking of strategies and models of pilgrimage tourism, typically unstructured and disorganised, in order to find new destinations, new itineraries and new tools to reach and guide pilgrims in search of new routes. Many new elements have been introduced both in terms of product and process innovation. For the Year of Faith a new hospitality model has been used for the first time, which was based on a strong and innovative collaboration between Catholic and secular organisation and aimed at giving an effective response to sustainability demands made by the resident community. New language, new communication methods and a new organisation model have been included in this innovation process.

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With regard to such objectives and practical guidance, a networked structure has been proposed, in this structure Rome has played a key role, both in spatial and functional terms; the Italian capital has represented the final destination verso la quale tutti gli itinerary, relazionati tra di loro in un rapporto dialettico, convergono. The pastoral consultative body of the Peregrinatio ad Petri Sedem, infact, has set the criteria to host pilgrims during the Holy Year, defining, as far as possible, a “typical day” and “typical week” in order to give the sense of pilgrimage to visitors arrived in Italy. That implied seven religious itineraries that crossed Italy and guided pilgrims through a spiritual journey converging at the Chair of Saint Peter. That choice can be considered as the main new element: starting from the Year of Faith, and for the first time ever, In fact, it was suggested a multi-destination pilgrimage, characterized by a path whose stages are represented by regional sanctuaries and sacred places identified by bishops. This renewed focus on destinations perceived and experienced as marginal, if compared to the major destination represented by Roma, has strengthened the reputation of these sanctuaries and sacred places, reinforcing their perseptions as centres of spiritual and cultural identity. The aim of increasing awareness about the many opportunities of pilgrimage in Italy, has been partially achieved and almost all shrines have registered an increase in tourist flows. Along with religious routes laid out at national level, seven itineraries have been proposed within Rome, all converging at Saint Peter Basilica. One specialised religious tourist district has been set out and segmented by site, type and nationality of tourists. Several other districts have been created, which only sometimes cross and overlaps with each other. It must be emphasised the special attention in defining routes, the attempt to build more interconnections between itineraries in order to meet the complex needs and desires of contemporary pilgrims and to deal with their imagination and vision of sacred places. The approach used for the Year of Faith, based on the decentralisation of religious itineraries and the creation of an interregional and national hospitality network, represented a first response to the requests of local communities and operators. Anyhow, limiting the wide range of tourist destinations of a town as large as Rome within prefixed borders, however well developed and organised around the common denominator of faith, is extremely hard. For that reason, even the many itineraries singled out for the Year of Faith, have enhanced Rome’s potential only in part. Moreover, to ensure the success of the event, the role played by communication was also important. Even if focused on deep issues, closely linked to faith, communication of the event also used the great power of new media. Using a modern language, targeted on the different demographical, ethnical and social categories of users, the website managed by the Pope’s council for promotion was visited by millions of users, becoming a reference for the faithful throughout the world; moreover, social networks enabled the emotions of the event to be shared online and in real time*. An official logo** was applied on all objects and materials related to the event, and an official hymn was used, with great resonance at global level thanks to the suggestive power of the Latin refrain. Moreover, a “pilgrim’s kit”, consisting of several useful gadgets, was distributed to all pilgrims to achieve a twofold objective: on the one hand, it represented a strong identity element, and on the other hand, it was a symbol of the event to relive the emotions experienced during the pilgrimage. To conclude, we can state that the Annus fidei represented a major test for a new organisational model, designed in the attempt to combine essentially logistical issues with aspects that are closely linked to tourism and hospitality.

* The website, with more than 6 million visitors, provided information on the main events in programme and other details, also offering several operational tools for the local churches to be more involved. Some of the main innovative elements were social networks and the use of multimedia tools, which enabled those who couldn’t go to the Eternal city, to be actively involved in the event. “Anno della Fede. Parole e Immagini” (The Year of Faith. Words and Images). Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Rome 2014, page 40-41 ** The logo, selected by competition procedure, features a boat, symbolising the Church, a main mast, symbol of the cross, and the trigram of Christ.

587 CONCLUSION Italian religious tourism, especially Rome religious tourism, is strongly characterised by a dense presence of signs showing the deep roots of Christian faith; these signs are represented, in a tangible way, by the abundance of cathedrals, monuments and works of art and sanctuaries, but especially by a deeply-rooted, permeating but at the same time intangible presence of traditions and customs that continue to be alive, even in a globalised world. Rome offers the perfect match between these symbols, within a complex and many-sided context that defines the city’s uniqueness. However, despite the abundance of tourist attractions and a long- standing hospitality tradition, it has been highlighted that there are no signs of discontinuity from well- established routes and predictable, self-referential functioning rules, even in the case of events of extraordinary and exceptional nature in terms of the relationship between the organisation of geographical areas and the actual management of the tourist destinations. The Italian capital is, therefore, is a signal of the difficult situation in which is a country of ancient tourist tradition, unable to translate ideas and reflections on tools and operational models. This inability is, also, an indicator of crisis: not only lacks a governance model but, through the analysis of the Rome case, it highlights the difficulty of an entire country in intercepting innovative opportunities, operating the transition from old models of organization and to new forms of communication and territorial action options. In brief, also taking into account the long-standing interpretation of the international scientific community, a lack of communication between society and institutions has emerged, along with the inability to transform these shared and understandable demands in actual and effective local actions. These results, must urge local public authorities to carry out initiatives, together with other tourist operators’ actions, aimed at actively managing large-scale attraction events and based on well-structured and wider proposals. It cannot be denied that there is the will to participate and create, both at public and private levels, but this ideal drive, resulting from divided and not uniformly distributed demands, has to face several problems related to the enhancement, coordination and networking of such experiences. In this perspective, the capital of Christianity, can represent a huge testing ground for innovative instances crossing the sector and helping to answer the question, not currently met, of territorial reorganization and spatial function redefinition. This must mean working under a functional and non- bureaucratic approach and go over obsolete income position through a clear definition of objectives and joint actions. REFERENCES Baroni M.R. (1998) Psicologia Ambientale, Bologna, Il Mulino. Bianchi E., (1980) Da Lowenthal a Downs a Frémont: Aspetti della Geografia della Percezione, Rivista Geografica Italiana, 87. Christoffoli, A. (2012) The leisure in religious tourism: an analysis of discourses on tourism, PASOS : Revista De Turismo Y Patrimonio Cultural Volume: 10 Issue: 5 (2012-01 01) p. 595-603. Cohen, E. (1992) Pilgrimage centers. Concentric and excentric, Annals of Tourism Research, 19 (1), pp. 33- 50. Cohen, E. (1998) Tourism and religion: a comparative perspective, Pac. Tourism Rev.2, 1–10. Collins-Kreiner, N. (2010) Researching pilgrimage: Continuity and transformations, Annals of Tourism Research, 37 (2), pp. 440-456. Collins-Kreiner, N. (2010), The geography of pilgrimage and tourism: Transformations and implications for applied geography, Applied Geography, 30 (1), pp. 153-164. Costa N. (1995) Il turismo religioso, definizioni e caratteristiche, Annali Italiani del turismo internazionale 1 (2): 121-168. Digance, J. (2003) Pilgrimage at contested sites, Annals of Tourism Research, 30 (1), pp. 143-159. Downs R.M. (1970) Geographic Space Perception: Past Approaches and Future Prospects, Progress in Geography, 2, pp. 65-108. Euromonitor International (2015) Top 100 City Destination Ranking, Franceschini A. (2003) Percezione e Spazio Urbano. Teorie e Metodi per l’Analisi Percettiva dello Spazio

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Urbano in una Città Alpina: Con un Epilogo a Forma di Dialogo, Servizio Sviluppo Economico, Comune di Trento. Gould P.R., (1966) On Mental Map, Discussion Paper 9 Michigan Inter-University Community of Mathematical Geographers, Ann Arbor. Gould, P and White, R. (1974) Mental maps, Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. Kotler, P., Bowen, J.T. & Makens, J.C. (2014) Marketing for hospitality and tourism. Boston: Pearson. Nolan M. L., Nolan S. (1992) Religious sites as tourism attractions in Europe, Annals of Tourism Research, 19, (1), Pages 68–78. Olsen, D. H.(2013) A scalar comparison of motivations and expectations of experience within the religious tourism market. Int. J. Relig.Tourism Pilgrimage, 1(1), 40–61. Pontificio Consiglio Per la Promozione delle Nuova Evangelizzazione (2014) Anno della fede. Parole e immagini, Rome Puşcaşu, V. (2015) Religious tourism or pilgrimage?, European Journal of Science and Theology, 11 (3), Pages 131-142. Raj R., Nigel D. M. (eds) (2007) Religious tourism and pilgrimage festivals management: an international perspective, Oxfordshire: CABI. Rinschede, G. (1992) Forms of religious tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, 19(1), Pages 51–67. Sesana G. (2006) Pellegrini e turisti. L’evoluzione del viaggio religioso, Milano Hoepli, Turri E. (1998) Il paesaggio come teatro, Venezia , Marsilio, Wright, K. (2007) Religious Tourism, A New Era, A Dynamic Industry, Leisure Group Travel Special Edition, 8–16 November.

589 Chapter 51

Slow Food Practices in Tourism

Eda GÜNEŞ, Ümit SORMAZ, Mustafa YILMAZ

INTRODUCTION Obesity is a status that excesses the body fat and may have a negative effect on health including high blood pressure, high cholesterol, diabetes, heart disease, osteoarthritis, respiratory problems and some cancers; It is defined by genetic and environmental factors (URL1). The prevalence of obesity increased the relationship between fast food consumption during the last decades in the world (Ogden et al., 2012). Recently, new techniques and movements have been applied to prevent obesity and fast food eating habits so that one of them is the slow food movement. The slow Food movement has 100.000 members in Italy since the mid-1980s and has become an international movement in different countries around the world (Siniscalchi, 2013). By its birth, it was provided of quality food consumption (good, clean and fair food) that respected pleasure (Siniscalchi, 2013). Over the past three decades, gastronomy has become complex and important area, the movement has altered the food education, the protection of traditional local foods and the sustainability of global food chains (Van Der Meulen, 2008). The logo of this movement is shown as a snail because it moves slowly, eats calmly and leaves a trail. The intention is to change the harmful effects of an industrial food system and fast life towards the regenerative cultural, ecological, social, and economic benefits of a sustainable food system and regional food traditions (Petrini, 2003, Parkins & Craig, 2006; Petrini, 2007; Croce & Perri, 2010; Petrini, 2010; Yurtseven & Kaya, 2011). The food (culinary) culture (production and consumption) is important for the community of all knowledge tied to material and social culture. Because it is not only a food and beverage of a nation, at the same time, it is an expression method of a culture. This movement affects all sectors as it affects local tourism sector in two ways: as an alternative tourism product and contributor of the cultural sustainability. Gastronomy tourism is being developed as a new tourism product (Quan & Wang, 2004). Turkey attracts the domestic and foreign tourists’ attention that is a crossroads between different cultures and regions. Therefore, Turkish cuisine has been influenced by many different civilizations (Persian, Byzantines, Hittites, the Ottoman Empire), religions (Islamic religion, religion philosophers), geography (Arabic and Mediterranean cuisine) and living conditions (livestock farming, fishery, agriculture). Its cuisine includes local foods, regional dishes such as Kebab, Borek, Helwa, Baklava, Pilav, Dolma, lentil and offal soups and traditional dishes such as Hamsi (anchovy), Etli ekmek, Pastırma, Tarhana, Künefe, etc. (Weichselbaum et al., 2009). Turkey is among the countries living essence of the slow food movement by preserved traditional and natural feeding habits that is a remarkable destination for cultural tourists and natural gastronomy tourism. From this viewpoint, the basic aim of the study is to analyze the reflections of slow food movement on the cultural destination of local gastronomic values and usage of this potential for slow food practice. The article, based on these viewpoints, presents a case study which examines a cultural destination of local gastronomic values and usage of this potential for slow food practice. Because of the cultural identity, Konya was selected as a destination where is a cultural and religious city known as home of Rumi (religious philosopher). For this purpose, educational and industrial research was conducted. Firstly, eating habits, slow food preferences and the level of slow food knowledge of university students were assessed. The sectors of hotel and local restaurant were evaluated in terms of traditional, local and original food services as slow food cases. This study explains that how slow food movement known by the younger and tourism industry will be affected by this movement.

Assist. Prof. Dr.;  Res. Assist. Necmettin Erbakan University, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Konya,Turkey

1. SLOW FOOD MOVEMENT AND TURKEY Slow Food movement was founded against the fast life and fast food, today it has spread in over 60 countries. This movement has affected all sectors and has initiated education programs and international events (workshops, taste theatres etc). The movement has strengthened the idea that genetic and cultural heritage protection because it has been identified as relevant to their objectives that are the decrease in agro-biodiversity, loss of cultural heritage, damage to the environment, degradation of rural areas, an increase in obesity, and persisting hunger (Hulsink & Dons, 2008). In March 1999, the slow food movement known as parallel "Sefertası movement" has started in Turkey. Turkey hosted different civilizations, religions (Islamic religion, religious philosophers) and cultures; is surrounded by Central Asia, the Middle East and the Balkan region (Weichselbaum et al., 2009). The Turkish cuisine was influenced by the Persian, Byzantines, Hittites, Ottoman culture and geographic location such as the Mediterranean and Arabic (they use fruits, vegetables, fish, legumes, oils and lamb in cuisine) and the regions; the Islamic religion (some foods are forbidden such as alcohol, pork, reptiles, frogs and foxes by the Koran)(Sancar, 2005; Baysal et al., 2006). The number of supportive organizations increased in cities such as İzmir, Bursa, Ordu and Sakarya in 2007 (Karadeniz, 2013). 2. SLOW FOOD FOR EDUCATION Sensory properties (such as taste and smell) work together to interpret the characteristic of food and beverages. The Slow Food movement is believed that food is the ideal device with which to explain and promote the history and culture of a region. Because, the tastes are varied depending on the diet during the prenatal period. Everyone should have access to GOOD, CLEAN and FAIR food, therefore slow food training is given to people of all ages in various organizations. These organizations are nutrition education institutions and universities. Topics of slow food education consist of in the following: Principles and Ethos, terminology, Food Biodiversity, History of Agriculture and Food, Crop Systems, Animal Production Control, Sensory Analysis, Seeds and their origin, Local/Regional producers and products, Animal welfare, Family farming, Food waste, GMOs. Nutrition education is an important component to health and well-being. Nutrition subjects also differ in the distribution of educational, cultural perspective/approach and income among youth. The study universe of students were comprised of taking nutrition course (first group/ study; participation rate 77.17%; studying at Necmettin Erbakan University, Faculty of Tourism Gastronomy and Culinary Arts Department), and not taking the nutrition course (second group/control; participation rate of 79.17%; studying at Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Education in Buca). The study was not used any sampling method (Table 1; n=144). Permission was taken (questionnaires of nutrition and slow food awareness) from the students and the data was collected in 2014-2015 fall semester training. The questionnaires were used as data collection tool consisting of eleven closed-ended questions (prepared by modifying previous studies). For statistical analysis, percentage distributions were determined by using SPSS 17.0 software, and Chi-Square test was used to determine for between-group difference (p<0.01-0.05). Table 1. Some demographic features Taking nutrition lessons or not % Notes Gender Yes 60.6 / 39.4 (Female/Male) No 61.6 / 38.4 Department Yes 49.31 Gastronomy (n:144) No 50.69 Educational Sciences It was observed that most students (Gastronomy/educational sciences) fed by two or three repasts in a day. It was identified that 47.9-41.1% of them skip repasts (most of them skip lunch/breakfast). It was determined that two student group prefer; local products at breakfast, fast food at lunch, slops at dinner, and fresh and local products (Table 2). The first group was found sufficiently conscious about the slow food movement, but the second group wasn't. In addition; there were significant differences between the two groups in participation levels of slow food knowledge (p<0,01).

591 Table 2. Nutrition and food preferences of students Taking nutrition course (n=71) Not (n=73) % S.D. % S.D. χ2 p How many times do you eat in a day? Two main meals 46.5 34.2 Three 35.2 49.3 <0,00 0.935 0.758 62.611 Four 9.9 13.7 1 Five and above 8.5 2.7 Do you skip repasts? Yes 47.9 41.1 <0,00 No 38.0 0.716 41.1 0.736 20.042 1 Sometimes 14.1 17.8 If yes, which one? Breakfast 25.4 32.9 <0,00 Lunch 32.4 1.240 21.9 1.324 38.500 1 Dinner 4.2 4.1 Breakfast preferences Local products 84.5 72.6 132.87 <0,00 Snack products 9.9 0.736 17.8 0.914 5 1 Other 5.6 9.6 Lunch preferences Fast food 33.8 57.5 Regional 7.0 6.8 <0,00 1.219 1.125 44.000 Slops 22.5 24.7 1 Other 36.6 11.0 Dinner preferences Fast food 2.8 5.5 Regional 23.9 30.1 109.38 <0,00 0.646 0.708 Slops 63.4 56.2 9 1 Other 9.9 8.2 Choice of fresh and seasonal products Yes 77.5 74.0 207.22 <0,00 No 4.2 0.785 2.7 0.944 2 1 Sometimes 18.3 23.3 The level of Slow food awareness Yes 56.3 20.5 0.470 0.407 18.778 <0,01 No 43.7 79.5 3. SLOW FOOD IN THE TOURISM SECTOR Konya is a cultural and religious city for many tourists especially in the context of whirling dervishes and for its glamorous Seljuk architecture in Turkey. Mevlana Celalettin Rumi was a philosopher and pioneer of indulgence of 13th century who taught us how to reach happiness and love. He settled in Konya known as home of Rumi. Rumi's opinions impressed too many people around the world. Traditional Turkish cuisine has been influenced by Mevlawiya or Rumi movement that includes fresh, healthy food and an atmosphere filled with hospitality. Konya is a slow destination in Turkey because the thoughts of Rumi (especially it is fresh) are similar to the slow food movement. Regional/local cuisine usually refers to traditional food stuff and gastronomy with special characteristics that are linked to a well-defined area or town of origin (Barham, 2003; Pacciani, 2006; Hulsink & Dons, 2008). The cuisine of the city mainly depends on wheat or bread because the Central Anatolian steppe is significant for agricultural products. Traditional dishes include; sort, long and thin bread with meat or cheese called Etliekmek, special kebap known as Tirit (URL2). Konya hotels and local restaurants were evaluated in terms of traditional, local and original food services as slow food cases via qualitative research methods that are used in more exploratory research design (Gegez, 2005). There are operating three five-star hotels and eight four-star hotels in Konya

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(TUROB, 2014). The universe of tourism sector was composed of five and four-star hotel enterprises and touristic restaurants in Konya. Interview and participatory observation methods were used and semi-structured interview technique (included seven question) was applied for data collection. These questions were developed according to the slow food criteria which were prepared on the basis of previous scientific research (Hulsink & Dons, 2008; Sırım, 2012; Sezgin & Sarıkaya, 2013). The hotel staff (head chefs, managers) and restaurant staff (head chefs, owners, headwaiters and customers) experts and customers (foreign tourists) were interviewed to get information about traditional food production and usage of this as a touristic asset. Three foreign tourists were interviewed to understand customers' menu assessment, totally twenty-one interviews were conducted by randomly selected visitors in February-April 2014. The obtained data was evaluated statistically via SPSS 17.0 software. Additionally, the researchers acted as a customer for observing the demands and orders of restaurant customers. The data was evaluated as a result of interviews and observations by descriptive analysis method. For statistical analysis, percentage distributions were determined by using SPSS 17.0 software, and Chi-Square and Kruskal Wallis tests were used to determine for between three groups difference (p<0.1-0.05). Results from interviews and observations conducted during the fieldwork in Konya have shown that the international cuisine in five-star hotels and traditional cuisine in the touristic restaurants have been preferred by tourists (Table 4). Frozen products are generally used as a preferred international cuisine in five-star hotels. It is observed that designing menu of restaurants with local and traditional dishes are unique for the customers who wish to taste the flavors. Banquette menu has shown that it includes the regional/local food which plays a major role in people's eating habits and preferences. On the other hand, tourists take interest in cultural, environmental, historical values of the region. Table 4. Service methods used in tourism enterprises and use of products. Rate of Percentage (%) Factors 4 star hotels (n:8) 5 star hotels (n:3) Touristic restaurants (n:4) A'la carte Buffet Banquette A'la carte Buffet Banquette A'la carte Buffet Banquette Use of local/regional 50 50 100 30 70 100 100 ------products Table 5. The evaluation of interviews and observations menus. The percentages of the data were calculated by the SPSS 17.0 software. 4-star 5-star Touristic Factors hotels (n:8) hotels (n:3) restaurants (n:4) χ2 Sig. pa % S.H. % S.H. % S.H. Use of fresh products Yes 70 80 83.3 0.153 0.200 0.167 0.400 1.000 >0,05 No 30 20 16.7 Use of seasonal Yes 70 40 83.3 0.153 0.245 0.167 2.286 0.420 >0,05 products No 30 60 16.7 Use of traditional Yes 70 40 100 0.153 0.245 0.167 4.600 0.092 <0,1 cuisine No 30 60 0 Use of fast food Yes 30 60 16.7 0.153 0.245 0.167 2.286 0.414 >0,05 No 70 40 83.3 Use of regional Yes 40 20 83.3 0.163 0.200 0.167 4.600 0.083 <0,1 cuisine No 60 80 16.7 Use of international Yes 60 80 16.7 0.163 0.200 0.167 4.600 0.081 <0,1 cuisine No 40 20 83.3 a Kruskal Wallis test was used The tourists have traditional, regional and fresh food requests at the hotels and restaurants, we have seen less demand for fast food and international food in regional business. Culinary applications have been maintained originally at the hotel enterprises and restaurants in Konya. There were significant differences between the responses of businesses to six and seventh questions (Table 5; p<0,1).

593 4. DISCUSSION Slow Food is a movement that expresses the following; taking ownership for local tastes, respecting nature, comfortable and healthy eating, knowing what you eat, and taste of food. Good, fair and clean food means; tasty and pleasurable, produced without harming the environment and human health, to be available for the consumers by protecting their labor in the movement (Sırım, 2012). In addition, it is known that the use of seasonal food increases eating instinct under any conditions and how they are produced. It is emphasized in many studies that different gastronomic cultures should not be destroyed in the countries where the traditional food product, meals (cuisine culture) are nearly on the edge of danger of extinction and being replaced with the fast ones (Weichselbaum et al., 2009; Sırım, 2012). Traditional and local food are the elements experienced by past generations' knowledge and having a unique economic potential and improving the ethic tourism with cultural and historical artifacts. Thus, by these local and regional applications, it is provided that the cultural heritage to be recognized (Belluso & Capacci, 2014). Slow Food movement influences local tourism and gastronomic initiatives one of the destination is Turkey-in the world. Konya, the cradle of civilization, is a gastronomic center of gravity. The hotels and restaurants in Konya receive tens of thousands of international gastro-tourists who come to the area and the local governments are supporters of this event. The results from the case study point out that gastronomy and culture are considerable for tourism destinations and the development of qualified tourism as in other studies (Heitmann et al., 2011; Yurtseven & Kaya, 2011; Görkem & Öztürk, 2014). Turkey has many hotels and restaurants benefiting from the traditional, regional and international cuisine not only in Konya but also in many other cities (Sezgin & Sarıkaya, 2013). As a result of the interviews, local and traditional knowledge are identified as the strengths of the region, the tourists determined to prefer traditional food instead of fast food and international food at the restaurants. Among young people, taking nutrition education or not , it was observed that two groups didn't pay attention to nutrition. It was seen that the similar results in previous studies (Sezek ve ark., 2008). The first group was found sufficiently conscious of the perception but there were deficiencies in practice, in the second group was obviously not conscious enough about the slow food movement. In this respect, awareness of the slow food in tourism sector should be raised awareness of the slow food in the tourism sector; It is necessary to increase the level and application of information about the local products by taking nutrition course (Related to tourism and gastronomy) or not (in all fields). The sectoral awareness should be created via the education. CONCLUSION The role of food in determining the demand for tourism has rarely been estimated, although culinary supply definitely affects tourists’ decisions (Belluso & Capacci, 2014). The aim of this study is to detect this movement awareness among young people, to determine slow food applications and to create awareness in Konya’s tourist sites. It is stated that slow food movement in the same direction of healthy nutrition not only will provide the differentiation of university students’ nutrition perceptions by consuming local food and products but also cultural heritage will be conserved by means of local tastes prominence. The gastronomic values can be utilized for tourism and slow food movement. According to the results, despite having the awareness of slow food among students, there was deficiencies in practice; local and traditional culinary applications have maintained originally and the slow food applications have increased awareness but more studies need to be conducted in order to put gastronomy tourism in a better position in Konya. and we need to answer the following questions for the development of gastronomy tourism. So we can support the local tourism and economy;  What we can do to make more informed youth,  How we can improve, teach and promote the slow food knowledge in Konya,  How we can promote the regional food and products,  How we can improve Konya’s Cuisine and introduce Konya’s Cuisine to gastronomy literature around the world.

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REFERENCES Barham, E. (2003), Translating terroir: the global challenge of French AOC labeling. Journal of Rural Studies, 19 (1), pp. 127-138. Baysal, A.; Merdol, T.K.; Tasci, N.C.; Sacir, F.H.; Başoğlu, S. (2006), Samples from Turkish cuisine. Food Safety Department, Community Nutrition Division, Ministry of Health, Republic of Turkey, Ankara. Belluso, R.; Capacci, S. (2014), Almatourism, Journal of Tourism, Culture and Territorial, Food between Tourism and Life Quality, EXPO 2015. Croce, E.; Perri, G. (2010), Food and Wine Tourism. Cambridge: CAB International. Gegez, A. E. (2005), Pazarlama Araştırmaları. Beta Basım Yayım A.Ş., İstanbul. Görkem, O.; Öztürk, Y. (2014), Gastronomic Reflections of Cittaslow Movement on Local Cuisine: The Case Study of Seferihisar (İzmir, Turkey). TURIZAM, 18 (1), pp.11-21. Heitmann, S.; Robinson, P.; Povey, G. (2011), Slow Food, Slow Cities and Slow Tourism. In P. Robinson, S. Heitmann, & and P. Dieke (Eds.), Research Themes for Tourism, UK: CAB International, pp.114-127. Hulsink, W.; Dons, H. (2008), Pathways to High-tech Valleys and Research Triangles: Innovative Entrepreneurship, Knowledge Transfer and Cluster Formation in Europe and the United States, Springer , pp. 225-247. Karadeniz, C.B. (2013), Sürdürülebilir turizm bağlamında sakin şehir Perşembe. Uluslararası Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 7 (29). Ogden, C. L.; Carroll, M.D.; Kit, B.K.; Flegal, K.M. (2012), Prevalence of Obesity in the United States, 2009– 2010. NCHS data brief no 82. Pacciani, A. (2006), Guida per la valorizzazione dei prodotti tipici: concetti, metodi e strumenti. ARSIA, Florence. Parkins, W.; Craig, G. (2006), Slow Living. Oxford: Berg. Petrini, C. (2003), Slow Food: The Case for Taste. New York Chichester, West Sussex: Columbia University Press. Petrini, C. (2007), Slow Food Nation: Why Our Food Should Be Good, Clean, and Fair. New York: Rizzoli Ex Libris. Petrini, C. (2010), Terra Madre: Forging a New Global Network of Sustainable Food Communities. USA: Chelsea Green Publishing. Quan, S.; Wang, N. (2004), Towards a structural model of the tourist experience: an illustration from food experiences in tourism. Tourism Management, 25, pp. 297-305. Sancar, F.H. (2005), Turkey; The tastes of a splendid heritage. In: Culinary cultures of Europe. Identity, diversity and dialogue (C Goldstein and K Merkle, eds). Council of Europe Publishing, Verlagsgruppe Lübbe, Germany, pp. 443-457. Sezek, F.; Kaya, E.; Doğan, S. (2008), Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Genel Beslenme Alışkanlıkları, Katkılı Besinler Hakkındaki Bilgi, Görüş ve Tutumları. Çankaya Üniversitesi Fen-Edebiyat Fakültesi Journal of Arts and Sciences, 10: 117. Sezgin, M.; Sarıkaya, B. (2013), An Innovative Approach in Tourism Sector: Slow City, an Application in Konya (Turkey). Journal of Advanced Management Science, 1(1). Siniscalchi, V. (2013), Environment, regulation and the moral economy of food in the Slow Food movement, pp. 295-305. Sırım, V. (2012). Çevreyle Bütünlesmis Bir Yerel Yönetim Örneği Olarak “Sakin şehir” Hareketi ve Türkiye’nin Potansiyeli. Tarih Kültür ve Sanat Arastırmaları Dergisi, 1 (4). TUROB (Ministry of Culture and Tourism)(2014), İstanbul Turizm İstatistikleri, Ocak-Haziran 2014, İstanbul il Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü, http://www.turob.com/tum_haberler.aspx. URL1: WPO (2015) http://www.obesityaction.org/understanding-obesity/obesity URL2: WPO (2015) http://en.wikivoyage.org/wiki/Konya Van Der Meulen, H. S. (2008), The emergence of slow food. In W. Hulsink & H. Dons (Eds), Pathways to high- tech valleys and research triangles: Innovative entrepreneurship, knowledge transfer and cluster formation in Europe and the United Sstates. Dordrecht: Springer. Weichselbaum, E.; Benelam, B.; Costa, H.S. (2009), Traditional Foods in Europe. The European Food Information Resource (EuroFIR), Synthesis Report No 6. Yurtseven, HR.; Kaya, O. ( 2011), Slow Tourists: A Comparative Research Based on Cittaslow Principles. American International Journal of Contemporary Research, 1 (2).

595 Chapter 52

Ecotourism Entrepreneurship, the Features of Ecotourism Entrepreneurshıp, Problems and Solutions

Murad Alpaslan KASALAK*, Zeki AKINCI, Gülseren YURCU*

INTRODUCTION Today the Tourism has important place inter-communal relations, contribute to the development of peace and brotherhood in the society and is seen as a sector which integrative effect. This positive effects will become more meaningful with diversification of tourism activities and accessing to large audiences. Therefore, to diversify tourism and to benefit people more easily will be held by entrepreneurs in the tourism sector. Entrepreneur is interpreted heroism, taking risks, make money, individuality concepts such as related to each other. In the academic literature entrepreneurship is considered as connected with having a small business and managing the sector (Taylor & Walley, 2003). Although, entrepreneurship has a lot of definitions, the common issue is “to see opportunities that others look but couldn`t see and convert them a business idea” and “a tendency to take risks”. Entrepreneur is a person who brings production factors such as natural resources, capital and labour together and activate them by taking risk for to produce good and service. Entrepreneurship can be defined activities that related to bring capital, natural resource and labour together for to produce good and service also to evaluate opportunities in the market by having an idea. (Tekin, 2009). The first stage of entrepreneurial action is considered venturing request. By the aime of developing entrepreneurship theory, researchers need to understand the factors that affect the entrepreneurial desire of people who access to entrepreneurial activities for the first time. Factors that affects entrepreneurship consists of combination of personal characteristics and trends, personal back ground (education, culture, etc.), and personal touch (McGee, Peterson, Mueller & Squeira, 2009). Entrepreneurship that considered emphasizing thinking type which drawing attention to the importance of opportunities and a planned type of behavior, is accepted by many economists and behavioral scientists, in terms of an effective role like politicians in society (Krueger, 2000). Tourism is one of the sectors which have more intense pressure on entrepreneurs. In the regional and global development of tourism with its dynamic and continously variable structure, entrepreneurship is a critic factor. ECOTOURISM ENTREPRENEURSHIP Ecotourism as a form of tourism, is an important concept of to ensure sustainability and attractiveness of tourism. Developing in 1990 as a response to mass tourism the concept of ecotourism contains rural and cultural tourism elements and it is most appropriate type of tourism that can be developed in sensitive natural and cultural areas. In the face of growing environmental and social devastation of uncontrolled mass tourism, Ecotourism is regarded as an important tool in ensuring sustainable development (Arslan, 2005). The term ecotourism was introduced in 1983 by Hector Ceballos-Lascurain and ecotourism is defined as knowing the value of nature and enjoyment of nature. Today, one of the most widely accepted and best known first definition of ecotourism is the definition of International Ecotourism Society (UET) in 1991 as; "Protection of the environment and the local population in order to improve the welfare of environmentally sensitive trips to natural areas" (Demir & Çevirgen, 2006). When taken in the context of tourists` demands the objectives of ecotourism are respecting and

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Tourism Faculity, Recreation Management, Antalya  Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Tourism Faculity, Tourism Management, Antalya

appreciating nature and knowing value of nature as seen in many definitions of ecotourism. In this context, ecotourism is expressed with different names such as ecotourism, nature-based tourism, soft tourism, special interest tourism, green tourism, responsible tourism, alternative tourism, cultural tourism, study tourism and adventure tourism. The common denominator of these concepts are being alternative to mass tourism and to act sensitively to humans and environment that are fundamental reason of tourism (Küçükaslan, 2007). 2002 has been declared as the year of ecotourism and the mountains by the World Tourism Organization (WTO) and the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP).It was prepared with the intention of decreasing negative effects of tourism on socio-cultural and natural life also to ensure development of region and raise awareness of local people with contribution economically to regions where natural and cultural resources gathered (Akpınar & Bulut, 2010). Ecotourism, in Turkey in recent years often come on the agenda, but is considered only highland tourism. However, eco-tourism that must be considered as a whole, is an activity that involves many activities in large space such as socio-cultural actions. Referred to by different names, ecotourism is seen as a structure in rural tourism. Therefore, ecotourism entrepreneurship includes rural tourism entrepreneurship as character. After the recession of traditional rural agricultural economy, alternative tourism has been considered to be one of the sources of economic income and has been raised as a solution of socio-economic issues of rural areas. Due to its contribution to the rural economy and development both state and non-governmental organizations are increasingly interested in rural tourism. On the other hand, the longing of rural life, a result of the pressures of increasing urbanization, growing organic food market, and also factors such as the desire to preserve traditional rural life have all contributed to the demand for rural tourism. After all, in conjunction with different exhibit structures in different countries, rural tourism has become an important part of the tourism sector in many countries. It has been argued that making solution to region`s socio-economic problems depends on the participation of indigenous peoples in rural tourism activities. the main features of successful examples in a study of rural tourism development, Wilson and others highlighted the importance of local tourism entrepreneurs participation in the common development. According to the results of this study are the basic features allowing to obtain successful results: "The development of compounds tourism product, finding the local leadership structure, the contribution and participation of local governments, coordination and cooperation of entrepreneurs and businessmen with local leaders, tourism development and technical support, and information systems for the introduction and widespread local community support." As a result of features that they determine, authors have argued that the development of rural tourism must be based on the local community, but draws attention to the challenges of organizing and the solidarity and cooperation among local people have expressed the need for work in this area (Ertuna, Güney, Güven, & Aydemir, 2012). Rural Tourism is a kind of tourism that people go to rural settelments for a day or stay here to see combination of different cultures or to relax in natural surrondings. And this kind of tourism took place with seeing and participating in indigenous activities. The people who perform entrepreneurial activity in this tourism is defined as ecotourism entrepreneur or rural entrepreneurs. Models situated in a rural tourism entrepreneurship include:  Local restaurant management.  Paintball facility  Sportive fishing facility  Hobby Gardens Facility  Horse riding Facility  Adventure Park Facility  Rafting ( rubber boat and canoe management)  Rural hostels, hotels and ecological farms plants  Certified, controlled hunting area management (Zurnacı, 2012). Among this type of entrepreneurship, rural guesthouses, hotels and ecological farms entrepreneurship is growing in number and draw attention today. Conducted on these farms as tourism

597 associated with ecotourism in order to show the texture of the natural countryside and cultural production without harming the environment, in addition to the barn of the farm with its houses, hedges with the traditional architecture and physical texture that it has. The region needs to continue the unique countryside tissue. One of the most important objectives of this form of tourism farms are already made in providing financial support to local people i, which is one of the features of ecotourism. In addition to agricultural production on farms, tourism services are also provided, allows farmers to create economic alternatives through supplement their income (Yılmaz, 2008). Ecotourism farms gives opportunities such as participating in outdoor activities, accommodation and catering facilities, food and beverage opporunities to guests that making daily visits there or living for a while and want tos hare farm living, In addition, company’s primary business are agriculture and livestock farm (Tekin & Kasalak, 2013). Giving tourism services besides agricultural production in farms with supporting incomes, helps farmers to create economic alternatives (Yılmaz, 2008). This kind of entrepreneurial activity in enterprises offering accommodation to tourists is expressed as ecological hotel or a farm enterprise. Ecological hotel entrepreneurs are entrepreneurs who have different characteristics from other types of entrepreneurs. Features of Ecotourism Entrepreneurship Entrepreneurship has become the focus of attention of many researchers because it creates a sense of individual and social welfare. Research conducted in the field of entrepreneurship has been looking for answers to these questions: Why do some people have the ability to seeing the new opportunities or crucial, while others have not such a feature? Why do some people convert business ideas or dreams into a real business while others can not do it? Why do some entrepreneurs are successful while others fail (Baron, 1998). The main answer is the behavior of entrepreneurial orientation. Called Entrepreneurial orientation or intrapreneurship dimensions of these factors emerges as the factors that determine the success of ecotourism entrepreneurs as well as in other types of entrepreneurs. For example, while an entrepreneur can enlarge his or her business phisically without thinking about various factors, primarily environmental factors and mainly thinking about profit and economic growth, this doesn`t appy to ecotourism entrepreneurs. Because an ecological hotel or farm must incorporate all or a portion of factors such as disposal of solid and liquid wastes separated from the produced by the organic agricultural and animal products to be organic to the customer and submission of the enterprise that are used within the materials (Towels, sheets, mevresim etc.) ecological building according to the architectural operator is used and rate is approximately less than a third the land where natural materials, stone, wood, contain elements such as brick, finally will use sustainable energy from sources of energy. It is not possible, ecotourism entrepreneurs act comfortable like normal entrepreneur in terms of environment. Shaping occupational structure of more ecotourism farms like husbandry and farming by the locals and being land or building in inner parts more than coastal parts show that there is less to be spent on costs of capital. In other word, establishing ecotourism farm is realized with less capital. One other feature of ecotourism entrepreneurs is that operate despite acting in rural areas, their high level of education and to constantly improve themselves and to be open to learning. The education high levels of visitors are and being in the middle age and consumer group, are among the distinctive features of visitor group. (Kılıç & Kurnaz, 2010). High education level of ecotourists leads to develope ecotourism entrepreneurs themselves. Another seperate feature of ecotourism entrepreneurs is with presentations of local products and introducing these products to the customers they provide continuity of local values and socio-cultural elements. According to Yilmaz (2008), each of farms are farms that don`t lose traditional texture of regions where they locate and almost all are operated by people who are able to transmit values to the next generation.

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Problems and Solutions of Ecotourism Entrepreneurship We are faced with various problems in many entrepreneurial activity in most sectors today. Tourism sector is also experiencing some problems and these problems also affect entrepreneurial activity. The disadvantages of Turkish tourism in the implementation of sustainable tourism are:  Development of infrastructure and quality of service and is unable to respond to the needs arising from the rapid growth of demand in the support sector,  The deficiencies of tourist health and trust,  Irregular and uncontrolled tourism and commercial activities in the country caused disorders in product quality and,  Disabilities in gaining operationality on Strategic Marketing Management  Seasonality and low capacity utilization,  İnsufficient foreign investments in publicity,  Local governments and showing insufficient interest in tourism by public.  Because of the lack of research on the marketing and tourism supply is characterized by difficulties in taking strategic decisions (Altan, 2006). These disadvantages also adversely affect ecotourism in Turkey. Like other tourism entrepreneurs, ecotorism entrepreneurs are also affected these elements and face with the entrepreneurs problems. As in most sectors, the main problems in the field of ecotourism is training. Although The education level of ecotourism entrepreneurs in our research may seem high, staff who work alongside entrepreneurs are people who live in rural areas of ecotourism, and considering the lack of adequate training and the entire basis of farming in Turkey ecotourism entrepreneurs are not at the level of adequate training. In addition, while in some studies emphasize importance of giving entrepreneurship education in early ages, giving this study only in undergraduate and graduate levels in Turkey, makes lack of entrepreneurship education in ecotourism entrepreneurs. One of the problems ecotourism entrepreneurs faced is a lack laws and regulations aimed at ecotourism. Therefore, It is required to prepare a national ecotourism strategy supported by laws and regulations. In many academic studies have touched on the importance of the national strategy. Supported by all stakeholders, regional, multi-dimensional sustainability strategy is required. Another challenge is the lack of tax exemptions and various incentives in the sector of ecotourism. Also the lack of publicity and lack of outdoor activities are one of the problems in ecotourism. One of the most important weaknesses of ecological farms is that there are not enough of the introduction activities. The number of agencies and ecotourism tours must be enhanced and ecotourism entrepreneur`s participation should be promoted in international fairs and other events. The features that should be in a good ecotour include the following;  It should be provided enough information about the surroundings and the culture of the place.  Visitors will be recommended about dress and appropriate behavior, orally before the tour and in wrighting during the tour.  When tourists arrived at the destination, a detailed briefing about environment, geographical, social and political characteristics should be offered.  The duration of the trip should be provided with comprehensive counseling services with well- trained local guides.  It should be given to local people not only commercially shopping and buying in the sense of communication, but also a chance to provide interaction between them.  It should be provided the opportunity to learn. recognition of everyday life and traditions of the local people.  It should be offered opportunities to provide support to local NGOs.  It must provided full payment of the entry fee in visited all the parks and archaeological areas.  It must be provided accommodation that compatible with the region. (Demir & Çevirgen, 2006). Outdoor activities offered on ecotourism farms are associated generally with participation of tourists in farm activities, and other outdoor activities are insufficient. Considering that Tourists staying in holiday farms, may be reluctant to spend all of their time on the farm, outside of historic and cultural facilities in the surrounding area, it should be offered a variety of outdoor activities based on education

599 such as local crafts, wildlife observation and surroundings tours such as horse trekking, nature walks, bike tours, nature tours that leisure activities for tourists with evaluating natural attractiveness. (Yılmaz, 2008). The Future of Ecotourism Entrepreneurship Ecotourism is one of the fastest growing type of tourism. Especially, for more than 10 years it has become quite a popular tourist cultivar in the travel industry. In the early 1990s by 20%-30% with an annual growth rate of ecotourism or nature-based tourism, has grown 3 times faster in 2004 than tourism industry (Yılmaz, 2008). A growing sector ecotourism, provides an opportunity to create economic benefits and promotion in terms of countries. In terms of increased tourism revenues and the country's promotion, ecotourism will be an important value for Turkey. In terms of coastal tourism for mass tourism, Turkey is in 6th place between countries that touristis prefere, but in terms of tourism incomes Turkey is in 12th place. This situation shows that low-income tourists come in Turkey. As we have mentioned in the previous sections, to attract eco-tourists with a high income level will increase tourism revenues. Due to difficulties encountered in the agricultural sector in Turkey, many family farmers are in search of younger generation for outside agriculture working. The development of holiday farm diversification strategies as such will be able to resolve the problem of employment in largely taking place in rural areas. Ecotourism will also create additional income for families affected by fluctuations in the agricultural sector. Obtaining economic income of rural areas, blocking the migration which is another problem will enable regional development. As mentioned in the features of the ecotourism initiative, ecotourism creates an opportunity for women entrepreneurs in rural areas. In terms of coastal tourism, diversification of service we are next to almost to the end point, it is not the same case in terms of ecotourism businesses. To increase the variety of services using environmental factors is easier in terms of ecotourism businesses. For example, coastal tourism businesses provide a variety of services by a new waterslide in the pool strive, while ecotourism business can show a variety of services, such as making butter churns, a new safari routes, creating a natural pool with using creek near the business, producing flour in the windmill. These factors are increasing interest to ecological farms called as ecotourism business in many countries, especially in Turkey. establishment in remote rural areas and requiring not very large capital cost during the installation stage are seen as an advantage in terms of expansion of ecotourism farm entrepreneurship. However, the parallel nature and environmental awareness with the world, increased interest in organic and local products, Culture and Tourism prepared by the Ministry of Tourism Strategy of Turkey in 2023 also to determine as some areas of ecotourism. In Turkey, ecotourism both state and will further complimented by individuals indicate that increased incentives for the future of ecotourism and ecotourism market will grow. In short, entrepreneurship is an entrepreneurial type of ecotourism with bright future. REFERENCES Akpınar, E. & Bulut, Y. (2010). Ülkemizde Alternatif Turizmin Bir Dalı Olan Ekoturizm Çeşitlerinin Bölgelere Göre Dağılımı ve Uygulama Alanları. III. Ulusal Ormancılık Kongresi, Bildiriler Kitabı, s. 1575-1594. Altan, Ş. (2006). Türkiye’de Ekoturizm Uygulamaları ve Ekonomiye Katkıları. Niğde: Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Niğde Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Arslan, Y. (2005). Erdek ve Çevresinin Ekoturizm Açısından Değerlendirilmesi. Balıkesir Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 8(13), 29-53. Baron, R. A.(1998). Cognitive Mechanisms in Entrepreneurship: Why and When Entrepreneurs Think Differently Other People. Journal of Business Venturing,(13),70-86. Demir, C. & Çevirgen, A. (2006). Ekoturizm Yönetimi. Nobel Yayın Dağıtım. İzmir. Ertuna, B.; Güney, S.; Güven, Ö.; Aydemir, N. (2012). Yerel Halkın Kırsal Turizm Gelişimine Katılma İsteğini Etkileyen Unsurlar: Kastamonu Örneği. Uluslararası Sosyal ve Ekonomik Bilimler Dergisi, 2(2), 59-66. Kılıç, B. & Kurnaz, A. (2010). Alternatif Turizm ve Ürün Çeşitliliği Oluşturmada Ekolojik Çiftlikler: Pastoral Vadi Örneği. İşletme Araştırmaları Dergisi, 2(4), 39-56.

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Krueger, Jr.; Norris F.; Reilly, D.; Michael, C.; Alan, L. (2000). Competing Models of Entrepreneurial Intentions, Journal of Business Venturing, 15(5-6). Küçükaslan, N. (2007). Özel İlgi Turizmi. Ekin Basın Yayın Dağıtım. Bursa. McGee, J. E.; Peterson, M.; Mueller, S. L.; Sequeira, J. M. (2009) Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy: Refining The Measure. Enrepreneurshıp Theory and Practice, Baylor University, 965-988. Taylor, D. & Walley, L. (2003). The Green Entrepreneur: Visionary, Maverick or Opportunist. Manchester Metropolitan University Business School Working Paper Series . Oxford Tekin, M. (2009). Girişimcilik Hayallerin Gerçeğe Dönüşümü.Günay Ofset Matbaacılık. Konya. Tekin, M. & Kasalak, A. M.(2013). Yeni Bir Girişimcilik Eğilimi: Ekoturizm Çiftlik Girişimciliği, Uluslararası Girişimcilik ve Kariyer Sempozyumu, 1-3 Kasım 2013, Muğla, Bildiri Kitabı, s. 381-390. Yılmaz, H. (2008). Turizm Çeşitlendirilmesi Kapsamında Ekoturizmin Ürünü Olarak Tatil Çiftlikleri: Türkiye’deki Tatil Çiftliklerine Yönelik Swot Analizi. Afyon: Doktora Tezi, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Zurnacı, N. (2012). Kısal Turizmde; Girişimcilik ve Örgütlenme. KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 14(23), 65-70.

601 Chapter 53

Approach of the Young to Eco-Gastronomy: The Case of Turkish Cuisine

Onur GÖRKEM, Murat BAYRAM, Serkan BERTAN and Ümmühan BAYRAM

INTRODUCTION While all production, preparation and presentation stages of food and drinks from the field to the table are subjects of gastronomy, preparation and presentation of food items produced by conventional techniques taking protection of environment and human health in account are considered subjects of eco-gastronomy. Accordingly, eco-gastronomy focuses on the sustainability of agricultural applications using natural production methods and conventional nutrition habits. As every living being, human beings need energy for the continuity of their vital functions, and nutrition in order to provide this energy. This need has been met with hunting and gathering activities for a long time. Along with sedentism, the first agricultural activities have been initiated, and hunting and gathering have lost their impact as centuries old nourishment methods. Within the historical process, the variety and amount of the products produced as a result of agricultural activities have seen significant progress, and food items have become fundamental trade elements. Especially the increase in non-agricultural population resulting from intense urbanization has speeded up this process. In consequence of the above mentioned developments, classical agricultural activities of thousands of years were transformed with the use of chemical fertilizers during 1700s and this caused chemical and biological balance deterioration in agricultural soils. Vegetation balance in these soils also deteriorated and vegetation became less resistant against diseases and pests. To counter this consequence, chemical preparations against disease and pests started to be developed. With the use of these chemicals, agricultural productivity has seemingly increased, however, the use of chemicals have increased and spread further with the trend of mass production and low costs in the globalizing world. Following the industrial revolution, on the other hand, an agricultural approach of industrial production (conventional) has been adopted instead of traditional agriculture, exploiting the nature. The trend which started off with industrial products such as coffee, sugarcane, rubber, tobacco etc. has gradually grown to include staple food such as wheat, rice etc. (Sürmeli, 2003). In consequence of intense agricultural activities conducted with the purpose of increasing the amount of crops per unit area within the conventional agriculture system, unfavorable results emerged such as excessive exploitation of the soil, environmental pollution, deterioration of natural balance and product quality, and residues on produce (Öztürk, 2004). Today, all of the world countries emphasize important subjects of human health on the one hand and environmental problems on the other. The transition to organic agriculture became significantly important in the face of increasing negative impacts of conventional agriculture and agricultural produce. Organic (ecological) agriculture is an alternative agricultural method that can prevent environmental pollution and eliminate the negative impacts of chemicals on human health. Demand for organic products has been growing in developed countries due to the requests from consumers as well as environmental organizations, the transition to organic agriculture has been successfully accomplished and markets for organic products have increased (Sarıkaya, 2007). Organic agriculture is the foundation of eco-gastronomy. It is impossible to talk about eco- gastronomy activities with non-organic production methods and products. As the protection of human beings and environment is the main purpose both for organic agriculture and eco-gastronomy.

 Assist. Prof. Dr., Pamukkale University, Faculty of Tourism, Denizli, Turkey Assoc. Prof. Dr., Pamukkale University, Faculty of Tourism, Denizli Lecturer Dr., Pamukkale University, Faculty of Tourism, Denizli.

Accordingly, the aim of this study is to analyze the opinions of gastronomy undergraduates about the impacts of conventional agriculture products on environment and human health, production and consumption of organic products, and the use of organic products in Turkish cuisine. ECO-GASTRONOMY AND ITS ECHOES The source of every food item is nature although food items are subject to a general classification as of vegetable and animal origin. Foods of animal origin are produced with the use of vegetable ingredients as well, so they could also be considered of vegetable origin. Nature is the source of water and mineral salts as well. From this point of view, it would not be wrong to state that gastronomy can only exist so far as the nature allows it to exist. Thus, every factor that could have a positive or negative impact on the environment would be directly related with gastronomy. However, the capitalist desire of earning more in a shorter period threatens the sustainability of the environment. Agriculture, as well, got its share of the rapid technological development following the Second World War. Produce have seen increases up to 100% especially along with the agricultural techniques called "Green Revolution" as a whole which have been initiated during 1960s. This boom in production is considered as one of the most important technological developments of the century. However the threshold of an unsustainable development has been reached with these agricultural techniques which have caused fast deterioration of the ecosystem. Soil, water and air have been polluted, and products which were produced with the use of various chemical compounds and fertilizers have caused significant health problems for humans (Ak, 2004). To resolve these undesirable consequences, conscious producers and consumers have come together for production and consumption of healthier products, and suggested and developed the concept of "Organic (ecological) Agriculture" (Öztürk, 2004). Organic agriculture offers ways to elevate the productivity of agricultural ecosystem to the optimum level in accordance with the local conditions of the environment and social needs of the region and shows best ways to use the synergy consisting of the interactions between the soil, products, animals and humans (Özaslan, 2006). Main purposes of organic agriculture may be listed under the following items (Turhan, 2005):  Planning the use of resources to protect and improve natural sources (soil, water and plants) in agricultural production, establishing a permanent information gathering and tracking system. Developing soil protection and improvement training programs for farmers,  Making an effort to protect and use vegetable genetic sources more effectively for sustainable agriculture,  Making an effort to protect and use animal genetic sources more effectively for sustainable agriculture,  Establishing a more eco-friendly structure for pest control methods in agriculture,  Developing and encouraging the use of more eco-friendly plant nutrition methods in plant production,  Popularizing organic agriculture programs and applications, and developing training and distribution projects for production technologies developed and implemented with this purpose. Organic agriculture outputs are the foundation of eco-gastronomy. Production and consumption of vegetative and animal food items produced with natural methods, as seen in Figure 1, have positive impacts on the sustainability of the environment, local development, employment, traditional production methods, sustainability of cuisine cultures and healthy nutrition. In line with this, eco-gastronomy can be said to have multidimensional impacts with its economical, social, cultural and ethical echoes. The Impact of Healthy Nutrition In Turkey, as in other developed countries around the world, synthetic production inputs are used in an uncontrolled way while conventional agriculture continues to be implemented without the consideration of the negative consequences of processing techniques and technologies. Today, these implementations have started to threaten all living beings along with humans through its impacts on the deterioration of natural balance and food chain (Turhan, 2005).

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Healthy Sustainable Nutrition Environment

Sustainable ECO- Local Cuisine GASTRONOMY Development Culture

Traditional Production Employment Methods

Figure 1: Echoes of eco-gastronomy Along with the economical development seen in the last years, consumers' interest in organic food is observed to have increased. The desire to elevate the quality of life which is longer than before plays an important role in this increase. Various studies suggested that consumers tend towards organic food due to the damages created by the food produced with conventional agriculture on human health and environment (Ustaahmetoğlu and Toklu, 2015). According to a study conducted by Santucci (2002), for example, the first reason of consumers for preferring ecological meat was its being healthy (36%), followed by its taste with 31% and its production with natural methods with 25%. On the other hand, healthy and high-quality food demand has caused a new market segment to emerge, consisting of organic products. The market existence of many conventional food items (foods produced with non- organic methods) with unsafe additives, preservatives, sweeteners and colorants could be seen as another factor in the increase of importance given to natural, safe and healthy food items (Ustaahmetoğlu and Toklu, 2015: 198). The perception of organic foods being healthier than conventional foods is related with the principles of organic food production. Certain eco-friendly implementations and the lack of artificial chemicals are all parts of the attraction of organic foods and create the foundation for the belief that organic foods are free from the dangers found in conventional foods (Marcus, 2001). In other words, the consumption of organic foods is as important for healthy nutrition as it is for healthy environment (Lyons, 2006). The Impact of Sustainable Environment Development initiatives which started following World War II have resulted with many countries economic development while creating many environmental problems which threaten the world. These problems which were overlooked at first in the name of development became increasingly regional and later global; thus, brought with it the search for a balance between development and nature (Kaypak, 2011: 19-20). Today, increasing importance of sensibilities about environment in the public may be observed. These sensibilities don't only affect political standings but also create pressure groups for the rearrangement of economical life within the confounds of ecological criteria. Along with the tangible results of deterioration of the ecosystem and consideration of its status as a global threat, new

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productivity approach started to increase the demands for "more humane and high-quality production without polluting the environment (Topal and Özer, 2014: 258). Mankind should protect the genetic diversity which engenders nature and ecosystem's circles for the life on earth not to be erased totally one day. In line with this purpose, organic agriculture implementations should be seen as a good opportunity and should be protected (Daş et al., 2013). Indeed, organic agriculture is known as an eco-friendly agricultural production method (Hansen et al. 2001; Lotter 2003). Some of the main purposes of organic agriculture are; to protect ecosystem and the environment, to prevent the use of substances which are harmful for living organisms such as inorganic chemical substances and pesticides, and thus to avoid potential damages that ecosystem would suffer. Agriculture methods implemented within the last fifty years have greatly damaged the environment, thus the ecosystem and biological diversity (Daş et al., 2013). Organic agriculture and husbandry is a holistic system in which pharmaceutical product use on animals is restricted, animal wellbeing is observed, natural fertilizer rotation is provided, the soil is kept biologically active, product and seed rotation is provided by the business, weeding is conducted mechanically and not with pesticides (Bengtsson et al., 2005). The concept of sustainable agriculture may be thought as a title under which the solutions offered to resolve the problems created by industrial agriculture are gathered. Here, main principles to be accepted to begin with are that; the world does not have unlimited resources for agricultural production, and sustainable development at the desired level cannot be maintained through destruction of natural balance (Turhan, 2005). The Impact of Employment Employment plays a key role in creating social and economical wellbeing. The main determining factor especially in the rural-urban migration or migration between countries is employment. Policies aiming to strengthen the employment infrastructure would mitigate the movement of migration. At this point, organic agricultural activities may be suggested to be an important alternative to increase the supply of employment. Since organic agriculture is an agricultural approach which requires more employment compared to conventional agriculture. Indeed, as Padel and Lampkin (1994) suggested, organic agriculture's need for employment is 10% to 25% more than conventional agriculture. According to the findings of Berardi's (1976) study on wheat fields, 21 hours/hectare labor is required in a field which employs organic methods for production while only 9 hours/hectare is required in a field which uses conventional agriculture methods. As the findings of this study suggest, organic agriculture applications require much more employment compared to the other agriculture applications. Similar previous studies (Knickel and Renting 2000; Fazlıoğlu, 2014; Aydın, 2008) also emphasize the potential of organic agriculture applications in creating employment especially at a local scale. The Impact of Local Development Local development consists of providing development for local communities in physical, economical, social, cultural and political terms according to sustainable development principles by mobilizing regional dynamics (Yalçın and Yalçın, 2013). From this definition, organic agriculture which is at the base of eco-gastronomy could be suggested as a very appropriate alternative in creating local development. Organic agriculture contributes in local development by bringing producer and consumer together and increasing employment (Lobley et al., 2009; Smith and Marsden, 2004; Morison et al., 2005). With its potential of creating employment, organic agriculture mitigates the rural-urban migration movement and provides the people with the opportunity to work where they were born. Thus, economical, social and cultural life could be revived and incomes and life quality of all the individuals within the region could be increased (Yalçın and Yalçın, 2013: 33). The Impact of Maintaining Traditional Production Methods Traditional production methods have an important place within cultural values. Traditional preparation, cooking and presentation of foods such as vegetables, fruits, meat, milk, chicken etc. are the backbone of eco-gastronomy. On the other hand, the manufacturing of traditional kitchenware such as pots, copper glasses, pans, metal trays, wooden kitchenware etc. is also within the scope of eco- gastronomy. In addition, supporting local products is a symbolic "local defense" in the name of protecting traditional values (Winter, 2003). Village markets present alternative products for traditional

605 consumption with their organic and eco-friendly properties (Holloway and Kneafsey, 2000). Sustainable Cuisine Culture The transformation in eating and drinking habits of people throughout the world has become significantly great along with social, economical and technological developments. The rapidly increasing market shares of chain businesses providing food services at national and international scales push local cuisines into the background. The consumption trend in question threatens all local cuisines worldwide. At this level, the uniform nutritional habit doesn't only threaten local cuisines which are important parts of local cultures but also causes great damages for consumers' health. Various organizations, institutions and non-profit organizations have taken action and responsibility in order to create awareness about the mentioned threats and to inform the public. In all of these movements, slow food movement grabs attention with its being one of the first global movements and its reach within large masses. Slow food movement emphasizes the consumption of locally produced foods to support the survival of the tastes that belong to local cuisines. The use of local products produced through organic methods is indispensable in order to keep delicacies of local cuisines alive with their original tastes. From this perspective, the consumption of organic foods of plant and animal origins is critical to prevent cultural degeneration of cuisines. METHODOLOGY The Aim of the Study and Method of Data Collection This study aims to analyze the considerations of undergraduates of gastronomy, cuisine arts and hospitality business about eco-gastronomy and preservation of Turkish cuisine. One of the main purposes of this study consists of analyzing the relation between the development of eco-gastronomy and preservation of Turkish cuisine. The study aims to provide suggestions for eco-gastronomy and preservation of Turkish cuisine in line with the findings of the research. A 20-statement questionnaire developed by the researchers was used to collect data. 5-point Likert scale was used to measure the agreement levels of the participants for the statements of the scale (5=Totally agree, 4= Agree, 3= Somewhat agree, 2= Don't agree, 1= Totally disagree). Population and Sample Population of the study consists of undergraduates of Department of Gastronomy and Cuisine Arts and Department of Tourism Management of Pamukkale University in the academic year of 2015- 2016. 427 students actively pursuing their education in the related departments filled out the questionnaire in October 2015 and 416 questionnaire forms were deemed appropriate for consideration. Reliability Analysis According to the results of factor analysis, five statements found in the second section were removed from the scale and a total of 15 statements were used as factors of The level of concern related to conventional production foods (6), The use of organic foods related to the preservation of Turkish cuisine (5) and The level of recommendation related to organic food consumption (4) (Table 1). Cronbach Alpha reliability analysis has been conducted to determine the reliability of the scale consisting of factors of "the level of concern related to conventional production foods," "The use of organic food related to the preservation of Turkish cuisine" and "The level of recommendation related to the organic food consumption." The results of this analysis suggest that; the reliability coefficient (∝) of the level of concern related to conventional production foods is .91, the use of organic foods related to the preservation of Turkish cuisine is (∝) .95 and the level of recommendation related to organic food consumption is (∝) .94.

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Table 1: Factor Loads Related to the Study Scale, Declared Variance and Reliability Values Declared Factor Cronbach DIMENSIONS (FACTORS) Variance Loads Alpha (%) 1. FACTOR: The level of concern related to conventional 55,324 ,91 production food 1. I have concerns related to the impacts of conventional ,748 production meat and byproducts on human health. 2. I have concerns related to the impacts of conventional ,823 production vegetables and fruits on human health. 3. I have concerns related to the impacts of conventional ,789 production fowl on human health. 4. I have concerns related to the impacts of conventional ,811 production eggs on human health. 5. I have concerns related to the impacts of conventional ,759 production sea foods on human health. 6. I have concerns related to the impacts of conventional ,799 production milk and byproducts on human health. 2. FACTOR: The use of organic food related to the preservation 15,198 ,95 of Turkish cuisine 1. Organic vegetables and fruits should be used for the preservation ,677 of Turkish cuisine's tastes. 2. Organic meat should be used for the preservation of Turkish ,878 cuisine's tastes. 3. Organic milk should be used for the preservation of Turkish ,862 cuisine's tastes. 4. Organic fowl should be used for the preservation of Turkish ,871 cuisine's tastes. 5. Organic eggs should be used for the preservation of Turkish ,870 cuisine's tastes. 3. FACTOR: The level of recommendation related to organic 8,083 ,94 food consumption 1. I think organic agriculture should be more widespread. ,832 2. I think organic husbandry should be more widespread. ,832 3. I think macro policies should be developed for the transition to ,855 organic food production. 4. I think organic markets should be more widespread. ,810 FINDINGS Gender, department and year distributions of the participants are given in Table 2. Approx. 60% of the participants were female and 40% were male while undergraduates of the Department of Gastronomy and Cuisine Arts constituted 51% of total participants and undergraduates of the Department of Tourism Management constituted 49% of total participants. When distribution of the undergraduates according to their years in the school was analyzed, first year students had an approximate share of 31%, second year students 29%, third year students 18% and fourth year students 22%. According to the findings of the study distributed in terms of gender, female participants were found to have higher levels of concern compared to male participants related to conventional production foods. The difference in question was significant at the level of p<0,05 according to the independent sample t-test (Table 3). This finding differs from the findings of Ustaahmetoğlu and Toklu’s (2015) study. According to the related study's findings, there were no significant differences between genders in terms of food safety perception.

607 Table 2: Distribution of Participants According to Gender, Department and Year in School Variable Groups f % Male 250 60 Gender Female 166 40 Gastronomy & Culinary Arts 204 51 Department Administration of Tourism 212 49 1st year 128 31 2nd year 120 29 Year in School 3th year 74 18 4th year 94 22 Table 3: Distribution of Factor Considerations According to Genders Factors Gender n. m. ss. t. p. The level of concern related to Male 250 4,08* ,836 2,32 0,02 conventional production food Female 166 3,89* ,809 The use of organic food related to the Male 250 4,33 ,859 -1,22 0,23 preservation of Turkish cuisine Female 166 4,43 ,763 The level of recommendation related to Male 250 4,44 ,827 -0,26 0,79 organic food consumption Female 166 4,47 ,846

When participants' considerations of factors of the use of organic food related to the preservation of Turkish cuisine and the level of recommendation related to organic food consumption were analyzed, male undergraduates were observed to have higher considerations compared to female undergraduates. However, the difference in question is understood to be not significant at the level of p<0,05 for both factors according to the independent sample t-test. And this finding shows similarity with the findings of Ustaahmetoğlu and Toklu’s (2015) study. According to the related study findings, there were no significant relations between genders and the attitude towards organic food. Table 4: Distribution of Factor Considerations According to the Departments of Participants Factors Department n. m. ss. t. p. The level of concern related to Administration of 212 4,02 ,880 conventional production food Tourism 0,33 0,74 Gastronomy & 204 3,99 ,776 Culinary Arts The use of organic food related to the Administration of 212 4,33 ,825 preservation of Turkish cuisine Tourism -0,87 0,39 Gastronomy & 204 4,40 ,821 Culinary Arts The level of recommendation related Administration of 212 4,38 ,898 to organic food consumption Tourism -1,68 0,09 Gastronomy & 204 4,52 ,758 Culinary Arts Distribution of factor considerations of the participants according to their departments is given in Table 4. When the averages related to the factors were analyzed, young participants were observed to have significantly high sensibilities about eco-gastronomy. Especially the level of 4,52 and 4,32 for "the level of recommendation related to organic food consumption" is striking. Tourism management undergraduates were observed to have a slightly higher level of concern related to conventional foods compared to gastronomy and cuisine arts undergraduates. However, gastronomy and cuisine arts undergraduates were observed to have higher levels when it came to the factors of use of organic food related to the preservation of Turkish cuisine and recommendation related to organic food consumption

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compared to tourism management undergraduates. According to the results of independent sample t-test conducted to test whether there was a statistical difference in considerations of undergraduates of different departments, all three factors were found to have no significant difference at the level of p<0,05 in terms of undergraduates' different departments. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS Eco-gastronomy philosophy which coincides exactly with slow food philosophy aims the protection of nature and all living beings which occupy it. Organic agriculture applications constitute the main starting point in order to fulfill this aim. Organic agriculture applications protect the diversity and population of plants and animals found in nature while providing the production of food items conforming to human health. On the other hand, eco-gastronomy's economical dimension is obvious when organic agriculture's impacts on employment and development are considered. Local population would find work where they were born through organic agriculture activities, mitigating their desire to migrate to urban environments, thus population condensations experienced in big cities would significantly slow down. Eco-gastronomy may be suggested to have an important impact on the preservation of local culture as well. Dishes prepared with foods that conserve their own natural aromas would continue to give the same tastes of centuries. Preserving these natural tastes for future generations is only possible through organic agriculture - eco-gastronomy philosophy. From this point forward, the subject of the present study was to analyze the considerations of young people who study tourism and gastronomy about eco-gastronomy. The findings of the study suggested that; level of concern related to conventional agriculture products and level of recommendation related to organic product use were significantly high in young people. On the other hand, averages of their considerations about the requirement to use organic products in order to preserve our cuisine culture and traditional tastes were also significantly high. As the findings suggest, the parallel that can be drawn between young people's considerations of eco- gastronomy and concerns and recommendations found in the literature is promising. From this perspective, taking steps for the following is important for the development of eco-gastronomy;  Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock should develop micro and macro policies related to education, subsidies such as tax deduction or loans in order to expand organic agriculture's impact,  Incentives should be presented for the development of gastronomy tourism,  Events such as panels, conferences, seminars, etc. to raise awareness about the importance of the use of organic products should be organized frequently,  Village markets should be popularized where local producers can sell their products to people first-hand,  Primary and secondary schools should organize events that emphasize the importance of the use of organic products,  Programs and news related to organic food consumption should appear frequently on written and visual media,  Restaurant establishments of local foods prepared with organic products and traditional cooking techniques should be encouraged,  Farmers should be given trainings related to the use of domestic seeds and traditional agricultural techniques. REFERENCES Ak, İ. (2004). Apolyont doğal tarım ve hayvancılık projesi. I. Uluslararası organik hayvansal üretim ve gıda güvenliği kongresi. 28 Nisan–1 Mayıs, 2004. Aydın, A. (2008). İktisadi Açıdan Bölgesel Dengesizlik: Mardin İli Örneği. Eletronik Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, Bahar-2008, 7(24): 304-312. Bengtsson, J., Ahnstrom, J., Weibull, A.C. (2005). The effects of organic agriculture on biodiversity and abundance: a meta-analysis. Journal of Applied Ecology 42: 261-269. Berardi, G. M. (1976). Environmental impact and economic viability of alternative methods of wheat production: a study of New York and Pennsylvania farmers. Cornell University, May.

609 Daş, H., Kalkışım, Ö., Bayram, B. & Aksakal, V. (2013). Genetik çeşitlilik ve ekosistem açısından organik tarım ve hayvancılık. Türkiye V. Organik Tarım Sempozyumu. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi, 25-27 Eylül, Samsun. Fazlıoğlu, A. (2014). Dezavantajlı bir aile çiftçiliği grubu olarak “Mevsimlik Tarım İşçileri” Ulusal Aile Çiftçiliği Sempozyumu, 30-31 Ekim 2014, Ankara: 55-60. Hansen, B., Alroe, H.F. & Kristensen, E. (2001). Approaches to assess the environmental impact of organic farming with particular regard to Denmark. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 55: 11-26. Holloway L. & Kneafsey M. (2000). “Reading the Space of The Farmer’s Market: A case study from the United Kingdom” Sociologica Ruralis 40: 285-299. Kaypak, Ş. (2011). Küreselleşme sürecinde sürdürülebilir bir kalkınma için sürdürülebilir bir çevre. KMÜ Sosyal ve Ekonomik Araştırmalar Dergisi, 13(20): 19-33. Knickel, K. & Renting, H. (2000). Methodological and conceptual issues in the study of multifunctionality and rural development. Sociologia Ruralis, 40 (4): 512-528. Lobley, M., Butler, A. & Reed, M. (2009). The contribution of organic farming to rural development: An exploration of the socio-economic linkages of organic and non-organic farms in England. Land Use Policy, 26 (2009): 723–735. Lotter, D. (2003). Organic agriculture. Journal of Sustainable Agriculture, 21 (4): 59-128. Lyons, K. (2006). Environmental values and food choices: Views from Australian organic food consumers, Journal of Australian Studies, 30 (87): 155-166. Marcus, M. B. (2001). Organic foods offer peace of mind–at a price, US News World Report, 130 (2): 48– 50. (http://www.mindfully.org/Food/Organic-Peace-of-Mind.htm) Morison, J., Hine, R. & Pretty, J. (2005). Survey and analysis of labour on organic farms in the UK and Republic of Ireland. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability, 3 (1): 24–43. Özaslan. M. (2006), “Organik tarımın sosyal hayata ve biyolojik çeşitliliğe katkısı”, Editörler: İ.Hakkı Eraslan, Ferhat Şelli, Sürdürülebilir rekabet avantajını elde etmede organik tarım sektörü sektörel stratejiler ve uygulamalar, Uluslararası Rekabet Araştırmaları Derneği (URAK) Yayınları, Yayın No: 2006/1, İstanbul. Öztürk, A, İ. (2004). Türkiye’de organik bal üretimi. I. Uluslararası Organik Hayvansal Üretim ve Gıda Güvenliği Kongresi. 28 Nisan–1 Mayıs, 2004. Padel, S. & Lampkin, N. (1994). Conversion to organic farming: an overview. In: Lampkin, N., Padel, S. (Eds.), The Economics of Organic Farming: An International Perspective. CAB International, Wallingford, pp. 295–313. Santucci, F. (2002). Organic Farming: Meat and Dairy Markets, (www.Tp.fao.org/paia/ organicag/ pres_santucci.pdf). Sarıkaya, N. (2007). Organik ürün tüketimini etkileyen faktörler ve tutumlar üzerine bir saha çalışması. Kocaeli Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, 14(2): 110-125. Smith, E. & Marsden, T. (2004). Exploring the ‘limits to growth’ in UK organics: beyond the statistical image. Journal of Rural Studies. 20 (3): 345–357. Sürmeli, A. (2003). Organik tarım, gelişimi ve ilkeleri. Dev. Maden-Sen Yayın Kurulu. Turhan, Ş. (2005). Tarımda sürdürülebilirlik ve organik tarım. Tarım Ekonomisi Dergisi, 11(1): 13-24. Ustaahmetoğlu, E. & Toklu, İ. T. (2015). Organik gıda satın alma niyetinde tutum, Sağlık bilinci ve gıda güvenliğinin etkisi üzerine bir araştırma. Ekonomik ve Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 11(1): 197-211. Winter, M. (2003). “Embeddedness, the new food economy and defensive localism” Journal of Rural Studies, 19(1): 23-32. Yalçın, A & Yalçın, S. (2013). Sürdürülebilir yerel kalkınma için Cittaslow Hareketi bir model olabilir mi? Sosyal ve Beşeri Bilimler Dergisi, 5(1): 32-41.

610 Chapter 54

Religious Tourism

Ümit SORMAZ, Mustafa YILMAZ

INTRODUCTION Since human beings first existed, religion –regarded as one of the most fundamental issues of humans- has quite been diversified so far in terms of various interpretations and meanings it has obtained (Batman, 2016). Religion is one of the indispensable components of human life, and is a concept as old as the birth of human history; and it has also been a significant travel motive since the earliest times of human life (Türker, 2011). When people travel beyond the places they normally live in to fulfill their religious obligations and/or to see religious attractions, these travels can be considered within the scope of the religious tourism, and most of the travels of the people lived especially in the medieval era were due to religious causes (Bingöl, 2007). Religion has been an effective motive for people to travel in human history. The concept of tourism has been affected by many religions from past to today; especially Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Hinduism (Laderlah, 2011). As for the origin of the word “din” (Turkish equivalent of the word “religion” in English), there are some views thinking that it comes from such different languages as Persian, Greek, Hebrew, and Sanskrit; however, some Muslim authors are of the opinion that it is either a noun or an infinitive from the Arabic word stem “deyn” (Günay, 1994). The word “din” did not first exist in the Koran, it was also used in various pre-Islamic Arabic societies (Harman, 2000). As for its definitions in various wordbooks, it is connoted in Jawhari with road, traditions, punishment and reward, and obedience (Cevheri, 1377); and in Isfahani only with obedience and punishment (Türker, 2007). The words “belief and faith”, with their pure definitions, express notions like ideational judgement, i.e. the endpoint, and comprises believing in and being sure of and trusting in things (Temren, 1998). According to the definition by the Turkish Language Association (TDK), it means (1) being deeply connected to an idea, (2) emotions of trust and belief felt in something, (3) things believed in, point of view, teachings, and (4) believing in God and in a religion, faith, doctrine, and creed (TDK, 2015). Faith, which plays a great role in our individual and societal lives, has an influential function on people’s inner worlds and the dynamics of their social lives (Karacoşkun, 2004). It would be a good point to analyze the influence of religion on people and tourism in social and economic aspects. First of all, religious tourism helps tourism develop and spread over the whole year, and people feel freer to spend money while fulfilling their religious activities. This situation, when considered in terms of social aspects, tourists with the same purpose from different nations and cultures visit their religious attraction places sharing the same emotions and excitement although they speak different languages, which forms close relationships and develops a sense of brotherhood (Şahiner, 2012). Rapid developments in the world tourism increases the number of travelers and the amount of tourism activities every year. According to the data by the World Tourism Organization; the number of people took place in tourism in the 1960s was about 75 million, which increased to 300 million in the 1980s, and to more than 700 million in the 2000s. While 935 million people took part in tourism and tourism activities in the year 2010, it is expected that this will amount up to 1.6 billion by 2020. This increase in the active participation in tourism is reflected on the amount of income from tourism; which was 852 billion dollars all around the world in 2009 and is foreseen to increase up to 870 billion dollars

Assist. Prof. Dr., University of Necmettin Erbakan, Department of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Konya,Turkey Res. Assist., University of Necmettin Erbakan, Dep. of Gastronomy and Culinary Arts, Konya,Turkey

in 2010. As this information suggests, it is getting a crucial issue to know how consumers behave in their holiday preferences and by what factors they are effected in tourism, which is becoming a sector that ever-grows and ever-develops (Yeşiltaş et al., 2012). Until the 1970s, tourism was perceived as traditional mass tourism based only on sea, sand, and sun; however, demand for new services and products in tourism increased in 1970 and onwards due to the attention paid to environmental impacts of tourism and the changes in the social, cultural, and economic values of societies. Therefore, much as the traditional tourism of sea, sand, and sun today still remains widespread, these developments have been a driving force for the development of alternative types of tourism, so new types of tourism like cultural tourism, heritage tourism, religious tourism, health tourism, and eco-tourism have emerged (Reisinger, 2009). Especially cultural tourism, heritage tourism, and religious tourism are the fastest growing ones as they support the development of one another. There has been a close relationship between religion and tourism from past to today because religion has always been a source of motivation for travelling since very early times (Henderson, 2003). RELIGIOUS TOURISM Religious tourism, a concept derived from the basis of general tourism concepts, is one of tourism products (Batman & Çınar, 2005; Ünal, 2014). Religious tourism can be defined as the set of economic and social events and relationships where people perform non-profit travels in order to fulfil their religious duties or visit places that are considered to be holy and important in their religions and stay there for at least a night (Usta, 2005). Religious tourism is defined as “including the religious travels of people belonging to a particular religion within the scope of tourism” by Sargın (2006), “travels to satisfy religious beliefs as well as religious travels of people belonging to a particular religion” by Tunç & Saç (1998), “including feasts and activities and travels with the aim of visiting holy places, fulfilling religious duties, participating in or watching religious ceremonies, and going on a pilgrimage within the scope of tourism” by Küçük (2003). Çelik (2008) defines religious tourism as the set of activities and relations of people when they travel beyond where they normally reside and visit religious attractions to meet their religious beliefs and form a demand for tourism products, goods and services and accommodation during their travels. The fact that a great demand for goods, services and accommodation by tourism enterprises comes up during these travels turns these religious activities into a tourism activity (Avcıkurt, 1997). The Relationship between Religious Belief and Tourism Religious beliefs direct humans’ lives and shape the life of a society dramatically (Turan, 2012). Tourism is closely related with religion which has a great effect on travelling. Religion being an important factor leading people to travel is a vital and indispensable concept to human beings, and it is a complex structure consisting of such phenomena as faith, religious practices, and emotion all of which have a wholeness (Glock, 1998; Şahiner, 2012). All the societies in the history of humanity since ancient times have always had a religious belief. The man has felt a need to belong to a religion. The concept of religion covers a wide area that effects people’s lives, and gives orders and suggestions (Şahiner, 2012). Tourism plays a great role in social and economic development of an area, a region or a country. For this reason, countries try to attain customers via various types of tourism in order to get the biggest share from the tourism market as much as possible (Turan, 2012). In religious tourism, people visit places they consider holy and religiously significant to fulfill their religious obligations (Murray & Graham, 1997). Religious buildings, ceremonies, religious feasts, beliefs, and religious events are important factors that affect and determine tourists’ behaviors (Henderson, 2003). People who want to see the history of their religions, visit the holy and significant destinations of the religions they belong to, become a “pilgrim” by journeying to a sacred place for religious reasons and have spiritual satisfaction and inner peace in this way also wish to perform a long, tiring, and challenging job for their sins and faults to be forgiven. Besides, human beings need big gatherings where they can come together with their religious fellows and people with whom they have some spiritual relations (Yörük, 2010; Kurnaz, 2013).

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Religious tourism is firstly associated with journeys that people from today’s three major monotheistic religions and other polytheistic religions perform. However, religious tourism should not be limited only to today’s religious systems, because the case might be quite different and broad for a region like Anatolia which has a very long cultural background and history in that many religious traces, and evidences of religions that prevailed within a very long period of time before three major religions evolved and became dominant in Anatolia (Duru, 2007). Religious journeys satisfy human beings in psychological, physical, social, and emotional aspects. These journeys, being performed for religious purposes, offer people a spiritual relief, and visitors who travel with a strong religious motivation have enjoyable moments as well as having a chance to see how cultural, historical, and religious heritages affect their lives today (Güzel, 2010). Religious tourism destinations are being visited by many people not only for moral and immaterial values, but also for educational and cultural purposes; therefore, religious tourism covers both devout people and a much wider populace (Hughes et al., 2012; Richards, 2007). Religious tourism, which needs to be separated from other types of tourism, has both dynamic and static features. “The amount of travels performed during these journeys” constitute the dynamic aspect of religious tourism while “the fact that it includes temporary accommodation at places other than normal residence” constitutes the static aspect of religious tourism. Both features form an environment change as a result of travels’ being performed within a certain period of time together with tourists’ special interests (Gökdeniz, 1996). When religious tourism is in question, visits and journeys to holy places that carry some significance for a religion and to buildings in these holy places, and to the graves of some religious leaders in relation to religions and religious beliefs come to mind; for this reason, when looked from this perspective, religious tourism, being expected to be a great source of massive human circulation, also makes an economic aspect that should not be ignored and looked down on (Haleva, 2007). Countries try to get a rivalry advantage by maintaining their marketing activities being oriented to religious tourism to get a share from this market which has evolved apart from regular mass tourism (Yılmaz et al., 2013). The reasons that lead people to religious tourism should be known well and we need to take advantage of them well, and these are crucial for tourism to develop, to utilize country’s sources well and to get more income; and the reasons that may lead people to religious tourism can be listed as following (Kurnaz, 2013);  To go on a pilgrimage as one of religious duties  To keep or fulfil a vow, show thanks, redeem from sin, and wish  To come to a higher level in terms of social and spiritual aspects  To celebrate or commemorate some religious events  To contact and keep in touch with people from the same religion  Activities to spread the religion As for Güzel (2010), the main reasons considered to lead people to religious tourism can be listed as following (Güzel, 2010):  To make a pilgrimage and the relief it will offer,  The desire of people to meet and come together with people from the same religion,  To fulfil religious duties,  The desire of people to see important and holy places in relation to the religion they belong to,  To redeem from sins, pray and wish things from the God, Aksoy (1998) classifies the reasons that lead people to religious tourism under four main headings;  Psychological reasons,  The richness of the emergence points (supply sources) of religions  Religious days and festivals  Attempts to spread religions Although it has now become one of the main domains of tourism, religious tourism is included in alternate tourism types; and it is closely related with holiday and cultural tourism being different from other tourism types. (Rodrigo, 2012). Religious tourism has first been known in history all over the

613 world due to “pilgrimage travels”, and pilgrims who go to an area to make a pilgrimage both become pilgrims (hadji) and visit the cultural heritages in the immediate neighborhood thanks to these short trip programs. To ensure the integrity and harmony of religion and tourism, all the religious, commercial, economic, social, and cultural requirements should be fulfilled (Rinschede, 1992; Rodrigo, 2012; Tümbek, 2009). Although these travels performed to go on a pilgrimage are not the beginning of modern tourism movements, they are considered to be the first touristic movements (Okuyucu & Somuncu, 2013). Economically, religious tourism is an important income source for the tourism sector. This situation leads countries and enterprises to give more consideration and share to religious tourism while they are making their tourism planning (Şahiner, 2012). The Historical Development of Religious Tourism When the historical development of religious tourism is in question, it is known that the first religious tourism movement started with “pilgrimage travels” and has continued since first human beings. Within the scope of the phenomenon of religion and faith, sacred places are the center of the religious life of a society, and give direction and meaning to human life; and people have always needed sacred places due to human temperament no matter which religion they have faith in. People do experience this feeling more deeply at these places than when they are at usual prayer rooms in that these holy places and shrines are places where divine realm and earthly realm intersect, human beings and the God in a way come together, and people do feel peaceful (Erbaş, 2002). People come together for holy ceremonies and religious gatherings since very early times. Almost all religions have a rich history of tourism trips, so religious tourism or religious travels have become one of the most rapidly developing areas in holiday industry (Eykay, 2013). Religious Tourism in The World Touristic areas with various features and tourism activities have come to be preferred more together with the developments in the world tourism as well as changes in tourist types and expectations; and religious tourism has become the focus point of more and more people as travelling in today’s world have become easier, transportation and communication technologies have enhanced up to high levels and per capita income especially in developed countries has increased (Şahiner, 2012). According to the data (2014) of the World Tourism Organization by the United Nations (UNWTO), it was reported that the number of people who made touristic travels went beyond 1 billion, but 300 million of these travelers had religious purposes in their travels, so the income obtained from the religious tourism, which is growing more and more in the world, came up to 20 billion dollars. Religious tourism, according to the statistics by the World Tourism Organization (WTO), is constituting a remarkable market of 18 billion dollars with about 300 million tourists all over the world making religious travels. In the light of these statistics, religious tourism is highly likely to form a potential income source for the country being an alternate tourism product. Moreover, it is foreseen by the WTO that in the light of the studies touristic movements including religious tourism will increase by 20% in the year 2020 (Zengin, 2010). The most important religious tourism destination in the world are as following (Timothy and Olsen, 2006; Eykay, 2013; URL-3, 2016; URL- 4, URL-5);  Vatican/Rome-Christian  Jerusalem/Palestine-Jewish  Mecca and Medina/Saudi Arabia-Muslim  Banaras and Ganges River/India-Hinduism  Bodh Gaya/India-Buddhism Some holy places from Turkey, too, are included in the list of the most visited holy places in the world in 2014 (Table 1) (TURSAB, 2015).

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Table 1: Some holy places from Turkey, too, are included in the list of the most visited holy places in the world Rank Holy Place Country Number of Annual Visitors 1 Meji Shrine and Sensoji Temple Japan 30 million+30 million 2 Kashi Vishwanath Temple India 21.9 million 3 Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe Mexico 20 million 4 Tirumala Tirupati Devasthanams Temple India 18.2 million 5 Notre Dame Cathedral France 13.6 million 6 Sacre-Coeur Basilica France 10.5 million 7 Naritasan Shinshoji Temple Japan 10 million 7 Tsurugaoka Hachimangu Shrine Japan 10 million 7 Kiyomizu-dera ve Kinkaku-ji Temple Japan 10 milyon+6 million 10 Ise Jingu Shrine Japan 8.5 million 20 The Blue Mosque Turkey 5 million 29 Hagia Sophia Turkey 3.2 million

Religious Tourism In Turkey According to the 2014 Religious Tourism Report published by the Association of Turkish Travel Agencies (TÜRSAB); Turks are expected to spend about 1.1 billion dollars for “hajj” and “umrah”, and it was reported that the market shares of Turkey increased by 5%, which is a remarkable amount and It has been found that the difference in between is gradually going up in 2015 with the number of pilgrimage and umrah tourists increasing dramatically. Table 2 shows the number of people who went on a pilgrimage or umrah being distributed by years (TURSAB, 2015; URL-1, 2016). Table 2. The number of people from Turkey who went on a pilgrimage or umrah The number of those who went on The number of those who went Year pilgrimage from Turkey on umrah from Turkey 2011 411.495 89.033 2012 381.881 75.607 2013 391.500 60.892 2014 400.526 61.300 2015 434.656 74.000

According to the statistics by the Turkish Religious Affairs; participation and interest in umrah travel programs have increased, all 81 provinces of Turkey subscribe to these umrah programs, and 62.8% of the participants are females. Besides, table 3 includes the distribution according to provinces of those who went on umrah in 2014 (TURSAB, 2015). Table 3. The number of those who went on According to the report prepared by the Religious Affairs, Umrah in 2014 pilgrimage candidates spend around 4000 euros on average during their travels while this amount is around 1500 euros İstanbul 15.000 per person for umrah travels. It is estimated that the Ankara 10.425 expenses those who travel to the holy lands from Turkey Bursa 5.467 Konya 3.954 will make will reach up to 845 million euros (TURSAB, İzmir 3.867 2015). According to the 2014 data by the Turkish Religious Affairs, the table 4 below includes distribution by sex of tourists that took place in religious tourism by traveling to make a pilgrimage or umrah from Turkey (URL-2, 2016).

615 Table 4: Distribution by sex of tourists that took place in religious tourism by traveling to make a pilgrimage or umrah from Turkey Hajj Umrah Age TOTAL Female Male Female Male 71 28 13.478 12.758 26.335 21-25 35 15 4.813 6.770 11.633 26-30 108 56 7.794 8.821 16.779 31-35 306 217 12.053 11.054 23.630 36-40 728 546 14.283 13.529 29.086 41-45 1.282 1.034 15.585 16.375 34.276 46-50 2.004 1.476 14.635 20.853 38.968 51-55 3.699 2.532 15.710 27.118 49.059 56-60 5.275 4.179 16.386 29.587 55.427 61+ 16.092 16.294 54.285 83.734 170.405 Some prominent cases regarding religious tourism (TURSAB, 2015);  5.5 million Muslims go to Saudi Arabia every year for umrah, and 1.8 million of these go on a pilgrimage.  61000 people from Turkey went to the holy lands to make a pilgrimage this year (2015).  22231 of the prospective pilgrims performed their trips via private companies. Religious Affairs organized the rest.  53% of the pilgrims are females this year.  The number of umrah travelers set a new record by going beyond 400 thousand this year.  The lowest price the prospective pilgrims traveling via the religious affairs in 2014 is 2780 euros.  On average, one hundred thousand people are applying for pilgrimage every year.  The Turks will spend 2.3 billion Turkish Lira for umrah and hajj (pilgrimage) in total this year.  The number of those who visited Turkey in 2013 for religious purposes was 59 thousand.  Approximately in 40 cities in Turkey are there places to travel within the scope of religious tourism. The term “religious tourism” in Turkey became prevalent after the year 1995. It is emphasized that although religious tourism has made a significant progress over the past decades, it still has not attained the growth it deserves. The biggest problem in Turkey with regard to religious tourism is that there is a lack of accommodation facilities although 43 cities in Turkey have got places that meet religious tourism standards. To solve this serious problem, the Table 5. The number of Turkey’s incoming construction of hotels and any other accommodation tourists with religious purposes facilities on the route of religious tourism destinations should be encouraged by the government Year The Number of Tourists and local administrations. The fact that most of the with Religious Purposes investments are made mostly on coastline turns up to 2003 64.548 be excessive in these areas whereas there is still a 2004 65.778 2005 112.308 lack of accommodation in some other cities, which is 2006 125.503 emphasized in statistics carried out so far. Moreover, 2007 143.969 putting an emphasis on overseas advertisements and 2008 99.041 campaigns regarding Turkey’s richness in terms of 2009 127.815 religious tourism is of utmost importance (TURSAB, 2010 114.340 2015). 2011 106.743 According to the data by the Turkish Statistical 2012 66.401 Institution (TUIK, 2015), the number of incoming 2013 59.076 tourists to Turkey for religious purposes is quite low 2014 55.540 within the total number of Turkey’s tourists. The (January-June) number of tourists visiting Turkey for religious

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purposes in 2003 was 64548 while this number reached at peak level being 143969 in the year 2007. From 2012 onwards there happened a dramatic decrease and it hit the bottom of the last 10 years with only 59 thousand tourists. The events occurring in neighbor countries like Syria and Iraq are considered to be responsible for these phenomena. Besides, tensions with Turkey and Israel reduces the number of Israelis coming to Harran and Tigris-Euphrates area which also mentioned in the Torah. In the first six months of this year, the number of tourists with religious purposes reached 55 thousand, but ongoing tensions indicate that this number will remain below 100 thousand. Table 5 includes information about the number of incoming tourists to Turkey with religious purposes (TURSAB, 2015). TOURISM PRODUCT IN RELIGIOUS TOURISM Within the period of time between tourists leave their normal residence and come back their home again, the group of components brought together in a bundle, goods or services either bought or utilized, all constitute the term “tourism product” (Usal & Oral, 2001). Tourists demand various tourism product (accommodation, food and beverages, transportation, etc.) during their travels. Tourism product is a joint product that enterprises in the tourism sector produce to meet tourists’ needs. Tourism product is a group of services like transportation, accommodation, eating, entertainment, resting, etc. that tourists benefit from starting from the moment they leave their homes (Ürger, 1993). Tourism product, which consists of the mixture of concrete and abstract objects in nature, has three different domains. These are tourism experience, spatial products, and tourism products (Sarkım, 2007). Main tourism products in religious tourism include buildings like mosques, pilgrimage centers, churches, temples, and cathedrals that an area or a region has inherited from the past (Kurnaz, 2013). For this reason, mosques and churches considered religiously important, monuments, museums, houses, considered important in terms of art history, and structures, artifacts being first or interesting example of its kind due to architectural features are offered to tourists’ interest within this context (Çontu, 2006). The places included within the scope of religious tourism are visited not only for spiritual values, but they can also be visited by many people for educational or cultural purposes (Hughes, Bond & Ballantyne, 2012). Therefore, religious tourism covers not only devout individuals but also a much wider group of people (Richards, 2007). There are some special routes in Turkey that need to be unveiled and brought forward within tourism for their natural, historical and cultural values and characteristics. One of the seven thematic road maps designated under the concept of tourism development corridor published in the action plan “Turkey’s Tourism Strategy 2023” by the Republic of Turkey- Ministry of Culture and Tourism is “religious tourism corridor” (TTS, 2007). Alternate tourism types are expected to be developed thanks to these designated ways (Kurnaz, 2013). CONCLUSION Tourism, including some important elements like investment, service, culture, education, and being one of vital branches within economy, is an important source of income for people, institutions, enterprises, and countries. It also has an important role in countries’ development with its power to balance foreign trade and economy, and it is an environmental phenomenon creating work areas and contributing to inter-personal and international relations’ development (Turan, 2012). There are many motives that lead people to travel, but religion can be considered one of the most important and influential ones. Traveling for religious purposes to satisfy inner spiritual gap or fulfil religious mandatory is quite different from traveling for cultural or entertainment purposes; therefore an alternative or replacement for religious tourism travels is much more limited or even impossible compared to other tourism types because religious tourism activities are directly related with one’s inner world and emotions. For this reason, religious tourism comes forward as an important tourism type in this context (Çakmak, 2014). Religious tourism destinations mainly in Turkey and in other countries all around the world have very important virtues in terms of alternate tourism products and resources. In order for tourism to develop, these holy places and destinations that tourists visit for religious purposes should be brought in sustainable tourism and made more attractive and tempting by providing the required expectations like

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619 URL-2, (2016). Turkey Religious Affairs, Statistics, the number of those who go on hajj and umrah with distribution by age groups, Access Date:15.04.2016, Link: http://www.net data.com/netsite/6d0c4cba/yas- gruplarina-gore-hacca-umreye-gidenlerin-sayisi URL-3 (2016). Hajj Destinations, Access Date:15.04.2016, Link: http://www.tarihbilimi.gen.tr/makale/hac- merkezleri/ URL- 4 (2016). Top 10 Muslim Holy Sites in The World, Access Date:20.04.2016, http://topyaps.com/top-10-muslim-holy-sites-in-the-world URL-5 (2016). Islamic sacred places, Access Date: 22.04.2016, Link: http://www.religionfacts.com /islam/places Yılmaz, G., Erdinç, S. B. & Küçükali, S. (2013) “İnanç Turizmi Çerçevesinde Antalya Destinasyonunun İncelenmesi: Dinler (Hoşgörü) Bahçesi Örneği,” International Conference on Religious Tourism and Tolerance, https://www.academia.edu/ 3540727/ Inanc_Turizmi_Cercevesinde_Antalya_ Destinasyo nunun_Incelenmesi_Dinler_Hosgoru_Bahcesi_Ornegi (31.03.2014). Yörük, G. (2010). İnanç Turizmi Potansiyeli Açısından Demre'nin Değerlendirilmesi. Süleyman Demirel University, Dept. of Philosophy and Religious Studies, MA Thesis. Zengin, A. (2010). “Eyüp Kentsel Sit Alanının İnanç Turizmi Kapsamında Değerlendirilmesi ve Yerleşim Dokusunun Korunması Üzerine Bir Araştırma”, Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University, Institute of Science, Department of Architecture, Unpublished MA Thesis. İstanbul

620 Chapter 55

Segmentation of Visitor’s Motivations: A Study on 20th East Mediterranean International Tourism and Travel (EMITT) Exhibition

Ali DALGIÇ, Sevda SAHİLLİ BİRDİR, Kemal BİRDİR

1. INTRODUCTION In 2015, more than one billion people got involved in international tourism activities which keep the industry to grow (UNWTO, 2016). Destinations which desire to increase their shares may benefit from market segmentation strategies. According to Dolnicar (2008:1) “market segmentation is the strategic tool to account for heterogeneity among tourists by grouping them into market segments which include members similar to each other and dissimilar to members of other segments.” In order to be successful, destinations need attractions (special activities which are natural, man-made, artificial, focus on one purpose and have a heritage quality), accessibility (transportation system comprising of transportation vehicles, roads and terminals), amenities (accomodation and food-beverage facilities, facilities which offer other touristic services), available packages (packages organized by parent companies and intermediary companies in advance), activities (which are available in destination and which tourists can make during their accomodations) and ancillary services (banks, telecommunication offices, post offices, hospitals etc. from which tourists can benefit) (Buhalis, 2000: 98). It’s possible to claim that activities have vital importance in sense of adding attraction and value to previously stated factors. As individuals come into action together, events organized for reaching individual or social common targets (sharing a common emotion or thought etc.) or actualizing some needs (being a social entity within social life etc.) may be called ‘event’ (Ekin, 2011:3). It is stated that activities have general qualities in that events may materialize only for a certain time or infrequently, they have limited time, offer experiences apart from daily lives and can be based on any theme (Getz, 1989: Jago and Shaw, 1998). That activities have a theme, one of the qualities stated above, can be regarded as an indicator that activities could be divided under different classifications. Getz (1997) handled the events under eight categories and named them as; cultural celebrations (festivals, carnavals, commemoration activities, activities organized for religional purposes), art and entertainment events (concerts, exhibitions, award ceremonies), business-purpose/commercial activities (fairs and meetings), political events (summit, VIP visits, royal celebrations), educational and scientific events (seminars, conferences, symposiums), recreational events (sports and games organized for entertainment-purpose), sportive events (activities organized for special sport branches) and special events (wedding ceremonies, anniversaries, individual celebrations, parties and special entertainments). Fairs which take place under business-purpose/commercial activities are one of the most important meeting and business activities in tourism industry. Fairs may have many effects on destinations, local people and visitors. Fairs may have effects on economical, commercial, physical, environmental, socio- cultural, psychological, political, touristic scopes (Fredline, Jago and Deery, 2003: Bowdin, Allen, O’toole, Harris and McDonnell, 2006). It can be said that there are many reasons for participating in fairs such as socialization, learning about new products and services, acquiring information about products and services, intellectual information transferring, novelty, relief and relaxation when an evaluation is made about visitors (Tanner, Chonko and Ponzurick, 2001: Breiter and Milman, 2006: Kozak and Kayar, 2008: Rittichainuwat and Mair, 2012: Lee, Kang and Lee, 2013). As discussed in literature, many visitors participate in fairs in order to obtain different experiences. In this sense, a brief

Res. Assist., Mersin University Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management, Mersin, Turkey. Assist. Prof. Dr., Mersin University Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management Prof. Dr., Mersin University Faculty of Tourism, Department of Tourism Management

review on market segmentation is provided but classification of visitors’ motivations has been the main objective of this study. Within this scope, review of literature about fair visitors’ motivations has been made. And a questionnaire developed by the researchers has been utilized to collect information about EMITT fair’s commercial and consumer paricipants and research evidences have been included in the study. Evidences have been compared and suggestions have been given and limits of resarch have been stated in last section of study. 2. LITERATURE REVIEW “Both tourism researchers and tourism industry use market segmentation widely to study opportunities for competitive advantage in the marketplace”(Dolnicar, 2008:129). Market segmentation helps us understand to “whom” the destination will serve (which market segments will be aimed), “what” will be served to the target segments (the expectations of the visitors and features they look for at the products and the services), “how” (a product mix suits the wants and needs of visitors and/or development of the destination), “when” (the right timing to serve the products) and “where” (place to serve the product) (Hsu and Powers, 2002:66; Morrison, 1989: 140; Kozak, 2006: 100). The most used segmentation criterium in the studies are socio-demographics variables (sex, age, size of family, nationality and social status), socio –economic variables (occupation and income) (Juaneda and Sastre, 1999:549; Diaz-Martin, vd., 2000:132), travel motivation and travel behavior or psychographic variables (Juaneda and Sastre, 1999: 549). For example, Dolnicar (2005), in her study tries to identify market segments according to fear and risk perception. She found 4 market segments; (1) segments which has high fear and risk perceptions, (2) ones with low fear and risk perceptions, (3) overseas sceptics who thinks overseas destinations carry health and other risks and (4) thrill seekers who look for an adventure in overseas destinations. Fairs are regarded as important elements of commercial/business events. In general, it is possible to divide the fairs into three groups. First of all, trade shows are activities to which only suppliers and consumers are invited and in which media could take place additionally (Browning and Adams, 1988). Consumer exhibitions, another type of fairs, are the fairs organized for selling exhibited products to visitors and giving information to consumers about the products publicly. Lastly, commercial and consumer fairs are the activities which are open to suppliers, consumers and media and in which public can also participate and get information about products and services (Rittichainuwat and Mair, 2012: 1237). A comprehensive review of literature showed that motivation for fair participation was divided as participators motivation (Munuera and Ruiz, 1999: Godar and O’ Connor, 2001: Kozak, 2005: Lee, Yeung and Dewald, 2010: Menon and Edward, 2014) and visitors motivation (Tanner, et al., 2001: Breiter and Milman, 2006: Kozak and Kayar, 2008: Whitfield and Webber, 2011: Guerreiro, Valle and Mendes, 2011: Rittichainuwat and Mair, 2012: Lee, et al., 2013: Ivkov, Blesic, Raljic, Dzigurski, Pivac and Jovanovic, 2015). Previous studies show that individuals participating in fairs as a representative of a busines prioritize motivation factors such as getting informed about products and services, actualizing market investigate and communicating with potantial suppliers. In light of data collected from 158 participator businesses joining trade fair organized in Spain, Munuera and Ruiz (1999) found that main motivation factors were to discover new products, communicate with potantial suppliers, search for new ideas, actualize market surveys and get information about marketing activities. Searching motivation factors of participators of EMITT fair which could be qualified as both commercial and consumer fair, Kozak (2005) concluded that expectations such as enhanching morale of company’s personnel, comparison of a product and/or service with the competition, collect information for marketing activities were at the forefront. Similarly, Lee, et al. (2010) found out in consequence of data collected from 302 participators attending fairs organized in Hong Kong that the most important motivation factors were to search for information and make a market investigation. Menon and Edward (2014) concluded in the research that they made on business employees participating in Kerala travel fair organized in India that participators made their visits with a motivation factor of getting information about new products, observing new features and meeting with new suppliers. In the studys searching the motivations of fair visitors, it can be said that different factors such as shopping, socialization, learning about new products and services, getting information about products

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and services, intellectual enrichment, novelty, rest and relaxation could constitute visitors’ motivations. Tanner, et al. (2001) searched for motivations of visitors participating in trade fairs on gift/clothing, advanced technology, medical and industrial scopes organized in four cities in US (Los Angeles, San Diego, Dallas and New York City). As a result of analysis of data collected from 538 participants, it was found that visitors were classified under five groups. These groups were named as; shoppers (those participating for both getting to know products and services and buying something), buyers (those participating for only getting products and services) browsers (those participating for only getting informed about products and services), total visitors (those participating for getting products and services, buying products and services they like and following the activities which could contribute to their carreers) and self-developers (those participating for following the activities which could contribute to their carreers). In the light of data collected from 5 different conference centers, Breiter and Milman (2006) found that visitors were affected by motivations such as getting information about new products, quality of business attending the fair and attraction of destination in which fair is organized. 295 visitors participated in the Kozak and Kayar’s (2008) study about motivations of visitors attending EMITT fair organized in 2006. The main motivation of visitors was to learn latest developments in services and the least significant motivation was to do shopping and seeking new friendships. Guerreiro, et al. (2011) searched for motivations of visitors participating in fair with Middle Age theme organized in Portugal in 2008. It was found that participators’ motivations were socializations, novelty, intellectual enrichment, rest and relaxation. It was stated that the most important motivation was novelty, the least important motivation was to get to know the city and intellectual enrichment. Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012) found in the study which they conduct to explore the motivation of local people participating in trade fair organized in Thailand and classified visitors under two groups. The first group was shoppers and the other group was multi-purpose visitors whose motivations were to buy, get informed, join the seminars, focus on tourism theme. Lee, et al. (2013) searched for motivations of those participating in Expo fair organized in China in 2010. As a result of data collected from 414 visitors, it was found out that those participating in the fair were divided into three groups. These groups are culture and attraction seekers, casual event seekers and multi-purpose experience seekers. Multi-purpose experience seekers are the people participating in the fair in order to have cultural search, family togetherness, event attraction, socialization, novelty and escape factors. Data was gathered from 210 visitors in the survey that Ivkov, et al. (2015) made in an agriculture fair. Two groups were constituted as a result of grouping analysis. These groups were named as information and leisure seekers. 3. METHODOLOGY 3.1. Population, Sample and Scale The population of this study was determined as visitors participating in EMITT. Based on 19th EMITT activity report, total number of visitors was stated to be 142.000 (Karacadağ Kalkınma Ajansı, 2015). As visitors’ motivations were researched within the context of study, the number of visitors was needed. It was stated that the number of people visiting EMITT fair in 2015 was 77.750 (Karacadağ Kalkınma Ajansı, 2015). As it was difficult to reach the identified population, research population was reduced to study sample. When calculating study sample volume, the number of people needed for research was calculated as 382 people (Sekaran, 1992: 253). Research data was gathered benefiting from convenience sampling method on January 30-31, 2016. 187 valid questionnaires were reached as a result of questionnaire collection process. Questionnaire form is composed of two sections. Categorical and open-ended questions about sex, marital status, educational background, age, income, home city, occupation were asked in the first section. A scale which is composed of 34 articles and 6 dimensions and used by Lee, Lee and Wicks (2004) was applied to measure motivations of people participating in fair. Translation of scale into Turkish was fulfilled by experts. Number of scale articles was reduced to 29 in consequence of preliminary test and 29 articles were placed in the questionnaire form. Answer categories of the scale were expressed on five point likert scale as “Strongly Disagree” (1) and “Strongly Agree” (5).

623 3.2. Purpose and Scope Purpose of study is to group motivations of fair visitors in categories. In this sense, determining motivations of visitors participating in 20th EMITT fair organized between 28-31 January 2016 has been the fair aimed in this study. Within the scope of study, only visitors have been included in study. Participants have been excluded due to the aim of study. Participants such as business representatives, suppliers, media etc. could be defined as external components. 3.3. EMITT East Mediterranean International Tourism and Travel Exhibition was held for the first time in 1997 at TUYAp Exhibition Center in Tepebasi under the name Voyager International Tourism and Vacation Exhibition. The event which was renamed in 1999 as EMITT, East Mediterranean International Tourism and Travel Exhibition, passes on latest developments about tourism and travel. 4550 participants from 70 countries participated in 2016 in this fair which was organized for 20th time. Within the scope of participant groups, it is possible to categorize participants as accommodation-tourism, travel services, health & spa tourism, transportation services, information and software services, organization services, national publicity organizations and institutions & NGOs, international publicity institutions and organizations, entertainment-tourism, hotel equipments, finance, insurance and inspection services, media and other tourism activities (Emittistanbul, 2016). Moreover, 77.750 visitors participated in 20th EMITT fair (Karacadağ Kalkınma Ajansı, 2015). 4. FINDINGS Missing data has been filled by averaging relevant items before analyzing gathered data. Multivariate analysis of variance and multivariate analysis of normal distribution have been fulfilled after missing data analysis. Both analyses are important for carrying out multivariate analyses. As a result of multivariate analysis of normal distribution, it has been found out that the highest value was 3,101 when dividing mahalanobis distance into number of variables. It has been determined that 1 % of 29 statements in t-value table was 3,396. As our highest value (3,101) was lower than this value (3,396), no data was deduced from the analysis. As a result of multivariate analysis of normal distribution, it has 2 been found out that value of 29 statements on X (0,05) table was 42,56. When sorting mahalanobis values ascending, it was evidenced that most of the values that were subject to analysis was lower than the 2 value (155 data) X (0,05). It can be said that data is normal. Finally, 187 valid questionnaires were analyzed and findings presented below. Table 1. Participants' Profile Gender(n=187) n % Income (n=175) n % Male 106 56,7 1500 TL and below 59 33,7 Female 81 43,3 1501 - 2500 TL 30 17,1 Marital status (n=177) n % 2501 - 3500 TL 31 17,7 Married 57 32,2 3501 TL and above 55 31,4 Single 120 67,8 Living Place (n=187) n % Education (n=186) n % Istanbul 72 38,5 Junior high 6 3,2 Mersin 50 26,7 College 26 14,0 Other cities 65 34,8 Vocational School 14 7,5 Profession (n=181) n % University 120 64,5 Student 71 39,2 Masters-PHD 20 10,8 Tourism professional 26 14,4 Age (n=148) n % Academician 9 5,0 27 and below 89 60,1 Government Official 15 8,3 28 and above 59 39,9 Others 60 33,1

Demographic features of participants have been shown on Table 1. 56,7 % (n=106) of participants are male, 67,8 % (n=120) are single, 64,5 % (n=120) have bachelor’s degree and 60,1 % (n=89) are aged 27 and below. Moreover, 33,7 % (n=59) have a monthly income of 1.500 TL or less, 38,5 % (n=89) live in Istanbul and 39,2 % (n=71) are students. Explanatory factor analysis has been applied in order to determine the validity of scales which

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have been utilized within the scope of the study. It has been determined that eigenvalue should be more than 1, it should have a loading of 0,500 with the relevant factor (Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson, 2010) loading discrepency between two overlapped factors should be at least 0,100 (Büyüköztürk, 2002) and varimax variation should be applied. Explanatory factor analysis results regarding Visitor Motivation Scale are shown in Table 2. Table 2.Explanatory Factor Analysis Results Factor Mean Variance Visitor Motivation Scale loading explained Eigenvalue (%) Enhancing Knowledge and Gaining Experience 4,138 15,343 3,836 I attend the event to increase my knowledge 0,816 4,112 I attend the event to learn about attractions of 0,793 4,215 destinations in Turkey and to gain experience I attend the event to learn event’s details 0,770 4,000 I attend the event because I enjoy tourism 0,704 4,120 I attend the event to enjoy new experiences 0,643 4,140 I attend the event because I enjoy events related to 0,603 4,162 tourism I attend the event to see new and different things 0,553 4,218 Escape 3,352 14,764 3,691 I attend the event for a change of pace from everyday life 0,865 3,398 I attend the event to relieve daily stress 0,812 3,268 I attend the event to escape from routine life 0,781 3,554 I attend the event to relieve boredom 0,757 3,016 I attend the event after hearing about it and sounded like 0,658 3,521 fun Family / friends togetherness 3,623 11,553 2,888 I attend the event to spend time with my family/friends 0,809 3,483 I attend the event to increase friends/family kinship 0,778 3,708 I attend the event because I thought the entire 0,714 3,605 family/friends would enjoy it. I attend the event to help my family/friends learn more 0,688 3,695 about EMITT Novelty 4,054 10,780 2,695 I attend the event seeking novelty 0,823 4,102 I believe event offers excitement 0,756 3,934 I attend the event because of my curiosity 0,616 4,125 Event attractions 3,858 10,072 2,518 I attend the event to be with people who enjoy the same 0,711 3,758 things I do I attend the event because of the people who I enjoy 0,658 3,766 being with I attend the event because I enjoy special events 0,584 3,957 I attend the event to enjoy a unique atmosphere 0,584 3,951 Socialization 3,665 5,997 1,449 I attend the event with my friends 0,716 3,713 I attend the event with a group 0,637 3,618 KMO value: 0,869; Bartlett's test: 2565,582; Total Variance Explained: %68,509; General Mean: 3,805; Reliability coefficient: 0,909 Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) value in Visitor Motivation Scale is 0,869. Moreover, the result of Bartlett test is suggestive (x²=2565,582; p<0,001). Both test results suggest that factor analysis can be applied on the scale. As a result of explanatory factor analysis; since an article gave loading to two

625 factors and three items’ factor loadings were lower than 0,500 they were excluded from analysis. 25 remaining articles have been gathered under 6 factors and variance was stated to be about 69 %. It can be said that scale consisted of 6 dimensions as it was in its original form. Confirmatory factor analysis was proceeded after explanatory factor analysis. Confirmatory factor analysis tests whether data gathered from assessment instrument are structures valid for explaining the relevant phenomena (Çokluk, Şekercioğlu and Büyüköztürk, 2010: 177). Table 3.Confirmatory Factor Analysis Results Scale items Stadardized Error T- AVE CR Loading Margin Value Enhancing Knowledge and Gaining 0,50 0,87 Experience I attend the event to increase my knowledge 0,67 0,54 9,90 I attend the event to learn about attractions of 0,63 0,62 8,81 destinations in Turkey and to gain experience I attend the event to learn event’s details 0,78 0,40 11,97 I attend the event because I enjoy tourism 0,76 0,42 11,68 I attend the event to enjoy new experiences 0,69 0,52 10,23 I attend the event because I enjoy events related 0,69 0,53 10,13 to tourism I attend the event to see new and different things 0,69 0,52 10,22 Escape 0,61 0,83 I attend the event for a change of pace from 0,76 0,42 11,80 everyday life I attend the event to relieve daily stress 0,77 0,41 12,02 I attend the event to escape from routine life 0,86 0,27 14,10 I attend the event to relieve boredom 0,84 0,29 13,77 I attend the event after hearing about it and 0,64 0,59 9,32 sounded like fun Family / friends togetherness 0,57 0,80 I attend the event to spend time with my 0,58 0,66 8,28 family/friends I attend the event to increase friends/family 0,88 0,23 14,38 kinship I attend the event because I thought the entire 0,88 0,23 14,35 family/friends would enjoy it. I attend the event to help my family/friends learn 0,64 0,60 9,25 more about EMITT Novelty 0,56 0,75 I attend the event seeking novelty 0,73 0,47 10,66 I believe event offers excitement 0,85 0,28 12,91 I attend the event because of my curiosity 0,66 0,57 9,31 Event attractions 0,50 0,80 I attend the event to be with people who enjoy the 0,71 0,49 10,53 same things I do I attend the event because of the people who I 0,69 0,52 10,08 enjoy being with I attend the event because I enjoy special events 0,70 0,51 10,26 I attend the event to enjoy a unique atmosphere 0,72 0,48 10,71 Socialization 0,65 0,67 I attend the event with my friends 0,85 0,27 12,13 I attend the event with a group 0,76 0,42 10,76

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Results of confirmatory factor analysis have been shown in Table 3. As Hair, Black, Babin and Anderson (2006: 777) stated, standardized values are intended to be higher than 0,50. As a result of confirmatory factor analysis, it has been found out that all standardized values of scale items subject to analysis are higher than 0,50. Moreover, t-values should be higher than ±1,96 so that items about factors should be suggestive in statistical aspect (Schumacker ve Lomax, 2004: 70). It was found that the lowest t-value of items is 8,28 and both articles are suggestive. On the other side, Average Variance Extracted (AVE) and Composite Reliability (CR) values of variables considered necessary for Convergent Validity are given in Table 3. Table 4.Goodness-of-Fit Statistics Belonging to Scale Visitor Reference Values Goodness-of-Fit Statistics Motivation Perfect Goodness-of- Acceptable Goodness- Scale Fit Value of-Fit Value X2/ df 2,19 0≤ X2/ df≤ 2 2

Fornell and Larcker (1981) emphesized that CR value should be higher than 0,70 and AVE should be higher than 0,50. It has been realized that CR value of socialization dimension is 0,67. However, Hair, et al. (2010) stated that CR values over 0,60 are acceptable when construct validity of scale is agreeable. Goodness of fit statistic values to scale has been shown in Table 4. Reference values for perfect and acceptable goodness of fit value have been shown same table as well. It was found out that normalized chi-square (X2/ df) 2,19; RMSEA 0,8; CFI 0,95; SRMR 0,08; GFI 0,95; AGFI 0,95. All the indices suggest a good fit of the scale to the data. The means, standard deviations, and correlations among the variables have been shown in Table 5. Table 5. Means, Standard Deviations, Cronbach’s Alpha and Correlations of Observed Variables Enhancing Family/ Knowledge and Event Sociali- Escape Friends Novelty Gaining Attractions zation Togetherness Experience Enhancing Knowledge 1 and Gaining Experience Escape 0,083 1 Family/Friends 0,224** 0,462** 1 Togetherness Novelty 0,505** 0,311** 0,350** 1 Event Attractions 0,365** 0,570** 0,539** 0,550** 1 Socialization 0,283** 0,427** 0,456** 0,476** 0,526** 1 Mean 4,138 3,352 3,623 4,054 3,858 3,665 Standard Deviation 0,693 1,028 0,966 0,844 0,826 1,175 Cronbach’s Alpha 0,865 0,878 0,834 0,777 0,798 0,787 **p<0.01

Dimension of ‘enhancing knowledge and gaining experience’ has significant and positive correlation with dimensions of ‘family / friends togetherness’ (r=0,224; p˂0,01), ‘novelty’ (r=0,505; p˂0,01), ‘event attractions’ (r=0,365; p˂0,01), ‘socialization’ (r=0,283; p˂0,01); Dimension of ‘escape’ has significant and positive correlation with dimensions of ‘family / friends togetherness’ (r=0,462; p˂0,01), ‘novelty’ (r=0,311; p˂0,01), ‘event attractions’(r=0,570; p˂0,01), ‘socialization’ (r=0,427; p˂0,01); Dimension of ‘family / friends togetherness’ has significant and positive correlation with

627 dimensions of ‘novelty’ (r=0,350; p˂0,01), ‘event attractions’(r=0,539; p˂0,01), ‘socialization’(r=0,456; p˂0,01); Dimension of ‘novelty’ has significant and positive correlation with dimensions of ‘event attractions’(r=0,550; p˂0,01), ‘socialization’ (r=0,476; p˂0,01); Dimension of ‘event attractions’ has significant and positive correlation with ‘socialization’ (r=0,526; p˂0,01). Cluster analysis has been made in order to divide motivations of visitors participating in EMITT fair into segments. Main purpose of cluster analysis is to group the observations according to certain possessed characteristics. Although 1.000 or more observations are required for cluster analysis to make representation capability strong, 100 observation values could be enough to make clusters (Hair et al., 2010). First of all, hierarchical cluster analysis has been made and it has been seen that 2 or 3 clusters may occur by examining agglomeration coefficients. Then it has been realized that the number of clusters between 2 and 4 could be suitable through K-means cluster analysis. In this context, 3 clusters have been generated through K-means cluster analysis. Cluster analysis results have been given in detail in Table 6. Cluster 1: Knowledge and Experience seekers. This cluster consists of 42 visitors. The reason why this cluster is called ‘knowledge and experience seekers’ is that dimension of Enhancing knowledge and gaining experience has the highest mean score (x̅ = 3.95). Moreover, a characteristic name has been given as mean scores of other dimensions are lower compared to the dimension of Enhancing knowledge and gaining experience. Cluster 2: Multi-purpose seekers. This cluster consists of 110 visitors. It can be said that 110 visitors make their visits with multi-purposes rather than one motivation. It can be said that means are close to each other when considering means of dimensions. In this context, this cluster is called as multi-purpose seekers. Cluster 3: Novelty seekers. This cluster consists of 35 visitors. The reason why this cluster is called novelty seekers is that the dimension of seeking novelty has the highest mean score (x̅ = 3.84). It has been envisaged that the name novelty seekers will be suitable as other dimension means are lower compared to this dimension. Table 6.Cluster Analysis Cluster I Cluster II Cluster III F-Value I-II I -III II -III (n=42) (n= 110) (n=35) Enhancing Knowledge and 3,95x 4,36 3,59 17,826*** ** n/ay *** Gaining Experience Escape 2,14 3,72 3,64 62,993*** *** *** n/a Family/ Friends 2,36 4,11 3,59 107,113*** *** *** *** Togetherness Novelty 3,49 4,37 3,84 24,107*** *** n/a *** Event Attractions 2,92 4,28 3,65 79,484*** *** *** *** Socialization 2,72 4,41 2,47 123,986*** *** n/a *** Knowledge Multi- and Novelty Cluster Name purpose Experience seekers seekers seekers *p<0.05; **p<0.01; ***p<0.001 xMean values were computed on the basis of 5 Likert scale(1=strongly disagree, 3=neutral, 5=strongly agree) yn/a indicates ‘not significant’ 5. CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTIONS The present study’s results shows that there are some similarities and differences between literature and the present study’s findings to categorize motivations of fair visitors. In the current study, it was found that visitors can be divided into 3 different groups as “Knowledge and Experience seekers”, “Multi-purpose seekers” and “Novelty seekers”. When considering Knowledge-Experience seekers, the study is similar to Tanner, et al. (2001), Breiter and Milman (2006), Kozak and Kayar (2008),

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Guerreiro, et al. (2011) and Ivkov, et al.’s (2015) studies. Tanner, et al. (2001) concluded in their research that there could be five different groups. “Browsers”, which is one of five different groups, stands for those visiting for getting information. In this context, it can be said that this finding matchs up with first group of our study. Similarly, Kozak ve Kayar (2008) found that the main motivation of people visiting EMITT fair organized in 2006 was to learn the latest developments on products and services. Guerreiro, et al. (2011) found that one of main motivations was intellectual enrichment. Ivkov, et al. (2015) divided fair visitors into two groups. One of the groups was those searching for information. Multi-purpose seekers, second group, is similar to studies carried out by Tanner, et al. (2001), Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012) and Lee, et al.’s (2013). Tanner, et al. (2001) named visitors who participate in fairs for getting information about products and services, buying products and services they like and following the activities which contribute to their careers as “multi-purpose seekers.” Similarly, multi-purpose visitors having many aims such as buying, getting information, joining the seminars and following tourism theme are one of the groups stated by Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012). Other multi-purpose group was found out by Lee, et al. (2013). Motivations of visitors in this group are to search for culture, family togetherness, event attraction, socialization, novelty and escape factors. Novelty seekers, the last group of our study, can be said to be similar to only Guerreiro, et al.’s (2011) findings. Within the scope of differences, shoppers group indicated by Tanner, et al. (2001) can be stated as completely different from specified groups. Moreover, Rittichainuwat and Mair (2012) stated that one of their two groups was shoppers group. The main reason for this difference is that events have different themes. The study supporting this difference was conducted by Kozak and Kayar (2008). It was concluded that one of lowest motivations of visitors participating in EMITT fair organized in 2006 was to do shopping. Breiter and Milman (2006) emphesized that destination attraction as a different motivation in their studies. Main reason for not seeking destination attraction in the study was that this study wasn’t planned as local participant-oriented. It is possible to observe another difference in the study made by Lee, et al. (2013). This difference is that there are visitors searching for casual activities. Such a difference may arise due to different dimensions of scale used in the study. The last difference is that a leisure group occurs in the study carried out by Ivkov, et al. (2015). Escape and novelty dimensions in our study equal with leisure group in spite of not fully being equal. This difference may only be stemmed from naming. It can be concluded that three groups constituted within the scope of this study are supported by previous studies in literature. On the other hands, it is realized that theme and subject of organized events are important when taking differences into consideration. Basic motivations of visitors can vary in view of theme and subject of the event. Moreover, many different themes and sampling can be accessed if literature is reviewed before fairs are organized. Information about visitors’ motivations can be achieved when these studies are analyzed. In this context, event managers can shape the event based on these outputs. Finally, as different groups regarding visitor motivations may arise, it is more suitable to divide activity area into sections and manage the activity in this way. The first limitation of the study is that calculated sample size couldn’t be achieved. Main reason why sample size couldn’t be achieved is that EMITT was open for limited days and area open for public was also limited. On the other hand, it was thought that it would be appropriate to take only visitors into consideration while design the study and calculate the sample. Data about business representatives participating in fair can be collected in the other studies. Such a study may help us better understand participant motivation. Moreover, study data was collected by means of convenience sampling method. Quota sampling method can be used for a better group analysis in the future. REFERENCES Bowdin, G., O'Toole, W., Allen, J., Harris, R. & McDonnell, I. (2006). Events management. Routledge. Breiter, D., & Milman, A. (2006). Attendees’ needs and service priorities in a large convention center: Application of the importance–performance theory. Tourism Management, 27(6), 1364-1370. Browning, J. M., & Adams, R. J. (1988). Trade shows: an effective promotional tool for the small industrial business. Journal of Small Business Management, 26(4), 31-36.

629 Buhalis, D. (2000). Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism Manag., 21(1), 97-116. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2002). Faktör Analizi: Temel Kavramlar ve Ölçek Geliştirmede Kullanımı. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi, 32(32), 470-483. Çokluk, Ö., Şekercioğlu, G. & Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2010). Sosyal Bilimler İçin Çok Değişkenli İstatistik - Spss ve Lisrel Uygulamaları. Ankara: Pegem Akademi. Diaz-Martin, Ana M., Iglesias, V., Vazquez, R. & Ruiz, A. V. (2000). The use of quality expectations to segment a service market. Journal of Services Marketing,14(2), 132-146. Dolnicar, S. (2005). Understanding Barriers To Leisure Travel: Tourist Fears as a Marketing Basis. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 11(3), 197-208. Dolnicar, S. (2008). Market segmentation in tourism. in Woodside, AG and Martin, D (eds), Tourism Management: Analysis, Behaviour and Strategy, CAB International, Cambridge, 129-150. Ekin, Y. (2011). Etkinlik turizmi kapsamında festivaller ve Antalya Altın Portakal Film Festivali’nin yerel halk üzerindeki sosyal etkileri konulu bir araştırma. Turizm İşletmeciliği ve Otelcilik Ana Bilim Dalı, Doktora Tezi, Antalya. Fornell, C., & Larcker, D. F. (1981). Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. Journal of marketing research, 39-50. Fredline, L., Jago, L. & Deery, M. (2003). The development of a generic scale to measure the social impacts of events. Event management, 8(1), 23-37. Getz, D. (1989). Special events: Defining the product. Tourism Management, 10(2), 125-137. Getz, D. (1997). Event management & event tourism (pp. 212-215). NY: Cognizant Commun. Corporation. Godar, S. H., & O'connor, P. J. (2001). Same time next year—buyer trade show motives. Industrial Marketing Management, 30(1), 77-86. Guerreiro, M., Valle, P. & Mendes, J. (2011). What Motivates Visitors of a Medieval Fair?. Tourim Today. Fall: 27-39. Hair, J. F., & Black, W. C. Babin. BJ. ve Anderson, RE (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E. & Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (Vol. 6). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall. Ivkov, M., Blesic, I., Raljic, J. P., Dzigurski, A. I., Pivac, T., & Jovanovic, T. (2015). Visitors' motives for attending a Hybrid Event: A case study of agrıcultural fair. Ekonomika Poljoprivrede, 62(1), 9. Jago, L. K., & Shaw, R. N. (1998). Special events: A conceptual and definitional framework. Festival Management and Event Tourism, 5(1-2), 21-32. Juaneda, C. & Francisco S. (1999). Balearic islands tourism: a case study in demographic segmentation. Tourism Management, 20, 549-552. Kozak, N. (2005, December). The expectations of exhibitors in tourism, hospitality, and the travel industry: A case study on East Mediterranean Tourism and Travel Exhibition. In Journal of Convention & Event Tourism (Vol. 7, No. 3-4, pp. 99-116). Taylor & Francis Group. Kozak, N. (2006). Turizm Pazarlaması. Detay Yayıncılık. Ankara. Kozak, N., & Kayar, C. H. (2008). Visitors' objectives for trade exhibition attendance: A case study on the East Mediterranean Int. Tourism and Travel Exhibition (EMITT). Event Management, 12(3-4), 133-141. Lee, C. K., Kang, S. K., & Lee, Y. K. (2013). Segmentation of mega event motivation: The case of Expo 2010 Shanghai China. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, 18(6), 637-660. Lee, C. K., Lee, Y. K., & Wicks, B. E. (2004). Segmentation of festival motivation by nationality and satisfaction. Tourism management, 25(1), 61-70. Lee, M. J., Yeung, S., & Dewald, B. (2010, August). An exploratory study examining the determinants of attendance motivations as perceived by attendees at Hong Kong exhibitions. In Journal of Convention & Event Tourism (Vol. 11, No. 3, pp. 195-208). Taylor & Francis Group. Menon, S., & Edward, M. (2014). Exhibitors and visitors’ motivations at destination trade shows. International Journal of Services, Economics and Management 4, 6(2), 193-208. Morrison, Alastair M. (1989). Hospitality and Travel Marketing. 1st Edition, Delmar Publishing, New York. Munuera, J. L., & Ruiz, S. (1999). Trade fairs as services: a look at visitors’ objectives in Spain. Journal of Business Research, 44(1), 17-24. Rittichainuwat, B., & Mair, J. (2012). Visitor attendance motivations at consumer travel exhibitions. Tourism management, 33(5), 1236-1244. Schumacker, R. E. ve Lomax, R. G. (2004). A Beginner's Guide to Structural Equation Modeling.

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Psychology Press. Sekaran,U. (1992), Research Methodsfor Business, John Wiley & Sons,New York, NY. Tanner Jr, J. F., Chonko, L. B., & Ponzurick, T. V. (2001, September). A learning model of trade show attendance. In Journal of Convention & Exhibition Management (Vol. 3, No. 3, pp. 3-26). Taylor & Francis Group. Whitfield, J., & Webber, D. J. (2011). Which exhibition attributes create repeat visitation?. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 30(2), 439-447. K. Kalkınma Ajansı (2015). http://www.karacadag.org.tr/SayfaDownload/2015 %20Emitt % 20Fuar%20 Raporu.pdf Emittistanbul (2016). http://www.emittistanbul.com/fuar-hakkinda/genel-bilgi UNWTO (2016). http://cf.cdn.unwto.org/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_barom16_01_january_excerpt.pdf

631 Chapter 56

The Evaluation of the Tourism and Recreational Potential of Amasra in Terms of Landscape Planning

Ömer Lütfü ÇORBACI*

INTRODUCTION Landscape planning not only bridges the processes of spatial planning for land use and the impact assessment for natural resources, but also provides the basis for appropriate and rational management of the natural and cultural values. Before planning, determination of the criteria for protection and development of the natural and cultural resources, bringing these values into the forefront and evaluation of the landscape potential according to these values are highly important. Not only the current conditions but also the future effects should be taken into account within the context of landscape planning for a successful strategic planning. The countries that prioritize the natural and cultural values and that protect develop and use the potential and kinetic power may maintain sustainable benefits. Within this context, landscape planning aims to use the natural and cultural resources in an effective way in order to meet the demands of the users in a better and sustainable way. The primary aim of planning is to prepare plans that do not damage common resources or ecological balances, do not create new environmental problems and that maintain a sustainable environment. Proper definition, analysis and evaluation of the landscape problems and the factors are crucial to attain this primary aim. Natural and cultural assets of the landscape and the characteristics of the landscape are analyzed within the context of landscape analysis (Ürgenç, 2000). According to Buchwald &Engelharddt (1980), the aims of landscape planning include the followings:  Efficiency and characteristics of the nature  Usage potential of the natural resources  Protection of flora and fauna  Providing recreational potential for tranquility in nature With the developments in computer technology, the CBS and the Remote Sensing (RS) techniques have been widely used in landscape planning. With the CBS technique, the processes of data transfer, formation of a standard database, and the evaluation and interpretation of data over different maps became easier. As such, data may be updated easily. Furthermore, CBS technique may be used to evaluate past natural events or the effects of humans (Bradley & Hammond 1992, Uzun et al., 2010). Works on determination of the tourism and recreation potential constitute one of the stages of landscape planning. Main characteristics of tourism may be listed as follows (Pirselimoğlu, 2007):  Constitutes an important stage for promotion of countries  Holds an important role in social life and development of countries  Protection of the natural and historical values at an area have effects for tourism  Tourism plans envision the construction of facilities that do not damage the environment  Main priority of tourism is the promotion of the site while protecting its values  May be considered as an important industry that integrates historical, cultural and natural beauties with technology  Helps the visitors to maintain social and individual tranquility in natural and cultural areas by removing them from the crowds of urban areas  While planning recreational areas, information about protection and management of the carrying capacities of the areas that are allocated for recreational facilities is required. Recreational carrying capacity refers to the capacity that the resources may be used or the recreational facilitiesmay

* Assoc. Prof. Dr., Karabuk University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture

be carried out without damaging their characteristics or quality (Koç & Şahin, 1999). MATERIALS AND METHODS In order to provide a comprehensive evaluation in planning process, borders of the research site should be determined at first. While determining the research siteborders of this study, we primarily used the administrative borders but also took the natural resources into account. Given that this study is primarily concerned with the district of Amasra, it is inevitable that the borders of the research site are determined by the administrative borders. The materials used for this research include data on natural and cultural values about the Amasra district and around, observations conducted during the visits to the research site, evaluations of the experts and academicians, interviews conducted with the local inhabitants, administrators and village headmen, and the previous studies on Amasra that were conducted by public and private institutions. We primarily benefited from the following maps and reports:  1/25.000 scale topographical map for the sites of E28b4, E28b3, E29a4, E28c1, E28c2, and E29d1 (Ministry of Defense, General Command of Mapping),  1/1000 and 1/5000 scale master plan and report for the research site (The Bank of Provinces),  Landsat satellite pictures. While preparing the maps, conducting the analysis and applying the method, we used the ArcGIS 10 CBS Software that enables us to select and monitor data in different combinations and that provides all mapping functions, data type support, data management and analysis capacity. While constructing the database for the research site, we used Microsoft Access software since it is compatible with the CBS software and since the data control is easier. Research method includes the stages of defining the existing landscape, creating the inventory, revealing the operations and forming the quality maps. As indicated by the European Landscape Agreement, landscape planning process comprises two stages: defining the landscape and evaluation of the landscape. Landscape inventory provides data about the landscape that defines the items, which contributes to the landscape characteristics, and the relationship between these items. On the other hand, aesthetics and perceptional data should also be taken into consideration in order to analyze the effects of landscape over spatial feelings. The process of landscape inventory includes the stages of defining the research site, determining the factors and sub-factors, and analysis and evaluation of the environmental characteristics and touristic resources. Within this context, environmental characteristics and tourism resources are evaluated under two different headings:  Cultural characteristics (settlements and administrative structure, population, educational status, health services, transportation facilities, economic structure, protection areas and environmental characteristics).  Natural characteristics (topographical structure, slope groups, exposure characteristics, geological structure, soil structure, land usage capacity classification, erosion levels, geomorphic structure, hydrological structure, permeability, shore formation, flora and fauna). Maps that include topographical structure, slope groups, exposure characteristics, geological structure, soil structure, land usage capacity classification, erosion levels, geomorphic structure, hydrological structure, and permeability of the research area were scanned and geometrically corrected by using Georeferencing, Rectification command of the ArcGIS 10 software. The images that were resampled were digitized and transferred to the CBS. Data obtained from each natural and cultural resources was evaluated within the context of landscaping and the maps of landscape inventory were drawn. These maps were updated in line with the interviews with the local inhabitants, the producers and the administrators. The study determined the potential tourism and recreational resources for the research area. Next, potential tourism and recreational types that may be conducted at the research area were decided upon. In its final stage, the areas with high tourism and recreation potential were decided, density analysis of these areas were conducted and the tourism and recreation routes were formed.

633 FINDINGS Location of Research Area and Borders The research area, Amasra district of Bartın province, is located at the Western Black sea region of Turkey. The latitude of Amasra is 41° 45' 2'' N and the longitude is 32° 1' 49'' E. Amasra is bordered by Kurucaşile to the north, Bartın to the west, Black sea to the north and Arıt to the south. Amasra town is located over a peninsula that was formed with the connection of the Tekke Hill and theKüçük, Boztepe and Zindan Islands by alluvial deposits. The peninsula is neighbored by the Büyük (Tavşan) Island. Amasra, which occupies an area of 120 km² hosts two harbors:Büyük Liman(Large Harbor) to the east and Küçük Liman(Small Harbor) to the west. The distance between the two harbors is nearly 200 meters and the length of the peninsula is around 1.5 km. Recording Method and Form for Landscape Items During the preliminary stage of the field study, we classified the resources that are used to evaluate the landscape of the research area into 8 groups: water resources, wetland resources, topographic resources, historical and cultural resources, archeological resources, wildlife, service areas and general landscape pattern. The classification, which is based on Belknap & Furtado (1967) and Şahin et al. (2012) comprises subgroups for each groups. Data collection, coding, recording and classification of landscape items during the fieldwork were conducted according to Table 1. Table 1: List of codes of the historical and cultural resources of the filed study (Adapted from Şahin et al., (2012) T&R_ T&R_ RESOURCE TYPE RESOURCE _ RESOURCE TYPE RESOURCE _ CODE CODE 4. Historical and Cultural 1. Water Resources K_KOD1 K_KOD4 Resources 1.1 Natural Water Resources K_KOD1.1 Museums K_KOD4.0.6 Stream K_KOD1.1.1 Local Sales Points K_KOD4.0.7 Waterfalls K_KOD1.1.2 Ghost Towns K_KOD4.0.8 Fast Flowing K_KOD1.1.3 Art Museums K_KOD4.0.9 Stream(canoeing-rafting) Wadi K_KOD1.1.4 Local Festivals K_KOD4.0.10 Bays and/or Beaches K_KOD1.1.5 Turkish Baths K_KOD4.0.11 Natural Water Resources K_KOD1.1.6 Historical Remains K_KOD4.0.12 (Spring) Standing Water Surface(Lake K_KOD1.1.7 Historical War Arenas K_KOD4.0.13 etc.) Spring K_KOD1.1.8 Historical Cemeteries K_KOD4.0.14 Thermal K_KOD1.1.9 Shopping Centers K_KOD4.0.15 Straits K_KOD1.1.10 Aqueducts K_KOD4.0.16 1.2 Human made K_KOD1.2 Interesting Civil Architecture K_KOD4.0.17 Landing Stage (marina) K_KOD1.2.1 Holy Places K_KOD4.0.18 Cistern K_KOD1.2.2 Mausoleums K_KOD4.0.19 Camping K_KOD1.2.3 Large Tombs K_KOD4.0.20 Boatyard K_KOD1.2.4 Caravansaries- Inns K_KOD4.0.21 Water Mill K_KOD1.2.5 Mosques K_KOD4.0.22 Boat Usage K_KOD1.2.6 Churches K_KOD4.0.23 Dams K_KOD1.2.7 Synagogues K_KOD4.0.24 Reservoirs K_KOD1.2.8 Djemevi K_KOD4.0.25 Special Water Constructions K_KOD1.2.9 Open-Air Prayer Place K_KOD4.0.26 Fish Production Facilities K_KOD1.2.10 Monuments K_KOD4.0.27 2. Wetland Resources K_KOD2 War Graves K_KOD4.0.28

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T&R_ T&R_ RESOURCE TYPE RESOURCE _ RESOURCE TYPE RESOURCE _ CODE CODE 2.1 Natural K_KOD2.1 Historical Settlement Sites K_KOD4.0.29 Hunting Grounds K_KOD2.1.1 Minarets K_KOD4.0.30 Observation Areas K_KOD2.1.2 Prayer Rooms K_KOD4.0.31 Wetlands K_KOD2.1.3 Madrasahs K_KOD4.0.32 2.2 Cultural K_KOD2.2 Single piece historical remain K_KOD4.0.33 Hunting Development Areas K_KOD2.2.1 Altars andmines K_KOD4.0.34 Wildlife Development Areas K_KOD2.2.2 Unique Plants and Flowers K_KOD4.0.35 Local Cloths, Fabrics and Observation Towers K_KOD2.2.3 K_KOD4.0.36 Carpets Wetland Protection Projects K_KOD2.2.4 Studs K_KOD4.0.37 3. Topographic Resources K_KOD3 Monastery K_KOD4.0.38 3.1 Natural K_KOD3.1 Protected Areas K_KOD4.0.39 Cave K_KOD3.1.1 Recorded Trees and Woods K_KOD4.0.40 Natural Bridges K_KOD3.1.2 Historical Paths K_KOD4.0.41 Old Factories and Sea Cliff K_KOD3.1.3 K_KOD4.0.42 Manufacturing Plants Fossil Areas K_KOD3.1.4 HistoricalFountains K_KOD4.0.43 Fairy Chimney K_KOD3.1.5 Islamic Social Complexes K_KOD4.0.44 Glacier Remains K_KOD3.1.6 Monuments/Statues K_KOD4.0.45 Canyon K_KOD3.1.7 Old Settlements K_KOD4.0.46 Other geomorphological K_KOD3.1.8 Mountain Houses K_KOD4.0.47 formations Plateau K_KOD3.1.9 Tunnels K_KOD4.0.48 Geosites K_KOD3.1.10 5. Archeological Resources K_KOD5 Hills K_KOD3.1.11 Amphitheaters K_KOD5.0.1 Mountains K_KOD3.1.12 Archaeological Settlements K_KOD5.0.2 3. Topographical Resources K_KOD3 5. Archeological Resources K_KOD5 Plains K_KOD3.1.13 Castles and/or Walls K_KOD5.0.3 Valleys K_KOD3.1.14 Aqueducts K_KOD5.0.4 Rocky Terrain K_KOD3.1.15 Cistern K_KOD5.0.5 Islands K_KOD3.1.16 Hoyuks K_KOD5.0.6 3.2 Cultural K_KOD3.2 Tumulus K_KOD5.0.7 Climbing K_KOD3.2.1 Archaeological Cemeteries K_KOD5.0.8 Golf K_KOD3.2.2 Bath Remains K_KOD5.0.9 Ski Slopes K_KOD3.2.3 6. Wildlife K_KOD6 Telfer-Chair Lift-Tele ski- K_KOD3.2.4 Wildlife Protection Areas K_KOD6.0.1 baby lift Nature Tour Routes K_KOD3.2.5 7. Service Areas K_KOD7 Picnic Sites K_KOD3.2.6 Hospital K_KOD7.0.1 Camping(long stay-daytrip) K_KOD3.2.7 Telephone K_KOD7.0.2 Off-road K_KOD3.2.8 Fountain K_KOD7.0.3 Important Agricultural K_KOD3.2.9 Pharmacy K_KOD7.0.4 Landscape Swimming K_KOD3.2.10 Accommodation K_KOD7.0.5 4. Historical and Cultural K_KOD4 Fuel Stations K_KOD7.0.6 Resources Bridges K_KOD4.0.1 Toilets K_KOD7.0.7 Old Mills K_KOD4.0.2 Restaurants K_KOD7.0.8 Old Mines K_KOD4.0.3 Dry Cleaning K_KOD7.0.9 Mines K_KOD4.0.4 Social Facilities K_KOD7.0.10

635 T&R_ T&R_ RESOURCE TYPE RESOURCE _ RESOURCE TYPE RESOURCE _ CODE CODE Historical Buildings and K_KOD4.0.5 8. General Landscape Pattern K_KOD8 Houses Visual and Mental Landscape K_KOD8.0.1 Data Collection and Evaluation for Tourism and Recreational Areas Data obtained from the field study was combined with the data obtained from the literature review, which was conducted before the field study. Resources that were photographed during the field study were recorded as “controlled data” according to their locations in the field. We recorded data that exists in the literature but that we could not found its location as “uncontrolled data”. Determination of Potential Resources: We determined potential tourism and recreational resources by analyzing all the data obtained from the research site. While determining the resources, we placed special attention to those that represent the research area at its best and that may attract the tourists. Determination of Tourism and Recreational Activity Types: Tourism and recreational activity types were grouped under the headings of natural, cultural and recreational. Next, these activities were classified according to whether their resources were natural or cultural. Table 2 shows the tourism infrastructure types and the tourism and recreational activity types. As Table 2 shows, local recreation area in cludes both the cultural and nature tourism types. The difference between these two tourism types is that the first is conducted at the natural areas (natural parks, forestland, etc.) whereas the second is found at cultural areas (town, village etc.). Table 2: Infrastructure, Tourism and Recreational Activity Types Tourism and Recreational Activity Types Code Trz_Type Culture Code Trz_Type_Natural At Archeology and Historical Tourism M Speleological Tourism Water-based Tourism Activities (Diving, Kf Congress and Fair Tourism Sd Line Fishingetc.) F Festival Tourism Kı Coastal Tourism Traditions and Customs Tourism(Turkish Gg D Sea Tourism Embroidery) Ky Cultural Walking Tours Y Yacht Tourism İ Faith Tourism Yt Sailing Tourism A Hunting Tourism Kt Canoe Tourism Local Recreation Area(Parks and Yr Dy Trekking Gardens) At Agro Tourism Df Nature Photography Gastronomic Tourism (Amasra Salad, Gt B Botanic Tourism Fish) Wildlife Watching (Butterfly, Mountain Infrastructure Types Fg Goat, etc.) Code Trz_Sub_Type Kg Birdwatching K Accommodation Ik Climatism L Restaurant Ds Mountain Sports Kk Campingand Caravan Tourism Hs Air Sports (Paragliding, So Health Center Yr Local Recreational Areas(Picnic Areas) E Pharmacy J Geological Turizm Yi Fuel Station Bs Bike Tourism Ad Horse Riding in Nature M Museum O Off-road Tourism

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Scoring and Mapping Potential Tourism and Recreational Resources Evaluation of data about the potential tourism and recreational resources was based on the study of Şahin et al. (2012). While scoring, we placed special emphasis to the characteristics of the research area. This is related with that density of the resources at different geographical areas may influence their tourism and recreation potential in the eyes of both the tourists and the investors. Maps were drawn by combining data obtained from the literature and from the field study. The maps were drawn in four stages:  Potential Tourism and Recreational Resources Score Map  Map of Access to Potential Tourism and Recreational Resources  Map of Analysis of Distance to the Main Roads  Map of Areas with High Potential for Tourism and Recreation Potential Tourism and Recreational Resources Score Map: 162 potential tourism resources that we found were put a buffer of 500 meters so that people may walk to each resources. The scores given to the resource groups are shown in Table 3. Table 3: Scoring the Resource Groups Resource Groups Explanation Score Other Important Natural Resource Each resource was scored separately 5 Registered resources (Registered by Ministry of Culture, 5 Other Important Cultural Mülga Bartın Cultural and Natural Heritage Preservation Resource Board Unregistered Resources 3 Water-Based Tourism and 5 Point resources and the resources that are currently used Recreation Point resources that are suitable for the development of sport 5 Sports based on Relief Energy activities based on relief energy Sea cliffs, rocky formations near the sea, and rocky 3 Interesting Rocky Formations mountainous areas Wildlife Data on resources obtained from the field study 5 Local Recreational Sites Nature Parks, Picnic Sites, etc. 5 Accommodation and Restaurant Unscored but evaluated as a positive characteristic - Some of the resources may be classified into more than one group. In such cases, the scores obtained from different groups were added in order to calculate the total score of the resource. Figure 1 illustrates the map of potential tourism resource scores. Table 4 shows the number and the scores of the potential tourism points in the research area. We found 203 potential tourism resources in total. 73 of these points are natural and the remaining 130 are cultural resources. The filed study revealed that the research site has more cultural resources than the natural resources. Table 4: Number and Scores of the Potential Tourism Points in the Research Area Score 3 Points 5 Points 8 Points 10 Points Number of 9 152 5 37 Resources

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Figure 1. Potential Tourism Resource Score Map Access to Potential Tourism and Recreational Resources: In order to determine the potential tourism and recreational resources to which daytrips may be conducted, two buffers, the first 5 km, and the second 20 km, has been put. Resources that are found within the 5 km buffer zone were assigned a score of 5 whereas those found in the 5-20 km buffer zone were given a score of 3. Table 5 shows the list of the resources that are found within the buffer zone whereas Figure 2 illustrates these resources on map. Table 5. List of Resources within the 5 and the 20 km Buffer Zones Tourism Type 5 Km 20 Km Archeology and Historical Tourism 38 2 Congress and Fair Tourism 1 - Festival Tourism 1 - Traditions and Customs Tourism (Turkish 3 Embroidery) Cultural Walking Tours 23 - Faith Tourism 5 - Hunting Tourism 2 7 Local Recreation Area (Parks and Gardens) 5 5 Agro Tourism 3 8 Gastronomic Tourism (Amasra Salad, Fish) 7 1 Speleological Tourism 1 2 Water-based Tourism Activities (Diving, Line 14 12 Fishingetc.) Coastal Tourism 13 12 Sea Tourism 4 6 Yacht Tourism 9 8 Sailing Tourism 9 8 Canoe Tourism 9 8 Trekking 5 10 Nature Photography 38 25 Botanic Tourism 34 15

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Table 5. Continued Tourism Type 5 Km 20 Km Wildlife Watching (Butterfly, Mountain Goat, etc.) - 7 Bird Observation 10 7 Climatism 2 Mountain Sports 2 9 Air Sports (Paragliding) 6 Local Recreation Area (Picnic Areas) 3 3 GeologicalTourism 2 3 Bike Tourism 13 6 Camping and Caravan Tourism - 3 Horse Riding in Nature - 5 Infrastructure Type 5 Km 20 Km Health Center 1 - Pharmacy 5 - Telephone 1 - Fuel Station - 1 Museum 1 - Accommodation 30 17 Restaurant 7 1

Figure 2. Potential Tourism and Recreational Resources within the 5 and the 20 km Buffer Zones in the Research Area The tourism types that are predominant in the 5km buffer zone of the research area include nature photography, botanic tourism, archaeology and historical tourism. On the other hand, nature photography, botanic tourism, coastal tourism and water-based tourism activities (diving, line fishing etc.) are the main tourism types within the 20 km buffer zone. Analysis of Distance to the Main Roads: In order to determine the potential tourism and recreational resources that are 500 meters away from the main roads, we put two buffers, first a buffer of 500 meters to the provincial, district and village roads so that the resources are within the walking distance, and second a buffer of 150 meters to the resources so that the resources may be seen by the visitors. The resources that are located at the intersection points of the buffers were assigned a score of 5 points. We found 161 potential tourism and recreational resources within the 500 meters of buffer zone

639 to the main roads. We evaluated the transportation characteristics of the potential resources according to the criteria of comfortable transportation so that stabilized roads and village roads were excluded from the scope of analysis. The findings are illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Map of Analysis of Distance to the Main Roads Our study found 203 potential tourism and recreational resources. 76 of these resources are within walking distance and the scores of these resources are demonstrated in Table 6. 76 of the total 203 potential tourism and recreational resources are within walking distance to the main roads. Table 6. Scores of the Potential Tourism and Recreational Resources according to their Distance to the Main Roads Score Number of Resources Total Number of Resources 3 4 76 5 69 8 2 10 1 Areas with High Potential for Tourism and Recreation In the next step, we used data illustrated in the four maps above. Additionally, we put a buffer of 150 meters to the potential tourism points and a buffer of 500 meters to the main roads so that the potential tourism points may be seen and accessed. We assigned a score of 5 to the points within the buffer zone. We also assigned a score of 5 to the resources that are located within the borders of the Küre Mountain National Park, Ahatlar Natural Park and the Gürcüoluk Natural Park even though these points were far away from the main roads (Figure 4).We assigned a score of 5 points to the water surfaces that are not indicated in the field study. Due to the absence of filed data for these areas, we did not put a buffer. On the other hand, we put a buffer of 500 meters to the smaller streams and the buffer zones were given a score of 5 points. Data on the regional resources was produced at office after the survey. We found that the values ranged between 1 and 30. Table 7 illustrates the surface that these values occupy. Even the areas with very low values have tourism potential. For the regions with no tourism potential, the three criteria mentioned above are not taken into consideration.

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Table 7. General Evaluation Scores and Surface Area Value Scores Hectares 1-5 ( Very Low) 1 9093 5-10 (Low) 2 1366 15 (Medium) 3 87 20-25 (High) 4 72 25-30 (Very High) 5 42

Figure 4. Map of the Areas with High Tourism Potential Potential Density Analysis We conducted potential density analysis in order to find the regions that the 203 potential tourism and recreational resources were concentrated (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Potential Density Analysis of Research Site

641 The findings indicate that the resources are located at two regions of the research area. Cultural resources are mainly concentrated in district center whereas natural resources may be found in all regions. Historical and Cultural Values: District center and the coastal villages are rich of historical and cultural values (Figure 6). These values may be seen in the natural, cultural, recreational, historical and archaeological values list that is given in Table 1.

Figure 6. Historical-Cultural Values Map of Research Site Natural Values: Nearly all the villages in the research area are rich in terms of natural values (Figure 7). These values are shown in the natural, cultural, recreational, historical and archaeological values list that is given in Table 1.

Figure 7. Map of Natural Values of Research Site

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Tourism and Recreational Routes In order to determine the tourism and recreational routes of the research area, we first analyzed the existing tour routes and then proposed new routes based on the resource values in the research area. Determination of the Existing Tourism and Recreation Routes While determining the existing tour routes, we analyzed the travel agents that conduct tours to Amasra. The analysis revealed that the research site was one of the destinations of the Black Sea tours conducted by the travel agents. In addition to its own historical and cultural values, Amasra’s neighborhood to Safranbolu, a city that is one of the 9 historical cities of the UNESCO World Heritage sites, makes Amasra an important destination. Anı Tur, Jolly Tur, Ets Tur, Folklorik Turizm and Amasra Tur are the important travel agents that conduct visits to Amasra. Potential Tourism and Recreation Routes Tourism and recreational routes in Amasra have been divided into the groups of cultural and nature routes. The areas that meet the accommodation demands have been considered as centers for tourism routes. In order to determine the extent to which the resource data fit the tourism types indicated in Table 2, resources were grouped into nine. These groups were indicated in Table 8. Table 8. Resource Groups and Codes Resource Code Resource Codes ÖKK Other Important Natural Resource (Ex:Asker Suyu Fountains) ÖDK Other Important Cultural Resource (Ex: Dede Meşesi) KR Accommodation and Restaurants SDTR Water-Based Tourism and Recreation RS Sports based on Relief Energy(Ex: Çat Çat Stone) İK Interesting Rocky Formations (Sea Cliffs etc.) YY Wildlife YR Local Recreational Sites (Ex: Ahatlar Natural Park) PK Landscape Corridor (Exposure Points)

Cultural Tourism Routes The research site is one of the important historical centers with its history that dates back to 3000 years before our time. Amasra hosts an important number of historical remains. These remains and the archeological remains were used to determine the possible tourism routes determined points were connected to the district center through the roads. Cultural tourism in our study are conducted at two axes (Figure 8).

Figure 8. Potential Cultural Tourism Routes

643 The place that is suitable for cultural tourism is the Amasra district center and its abroad. Historical, cultural and natural values are concentrated at these areas. Most of the tourists prefer this region for accommodation. Besides, cultural tourism activities, such as archeology and historical tourism, congress and fair tourism, festival tourism, traditions and customs tourism, cultural walking tours, faith tourism, hunting tourism, local recreation areas (parks and gardens), agro tourism and gastronomic tourism (Amasra salad, fishetc.) are conducted at this region. The second primary axis for cultural tourism is the Çakraz-Akkonak-Göçgün axis. Smaller number of accommodation facilities are concentrated in this region. Besides, cultural tourism activities such as archeology and historical tourism, hunting tourism, local recreation areas (parks and gardens), agro tourism, and gastronomic tourism (Amasra salad, fish etc.) are held in this region. Furthermore, the start of investigations for the development of agro tourism is suggested for this site. Archeology and Historical Tourism: This is the most frequent type of tourism that is conducted at the research area. Table 1 shows the archeological and historical structures found within the borders of the research area. Congress and Fair Tourism: Amasra Tourism and Training Hotel is the most suitable place for congress and fair tourism in the research area. Festival Tourism: Amasra Yağlı DirekFest, Conquest Celebrations, Barış Akarsu Commeretaion and Music Days, Amasra’s July Culture and Art Days are the names of the festivals conducted within the research area. These festivals are held at the district center of Amasra. Traditions and Customs Tourism: Products that reflect the traditions and customs of the research area are sold at the Çekiciler and Galla marketplaces. Faith Tourism: Historical Fatih Mosque, Kyros Churchand İç Kale Prayer Room are the special places that both the domestic and foreign tourists visit. On the other hand, the Küçüktepe Martyrium that is located at the Tavşan Island is forbidden to be visited. Hunting Tourism: Dense forestlands nearby the research site provides habitat for wildlife. Especially, the wild boars nearby attract the attention of foreign tourists. Gastronomical Tourism: Restaurants in Amasra center serve local foods such as Amasra Salad, sea products, water buffalo yogurt and Çöven bread. Agro Tourism: It is visible that the determined species (Chestnut, apple, hazelnut, cherry, sour cherry and walnut)may be grown in most of the research area. However, apple cannot be grown around Amasra district center, Çakrazşeyhler, and in the villages of Tarlaağazı, Göçkündemirci, Göçkün, Cumayanı, Esenler and Yahyayazıcılar. On the other hand, hazelnut can be cultivated inmost of the research area, except the areas around Saraydüzü, Çanakçılar and Yukarısal villages and the Küre Mountain National Park. The villages of İnpiri, Göçgün, Karakaçak and Cumayanı are suitable places for agro tourism. Nature Tourism Routes The research area that is full of natural values has been analyzed in three axes (Fig. 9). Although the district center of Amasra primarily hosts the cultural sources, the center is also suitable for nature tourism. Coastal tourism sea tourism, yacht tourism, sailing tourism, canoe tourism, trekking, nature photography, botanic tourism, birdwatching mountain sports, local recreation area(picnic areas), geological tourism and bike tourism are conducted in this axis. The marina is also located in this axis. Besides, Ahatlar Natural Park is found in this region. Çakraz-Akkonak-Göçgün-Yukarısal and Küre Mountain National Park constitute the second important axis. This axis is primarily suitable for coastal tourism, sea tourism, yacht tourism, sailing tourism, canoe tourism, trekking, nature photography, botanic tourism, wildlife watching (butterfly, mountain goat, etc.), birdwatching, climatism, mountain sports local recreation area (picnic areas), geological tourism and bike tourism.This axis is expected to become more attractive with the completion of Black Sea coastal road. There are suitable places for horse riding and training of horses within this axis. This region, which has been labelled as alternative tourism development and survey region, is considered for the application of long-term development programs. The third axis is the Tarlaağzı-Gömü-Bakacak Noktası-Kuşkayası axis. This axis hosts a low number of accommodation facilities. Kuşkayası monument, which is the only road monument in Turkey

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and the Bakacak Point are the main important points in this axis. This axis is important mainly for coastal tourism, sea tourism, yacht tourism, sailing tourism, canoe tourism, trekking, nature photography, botanic tourism, birdwatching, climatism, mountain sports, local recreation area (picnic areas), geological tourism and bike tourism. Detailed and long-term tourism development strategies have been developed for rural areas. All opportunities for this disadvantaged region should be mobilized and developed.

Figure 9. Potential Nature Tourism Routes In addition to these, ethnographic tourism has a great potential in the research area. Food and beverage culture, folk dance, folk music, traditions and customs may be attractive for the domestic and foreign tourists, especially for the rural areas. However, the rural area should be prepared for these developments. Primarily, the pensions should be supported. Before all, qualifications of the people that will serve should be increased. Coastal and Sea Tourism: Sea, bays and beaches constitute the most important potential resources of tourism. They are also the main sources of travel motivation. The research area has shores that are about 28 km in total. Except the bays of Akkonak and Karapınar, nearly all the bays and beaches that are located within the research area are suitable for swimming. Western side of Akkonak bay is used as harbor for the transportation of the marbles extracted from the quarry nearby. On the other hand, since the beach at Karapınar bay was used to empty the remains of coal mine nearby, no one prefers to swim at the beach. Accommodation facilities are mainly concentrated at Amasra district center, Tarlaağzı village and the city of Çakraz. Although the beaches and bays do not have necessary infrastructure for sea tourism, they are full of tourists in summer. Most of the visitors are domestic tourists that mainly come from the provinces of Ankara, Karabük, Çankırı, İstanbul or Kastamonu. Few foreign tourists visit the region. The sea season starts in early June and ends at the end of September. The research area, which carries the characteristics of Black Sea climate, including short hours of sunshine and rainfalls in every month, is not suitable for sea tourism. Due to the topographical characteristics, some of the beaches and bays may not be accessed by transportation vehicles. Such bays and beaches are accessible via paths or marine vessels. These bays and beaches include Nihal Bay, Kiraztarla Bay, Kırçıkan Bay, Akçukur Bay, Kamışlar Bay, Dökük Bay, Küçük Bay, Yalı Kapısı Bay, Değirmenağzı Bay, Felengit Bay and Karaman Bay. The bays that have

645 rods include Tarlaağzı Bay, Çapak Bay, Liman Bay, Karadeniz Bay, Karapınar Bay, Amasra Bay, Bozköy Bay, Çakraz Bay, Akkonak Çötlük Bay, Akkonak Bay, Göçgün Bay and Gökyar Bay. Yacht Tourism: There are certain harbors that the yachts and boats may anchor. Amasra Harbor Port, which is currently under construction will have a potential of hosting 80 yachts. Amasra harbor also hosts Black Sea yacht rally, an important international organization that starts from Turkey, Bulgaria, Romania, Ukraine, Russia, Georgia and ends in Turkey between July and August. The number of tourists that travel via marine vessels is expected to rise with the end of the marina. We determined three yacht routes that may be used to show the natural beauties of Amasra bays to the foreign and domestic tourists. Yachts may be rented from Amasra Yachter Cooperation. The first route starts from Amasra Large Harbor and has a length of 9 kilometers, visiting Yalı Kapısı Bay, Küçük Liman, Küçük Bay, Dökük Bay, Kamışlar Bay, Karapınar Bay, Karadeniz Bay, Liman Bay, Akçukur Bay, Kırçıkan Bay, Çapak Bay, Tarlaağzı Bay, Kiraztarla Bay and Nihal Bay, respectively. The second route starts from Amasra Large Harbor and has a length of 19 kilometers, visiting Değirmenağzı Bay, Felengit Bay, Bozköy Bay, Karaman Bay, Çakraz Bay, Akkonak Çötlük Bay, Akkonak Bay, Göçgün Bay and Gökyar Bay, respectively. The final yacht route starts from Amasra Large Harbor and has a length of 7 kilometers, visiting Değirmenağzı Bay, Felengit Bay, Bozköy Bay, Karaman Bay, Çakraz Bay, Akkonak Çötlük Bay, Akkonak Bay, Göçgün Bay, GökyarBay, Nihal Bay, Kiraztarla Bay, Tarlaağzı Bay, Çapak Bay, Kırçıkan Bay, Akçukur Bay, Liman Bay, Karadeniz Bay, Karapınar Bay, Kamışlar Bay, Dökük Bay, Küçük Bay, Small Harbor and Yalı Kapısı Bay, respectively. Sailing Tourism: Given the fact that the research site is one of the windiest areas, harbors and bays within the research area are highly suitable for sailing tourism. Within this context, Amasra Sailing Club serves for sailing tourism with its educational activities and organizations. The club organizes activities for surfing, optimist, laser, radial, 4.20 and pirate classes of sailing. The club also rents surfs. Canoe Tourism: Amasra district center, Tarlaağzı Harbor, Çakraz Bay and Göçgün Bay are the most suitable places for canoe tourism. On the other hand, Göçgün river may be a suitable place for cannoning if necessary measures are taken. Diving: There are certain sunk items that lay in the shores of Black Sea. There are also certain undersea caves that are waiting for exploration. All bays in the research area are suitable for diving. Line Fishing: All bays, especially Large Harbor, Small Harbor, Tarlağazı Harbor and Çakraz Bay, are suitable for line fishing. Fish species such as horse mackerel, bluefish, blue whiting, turbot, bonito, gray mullet and garfish may be found in the research area. The area is one of the important areas for those that are interested in line fishing. Trekking: The research area is an attractive area for trekking with its green landscape, flora, fauna and excellent scenes. Paragliding: There are places in Çakraz region that are appropriate for paragliding. Bozköy Hill and Köyüstü Hill nearby the Delikli Şile are the main points appropriate for paragliding. Botanic Tourism: Routes for botanic tourism may be divided into two categories. The first category comprises theareas nearby Amasra district center, which can be visited on foot. The second category comprises two routes, which can be visited by vehicles. The first of these routes is between Amasra district center and Gömü. The secondroutestarts at Amasra district center and comprises Ahatlar, Çakrazşeyhler and Göçkün. In addition to these routes, there are various resources that are suitable for botanic tourism. Nature Photography: Coastal lines are the most appropriate places for nature photography in the research site. Nature photography may primarily be conducted between Amasra and Tarlaağazı, and Çakrazşeyhler-Çakrazboz villages. In addition to these areas, there are various places that are suitable for nature photography within the borders of research area. Trekking: Potential trekking paths are found in Amasra-Gömü-Tarlaağazı-Makaracı-İncigez- Yukarısal-Göçkün-Çakrazşeyhler and Akkonak villages. Trekking areas are illustrated in Figure 9 in details. Wildlife Watching: Dense forestry areas and the Küre Mountain National Park provides the

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potential of wildlife watching for the research area. Mountainous areas of Makaracı, İncigez, Kocaköy, Şükürler and Yukarısal villages are the most suitable places for wildlife watching. Birdwatching: Birdwatching can be conducted in Amasra district center and Tarlaağazı. Besides, the south of the area between Ahatlar and Akkonak is suitable for birdwatching. Climatism: Makaracı and Yukarısal villages are the suitable places for climatism. Mountain Sports: Amasra district center, Çakrazşeyhler, Makaracı, İncigez and Yukarısal villages are the potential places for mountain sports. These areas have the potential for different types of mountain sports. Local Recreation Areas: Although most of the recreation areas are located Amasra district center, there are certain areas that are located in Tarlaağazı, Makaracı, Yukarısal and Göçkün villages. Daytrips may be conducted to these areas and they are also suitable for camping and caravanning. Geological Tourism: Sea cliffs, interesting rock formations and geological formations are concentrated at the villages of Makaracı, Çakrazşeyhler and Göçkün at the southwest of Amasra. Shores of Amasra host various high cliffs, which are mainly found on the sailing routes Bike Tourism: There are various cycling routes in the research area. Bostanlar, Makaracı and Yukarısal villages are suitable for mountain biking, whereas the center of Amasra and the villages of Çakrazşeyhler, Ahatlar, Tarlaağazı, Akkonak and Göçkün have appropriate places for bicycle sightseeing. Camping and Caravan Tourism: Currently, there are camping and caravanning sites in Çakrazşeyhler, Akkonak and Göçkün villages. From these sites, Amasra district center may be visited for sightseeing and for meeting the demands. We drew a potential tourism map by combining the nature and cultural tourism routes (Figure 10). Based on the evaluation of these areas, we proposed a two-day tour that includes Amasra district center and the villages of Çakraz, Akkonak, Göçgün, İnpiri and Yukarısal. Below, we list the places for the first and the second days.

Figure 10. Potential Tourism Map Research Site Day 1 (Amasra District Center): Kuşkayası Road Monument, Askersuyu Fountain, Bakacak Point, Tarlaağzı and Gömü Bays, , Kefaser Rock (Çat Çat Tower), Amasra Castle, Fatih Mosque, Ağlayan Ağaç, Boztepe, Amasra Lighthouse, Boat Tour, Değirmenağzı Waterfall and Pond, Felengit Bay, Amasra Salad, Fish, Çekiciler Bazaar (for shopping local products),

647 Turkish Baths, Old Architectural Works, Bedesten, Kemerdere Bridge and Ahatlar Natural Park may be visited. Research Site Day 2 (Çakraz, Akkonak, Göçgün, İnpiri, and Yukarısal Villages): Bozköy, Çakraz, Akkonak Çötlük, Akkonak, Göçgün and Gökyar Bays, Dede Meşesi, Delikli Şile, Goril Rock, Akçaoltuk Peak, Gürcüoluk Natural Park and Cave, and Küredağı National Park may be visited. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION This study has produced tourism and recreation based landscaping policies that includes general principles and strategies, which prioritize protection-usage balance, and protection, management and planning for landscape. The method proposed by this research is the “Strategic Landscape Planning” method. This method comprises the stages of determining and defining the goals and the development of strategies to achieve these goals. In other words, strategic landscape planning may be defined as a process that suggests strategies to achieve the goals of landscape improvement and development so that landscapes may be used for tourism and recreational purposes while taking the protection-usage balance into consideration. The aims of this study have been realized in sectoral basis and in terms of tourism, recreation and agro- ecological zones. Taking the criteria and the indicators for sustainable landscape planning for tourism and recreational activities into consideration, this study produced “Landscape Development Strategies” within the context of the changing and developing planning perspectives and spatial planning. These strategies, which are prepared according to the socio-cultural and ecological characteristics of the space, are composed of a number of supplementary and inter-related activities. Appropriate areas for the development strategies should be determined and the applicability of the strategies should be maintained before works on physical landscape planning and design are conducted. Within this context, “Management Strategies” have been developed in order to form the basis for planning and design. Recreational design projects that will be developed in the next stage should be prepared in harmony with the landscape strategies and policies. In this way, decisions on landscape design will be in harmony with the landscape aims and sustainability of the landscape will be guaranteed by providing harmony with the nature. Detailed landscape strategies are crucial for the connection with the upper and general landscape strategies. These types of works should be included in the planning stage. During the research process, we found some problems and shortcomings for the research area within the context of protection, development and management strategies. These include the followings:  It should be emphasized that protection of the natural environment is essential and that nature is an integral part for sustainable tourism. Within this context, possible damage of the thermal power plant that will be constructed in Tarlaağzı Çapak Bay of Amasra to the landscape character areas and types should be assessed in details. The analysis revealed that the area on which the thermal power plant will be constructed is at the strict preservation zone. Since the area is prone to karstic collapses, construction of a power plant over the area will be highly risky. The impact of the construction of industrial plants on protection-usage balance, tourism and landscape should be evaluated in details.  Sand dunes on the coastal line of the research area is under threat posed by the activities that are related with sea tourism, especially in summer season. Pancratium maritimum L. and Seseli resinosum Freyn and Sint are the two endangered endemic species that are damaged either by the local inhabitants or the visitors. Concentration of the sand dune plants over the less used parts of the dunes of Çakraz, Göçkün and Akkonak indicates the damage to these plants in the research area. Within this context, high steps should be constructed over the sand dunes so that these endemic plants may be protected from the damage caused by the visitors and the local inhabitants.  Existing paths and roads that pass from the agricultural lands and the forests of the research area should be improved so that touristic and recreational activities may be conducted. In this way, the balance between recreational usage and protection may be maintained.  Recreational and touristic activities that are in harmony with the characteristics of the research area and that may increase awareness on nature protection are scientific and study tours, birdwatching, photography, climbing, cannoning, horse riding, bicycling, swimming, running and trekking  There are few playgrounds and sports facilities in Amasra center and the villages, such as

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Çakraz and Tarlaağzı. Therefore, the number of playgrounds, or public sports facilities that may be used by the local inhabitants and the visitors in recreational terms may be increased. Furthermore, while reviewing the zoning plans, the share of the green zones should be increased.  In order to promote cultural tourism in Amasra, the 1:1000 scale maps should be evaluated together with the maps with higher scales and “Special Project Areas” that will propose urban design should be prepared.  Archaeological protected areas constitute one of the most important values of culture tourism. Few constructs from the ancient ages have survived until now and most are buried underground. Due to this reason, necropolis and ancient theater that have been discovered should be excavated so that they may be used for cultural tourism purposes.  Protection plans that have been prepared for the natural and the archeological areas should be revised and employed as immediate as possible.  Landscape projects should be gradually developed for the observation and exposure points that are determined in the research area so that these points may be used for culture tourism purposes.  Askersuyu Foundation, which is one of the widest areas on the old Amasra road that is planned to be the road for sightseeing, should be turned into recreational area.  Multi-storey buildings and dense construction negatively influences the historical fabric of the town. Therefore, such areas and the appearance that is negative in terms of tourism should be corrected.  This research proposed a model for the district of Amasra that is based on tourism and recreation strategies within the context of landscape planning. Our proposals took the natural and cultural values of the Amasra district into consideration and we placed special emphasis to the harmony between our proposals and the nature and culture of the research area as well as the potential demands of the visitors. REFERENCES Belknap, R. K. and Furtado, J. G. 1967. Three Approaches to Environmental Resource Analysis, The Conservation Foundation, Washington, D.C. USA. Buchwald, K.and Engelharddt, W. 1980. River management and land-use in the Dutch Rhine floodplains, Germany. Bradley, T.and Hammond, H. 1992. Landscape Analysis and Planning Summary. A Component of Holistic Forest Use. Silva Ecosystem Consultants Ltd. Koç, N. ve Şahin, Ş., 1999. “Kırsal Peyzaj Planlaması”. Ankara Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Yayın No: 1509, Ders Kitabı: 463, Ankara, 275 s. Pirselimoğlu, Z., 2007. Ekolojik Temelli Rekreasyon ve Turizm Planlama İlkelerinin Araştırılması: Trabzon İli Çalköyü Yayla Yerleşimi Örneği. T.C. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Yük.Lis. Tezi. Şahin, Ş, Perçin, H., Kurum, E., Uzun, O, Bilgili, E., Tezcan, L., Çiçek, İ., Müftüoğlu, V., Çorbacı, Ö.L., Sütünç, S., Doğan, D., Koç, Ö., Ateş, E., Tarım, B. ve Kurdoğlu, G. 2013. PEYZAJ-44: İl Ölçeğinde Peyzaj Karakter Analizi ve Turizm/Rekreasyon Açısından Değerlendirilmesi (PEYZAJ-44). 109G074 Nolu TÜBİTAK KAMAG Projesi, Proje Sonuç Raporu. Uzun, O., Dilek, F., Çetinkaya, G., Erduran, F. ve Açıksöz, S. 2010. Konya İli, Bozkır-Seydişehir-Ahırlı- Yalıhüyük İlçeleri ve Suğla Gölü Mevkii Peyzaj Yönetimi, Koruma ve Planlama Projesi. 1-2. Ara Rapor. TC Çevre ve Orman Bakanlığı, Doğa Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü Doğa Koruma Dairesi Başkanlığı, Ankara. Ürgenç, S. İ. 2000. Kırsal Peyzaj (Koruma-Onarım-Düzenleme). Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi Basım-Yayın Merkezi, Üniversite Yayın No: YTÜ.MF.DK-2000.0584, Fakülte Yayın No: MF. ŞBP-2000.004, 243, İstanbul.

649 Chapter 57

Investigation of Nature-Based Tourism Possibilities in Bursa Waterfalls

Zeynep PİRSELİMOĞLU BATMAN, Murat ZENCİRKIRAN

INTRODUCTION Tourism, which had had an understanding of sea, sun, sand in the past, has recently adopted new understandings like culture, history, nature, local values and adventure with a new conceptual structure that contains the facts of recreation and spare time activities. Exclusive pieces of nature located in various geographical areas have been taken under protection by nature lovers therefore efforts of preventing the destroying of natural beauties and consciousness has created new facts of tourism. Thus, new tourism trends have come into existence as an alternative to mass tourism that separates tourism from coastal zones. Examples of these new tourism trends are ecotourism, sustainable tourism, adventure tourism, conscious tourism, nature-based tourism and green tourism (Demirel & Ejder, 1995; Çubuk, 1995; Mansuroğlu, 1997). Nature-based tourism, which has become a current issue with these trends, is a type of tourism that is described by nature-based activities that take place in natural areas, undisturbed landscapes like view, topography and vegetation by the usage of natural resources like water and wildlife. Geographical view is very important in the choice of tourism areas. The appealing factors of geography, which are among the keystones of nature-based tourism, are geographical formations (chimney rock, travertine, cave, crater, canyon, valley and cliff), water resources (sea, lake and stream) and vegetation. In addition, the geographical elements which are called nature monuments or wonders of nature constitute the important and rich resources for tourism. With their landscape values, the secret beauties of natural areas have been protected for the people who want to live in touch with nature. Nature-based tourism is defined as the leisure time trip within the scope of utilizing natural resources and the complement of activities that respect the ecological values of these resources. Ecotourism being in the first place, nature tourism includes activities like fishing, horseback riding, hunting, walking (trekking, hiking, etc.), adventure, sports, cycling, photography, watching scenery, trail bike, rafting, etc. and other types of tourism (Imgham & Durst; 1989, Demirel & Ejder, 1995; Doğaner,2001; Kurdoğlu, 2008; Kiper, 2006; Kamga Kamden, 2003). As a subtopic of nature-based tourism, stream banks have also been utilized as locations of relaxation and entertainment throughout history apart from the settling habits of people. Located on streams, waterfalls have different visual qualities due to differences of formation, elevation and water content, and they are among important points of tourist attraction in their region (Yazıcı & Şahin, 2013). Turkey is in a lucky position in terms of geographical conditions with its plant diversity, mild climate features, average elevation, topographical features and various geographical formations. Considering firstly geological, geomorphologic, climatic and hydrographical conditions and then other conditions provides the understanding for the conditions that created cascades and waterfalls in Turkey (Atayeter et al., 2007). Waterfalls and their surroundings have important features in terms of their geomorphologic structure, elevation, visual qualities according to their water content and ecological resource value, and they are locations of tourist attraction with regard to nature-based tourism. While many waterfalls constitute tourist attractions, many of them can be considered as tourist destinations. However, charm of many destinations is due to waterfalls that characterize the sceneries of these destinations. They are precious geographical formations formed by many special conditions leaguing together. Waterfalls have

 Assist. Prof. Dr., Uludağ University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Bursa, Türkiye. Prof. Dr., Uludağ University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture, Bursa, Türkiye

become important points of tourism with their visual values and also their precious values. The interesting part about waterfalls is that there is intense and continuous falling of water in the months of heavy rain. In addition, they present visual beauty with the freezing of water in winter (Hudson, 1998; Doğaner, 2001). Water is the symbol of civilization as well as the source of life. With the ambience they create, waterfalls and similar formations relax and recreate people in water environments, and they are among important natural locations of life for the human being (Koday & Demir, 2011). According to İzbırak (1971), waterfall is formed with the body of water falling to short and long distance from the knickpoint which was formed for some reason in the stream bed, and it is in its natural look (Sever & Kopar, 2009). The place where streams fall from a high point means there is cataract there. In Turkish, there are many words for waterfall such as ‘çavlan, çağlak, ürlevik, gürleyik, sudüşen, suuçtu, şarlak, etc.’. Some of these words mean cascade and some of them mean cataract or in other words waterfall (URL-1). Figure 1: Study area – the location of Bursa The literature review revels that researches regarding Turkey’s waterfalls are inadequate. Turkey’s interesting natural wonders are not known and therefore they are not publicized. They have not been studied properly with regard to tourism planning (Özşahin & Kaymaz, 2015; Doğanay, 2000). On the other hand, similar to the case of Turkey’s waterfalls, the studies about the waterfalls of Bursa are also inadequate. Most of the waterfalls lack publicity and infrastructure. Some of the waterfalls, which are known generally by the local people, are used for daytrips. In this study, 13 waterfalls were researched in the province of Bursa (Figure 1) which has an important tourism potential with its rich natural resources as well as its historical and cultural values, and bringing forward proposals regarding nature-based types of tourism and tourism planning that respect for natural source values was aimed. MATERIALS AND METHOD The main material of the study constituted 13 waterfalls of the province of Bursa namely 1) Suuçtu Waterfall, 2) Saitabat Waterfall, 3) Küreklidere Waterfall, 4) Oylat Waterfall, 5) Alaçam Waterfall, 6) Aras Waterfall, 7) Balaban Waterfall, 8) Haydariye Sudüşen Waterfall, 9) Kösehoroz Waterfall, 10) Şapçı Waterfall, 11) Uludağ Softaboğan Waterfall 12) Kıran Village Dokuzlar Waterfall and 13) Kıran (Ayıdağı) Waterfall. Although some studies expressed the Kıran Waterfall and Kıran Village Dokuzlar Waterfall together, this study evaluated them separately. As a work method, current states were scrutinized within the scope of nature-based tourism potential values with a wide perspective, and presentation cards, which aim to reveal the tourism potential of the waterfalls, were prepared. In the presentation cards, location, natural values, socio- cultural values and current recreation and tourism activities were included. A map was created that includes the waterfalls within the scope of the work. RESULTS The presentation cards that were created in the light of the information and findings gathered as a result of the evaluations carried out and that reveal the nature-based tourism potential of the waterfalls are given in Tables 1-13, Figures 2-14. The relative positions of the waterfalls of the province of Bursa

651 to the city center and distances of them to the city center are presented in Figure 15 (Anonymus, 2016a; Anonymus, 2016b; URL-2; URL-3; URL-4; URL-5). Table 1: Suuçtu Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Suuçtu Waterfall Distance to Bursa 86 km Location 20 km South of the County of Mustafakemalpaşa, in the Çataltepe region. It was formed as a result of the collapse of the fault line on Karadere. It is Formation Features 38 meters high. The forest cover around it consists of Fagus, oak and pine. There are one Natural Values (Flora, big and two small waterfalls. The forestland does not have features that Fauna, Geology, make it different and important from other forestlands such as sensitive, rare Geomorphology, Climate, ecosystem, habitat, natural formation with ecological structure, endemism, Existence of water) etc. Socio-Cultural Values The asphalt road that starts from the county center, then goes to Yalıntaş (Population, settlement, and then to the Muradiye sarnıç village. The road ends in the recreation area agriculture, transportation, which is 20 meters away from the Suuçtu Waterfall. The waterfall is in the istorical and cultural area that was registered as natural park in 2011. The natural park and its values) immediate surroundings are first degree natural protected areas. The pond that is located where the water falls presents a nice view Current Recreation and especially for the photographers. In the Çataltepe region, where visitors can Tourism Activities go for a walk around, there are trout restaurants as well.

Figure 2: Suuçtu Waterfall Table 2: Saitabat Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Saitabat Waterfall Distance to Bursa 20km It is in the east of Kestel-Bursa, in the borders of Derekazık village road Location and Saitabat-Güvercinlik village. Formation features It was formed on the canyon over the Güvercinlik stream. Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Geology, Plane trees, Güvercinlik stream Geomorphology, Climate, Existence of water) The Saitabat Village Women Association serves Turkish village breakfast. Socio-Cultural Values The road that turns right from the Kestel crossroad on the Ankara highway (Population, settlement, goes to Güvercinlik village. After reaching Derekızık village, it is possible agriculture, transportation, to see the bridge in the Derekızık recreation area. Turning left after the historical and cultural bridge and going 3.5km take people to the canyon mouth to which the values) Saitabat waterfall falls. Current and Proposed Recreation and Tourism Picnic areas; picnicking, nature tourism activities, photography Activities

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Figure 3: Saitabat Waterfall Table 3: Küreklidere Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Küreklidere Waterfall Distance to Bursa 17km Location Yıldırım- Formation features It is 80 m high. Küreklidere starts flowing from the east of the former wolfram mine in Natural Values (Flora, Uludağ and from 1850 meters above Fauna, Geology, sea level. The waters that flow all Geomorphology, Climate, along the canyon creates large and Existence of water) small waterfalls at many points due to the steep ground. Socio-Cultural Values There are two roads to go to Kürekli (Population, settlement, Waterfall. One goes through the City agriculture, transportation, Forest and the other one is the historical and cultural Derekızık – Saitabat road. values) Watching the waterfall from Current and Proposed observation platform, recreation area, Recreation and Tourism walking on the earth road, one-day Activities activities Figure 4: Küreklidere Waterfall Table 4: Oylat Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Oylat Waterfall Distance to Bursa 72km It is 1.2 km South of the Location İnegöl-Oylat. Formation features - Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Geology, Geomorphology, Oylat Stream Climate, Existence of water) The Waterfall track starts in the Oylat square and goes over the first wooden bridge on the Oylat stream 300 meters ahead Socio-Cultural Values of the square. The track goes (Population, settlement, on for a while parallel to the agriculture, transportation, Oylat stream and then rises, historical and cultural values) and it has dangerous rock passes at a few points. The track ends 1.2 km ahead at the Oylat waterfall. Current and Proposed Nature walk on the waterfall Recreation and Tourism track, one-day activities, Figure 5: Oylat Waterfall Activities photography

653 Table 5: Alaçam Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Alaçam Waterfall and Canyon Distance to Bursa 31km Location In the southeast of Kestel-Uludağ Formation features 10m high Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Vegetation of Uludağ up to 1800 m, Deliçay Geology, Geomorphology,

Climate, Existence of water) Socio-Cultural Values Alaçam Village is a village where people of Georgian origin live. The (Population, settlement, earth road to the waterfall goes through the village’s square in front of agriculture, transportation, the café to southwest direction to gardens and then to the waterfall historical and cultural values) with the help of roadside signs. Current and Proposed Nature-based tourism activities, nature walk (trekking, hiking), Recreation and Tourism photography; it has been selected as alternative winter sports center. Activities

Figure 6: Alaçam Waterfall and Canyon Table 6: Aras Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Aras Waterfall Distance to Bursa 46.5km Osmangazi–Soğukpınar-Ketenlik- Aras Waterfall Location The elevation of the waterfall is 1850 m; it flows through rocks. Formation features It is 15 m high. The waters of the waterfall feed the Nilüfer river. A few unused and dangerous tracks which go up the Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, steep rocks that rise behind the Aras Geology, Geomorphology, waterfall are connected to the 2487- Climate, Existence of water) meter small peak in the south and to Cennetkaya in the west. There is a valley with the same name. The stabilized road between Socio-Cultural Values Soğukpınar-Ketenli highland is used (Population, settlement, to go to the Aras waterfall. The track agriculture, transportation, between Ketenli highland-Aras historical and cultural values) waterfall is 1.9 km long. Current and Proposed Figure 7: Aras Waterfall Recreation and Tourism Photography, one-day activities Activities

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Table 7: Balaban Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Balaban Waterfall Distance to Bursa 12km It is located on one of the reaches of Location Yıldırım-Kırkpınar stream where it flows to the Kocabalık valley. Formation features - Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Geology, Geomorphology, Kırkpınar stream, Kocabalık valley Climate, Existence of water) At the 6th kilometer of Ankara highway, the mountain direction through Erikli Socio-Cultural Values street goes for 1.2 km to Kaptangazi (Population, settlement, avenue, Yazıcı avenue, Acar avenue and agriculture, transportation, then Kerpiç street. 3.2 km ahead, the earth historical and cultural values) road ends next to the reservoir. The distance between the reservoir and the waterfall is about 700 meters. Current and Proposed Figure 8: Balaban Nature walk (trekking, hiking), Recreation and Tourism Waterfall photography, valley crossing Activities

Figure 9: Haydariye Waterfall Figure 10: Kösehoroz Waterfall Table 8: Haydariye Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Haydariye Sudüşen Waterfall Distance to Bursa 55 km Location Gemlik-Nacaklı Stream-Haydariye Village Formation features The waterfall is 10 meters high. Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Geology, There are plane trees, hornbeam trees and oak trees in the valley. Geomorphology, Climate, Existence of water) Starting from the outskirts of Gemlik county center, the asphalt road goes Socio-Cultural Values to Armutlu. 10th kilometer of that road goes to Küçükkumla. After turning (Population, settlement, right, the bendy asphalt road reaches Haydariye village after 7.5 km. The agriculture, transportation, Sudüşen waterfall road is bendy and it is so narrow that two cars cannot historical and cultural pass easily. The parallel road to the valley to which the Nacaklı stream values) flows goes to the waterfall after 3.5 km. Current and Proposed Recreation and Tourism One-day activities , picnicking Activities

655 Table 9: Kösehoroz Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Kösehoroz Waterfall Distance to Bursa 112km It is 6 kilometers south of Kösehoroz village of Location Mustafakemalpaşa county. There is a rock pond composed of water that falls from the Formation features Kösehoroz waterfall. The waterfall is 18 meters high. Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Geology, Geomorphology, Climate, It flows into the Değirmendere- Alev (Kocaçay) stream. Existence of water) The road starts from the square of the Kösehoroz village and Socio-Cultural Values (Population, goes through the forest, becomes an earth road, goes through settlement, agriculture, transportation, rocky terrain and gets to Kösehoroz waterfall (the waterfall can historical and cultural values) only be reached by walking for 2 hours). Current and Proposed Recreation Nature walk (Trekking, hiking), photography and Tourism Activities Table 10: Şapçı Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Şapçı Waterfall Distance to Bursa 102 km Location Mustafakemalpaşa-Şapçı village The waterfall falls approximately from 15 meters in the form of a Formation features few fractures. Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Geology, Geomorphology, Climate, Forest of linden, oak, elm and beech trees Existence of water) The road starts from the square of Şapçı village. The Tırnova Socio-Cultural Values (Population, road goes to a crossroad for 2.2 km and continues to the right as settlement, agriculture, an earth road into the forest. The forest road goes to the concrete transportation, historical and cultural bridge on the stream after 3.3 km. Şapçı waterfall is located 20 values) meters left of the bridge. Current and Proposed Recreation Nature walk (trekking, hiking), photography and Tourism Activities

Figure 11: Şapçı Waterfall Table 11: Uludağ Softaboğan Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Uludağ Softaboğan Waterfall Distance to Bursa 35.9km It is located in the Dombay hollow valley which is in the southeast Location of Yıldırım-Bakacak. It is in the north of the region known as the Sultan Selim pine grove located across the Çobankaya camping site. There are many natural pools in the stream that flows to the Formation features waterfall. Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Dwarf juniper, pine, Dombay hollow valley, Kırkpınar stream Geology, Geomorphology,

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Climate, Existence of water) The Solakzade history mentions that the Ottoman sultan Yavuz Socio-Cultural Values Sultan Selim had a fight for the throne with his brother Prince (Population, settlement, Ahmet, and the sultan got his brother killed by strangling with his agriculture, transportation, five men during a hunt in this region. This is the story of the historical and cultural values) Softaboğan name. Current and Proposed Recreation and Tourism Nature-based tourism, walking (trekking, hiking), photography Activities

Figure 12: Uludağ Softaboğan Waterfall Table 12: Kıran Köy Dokuzlar Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Kıran Village Dokuzlar Waterfall Distance to Bursa 61km Location It is located in the east end of İnegöl-Kıranköy-Uludağ. The water flows on the stream, where the snow water that comes down Formation features from highlands of Kuzyatağı and Balaban, creates nine small waterfalls one after the other. Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Geology, Same with flora and fauna of Uludağ Geomorphology, Climate, Existence of water) The road starting from the Kıran village square goes to Kıranyayla and waterfall. After passing the picnic area of the village and the entrance of Socio-Cultural Values Ayıdağı (Kıran) waterfall, there is the Bıçkıdüzü region after 5 km. On the (Population, settlement, right of the stony road, there is a fountain. Starting from the left of the agriculture, transportation, fountain, there is a track that goes into the forest. 1 km ahead, there is the historical and cultural stream to which the waterfall flows. Dokuzlar waterfall flows from right values) behind the wooden bridge and the water mixes the stream. Dokuzlar waterfall is also called the green pools. Current and Proposed Recreation and Tourism Nature walk (trekking, hiking), photography Activities

Figure 13: KıranVillage Dokuzlar Waterfall Figure 14: Kıran (Ayıdağı) Waterfall

657 Table 13. Kıran (Ayıdağı) Waterfall Nature-Based Tourism Potential Kıran (Ayıdağı) Waterfall Distance to Bursa 61km Location It is in the South of Inegöl; its distance to Kıranköy is 4.8 km. The water of the waterfall falls approximately from 20 meters to a Formation features boulder. Natural Values (Flora, Fauna, Geology, Geomorphology, Ayıdağı, highland of Kıran Climate, Existence of water) The road starts from the square of the village and it continues through the picnic area to south to Uludağ mountain range. The Socio-Cultural Values stabilized road crosses the bridge after 4.5 km. A track goes into the (Population, settlement, forest from a point that is 20 meters right of the bridge. The track agriculture, transportation, arrives in the waterfall after a climb of 250 meters. The snow water historical and cultural values) that flows from Ayı mountain that is located in the foothills of Uludağ constitutes Kıran waterfall. Another name of Kıran waterfall is Ayıdağı waterfall. Current and Proposed Nature walk, photography. Kıran waterfall and highland is located Recreation and Tourism in a region with natural beauty that the mountaineering clubs around Activities Bursa and other groups prefer for trekking.

Figure 15: Locations and Distances of the Waterfalls of the province of Bursa

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DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION Turkey is rich in its interesting natural formations, and it is also suitable for formations of many waterfalls, cascades, etc. The fact that Turkey’s topography is quite rugged has played an important role in the formation of many waterfalls. Surroundings of waterfalls are important points for camping sites, sport activities (walking, climbing, etc.), scientific researches (such as geological, phytologic and geographical researches) and daytrips. These areas should be evaluated, infrastructural investments should be made and advertized. These works will contribute the diversification of touristic activities in Turkey (Atayeter, Çiloğlu and Büyükal, 2007; Doğanay, 2000). The main factors of waterfalls in the tourism potential of Turkey are attractions, access and accommodation. The own natural existence of waterfalls constitutes an important source of attraction, and the inadequacy of publicity, planning and research appear to be the main problems (Özşahin and Kaymaz, 2015). Publicity is one of the necessary operations in realizing the nature-based tourism potential of a region in the most efficient way. That is why the region has to be professionally publicized at home and abroad with all kinds of communication and media tools (Sever and Kopar, 2009). However, apart from the natural beauty and natural formations of a region which are the factors that are effective in the region gaining value in terms of recreation and tourism, its humane features – transportation being in the first place – are also effective (Arınç, 2002). The greatest problem of the waterfalls of Turkey is lack of planning. It is crucial to reveal waterfalls and all other natural formations for the good of tourism activities which are among important sources of income of Turkey. The abovementioned geographical features should be researched, revealed and the results obtained from here should form a plan of action. Otherwise, amateurish activities will do more harm to natural regions and natural formations than good (Atayeter, Çiloğlu and Büyükal, 2007; Özşahin and Kaymaz, 2015). In the province of Bursa, the waterfalls of Suuçtu, Saitabat, Küreklidere, Oylat, Alaçam, Aras, Balaban, Haydariye Sudüşen, Kösehoroz, Şapçı, Kıran Village Dokuzlar, Kıran (Ayıdağı) and Uludağ Softaboğan are areas that have important potential in terms of natural source values. The evaluations of their geological structures, geomorphologic features, waterfall formations, flora, fauna and climate present many different characteristics. Apart from the natural values they present, waterfalls also present recreational and visual values. This study evaluated 13 waterfalls determined in the province of Bursa. However, there are also some large and small waterfalls that do not exist in the literature. An example of these is the canyon and the waterfall near the Sansarak village. The most important waterfall of Bursa is the Suuçtu Waterfall, and we evaluated it in this study. It is an important source value of the Suuçtu Natural Park which has unique natural beauty with its abundant oxygen in the forest of beech trees. Suuçtu Natural Park was registered as recreation area in 1980 and Natural Park in 2011. The natural park and its immediate surroundings are 1st degree natural protected areas. It has one big, two small waterfalls and forestland as source value. Waterfall also has an important value visually. It is an important spot for activities of photography. In addition, new opportunities have been developed with vigorous efforts that will enable recreation and touristic activities like nature walks, camping and caravan areas, bicycle touring and delicious spots (gastronomy) and infrastructure that will serve these activities. Moreover, transportation to the Natural Park and waterfall is easy. Getting there through the asphalt road is possible both by private car and bus. The interest of the tourists coming from the Middle East to the Natural Park is quite high (Anonymous, 2016a). A general evaluation of the waterfalls of Bursa reveals that they are areas having similar natural features, vegetation, climate, etc. Because it is at a point close to the peak of Uludağ, only Aras Waterfall is close to highland areas and on the forest boundary. The other waterfalls are within the forest boundary. While it is possible to get to the waterfalls which are close to residential areas with asphalt road, some of them require private vehicle and some of them require public transportation vehicles. However some of them can only be reached by walking on tracks after the vehicle transportation. All the waterfalls have visual and natural features that enable photography and nature walk activities. In addition, there are surroundings of waterfalls that enable activities like daytrips, picnic,

659 sitting, rest, observation, eating and drinking, camping, cycling, alternative winter sports and valley passes. Planning should be done with the understanding of sustainability and protecting-using principle in such a way that these activities do not destroy the nature. Thus the inviolateness of the areas will be provided. REFERENCES Anonymus (2016a). T.C. Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı Doğa Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü, Bursa İli Tabiat Turizmi Uygulama Eylem Planı- 2016-2019. Anonymus (2016b)- Doğa Bursa, Doğal ve Kültürel Rotalar, T.C. Bursa Valiliği. Arınç, K. (2002). Rekreasyonel Açıdan Değerlendirilmesi Gereken Bir Yöre; Günpınar Çağlayanı ve çevresi (Şeuhul Vaidisi/Darende), Günpınar Falls and Its Surroundings (Şuhul Valley/Darende); The Region of Recreational Significance, Türk Coğrafya Dergisi 39, 1-21. Atayeter, Y.; Çiloğlu, M. H. & Büyükkal, A. H. (2007). Uçansu Çağlayanları (Gebiz- Anntalya), Uçansu - Waterfalls (Gebiz-Antalya), Marmara Coğrafya Dergisi 16,207-222. Çubuk, M. (1995). Sürdürülebilir Turizm, Turizm Planlamasına Ekolojik Yaklaşım, Türkiye’de 19. Dünya Şehircilik Günü Kolokyumu, MSÜ, İstanbul. Demirel, Ö. & Ejder, N. (1995). Çamlıhemşin Yaylaları ve Doğa Turizmi Etkinlikleri, Ekoloji Çevre Dergisi,4-9. Doğanay, H. (2000). Türkiye’de Tanınan Üç Doğa Harikası: “Tomara-Sırakayalar ve Muradiye Çağlayanları”, Tree not well-known natural wonders in turkey: “Tomara-Sırakayalar and Muradiye cascades”, Doğu Coğrafya Dergisi 3,1-24. Doğaner, S. (2001). Türkiye’de Turizm Coğrafyası, Çantay Kitabevi,98 s., İstanbul. Hudson, B. J. (1998). Waterfalls, Resources for tourism, Annals of Tourism Research 25(4), 958-973. Imgham, D. & Durst, P. (1989). Nature-Oriented Tour Operators:Travel to Developing Countries, Journal of Travel Research, October, 28,11-15. İzbırak, R.(1971). Hidroğrafya akarsular ve Göller, Ankara: Harita Genel Müdürlüğü. Kamga Kamden, S.I. (2003). Possibilities fort he Realisation Ecological Sustainable Tourism Concepts in Protected Areas in Cameroon, The degreeof Doctor of Philosophy in Forestry (Ph.D.)., Faculty of Forestry and Forest Ecology, GeorgAugust-University of Göttingen, Germany. Kiper, T. (2006). Safranbolu Yörükköyü Peyzaj Potansiyelinin Kırsal Turizm Açısından Değerlendirilmesi, Doktora Tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara. Koday, Z. & Demir, M. (2011). Keklik Şelalesi (Sarıkamış/Kars) Doğal Çevre Özellikleri ve Beşeri Ekonomik Potansiyeli, Atatürk Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi 15(2), 289-306. Kurdoğlu, O. (2008). Turizmin Yeşil Şapkası: Ekoturizm ve Diğer Turizm Kavramları Üzerine Değerlendirmeler, Kırsal Çevre Yıllığı, 73-92. Mansuroğlu, S. (1997). Düzce Ovası’nın Optimal Alan Kullanım Planlaması Üzerine Bir Araştırma, Doktora Tezi, Ç.Ü., Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Adana. Özşahin, E. & Kaymaz, Ç. K. (2015). Investigation of Tourism Potential of Waterfalls of Turkey With Geographical Perspective, Route Educational and Social Science Journal 2(2), 12-29. Sever, R. & Kopar, İ. (2009). Maral Şelalesi (Borçka-Artvin), Doğal Ortam Özellikleri ve ekonomik Potansiyeli, Maral Waterfall (Borçka-Artvin), Its Natural Characteristics, and Economic Potentiality Türk Coğrafya Dergisi (52), 17-29. URL-1: http://www.cografya.gen.tr/sozluk/selale.htm, 10.05.2016 URL-2: http://www.bursa.gov.tr/icerik/368/selaleler.html 20.04.2016 URL-3: http://www.yaylalife.com/link/bursa-selale.html 20.04.2016 URL-4: http://bursayikesfet.com/WebSite/Display.aspx?MyContentID=17 29.04.2016 URL-5: http://traveltourstrips.tumblr.com/page/14 15.06.2016 Yazıcı, H. & Şahin, S. H. (2013). CBS Yardımıyla Zamantı Çayı Havzası Ekoturizm Çekiciliklerinin sunulması, Prresentation of Ecotourism Appeals of Zamantı Stream Basin Through CBS, Electronic Journal of Map Tecnologies, 5(3), 33-43.

660 Chapter 58

The Role and Importance of Tourism Information System in Urban Tourism Planning

Sultan Sevinç KURT, Banu Çiçek KURDOĞLU

INTRODUCTION The Concept of Tourism: Tourism is the trips performed to rest, enjoy, sightsee and get to know or all these economic and cultural works for attracting tourists to a region. Owing to tourism, people can take a different approach to life by realizing both the beauties of other countries and outside of the region where they live in their countries and cultural heritage left by the people living in the past, and by believing in the necessity of handing down a more livable world to the future generations. Tourism is a fast-growing sector in parallel with increasing prosperity in the world. People have started to direct the added values produced by them in business life to recreational activities. As a recreational activity, tourism has come to a significant point (Turizm, 2015; World Tourism, 2015). Tourism is the relations and events consisting of travels and accommodations outside of where people live and work permanently, without the purpose of ensuring permanent settlement and income (Hunzieker & Kraph, 1942). The tourists traveling from one country to the other and doing various spending in that countries contribute to the national income and balance of payments by the employment increase (Dinçer, 1993). Since tourism is a fast-growing sector, the economic effect of tourism is much more than its social, political and environmental effects (Ashworth & Page, 2011). Recently it has been observed that the tourism tendency of people has turned from the triplet of sea- sand-sun (3S) towards the triplet of entertainment-education-environment (3E). This tendency reveals the necessity for countries to review their tourism activities (OKA, 2015). Domestic tourism is used for the tourists coming within the country. In domestic tourism, the members of the society with the common culture, history, and archeological wealth as a nation ensure social, cultural and economic gain by participating in it. International tourism is a mutual social, cultural and economic intervention made by the people from different cultures in tourism regions of different countries by crossing the national borders with various purposes. One-day tourism consists of traveling, shopping and social communication activities that people make within the same day for recreation, resting, entertainment and knowledge acquisition purposes without accommodation. In this tourism type, time and distance are the most important determinants (OKA, 2015; Turizm, 2015). Furthermore, city tourism consists of tourism activities provided to the visitors in urban areas (Tourism Dictionary, 2016). Within city tourism, vacation is short-term visits to cities due to the reasons such as getting historical and cultural information, watching sports competitions, following art activities and benefiting from shopping opportunities (Emekli, 2013). Since the economic level of people increases and since they like to try different tastes and do shopping and the attraction of the sea-sand-sun tourism seriously decreases, the interest in city tourism increases (European Commission, 2000). Sustainable tourism aims to minimize cultural and environmental damages, optimize visitor satisfaction and maximize long-term economic growth for a region (Lane, 1994). Managers and planners in cities need to come up with a natural-cultural-environment friendly approach trying to understand not only the numerical demand aspect of tourism but also the behaviors and expectations of local people and tourists, in order to ensure sustainability in tourism. For this purpose, managers and planners need to assess these new mentality changes in the first place, determine the potential of natural and cultural environment, reveal the relation between activities and touristic activities and set out a

 Res. Assist., Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture Assoc. Prof. Dr., Karadeniz Technical University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture

sustainable understanding of tourism with a balance of protection and use by understanding how local people and tourists use various opportunities in the urban environment (Kerimoğlu & Çıracı, 2006; Enlil et al., 2011; Altanlar & Akıncı Kesim, 2011). The main purpose of sustainable tourism planning is to successfully present touristic demand enabling tourists to go home satisfied with good memories and without harming the natural and cultural environment. It is important to determine the appropriate routes that are to create this demand (Gülbay, 2007). How to manage the increasing tourist number in cities credibly and sustainably, how city tourism will increase the life quality of local people, what to do to develop a more sustainable, accessible city, how to measure the effects of tourism on urban economy and how to decrease its negative effects on the environment are the questions that the urban manager should answer (World Tourism, 2015). By the nature of the tourism product, consumers want to obtain product information before product itself. This knowledge acquisition becomes important as tourism regions and tourism establishments active in these regions and consumers are geographically distant from one another. Consumers have to buy tourism products that they do not see and do not have any chance to try, by recognizing them in the light of the information provided to them. Such a feature makes it necessary to fulfill a correct, fast, credible and cheap information exchange that is to form a common and comprehensive information network between tourism establishments active in tourism regions producing and presenting tourism service and consumers (Sarı & Kozak, 2005). Effective storing and managing comprehensive information on tourism are possible with special purpose information systems. Basically, tourism is a spatial phenomenon consisting of accommodation, destination and people traveling from one place to another. However, application number in tourism planning is not as great as in other fields of technology, in spite of ensuring the necessary infrastructure of GIS (Farsari & Prastacos, 2004). The lack of GIS applications in tourism is preserving the uncertainty of sustainable tourism applications for many years (Hunter & Green, 1995; Butler, 1998). INFORMATION SYSTEMS IN TOURISM PLANNINGS Nowadays, information has an important place in the lives of people. Information can be described as all of the concepts, facts, and principles that human genius can reach (Ağar, 1974). The system is a combination of methods useful for getting results and a whole consisting of physical and conceptual elements dependent on one another, and sub-systems. The existence of a certain system is necessary to collect and process information. The systems set up for this purpose are named "information systems". The information system includes a range of process flows extending to collecting, analyzing and submitting data from the observation stage (Figure 1). Information systems consist of input, process and output sections. The input section comprises data collecting, data preparation, and data input stages. Storage, recall, classification and update processes identified in the processing section need to be performed on these data. By taking the advantage of the information system in the output section, recalling is used by questioning classification and enumeration operations or transferring into other information systems as data (Kalıpsız et al., 2006; Çuhadar, 2010). The main function of information systems is to ease and shorten decision-making process (İlhan, 1999; Yomralıoğlu, 2000). The last developments in information and communication systems affect the works related to the preparation of touristic products within data gathering, processing and analyzing for touristic products and destinations. Moreover, it provides new opportunities for marketing, management and promotion area for establishments in the tourism sector and touristic destinations. As one of these systems, Computerized Reservation Systems (CRS), Global Distribution Systems (GDS), Destination Management Systems (DMS), Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and the internet are the information system used in tourism activities nowadays (Yılmaz & Oncuer, 2002; Ahipaşaoğlu & Kaya, 2005). As an information technology, Geographic Information Systems are a tool enabling spatial assessment. Developing the abilities of this tool and using it in different subjects vary according to the programming information required by the subject and data structure. Geographic Information Systems operate based on a three-layered structure (data stored in the database, spatially graphic object and the program establishing relations between both of them). The difference of Geographic Information Systems from information systems is that it includes location information in addition to the attribute

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information of various objects of the system (Sağlam et al., 2004; Gülbay, 2007).

Figure 1. Process information systems (Lardbucket, 2016; Buzzle, 2016) Geographic Information System is a software and hardware system developed to compile, store, manage, edit, change, analyze spatial information of various sizes in the world, develop models and present obtained data (Davis, 1996; Topay et al., 2003). It is possible to create all kinds of land-related information (land structure, slope, soil type, transportation, environment and natural resources management) by utilizing computer technology with the help of GIS. While accessibility to demanded information gets easier with the polling system of GIS, demanded designs in relation to land are created with the help of a computer (Tiryakioğlu & Erdoğan, 2004). Thanks to GIS, information flow gets faster, more prolific production and inventory management are ensured, work productivity increases, effective and correct analyses are performed, data updating gets easier, workforce increases and time loss is prevented. The basic functions of GIS are data processing, polling, spatial analyses (basic spatial analysis, network analysis, geometric and statistical processes, numerical land/height models), scenario analyses and presentations (Düzgün, 2005). Geographic Information Systems enabling especially polling by superposing maps one on top of another with the development of information technologies provide an opportunity for different sciences such as computer, geography, mathematics, statistics, engineering, planning, environmental science, landscape architecture and cartography to work together. GIS applications are used in the environmental and natural resource management, property and administrative management, public works, education and health management, municipal affairs, transportation planning, tourism, forest and agriculture, trade and industry, defense and safety (Yomralıoğlu, 2000; Erdoğan & Tiryakioğlu, 2004; Ahipaşaoğlu & Kaya, 2005; Töreyen et al., 2010). Computer-aided drawing, design and satellite image analysis systems like CAD contribute to the development of GIS. These systems aid in handling the present results of information systems for the future use by supporting decision-making and developing landscape planning processes (Blaschke, 1997; Pietsch & Buhmann, 1999; Tecim, 2000; Arnold, Lipp, Pietsch & Schaal, 2005; Lang & Blaschke, 2007; Gontier, 2007; Pietsch, 2012). In order to understand the importance of GIS in landscape design and planning, it is necessary to comprehend the design and planning process (Özyavuz, 2002). With polling and updating the necessary locational and unlocational information for planning by determining balance and order between resource users and resources in the studies related to landscape planning in GIS, it is enabled to make the healthiest and quick decisions, and the resource analysis and synthesis are performed (Yörüklü, 2009; Çelik, 2015). TOURISM-ORIENTED APPLICATION AREAS OF GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS Rhind (1990) categorized GIS applications with a structural approach, according to the frequently asked general questions. Bahaire and Elliott White (1999) divided them into the categories related to the main GIS functions and tourism applications (Table 1). The examples in the table show the range of tourism, recreation management, and planning applications by using tourism and GIS technology. Although there is an increase in the number of GIS applications in tourism, recreation management, and

663 planning fields, GIS has many opportunities yet to be discovered (Boyd & Butler, 1996; Porter & Tarrant, 2001; Farsari & Prastacos, 2004). Table 1. GIS capabilities and tourism applications (Rhind, 1990; Bahaire & Elliott-White, 1999; Farsari & Prastacos, 2004) Functional capabilities of Basic questions that can be investigated Examples of tourism applications GIS using GIS Data entry, storage, and Location What is it? Tourism resource inventories manipulation Identifying suitable locations for Map production Conditions Where is it? development Database integration and Trends What has changed? Measuring tourism impacts management Data queries and searches Routing Which is the best way? Visitor flows and management Analyzing relationships Spatial analysis Pattern What is the pattern? associated with resource use Assessing potential impacts of Spatial modeling Modeling What if? tourism development Decision support Tourism-oriented application areas of GIS are divided into six sections (Rhind, 1990; Bahaire & Elliott- White, 1999):  Tourism Resource Inventories: Tourism planning and management include a lot of tools and information to help the complex decision-making process. In this way, GIS allows storing different data sets not only qualitatively and quantitatively but also in the spatial and a spatial way (Yianna & Poulicos 2005). The tourism resource inventory is important due to three reasons. Firstly, it aids planners and resource managers in decision-making on natural resource capacities and forms the basis for creating new services. Secondly, it may help planners with the use of the most suitable resources and the factors affecting tourism. Thirdly, its long-term tendencies in the tourism industry can be used in creating planning problems (Boyd & Butler, 1996).  Location Suitability: GIS is used in order to decide on the area use and activities, infrastructure opportunities, natural resources, and the potential capacity of a touristic destination. Defining location directly or indirectly for tourism development correlates with many tourism examples. Contrastive or supplementary area uses and activities, infrastructure condition and limiting natural resources used to determine the present and potential capacity of a place in tourism destination are the main geographic variables (Butler 1993; Bahire & Ellitt-White, 1990).  Measuring and Monitoring Tourism Impacts: This application identified in Table 1 includes following tendencies and answering the question of "What has changed?". It can be used to pre- determine the potential effects related to the following categories by following demanded parameters in time. GIS technology allows data integrity and management in sustainable tourism development requiring environmental, social and economic information (Farsari & Prastacos, 2004).  Visitor Flows and Management: This category includes answering to the question "Which is the best way?" specified in Table 1. The application is mostly related to the time-space analysis in tourism. It helps to understand and learn the behaviors of tourists and visitors (Dietvorst, 1995). GIS enables the information flow in the subjects such as understanding the behaviors of tourists, development of benefits such as economic gain, environment protection, activity management and a better infrastructure (Farsari & Prastacos, 2004).  Relationships Associated with Resource Use: An answer is searched to the question "What is the pattern" specified in Table 1. In order to describe the formation and distribution of events, scientists, planners, and decision-makers detect a sample. As a kind of tourism or development activity, GIS is used to determine the areas that can be disturbed by any kind. As GIS, the effect analysis identifies the usable examples related to this category, determines and assesses potential effects on tourism development between different components (Bahaire & Elliott-White, 1999). Environmental argumentation is a significant problem increasing in recent years in regard to the effect, cost and benefit

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distribution originated from tourism between various communities. Generally, environmental argumentation increasing in undesired area uses such as pollution resources is found more effective in low-income societies compared to the average rates. The use of GIS is strongly present in the assessments of spatial character (Farsari & Prastacos, 2004).  Assessing Potential Impacts of Tourism Development: This application includes the implementations processing more complex analytic characteristics of GIS and combining all features of GIS. It also searches for a response to the question "What if?". The visual effect analysis combines particularly a few tourism planning projects for an environment or scenery with high aesthetical values (Millar et al., 1994; Yianna & Poulicos, 2005). TOURISM INFORMATION SYSTEMS Tourism Information Systems (TIS) are evaluated as a type of information systems basically including the concepts of tourist, urban people, local administrations, businesses, technological environment, political environment, social environment, economic environment and ecological environment (Figure 2) (Çuhadar, 2010; Njegus, 2013; Etravelweek, 2016) .

Figure 2. Cycle in tourism information systems (Etravelweek, 2016) In general, TISs can be defined as computer-aided systems through which tourists can access the information they search simply and fast. TISs provide information for tourists on information, accommodation, transportation, destination and other services. The interface of TIS forms the map or city plan of a tourism region. In accordance with the purposes of tourists and tourism (politic, economic, social and technological), information such as historical places, national parks, transportation routes, lakes, etc. takes place on this map or plan. As maps are the mediators of visual information presenting for tourists, the unlocational information for tourism must be relevant to the location information. The system includes storage, processing, analysis of these data and their submission to users by updating them (Figure 2). Questioning and analyses to be made in TIS depend on the information scope of the system and analysis abilities. The scope of information is determined at the design stage according to the user group of the system. These data need to be in the database and regularly updated (Cömert & Bostancı, 1999; Çelik, 2005; Çuhadar, 2010; Njegus, 2013). With these systems, it is aimed to manage the fields related to tourism, decide on planning for the future and ensure coherence with GISs established at the following stage (Esen, 2005). It is useful to set up Tourism Information System so as to provide an information resource for tourists in cities, present a province, region, and country and create a basis for the infrastructure for Geographic Information System based works. By this means, tourists coming to a city can easily learn where and what opportunities they will have, how they will reach somewhere in the shortest way and

665 which places in the city are worth seeing. Locational and unlocational data necessary to form an infrastructure of TIS in the landscape planning process must be collected and stored in a healthy way. CONCLUSIONS Nowadays, tourism is a very fast growing sector. In recent years, information technology is used in every area of life, it is influential in the establishment of the tourism potential of the city. This offers new opportunities for tourists visiting the city. The most effective solution for storing comprehensive information about tourism, geographic information system based on the creation of a special information system. Landscape planners analyze the landscape by using natural, cultural, social and economic data and assess the results. For this purpose, Geographic Information Systems related to many occupational disciplines are utilized to get fast and correct information in the landscape planning process, prevent unnecessary data repetitions and make rationalist decisions. GIS is an important tool in the application of inventory, analysis, and assessment processes to landscape values and resources in landscape planning. In this process, tourism planning also has a significant place among the spheres of influence of GIS. "Tourism Information System (TIS)" created for sustainable city tourism planning in the GIS environment has a significant power in terms of tourism development, increasing effects of tourism properties, providing economically more meaningful results and preparation of tourism-purposed implementation development plans in tourism planning. Tourism Information Systems can be integrated with the information systems set up for cities for other purposes. REFERENCES Agar, T. (1974). İnsan-Bilinç-Sistem Sevk ve İdare İkilimleri, Sistem Yayın Dizisi No. 1, 87 s., Ankara. Ahipaşaoğlu, S. & Kaya, İ. (2005). Turizm ve Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri, Gazi Kitabevi Yayınları, 149 s., Ankara. Altanlar, A. & Akıncı Kesim, G. (2011). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Planlaması İçin Yöre Halkı ve Yerli Turistlerin Davranış ve Beklentilerini Anlamaya Yönelik Bir Araştırma. Ankara Üniversitesi, Çevre Bilimleri Dergisi 3 (2), 1- 20. Arnold, V., Lipp, T., Pietsch, M. & Schaal, P. (2005). Effektivierung der kommunalen Landschaftsplanung durch den Einsatz Geographischer Informationssysteme, In: Naturschutz und Landschaftsplanung, Heft 11/2005, 349 pp.. Ashworth, G. & Page, S. J. (2011). Urban Tourism Research: Recent Progress and Current Paradoxes. Tourism Management 32, 1-15. Bahaire, T. & Elliott-White, M. (1999). The application of geographical information systems (GIS) in sustainable tourism planning: A review. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 7 (2), 159–74. Blaschke, T. (1997). Landschaftsanalyse und Bewertung mit GIS. Methodische Untersuchungen zu Ökosystemforchung und Naturschutz am Beispiel der bayerischen Salzachauen. Forseh z deutsch Landeskunde, vol. 243. Boyd, S. W. & Butler, R. W. (1996). Seeing the forest through the trees: Using CIS to identify potential ecotourism sites in Nothern Ontario. In: Harrison L. C. & Husbands W. (Ed.) Practicing Responsible Tourism: International Case Studies in Tourism Planning, Policy and Development. p. 380-403, John Wiley, New York. Butler, R. (1993). Alternative tourism: The thin edge of the wedge. In: V. Smith & W. Eadington (Ed.) Tourism Alternatives. p. 31-46, John Wiley, Chichester. Butler, R. (1998). Sustainable tourism: Looking backwards in order to progress?, In: Hall C. M. & Lew A. A (Ed.) Sustainable Tourism: A Geographical Perspective. p. 25-34, Longman, London. Cömert, Ç. & Bostancı, H. (1999). Turist Bilgi Sistemleri ve Trabzon Örneği. Yerel Yöntemlerde Kent Bilgi Sistemi Uygulamaları Sempozyumu. 13-15 Ekim 1999, Bildiriler Kitabı, s. 168-181, Trabzon. Çelik, K. (2005). Turizm Kaynakları Bilgi Sistemi (TKBS) Oluşturulması: Gümüşhane örneği. TMMOB Harita ve Kadastro Mühendisleri Odası 10. Türkiye Harita Bilimsel ve Teknik Kurultayı. 28 Mart - 1 Nisan 2005, Ankara. Çelik, K. T. (2015). CBS Tabanlı Bir Yerleşke Donatı Bilgi Sisteminin (YEDBİS) Oluşturulması: Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Kanuni Yerleşkesi Örneği. Karadeniz Teknik Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Trabzon.

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667 Rhind, D. W. (1990). Counting the people: the role of GIS. In: Maguire, D. J., Goodchild, M. F. and Rhind, D. W. (Ed.) Geographical Information Systems: Principles and Applications, p. 127-137. Sağlam, A., Duzgun, H.S.B. & Usul N. (2004). Çanakkale Savaşlarına Farklı Bir Yaklaşım: Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemlerinde Gelibolu 1915. Çanakkale Araştırmaları Türk Yıllığı Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart Üniversitesi, Atatürk ve Çanakkale Savaşları Araştırma Merkezi, 2, 117-133. Sarı, Y. & Kozak, M. (2005). Turizm Pazarlamasına İnternetin Etkisi: Destinasyon Web Siteleri İçin Bir Model Önerisi. Akdeniz Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi 9, 248 – 271. Tecim, V. (2000). İnternet Tabanlı Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri İle Planlama, Yönetim ve Bilgilendirme. 6. Türkiye’de İnternet Konferansı, 9-11 Kasım 2000, İstanbul. Tiryakioğlu, G. & Erdoğan, S. (2004). 3. Kampüs Bilgi Sistemi. Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Bilişim Günleri. 6-9 Ekim 2004, Afyon. Topay, M., Kaya, L., G., Yıldırım, B., İkiz, E. & Demirtaş, S. Ö. (2003). ZKÜ Bartın Yerleşkesi Kampüs Bilgi Sistemi. ZKÜ, Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi 5 (5), 71-77. Töreyen, G., Özdemir, G. & Kurt, T. (2010). Arcgis10 Desktop Uygulama Dokümanı. İşlem Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Mühendislik ve Eğitim Ltd. Şti., 1-4 s., Ankara. URL: Turizm (2015). https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turizm. URL: World Tourism (2015). http://www.world-tourism.org/. URL: OKA (2015). http://www.oka.org.tr/Documents/AMASYA%20MARKA%20KENT %20STRATEJ% C4% B0K%20 KALKINMA%20PLANI. URL: Tourism Dictionary (2016). http://turizm.terimleri.com/Urban_Tourism.html. URL: Etravelweek (2016). https://etravelweek.com/imported/basics-crisis-management. URL: Lardbucket (2016). http://2012books.lardbucket.org/books/designing-business-information-systems- apps-websites-and-more/s06-information-systems-to-enhance.html. URL: Buzzle (2016). http://www.buzzle.com/articles/systems-approach-to-management. html. URL: Njegus, A. (2013). http://www.slideshare.net/AngelinaNjegus/lesson-2-ebusiness-in-tourism. Yılmaz, B. S. & Öncüer, M. E. (2002). Yeni Ekonominin Turizm Sektörüne Etkileri. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Bilgi Teknolojileri Kongresi. 5 Mayıs 2002, Bildiri Özet Kitabı, Denizli. Yianna, F. & Poulicos, P. (2005). CIS Production For The Evaluation and Planning of Tourism: A Sustainable Tourism Perspective. Yomralıoğlu, T. (2000). Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Temel Kavramlar ve Uygulamalar, 479 s., Trabzon. Yörüklü, N. (2009). Peyzaj Mimarlığı Meslek Disiplini İçinde Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemlerinin Yeri ve Önemi. TMMOB Coğrafi Bilgi Sistemleri Kongresi. 2-6 Ekim 2009, Bildiriler Kitabı, s. 1-9, İzmir.

668 Chapter 59

Gaziantep: One of The Gastronomy City Selected by UNESCO

Hüsniye DOLDUR*

INTRODUCTION “Gastronomy is one of the most emphasized pleasures of the human beings: we like to taste, try, cook and, eventually, share,” says in the beginning of a study posted in the internet, A Culinary Journey Throughout Gastronomy’s Geography and History. We also like to travel; we take pleasure not only from visiting the sites known by the local people, but especially from tasting their cuisine (Culınary Journey by Sosa, 2016). Gastronomy and travel are, therefore, the best way to make sense and discover culture of a location and area. Even it may be said that the international stage that culinary has reached today, with Chinese, Japanese, French, Mexican, Turkish and similar cuisines, makes “menu a geographical study” according to some definition. According to Marcel Proust (1871-1922), a famous French novelist, essayist and critic, “even a tiny piece of financier is enough to unlock the key of a memory of thousands of pages”. In this way, we may have knowledge of a variety of places worldwide and refresh our memories. Basing on it, we may also say that a travel in gastronomy would be a good geographical experience at the same time. In fact, a field of study called “gastrogeography” appeared today; that is, geography of the culinary and eating habits conditioned by climate, soil, tradition, history, psychology, trade and national character. In this sense, the world may be divided into culinary zones outlined by political borders, latitudes, precipitations, religions, products, ethnical groups and other geographical factors. And this is another attraction for tourism. Actually, tourism policies developed against the mass tourism, now started to be considered quite ordinary among the society travelling much, have led to alternative types of tourism (eco-tourism, ethical tourism, environment friendly tourism, medical tourism, sustainable tourism, etc.) and “gastronomy tourism” is cited among them. Essentially defined as “visiting food producers, culinary festivals, restaurants and special sites with a view to tasting a special type of food or observe different production process of the foods”, the gastronomy tourism is closely associated with various spaces. Among these activities, eating food especially served from a particular chef is mostly included. According to another definition, gastronomy tourism is “travels made to discover new foods and drinks in order to have unforgettable and unique gastronomical experience (Özgüç, 2013; Hall, et.al, 2003; Uyar and Zengin 2015). Gastronomy tourism increasingly appears among types of tourism to be further developed. Naturally, that the number of international tourist has now exceeded 1 billion, share of the culinary expenditures in the tourism revenues worldwide has reached 30% and 88.2% of the tourists declared “food is very important in making choice of destination for travel” all are among the most important factors. With the added value it creates (as it causes the tourists expense more per person), the gastronomy tourism has become widespread throughout the world, particularly in the European countries (Türsab, 2015). While tasting and trying different food may become fundamental motivation for some tourist, it may be secondary motivation for others in some part of their travel (Uyar and Zengin, 2015; Cömert and Özkaya, 2014; Kivela and Crotts, 2006; Kılıçhan, 2015 and Yüncü, 2010). Observing evolvement of such a demand, the tour operators have started gastronomy tourist with various contents they formulated with an intention to ensure more people to travel for purpose of eating-drinking experience. In this field, particularly France, Spain and Italy have outstanding position in the gastronomy tourism worldwide with the activities they organize. The most advanced types of gastronomy tourism involved

* Assoc. Prof. Dr, Istanbul University, Faculty of Literature, Department of Geography.

with multi-faceted culinary activities are of course the local cuisines that constitute the best samples of the cultural heritage of the people. Food proper to a location, particularly when introduced by events organized in a regular way, attract thousands of people to that destination (Türsab, 2015). In addition to the aspect of eating-drinking experience, the gastronomy tourism is also important in that it protects socio-cultural heritage and in terms of transmission of such heritage to the future generations. For this reason, UNESCO has also included the cities that keep the local cuisines alive as “gastronomy cities” in the “Creative Cities Network” it established for preservation of the cultural diversity worldwide (Kivela and Crotts, 2006; http://en.unesco.org). These cities are Popayán (Colombia), Chengdu (China), Östersund (Sweden), Jeonju (South Korea), Zahle (Lebanon), Florianopolis (Brazil), Shunde (China), Tsuruoka (Japan), Belém (Brazil), Bergen (Norway), Burgos (Spain), Dénia (Spain), Ensenada (Mexico), Parma (Italy), Phuket (Tailand), Rasht (Islamic Republic of Iran) and Tucson (USA) (http://en.unesco.org/2016). UNESCO has established some criteria for the gastronomy cities just as it applies for other cities in the Creative Cities Network: well-developed gastronomy as the characteristics of the city centre and/or area; presence of a lively gastronomy community that accommodates a great number of traditional restaurants and/or chefs; local materials used in the traditional cuisine; local knowledge, traditional culinary applications an methods that managed to survive the industrial/technological developments; traditional food markets and traditional food industry; gastronomy festivals, awards, competitions and tradition to host other far-reaching recognition events; respect for nature and encouragement of sustainable local products and working to the satisfaction of the public opinion; promotion of nutrition in the training institutions and, lastly, inclusion of the programs for preservation of biodiversity in the curriculum of the culinary schools (http://en.unesco.org/2016). And, Gaziantep, having all these criteria, was also registered as “World Gastronomy City” and included in this network by UNESCO on December 11, 2015. 1. CHARACTERISTICS OF GAZİANTEP CUISINE Under this newly gained title, Gaziantep has such cultural infrastructure as required to become one of the most important gastronomy tourism centres both in Turkey and worldwide. There are many factors effective in the formation of traditional culinary culture in the city. We may cite some of them as follows: geographical position of the city; its climate and soil structure that allow cultivation of a number of products; its position between Mesopotamia, the origin of the early civilizations, and Mediterranean; closeness to Mesopotamia known as “Fertile Crescent” where the earliest farming societies have appeared and its position on Silk Road, starting in China in the east and reaching to Europe in the west (Chamber of Commerce, Gaziantep, 2007). With a history of about 6000 years, Gaziantep has been under the reign of Hittite, Persian, Assyrian, Roman, Byzantine and Turkish civilizations throughout the history and these civilizations have also contributed to formation of the culinary culture of the city, leading to geographical differentiation of the city. In addition, it has also been affected by the cuisines of the neighbouring cities (Şanlıurfa, Hatay, Adana, Adıyaman) and Aleppo (as it was a district of Aleppo in the Ottoman time). Today, Gaziantep cuisine is a composition of both these historical influences and the culinary cultures of the Turks, Turkomans, Arabians, Figure 1: Location of Gaziantep Kurds, Yazidis and Jews, all lived in the city. Containing about 500 types of food, the Gaziantep cuisine has quite distinguished tastes due to the sensitivity in selection of the materials used in making foods and desserts, traditional culinary techniques applied in the preparation and cooking, kitchen utensils used and a great number of spices, pastes and dressings adding flavour to the food ( www.gaziantep-bld.gov.tr).

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1.1. Products Used in the Gaziantep Cuisine The most important asset of Gaziantep that contributes to its becoming a gastronomy centre is its rich cuisine consisting of about 500 dishes. The fundamental factors that differentiate this cuisine from others and making it very delicious may be cited as the culinary culture as outcome of an experience basing of thousands of years, completely local materials used in cooking, and traditional methods and techniques applied in the preparation of the food and cooking. Prior to proceeding to the very delicious food of Gaziantep, it would be useful to look at the materials that contribute to formation of this rich cuisine. When studied in terms of gastronomical values, the Gaziantep cuisine attracts attention with its natural and organic product diversity. Thanks to its favourable climactic conditions and fertile soils, Gaziantep allows cultivation of a great number of agricultural products. If we list some of the agricultural products completely cultivated locally and used widespread in the Gaziantep cuisine: Antep pistachio, olive types, tomato, pepper, aubergine, white cucumber, horse radish, carrot, cucumber, haylan zucchini, winter zucchini, hairy white cucumber, tarragon and safflower (saffron). In addition to them, widespread fruit cultivation in Gaziantep has also allowed use of various fruits to get various tastes in making many foods. Some fruits used frequently in the local cuisine are: grape (40 types of grapes discovered basing on the historical sources that have been cultivated in the location with different names individually), apricot types (zerdali and sekerpare), cherry, apple, quince, walnut, fig, mulberry, pomegranate, plum, almond, pear and sour cherry. The most important agricultural product in the region is Antep pistachio, which is well-known with flavour it creates in the Gaziantep cuisine and an important source of income for the farmers in Gaziantep. A horticultural crop, presence of Antep pistachio in the region dates back to 4000-5000 years ago. The pistachio cultivated here is cited among the most beautiful types of pistachio worldwide due to its flavour, oil rate and aroma. Antep pistachio is harvested three times a year in various periods, starting from the first phase when the fruit ripens to the last phase depending location and type in order to use for different purposes. As it is, the pistachios with various aroma and flavour are obtained, meeting needs of the dessert and kebab shops for pistachio of different flavour. Antep pistachio is one of the fundamental materials use in the preparation of the desserts (baklava, katmer, şöbiyet, kadayif), one of the most significant products of the Gaziantep cuisine. Green pistachio, also locally known as “Kuşgozü”, which is most widely used and deemed most precious by the baklava and kadayif makers. In addition to the desserts, Antep pistachio is also mostly used for some kebabs, pot food and pilafs. Chick pea, lentil, bulgur and dovme are cereals most frequently used in the Gaziantep cusine, which is a combination of the Anatolian, Mediterranean and Middle Eastern cuisines. Wheat plays important role in the gastronomy culture of Gaziantep. As wheat is directly used for preparation of the local dishes, the products derived from the wheat such as dovme, bulgur, firik, simit (fine bulgur) are also frequently used for preparation of pilaf and meatball. Among them, the local firik is (although used for making a variety of food) particularly used for making pilaf. Obtained by curing the wheats while they are still in form of green ear, breaking and sorting out, firik is cooked after mixed with some bulgur as it is hard to digest it alone. And dovme (yarma), which is also derived from wheat by preliminary cooking, has also important place in the local gastronomy culture. There are many pot food, soups and desserts which are made by use of dovme. And bulgur (cracked wheat) is used both for makin pilaf and various types of meatballs (e.g. kubbeh, steak tartar a la turca) Known by its unique tastes, the Gaziantep cuisine also uses bread in different types (flat bread, lavash, loaf of bread, etc.) Flat bread is the one most frequently use. As all dwellers of Gaziantep consume flat bread in their daily life, there are many stone bakery shops in the city making flat bread by wood fire. While these shops produce types of flat breads such as open, kupban, spiked, they also bake other types of flat breads such as flat bread with sesame which is consumed in the breakfast (www.gaziantepturizm.gov.tr). One of the most important taste sources of the Gaziantep cuisine is meat, which is largely used for making food. While veal is not consumed in Gaziantep, the local people rather eat sheep and chicken meat. While the animals raised locally are consumed in the Gaziantep cuisine, usage of the meat in the food also bears local characteristics. In making food, the meat is mostly used by application of local marination techniques. One of the basic factors making the Gaziantep cuisine so delicious is use of

671 butter in making food. Derived from the milk from the locally raised animals, the butter is largely used for the foods and desserts. In addition to the butter, olive oil is also used frequently in the Gaziantep cuisine. Besides the basic materials we listed mentioned above, the Gaziantep cuisine also largely uses flavour enhancers such as pastes, spices as well as sours obtained from a variety of fruits (lemon, grape, and pomegranate). The most significant flavour enhancers of the Gaziantep cuisine are, of course, spices. A great variety of spices is used in all dishes with paste and yoghurt, kebabs, soups and desserts. The most widely used spices in the local cuisine include black pepper, cinnamon, cumin, powder red pepper (hot and sweat), chilli flake, saffron, thymus, mint and sumac. Being among the essential flavour enhancers of the Gaziantep cuisine, pastes are produced from the locally cultivated tomato and red pepper by using local techniques. While the most of the dishes use tomato paste or pepper paste largely, the hot version preferred more, the tomato paste and pepper paste both are used for some food, making it more flavour. One of the specialities making the Gaziantep cuisine more delicious than the other cuisines is the rich diversity of sours, which are used for making food. Derived from the lemon, grape and pomegranate, sours are individually used in different food as flavour enhancers. Verjuice, which is very sour and obtained by lemon juice and pressed unriped grapes, is used in some salads and in the cooking stage of some food (stuffed vegetables, sour ladies finger, sour zucchini, aubergine bastirma, etc.). Sumac is another product used in the Gaziantep cuisine to give sour taste. While the dried powder version of the sumac is used for kebabs and salads, the sour juice derived by keeping it in water is used in the cooking stage of some food. Another sour widely used in the Gaziantep food and salads is sour pomegranate. And among the flavour enhancers of the Gaziantep cuisine the garlic has an important place. Compared to other cuisines, the Gaziantep cuisine largely uses garlic, fresh one especially. From its early development in the field, the fresh garlic is used for kebab, piyaz, pot food and pastries. While the dried version is used as additive for some food, it is used for soups and dishes with paste and yoghurts as primary vegetable. Even there are some dishes made only by using garlic (garlic food, fried garlic, garlic kebab). Consumption of fresh garlic together with some types of pilafs is also widespread in the local culture. As a matter of fact, the most important characteristics of what differentiate the lahmacun known as Antep lahmacun from other lahmacun is that while onion is used in the mix of lahmacun in other region, the garlic is used in Gaziantep instead of onion. Another thing making the Gaziantep cuisine more characteristic is consumption of the locally and naturally cultivated and raised products freshly seasonably and, furthermore, consumption of these products beyond the harvest season by drying or pickling as well. Locally known as “winter preparation”, these works are performed by the entire household under the leadership of the housewife and, sometimes, by help of the neighbours and relatives, mostly consisted of women. Performed at almost all houses in Gaziantep, some winter preparations can be listed as follows: stringing a variety of vegetables (mostly aubergine, peppers, white cucumber, zucchini) and fruits (apple, apricot, etc.) on thread for sun drying; preparation of pekmez which is consumed together with tahini in the winter and of the other grape juice products; making tomato and pepper pastes; preparation of pickles and sours (verjuice, pomegranate and sumac); roasting from the sheep meat; preservation in brine of the chees taken in the spring; provision of bulgur (cracked wheat) and simit (fine bulgur) to be used for making pilaf and stuffed vegetables). These preparations throughout the summer assure the food to be cooked in the winter more delicious. Another factor enhancing taste of the Gaziantep food is the local kitchen utensils used for cooking. In Gaziantep, a settlement since the Neolithic Age, the kitchen utensils and instruments different from those of other regions have been found out as a result of excavations made. Some of these utensils include troughs made of engraved stones (for used for crushing grapes and other various purposes), big containers made of engraved hollow stone), mills, masere cauldron made of copper in different sizes, basins made of copper, food cauldrons for various purpose, oil cauldrons, trays, strainers and various hand tools (www.gaziantepturizm.gov.tr).

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And some home appliances today available in almost all homes and widely used during the food cooking stages due to their taste-enhancing characteristics are: zırh which is used to turn the meat into mince manually which are preferred for making the food more delicious, instead of using machine; copper containers (pots, cauldrons, plates, coffeepot, etc.), stone containers, locally called soku, used for pounding the dried red pepper to turn it into powder, and hand-mills used to get fresh coffee or spice.

1.2. Food Figure 2: Soku, one of the local The Gaziantep cuisine has a wide range of food where a kitchen utensils in Gaziantep great variety of materials are used, particularly vegetables and fruits cultivated in their respective seasons. Thanks to the diversity of local products and traditional cooking methods, a wide variety of food (about 500) are available. We may categorize the food in the Gaziantep cuisine in two primary groups: (a) kebabs and (b) pot foods. Of them, the kebabs are both the most special and most consumed food in the Gaziantep cuisine. Same with all food in the Gaziantep cuisine, great care is shown for preparation end service of them. With the meat being the primary material, kebabs are food carefully prepared from selection of the material to be used (meat, vegetables, spices, etc.) through margination of the meat (by use of particularly spices, milk, yoghurt, oil olive, etc.) and the cooking techniques applied (mostly barbecue on wooden fire). In the Gaziantep cuisine, service is as important as preparation of the kebabs. Great importance is given to the freshness of the vegetables served together with the kebab (lettuce, watercress, purple basil, onion, garlic, etc.), type of bread (lavash, spiked flat bread, etc.) and drinks to be served (mostly local ayran, turnip juice). Type of kebab mostly consumed by the people in Gaziantep is “liver kebab”. While it is consumed in the dinner, it is also eaten at breakfast (mostly in winter). In addition to the liver kebab, the aubergine kebab, keme kebab made of keme a local mushroom, mince kebab, chicken kebab, cubes kebabs and kusleme kebab are kebabs most consumed.

Figure 3: Yuvalama (left) and kubbeh (right), are among the most favourite and most difficult food in Gaziantep Pot food are, just like kebabs, food where the materials used (meat, vegetables, spices, etc.) are carefully selected. These food require special attention from type of the pot to be used (copper, casserole, etc.), where (on wooden fire in stone bakery, kitchen cooker, etc.) and cooking time depending on a variety of cooking techniques. In the Gaziantep cuisine, there is a great number of food from those easy to cook to those that are very difficult in the preparation stage (yuvalama, kubbeh, etc.) The pot food in the Gaziantep cuisine is so much in number that we may also categorize them as food with sauce, food with yoghurt and soups. In the Gaziantep cuisine, the meat is amply used in both kebabs and pot food. However, besides the food with meat, there are also many vegetable foods without meat in the Gaziantep cuisine. In this respect, the Gaziantep cuisine is also rich in terms of vegetarian diet. In addition to all kinds of

673 vegetables grown locally, various fruits such as quince, apple, plumb, almond, apricot and Antep pistachio are also used for making food. Furthermore, there is a great number of food where fresh onion, fresh garlic and their dried types are used. 1.2.1. Seasonal status of the food Gaziantep cuisine is also significant in that it contains various food according to the seasons. In summer, food diversity is higher compared to other seasons as the fresh vegetables and fruits are ample. Salads made in this season are richer in terms of contents. Some of them are Antep paste, avrat salad, spring piyaz, pirpirim piyaz and oil piyaz. In this season, lahmacun with quince, lahmacun with onion, lahmacun with oil, Aleppo kebab, apple food, carrot food, fried garlic, taraklık (lamb cutlets with quince), sour zucchini, aubergine bastırma, green beans, fresh bell pepper and oil stuffed vine leaves are among the food cooked mostly. Additionally, in the summer months, habit of cooking meat and vegetable on barbecue, locally called “kebab fanning”, is also very widespread in the entire city. For the people living in Gaziantep, kebab fanning is indispensable habit of the weekend picnics (especially on Sundays). In winter, with the effect of the weather getting cooler, the foods with higher nutrition value are preferred. For preparation of such food, meat together with mixture of cereals and more oil are used. In this period, we also see the habit of eating food at breakfast as well. The days start with “beyran soup” or “liver kebab”. Not preferred much in the summer as it is oily and bitter, beyran soup is the most preferred food at breakfast in the winter season. And consumption of liver kebab is also very popular at breakfast. Furthermore, piyaz, roasting, pastries, types of pekmez and tarhana are consumed at breakfast in this season. Besides, among the winter dishes that the people in Gaziantep consume are mumbar dolmasi (stuffed sheep sausages), sour meatball, tarhana soup, keskek (made of mutton or chicken and coarsely ground), mixed winter salad, winter stuffed vegetable, and semsek (pastry with pilaf). Seasonal tastes appear in the cooking of kebabs which constitute the most famous dishes of the Gaziantep cuisine. In spring, in addition to the kebabs with vegetables and garlic, yenidünya kebab, keme kebab cooked only in the months of April and May, aubergine kebab cooked throughout the summer and the onion and liver kebabs cooked in winter are types of kebabs cooked according to the kebabs. 1.3.Desserts Desserts have a prestigious place among the outstanding tastes in the Gaziantep cuisine. Gaziantep baklava, associated with the name of the city, is the most consumed one famous across Turkey, even going beyond its borders. Known to be present late 19th century Ottoman cuisine, the baklava is turned into its current and more delicious form thanks to the efforts of Gaziantep chefs and pistachio, local clarified butter and type of flour used its preparation. In addition to the baklama, there are a great number of desserts in the Gaziantep cuisine including nightingale’s nest, dolama, katmer, carrot slice, sobiyet, kunafeh, peanut butter, twisted and cream kadayif, Ashura, saffron and rice dessert, nişe halva, şillik, kerebic and kahke. In addition to the local materials (flour, pistachio, walnut, clarified butter, cream, various splices) for preparation of the great variety of desserts in the Gaziantep cuisine, the expertise and hand skill gained over long years is also very significant. 1.4. Local Beverages The Gaziantep cuisine may be said to be very rich in terms of local beverages. The mostly preferred beverages are licorice and bloody mulberry juices. Licorice juice is made by boiling the licorice roots and has been consumed from the earliest times locally. Although the licorice juice is a beverage consumed throughout the year, it is mostly preferred in the summer months and Ramadan as refreshment which leaves a nice taste in the mouth. Sold by the street sellers in the markets, in front of the mosques and around Gaziantep castle, the licorice juice is consumed by all people as it is a cheap beverage. Another local beverage mostly preferred in the summer months is bloody mulberry (made of sour- black mulberry). Besides its numerous benefit for health, it is also among the mostly consumed beverages locally as refreshment. And this juice is also amply consumed after iftar during Ramadan as it

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is comfortable for the stomach. Additionally, tah juice, rose syrup, verjuice and karsanbaç, a mixture of snow and pekmez are among other local beverages consumed wide- spread by the people of Gaziantep. Another local beverage in Gaziantep is terebinth coffee. Prepared by dried and roasted fruit of the terebinth tree is a delicious Figure 4: Baklava (left) and carrot slice (right), among the mostly beverage and it is also consumed as consumed desserts of the Gaziantep cuisine. it is good for a number of medical problems. The terebinth coffee is a beverage that the visitors of the city mostly want to try after delicious dishes. Although it is served in many locations in Gaziantep, the place famous for the terebinth coffee is the historial Tahmis Kahvesi, located on the Kültür Road, 5 minutes walk away from Gaziantep Castle. 2. PLACE OF THE DIET FOR THE PEOPLE IN GAZIANTEP For the people in Gaziantep, the diet is the most important ritual of the daily life. The routine diet habits of the city people start before dawn in the morning and continue to the midnight. Bearing traces of a variety of civilization from the ancient times to the present and containing rich flavours, the Gaziantep cuisine has a very important place in the life of the city people. Accustomed to this culinary culture, the city people have a rich palatal delight. For them, this “cuisine” is a style of life and it is not possible for them to live without it. Hearty appetite of the people in Gaziantep leads to constant cooking activities throughout the day in the city. Liver sellers serving up to the dawn, soup shops serving breakfast, restaurants active all day for lunch and dinner, market restaurants and desserts shows available at any time during the day make the city busy with culinary events all the time. Continued food related activities all day in Gaziantep ensure all parts of the population involved with the culinary (butchers, greengrocers, bakeries, shops selling local products, etc.) to work in harmony with each other. The butcher seems, for example, an extension of the home and the meat is order not by the name of the meat, but the food to be cooked. Likewise, shopping in the food products shop is done by telling name of the food to be cooked. The seller prepares the material according to the food to be cooked (bulgur, dovme, rice, firik, hick pea). Duty of the herbalists is to prepare proper mixture of spices as requested by the customer. And the neighbourhood bakery functions as the cook stove of the house. While many pot (casserole, copper pot) or tray food prepared at home are taken to the bakery for cooking, the filling materials prepared at home for flat bread or lahmacun (mince mix, cheese mix, etc.) are sent to the bakery for cooking at the desired time. All these habits have automatically created an excellently working order among home, market, butcher, greengrocer and neighbouring bakery (Öney, 2014; Kartal, 2015). Loyalty of the people in Gaziantep has also great effect on the survival of the Gaziantep cuisine. The people show the same great attention to the culinary on the special days (such as banquets, engagement ceremony, wedding, circumcision, birthday party, death, religious holidays and Ramadan) as they do in their normal daily life. Dishes prepared for the special days are always those where local materials used and much more difficult and laborious (yuvalama, kebbab, steak tartar a la turca) compared to the daily dishes. As these dishes are very difficult to prepare, always neighbours or relatives lend a hand to it. While the people in Gaziantep mostly prefer dishes consisting of aubergine bastırma, bulgur pilaf, white bean-rice pilaf or zucchini sour-bulgur pilaf for the engagement and circumcision events, it is customary to butcher sheep and make lahmacun with garlic by using sheep meat for the weddings. Furthermore, it is a widespread custom to make yuvalama at all homes on the first day of the Ramadan feast. The people in Gaziantep keep alive their traditional habits in case of death as they do on the happy days. 40th days after death of a person, the family of the late serve kırk serimseği (pastry with pilaf) and halva to the neighbours and relatives.

675 The desserts just like the dishes are among the food served by the people in Gaziantep on the special days. The desserts traditionally served in case of wedding, engagement and feast all the time sometimes bear certain messages. If, the ceremony for asking the family for their daughter’s hand, for example, the family gives consent to the wedding, the boy’s side serves baklava or other types of desserts under name of “şirincelik”. Thus, it is believed that the prospective double will never say hard things to each other during their marriage. The desserts are not only served on such happy days, but also in the ceremonies after death. At the end of the “tevhit çekme” ceremony made 2-3 days after burial of the dead, baklava or other desserts are served to the attendants and it is also a widespread custom to bring baklava or other deserts when visiting for condolence. The housewives together with assistance given by the neighbours or close relatives prepare baklava several days before the Ramadan Feast and it is given emphasis on serving home-made baklava during the feast days (Kartal, 2015). 3. GAZIANTEP COUSINE FOR THE OUTSIDERS Each year thousands of national and international visitors come to Gaziantep to taste a great variety of foods prepared by use of local materials and traditional cooking methods (kebabs, kebbah, soups, pilafs, vegetable dishes, desserts, etc.). A survey was made with totally 145 persons, national and international, to find out what the Gaziantep cuisine means for the visitors and the characteristics of the visitors, and the participants were asked about the effect of the “Gaziantep cuisine” on their visit to Gaziantep. 44% of the national visitors and 5% of the international visitors responded that they visited the city to taste the local dishes (mostly kebabs) of the Gaziantep cuisine and Antep baklava. While 65% of the survey participants accounted for national tourists from major cities such as Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir and Burse as well as those coming from the neighbouring cities such as Hatay, Urfa, Adıyaman and Kilis, 35% of the participants were from foreign countries, particularly Germany, Holland, USA and Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus, followed by Kuwait, Qatar, Israel, Japan, China, Malaysia, Lebanon, Morocco, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Uzbekistan. While the survey participants consisted of women by 44% and men by 56%, density of te people in the age bracket of 30-45 drew attention. Furthermore, it was understood that 85% of the visitors were university graduates and 15% were high school graduates. While greater part of the participants account for the day-trippers, they are followed up by visitors for weekend and longer time. A greater part of the participants are consisted of university students (53 persons) from the cities such as Istanbul, Ankara, Izmir, Bursa and Kilis they are followed by the visitors making business visit (37 persons), group of friends consisting of males (25 persons), families (17 persons) and solo visitors (13 persons). A major part of the participants has stated that they preferred the Gaziantep cuisine to taste new and different tastes, eat dishes cooked by use of different cooking techniques and experience local beverages and desserts with different service manners. A greater part of the participants (78%) stated that they went to the restaurants such as Imam Çagdas, Karşıyakalı Halil Usta that are famous for their baklava and kebab specialities and they mostly tried kusleme kebab, beyran soup and desserts such as baklava, carrot slice and katmer. Furthermore, 85% of the participants stated they were impressed with the quality, taste and service of the dishes as well. 4. DISTRIBUTION OF PLACES SERVING LOCAL DISHES IN GAZIANTEP Although the places serving local dishes in Gaziantep are distributed throughout the city due to the widespread consumption habit of the local people, they are concentrated in and near the city centre. According to data from the Gaziantep Chamber of Commerce and the Gaziantep Chamber of Restaurants, Kebab Houses and Baklava Shops, 145 restaurants and kebab houses and 90 dessert shops (mostly consisted of baklava sellers) operate in Gaziantep. It is possible to categorize the places serving local food by the content an quality of the service they offer as luxury restaurants, market restaurants, dessert shops, cafes and kitchen of some hotels (Gaziantep Chamber of Commerce, 2012). There are many luxury restaurants in the city serving the most prestigious local dishes of the Gaziantep cuisine for the national and international visitors. While most of them provides service on Kültür Road, the remaining are located around Gaziantep Castle, Karataş and Şehitkâmil streets and Yüzüncüyıl Park. These are spaces most preferred by the national and international tourists in addition

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to the local people. Although they are more expensive than the others, they are preferred for the quality material they use and for the refinement in the service of the dishes. Among them the mostly visited are Imam Çağdaş, a trademark in Gaziantep (ranked first in the list of best restaurants to visit in the “American Travelers Guide” published by Fodor’s Choice in 2010 and awarded with “the best authentic cuisine in Turkey” by the Turkish Union of Tourist Guides) and Karşıyakalı Halil Usta (www.fodors.com). In addition of them, the places such as Sakıp Usta, Bayazhan Restaurant, Kelebek Restaurant, Tavacı Recep Usta, Çavuşoğlu Baklava and Kebab also draw interest. Other than the luxury restaurants, there are also market restaurants serving local Gaziantep dishes in the city. You may see these restaurants in almost all districts of Gaziantep which address rather to the city people and university students with low to medium income due to their affordable prices. However, they are mostly located around Gaziantep Castle and stadium. In addition to a variety of local dishes, these restaurants are preferred by the visitors rather for liver kebab and beyran soup. Internal and external appearances of these restaurants, which serve both weekdays and weekend vary depending on their location in the city. Those located close to Gaziantep Castle and around stadium serve in bigger spaces and under better hygienic conditions as they have higher number of visitors. And those in the outskirts of the city serve by inadequate internal facilities and under inadequate hygienic conditions (even some have no lavatory), equipped simply with several tables and chairs mostly. And there are some places in the city which Figure 5: İmam Çağdaş, the most known restaurant of he city, locate on Uzun Çarşı Street. serve only liver kebab. Although they are distributed across the city, they are mostly located around Gaziantep Castle and stadium and along Şehitkâmil Street. And offering the indispensable tastes of the Gaziantep cuisine for both the city people and visitors, the dessert shops are distributed across the city, but they are mostly on Gazi Muhtar Caddesi. There are a great number of them on this street. Most famous of them are Orkide Pastanesi, Güllüoğlu Baklava, Sunguroğlu Baklava and Baklavacı Çelebioğulları. In addition to the baklava shops, one of the mostly preferred dessert in Antep is şöbiyet (multiflaked pastry with cream and pistachio filling). And the place famous for its şöbiyet in Gaziantep is Zeki İnal, operating at Akyol Quarter, Atatürk Boulevard. And the cafes serving local dishes are mostly in the historical markets, on the historical Kültür Road, Yüzüncüyıl Park and around Gaziantep Castle, but still they also serve at different places of the city. There are also hotel kitchens among the spaces serving local dishes. Most of these hotels are boutique hotels which started to serve after restauration of the historical Antep Houses (such as Asude Mansion, Zeynep Hanım Mansion, Antik Belkıs Inn) operating at Gaziantep Castle and its neighbours. 5. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Registered by Unesco as “World Gastronomy City”, Gaziantep has, under this newly gained title, such cultural infrastructure as required to become one of the most important gastronomy tourism centres. Necessary infrastructure should be established without loss of time and by an effective effort for promotion in order to introduce the cuisine culture of the city to the new generations and foreigners (culinary festivals, culinary tours, local markets and producer visits, culinary workshops, etc.) with a view to make Gaziantep a world-class Gastronomy centre. One of the initiatives to be made to this end is formation of a gastronomy inventory indicating by which materials the local dishes of the Gaziantep cuisine are made, the cooking methods and service techniques. To make such an inventory to be prepared in different languages available for a wide population through travel agencies and by various means of communication is important. And various publications introducing the Gaziantep cuisine (magazines and newspapers as well as television and radio) together with the informative websites and

677 initial advertising and publication and broadcasting of them by national and international media organizations would make considerable contribution to the introduction of the city. Besides, diversification and higher number of the gastronomy tours by the tour operators and travel agencies for Gaziantep would also draw attention to Gaziantep as a gastronomy centre. Furthermore, in addition to the city tours introducing cultural assets, natural beauties and culinary spaces of the city for the national and international tourists visiting the city, the gastronomy tours should be organized to introduce local cuisine of Gaziantep exclusively or together with the neighbouring cities famous for their cuisines such as Hatay, Urfa, Mardin and Adana. To address to the tourists which show interest only in the gastronomy tourism, tours may be organized solely for kebab and Antep baklava like the coffee tours organized in Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Peru, Panama, Brazil and Ethiopia; tea tours in Sri Lanka and Japan, chocolate tours in Belgium and Switzerland and pasta tours in Toskana, Italy, etc. Furthermore, tours may also be organized for the tourists lead by local guides, for example, for witnessing cheese production at dairy farms, pistachio picking, oil pressing, picking up fresh spices and visiting markets and where local products are sold, allowing the tourist to do shopping. Additionally, support of the farmers producing the local food which are guarantee for the survival of the Gaziantep cuisine, development of the accommodation facilities in the city, and creation of new areas for the gift shops should be given important as they would provide contribution to the city economy. REFERENCES Cömert, M. & Özkaya, F. (2014). Gastronomi Turizminde Türk Mutfağının Önemi (httpwww.jotags.org Articles2014_vol2_issue22014_vol2_issue2_ article7.pdf) Culınary Journey by Sosa. (2016). A Culinary Journey Throughout Gastronomy’s Geography and History (http://www.sosa.cat/catalogues/culinary_journey_en.pdf) Gaziantep Ticaret Odası. (2007). Güneydoğu Anadolu Gezi Rehberi, Gaziantep. Gaziantep Ticaret Odası (2012). Gaziantep Turizm Raporu, Gaziantep. Hall. M. C.; Sharples, L.; Mitchell R.; Macionis, N.; Cambourne, B. (2003). Food Tourism Around the World: Development, Management and Markets. Butterworth-Heinemann: Elsevier. Kartal, M. (2015). Gaziantep Şehrinde Rekreayonel Faaliyetlerin Dağılışı, İstanbul Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İstanbul. Kılıçhan, R. (2015). Gastronomi Turizmi: Türkiye’deki Güncel Destinasyonlar, Erciyes Üniversitesi, Turizm Fakültesi (http//www.gastronomi-mutfaksanatlari.com). Kivela, J. & Crotts C.J. (2006). Gastronomy’s Influence on How Tourists Experience a Destination, Journal of Hospitality& Tourism Research, V.30, 354. Önal, M. (2002). Gaziantep, T.C. Turizm Bakanlığı, Plaka Matbaası, Gaziantep. Öney, A. (2015). Güneşin ve Ateşin Tadı: Gaziantep, YKY Yayınları 2. Baskı, Gaziantep Ticaret Odası, Gaziantep. Özgüç, N. (2013). Turizm Coğrafyası: Özellikler ve Bölgeler, Çantay Kitabevi, İstanbul. Uyar, H. & Zengin, B. (2015). Gastronomi Turizminin Alternatif Turizm Çeşidi Olarak Değerlendirilmesi Bağlamında Gastronomi Turizm İndeksinin Oluşturulması, Asos Journal Akademik Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, Yıl: 3, Sayı: 17, Eylül 2015, s. 355-376. Türsab, (2015). “Gastronomi Turizmi Raporu” (httpwww.tursab.org.trdosya12302tursab-gastronomi-turizmi-raporu_12302_3531549.pdf) Yüncü, H. (2010). Sürdürülebilir Turizm Açısından Gastronomi Turizmi ve Perşembe Yaylası, 10. Aybastı- Kabataş Kurultayı: Yerel Değerler ve Yayla Turizmi, s. 28-34, Detay Anatolia Akademik Yayıncılık, Ankara. Gaziantep Büyükşehir Belediyesi, (2015). http://www.gaziantep-bld.gov.tr/top-menu-tarihi-yerler_29.html Gaziantep İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü, (2015). http://www.gaziantepkulturturizm.gov.tr/ TR,149194/gastronomi.html http://www.fodors.com/world/europe/turkey/excursions-to-the-far-east-and-black-sea-coast/restaurants/ reviews/ mam-cagdas-458675 UNESCO, (2015) http://en.unesco.org/

678 Chapter 60

Developing Ecotourism Development Strategies for Sustainable Rural Development: A Case Study of Kıyıköy, Kırklareli

Tuğba KİPER, Osman UZUN**, Tuğba ÜSTÜN TOPAL***

INTRODUCTION

According to the population density figures provided by the Organization for Cooperation and Development (OECD), rural areas comprise 92% of the total surface area of the European Union and more than 50% of the population live in rural areas. Such rural density and variety has brought about some fundamental and common problems for such areas. Some of such problems include the change in traditional production methods, difficulty in accessing the market, low education level, reduced per capita income, relationships with urban areas and failure to develop holistic rural development approaches (Dufner & Örnek, 2007). In this respect, the “rural development approaches”, which are traced back to the beginning of the 19th century, have undergone a series of changes over the years as a result of the technological and socio-economic factors. In line with the gradually increasing problems encountered in the rural areas, the World Bank has introduced a new rural development strategy in 2003 as part of its "poverty reduction" mission. In this respect, it has set out a vision that can be summarized as “ensuring a living standard and quality for the rural dwellers that is at least at the same level as those of the urban dwellers, provision of equal and just economic and socio-cultural opportunities to the rural dwellers, making rural areas sustainable and attractive for permanently living and working, making rural areas adaptable to economic, social, cultural, environmental and technological changes, designing rural development activities in such a way as to embrace all segments of society” (Gülçubuk et al., 2009). The European Union, on the other hand, has based its rural development targets around four main pillars (in the Council Regulation number 1698/2005): “improvement of competition in the agricultural and forestry industries, improvement of Environment and rural areas, diversification of the quality of living and economy in rural areas, combination of the activities intended for improving rural economy” (Ayanoğlu, 2008). In Turkey, however, rural development approaches have been taken right after the establishment of the Republic. The modernization and westernization movements launched with the establishment of the Republic have been influential in the agricultural and rural development efforts as well. While, according to the first census held in 1927, 24.3% of the Turkish population lived in urban areas and the remaining 75.7% lived in rural areas, the ratio of rural dwellers within the total population of Turkey dropped to 27.7% in 2012. The ratio of urban dwellers has further increased to 91.3% in 2013 through the establishment of metropolitan municipalities in 13 provinces and the upgrading of the status of villages to districts in 30 metropolitan provinces (according to the Law on Establishment of Metropolitan Municipalities in Thirteen Provinces and Twenty Six Districts and Making Changes to Some Laws and Statutory Decrees number 6360). Moreover, due to the administrative division changes made through this particular law, the number of towns and villages within the Turkish settlement system has changed as well. While the number of towns and villages in Turkey was 36.411 in 2012, such figures dropped to 18.608 in 2013. The fact that nearly 45% of the Turkish population moved to urban areas in the last 85 years (according to the State Statistics Institute (TUİK, 2013) has resulted in a

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architect, Department of Landscape Architecture Tekirdag, Turkey ** Assoc. Prof. Dr., Düzce University, Faculty of Forestry, Department of Landscape Architecture Düzce, Turkey *** Res. Asist., Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Arts, Design and Architect, Department of Landscape Architecture Tekirdag, Turkey

decline in some of the rural areas that are dominated by the agricultural economy. Such a change has dictated the necessity of introducing rural development approaches. Turkey has adopted various different development models since the 1960s onwards (such Exemplary Villages, Societal Development, Multi-Pronged Rural Planning, Central Villages, Village Cities and Agricultural Cities). Most of such models have failed to deliver success. This is because, most of such models have been purely intended for the villages and/or groups of villages without enlisting the participation of the local populace, and thereby failed to establish a relationship with master plans and address the social, economic, cultural and natural aspects of the rural issues as a whole and take into consideration the regional and local differences in general. Moreover, it is possible to speak of a complete harmony in terms of coordination and cooperation in the implementation of such models (Çelik, 2006). In order to lend a competitive edge to the rural economy in the rapidly changing markets, in addition to maintaining agricultural efficiency, it is important to identify and improve on the distinguishing qualities of the local especially in the areas where comparative superiorities are the determining factors, and turn the local assets into innovative local products to be launched into the foreign markets. In this respect, tourism has been regarded as a solution to the development of the rural areas known for their distinct regional and natural characteristics, and prominence has been given to the development of alternative tourism types in particular. However, counting tourism as a tool for development depends on maintaining the sustainability of the natural, cultural, historical and socio- cultural environment that the tourism industry relies on. This is because rural development is also a component that requires a holistic approach in terms of ecology, economy, culture and society. It is important to note that the main purpose here is to utilize and preserve the natural and cultural resources of the rural areas in line with the ecological principles. In this respect, ecotourism is an ecological based tourism that focuses on contributing to the preservation of the natural and cultural resources, and, when planned in the right manner, it encourages economic contribution to the local population (Ceballos-Lascurain, 1996). Ecotourism is conducted in the areas that possess at least a few of the following characteristics: presence of biological diversity and natural landscape values, settlement that has the characteristics of a local architecture in harmony with the surrounding nature, inclusion of traditional production means within the tourism activities which will contribute to the local population economically, presence of handicrafts and regional food restaurants etc. In this respect, ecotourism has become a significant tool for rural development in various parts of the world and in Turkey in the recent years. However, the sustainability of rural development depends on a thorough examination of the natural and cultural resources and the social and economic characteristics of the region intended for tourism activities and a scientific and holistic spatial planning process in which the relationships between all the industries are taken into consideration in line with an ecological approach. The designated area of study –Kıyıköy and its neighboring Pabuçdere and Kazandere basins- is a fishing town located within the borders of Vize county of Kırklareli province that is traced back to the ancient history. The area offers significant ecotourism opportunities in that it has highly abundant rural landscape values and natural resources; it still preserves its local cultural characteristics and offers unique regional products and has a close proximity to Istanbul. It has been suggested as an ecotourism city in many studies including the Turkish Tourism Strategy 2023 Action Plan, Ergene Basin and Kırklareli Province Environmental Planning and Thrace Region Tourism Master Plan (Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi 2023 Eylem Planı, 2007; Kırklareli Çevre Düzen Planı, 2011). Moreover, the Culturally Preferred Regional Road Map developed by Çekül describes Edirne-Vize-Pınarhisar-Kıyıköy (the Thrace line) as an area that has the potential to create cultural arteries. In this respect, it becomes all the more important that the local potentials in the region are assessed and the ecotourism opportunities that will help maintain sustainable development are identified. This study aims at identifying ecotourism development strategies for Kıyıköy -which has a significant potential thanks to its natural and cultural resources- with a view to rural development. In this study, we aimed to develop the ways in which the development strategies intended for economic planning are identified in order to ensure an efficient rural development for the study area that has significant natural and cultural resources and a social texture and to present the ways in which some of the resulting strategies can be put into practice through an administrative point of view. It is ultimately aimed at developing strategies in favor of ecotourism

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and suggesting an action plan in which the tasks of the partners in charge of ecotourism are defined. MATERIALS AND METHODS The geographical area of study includes Kıyıköy Pabuçdere and Kazandere basins that extend throughout the coastal Black Sea region in the north eastern part of Thrace, covering 6 villages and 1 town in an area of approximately 293 km2. The area features various different elevation zones, slopes and surface features. The highest elevation is covered with forested dip slopes which surround the area like a basin. The second tier features a flat elevation area with settlement. The vegetation cover mostly consists of woods. While the majority of the trees in this forestland is oaks (Quercus sp.) and black pines (Pinus nigra), it is also possible to observe beech (Fagus orientalis), alder (Carpinus betulus), ash (Fraxinus ornus) and linden (Tilia sp.) trees in the area as well. The main economic activities in the area are forestry, fishery and animal husbandry. The most caught fish species include anchovies, horse mackerel, turbots, red mullets, blue whiting and twaite shads. Sand mussels are also popular in the region. Since Kıyıköy is surrounded by Yıldız Mountains and Istranca Forests it has a very limited farmland and thus agriculture is performed only in the restricted areas. Moreover, the area also has a potential for aromatic plant growing, organic apiculture and ecological agriculture (Figure 1).

Figure 1: Location of study area The study method consists of 6 interrelated stages (Fig. 2). The method developed for the study is based on a knowledge-based approach that supports the natural, cultural and historical identity values and economic powers of the basin and takes into consideration the views, suggestions and perceptions of the partners involved (which is supported by a quick rural evaluation technique, interviews with the local population and visitor surveys). A Quick Rural Evaluation Technique has been employed for obtaining the views, suggestions and perceptions of the partners involving in the study as well as identifying the issues and opportunities regarding the area; interviews and visitor surveys have been conducted with the local population and visitors of the area; the contributions of the local population have been obtained in establishing strategies for the area by conducting a SWOT analysis. As a result of the studies conducted in the area, the shores of the area -as a natural resource-, non-forestry products and plant watching, and festivals peculiar to the region -as a cultural resource- have been evaluated along with agriculture. In conclusion, a number of development strategies have been identified for ecotourism and some suggestions put forward with a view to maintaining sustainable rural development in Kıyıköy. This study has particularly focused on developing strategies.

681 Evaluation of Natural and Cultural 1 Landscape Elements Regarding Ecotourism  Determination of Stakeholder and 2 Their Analysis  3 SWOT Analysis  4 Development of Ecotourism Strategies  Definition of Activities Regarding 5 Ecotourism Strategies and Distribution of Stakeholders’ Task  Description of Proposed Ecotourism 6 Management and Stakeholders’ responsibility Figure 2: Work flow diagram As suggested by Türker (2013), planning tourism corridors, tourism regions, tourism cities and ecotourism regions throughout the development axes, instead of planning tourism regions on a point scale basis, will be a better approach for the Turkish Tourism Strategy-2023 plan. Therefore, we have observed the targets set out by the Turkish Tourism Strategy-2023 Plan in developing development strategies for ecotourism in this study. Moreover, the strategies suggested by the studies titled “Artvin Province Development Plan Tourism Industry Report" and "Development of Ecotourism Opportunities for Thrace Region” have also been helpful for this study. In this respect, we have identified 7 objectives for improving ecotourism in the basin and laid down the conditions that are required realizing such objectives. We have also taken into account the economic and ecological advantages of the basin and the local population's requirements in identifying such objectives and made sure that such objectives had the potential to preserve and improve the rural character of the area. Moreover, as suggested by Cengiz et al., (2005), in order to realize the strategies intended for improving tourism industry, the actors that will realize them and their respective tasks should be identified as well. It is important to know how and by whom the strategies will be assumed and take measures accordingly. For this reason, we have presented a number of recommended action plans at the end of each strategy where the institutions in charge of realizing the relevant strategy and a roadmap for realizing the relevant strategy in short, mid and long term are identified.

RESULTS During the initial phase of the study, the climate data has been obtained from the General Directorate of State Meteorology Department and the following maps have been obtained from the authorities: the 1/25000 scale topographic maps from the General Command of Mapping, the 1/25000 scale soil maps from the Ministry Food, Agriculture and Livestock, the 1/25000 scale geology maps from the General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration, forest management maps from the

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Istanbul Provincial Directorate of the Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, and the 1/5000 and 1/1000 scale zoning sheets of Kıyıköy Municipality. After having obtained the aforementioned data, the ecotourism potential of the area has been measured by employing the EKOS (Ecotourism Facilities Spectrum) method (Boyd & Butler, 1996) -a method intended for establishing the ecotourism potential of a region- along with conducting a suitability analysis (Gulinck et al., 2001, Khalid, Hashim, Rahman, 2010; Khalid, Nasır & Ahmad, 2010; Jurowski, 2010; Yaseera & Sharma, 2014; Uzun et al.,2010, Açıksöz et al., 2010). Since the purpose of the study does not concern this particular section, only the relevant result map (Figure 3) has been included. In the second phase of the study, a partner analysis has been conducted, as a result of which the institutions and agencies associated with ecotourism have been identified as follows: Kırklareli Governorate, Vize District Governorate, Vize Mayoralty, Kıyıköy Mayoralty, Kırklareli Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism, Vize Provincial Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, Vize Forestry Department, Vize Provincial Directorate of National Education, Kırklareli University, Namık Kemal University, Trakya University, Vize Vocational High School, Trakya Development Agency, Private Sector, Civil Society Organizations and the Local Population.

Figure 3: Determination of ecotourism potential in the study area (Kiper et al., 2015)

683 The third phase of the study involved a SWOT analysis. One of the processes employed in the location based planning studies is the SWOT analysis. "SWOT Analysis" is an analytical method that presents a comparative evaluation of the strengths and weaknesses of the subject being studied as well as the opportunities and threats that affect the subject in question. The basic aim of this analysis is to identify the strong and weak sides of the subject and establish the possible opportunities and threats in the market, and thereby develop competition strategies that will ensure the best possible interaction between such elements (Pearce & Robinson, 1997). In other words, the SWOT analysis is employed for obtaining the basic information that will be taken into consideration in planning. According to Zhang and Yang (2008), the SWOT analysis is an analytical method that is used in strategic planning (Taş, 2011). Table 1: Strengths and weaknesses regarding eco-tourism potential of the research area Strengths Weaknesses  Integrity of landscape that maintained its naturality  Young population’s tendency to leave the and natural landscape values (Coastal shapes, region forests, etc.).  Having less cultivated land due to the  Various protection status of area in certain regions forestlands which are predominantly taking such as natural protected area, urban conservation place on the basin. area, archaeological site.  Construction of dams for Kazandere and  Sea and other water assets (Kıyıköy coast near the Pabuçdere rivers. Black Sea, Pabuçdere and Kazandere basins,  The low quantity of structures such as streams) cooperatives and associations which are  The presence of traces of history (ancient wine road, required for conversion of local products to Sultan's path) economical values  Having a coast on Black sea and available beaches.  Inadequacy of grazing land  Zengin ve farklı çeşitlilik gösteren doğal bitki  Gradual reduce in animal husbandry örtüsünün varlığı  Being too weak in network marketing  The presence of various and rich natural vegetation  Unsustainable approach the collection of  Taking place on major bird migration routes mushrooms  Caves (Kıyıköy, Kovantaşı, Yenesu Caves etc.)  Lack of awareness and training of the local  Availability of different business lines such as people for tourism. fisheries, forestry, tourism and beekeeping.  Deficiency of touristic representation due to  Traditional products (Mushrooms, honey, linden, the lack of advertising activities. Bosnian pie, buffalo yogurt, etc.).  Gradual decrease in the number of people  Folkloric values (Bosnian culture, socio-economic who are dealing with the means of structure, etc.). livelihoods (agriculture, livestock,  The presence of medicinal and aromatic plants beekeeping, etc.) in rural areas. (linden, sage, thyme)  The grazing pressure in forest areas  Taking place in the vicinity of important areas such  Lack of branding for the products. as İğneada Longoz Forests National Park, Kasatura Bay Nature Reserve, Yıldız Mountains.

In the SWOT analysis, the subject is studied in two different groups, namely internal and external elements (Taş, 2011; Puiu, Stanciu & Sirbu, 2009). According to Vermiere and Gellynck (2009), strong and weak sides are considered to be the internal environment factors that can be controlled, while the opportunities and threats are considered to be the external environment factors that cannot be controlled. Strong sides involve the advantages that deliver definite benefits in a certain area, whereas the weak sides involve the disadvantages resulting from insufficient resources or negative consequences. Opportunities are to do with the improvement of the facilities, while the threats are to do with the factors that prevent the realization of prospective opportunities and/or threaten the future performance. The SWOT analysis with respect to the study area has been conducted in line with the results obtained from the previous studies conducted on the study area and similar areas, field works, the information obtained from the local municipality and public administration agencies, interviews held with the local population and visitors to the area, and the results obtained the Quick Rural Evaluation Technique implementation and the study findings (Table 1, 2).

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Table 2: Opportunities and threats related to eco-tourism potential of the research area Opportunities Threats  Using tourism as a tool for rural development  The presence of quarries approaches ,  Lack of coordination experienced in the  The current statue of ecotourism as one of the fastest planning-management-organisation- developing forms of tourism ,according to research of application UNEP (United Nations Information Centre),  Funding deficiencies  Proposal of research area as an ecotourism city in the  Probability of problems that may occur Turkey's Tourism Strategy (2023) Action Plan, when physical, ecological, and economic  Partaking of the county of Vize, which involves the capacity exceeded. research area, within the International Cittaslow web.  Competing with the nature tourism and  Cultural, historical and natural richness, visual quality ecotourism areas which are established in and tranquility, of rural settlements, other localities.  Traces of the historical paths of various civilizations,  Problems caused by illegal actions  Strategic importance in the North-South and Asia- stemming from ignorance. Europe link.  Elements of traditional life  The increasing local awareness about nature conservation  Partaking of a part of the area within the Yıldız Biosphere Project Scope. The fourth phase involved the development of main strategies as a result of the data obtained from the partners, area data and the SWOT analysis (Table 3). In this respect, 7 strategies have been defined for developing ecotourism in the basin and the conditions required for realizing such strategies have been identified. We have also taken into account the economic and ecological advantages of the basin and the local population's requirements in identifying such objectives and made sure that such objectives had the potential to preserve and improve the rural character of the area. In the fifth phase of the study, the activities intended for ecotourism strategies and the task distribution for partners have been identified. It is important to know how and by whom the strategies will be assumed and take the measures accordingly. For this reason, we have presented a number of recommended action plans at the end of each strategy chapter where the institution in charge of realizing the relevant strategy and a roadmap for realizing that strategy in short, mid and long term are identified. Table 3: Strategies prepared by using the SWOT data Strategy No. Name of Strategy Zone Strategy 1 Creation of Eco Tourism image (identity) Strategy 2 Creation of Thematic Development I. Regions for Coastal Oriented Ecotourism Zones Regarding Ecotourism II. Regions for Agriculture Oriented Ecotourism III. Regions for Plant Observation Oriented Ecotourism IV. Regions for Culture Oriented Ecotourism Strategy 3 Consideration of Non-Wood Forest Products which have Economic Value, within the Scope Agro-Eco Tourism Strategy 4 Creation of Eco Tourism Development Corridors Strategy 5 Customization of the Traditional Production Methods According to the Requirements of Ecotourism and Integration of These Methods into Ecotourism. Strategy 6 Raising awareness for Ecotourism and Including Primarily Local Community into Ecotourism Activities Strategy 7 Increasing the level of cooperation and organization possibilities among ecotourism stakeholders

685 Strategy No 1 (Building an Ecotourism Image): As a result of the quick rural evaluation meeting, interviews held with the local population, field trips and surveys conducted with the visitors to the area, one of the most commonly encountered issue regarding ecotourism has been identified as the lack of promotion. It is imperative that the symbols that ensure the recognizability of the region at national and international level are promoted and utilized. The Tourism Strategy 2023 Action Plan, too, suggests that a clear image is created on the national and international market to ensure the sustainability of the development of tourism, and that a holistic approach is adopted in marketing activities and that the destinations are made into trademarks by emphasizing the regional values. The purpose of Strategy No 1 is to launch promotion and marketing activities on thematic destinations basis in order to ensure the recognizability of the area at the regional, national and international level and thereby creating a trademark for the area in question. The agencies and institutions responsible for such a task are identified as follows: Kırklareli Governorate (Planning, coordination), Kırklareli Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism (Planning and promotion), Vize District Governorate (creating inventories for natural and cultural properties, providing information regarding the same), Vize Mayoralty (promotion, financing and cooperation), Vize Forest Sub District Directorate (providing documents intended for building an image), Vize County Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (creating inventory and products, provision of incentives for product diversification and development), Kıyıköy Mayoralty (promotion and cooperation), Trakya Development Agency (promotion and financial support), University (conducting scientific studies), Private Sector (promotion, creating products, product diversification and development, marketing and provision of services), Civil Society Organizations (promotion and cooperation), Offices of Headmen (providing documents intended for building an image, showing a warm welcome and hospitality) (Table 4). Table 4: Projected activities within the scope of ecotourism development strategies regarding Strategy 1 and responsible institutions / organizations Strategy 1: Creation of Eco Tourism image 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Duration (identity) Activities 1. Revitalization of the viticulture and winemaking culture in the villages of Alder and Kışlacık which x x x x Moderate are situated on the Historical Wine Route 2. Featuring the axles in which the traces of x x Moderate historical routes take place by revitalizing them. 3. Evaluating the diversity of social structure in rural x x Moderate settlements together with ecotourism 4. Strengthening the image of “Cittaslow Tranquil x x Short City Vize” 5. Identification and marketing of the foodstuffs which are collected from nature and produced Moderate xx x x traditionally and values of handicrafts which are to Long produced from natural materials. 6. Making local tastes(Buffalo yoghurt, curd, cream) x x x Short presentable for Ecotourism 7. Presentation of local culinary culture, local architectural features and natural values by x xx Short considering them together. 1.Governorship of Kırklareli, 2.Prefecture of Vize, 3.Kırklareli Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, 4.Vize District Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, 5.Vize Forest Management Units, 6.Vize and Kıyıköy Municipality, 7.Development Agency of Thrace, 8.Private Sector, 9.Universities, 10.Local Residents

Strategy No 2 Creating Thematic Development Areas for Ecotourism The purpose of Strategy No 2 is to ensure that the development of ecotourism is maintained throughout the year by creating thematic development areas. The area allows the creation of different tourism areas owing to its topography and natural, cultural and landscape characteristics. The agencies and institutions responsible for such a task are identified as follows: Kırklareli Governorate (Planning),

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Kırklareli Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism (Planning and promotion), Vize District Governorate (creating inventories for natural and cultural properties, providing information regarding the same), Vize Mayoralty (promotion and cooperation), Vize County Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (maintaining inventory and area analysis), Vize Forest Sub District Directorate (providing relevant documents, maintaining inventory and area analysis), Kıyıköy Mayoralty (documentation, promotion and cooperation), Trakya Development Agency (project support), University (conducting scientific studies, providing relevant documents), Local population (providing documents), (Table 5). Table 5: Projected activities within the scope of ecotourism development strategies regarding Strategy 2 and responsible institutions / organizations Strategy 2: Creation of Thematic Development Duratio 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Zones Regarding Ecotourism n Activities 1. Creation of Thematic Development Regions for Moderate xxx xx x x Coastal Oriented Ecotourism to Long 2. Creation of Thematic Development Regions for Moderate xxxx x x x Agriculture Oriented Ecotourism to Long 3. Creation of Thematic Development Regions for Moderate xxx xxx x x Plant Observation Oriented Ecotourism to Long 4. Creation of Thematic Development Regions for Moderate xxx xx x x Culture Oriented Ecotourism to Long 1. Governorship of Kırklareli, 2.Prefecture of Vize, 3.Kırklareli Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, 4. Vize District Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, 5. Vize Forest Management Units, 6. Vize and Kıyıköy Municipality, 7. Development Agency of Thrace, 8. Private Sector, 9. Universities, 10. Local Residents

Creating thematic development areas will ensure that the ecotourism activities are distributed evenly throughout the entire year. The area allows the creation of different tourism areas owing to its topography and natural, cultural and landscape characteristics. Some of the areas created based on different themes and in line with certain scenarios are provided in detail below.

I. Ecotourism Areas Focused on Shores Such areas are those where the green meets the blue. In this respect, Kıyıköy, Panayır, Pabuçdere and Kazandere have been identified as the areas that can accommodate shore tourism. The areas in question have also been the spots of attraction for the visitors who came to the area for recreational purposes. This because, when asked "What is the first things that comes to mind when you hear Kıyıköy”, the visitors have overwhelmingly answered the sea and other water resources (Pabuçdere, Kazandere etc.) In this respect, the area will enable the visitors engage in various recreational activities such as swimming, hand line fishing, canoeing, rowing, boat trips, trekking, watching the scenery, photo safari and watching the natural vegetation etc. Moreover, the study titled "Connecting Force of Thrace: Nature, Water, Culture, Strategy Plan” (2012) makes the following remark for Kıyıköy natural harbor that remains within the area intended for shore focused ecotourism: "the water is important in terms of enabling trade and commerce between various cities, and the fish species in the area are important natural assets for the area in terms of fishery and revenues."

II. Ecotourism Areas Focused on Agriculture Despite the fact that the area in question is mostly covered with forests and offers little in terms of agricultural fields, the areas where the agricultural activities are performed can nevertheless be designated as ecotourism areas. The farms to be created in various different themes will prove to be the centers of attraction for the visitors. In this respect, livestock raising farms (Aksicim, Balkaya, Kömürköy, Hamidiye, Kışlacık and Kızılağaç villages), fruit and vegetable growing farms (Balkaya, Aksicim, Kıyıköy, Kışlacık, Hamidiye and Kızılağaç villages), mushroom growing farms (Kırklareli/Kıyıköy), biological and health farms (Kırklareli/Kıyıköy), traditional food production farms (Kışlacık, Aksicim, Balkaya, Kömürköy, Kızılağaç) and fish farms (Kıyıköy, Balkaya) may be developed. Moreover, the creation of such theme based ecological farm concepts as agricultural

687 production workshops (Kıyıköy, Balkaya, Aksicim, Kışlacık, Kızılağaç), culture and art workshops (Kıyıköy, Kışlacık), local flavors workshops (Kışlacık, Aksicim, Balkaya, Kıyıköy) -as implemented in the Pastoral Valley Farm in 2006 in the Aegean Region as an alternative to the traditional tourism products- will offer interesting experiences for the visitors. This way, the visitors will be able to observe the seasonal process of pickling, preserving, paste making, cheese and yoghurt making in the agricultural production workshops, and improve their knowledge and experience regarding such processes through their direct participation. With local culture workshops, however, the visitors will be able to learn local woodwork handicrafts and local cuisine, while with the art studio, they will be given the opportunity to participate in art related activities including photography and drawing classes whereby they will be able to convey the panoramic images of the natural and cultural areas by using the said art forms.

III. Ecological Areas Focused on Plant Watching The route between Eski Saray and Kıyıköy, the vicinity of Pabuçdere and Kazandere, and the woods between the rural settlements and Kıyıköy will offer good spots for watching the natural vegetation of the study area. The woodlands of the area contain ash trees, beech trees, oak trees, field maples trees, sycamores, rowan trees, lime trees, alder, holunders, cornel woods, elm trees and copper beech trees. While the yellow water flags, Primula vulgaris and snowdrops are found in the clearings of the woods, cyclamens and orchids are frequently observed on the forest floor. Moreover, while it is possible to see such plants as white knapweeds and crambes on the coastal dunes, the area behind the coastal dunes and the transition zone between the coastal dunes and marshlands contain such plant species as hawthorns, cornelian cherries, wych-elms, phllyreas, common oaks and asparaguses. Owing to such vegetation variety, the area has a rich floristic composition. By establishing plant watching areas within those routes, the region will offer a different kind of experience for both the visitors and researchers. While the area constitutes a source of study for the researchers, it provides an interesting experience for the visitors where they can watch the plants with various colors, odors and appearances in all four seasons and get to know the nature up close and personal.

IV. Ecotourism Areas Focused on Culture The areas falling into this category include the Urban Protected Site of Kıyıköy, Kışlacık, Kızılağaç, Hamidiye, Balkaya and Aksicim. Such rural areas offer the examples of environmentally friendly local architecture, the workshops where the current and prospective local products and traditional handicrafts are on the offer, the restaurants where the local dishes are served and thus will become significant rural development tools in terms of ecotourism. The province of Kırklareli, which remains within this particular area, has also been described as the "Cultural Corridor of Thrace" in the Turkish Tourism Strategy 2023 Plan. In this respect, this area will present the visitors with the opportunity to experience various different aspects of the area such as seeing the traditional settlement patterns, trying local flavors, observing the local life and getting to know different cultures. As a result of the survey conducted within the scope of the study, a statistically significant relationship has been established between seeking a culturally oriented vacation and having a rich local cuisine, presence of an authentic local culture and seeking naturally produced food.

Strategy 3 (Evaluation of Economically Viable Non-Wood Forest Products in terms of Agro- Ecotourism) Evaluation of economically viable non-wood forest products (such as medicinal and aromatic herbs, mushrooms etc.) in terms of ecotourism will provide new sources of revenue and employment for the local population and thereby contribute to the rural development. Moreover, such dynamism will also translate into the development of the domestic and handicrafts and enable agricultural products to be sold on site. The suggested action plan is provided in the Table 6. The Kırklareli Province Environmental Plan has recommended that “the ecological agriculture and controlled medicinal herb collecting” activities be encouraged in the villages adjacent to the woodlands with limited farm lands (Kırklareli Province Environmental Plan, 2011). In this respect, a supervised observation of medicinal-aromatic herbs in the woodlands (oreganos, sages, lindens, chamomiles, nettles, melissas, rose hips, primroses, hops and mushrooms), a supervised collection of such herbs and

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provision of educational instructions regarding the benefits of such herbs may be considered within the scope of agro-ecotourism activities in Balkaya, Aksicim, Kıyıköy, Kışlacık, Hamidiye and Kızılağaç villages. The forest floor of the area contain such economically valuable herb species as butcher's broom, pyrenes, heathers, strawberry trees, rockroses, cornel woods, asparaguses, medlars, scarlet firethorns, blackberries, hops and velvet plants (URL-1). Such species also create interesting scenery for the area in different seasons in addition to their functional and aesthetic qualities and medicinal use. The visitors will especially appreciate the beautiful rural landscape during the months between May and September, which is the blooming time for the medicinal and aromatic plants. Mushrooms (Craterellus cornucopioides, Chroogomphus rutilus, Armillaria mella, Pleurotus cornucopiae, Amanita caesarea) are a significant source of income for the locals (Akalın et al., 2010). Restaurants offering mushroom dishes and the local-specific products such as pickled mushrooms can be counted as ecotourism products to be offered to the visitors.

Table 6: Projected activities within the scope of ecotourism development strategies regarding Strategy 3 and responsible institutions / organizations Strategy 3: Consideration of Non-Wood Forest Products which have Economic Value, within the 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Duration Scope Agro-Eco Tourism Activities 1. Development of a series of educational activities regarding medicinal-aromatic plant observation, x x x x x Short controlled plant collection and their benefits 2. Preparation of visual schedule for physical and ecological features and flowering times of medicinal x x x Short aromatic plants 3. Promotion of the assessment of sustainable mushroom collection, production and marketing xxx Moderate processes within the scope of ecotourism. 4. Encouragement of the macro and micro project implementations regarding production and Short to x marketing, by supporting cooperatives, producer Moderate associations and other farmers' organizations 1. Governorship of Kırklareli, 2.Prefecture of Vize, 3.Kırklareli Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, 4. Vize District Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, 5. Vize Forest Management Units, 6. Vize and Kıyıköy Municipality, 7. Development Agency of Thrace, 8. Private Sector, 9. Universities, 10. Local Residents

The purpose of Strategy No 3 is to evaluate the economically viable non-wood forest products (medicinal and aromatic herbs, mushrooms etc.) in terms of their ecotourism value. The agencies and institutions responsible for such a task are identified as follows: Kırklareli Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism (cooperation, coordination), Vize District Governorate (creating inventories, providing information, coordination), Vize Mayoralty (financial support, incentives for education and on the job training programs), Kıyıköy Mayoralty (incentives for education and on the job training programs), Vize Forest Sub District Directorate (identification of non-wood forest products, area study, provision of documents), Vize County Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (provision of relevant documents), Trakya Development Agency (financial support), University (conducting scientific studies, provision of relevant documents), Local Population (participating in educational programs intended for raising awareness and product growing).

Strategy No 4 (Creating Ecotourism Development Corridors) The natural, cultural and historical textures of the study area allows the creation of different tourism axes or corridors. Connecting the natural and cultural resources of the area -which promises a huge ecotourism potential- within a route through different themes will be instrumental in realizing economic growth in the basin and achieving the rural development objective. In this respect, (11) thematic tourism corridors have been identified with respect to the development of rural development oriented ecotourism (Figure 4).

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Figure 4: Ecotourism routes and ecotourism potential map of Papuçdere and Kazandere watersheds in Kıyıköy (Kiper et al., 2015). The designated thematic routes are recommended for the ecotourism activities that can be developed in the area, thus additional works need to be performed for materializing them (Table 7). The purpose of Strategy No 4 is to ensure that the development of ecotourism is maintained in a holistic manner based on thematic axes, rather than on a point scale, and prioritize the natural, cultural and historical values of the area and utilize ecotourism as a potent tool for regional development. The agencies and institutions responsible for such a task are identified as follows: Kırklareli Governorate (Planning, coordination, preparation of the relevant documents), Vize District Governorate (creating inventories, providing information and coordination), Vize Mayoralty (supporting educational programs, footpath arrangements, inclusion of domestic boarding house keeping into the marketing network), Kıyıköy Mayoralty (education, footpath arrangements), Kırklareli Provincial Directorate of Culture and Tourism (cooperation, planning, identification of locations suitable for the designated activities, preparation of the relevant documents),Vize County Directorate of Food, Agriculture and

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Livestock (submission of the relevant documents), Vize Forest Sub District Directorate (determining the non-wood forest products, area study, supplying documents), Trakya Development Agency (project support), University (conducting scientific studies, presenting the relevant documents, developing local guidance in the area), Local Population (preparation of the relevant document, participating in educational programs intended for raising awareness and developing local guiding). Table 7: Projected activities within the scope of ecotourism development strategies regarding Strategy 4 and responsible institutions / organizations Strategy 4: Creation of Eco Tourism 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Duration Development Corridors Activities 1. Coordination among stakeholders should be Short - xxx x ensured by creating a common network. Moderate 2. Various activities should be planned for the Thematic Routes, such as agricultural education Short - programs, nature education programs, product xx x x Moderate promotion programs and cultural representation programs. 3. It must be ensured that local products (organic honey, mushrooms, couscous, tarhana, tomato x Moderate paste, jam, handicrafts, woodworking, etc.) is marketed to visitors at firsthand. 4. Proposed routes should be designed for various Moderate- x x ecotourism activities long 5. Utilizing village houses with traditional civil architecture as boarding houses should be x x Long encouraged. 6. Documents that promote walking route should Short - xxxxx be prepared. Moderate 7. Field guidance and local guidelines should be Short - x x x developed. Moderate 1. Governorship of Kırklareli, 2.Prefecture of Vize, 3.Kırklareli Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, 4. Vize District Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, 5. Vize Forest Management Units, 6. Vize and Kıyıköy Municipality, 7. Development Agency of Thrace, 8. Private Sector, 9. Universities, 10. Local Residents

Strategy 5 (Arranging Traditional Production Methods in line with the Ecotourism Requirements and Integrating them into Ecotourism Operations) The recommended action plan regarding the strategy titled “arranging traditional production methods in line with the ecotourism requirements and integrating them into ecotourism operations” is provided in the Table 8. Keeping alive the traditional economic activities in the rural settlements where nature and cultural values are intertwined via ecotourism will play a key role in the rural development. The use of such activities facing extinction or conducted on a limited or ongoing basis as traditional arts and indigenous agricultural production methods as tools for ecotourism will help spur their economic potential into action. Presentation of traditional production activities in the fields of organic honey making, fishery, animal husbandry and agriculture and various other handicrafts within the context of ecotourism may being added value for the area. The survey conducted within the scope of the project suggests that there is a statistically significant relationship between the first thing that comes to mind about Kıyıköy and the traditional products of the area. Moreover, in the Quick Rural Evaluation meeting, the partners underscored the importance of “practices that will encourage the use and sustainability of the current or potentially viable sources of income that can be maintained in the rural area”.

691 Table 8: Projected activities regarding Strategy 5 within the scope of ecotourism development strategies and responsible institutions / organizations Strategy 5: Customizing traditional production methods according to the requirements of 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Duration ecotourism and providing integration of these methods into ecotourism Activities 1. Market analysis should be done about local x x x Moderate products. 2. The development of local crafts should be provided Moderate- xx xx x for woodworking. long 3. Production activities such as lace, çetik (a woollen Short- footgear) and other handcrafts; local food and x x x moderate ingenious winter food should be encouraged. 4. Traditional production methods should be Moderate- x x integrated with various events such as festivals. long 5. Availability of beekeeping and organic honey production in ecotourism should be ensured by Moderate- xx promoting beekeeping and organic honey long production. 6. Revitalization of traditional production methods such as viticulture and winemaking should be x x x Long encouraged through the lines located on historic wine route. 7. On-site marketing opportunities of local handicrafts, local food products and beech (oyster) Moderate- mushrooms grown by locals in the beech logs should x x long be evaluated and open markets should be set up in villages. 8. Each village in the region should be promoted by featuring a different product or a characteristic and x x x Long branding should be provided. 9. Establishment of dairy farms should be provided for utilization of animal products (buffalo cheese, x x Long buffalo yoghurt, curd, etc.) 1. Governorship of Kırklareli, 2.Prefecture of Vize, 3.Kırklareli Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, 4. Vize District Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, 5. Vize Forest Management Units, 6. Vize and Kıyıköy Municipality, 7. Development Agency of Thrace, 8. Private Sector, 9. Universities, 10. Local Residents Strategy 6 (Raising Awareness for Ecotourism and Getting Local Population Preferentially Involved in the Ecotourism Activities) As suggested by Akgün (2009), participatory approach is the most important component of the ecotourism planning. The realization of absolute preservation in the rural ecotourism areas can only be achieved through the support of the local population. Unless the local population has a clue about what they should preserve and how they will do it, the efforts for preservation will not come to fruition. Moreover, as suggested by Kiper et al. (2010), ecotourism is one of the types of tourism that involves a high degree of interaction with the local population as it enables one to engage in such activities as taking nature walks, accommodation in traditionally built homes, participation in festivals, participating in training courses involving the local customs, taking part in agricultural activities, tasting the local food. When regarded from this perspective, the local population should first of all agree to the concept of ecotourism and realize the significance of taking an active role in the ecotourism activities. In the survey conducted within the scope of this study, those who participated in recreational activities were asked to make a “list of priorities regarding the natural and cultural resources they wish to see in the study area”. According to the results, their first priority was the rich natural beauties unspoiled by

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environmental pollution, which is followed by quite and peaceful environment. Their second priority was the presence of authentic local culture (traditional living culture), while their third priority was the availability of people who would help them do the things they wish to do. While the survey results demonstrate the relevancy of the presence of natural and cultural elements in the ecotourism, it also shows that the attitudes on the part of the local population have quite a bearing on the development of ecotourism as well. Moreover, in the Quick Rural Evaluation Meeting, the partners also dwelled on the necessity of raising the local population’s awareness of ecotourism and getting them involved in educational programs. In this respect, it is important to implement awareness raising programs intended for the local population that maintain their traditional lives without compromising on their cultural background so that they will be able to preserve and pass their natural and cultural heritage down to the future generations in a healthy manner and utilize such assets within the scope of ecotourism. For this reason, the awareness of the locals should be raised first, and then they should be encouraged to actively take part in the planning studies. The recommended action plan is provided in the Table 9. Table 9: Projected activities regarding Strategy 6 within the scope of ecotourism development strategies and responsible institutions /organizations Strategy 6: Raising awareness for ecotourism and including primarily local community into 123456789 10 Duration ecotourism activities. Activities 1.Protection-oriented trainings should be given for Short- x xxx x local community. moderate 2.Agricultural practices/sales and marketing-oriented Short- x x x x trainings should be provided for local community. moderate 3.Awareness-oriented trainings on different topics (leading person selection, cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants, local guidance, communication, x x x x x x Moderate reception, presentation of local flavor, quality of service, etc.) should be given. 1.Kırklareli Valiliği, 2.Vize Kaymakamlığı, 3. Kırklareli İl Kültür ve Turizm Müdürlüğü , 4. Vize Gıda Tarım ve Hayvancılık İlçe Müdürlüğü, 5. Vize Orman İşletme Şefliği, 6. Vize ve Kıyıköy Belediye Başkanlığı, 7. Trakya Kalkınma Ajansı, 8. Özel Sektör, 9. Üniversite , 10. Yerel halk

The fact that a poorly planned, developed and managed tourism will result in the disruption of the natural landscape, wildlife and biological diversity of the basin, deterioration of the quality of the water resources, migration of the local population and erosion of the cultural traditions should be emphasized as part of the awareness raising efforts. To this end, efforts should be concentrated on providing the villagers with natural guidance trainings, boarding house management/services trainings and the trainings intended for appreciation and preservation of natural and cultural values. Training efforts should be based on three main pillars: Preservation oriented trainings: Training programs should created with a view to preserving the natural-cultural landscape values and biodiversity of the region, providing basic information regarding the flora and fauna and raising the overall awareness regarding environmental issues. In this respect, establishing a nature training center with the support of the project partners will go a long way. Agricultural practices – sale and marketing oriented trainings: Training programs should be organized for the land users engaging in herbal and vegetable production covering, in particular, the areas of land preservation, soil cultivation methods, agricultural production techniques, use of fertilizers and chemical agents, agricultural organization, organic and ecological agriculture, greenhouse cultivation, evaluation of agricultural products, sales and marketing. Awareness trainings: If some of the villagers with leadership qualities warm to the issue and prove to be successful in such endeavors, the others will follow their example. For this reason, efforts should be focused on choosing leaders from the local population. Awareness raising trainings to be provided in local guidance, communication and welcoming visitors, presentation of local tastes, service quality etc. will contribute to the development of ecotourism.

693 The purpose of Strategy No 6 is to ensure the sustainability of ecotourism in terms of its planning, development, implementation and follow-up stages. It also aims at preserving and managing the sustainability of the natural and cultural resources and biological diversity by maintaining the rich natural, cultural and historical identity of the basin. The agencies and institutions responsible for such a task are identified as follows: Vize District Governorate (coordination and cooperation), Vize Mayoralty (coordination, cooperation and supporting the training programs), Kıyıköy Mayoralty (coordination, cooperation and supporting the training programs), Vize County Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (provision of the relevant documents, supporting the agricultural practices-sales and marketing oriented awareness trainings), Vize Forest Sub District Directorate (provision of the relevant documents, supporting the awareness trainings), Trakya Development Agency (project and financial support), University (provision of the relevant documents for the training programs, organization of preservation-agricultural practices-sales and marketing oriented training programs as well as the training programs in medicinal-aromatic plant growing, local guiding, communication, visitor welcoming, presentation of local tastes, service quality under the supervision of experts). Strategy 7 (Improving the level of cooperation and organization among the partners for ecotourism) The realization of a solid ecotourism plan depends on the participation of the relevant partners and their agreement and cooperation in the matter. The survey conducted with the persons that involved in recreational activities in the basin has suggested similar results as well. When asked about the things to do to introduce and develop ecotourism in the basin, the visitors have overwhelmingly agreed on a good organization that covers the implementation and planning stages. Moreover, it is necessary to organize the villages in order to keep the traditional values alive and render them compatible with development. The Tourism Strategy 2023 Action Plan also mentions about the necessity of an effective management organization for achieving success in the tourism sector and suggests that an effective organization should be maintained both in terms of field management and the corporate management. Gülbuçuk et al. (2009) suggests that the rural development efforts should start with the creation of a team consisting of enthusiastic and competent persons that are well familiar with the region, which should also include the representatives of the local population, regional civil society organizations, and the experts from public institutions and various disciplines. The recommended action plan for Strategy No 7 is provided in the Table 10. Table 10: Projected activities regarding Strategy 7 within the scope of ecotourism development strategies and responsible institutions / organizations Strategy 7: Increasing the level of cooperation and organization possibilities among ecotourism 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Duration stakeholders Activities 1. Coordinated work of stakeholders should be x Moderate provided. 2. The necessary initiatives should be taken for establishment of an ecotourism association on a local scale under the name of "Kazandere and Pabuçdere xx x x xx Long Watershed Ecotourism with the contributions of public agencies, local governments, private sector, local NGOs and experts from the university. 3. Producer organization should be encouraged and x x Moderate disseminated. 4. Information about the benefits of producer x Short organization should be provided for local community. 5. Developing opportunities for organization should be x Moderate provided. 1. Governorship of Kırklareli, 2.Prefecture of Vize, 3.Kırklareli Provincial Culture and Tourism Directorate, 4. Vize District Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, 5. Vize Forest Management Units, 6. Vize and Kıyıköy Municipality, 7. Development Agency of Thrace, 8. Private Sector, 9. Universities, 10. Local Residents

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The purpose of Strategy No 7 is to ensure the sustainability of ecotourism in terms of its planning, development, implementation and follow-up stages. The agencies and institutions responsible for such a task are identified as follows: Kırklareli Governorate (Coordination for establishing Kazandere and Pabuçdere Basins Ecotourism Association), Vize Mayoralty (cooperation, encouraging and furthering organization on the part of the producers, enlightening the local population regarding the benefits of producer organization, improving the facilities for organization), Kıyıköy Mayoralty (encouraging producer organization), Vize District Governorate (encouraging and furthering organization on the part of the producers, enlightening the local population regarding the benefits of producer organization), Vize County Directorate of Food, Agriculture and Livestock (enlightening the local population regarding the benefits of producer organization), University (enlightening the local population regarding the benefits of producer organization by experts), Private Sector (embarking on the establishment of Kazandere and Pabuçdere Basins Ecotourism Association). The sixth and final stage involves the Recommendation of Ecotourism Management, where the Ecotourism Association, its task and the Partners’ responsibilities are defined. In parallel with the Tourism Strategy 2023 Action Plan, it should be ensured that the partners that can affect and be affected by ecotourism activities (such as –blic institutions and organizations, local administrations, civil society organizations, travel agencies etc.) operate in coordination with each other. It should be ensured that the local population is made aware of the benefits of ecotourism and gets involved in the planning and implementation stages of the process. The tasks and responsibilities of the partners are defined in the Table 11. It is believed that establishing ecotourism associations in varying scales within the basin where Kıyıköy is situated will be suitable in terms of managing and implementing the ecotourism strategies in collaboration with the partners. Establishing an association in Kıyıköy and its vicinity (in Kazandere and Pabuçdere Basins) and establishing associations in the neighboring basins as a result of the upper scale analyses to be conducted in the Region will be important in developing ecotourism in the region. However, the important thing is to establish a functioning administrative body that covers various sectors within its body and maintains a steady interrelated information flow from top to bottom and vice versa within the upper basin and lower basin scales. In this respect, it is suggested to take necessary steps towards establsihing a local-level ecotourism association under the name of "Kıyıköy Kazandere and Pabuçdere Basins Ecotourism Association". Aksu (2011) mentions that establishing a national ecotourism association by bringing together the representatives of such partners as travel agencies, civil society organizations, local associations, administrative institutions etc. will be an important step. In this respect, the tasks and duties of the ecotourism association that is planned to be established in the basin are identified in table 12. Table 11: Duty definitions of stakeholders that contribute to the development of Ecotourism. (prepared by benefiting from Gültekin, 2014; Cengiz, Tüfekçioğlu & İskender, 2005) Stakeholders Duties and responsibilities for development of Ecotourism Governorship of Kırıkkale and Protecting environmental values, developing ecotourism- District Governorship of Vize oriented projects, developing regional networks and cooperation in order to promote, advertise and market ecotourism products on a national and international scale. Vize Municipality, Kıyıköy Creating awareness about ecotourism, developing ecotourism- Municipality oriented projects, providing support for diversification activities of local products, promotion, marketing, infrastructure and superstructure works, supporting village-centred pensioning, promoting making of local food, organising festivals for local product diversification activities, creating financial resources, eliminating the lack of infrastructure and superstructure on designated eco tour routes, identifying and certificating the quality and evaluations of services. Kırklareli Provincial Directorate of Creating awareness about ecotourism, leading promotional and Culture and Tourism, Vize District marketing efforts, making ecotourism development plans,

695 Directorate of Food, Agriculture and evaluating agricultural potential in the basins, promoting eco- Livestock, Vize Directorate of Forest agricultural, providing trainings, protecting and making Management, Vize District inventory of cultural and natural values. Directorate of National Education Kırklareli University, Namık Kemal Creating awareness about ecotourism, protecting natural and University, Trakya University, Vize cultural values, creating inventory, providing trainings, Vocational School developing ecotourism-oriented project works. Trakya Development Agency Creating awareness about ecotourism, financial resources support, ecotourism-oriented project works. Private Sector Being involved in local promotional and informational activities, making appropriate investments that reflect local characteristics for the needs of new types of tourism, improving pensioning, building and operating other facilities Non-governmental organisations Local promotion, marketing, protecting environmental values, developing projects for ecotourism and giving support on subjects including collaboration with other non-governmental organisations Local Community Joining training programs, protecting traditional values, demonstrating tolerance and hospitality, presenting the documents to provide image creation. Table 12: Duties of the proposed Ecotourism Union planned to be established in Kıyıköy Kazandere and Pabuçdere Basins (adapted from Atay et al., 2007) Ecotourism Union of Kıyıköy, Kazandere and Pabuçdere Basins District Governorship, Local Promotion Unit: Coordinating the applications that ensure Communities (Headmen of Aksicim, the recognisability of the area in the local and regional level Kışlacık, Hamidiye, Kızılağaç and and create a positive perception Kömürköy), Public Institutions (Vize Booking Unit: Organising the number of coming people by District Directorate of Food, contacting travel agencies and tour operators or within the Agriculture and Livestock, Vize Forest quota determined by direct internet-communication tools, the Management Units, Kırklareli areas where they accommodate and the tours they participate. Provincial Directorate of Culture and Activities Unit: Organizing activities and their programs for Tourism, Vize District Directorate of coming people National Education) Local Authorities Accommodation Unit:: Providing the required standards of (Vize and Kıyıköy Municipality), pensions where coming people accommodate. private sector, local non-governmental Training Unit: Providing the training of local community in organisations, development agency and order to employ them in watershed ecotourism and ensure the representative experts from university continuity of ecotourism. In this context, organising various seminars, symposiums, panels, conferences and festivals. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS There are three main elements identified for rural development in Turkey and in the world. These include the historical and cultural heritage, natural resources and local capabilities; when such elements are brought together by competent administrations they make a difference at both national and international level (Akman et al., 2013). According the aforementioned definition, the study area in question has the potential to make a difference in rural development in terms of its historical and cultural heritage (rural settlements shaped by migration and population exchange of the past, Kıyıköy, Aya Nikola Monastry, Kıyıköy Rampart Gate, caves, traces of Thracian, Roman, Byzantine and Ottoman periods and the historical and product oriented trails), natural resources (forests, Natural Protected Sites of Kazandere and Pabuçdere, Kıyıköy beach bordering on Black Sea, richness of its flora and fauna) and local capabilities (organic apiculture, mushroom and fish farms). The historical- cultural and natural values of the region and the local capabilities have enabled the creation of facilities that will lend strength and opportunities for the rural area in terms of ecotourism. So much so that Kıyıköy is nominated as an ecotourism city by the Turkish Tourism Strategy Action Plan and Kırklareli

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Province Environment Plan. This goes to show the ecotourism potential of the area. However, the area has never been assessed in terms of ecotourism before, nor has there been any detailed study previously conducted on the basins of Kıyıköy, Pabuçdere and Kazandere. In this respect, the study has addressed the natural, cultural and socioeconomic landscape values in a holistic manner. This study has attempted to present the key actions intended for the realization of the main objectives of the rural development oriented ecotourism in the case of Kıyıköy, and the list of priority activities to be realized in line with such actions. To this end, 7 strategies have been identified, and the actions, responsible agencies and estimated deadlines for such actions defined. By adopting this approach, a collaboration has been established with the upper scale plan decisions. Moreover, the partners that will contribute to the development of ecotourism and their respective tasks and responsibilities have been identified. This will be facilitative in terms of the feasibility of the study and identification of the relevant agencies and their roles. The study area offers vast resources for such various nature-based ecotourism activities as flora tourism, nature walks, bird watching, photo safari, agricultural tourism, camp-caravan tourism, cave tourism. It has been observed that establishing natural preservation areas, walkways, landmark scenery spots, fishing areas will play a significant role in shaping up the nature oriented ecotourism activities. It has been observed that the different ways of life coming from different ethnic cultures such as Bosnians, Romanians, Pomats, the cultures of migration and population exchange, different folkloric elements, customs and traditions, historical trails, traditional civil architecture, local tastes, products and production methods will play a significant role in shaping up the culture oriented ecotourism activities. It is believed that the rural development will be achieved in the region with the realization of the scenarios based on the ecotourism development strategies that are identified in line with the methods covered in this study. Moreover, while developing the ecotourism facilities in the region, addressing the animal husbandry, forestry, fishery, rural handicrafts, traditional architectural texture, local cuisine, way of life and natural characteristics (such as sea, lakes, rivers, topographical structure, natural vegetation etc.) as a whole and in an interrelated manner will help ensure that the development of ecotourism is maintained in a planned, organized and evenly distributed manner throughout the year. It will also ensure that the natural and cultural values are utilized in a more balanced way; the strategies developed within the scope of this study can easily be implemented in other regions of Turkey as well. As a conclusion, ecotourism is one of the tools of socio-economic development. Having said that, in order to ensure the sustainability of rural development, the natural and cultural resources and socio- economic characteristics of the region intended for ecotourism activities should be thoroughly examined, and a scientific and holistic physical planning should be implemented by adopting an ecological approach and taking into consideration the relationships between all the sectors involved. In this respect, the action plan developed based on the ecotourism strategies, where the socio-economic development and nature preservation objectives have been taken into account in collaboration with the partners involved, plays a significant role within the scope of the sustainable development principles. In this context, the present study is highly important as it includes some of the strategies that can be implemented in the areas that have the ecotourism potential. Acknowledgement This study was supported by the TUBITAK rapid support project No. 213O298. REFERENCES Açıksöz, S.; Görmüş, S.; Karadeniz, N. (2010). Determination of Ecotourism Potential in National Parks: Kure Mountains National Park, Kastamonu-Bartin, Turkey. African Journal of Agricultural Research 5:(8),589-599. Akalın, E.; Demirci, S.; Yeşil, Y.; Özhatay, N. (2010). Yıldız Dağları (Demirköy, Kırklareli) Biyosfer Projesi Alanında Ekonomik Değeri Olan Yabani Bitkiler ve Mantarlar. 19. Bitkisel İlaç Hammaddeleri Toplantısı, 27-30 Ekim 2010, Bildiriler Kitabı, s. 98,Mersin. Akgün, B. (2009). Kazdağı Ulusal Parkı (Balıkesir) ve Yakın Çevresinde Ekoturizm Modeli Üzerine Araştırmalar. İstanbul Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, İstanbul. Akman, E.; Negiz, N. & Akman, Ç. (2013). Sürdürülebilir Bir Kalkınma için Yavaşça Acele Et. B. Özer, &

697 Ş. Güven (Ed.) Yerel ve Bölgesel Kalkınma: Küresel ve Yerel Bakış Açıları kitabı içinde(sayfa 37-54). Celal Bayar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü: Manisa. Aksu, C. (2011). Sürdürülebilir Kalkınma ve Çevre. Güney Ege Kalkınma Ajansı. TÜİK, 2013. İstatistiklerle Türkiye, 2013. Türkiye İstatistik Kurumu, s.104.http://ekutup.dpt.gov.tr/ bolgesel/dincerb/ilce/. Son erişim tarihi:12.06.2014. Atay Ç.; Oral Y.; Ecemiş Kılıç S. vd. (2007). Mumcularda Kırsal Turizm Modeli, Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Mimarlık Fakültesi Şehir ve Bölge Planlama Bölümü, İzmir. Ayanoğlu, İ. (2008). Kırsal Kalkınma ve Türkiye İçin Bir Kırsal Kalkınma Modeli.Gazi Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü,Basılmamış Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Ankara. Boyd S.W. & Butler R.W. (1996). Managing Ecotourism: An Opportunity Spectrum Approach. Tourism Management 17, 556-566. Ceballos-Luscarian, H. (1996). Tourism, Ecotourism and Protected Areas, World Conservation Union (IUCN), Gland, Switzerland. Cengiz, T.; Tüfekçioğlu, A. & İskender, A. (2005). Artvin İl Gelişme Planı (AGEP) Turizm Sektörü Raporu. Artvin, http://www.artvin.gov.tr/ eski/igp/agip_turizm.pdf. Son erişim tarihi: 03.01.2015. Çelik, Z. (2006). Türkiye’de Kırsal Planlama Politikalarının Geliştirilmesi. Dokuz Eylül Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, İzmir. DİE, 2013. Genel Nüfus Sayımı Bilgileri. Devlet İstatistik Kurumu, www.tuik.gov.tr. Son erişim tarihi: 12.05.2014. Dufner, U. & Örnek, A. (2007). Kırsal Kalkınma El Kitabı, Sena Ofset. Gulinck, H.; Vyverman N.; Van Bouchout K. & Gobin, A. (2001). Landscape as Framework for Integrating Local Subsistence and Ecotourism: A Case Study in Zimbabwe. Landscape and Urban Planning 53, 173- 182. Gülçubuk B.;Yıldırak, N.; Kızılaslan, N.; Özer, D.; Kan, M.; Kepoğlu, A. (2009). Kırsal Kalkınma Yaklaşımları ve Politika Değişimleri. http://www.zmo.org.tr/resimler/ ekler /e443d6819ae22b2_ek.pdf. Son erişim tarihi: 24.05.2014. Gültekin, P. (2014). Uğursuyu ve Aksu Havzalarında Peyzaj Planlama ve Ekoturizm Odaklı Kırsal Kalkınma. Düzce Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Peyzaj Mimarlığı Anabilim Dalı, Basılmamış Doktora Tezi, 444 s. Düzce. Jurowski, C. (2010). Nature and Ecotourism Experience Classification Schema. ICHRIE Summer Conference Proceedings, San Juan, Puerto Rico, August 28-31. Khalid, M.D.; Hashim, Z.; Rahman, A.A. & Aziz, N.A. 2010. “Ecotourism Opportunity Spectrum at Sungai Sedim Recreational Forest Area, Kedah”. Center for Biodiversity and Sustainable, Universiti Teknologi Mara. Khalid, M.D.; Nasır, R.A.M.; Ahmad, C.B. (2010). Recreatıon Opportunıty Spectrum For Ecotourısm Area At Rezab Hıdupan Lıar Fraser Hıll Selangor. Research Management Instıtute (RMI) Unıversıtı Teknologı Mara, 43 p, Malezia. Kırklareli İl Çevre Düzen Planı, (2011). Kırklareli İl Özel İdaresi, İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi, Trakya Kalkınma Birliği, İstanbul Büyükşehir Belediyesi Metropoliten Planlama ve Kentsel Tasarım Merkezi, s.79. Kiper, T.; Korkut, A.; Özyavuz, M.; Yılmaz, E. (2010). Tekirdağ İli Şarköy İlçesinde Kırsal Turizme Yönelik Alan Kullanım Planlaması. TUBİTAK 109Y162 Nolu Proje, s.158. Kiper, T.; Uzun, O.; Özdemir, G.; Üstün, T. (2015). Kırsal Kalkınma Amaçlı Ekoturizm Planlaması: Kıyıköy Örneği. 213O298 Nolu Tübitak Hızlı Destek Projesi. Pearce, J. & Robinson, R.B. (1997). Strategic Management. 6.ed. Irwin Book Team, p. 128. Puıu, C.; Stanciu M. & Sirbu, M. (2009). Understandıng The Strategıc Plannıng Process. Management. 53: 68-73. Taş, B. (2011). Tarım Alanlarının Planlaması Sürecinde SWOT Analizi Kullanımına Bir Örnek: Sandıklı İlçesi. Coğrafi Bilimler Dergisi 9:(2), 189-207. Trakya Birleştirici Güç: Doğa, Su, Kültür, Strateji Planı, 2012. Kültür Öncelikli Gelişim ve Strateji Eylem Planı Kırklareli İli Çalıştay Raporu. Tarihi Kentler Birliği, ÇEKÜL, s.115. Türker, N. (2013). Batı Karadeniz Bölümü Ekoturizm Kaynaklarının Değerlendirilmesi ve Bir Ekoturizm Rotası Önerisi. The Journal of Academic Social Science Studies International Journal of Social Science: 6 (4), 1093-1128. Türkiye Turizm Stratejisi 2023 Eylem Planı, 2007. Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Ankara, s. 60.

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URL-1:sertifikasyon.ogm.gov.tr/...%20Kırklareli%20ve%20Vize%20Orman%20.Yüksek Kouma Değerli Ormanlar. Uzun, O.; İlke, F.; Çetinkaya, G.; Erduran, F.; Açıksöz, S. (2010). Konya İli, Bozkır-Seydişehir-Ahırlı- Yalıhüyük İlçeleri ve Suğla Gölü Mevkii Peyzaj Yönetimi, Koruma ve Planlama. T.C. Orman ve Su İşleri Bakanlığı Doğa Koruma ve Milli Parklar Genel Müdürlüğü, Laser Ofset, 175 s. Vermeire, B. & Gellynck, X. (2009).Strategic Orientation Training Session. Ghent University Faculty of Bioscience, Department of Agriculture Economics, 3. Official Meeting of the Food Cluster, Mersin. Yaseera, N. & Sharma, S. (2014). Assessment of ecotourism potential of Dooru tehsil and its environs, Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences (JBES) 4: (5) 329-334.

699 Chapter 61

Development and Sustainability of the Tourism in Lake Salda and its Environs

Kaan KAPAN*

INTRODUCTION This study deals, from various aspects, with the elements and sustainability of tourism in and around Lake Salda for which no detailed analysis has previously been made in terms of tourism activities. Lake Salda and its vicinity are suitable for a wide range of activities for all seasons including in particular the lake tourism, as well as camping, campervan, endemic species, nature, culture, rural and winter tourism thanks to its geographical attractions, both physical and human. The area also provides extra attractions (water sports, trekking, bird watching, etc.) inherent to such types of tourism. Lake Salda Sub-basin covers an area of 220 km2 within boundaries of Yeşilova District, . The basin comprises district center of Yeşilova and 3 villages (i.e. Doğanbaba, Salda and Niyazlar) (Fig. 1). With mean altitude of 1.300m above the sea level, Lake Salda provides a suitable habitat for various birds and fish species. It is also one of the deepest lakes in Turkey with a depth of 184m. Based on the natural beauty and ecosystem diversity that the Lake ensured in the area, the Ministry of Culture listed the Lake as a First Degree Natural Protected Area under decision of Izmir Cultural and Natural Heritage Preservation Board No. 2 in 1989. Said decision was amended by a new decision passed by Antalya Cultural and Natural Heritage Preservation Board in 1992, by which the vicinity of lake was also listed as a Second Degree Natural Protected Area. That increased popularity of the Lake itself and its vicinity as a result of which Burdur, in particular, and miscellaneous adjacent districts and villages of neighbor Province of Denizli transformed into important recreational areas which prompted Ministry of Culture and Tourism to designate the area as a Tourist Attraction. This study addresses sustainable tourism concept in the light of applicable literature, and consequently provides suggestions and makes conclusions regarding tourism products and Figure 1: Location of Lake Salda and its vicinity resources which can be optimized to transform the (Location of Province of Burdur where the lake is lake area from a recreational site into a tourist located is colored black in the upper right corner). attraction. SUSTAINABLE TOURISM Tourism activities lacked reputation until 1980s, and only few entities were providing tourism services in few facilities. With the economic growth and improved means of communication as from 1980s, tourism appealed large masses expanding into wider areas white resulted in an economic activity that directly influences more than fifty sectors today (Akış, 2002). Insights on influence of such sectors revealed that the perception of tourism has significantly changed. Such changes are particularly felt in

* Res. Assist., Istanbul University, Faculty of Letters, Dept. of Geography

terms of environmental awareness and development. Sustainability appears to be the most important problem of the giant tourism industry in terms of development because all tourist attractions maintain their value and carry on when they are preserved and passed to next generations. Otherwise, tourism would end up with an intermittent influence with contrasts observed between periods. As a concept, sustainability is a complicated term which can be understood in different ways by different people depending on specific points of view. Sustainability, as commonly adopted in tourism industry, means “arrangement of use of tourism resources without depletion, pollution, and depreciation so as to ensure that such resources will also be used by next tourist generations” (Özgüç, 2015:180). Since the very first day it was introduced and started to be discussed, sustainability concept has generally been addressed under three aspects: economic, environmental and social (Figure 2). In environmental aspect, it is aimed to use nature and natural resources by preserving them. In social aspect, it is assumed to ensure justice and participation of all segments of society in decision making process. Economic aspect of sustainability, on the other hand, seeks ensuring long-term economic activities by duly considering environmental and social issues. In practice, the targets of three aspects of sustainability may conflict. Figure 2: Interaction for Sustainable Tourism, Source: Wight, 1998. For example, an industrial facility which will contribute to employment (economic) can cause environmental pollution, which leads to conflicts between environmental and economic targets. On the other hand, economic growth is sometimes ignored for the sake of environmental conservation which tackles fulfillment of social targets (Holmberg and Sandbrook, 1992: 24; Ergüven, 2011: 206-207). Besides said three aspects, bearing capacity of a region or settlement, in particular, will also help determining type and duration of tourism. Bearing capacity does not only address to physical capacity (the number of people who can be hosted by a specific place) but also the ecological capacity (how long the environment will bear the activities) and psychological capacity (the extent of crowd acceptable to a tourist) (Özgüç, 2015:180). Requirements for development of sustainable tourism in terms of connections between natural and human environments are as follows: • Tourism resources (natural, historical, cultural, etc.) should be preserved in such a way that not only provides benefits to the society of today but also enables use in the future. • Tourism development, planning and management should be carried out carefully so as to avoid triggering any ecological or socio-cultural problems in the relevant area. • General quality of environment in the tourism region should be maintained, and if possible, improved. • Tourism satisfaction level should be maintained in order to guarantee visits to the area, improve attraction, and maintain commercial value. • Tourism should be in favor of all members of society (UNEP, 2003). In the light of foregoing facts, sustainable tourism (as can be seen in Figure 2) will only emerge where economic, ecologic and social aspects intersect, and in case of exclusion of one of these aspects, the result will no longer be sustainable tourism. Tourism activities which duly consider social

701 requirements, avoid environmental damage, and guarantee continuity of natural resource while generating revenues will be considered to achieve sustainability (Korkmaz, 2011: 62-69). Today, everybody recognizes the positive role that tourism will play in preservation of environment and local cultures. In the future, “different natures and cultures” will continue to be one of the top basic motivations for tourists, which is associated with maintaining existing natural and cultural attractions as is. Connections between natural and human environments have basic importance: (a) tourism increases environmental knowledge; (b) a well-managed tourism is environmental friendly and (c) a successful tourism industry needs a high quality environment (Özgüç, 2015:181). If foregoing facts are duly considered and observed in a region where tourism is in early stage of development, the resulting positive contribution to environment, social structure and economy will be at visible levels. ESSENTIALS OF TOURISM ACTIVITIES IN AND IN THE VICINITY OF LAKE SALDA In a world with ever increasing urban population, the number of people who want to escape noisy, stressful city life also increases every passing day. Generally, there is a move from cities to quite, calm areas with a lot of oxygen. And lakes are among significant preferred recreational and tourism areas. Like seas, lakes also offer water-based activities such as swimming, amateur fishing, water skiing, sailing, surfing, and kayaking. Lakes also provide rural tourism and ecotourism attractions in Turkey (Efe 2010; Curebal et al., 2015; Soykan, 2000a: 21-33). Unlike seas featuring mass tourism concentrated along coasts, lakes are more preferred for individual and group activities. Actually, the most important attraction of lakes in terms of tourism is that lakes provide flora and fauna together with water environment. Indeed, lakes are places where activities such as picnic, camping, hunting, hiking, cycling, photographing, and watching scenery are more dominant than water-based activities (Doğaner, 2001: 81). Lake Salda and its vicinity have quite significant attractions as required for tourism activities including its climate, landscape, natural life resources, development of tourism in geographical sites, as well as its culture and people. It also has a good position in terms of transportation (and access), one of key elements of tourism. Road transportation, in particular, provides adequate transport from neighbor provinces to the region. Considering airway transportation, the region is 51 km to Denizli Çardak Airport and 85 km to Süleyman Demirel Airport which constitutes an advantage for development of region. The only transportation problem is the difficulty to access different areas (e.g. ski center – Lake Salda) within the region itself. Upon solving that problem, the relationship between transportation and tourism will be problem-free and smooth. However, accommodation conditions are not as favorable as attraction and transportation. There are only a few facilities intended for tourism activities by and in the vicinity of lake. Plans and projects were prepared for improving accommodation capacities, which are yet to be realized. By considering such capacities, Lake Salda and its vicinity will be addressed and assessed in terms of lake tourism, winter tourism, youth tourism, nature tourism, rural tourism, and cultural tourism. Lake Tourism: Lake Salda and its vicinity have many natural beauties including ecological diversity, natural beaches, mountains, tablelands and vegetation and birds (Atalay and Efe, 2015). It is also distinguished from other lakes with its proximity to important tourism regions in Turkey (Antalya and Denizli), turquoise water, and beaches with white pebbles. Considering that lakes do not have an important position in the tourism economy in Turkey, and lakes only come into prominence when they have distinctive attractions (Uzungöl or Lake Manyas/Bird Paradise), aspects mentioned above can be accepted as advantages for Lake Salda to distinct itself from others. Thanks to its natural structure, landscape beauty, water quality, and suitable environmental structure, Lake Salda has a high recreational capacity which appeals many domestic and foreign tourists and nature lovers. The vicinity of lake is available for tourism and recreational activities all around the year. Lake Salda Nature Park and beaches, in particular, attract many tourists during summer months. There are motels, camping, restaurant and picnic areas around the lake (Lake Salda Wetland Basin Biodiversity Research, March 2013:118).

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Figure 3: Yeşilova beach gains popularity among other natural attractions in region (Anonymous). Winter Tourism: Efforts are in progress for diversification of types of tourism for ensuring four- season tourism in the region. Winter is the most challenging season in terms of tourism activities. However, Lake Salda and its vicinity offer very suitable conditions for ski and winter sports. Salda Ski Center offers service for skiing, the favorite activity of winter tourism. Salda Ski Center is located in Tınaztepe area of Eşeler Mountain within boundaries of Yeşilova district of Burdur Province.

Figure 4: Salda Ski Center It is 70km to Burdur province, and only 15 km to Yeşilova district. The center has 5 runs, of which the longest is 1.600m, and the shortest is 950m, as well as a two-person chairlift reaching the peak at 860m. Therefore, it has a significant potential for winter sports (and tableland tourism). Today, it is actively used for ski tourism. With promotion and upon solving infrastructural problems, it will turn into a tourism attraction where cross skating, picnic and other miscellaneous activities can be performed. For this, Special Provincial Administration continues road and other miscellaneous investments. Moreover, Mehmet Akif Ersoy University intends to make miscellaneous investments as its School of Physical Education and Sports delivers some of its classes and practices there. Improvement of winter tourism activities will be an important gain for the region. Winter tourism is an expensive type of tourism due to challenges faced during construction of winter tourism centers. However, the area addressed under this study is one of few centers (e.g. Saklıkent and Davraz) that offer winter tourism services in the Mediterranean Region. Youth tourism: In order to make an assessment regarding the youth tourism in the area addressed under this study, first the terms “young” and “youth” which vary between countries should be defined. United Nations Tourism Organization defines “young” as persons between the ages of 15 and 24 based on the age for leaving education and finding their first job. In terms of tourism, “youth” is meant to include such type of visitors who make unplanned travels and enter into relations with the visited community (Toros, 1992: 35-42; Acır, 2010:26). However, that range of age varies between different countries and conditions. For example, the range of age recognized by Poland for youth tourism is 15 to 19, while France considers people between 0 and 35 as the object of youth tourism (UNWTO, 2005: 103). In Turkey, Association of Turkish Travel Agencies considers “activities aiming ages from 7 to 27”

703 as youth tourism. A study of Lake Salda and its vicinity in terms of youth tourism has revealed that there are some plans and projects carried out by private and public entities. For example, Ministry of Youth and Sport organizes an annual Local Youth Camp in August in Lake Salda. However, such organizations only host small groups of 80 people due to limited capacity. Similarly, private entities work on organizing youth festivals in the region. The most recent event was supposed to be Salda Youth Festival which would be organized on April 1-2-3, 2016, where concerts, cycling tours, tournaments were planned to be organized. However, it was postponed due to security reasons. Pre-applications were received for that organization. In the festival, it is expected to build up 3.000 tents, organize 20 concerts with participation of 20.000 young people. In order to enable the Region to have a great share in youth tourism, it is important to change ideas of young people, i.e. matures of the future, which will contribute to boosting tourism around the lake in the future years.

Figure 5: Doğanbaba Walking and Cycling Figure 6: Doğanbaba Village, a Track settlement with High Tourism Potential Source: Mustafa Tellioğlu Nature Tourism: The study of region in terms of nature tourism suggests that the region has important attractions and opportunities including trekking, cycling, bird watching, paragliding, tableland tourism, photo safari, and diving tourism, camping and campervan tourism. For example, there are diversified opportunities for trekking. There are two walking tracks, of which one is between Doğanbaba Village and Beyaz Adalar (24 km) and the other between Eşeler Mountain and Tınaztepe (8 km). Difficulty level of these tracks is easy, and these tracks can be completed either through main route under pine and juniper trees, or through some other alternative routes with the lake being in the center. There are three tracks designated for cycling tourism, one being around Lake Salda, one between Yeşilova and Eşeler Mountain, and the other between Yeşilova and Dereköy. The track around Lake Salda is an easy track while the two other tracks are a little more difficult as they pass through hilly areas. The route between Yeşilova and Doğanbaba, in particular, is more suitable but there are ongoing infrastructural works for these routes. The Ministry of Culture and Tourism also did some works relating to signboards and routes. It is planned to create completely separated cycling tracks, and focus on promoting that type of tourism. Besides cycling tourism in all routes, it is also possible to complement the cycling tours with other sportive activities including photo safari, bird watching, swimming, kayaking, etc. There is a significant number of bird species in the region. The region features both Mediterranean and continental climate conditions which is the most important factor that contributes to diversity of bird species and biodiversity. From time to time, 62 different songbirds (including bird species specific to Mediterranean ecosystem including Krueper’s nuthatch, Cretzschmar's bunting, and Sardinian warbler) were observed, together with 10 different birds of prey, including one night bird of prey (Lake Salda Wetland Sub-basin Biodiversity Research, March 2013:38). The observations revealed an increase in the number of species during winter months, in particular. Species which are available in Lake Salda including Graceful prinia, ferruginous duck and coot, in particular, (Özgen, 2008:285) ensured lake’s being recognized as an International Wetland. Bird watching activities are mainly concentrated around Lake Salda, Sultanpınar and Karaoluk localities. The bird watching activities can be boosted by creating watching areas in these localities.

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In Burdur, there are four areas which are suitable for paragliding. Of these areas, Take Off flights are only performed on Burdur and Lake Salda. Infrastructural shortcomings of Lake Salda curbed development of paragliding. However, provincial and district authorities carried out feasibility studies and initiated mutual operations with Turkish Aviation Association for boosting the activities in the area. Moreover, Tınaztepe, an area near paragliding site, is suitable for tableland tourism. Boosting paragliding tourism and tableland tourism, which have been increasing their popularity recently, is quite important for nature-based tourism activities. Ecosystem diversity is also an important resource for boosting tourism in the region. Lake Salda is a closed basin which plays a significant role in ecological characteristics of the lake. Salinity and high alkalinity are determinant factors in biological diversity and productivity of the lake. Though this limits diversity of species and usage opportunities of the lake, it also acts as a shield against invasion of invading and foreign species. The area has specific species which are rarely seen in any other ecosystems. There is, in particular, a very strict food and reproduction relationship between the lake itself and the fresh water sources around the lake. For example, Aphanius splendens and Pseudophoxinus cf. ninae species which live in the lake need fresh water input for growth (Lake Salda Wetland Sub-basin Biodiversity Research, March 2013). Turkish pine forests and Mediterranean scrubs bordering Lake Salda, and dunes and rocks in lakeshore give a special characteristic to the area in terms of both ecology and landscape. The nuthatch in the Turkish pine forest and endemic plants around, and endemic fish species in the lake make this place a special location. Salda Toothcarp (Aphanius splendens) is rare species of the lake. That fish is an endemic species of the lake which gives it a privileged position among “species under protection”. Other endemic fish species living in Lake Salda include Pseudophoxinus cf. ninae and the endemic copepod Arctodiaptomus Burduricus. The research in and in the vicinity of Lake Salda revealed 301 plant species belonging to 61 families, of which the most important are Verbascum dudleyanum and Verbascum flabellifolium which are endemic plant species to Lake Salda (Lake Salda Wetland Sub-basin Biodiversity Research, March 2013:38). Most of the endemic species of this region occur in this area (Özçelik et al., 2014). Rural and Cultural Tourism: Rural and Cultural Tourism which has an important role in regional development are currently not available in this region. However, considering the existing potential and assuming that required steps will be taken, this type of tourism can play a significant role both for improving tourism activities and contributing to social and economic development of the local society. Cultural values such as weaving, handicraft, folk dances and specific regional foods of Lake Salda Sub-basin including Doğanköy, in particular, and Niyazlar and Salda Villages can be promoted, and daily tours can be organized to such villages. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS Steps assumed to be taken and respective bottlenecks for development of tourism are evaluated with SWOT analysis. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats of tourism in the region are evaluated using this analysis method. Based on evaluation of data from this study, steps have been taken to turn weaknesses into strengths, and further optimize strengths. Conclusions from the SWOT analysis of tourism activities in Lake Salda are as follows: Strengths  Geographical Position and Proximity to Main Markets  Water Quality (Tests showed that the lake is among the cleanest lakes)  Landscape Beauty (White Beaches, Harmony of Blue and Green in the Nature, Resemblance to Mars, etc.)  Suitable Investment Environment  Suitable Climate Conditions  Diving and Underwater Tourism  Rich Endemic Species  Lake Tourism  Nature Tourism

705  Winter Tourism  Youth Tourism  Rural and Cultural Tourism Potential  Existence of Labor Force which can be Employed for Tourism Weaknesses  Insufficient Accommodation Facilities  Lack of Instruments to Promote the Area (Brochures, Website, Advertisement, Promotional Activities, Documents in Foreign Language, etc.)  Poor Communication between Public Authorities, Private Entities and Local People  Poor Awareness of Natural, Historical, Archeological Cultural Integral Values  Ineffective Participation in Decision Making Mechanisms between Nature Conservation and Tourism Industry  Failure to Effectively Utilize Regional Tourism Opportunities  No Tourism Promotion Office  Lack of Common Policies and Cooperation between Nature Conservation and Tourism Industry  Environmental Problems  Lack of Knowledge and Experience regarding Sustainable Tourism  Failure to Raise Adequate Awareness in the Region regarding Importance and Value of the Lake  Lack of Staff and Equipment for Control, Monitoring  Demands for Constructions by and Utilization of Lakeshore  Lack of Conscious Irrigation

Threats  The Regional Economy is yet to Relieve of its Fragile Condition  In Spite of Improved Means of Transportation, the Increase in Transportation and General Travel Costs  Ongoing Studies for Construction of Hydroelectric Plants  Legal Gaps and Conflict of Laws regarding Tourism  Reconstruction of Sewage Treatment Facility of the City  Poor Tourism Image of City  Political and Economical Instabilities  Poor Construction and Building Inspections  High Inflation and Low Purchasing Power  Burdur Ranks No. 1 in Destruction of Natural Environment (due to Mines) Opportunities  The Increasing Interest in Nature, Historical and Cultural Tourism where Turkey has High Competitiveness  Attractions of Region  Changing Preferences in World Tourism (Tendency to Opt Alternative Tourism over Mass Tourism)  Four Seasons  Rich Flora.  High Potential for Alternative Types of Tourism  Increasing Interest in Nature, Historical, and Cultural Tourism  Increasing Attraction of Mediterranean Region  Presence of Rich Forest Recourses  It can be Planned as a Geopark due to its Geological Structure One of the important issues that attract attention regarding tourism activities in and in the vicinity of Lake Salda is that the lake has a significant share in the tourism activities of the region. However,

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lack of organization, promotion and researches on types of tourism impairs recognition at national and international level. Sustainable tourism policies should be introduced in terms of environmental, economic and social aspects, along with efforts for promotion and raising recognition, in order to boost tourism activities because sustainable tourism relates to attractions that are ‘raison d’étre’ of tourism, and addresses to a management process which ensures that social, cultural, historical, geographical, ecological, biological, and economic resources are utilized, preserved, improved and organized without depletion and damage not only by local people but also tourists (Akova, 2010:127). Therefore, for improvement of tourism activities in the region, it is very important to take into account sustainable tourism when making decisions regarding future of Lake Salda and its vicinity. It is evident that with correct development plans for the area addressed under this study which features many types of tourism, the area will turn into a good tourism attraction from economic, social and environmental aspects. REFERENCES Acır, E. (2010). Türkiye’de Gençlik Turizmi Potansiyelinin Geliştirilmesi ve Çözüm Önerileri, Kültür ve Turizm Bakanlığı Yatırım ve İşletmeler Genel Müdürlüğü, Uzmanlık Tezi. Akış, S. (2002). Sürdürülebilir Turizm: Eleştirel Bir Yaklaşım, First Tourism Congress of Mediterranean Countries Bildiriler Kitabı, April 17-21, Antalya, 1-8s Akova, İ. (2010). Turizm Coğrafyası, Sürdürülebilir Turizmin Gelişmesinde Strateji ve Planlamanın Önemi, Sayfa 127, Anadolu Üniversitesi Yayınları. Atalay, İ.; Efe, R. (2015). Türkiye Biyocoğrafyası (Bitki ve Hayvan). Meta Basım. İzmir. ISBN 9786058784079 Bergman, E. F. (1995). Human Geography, Cultures, Connections, and Landscapes, Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice Hall. Birleşmiş Milletler Dünya Turizm Örgütü Yayınları (BMDTÖ) 2005: 103. Bradshaw, M. (1997). A World Regional Geography –The New Global Order, Brown and Bench Publishers. Briggs, K. (1994). Human Geography, Concepts & Applications, Londra. Buchanan, K. (1981). China: The Land and People, New York. Clarke, J.R. VD. (1989). Population and Disaster, London. Doğaner, S. (2001). Türkiye Turizm Coğrafyası, İstanbul: Çantay Kitabevi. Ergüven, M.H. (2011). “Cittaslow Yaşanmaya Değer Şehirlerin Uluslararası Birliği: Vize Örneği”, Organizasyon ve Yönetim Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt 3, ( 2),S. 201-210. Holmberg, J., Sandrook, R. (1992). Sustainable Development: What Is To Be Done Making Development Sustainable: Redefining Institutions, Policy and Economics. (Ed. J. Holmberg). International Institute for Environment and Development, Island Press, Washington, DC, P.19-38. İncekara, A. (1998). Doğu Anadolu’da Kış Turizmi ve Gelişme Olanakları, İstanbul, İstanbul Ticaret Odası Yayın No: 1998-3. Korkmaz, M., Başkalkan, S. N. (2011). Eğirdir Gölü ve Çevresinde Turizm Gelişiminin Sürdürülebilirliği Üzerine Değerlendirmeler, SDÜ. Orman Fakültesi Dergisi Sayfa 62-69. Özgüç, N. (2015). Turizm Coğrafyası Özellikler ve Bölgeler, Çantay Kitapevi, 2015:180-181. Öztürk, A. (2010). Antalya Körfezi Batısında Kırsal Turizm: Potansiyel ve Geliştirme Stratejisi, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, İzmir: Ege Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü. Özgen, I. (2008). “Burdur ve Isparta”, Turizm Coğrafyası, Detay Yayıncılık, Ankara. S. 285. Özçelik, H. Vd. (2014). Burdur İli Karasal ve İç Su Ekosistem Çeşitliliği, Koruma ve İzleme Çalışmaları, SDU Journal of Science (E-Journal), 2014, 9 (2): 12-43. Salda Gölü Sulak Alan Alt Havzası Biyoçeşitlilik Araştırması, Mart 2013:118, T.C. Soykan, F. (2000a). “Kırsal Turizm ve Avrupa’da Kazanılan Deneyim”, Anatolia Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 11 (Mart-Haziran), 21-33. Toros, A. (1992). “Gençlik Turizminde Kavramsal Çerçeve ve Türkiye’de Temel Göstergeler”, Gençlik Turizmi Konferans – Workshop, Turizm Bakanlığı Turizm Eğitimi Genel Müdürlüğü, Ankara, 14-16 Mayıs, S:35-42. UNEP, (2003). Annual Report. http://www.unep.org/annualreport/2003/ Wight, P. (1998). Tools for Sustainability Analysis in Planning and Managing Tourism and Recreation in the Destination, In: Hall. C.M., Lew, A.A. (Eds.), Sustainable Tourism-A Geographical Perspective, ISBN 0 582 32262 6, London, Pp. 75-91.

707 Chapter 62

The View on Alternative Tourism by Managers of Accommodation Establishments: The Example of the East Antalya (Side) Tourism Development Project Area

Cemali SARI*, Medine ALİGİL**

INTRODUCTION In today’s world, the form of tourism that Turkey implements is based on the sea – sand – sun triad which is emerged by depending on the natural potential (Akova, 2000:72). The coasts of Antalya city constitute 35% ( 450 km) of the 1.577 km length Mediterranean coastline. With their islands, beaches, coves, waterfalls, these coasts have a part in the country’s most clean and pretty coasts (Alparslan and Ortaçeşme, 2009:170). According to the data in 2015, out of 36.2 million of foreign tourists who visited Turkey, 11.3 million of them preferred Antalya (http://www.kultur.gov.tr –27.02.2016). Considering the data, it can be concluded Antalya comprises 30.3% part of Turkey’s tourism share. While having many visitors in a short term is accepted as pleasing, the inability of maintaining the touristic activities out of the summer season sufficiently can be considered as a momentous issue for the future of the tourism in Antalya (Sarı, 2008:14). The countries are able to increase shares they receive from tourism only if they diversify the tourism services and products that they offer. What it means with variation of the tourism services and products is to provide improvement in the alternative tourism activities (Öztürk and Yazıcıoğlu, 2002:260). Eastern Antalya (Side) Touristic Improvement Project Area (EATIPA) which constitutes the area of the research is overshadowed by the coast tourism. Due to the fact that Antalya is the best known and in demand tourism area, alternative tourism types should be adapted to this environment. Side and its surroundings are the providers of Manavgat which is a tourism region and is accompanied by the influx of thousands of tourists each year. Along with the unique historical wealth, bright sea, bright yellow sand and endless sun, the area is an indispensable tourism center (Aydınözü, 2004:82). Nevertheless, no utilization of the unique beauty of the area causes the income to decrease except for the summer season. In this regard, especially attitudes of the executives of the accommodation facilities – located in the EATIPA – towards the alternative tourism and determining their views on the sources of potential tourism are crucially valuable in terms of the sustaining tourism’s future. I. The Location and Borders of the Research The research area is 75 km away from Antalya city center and in the borders of Manavgat region. Eastern Antalya (Side) Touristic Improvement Project Area (EATIPA),It spreads from Kumköy (in the West) to Okurcular Village ( east of Manavgat Lake in the East).The area is around 15 km in length along with the coastline (Doğanay and Zaman, 2013:48). Manavgat, Sorgun, Kemerköy, Kumköy and Side (Selimiye) are the primary investment regions that are located in the Tourism Improvement Project Area (see figure 1). II. The Aim of the Research This research aims to determine the views of the executives of the accommodation facilities, located in the east Antalya (Side) tourism development project area (EATDPA), in terms of alternative tourism in the region.

* Assist. Prof. Dr., Akdeniz University, Department of Geography, Antalya, Turkey ** Graduate Student, Akdeniz University, Institute of Social Sciences, Antalya

III. The Subject and Significance of the Research Considering the number of the tourists, which is almost 12 million, Antalya is among not only Turkey’s but also world’s most top-line tourism centers (Sarı, 2014:109). This research plays a crucial role in specifying the views of the executives of the east Antalya (Side) tourism development project area (EATDPA) accommodation facilities on the potential of the area for alternative tourism, the extension of the tourism season from 7 to 12 months, formation of an alternative to the coast tourism and revealing the items which were put into the background.

Figure 1: The Map of the Eastern Antalya Touristic Improvement Project Area IV. The Procedure and Method of the Study In this research, the 20 question semi structured interview was implemented to 27 executives of accommodation facilities by adapting the face to face interview method. The relevant literature review on this issue attested that the number of the studies aimed at this area is limited. In this regard, it can be declared that this research is a unique study for this context. V. FINDINGS AND COMMENTS 1) Age, Gender and Educational Background of the Facility Executives Table 1: The Distribution of the participants according to their age, gender and educational Background Number of Participants % Age 20-30 age group 9 33,33 30-40 age group 11 40,74 40 + 7 25,93 Gender Female 22 81,48 Male 5 18,52 Educational Background High School Gradute 8 29,63 Associte Degree 7 25,93 Bachelor’s Degree 12 44,44

According to the table 1, 33.3% (9 people) of the participants who took part in the study is in the 20 – 30 age group, 40.7% (11 people) of them is in the 30 – 40 age group and 25.9% (7 people) is in the

709 40 years and older age group. In EATIPA, around 75% of the facilities is administered by the executives with 40 years of age below. When the gender distribution is analyzed, it is noticed that 81.5% (22 people) of the participants is male and 18.5% (5 people) is female. Based on the educational background, 29.6% (8 people) of them is high school graduate, 25.9% (7 people) is associate degree and 44.4% (12 people) is bachelor’s degree. 2) The Type of the Facility According to the table 2, while all of the facilities in this study are hotels, 3.7% (1 facility) has 3 stars, 14.8% (4 facilities) has 4 stars and 81.5% (22 facilities) has 5 stars. Table 2: The Type and Class Distribution of the Facilities in which the Participants Work The Type of the Facility Class Number of Participants % Hotel *** 1 3,70 Hotel **** 4 14,82 Hotel ***** 22 81,48 3) Years of Experience in the Facility and the Sector Table 3: Distribution of the Participants’ Years of Experience in the Facility They Work and Tourism Sector Years of Experience in the % Experience in the % Experience Facility Sector 0-2 year 7 29,93 - - 2-5 year 11 40,74 1 3,70 5-10 year 6 22,22 4 14,82 10+ 3 11,11 22 81,48 Total 27 100 27 100

According to the table 3, out of 27 participants 29.9% (7 people) has 0 – 2 years, 40.7% (11 people) has 2 – 5 years, 22.2% (6 people) has 5 – 10 years and 11.1% (3 people) has 10 and over years of experience. Failure to place the concept of sustainable tourism in the area and having tourism activities only in certain months of the year affect the time span that qualified staff works. While 3.7% (1 person) of the participants has 2 – 5 years, 14.8% (4 people) has 5 – 10 years and 81.5% (22 people) has 10 and over years of experience, there is no participant who has 0 – 2 years of experience in the field. The factors such as short or long years of experience of the executives in the sector can lead them to the different regions and facilities within the years. 4) The Time When the Facilities are Open and the Months that the Executives Take Their Annual Leave Table 4: The distribution of the time when the facilities are open and the months that the executives take their annual leave Number of Participants % Opening & Closing Dates of Facilities 12 months 16 59,26 April-November 7 29,93 March-December 3 11,11 May-September 1 3,70 Annual Leave November 1 3,70 December -January-February 25 92,60 April 1 3,70

According to the table 4, 59.3% (16 facilities) of the accommodation facility is open for 12 months, 29.9% (7 facilities) is open from April to November, 11.1% (3 facilities) is open between

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March and December and 3.7% (1 facility) provides service from May to September. In EATIPA, facilities are closed during an important part of the year and that causes significant economic loss. The findings about the months in which the executives take their annual leave show that 3.7% (1 person) prefers to take it in November, 92.6% (25 people) takes in December – January – February and 3.7% (1 person) takes the annual leave in April. Almost all of them take their leave out of the tourism season. 5) Which months do the facilities have the highest tourist entries? According to the table 5, between May and October 22.2% (6 facilities); in June, July and August 22.2% (6 facilities); in July, August and September 51.9% (14 facilities) and in August, September and October 3.7% (1 facility) has the most intense time for tourist entries. Starting with April and May, tourist entries increase in May and June, reach the peak in July and August, decrease in September and diminish pretty much in October. Table 5: The Time When the Tourist Entries are Intense Number of Participants % May-October 6 22,22 June-July-August 6 22,22 July-August-September 14 51,86 August-September-October 1 3,70 6) What is yearly occupancy amount of your facility? According to the table 6, 7.4% (2 facilities) of the facilities has 50% - 60%, 3.7% (1 facility) has 61% - 70%, 29.6% (8 facilities) has 71% - 80%, 44.4% (12 facilities) has 81% - 90% and 14.8% (4 facilities) has 91% and above yearly occupancy amount. Table 6: Average Yearly Occupancy Amount of the Facilities Occupancy Amount (%) Number of Facilities % 50-60 2 7,41 61-70 1 3,70 71-80 8 29,63 81-90 12 44,44 91+ 4 14,82 Total 27 100,00 7) Which nationalities prefer your facility mostly? According to the table 7, when the distribution of the countries that mostly the visitors come from; Germany, Russia and Turkey emerge as the leading countries and in general European tourists prefer EATIPA more. Table 7: The Distribution of the Visitors Who Prefer the Facilities Most: According to their Countries 1 Germany 7 Slovakia 2 Russia 8 Belcium 3 Turkey 9 France 4 England 10 Czech Republic 5 Netherlands 11 Swiss 6 Scandinavian Countries 12 Balkan Countries 8) How is the facility utilized when it is closed? In reference to the replies obtained from the participants, in the facilities, which are not active the whole year, the time without service is used for maintenance and repair services. 9) What are the reasons for your facility to be chosen except for the sea – sand – sun triad? On the table 8, quality of the service is in the first line with 28.6% (10 replies). Other reasons include aqua park and customer satisfaction with 14.3% (5 replies), 11.4% (4 replies) because of being a

711 family hotel, all-inclusive packages with 8.6% (3 replies) and 5.7% (2 replies) said social activities, the concept and bungalow houses are the reasons of the preference. Couple hotel and serenity took the last line on the list with 2.9% (1 reply). Table 8: The Reasons for the Facilities to be Chosen Preferred Cause Number of Responses % Quality of the Service 10 28,57 Aqua park 5 14,29 Customer Satisfaction 5 14,29 Family Hotel 4 11,42 All Inclusive Packages 3 8,57 Social Activities 2 5,72 Concepts 2 5,72 Bungalow Houses 2 5,72 Couple Hotel 1 2,85 Serenity 1 2,85 Total 35 100,00 10) What is the meaning of tourism season for your tourism area? Three categories emerged as seen on the table 9, work with 23.3% (7 replies); money, being busy and tourists with 20% (6 replies) and lastly sea – sand – sun. Table 9: The Meaning of the Season for the Tourism Area? Season Meaning Number of Responses % Work 7 23,33 Money 6 20 Busy 6 20 Tourists 6 20 Sea-Sand-Sun 5 16,67 Total 30 100,00 11) Do you have difficulty in finding qualified staff for your facility? While 85.2% (23 people) indicated that they have difficulty in finding qualified staff, 14.8 %( 4 people) declared they do not have a problem with this. Table 10: The Difficulty in Finding Qualified Staff to Work in the Facilities Number of Participants % Yes 23 85,19 No 4 14,81 Total 27 100

12) What comes to your mind with ‘alternative tourism’? The answers of the participants to this question were respectively; ‘culture tourism, sport, congress tourism, health tourism, nature activities, faith tourism, winter tourism and yacht tourism’. 13) Did you get any demands about alternative tourism from the tourists staying at your facility and / or travel agencies? As it can be seen from the table 11, 33.33% (9 people) declared that they had demands on alternative tourism from tourists and / or travel agencies, whereas 66.67% (18 people) indicated they did not receive any demands.

Table 11: State of Getting Demands about Alternative Tourism Number of Participants %

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Yes 9 33,33 No 18 66,67 Total 27 100

14) What is your opinion about extension of alternative tourism types to the months when the facilities are closed? Table 12: Opinions about Extension of Alternative Tourism Types to the Months When the Facilities are closed Opinions Number of Participants % Positive 18 66,67 Negative 5 18,52 No Idea 4 14,81 Total 27 100

According to table 12, as long as the necessary structure is ready 66.67% (18 people) is optimistic to alternative tourism, yet 18.52% (5 people) has a negative perspective towards it because of inconvenient area and the number of the people who may participate to it. However, 14.81% (4 people) did not express their opinions. 15) Do you think alternative tourism can become functional in your area? While 55.6% (15 people) said ‘yes’ to this question, the answer of 44.4% (12 people) was ‘no’ as stated in the table 13. Table 13: The State of Alternative Tourism to Become Functional in the Area Number of Participants % Yes 15 55,56 No 12 44,44 Total 27 100,00

16) Which type of alternative tourism can draw tourists’ interest to the area when tourism is not active? The answers of the participants were respectively; ‘sport, culture, congress, health and nature’. 17) Do you take advantage of the marketing strategies, which you prepared to attract tourists, for alternative tourism? Table 14: The State of Taking Advantage of Marketing Strategies in Alternative Tourism Number of Participants % Yes 7 25,93 No 20 74,07 Total 27 100,00

According to the table 14, on one hand 25.9% (7 people) said ‘yes’ by indicating that they take advantage of the marketing strategies, but on the other hand 74.1% (20 people) said ‘no’ to this question. 18) In your opinion, what is the biggest problems of the tourism in your area? According to the table 15, 25% (15 replies) thinks the tourism in EATIPA is the deficiency of qualified staff, according to 11.7% (7 replies) the biggest problem of it is the deficiency of the substructure, 10% (6 replies) thinks it is because of the all-inclusive system and no extension of tourism to the whole year, 8.3% (5 replies) says the problem is environmental pollution, 6.7% (4 replies) says

713 Table 15: The Biggest Problems of the Tourism Area Number of Participants % Yes 7 25,93 No 20 74,07 Total 27 100,00

the insufficiency in government’s support and the attitude of the local people towards tourists, 5% (3 replies) thinks of the abundancy of the hotels, transportation, unqualified customer and inefficiency of the advertisement and 1.7% (1 reply) believes that inadequate social activities are the biggest problems. CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION Almost all of the accommodation facilities in EATIPA were structured as coast tourism oriented. However, along with the changes in touristic preferences, sea – sand – sun oriented tourism alone becomes unable to respond to the demands. At this point, the potential of this area which is overshadowed by coast tourism needs to be uncovered, alternatives to the touristic demands should be provided and this alternative tourism types should be balanced with the area. According to the research results, 44.7% of the accommodation facilities in the area is open only in the season and 29.9% of it gives service actively from April to November – totally 8 months. Thus, both the facilities’ staff and the local people become unemployed all along the remaining months. This time is utilized for the maintenance and repair services. Nevertheless, when the season starts, 85.2% of the facilities have hard time in finding qualified staff. This indirectly leads to many problems. Tourism season includes not the whole year but only certain months for the area, with this it is apparent that implementation of alternative tourism types to the area is a need. According to the results of the research, 66.7% the executives of the facilities in the area expressed that they are positive about alternative tourism to be carried out in the closed months as long as the necessary structure is established. 55.6% positive feedback is received when the possible functionality of alternative tourism in the area is asked. In addition, it is stated that tourism types such as sport, culture, congress, health and nature may attract visitors’ attention. All of these show that the probable contribution of alternative tourism to the area is not denied, as a matter of fact, alternatives are suggested based on the area’s features. In parallel with these results, reconstructions should be put into practice within the frame of detections determined by experts to adjust the most suitable tourism to the area urgently. In reference to the results, 74.1% of the facilities do not utilize alternative tourism types in their marketing strategies. This is 66.7% because of inadequacy in the demands. The executives state that they produce strategies within the facilities’ borders and outdoor activities are organized by tour companies. This shows that facility executives cannot think of the long term advantages of alternative tourism, thus they avoid investments that seem risky and prefer to stick with the classic activities. Even if the path they follow meet the demands in the short term, it will lead to be a barren area in the long term. In this regard, the marketing strategies should involve not only facility but also the area, so that future tourism types can enliven. Another problem that emerges within the results is finding qualified staff which take the lead with 25%. The main reasons of this are the closure of the hotels in the winter and the staff being unemployed. Due to this irregularity, qualified staff starts to work in different sectors and when the season starts they do not desire to be a part of this encircle again. Thus, in order to fill the gap, facilities employ unqualified people for the season. Not having continuity in tourism, it is inevitable that qualified staff is employed by different sectors and this damages both the area and the tourism sector. This obstacle can be overcome through the extension of tourism to the whole year. Therefore, a crucial part of the investments on tourism should be reserved for training qualified staff. Both the insufficiency in the number and the insufficiency in the quality will result in the loss of not only the facilities and the image of the entire area.

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When the problems are listed in reference to the results, the items range as: the lack of qualified staff, deficiency of infrastructure, failing in extending tourism to the whole year and environmental pollution. With regards to the sustainability of tourism in this area, all of the problems need to be urgently resolved. EATIPA and its inner circle with their unique beauty are among the most essential tourism resorts in Antalya. However, it cannot be said that this is actively used in tourism; moreover, only quite little of this potential stand out in the marketing strategies of tourism sector. In accordance with the requests from the visitors, the sea – sand – sun triad is the focus. Yet, by considering the changing trends of tourists, a number of regulations are need to be performed. Many alternatives to mass and coast tourism is available in the area. The findings offer variety and may serve to the demands. Alternative tourism may be included into the marketing strategies that tour companies and accommodation facilities benefit from. Thus, both visitors’ response and interest will be measured and there will be an opportunity to introduce the resources other than the coast tourism. As a consequence of adaptation of the alternative tourism, the area will be saved from being dependent to coast tourism, neglected tourism types like golf, congress, sport, health, rafting, hunting, summer range and birdwatching will be revealed and also tourism will not be divided into seasons, it will be expanded to the entire year. REFERENCES Akova, I. (2000). Alternative Tourism Possibilities. Journal of Geography, vol 8: pp.71-84. Alparslan A.O. & Ortacesme V. (2009). An Evaluation of Side - Manavgat Coastal Land Uses With Respect To Coastal Planning And Management. Akdeniz University Journal of The Faculty of Agriculture, vol 22(2): pp. 169-178. Aydınozu, D. (2004). Tourism Potential of Side. Gazi University Journal of Gazi Educational Faculty, vol 24(1): pp. 81-97. Doganay, H. & Zaman S. (2013). Tourism Geography of Turkey. Pegem Akademi (Updated 4th Edition), Ankara. Ozturk, Y. & Yazicioglu, I. (2002). A Theoretical Study on Alternative Tourism Activities For Developing Contries. Gazi University Journal of Gazi Educational Faculty, vol. 2: pp.259-277. Sari, C. (2008). Alternative Tourism Resources of Antalya, Planning Approaches And Recommendations., Mehmet Akif Ersoy University Journal of Educational Faculty, vol. 8: pp. 12-45. Sari, C. (2014). A Study on A Tourism Geography: Last Ten Years of Tourism In Antalya. The Congress Book of The International Congress of The Turkish Association of Geographers 4-6 June 2014, pp.107- 116. Republic of Turkey Ministry of Culture and Tourism, http://www.kultur.gov.tr – 27.02.2016.

715 Chapter 63

Research on Slow City Movement within the Context of Sustainable Urban Planning: The Case of Vize, Kırklareli - Turkey

Rüya YILMAZ

INTRODUCTION The adoption of ‘sustainability’ principles and formation of habitable environment’ objectives declared at United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED) held in Rio in 1992 and Habitat-II (the Second United Nations Conference on Human Settlements)- City Summit in 1996 under the umbrella of the United Nations necessitates sustainable urban development today being based on ‘ecological basis’. In this regard, sustainable urban development aims to provide a better quality of life for existing and future generations, economic and community development as well as environmental protection. Besides, it also provides protection of natural, artificial and cultural environment holistically. The United Nations reported that an additional 2.5 billion people are predicted to live in urban areas by 2050, highlighting the need for a successful urban planning agenda and greater attention to be given to smaller cities where nearly half of all people currently reside. The UN 2014 revision of the World Urbanization Prospects report predicts that two-thirds of the world will live in cities by 2050, with 90% of growth taking place in the global South. The report underlined that Africa and Asia "will face numerous challenges in meeting the needs of their growing urban populations, including for housing, infrastructure, transportation, energy and employment, as well as for basic services such as education and healthcare." Therefore sustainable urban planning will become more important (UCLG, 2014). There is no accepted definition of a sustainable city, and as it happened with the concept of sustainable development, many interpretations exist of which characteristics a city should present to be considered sustainable, and many are the criteria and indicators developed to assess them. They often include aspects of urban planning and community development (Chiesura, 2004). Some cities have been developing their own sustainability indicators, to try and measure quality of life issues in a meaningful way. This has usually been done as a result of Local Agenda 21 consultations or in response to national government guidelines. Beside environmental criteria (water and energy saving, wasterecycling, transportation, etc.), quality of life issues are central to all the various definitions of a sustainable city (UNIP, 2013) (Dodman et al., 2013). The Sustainable Resource Use Topic Area addresses the challenges associated with the negative environmental impacts generated by the use of natural resources; the rising costs of essential raw materials and minerals, their scarcity and price volatility; and the EU’s resource dependency. The topic area works mainly as a think tank to support the development of new environmental policies, strategies and initiatives as well as the analysis and evaluation of existing ones at European, national and local level (Dodman et al., 2013). The beginning of the 20th century, modern society came to be defined by speed as the ultimate form of progress. We are now living in a globalized world, in which people and places are facing changes on an unprecedented scale, and at extraordinary rate. The imminent perspective of fossil fuel depletion demands for better ways of handling resources, while improving the quality of urban life. In order to meet this urgent need, more and more scientists and academics are turning their attention to methods through which the negative effects of globalization can be diminished. Recent trends in urban planning offers the hope that new, successful approach to the current problems in this field can be

Assoc. Prof. Dr., Namık Kemal University, Faculty of Fine Art, Design and ArchitectureDepartment of Landscape Architecture, 59030 Tekirdag, Turkey, [email protected], [email protected]

found. Derived from the Slow Food movement, the concept of slow living is one of the recent worldviews which is gaining a wide following, and is thought to be a solution against the fast pace of life. It addresses various aspects of life, from cooking, work, leisure, health and education to urban planning and art (Panait, 2013). It is strongly believed that developing more sustainable cities is not just about improving the abiotic and biotic aspects of urban life, it is also about the social aspects of city life, that is—among others—about people’s satisfaction, experiences and perceptions of the quality of their everyday environments (Chiesura, 2004). Sustainable development has been described as the intersection between social, environmental and economic goals (Allen, 2009). In this research, it was aimed to determine of best management Cittaslow developments by using SWOT analysis results of Vize Slow city in Turkey. Sustainable urbanization In order to make the urban environment more sustainable for future generations, UNESCO promotes “Education for Sustainable Urban Development” as a transversal theme in all sectors. UNESCO used the theme “Building Sustainable, Inclusive and Creative Cities” for the Shanghai World Expo 2010 “Better Cities, Better Life” as well as to celebrate the International Year for the Rapprochement of Cultures and the International Year of Biodiversity (UNESCO, 2016). The Challenge of Sustainable urbanization A city is a socio-political construct in a bio-physical landscape as illustrated in Fig.1. To develop “Smart City Policies / Regulations,” close consultation with the inhabitants, using simple common language (especially for indicators), is needed from the outset. Fig:1 emphasizes that sustainable urbanization is by definition multidisciplinary. It encompasses water, energy, food, transportation, land, biodiversity, chemicals, construction, and climate change (both adaptation and mitigation). As such, its solutions require more than merely the sum of the many pertinent disciplines, but rather the coalescence of these disciplines, with concomitant augmentation of impact. This distinction of interaction between single disciplines and a true integrated multidisciplinary approach is critical for success (GEF, 2016).

Figure 1: Sustainable urbanization is by definition multidisciplinary (GEF, 2016 figure reorganized) Acccording Carmin et al., Planning Principles of the 21st Century: 1) Sustainability: committing to an environmental ethic 2) Accessibility: facilitating ease of movement 3) Diversity: maintaining variety and choice 4) Open space: regenerating natural systems to make cities green 5) Compatibility: maintaining harmony and balance

717 6) Incentives: renewing declining cities / rebuilding brownfields 7) Adaptability: facilitating “wholeness” and positive change 8) Density: designing compact cities with appropriate transit 9) Identity: creating/preserving a unique and memorable sense of place (Carmin et al.,2013). In the Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development held in 2012, the green economy was one of the two overarching themes, with cities deemed to be one of the seven areas needing priority attention. UNEP has described a green economy as one that “results in improved human well-being and social equity, while significantly reducing environmental risks and ecological scarcities” (European Environment Agency, 2016). In fact, slow city structure has created a small model of the sustainable city. Cittaslow as a vehicle for sustainable development Cittaslow meaning Slow City and formed of the words Citta (City in Italian) and Slow (in English) is an international association, who does not want to become one of those homogeneous location created by globalization and who keeps its local identity and characteristics trying to take its place in the world stage (Cittaslow, 2014). CittaSlow is an international network of small towns that engages the idea of slowness in their urban design and planning. Cittaslow movement encourages societies to embrace a new, slow-paced way of life and provides incentives to food production using natural and environmentally-friendly techniques. It is both a social movement and a model for urban governance; it emphasizes local distinctiveness in the context of globalization and seeks to improve the quality of life locally (Panait, 2013). Since its establishment in 1999, the Cittaslow movement has spread to 208 cities in more than 30 countries all over the world (Cittaslow, 2014). The 208 Cittaslow towns are living examples of shared social responsibility through the projects realised in individual towns. These projects are there to be studied and can be implemented in other towns (Park and Kim, 2016). The concept of “slow living” is another recent movement which is gaining a wide following, and is thought to be a solution against the fast pace of life, which “is above all an attempt to live in the present in a meaningful, sustainable, thoughtful and pleasurable way”.6 By adhering to the slow movement, individuals can live in a fast-paced and hectic city environment, but still lead a slower and higher quality of life at the personal level.7 It can basically be applied in every aspect of our lives, from urban planning to art, travel, medicine, leisure, family life, mind and body and even sex.8 It derived from Slow Food, a current born in 1989, when Carlo Petrini started it in Bra, Italy, as a way of protecting local produce, traditional cuisine and the related cultural heritage (Panait, 2013). To be accredited as a Cittaslow, a town or city with fewer than 50,000 residents must fulfil a number of rigours criteria across the seven principal policy areas (e.g. environmental; infrastructure and transport; town and landscape; quality of everyday life; economy, industry and tourism; culture, heritage and social inclusion; and partnership) (Table 1.) (CITTASLOW, 2014) Table 1: Cittaslow Requirements for excellence (Cittaslow International Charter, 1999- 2014) 1. Energy And Environmental Policy 1.1 Verification of air, water and soil quality of the city 1.2 Plans for the promotion and dissemination of differentiated refuse collection 1.3 Dissemination of industrial and domestic composting 1.4 Existence of a purification plant for urban sewage 1.5 Minicipal plan for saving energy, with reference particularly to the use of alternative sources of energy 1.6 Ban the use of genetically modified seeds in agriculture 1.7 Regulation of advertisements and traffic signs 1.8 Control of electromagnetic pollution 1.9 Program for controlling and reducing noise pollution 1.10 Systems and programs for controlling light pollution 1.11 Adaptation of environmental management systems

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1.12.Conservation of biodiversity 2. Infrastructure Policies 2.1. Efficient cycle paths connected to public buildings 2.2. Length (in kms) of the urban cycle paths created over the total of kms of urban roads, Plans for safe mobility and traffic 2.3 Bicycle paths connecting schools and public buildings 2.4 Plans for alternative transportation including mass transit, pedestrian and bicycle 2.5 Accessibility of public places and those of public interest 2.6 Promotion of programs to facilitate family life and socialconnections, recreation and assistance for those in need 2.7 A center for medical assistance 2.8 Quality green areas and pedestrian accessibility 2.9 A plan for the distribution of locally produced merchandise and the creation of 'commercial centers for natural products 2.10 Agreement with the shopkeepers with regards to the reception and assistance to citizens in trouble, i.e. 'friendly shops' 2.11 Revitalization of the city including upgrading and redevelopment of urban areas 2.12 Aprogram for urban restyling and upgrading 2.13 Integration of a citizen information office with a Cittaslow information window 3. Quality of Urban Life Policies 3.1 Window for bio-architecture and programs for the training of personnel assigned to the information project for the promotion of bio-architecture 3.2 Equipping the city with cables for fiber optic and wireless systems 3.3 Adopting systems for monitoring electromagnetic fields 3.4 Providing refuse containers in keeping with the environment and the landscape and refuse removal according to established timetables 3.5 Planting environmentally suitable and autochthonous plants in public and private places 3.6 Providing services for the citizens, including dissemination of municipal services via the internet and plans for creating and educatingthe citizens in the use of an internet-based civic network 3.7 A plan for controlling noise in specifically noisy areas 3.8 A plan concerning colors 3.9 Promotion of telework 4. Safeguarding Autochthonous Production 4.1 Development of organic farming 4.2 Certification of the quality of artisan produced products and objects and artistic crafts 4.3 Programs for the safeguarding of artisan and/or artistic craft products in danger of extinction 4.4 Safeguarding traditional methods of work and professions at risk of extinction 4.5 Use of organic products and/or local products and the preservation of local traditions in restaurants, protected structures and school cafeterias 4.6 Programs for educating taste and nutrition in schools in collaboration with Slow Food 4.7 Favoring the activities of wine and gastronomic Slow Food presidia for species and preparations risking extinction 4.8 Census of the typical products of the territory and support of their commercialization (updating of markets for local products, creation of appropriate spaces) 4.9 Census of trees in the city and enhancing the value of large trees or 'historical trees' 4.10 Promoting and preserving local cultural events 4.11 Promoting 'urban'and school gardens for autochthonous cultures grown with traditional methods 5.Hospitality 5.1 Training cources for tourist information and quality hospitality 5.2 Using international signs on the tourist signs at the historical centers with guided tourist itineraries 5.3 Reception policies and plans to facilitate the approach of the visitors to the city and ecces to information and services (parking, extension/flexibility of opening hours of public office, etc.) with particular regards to scheduled events

719 5.4 Preparation of 'slow' itineraries of the city (brochures, websites, home pages, etc.) 5.5 Making the tourist operators and storekeepers aware of the need for a transparency of prices and the exhibition of rates outside the business establishments 6. Awareness 6.1 Provide the citizens with information on the aims and procedures of what a Slow City 6.2 Programs to involve the citizens in acquiring the 'slow' philosophy and the application of Slow City projects and in particular: educational gardens and parks, book facilities 6.3 Programs for the dissemination of the Slow City and Slow Food activities 7. Support To Slow Food Activities And Projects 7.1 Establishment of a local convivium Slow Food 7.2 Education programs for tastes and nutrition for the compulsory and secondary svhool in cooperation with Slow Food 7.3 Set-up of school vegetable gardens in cooperation with Slow Food 7.4 Implementation of one or more projects or Arca or Slow Food centres for species or products that are at risk of extinction 7.5 Use of local products safeguarded by Slow Food and maintenance of nutritional traditions in collective food services , school and canteens with annexed food education programs 7.6 Support of the typical local area products through implementation of the 'Mercalli della Terra' in cooperation with Slow Food 7.7 Support of the 'Terra Madre' project and food communities through joint twinning As of the end of September 2016, out of a total of 30 countries, the number of Cittaslow member cities was 208 in the world. The first Cittaslow member in Turkey was Seferihisar of İzmir in western Anatolia which describes itself as ‘The Cittaslow Capital of Turkey’. The cities in Turkey that have received Cittaslow membership are: one, Perşembe (Ordu; Central Black Sea Region); two, Taraklı (Sakarya; Marmara Region); three, Vize (Kırklareli; Marmara Region); four, Gökçeada (Çanakkale; Marmara Region); five, Seferihisar (İzmir, Aegegan Region); six, Yenipazar (Aydın; Agean Region); seven, Akyaka (Muğla; Aegean Region); eight, Yalvaç (Isparta; Western Mediterranean Region); nine, Halfeti (Urfa, Sout-East Anatolia Region); ten, Şavşat (Artvin; East Black Sea Region); eleven, Uzundere (Erzurum; East Anatolia Region) (Ekinci, 2014). MATERIALS AND METHODS Study Area Vize is a town and district of Kırklareli Province in the Marmara Region of Turkey (Fig:2). The city's population in center is: 12,543 and with villages a total population is 28,228 (TUIK, 2012). Vize is located between the west side of black sea and metropolitan places as İstanbul, Çorlu, Tekirdağ and Edirne in Thrace Region. The Region is situated in the north-west of Turkey and it is in Europe. Covering entire provinces like Edirne, Tekirdag and Kirklareli and some part of Istanbul and Canakkale, the Thrace region is under the effect of the requirements of Istanbul metropole. On the north the Istranca (Yildiz) mountain is situated and on the south - the Ganos and Koru mountains exist in the region. Placed on the Black Sea shores, the Istranca (Yildiz) mountain and the Igneada longos forest are very important ecosystems. Intense agriculture activities carried out in Thrace, continuously developing industry, the effect of the Istanbul metropolis bring out the necessity of protection of this ecosystem (Yılmaz et al., 2005). The location of Vize is significant because of being between two historical capital, İstanbul and Edirne, which are also unique in UNESCO world heritage. Vize is an undiscovered geography with 1.5 hours drive from Istanbul (138 km). As of June 2012, Vize had the title of Slow City, which is an international association of 'cittaslow network'- where the life is easy. Starting from Thracian period Vize is an important administrative and cultural center. Unique history, culture and nature of the town reflects, quiet, quaint and slow atmosphere, however in the past Vize had a great reputation. Town's history is based on the year 4000 BC. According to mythologicals sources first name of the town was Byzie (water source nymph) named after the town historical period as in today "Vize". Today Vize is a district in Kırklareli province which

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has rich historical heritage. The town's rich historical pattern is constituted from: Gazi Suleyman Pasha Mosque (Little Hagia Sophia), Vize castle and ramparts, Archaic theatre, Ferhat Bey Turkish Bath, Ferhat Bey Fountain, Şerbetdar Hasan Bey Mosque, Karakoçak Hill and Asmakayalar Cave Monastery. Natural values are: Çiftekaynaklar, Cehennem (Hell) Waterfall, Kıyıköy, Yenesu Cave (Cittaslow-

network, 2012). Kiyiköy Kastro coastal is also famous destations of Vize.

Figure 2: Study area Vize is famous with its deep historical, cultural, natural heritage. Linden trees and linden flower honey is the famous product of Vize. Vize has its own slow food culture from the mixture of different civilizations. Vize has adequate social, cultural and educational infrastructure. There are a Vocational High School with 641 students and other 8 High and Secondary Schools with 2817 students. The health care in the city is enough with 1 state hospital with 25 beds also there are 6 medical expert and medical practitioner. There is one library which includes 5451 books. The city also includes one Public Training Center which serves for vocational trainings such wood painting, sewing, computer, fork lift, English, heating installing, soap making, cookery for the youths and adult people living in Vize. It is no exaggeration to say that Vize is a cradle of civilizations and is a part of paradise with its history, culture and nature (CittaslowVize, 2015; Vize Municipality, 2016). History: Therefore the largest water way of history with 242 km between Vize and İstanbul was constructed in the late Roman Empire Age by starting from Vize. Vize was probably the capital city of Thrac Kingdom as it is supported with the evidences of Adrianos and Filip Coins and again it is probably the center of Thracs' Astai Clan. In the age of East Roman Empire (Byzantine) Age Vize had been living a very brilliant age as being İstanbul's Castle in Thrace. In the Age of Ottoman Empire it was the one of three Flags in Vize's history is examined under 4 different periods: Prehistoric and the Thracian Periods, Roman and Byzantine era, the period of the Ottoman Empire and the Republic Period. Documents that give information about the district trace back to the Thracians. Vize with its unique settlements on the hilltop is in a commanding position over the surrounding area. There are some more churches and monasteries mainly from the Byzantine era. The town also has some Ottoman structures, in addition to an ancient synagogue. Vize is prosperous to protect its unique structure, fresh air, water and soil even it is close to Turkey's most important industrial regions of Çorlu and Çerkezköy and the Metropolitan City of İstanbul. Therefore Vize is proper for Organic Agriculture and already native people living in Vize are consuming the organic products that they produce.

721 Local Foods: Goat Kebab, Tray patty Chicken broth soup with liver. Local Crops: Lime (Tilia sp.), Lime flower Honey, cheese and Hardaliye (grape molasses) (CittaslowVize, 2015; Vize Municipality, 2016). Method Research during this study was carried out using terms such as urban, sustainable planning and cittaslow interrelatedly through books, publications and information found was corroborated through resources found on the internet. In this research, SWOT analysis has been carried out to reveal the slow city potential regarding the survey area. SWOT analysis has been formed as a result of land observation and literature review. This study examined in slow city as a sustainable development model. Primarily sustainable urbanization and slow city is discussed briefly. SWOT Analysis is a method related to the analysis of the situation of the area in terms of external (Opportunities and Threats: OT) and internal (strengths, weaknesses: SW) factors. In this study, the slow city development of Vize town, which is placed on the northern part of Thrace Region, has been evaluated via SWOT and weighed Swot Analysis, according to sustainable planning principles (Onder & Polat, 2004; Yılmaz et al., 2013). It is important that a planning be done for the increase of opportunities and strengths determined according to the analysis results. On the other hand, this planning process aims to decrease the weaknesses and threats as well. The marking of the Swot Analysis of Vize has been calculated using the weighted marking method of Flavel and Williams (1996) (Yılmaz et al., 2013). Sub-issues under each main category have been weighted over 1.00 according to their importance. Besides, an average value has been given over 100 to sub-issues forming strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities considering the weighted of Vize. Likert-type scale is used for decided weighting. (1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neutral, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree) (Wikipedia, 2015). In the context of this study, the relation between citta slow and city sustainability is addressed. RESULTS Slow city can seen as a tool for conservation and sustainable development. So, how to maintain sustainable development for an Slow city site has become a critical issue. Sustainable development is often associated with sustainable agriculture, sustainable forestry, sustainable tourism and sustainable community developments. Slow city is a sustainable form of natural resource-based planning that focuses primarily on experiencing and learning about nature, and which is ethically managed to be low-impact, non- consumptive, and locally oriented (Yılmaz et al,. 2013). Nowadays rapid increase in population besides industrialisation process, various pollution types, agriculture, overpasturing, pollutions occurring from using chemicals in agriculture, excessive and senseless usage of resources and therefore decreasing species in flora and fauna are the most important factors damaging the balance in nature (Yucel, 1990). These factors, which damage the balance in nature, occur in the Thrace region as well as in various regions of Turkey. Therefore, all protected areas and forms of protection are more important in Thrace Region. Declared as slow city of Vize constitutes a chance for the Thrace. Vize, which is situated on the European part of Turkey, is one of the most interesting towns due to its location, natural, historical and cultural richness. Thrace is an important example because of its land use, demographic structure, and field usage, socio-economic and socio-political structure. Especially south-east, middle, east and west parts of Thrace suffer from unplanned development. The Black Sea shores on the north, the Yildiz Mountain with its forests are very important for the future of Thrace and must be protected with great care (Atalay & Efe, 2010; Yılmaz et. al., 2013)

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Swot Analysis for Slow City Development The analysis is based on findings we obtained as a result of our survey. As a result of SWOT analysis, we determine strong and weak aspects of slow city Vize which reveal potential opportunities and threats. The following sections summarise important strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats confronting the proposed development of slow city Vize (Table 2). Table 2: SWOT analysis Strengths Weaknesses (weak aspects) S1. Vize has got certificed of slow city W1. Swot city awareness not being improved sufficiently S2. Richness of natural and cultural resources W2. Inadequate planning

S3. Appropriate topographic structure for different W3. Inefficient shopping and entertainment kind of activities areas S4. Having high visitor potential of Istanbul W4. Inefficient orientation,promotion, metropolitan and Thrace advertisement and encouraging support S5. Local farmers got the opporturity to sell their W5. Limited access to the region food and handcrafts through public transportation S6. Findings of ancient and historical ruins around W6. Lack of ecotourism planning (Insufficient Vize introduction of ecotourism activities)

S7. Having of natural protection areas around Vize W7. Lack of qualified staff and technical equipment in tourism facilities S8. Having Kıyıköy for tourists who want W8. The summer season being short in the to benefit from Black Sea region and the impossibility of activities taking place in four seasons S9. Closest airport to slow city Vize being in Çorlu S 10. Kiyiköy and Kastro coastal are very famous places of Turkey Opportunities Threats O1. The high potential of T1. Intensive industrialization and urbanization ecotourism around Vize in Thrace O2. Geographical location and being T2. Lack of assurance of the balance close to Istanbul metropole between protection and usage in the area O3. Growing interest to natural and T3. Weakness of inspection in building cultural tourism and construction O4. The increase of interest to slow city T4. Pollutants of Thrace Region due to the high urban life conditional of the Thrace Region O5. The financial support of the European Union, T5. The visitors activities mostly being as the Trakya Development Agency etc. to alternative short time for people tourism projects O6. Providing possibilities visit to Citta slow T6.The natural environment being under threat activities throughout four seasons due to anthropogenic effects O7. Contribution of handicrafts to tourism T7. Inadequate protection of natural, historic entrepreneurial activity and cultural assets O8. Activating ecotourism through T8. The migration of the young population due supplying the agricultural products directly to inadequate job opportunities in the rural area to the consumer around Vize T9. Wastes management

723 Weighted Swot Analysis The marking of the Swot Analysis of Vize has been calculated using the weighted marking method of Flavel and Williams (1996) (Yılmaz et al., 2013). Sub-issues under each main category have been weighted over 1.00 according to their importance. Besides, an average value has been given over 100 to sub-issues forming strengths, weaknesses, threats and opportunities considering the weighted of Vize. A value has been calculated for each strength, weakness, threat and opportunity of the region through the multiplication of these values with the weight given according to their importance (Table 3). Table 3: Weighted Swot analysis diagram Average Weighting Total Percent % Strengths Natural and Cultural Resources 30,00 0,25 7,50 Vize has got certificed of slow city 40,00 0,60 24,0 Economical, Social and Infrastructure 30,00 39,0 4,50 Sub-Total 1.00 36.00 Weaknesses Problems related to Promation 28,57 0,30 8,57 Swot city awareness not being improved sufficiently 28,57 0,30 8,57 Problems related to Economical, Social and 42,85 0,40 17,14 Infrastructure Sub-Total 1.00 34.28 Opportunities Opportunities related toNatural and Cultural Resource 40,00 0.35 14,00 Opportunities related to being slow city and branding 40,00 0,55 22,00 Opportunities related to Economical, Social, 40,00 0,10 2,00 Infrastructure Sub-Total Threats Threats related to Natural and Cultural Resources 45,00 0,30 13,50 Economical and Social Threats 15,00 0,25 3,75 Threats related to Structuring and Infrastructure 40.00 0,45 18,00 Sub-Total 1.00 35.25 Swot Total Points 4.47 Stengths- Weaknesses (36.00-34.28) = 1.72 ; Opportunities – Threats (38.00- 35.25) = 2.75 DISCUSSION AND CONLUSIONS Vize district being introduced as Cittaslow, is its strongest aspect in terms of SWOT analysis. While branding is one of the most important opportunities, there are also threats such as excessive use of resources and becoming ordinary as a result of being introduced as cittaslow. Scoring of SWOT analysis was calculated as 4.47 using Flavel and Williams’s (1996) weighted SWOT scoring analysis. The score being high and also positive shows that it was a good planning. Under these circumstances, it is necessary to plan and carry out further projects in order to improve the strong aspects of Vize district being introduced as cittaslow, and to enhance opportunities within this context. As a result of SWOT analysis, we determine strong and weak aspects of slow city. Vize reveals potential opportunities and threats. According to findings it appears that the most powerful features of Vize has certificed of Slow city. Finally, the dimensions identified include preservation of cultural traditions, sustainable community development, conservation of natural resources and local participation in slow city of Vize planning and management. Primary action plan to implement the program Table 4 are given.

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Table 4 : Summary of primary action plan in Vize -Slow city development should contribute to the conservation of natural ecosystems. -Slow city development should encourage local communities to build the partnership. -Slow city should ensure economic benefits to local people -Slow city should ensure using traditional practices to local people -Slow city development should provide education programs for local communities to learn and raise their awareness of their cultural heritage -Slow city development should be operated in an environmentally and socially responsible manner so that negative environmental and socio-cultural impacts could be minimised -Slow city development should provide long-term environmental, socio-cultural, and economic benefits in the Vize town -The promotion of local attractions should be subject to residents endorsement -Slow city development should promote communication and interaction between all the interested groups including local residents, tourists, managers, government, tour operators, and scientists etc. -Slow city planning and managament should maximize local participation for decided future of Vize. - Rational planning should resolve conflicts between environment and development 240 United Nations, Declaration of the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment, Stockholm, 1972.

In the rapidly developing world, types of sustainable planning have changed especially due to increasing problems of residential areas and being unable to find solutions with classic planning methods. Cittaslow residential areas have emerged as a new planning concept within the scope of spending life slowly, and particularly enhancing the quality of life of people. This concept consists of planning the residential areas in the way of maintaining their existing features. In this study, slow city movement of Vize district in Kırklareli, Turkey was scrutinised in the context of urban development started in Italy and seen in many parts of the world. In our world, where natural resources are polluted and historical and cultural texture is deteriorating rapidly, maintaining the characteristics of particularly small towns, and bringing them into use for more people, as well as generating income for local people from existing natural and cultural resources provides a solution for sustainable life of these small residential areas. In this study, in order to determine the best planning method, cittaslow characteristics and Vize district were studied using weighted SWOT analysis. The hypothesis was developed claiming that ecological problems caused by increasing environmental problems can only be solved through holistic planning and slow cities could be thought as part of the solution. As a result, this hypothesis can turn out to be successful through a good planning under the influence of various factors, and a qualified team. REFERENCES Allen, A. (2009). Sustainable cities or sustainable urbanisation? https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sustainable-cities/ results/gcsc-reports/allen.pdf. Atalay, I. & Efe, R. (2010). Structural and distributional evaluation of forest ecosystems in Turkey, Journal of Environmental Biology, 31, 61-70 Carmin J, Dodman D, Chu E (2013). Urban Climate Adaptation and Leadership: from conceptual understanding to practical action, OECD, Paris. Chiesura, A. (2004). The Role of Urban Parks for the Sustainable City, Landscape and Urban Planning 68 (1), 129–138. Cittaslow, (2014). (http://cittaslow.org) Cittaslow International Charter, (1999). http://www.cittaslow.org /down load/Documenti Ufficiali/2009/ new charter%5B1%5D.pdf Cittaslow International Charter, (2014). http://www.cittaslow.org/ downl oad / Documenti Ufficiali/Charter _2014.pdf Cittaslownetwork, (2012) http://www.cittaslow.org/network/location/340. CittaslowVize, (2015). http://www.cittaslowvize.org/ Dodman D., McGranahan, G., Dalal-Clayton, B. (2013). Integrating the Environment in Urban Planning and Management Key Principles and Approaches for Cities in the 21st Century, United Nations Environment

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