Temple Landscapes Fragility, Change and Resilience of Holocene Environments in the Maltese Islands

McDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS

Temple landscapes Fragility, change and resilience of Holocene environments in the Maltese Islands

By Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Reuben Grima, Rowan McLaughlin, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone

Volume 1 of Fragility and Sustainability – Studies on Early Malta, the ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project Temple landscapes

McDONALD INSTITUTE MONOGRAPHS

Temple landscapes Fragility, change and resilience of Holocene environments in the Maltese Islands

By Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Reuben Grima, Rowan McLaughlin, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone

With contributions by Gianmarco Alberti, Jeremy Bennett, Maarten Blaauw, Petros Chatzimpaloglou, Lisa Coyle McClung, Alan J. Cresswell, Nathaniel Cutajar, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Rory P. Flood, Timothy C. Kinnaird, Steve McCarron, Rowan McLaughlin, John Meneely, Anthony Pace, Sean D.F. Pyne-O’Donnell, Paula J. Reimer, Alastair Ruffell, George A. Said-Zammit, David C.W. Sanderson, Patrick J. Schembri, Sean Taylor, David Trump†, Jonathan Turner, Nicholas C. Vella & Nathan Wright

Illustrations by Gianmarco Alberti, Jeremy Bennett, Sara Boyle, Petros Chatzimpaloglou, Lisa Coyle McClung, Rory P. Flood, Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Rowan McLaughlin, John Meneely, Anthony Pace, David Redhouse, Alastair Ruffell, George A. Said-Zammit & Simon Stoddart

Volume 1 of Fragility and Sustainability – Studies on Early Malta, the ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project This project has received funding from the European Research Council (ERC) under the European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme (FP7-2007-2013) (Grant agreement No. 323727).

Published by: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research University of Cambridge Downing Street Cambridge, UK CB2 3ER (0)(1223) 339327 [email protected] www.mcdonald.cam.ac.uk

McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2020

© 2020 McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research. Temple landscapes is made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial- NoDerivatives 4.0 (International) Licence: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/

ISBN: 978-1-902937-99-1

Cover design by Dora Kemp and Ben Plumridge. Typesetting and layout by Ben Plumridge.

On the cover: View towards Nadur lighthouse and Għajnsielem church with the Gozo Channel to Malta beyond, from In-Nuffara (Caroline Malone).

Edited for the Institute by James Barrett (Series Editor). Contents

Contributors xi Figures xiii Tables xvi Preface and dedication xix Acknowledgements xxi Foreword xxiii

Introduction Caroline Malone, Simon Stoddart, Chris O. Hunt, Charles French, 1 Rowan McLaughlin & Reuben Grima 0.1. Introduction 1 0.2. Background to FRAGSUS as an archaeological project 3 0.3. Environmental research in Malta and the Mediterranean 5 0.4. The development of the FRAGSUS Project and its questions 6 0.5. Archaeological concerns in Maltese prehistory and the FRAGSUS Project 8 0.6. The research programme: the sites and their selection 9 0.7. Investigating the palaeoenvironmental context 10 0.8. Archaeological investigations 11

Part I The interaction between the natural and cultural landscape – insights into the 17 fifth–second millennia bc

Chapter 1 The geology, soils and present-day environment of Gozo and Malta 19 Petros Chatzimpaloglou, Patrick J. Schembri, Charles French, Alastair Ruffell & Simon Stoddart 1.1. Previous work 19 1.2. Geography 19 1.3. Geology 21 1.4. Stratigraphy of the Maltese Islands 23 1.4.1. Lower Coralline Limestone Formation 23 1.4.2. Globigerina Limestone Formation 23 1.4.3. Chert outcrops 25 1.4.4. Blue Clay Formation 26 1.4.5. Greensand Formation 28 1.4.6. Upper Coralline Limestone Formation 28 1.4.7. Quaternary deposits 29 1.5. Structural and tectonic geology of the Maltese Islands 29 1.6. Geomorphology 29 1.7. Soils and landscape 31 1.8. Climate and vegetation 32

Chapter 2 Chronology and stratigraphy of the valley systems 35 Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Charles French, Rowan McLaughlin, Maarten Blaauw, Jeremy Bennett, Rory P. Flood, Sean D. F. Pyne-O’Donnell, Paula J. Reimer, Alastair Ruffell, Alan J. Cresswell, Timothy C. Kinnaird, David Sanderson, Sean Taylor, Caroline Malone, Simon Stoddart & Nicholas C. Vella 2.1. Methods for dating environmental and climate change in the Maltese Islands 35 Rowan McLaughlin, Maarten Blaauw, Rory P. Flood, Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Sean D.F. Pyne-O’Donnell, Alan J. Cresswell, David C.W. Sanderson, Timothy C. Kinnaird, Paula J. Reimer & Nicholas C. Vella 2.1.1. Data sources for chronology building 35 2.1.2. Pottery finds 41

v 2.2. Basin infill ground penetrating radar surveys 41 Alastair Ruffell, Chris O. Hunt, Jeremy Bennett, Rory P. Flood, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone 2.2.1. Rationale 41 2.2.2. Geophysics for basin fill identification 41 2.2.3. Valley locations 43 2.3. The sediment cores 43 Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Rory P. Flood, Katrin Fenech, Rowan McLaughlin, Nicholas C. Vella, Sean Taylor & Charles French 2.3.1. Aims and methods 43 2.3.2. The core descriptions 49 2.3.3. Magnetic susceptibility and XRF analyses of the cores 59 2.4. Age-depth models 64 Maarten Blauuw & Rowan McLaughlin 2.4.1. Accumulation rates 64 2.5. A local marine reservoir offset for Malta 65 Paula J. Reimer 2.6. Major soil erosion phases 65 Rory P. Flood, Rowan McLaughlin & Michelle Farrell 2.6.1. Introduction 65 2.6.2. Methods 66 2.6.3. Results 67 2.6.4. Discussion 68 2.6.5. Conclusions 71

Chapter 3 The Holocene vegetation history of the Maltese Islands 73 Michelle Farrell, Chris O. Hunt & Lisa Coyle McClung 3.1. Introduction 73 Chris O. Hunt 3.2. Palynological methods 74 Lisa Coyle-McClung, Michelle Farrell & Chris O. Hunt 3.3. Taxonomy and ecological classification 75 Chris O. Hunt 3.4. Taphonomy 75 Chris O. Hunt & Michelle Farrell 3.5. The pollen results 87 Michelle Farrell, Lisa Coyle-McClung & Chris O. Hunt 3.5.1. The Salina cores 87 3.5.2. Wied Żembaq 87 3.5.3. Xemxija 87 3.5.4. In-Nuffara 87 3.5.5. Santa Verna 95 3.5.6. Ġgantija 105 3.6. Synthesis 107 3.6.1. Pre-agricultural landscapes (pre-5900 cal. bc) 107 3.6.2. First agricultural colonization (5900–5400 cal. bc) 108 3.6.3. Early Neolithic (5400–3900 cal. bc) 109 3.6.4. The later Neolithic Temple period (3900–2350 cal. bc) 110 3.6.5. The late Neolithic–Early Bronze Age transition (2350–2000 cal. bc) 111 3.6.6. The Bronze Age (2000–1000 cal. bc) 112 3.6.7. Late Bronze Age, Punic and Classical periods (c. 1000 cal. bc to ad 1000) 112 3.6.8. Medieval to modern (post-ad 1000) 113 3.7. Conclusions 113

vi Chapter 4 Molluscan remains from the valley cores 115 Katrin Fenech, Chris O. Hunt, Nicholas C. Vella & Patrick J. Schembri 4.1. Introduction 115 4.2. Material 117 4.3. Methods 117 4.4. Radiocarbon dates and Bayesian age-depth models 117 4.5. Results 117 4.5.1. Marsaxlokk (MX1) 127 4.5.2. Wied Żembaq (WŻ) 127 4.5.3. Mġarr ix-Xini (MĠX) 128 4.5.4. Marsa 2 128 4.5.5. Salina Deep Core 133 4.5.6. Xemxija 1 and 2 152 4.6. Interpretative discussion 153 4.6.1. Erosion – evidence of major events from the cores 153 4.7. Environmental reconstruction based on non-marine molluscs 155 4.7.1. Early Holocene (c. 8000–6000 cal. bc) 155 4.7.2. Mid-Holocene (c. 6000–3900 cal. bc) 155 4.7.3. Temple Period (c. 3900–2400 cal. bc) 155 4.7.4. Early to later Bronze Age (2400–c. 750 cal. bc) 155 4.7.5. Latest Bronze Age/early Phoenician period to Late Roman/Byzantine 156 period (c. 750 cal. bc–cal. ad 650) 4.8. Concluding remarks 156 4.9. Notes on selected species 157 4.9.1. Extinct species 157 4.9.2. Species with no previous fossil record 158 4.9.3. Other indicator species 158

Chapter 5 The geoarchaeology of past landscape sequences on Gozo and Malta 161 Charles French & Sean Taylor 5.1. Introduction 161 5.2. Methodology and sample locations 164 5.3. Results 165 5.3.1. Santa Verna and its environs 165 5.3.2. Ġgantija temple and its environs 174 5.3.3. Skorba and its immediate environs 183 5.3.4. Taċ-Ċawla settlement site 188 5.3.5. Xagħra town 190 5.3.6. Ta’ Marżiena 192 5.3.7. In-Nuffara 192 5.3.8. The Ramla valley 193 5.3.9. The Marsalforn valley 195 5.3.10. Micromorphological analyses of possible soil materials in the Xemxija 1, 196 Wied Żembaq 1, Marsaxlokk and Salina Deep (SDC) cores 5.4. The Holocene landscapes of Gozo and Malta 213 5.5. A model of landscape development 217 5.6. Conclusions 221

Chapter 6 Cultural landscapes in the changing environments from 6000 to 2000 bc 223 Reuben Grima, Simon Stoddart, Chris O. Hunt, Charles French, Rowan McLaughlin & Caroline Malone 6.1. Introduction 223 6.2. A short history of survey of a fragmented island landscape 223 6.3. Fragmented landscapes 225 vii 6.4. The Neolithic appropriation of the landscape 227 6.5. A world in flux (5800–4800 cal. bc) 227 6.6. The fifth millennium bc hiatus (4980/4690 to 4150/3640 cal. bc) 228 6.7. Reappropriating the landscape: the ‘Temple Culture’ 230 6.8. Transition and decline 236 6.9. Conclusion 237

Part II The interaction between the natural and cultural landscape – insights from 239 the second millennium bc to the present: continuing the story

Chapter 7 Cultural landscapes from 2000 bc onwards 241 Simon Stoddart, Anthony Pace, Nathaniel Cutajar, Nicholas C. Vella, Rowan McLaughlin, Caroline Malone, John Meneely & David Trump† 7.1. An historiographical introduction to the Neolithic–Bronze Age transition 241 into the Middle Bronze Age 7.2. Bronze Age settlements in the landscape 243 7.3. The Bronze Age Phoenician transition and the Phoenician/Punic landscape 246 7.4. Entering the Roman world 250 7.5. Arab 250 7.6. Medieval 251 7.7. The Knights and the entry into the modern period 251

Chapter 8 The intensification of the agricultural landscape of the MalteseArchipelago 253 Jeremy Bennett 8.1. Introduction 253 8.2. The Annales School and the Anthropocene 254 8.3. The Maltese Archipelago and the longue durée of the Anthropocene 255 8.4. Intensification 257 8.5. Population 258 8.5.1. Sub-carrying capacity periods 258 8.5.2. Post-carrying capacity periods 260 8.6. The agrarian archipelago 262 8.6.1. The agricultural substrate 262 8.6.2. The development of agricultural technology 262 8.7. Discussion: balancing fragility and sustainability 264

Chapter 9 Locating potential pastoral foraging routes in Malta through the use of a 267 Geographic Information System Gianmarco Alberti, Reuben Grima & Nicholas C. Vella 9.1. Introduction 267 9.2. Methods 267 9.2.1. Data sources 267 9.2.2. Foraging routes and least-cost paths calculation 268 9.3. Results 271 9.3.1. Garrigue to garrigue least-cost paths 271 9.3.2. Stables to garrigues least-cost paths 273 9.4. Discussion 276 9.4. Conclusions 283

Chapter 10 Settlement evolution in Malta from the Late Middle Ages to the early twentieth 285 century and its impact on domestic space George A. Said-Zammit 10.1. The Medieval Period (ad 870–1530) 285 10.1.1. Medieval houses 288 viii 10.1.2. Giren and hovels 289 10.1.3. Cave-dwellings 292 10.1.4. Architectural development 292 10.2. The Knights’ Period (ad 1530–1798) 293 10.2.1. The phase ad 1530–1565 293 10.2.2. The phase ad 1565–1798 293 10.2.3. Early modern houses 294 10.2.4. Lower class dwellings 297 10.2.5. Cave-dwellings and hovels 298 10.2.6. The houses: a reflection of social and economic change 298 10.3. The British Period (ad 1800–1900) 298 10.3.1. The houses of the British Period 299 10.3.2. The effect of the Victorian Age 300 10.3.3. Urban lower class dwellings 301 10.3.4. Peasant houses, cave-dwellings and hovels 301 10.4. Conclusions 302

Chapter 11 Conclusions 303 Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Michelle Farrell, Katrin Fenech, Rowan McLaughlin, Reuben Grima, Nicholas C. Vella, Patrick J. Schembri, Simon Stoddart & Caroline Malone 11.1. The palynological record 303 Chris O. Hunt & Michelle Farrell 11.1.1. Climate 303 11.1.2. Farming and anthropogenic impacts on vegetation 307 11.2. The molluscan record 308 Katrin Fenech, Chris O. Hunt, Nicholas C. Vella & Patrick J. Schembri 11.3. The soil/sediment record 310 Charles French 11.4. Discontinuities in Maltese prehistory and the influence of climate 313 Chris O. Hunt 11.5. Environmental metastability and the longue durée 314 Chris O. Hunt 11.6. Implications for the human story of the Maltese Islands 316 Charles French, Chris O. Hunt, Caroline Malone, Katrin Fenech, Michelle Farrell, Rowan McLaughlin, Reuben Grima, Patrick J. Schembri & Simon Stoddart

References 325

Appendix 1 How ground penetrating radar (GPR) works 351 Alastair Ruffell

Appendix 2 Luminescence analysis and dating of sediments from archaeological sites 353 and valley fill sequences Alan J. Cresswell, David C.W. Sanderson, Timothy C. Kinnaird & Charles French A2.1. Summary 353 A2.2. Introduction 354 A2.3. Methods 355 A2.3.1. Sampling and field screening measurements 355 A2.3.2. Laboratory calibrated screening measurements 355 A2.4. Quartz OSL SAR measurements 356 A2.4.1. Sample preparation 356 A2.4.2. Measurements and determinations 356 ix A2.5. Results 357 A2.5.1. Sampling and preliminary luminescence stratigraphies 357 A2.5.2. Gozo 357 A2.5.3. Skorba 363 A2.5.4. Tal-Istabal, Qormi 363 A2.6. Laboratory calibrated screening measurements 363 A2.6.1. Dose rates 367 A2.6.2. Quartz single aliquot equivalent dose determinations 367 A2.6.3. Age determinations 371 A2.7. Discussion 372 A2.7.1. Ġgantija Temple (SUTL2914 and 2915) 372 A2.7.2. Ramla and Marsalforn Valleys (SUTL2917–2923) 373 A2.7.3. Skorba Neolithic site (SUTL2925–2927)s 373 A2.7.4. Tal-Istabal, Qormi (SUTL2930) 376 A2.7. Conclusions 376

Appendix 2 – Supplements A–D 379

Appendix 3 Deep core borehole logs 401 Chris O. Hunt, Katrin Fenech, Michelle Farrell & Rowan McLaughlin

Appendix 4 Granulometry of the deep cores 421 (online edition only) Katrin Fenech

Appendix 5 The molluscan counts for the deep cores 441 (online edition only) Katrin Fenech

Appendix 6 The borehole and test excavation profile log descriptions 535 Charles French & Sean Taylor

Appendix 7 The detailed soil micromorphological descriptions from the buried soils and 549 Ramla and Marsalforn valleys Charles French A7.1. Santa Verna 549 A7.2. Ġgantija Test Pit 1 551 A7.3. Ġgantija WC Trench 1 552 A7.4. Ġgantija olive grove and environs 553 A7.5. Skorba 553 A7.6. Xagħra town 554 A7.7. Taċ-Ċawla 555 A7.8. In-Nuffara 555 A7.9. Marsalforn Valley Profile 626 556 A7.10. Ramla Valley Profile 627 556 A7.11. Dwerja 556

Appendix 8 The micromorphological descriptions for the Malta deep cores of Xemxija 1, 557 Wied Żembaq 1, Marsaxlokk and the base of the Salina Deep Core (21B) Charles French & Sean Taylor

Appendix 9 The charcoal data 563 Nathan Wright

Index 565

x Contributors

Dr Gianmarco Alberti Dr Rory P. Flood Department of Criminology, Faculty for Social School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Wellbeing, University of Malta, Msida, Malta University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Email: [email protected] Ireland Email: [email protected] Jeremy Bennett Department of Archaeology, University of Prof. Charles French Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Department of Archaeology, University of Email: [email protected] Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Dr Maarten Blaauw School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Dr Reuben Grima University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Department of Conservation and Built Heritage, Ireland University of Malta, Msida, Malta Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr Petros Chatzimpaloglou Dr Evan A. Hill Department of Archaeology, University of School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Cambridge, Cambridge, UK University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Email: [email protected] Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Lisa Coyle McClung School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Prof. Chris O. Hunt University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores Ireland University, Liverpool, UK Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr Alan J. Cresswell Dr Timothy C. Kinnaird SUERC, University of Glasgow, East Kilbride, School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland University of St Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Nathaniel Cutajar Prof. Caroline Malone Deputy Superintendent of Cultural Heritage, School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Heritage Malta, Valletta, Malta University, University Road, Belfast, BT7 1NN, Email: [email protected] Northern Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Michelle Farrell Centre for Agroecology, Water and Resilience, Dr Steve McCarron School of Energy, Construction and Environment, Department of Geography, National University of Coventry University, Coventry, UK Ireland, Maynooth, Ireland Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr Katrin Fenech Dr Rowan McLaughlin Department of Classics & Archaeology, University School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s of Malta, Msida, Malta University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Email: [email protected] Ireland Email: [email protected]

xi John Meneely Prof. Patrick J. Schembri School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Department of Biology, University of Malta, University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Msida, Malta Ireland Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Dr Simon Stoddart Dr Anthony Pace Department of Archaeology, University of UNESCO Cultural Heritage, Valletta, Malta Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr Sean D.F. Pyne-O’Donnell Dr Sean Taylor Earth Observatory of Singapore, Nanyang Department of Archaeology, University of Technological University, Singapore Cambridge, Cambridge, UK Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Prof. Paula J. Reimer Dr David Trump† School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Dr Jonathan Turner Ireland Department of Geography, National University Email: [email protected] of Ireland, University College, Dublin, Ireland Email: [email protected] Dr Alastair Ruffell School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s Prof. Nicholas C. Vella University, University Road, Belfast, Northern Department of Classics and Archaeology, Faculty Ireland of Arts, University of Malta, Msida, Malta Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

George A. Said-Zammit Dr Nathan Wright Department of Examinations, Ministry for School of Social Science, The University of Education and Employment, Government of Malta, Queensland, Brisbane, Australia Malta Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Prof. David C.W. Sanderson SUERC, University of Glasgow, East Kilbride, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, Scotland Email: [email protected]

xii Figures

0.1 Location map of the Maltese Islands in the southern Mediterranean Sea. 2 0.2 Location of the main Neolithic archaeological and deep coring sites investigated on Malta and Gozo. 11 0.3 Some views of previous excavations on Malta and Gozo. 12–13 0.4 Some views of recent excavations. 14 1.1 The location of the Maltese Islands in the southern Mediterranean Sea with respect to Sicily and North Africa. 20 1.2 Stratigraphic column of the geological formations reported for the Maltese Islands. 22 1.3 Geological map of the Maltese Islands. 22 1.4 Typical coastal outcrops of Lower Coralline Limestone, forming sheer cliffs. 23 1.5 Characteristic geomorphological features developed on the Lower Coralline Limestone in western Gozo (Dwerja Point). 24 1.6 The Middle Globigerina Limestone at the Xwejni coastline. 24 1.7 An overview of the area investigated in western Malta. 25 1.8 The end of the major fault system of Malta (Victorian Lines) at Fomm Ir-Riħ. 26 1.9 An overview of the western part of Gozo where the chert outcrops are located. 27 1.10 Chert outcrops: a) and c) bedded chert, and b) and d) nodular chert. 27 1.11 Four characteristic exposures of the Blue Clay formation on Gozo and Malta. 28 1.12 Map of the fault systems, arranged often as northwest–southeast oriented graben, and strike-slip structures. 30 2.1 Summary of new radiocarbon dating of Neolithic and Bronze Age sites on Gozo and Malta. 36 2.2 Summed radiocarbon ages for the main sediment cores. 36 2.3 The location of the Birżebbuġa Għar Dalam and Borġ in-Nadur basins and their GNSS-located GPR lines. 42 2.4 The core locations in Malta and Gozo. 44 2.5 Radiocarbon activity in settlement cores. 48 2.6 The Xemxija 2 core by depth. 51 2.7 The Wied Żembaq 1 and 2 cores by depth. 52 2.8 The Mġarr ix-Xini core by depth. 54 2.9 The Marsaxlokk 1 core and part of 2 by depth. 55 2.10 The resistivity and magnetic susceptibility graphs for Xemxija 1 core. 60 2.11 The resistivity and magnetic susceptibility graphs for Xemxija 2 core. 60 2.12 The multi-element data plots for Xemxija 1 core. 61 2.13 The multi-element data plots for Wied Żembaq 1 core. 62 2.14 The multi-element data plots for Marsaxlokk 1 core. 63 2.15 RUSLE models of soil erosion for the Maltese Islands in September and March. 69 2.16 R and C factors and their product. 70 3.1 Valley catchments and core locations in the Mistra area of Malta. 79 3.2 The modern pollen spectra. 81 3.3 Pollen zonation for the Salina Deep Core. 82–3 3.4 Pollen zonation for the Salina 4 core. 88–9 3.5 Pollen zonation for the Wied Żembaq 1 core. 92–3 3.6 Pollen zonation for the Xemxija 1 core. 96–7 3.7 Pollen zonation for the pit fills at In-Nuffara. 101 3.8 Pollen and palynofacies from the buried soils below the temple at Santa Verna. 102 3.9 Pollen and palynofacies from Test Pit 1 on the southwestern edge of the Ġgantija platform. 104 3.10 Photomicrographs (x800) of key components of the palynofacies at Santa Verna and Ġgantija. 106 4.1 Marsaxlokk 1 molluscan histogram. 120 4.2 Wied Żembaq 1 molluscan histogram. 122 4.3 Mġarr ix-Xini molluscan histogram. 129 4.4 Marsa 2 molluscan histogram. 134 4.5 Salina Deep Core molluscan histogram. 138 4.6 Marine molluscan histogram for the Salina Deep Core. 139 xiii 4.7 Xemxija 1 molluscan histogram. 144 4.8 Base of Xemxija 2 molluscan histogram. 145 5.1 Location map of the test excavation/sample sites and geoarchaeological survey areas on Gozo and Malta. 164 5.2 Plan of Santa Verna temple and the locations of the test trenches. 166 5.3 Santa Verna excavation trench profiles all with sample locations marked. 167 5.4 The red-brown buried soil profiles in Trench E, the Ashby and Trump Sondages within the Santa Verna temple site. 170 5.5 Santa Verna soil photomicrographs. 172–3 5.6 Plan of Ġgantija temple and locations of Test Pit 1 and the WC Trench excavations, with as-dug views of the WC Trench and TP1. 175 5.7 Section profiles of Ġgantija Test Pit 1 on the southwest side of Ġgantija temple and the east-west section of the Ġgantija WC Trench on the southeast side. 176 5.8 Ġgantija TP 1 photomicrographs. 178 5.9 Ġgantija WC Trench 1 photomicrographs. 180 5.10 Section profiles of Trench A at Skorba showing the locations of the micromorphological and OSL samples. 183 5.11 Skorba Trench A, section 1, photomicrographs. 185 5.12 Skorba Trench A, section 2, photomicrographs. 186 5.13 Taċ-Ċawla soil photomicrographs. 189 5.14 A typical terra rossa soil sequence in Xagħra town at construction site 2. 191 5.15 Xagħra soil photomicrographs. 191 5.16 In-Nuffara photomicrographs. 193 5.17 The Marsalforn (Pr 626) and Ramla (Pr 627) valley fill sequences, with the micromorphology samples and OSL profiling/dating loci marked. 194 5.18 Ramla and Marsalforn valley profiles soil photomicrographs. 195 5.19 Photomicrographs of the Blue Clay and Greensand geological substrates from the Ramla valley. 199 5.20 Xemxija 1 deep valley core photomicrographs. 202 5.21 Wied Żembaq 1 deep valley core photomicrographs. 206 5.22 Marsaxlokk and Salina Deep Core photomicrographs. 210 5.23 Scrub woodland on an abandoned terrace system and garrigue plateau land on the north coast of Gozo. 213 5.24 Terracing within land parcels (defined by modern sinuous lanes) on the Blue Clay slopes of the Ramla valley with Xagħra in the background. 216 6.1 The location of the Cambridge Gozo Project survey areas. 224 6.2 Fieldwalking survey data from around A. Ta Kuljat, B. Santa Verna, and C. Għajnsielem on Gozo from the Cambridge Gozo survey and the FRAGSUS Project. 227 6.3 The first cycle of Neolithic occupation as recorded by the Cambridge Gozo survey using kernel density analysis for the Għar Dalam, Red Skorba and Grey Skorba phases. 229 6.4 The first half of the second cycle of Neolithic occupation as recorded by the Cambridge Gozo survey using kernel density analysis implemented for the Żebbuġ and Mġarr phases. 232 6.5 The second half of the second cycle of Neolithic occupation as recorded by the Cambridge Gozo survey using kernel density analysis for the Ġgantija and Tarxien phases. 233 7.1 Kernel density analysis of the Tarxien Cemetery, Borġ in-Nadur and Baħrija periods for the areas covered by the Cambridge Gozo survey. 244 7.2a The evidence for Bronze Age settlement in the Mdina area on Malta. 245 7.2b The evidence for Bronze Age settlement in the Rabat (Gozo) area. 245 7.3 Distribution of Early Bronze Age dolmen on the Maltese Islands. 246 7.4 Distribution of presses discovered in the Mġarr ix-Xini valley during the survey. 248 7.5 The cultural heritage record of the Punic tower in Żurrieq through the centuries. 249 7.6 The changing patterns of social resilience, connectivity and population over the course of the centuries in the Maltese Islands. 252 8.1 An oblique aerial image of the northern slopes of the Magħtab land-fill site, depicting landscaping efforts including ‘artificial’ terracing. 256 8.2 RUSLE estimates of areas of low and moderate erosion for Gozo and Malta. 259 9.1 a) Sheep being led to their fold in Pwales down a track; b) Sheep grazing along a track on the Bajda Ridge in Xemxija, Malta. 269 xiv 9.2 Least-cost paths (LCPs), connecting garrigue areas, representing potential foraging routes across the Maltese landscape. 271 9.3 Density of LCPs connecting garrigue areas to random points within the garrigue areas themselves. 272 9.4 Location of ‘public spaces’, with size proportional to the distance to the nearest garrigue-to-garrigue LCP. 273 9.5 LCPs connecting farmhouses hosting animal pens to randomly generated points within garrigue areas in northwestern (A) and northeastern (B) Malta. 274 9.6 As for Figure 9.5, but representing west-central and east-central Malta. 274 9.7 As for Figure 9.5, but representing southern and southwestern Malta. 275 9.8 Location of ‘public spaces’, with size proportional to the distance to the nearest outbound journey. 276 9.9 a) Public space at Tal-Wei, between the modern town of Mosta and Naxxar; b) Tal-Wei public space as represented in 1940s survey sheets. 277 9.10 Approximate location of the (mostly disappeared) raħal toponyms. 279 9.11 Isochrones around farmhouse 4 representing the space that can be covered at 1-hour intervals considering animal walking speed. 280 9.12 Isochrones around farmhouse 2 representing the space that can be covered at 1-hour intervals considering animal walking speed (grazing while walking). 281 9.13 a) Isochrones around farmhouse 5 representing the space that can be covered at 1-hour intervals; b) Isochrones around farmhouse 6; c) Isochrones around farmhouse 7. 282 10.1 The likely distribution of built-up and cave-dwellings in the second half of the fourteenth century. 286 10.2 The lower frequency of settlement distribution by c. ad 1420. 286 10.3 The distribution of settlements just before ad 1530. 288 10.4 The late medieval Falson Palace in Mdina. 289 10.5 A girna integral with and surrounded by stone dry walling. 290 10.6 A hovel dwelling with a flight of rock-cut steps. 291 10.7 The hierarchical organisation of settlements continued, with the addition of Valletta, Floriana and the new towns around Birgu. 295 10.8 An example of a seventeenth century townhouse with open and closed timber balconies. 296 10.9 An example of a two-storey razzett belonging to a wealthier peasant family. 297 10.10 The distribution of built-up settlements in about ad 1900. 299 10.11 An example of a Neo-Classical house. 301 11.1 Summary of tree and shrub pollen frequencies at 10 sample sites. 304 11.2 Summary of cereal pollen frequencies at 14 sample sites. 305 11.3 Schematic profiles of possible trajectories of soil development in the major geological zones of Malta and Gozo. 311 11.4 The main elements of a new cultural-environmental story of the Maltese Islands throughout the last 10,000 years. 317 A2.1 Marsalforn valley, Gozo. 360 A2.2 Marsalforn valley, Gozo. 361 A2.3 Ramla valley, Gozo. 361 A2.4 Ġgantija Test Pit 1, Gozo. 361 A2.5 Skorba Neolithic site; trench A, East section; trench A, South section. 362 A2.6 Skorba, Trench A, South section. 362 A2.7 Tal-Istabal, Qormi, Malta. 364 A2.8 Tal-Istabal, Qormi, Malta. 364 A2.9 Photograph, showing locations of profile sample and OSL tubes, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 1. 365 A2.10 Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 3. 365 A2.11 Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 2. 366 A2.12 Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profiles 4 and 6. 366 A2.13 Photograph, and luminescence-depth profile, for the sediment stratigraphy sampled in profile 5. 367 A2.14 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2916 (P1). 370 A2.15 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2920 (P2). 370 A2.16 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2913 (P3). 370 A2.17 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2924 (P4). 370 xv A2.18 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2929 (P5). 371 A2.19 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2928 (P6). 371 A2.20 Apparent dose and sensitivity for laboratory OSL and IRSL profile measurements for SUTL2931 (P7). 371 A2.21 Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2914 and 2915. 374 A2.22 Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2917–2919. 374 A2.23 Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2921–2923. 375 A2.24 Probability Distribution Functions for the stored dose on samples SUTL2925–2927. 375 A2.25 Probability Distribution Function for the stored dose on sample SUTL2930. 376 SB.1 Dose response curves for SUTL2914. 385 SB.2 Dose response curves for SUTL2915. 385 SB.3 Dose response curves for SUTL2917. 386 SB.4 Dose response curves for SUTL2918. 386 SB.5 Dose response curves for SUTL2919. 387 SB.6 Dose response curves for SUTL2921. 387 SB.7 Dose response curves for SUTL2922. 388 SB.8 Dose response curves for SUTL2923. 388 SB.9 Dose response curves for SUTL2925. 389 SB.10 Dose response curves for SUTL2926. 389 SB.11 Dose response curves for SUTL2927. 390 SB.12 Dose response curves for SUTL2930. 390 SC.1 Abanico plot for SUTL2914. 391 SC.2 Abanico plot for SUTL2915. 391 SC.3 Abanico plot for SUTL2917. 392 SC.4 Abanico plot for SUTL2918. 392 SC.5 Abanico plot for SUTL2919. 392 SC.6 Abanico plot for SUTL2921. 393 SC.7 Abanico plot for SUTL2922. 393 SC.8 Abanico plot for SUTL2923. 393 SC.9 Abanico plot for SUTL2925. 394 SC.10 Abanico plot for SUTL2926. 394 SC.11 Abanico plot for SUTL2927. 394 SC.12 Abanico plot for SUTL2930. 395 SD.1 Apparent ages for profile 1, with OSL ages. 397 SD.2 Apparent ages for profile 2, with OSL ages. 397 SD.3 Apparent ages for profile 3, with OSL ages. 398 SD.4 Apparent ages for profiles 4 and 6, with OSL ages. 398 SD.5 Apparent ages for profile 5, with OSL ages. 399 SD.6 Apparent ages for profile 7. 399

Tables

1.1 Description of the geological formations found on the Maltese Islands. 21 2.1 The cultural sequence of the Maltese Islands (with all dates calibrated). 37 2.2 Quartz OSL sediment ages from the Marsalforn (2917–2919) and Ramla (2921–2923) valleys, the Skorba temple/buried soil (2925–2927) and Tal-Istabal, Qormi, soil (2930). 40 2.3 Dating results for positions in the sediment cores. 45 2.4 Summary stratigraphic descriptions of the sequences in the deep core profiles. 57 2.5 Mean sediment accumulation rates per area versus time for the deep cores. 64 2.6 Radiocarbon measurements and ΔR values from early twentieth century marine shells from Malta. 65 2.7 Calibrated AMS 14C dates of charred plant remains from Santa Verna palaeosol, Gozo. 68 2.8 Physical properties of the catchments. 68 2.9 Normalized Diffuse Vegetation Index (NDVI) for the catchments in 2014–15 and average rainfall data for the weather station at Balzan for the period 1985 to 2012. 69 3.1 Semi-natural plant communities in the Maltese Islands. 76 xvi 3.2 Attribution of pollen taxa to plant communities in the Maltese Islands and more widely in the Central Mediterranean. 77 3.3 Characteristics of the taphonomic samples from on-shore and off-shore Mistra Valley, Malta. 80 3.4 The pollen zonation of the Salina Deep Core with modelled age-depths. 84 3.5 The pollen zonation of the Salina 4 core with modelled age-depths. 90 3.6 The pollen zonation of the Wied Żembaq 1 core with modelled age-depths. 94 3.7 The pollen zonation of the Xemxija 1 core with modelled age-depths. 98 3.8 The pollen zonation of the fill of a Bronze Age silo at In-Nuffara, Gozo. 103 3.9 Summary of the pollen analyses of the buried soil below the Santa Verna temple structure. 103 3.10 Summary of the pollen analyses from the buried soil in Ġgantija Test Pit 1. 105 3.11 Activity on Temple sites and high cereal pollen in adjacent cores. 105 4.1 List of freshwater molluscs and land snails found in the cores, habitat requirement, palaeontological record and current status and conservation in the Maltese Islands. 118 4.2 Molluscan zones for the Marsaxlokk 1 core (MX1). 121 4.3 Molluscan zones for the Wied Żembaq 1 core (WŻ1). 123 4.4 Molluscan zones for the Wied Żembaq 2 core (WŻ2). 125 4.5 Integration of molluscan zones from the Wied Żembaq 1 and 2 cores. 128 4.6 Molluscan zones for the Mġarr ix-Xini 1 core (MĠX1). 130 4.7 Molluscan zones for the Marsa 2 core (MC2). 135 4.8 The non-marine molluscan zones for the Salina Deep Core (SDC). 140 4.9 Molluscan zones for the Salina Deep Core (SDC). 142 4.10 Molluscan zones for the Xemxija 1 core (XEM1). 146 4.11 Molluscan zones for the Xemxija 2 core (XEM2). 148 4.12 Correlation and integration of molluscan data from Xemxija 1 (XEM1) and Xemxija 2 (XEM2). 151 5.1 Micromorphology and small bulk sample sites and numbers. 162 5.2 Summary of available dating for the sites investigated in Gozo and Malta. 163 5.3 pH, magnetic susceptibility, loss-on-ignition, calcium carbonate and % sand/silt/clay particle size analysis results for the Ġgantija, Santa Verna and the Xagħra town profiles, Gozo. 168 5.4 Selected multi-element results for Ġgantija, Santa Verna and Xagħra town buried soils, and the Marsalforn and Ramla valley sequences, Gozo. 169 5.5 Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations for the Santa Verna, Ġgantija and the Xagħra town profiles, Gozo. 181 5.6 pH, magnetic susceptibility and selected multi-element results for the palaeosols in section 1, Trench A, Skorba. 184 5.7 Loss-on-ignition organic/carbon/calcium carbonate frequencies and particle size analysis results for the palaeosols in section 1, Trench A, Skorba. 184 5.8 Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations of the buried soils in sections 1 and 2, Trench A, Skorba. 188 5.9 Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations of the possible buried soils at Taċ-Ċawla. 189 5.10 Field descriptions and micromorphological observations for the quarry and construction site profiles in Xagħra town. 190 5.11 Sample contexts and micromorphological observations for two silo fills at In-Nuffara. 192 5.12 Summary of the main soil micromorphological observations from the Ramla and Marsalforn valley fill profiles. 196 5.13 Main characteristics of the Upper and Lower Coralline Limestone, Globigerina Limestone, Blue Clay and Greensand. 197 5.14 Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the Xemxija 1 core. 200 5.15 Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the Wied Żembaq 1 core. 207 5.16 Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the Marsaxlokk 1 core. 209 5.17 Summary micromorphological descriptions and suggested interpretations for the base zone of the base of the Salina Deep Core. 211 8.1 Carrying capacity estimates for the Neolithic/Temple Period of the Maltese Archipelago. 258 8.2 Summary of population changes in the Maltese Archipelago. 261 11.1 Summary of the environmental and vegetation changes in the Maltese Islands over the longue durée. 306 xvii 11.2 Summary of events revealed by the molluscan data in the deep cores. 309 11.3 Major phases of soil, vegetation and landscape development and change during the Holocene. 312 11.4 Occurrence of gypsum in FRAGSUS cores and contemporary events. 314 A2.1 Sample descriptions, contexts and archaeological significance of the profiling samples used for initial screening and laboratory characterization. 358 A2.2 Sample descriptions, contexts and archaeological significance of sediment samples SUTL2914–2930. 360 A2.3 Activity and equivalent concentrations of K, U and Th determined by HRGS. 368 A2.4 Infinite matrix dose rates determined by HRGS and TSBC. 368 A2.5 Effective beta and gamma dose rates following water correction. 369 A2.6 SAR quality parameters. 369 A2.7 Comments on equivalent dose distributions of SUTL2914 to SUTL2930. 372 A2.8 Quartz OSL sediment ages. 372 A2.9 Locations, dates and archaeological significance of sediment samples SUTL2914–2930. 373 SA.1 Field profiling data, as obtained using portable OSL equipment, for the sediment stratigraphies examined on Gozo and Malta. 379 SA.2 OSL screening measurements on paired aliquots of 90–250 μm 40% HF-etched ‘quartz’. 380 SA.3 OSL screening measurements on three aliquots of 90–250 μm 40% HF-etched ‘quartz’ for SUTL2924. 382 SA.4 IRSL screening measurements on paired aliquots of 90–250 μm 15% HF-etched ‘polymineral’. 382 SA.5 IRSL screening measurements on three aliquots of 90–250 μm 15% HF-etched ‘polymineral’ for SUTL2924. 383 A3.1 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina Deep Core. 401 A3.2 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina 4 core. 405 A3.3 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Salina 2 core. 407 A3.4 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Xemxija 1 core. 408 A3.5 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Xemxija 2 core. 411 A3.6 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Wied Żembaq 1 core. 413 A3.7 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Wied Żembaq 2 core. 413 A3.8 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Mgarr ix-Xini core. 414 A3.9 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Marsaxlokk core. 416 A3.10 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Marsa 2 core. 417 A3.11 Stratigraphy and interpretation of the Mellieħa Bay core. 418 A3.12 Key to the scheme for the description of Quaternary sediments. 419 A4.1 Marsa 2. 421 (online edition only) A4.2 Mgarr ix-Xini. 424 (online edition only) A4.3 Salina Deep Core. 427 (online edition only) A4.4 Wied Żembaq 2. 429 (online edition only) A4.5 Wied Żembaq 1. 430 (online edition only) A4.6 Xemxija 1. 432 (online edition only) A4.7 Xemxija 2. 435 (online edition only) A4.8 Marsaxlokk 1. 438 (online edition only) A5.1 Marsa 2. 442 (online edition only) A5.2 Mgarr ix-Xini. 456 (online edition only) A5.3 Salina Deep Core non-marine. 466 (online edition only) A5.4 Salina Deep Core marine. 478 (online edition only) A5.5 Wied Żembaq 2. 490 (online edition only) A5.6 Wied Żembaq 1. 496 (online edition only) A5.7 Xemxija 1. 502 (online edition only) A5.8 Xemxija 2. 516 (online edition only) A5.9 Marsaxlokk 1. 528 (online edition only) A8.1 Xemxija 1 core micromorphology sample descriptions. 557 A8.2 Wied Żembaq 1 core micromorphology sample descriptions. 559 A8.3 Marsaxlokk core micromorphology sample descriptions. 560 A8.4 Salina Deep Core micromorphology sample descriptions. 561 A9.1 The charcoal data from the Skorba, Kordin, In-Nuffara and Salina Deep Core. 563 xviii Preface and dedication

Caroline Malone

The FRAGSUS Project emerged as the direct result As this and the two other volumes in this series of an invitation to undertake new archaeological report, the original Cambridge Gozo Project was the fieldwork in Malta in 1985. Anthony Bonanno of the germ of a rich and fruitful academic collaboration University of Malta organized a conference on ‘The that has had international impact, and has influenced Mother Goddess of the Mediterranean’ in which successive generations of young archaeologists in Colin Renfrew was a participant. The discussions that Malta and beyond. resulted prompted an invitation that made its way to As the Principal Investigator of the FRAGSUS David Trump (Tutor in Continuing Education, Cam- Project, on behalf of the very extensive FRAGSUS team bridge University), Caroline Malone (then Curator of I want to dedicate this the first volume of the series the Avebury Keiller Museum) and Simon Stoddart to the enlightened scholars who set up this now 35 (then a post-graduate researcher in Cambridge). We year-long collaboration of prehistoric inquiry with our eagerly took up the invitation to devise a new collab- heartfelt thanks for their role in our studies. orative, scientifically based programme of research on prehistoric Malta. We dedicate this volume to: What resulted was the original Cambridge Gozo Project (1987–94) and the excavations of the Xagħra Joseph Attard Tabone Brochtorff Circle and the Għajnsielem Road Neo- Professor Anthony Bonanno lithic house. Both those sites had been found by local Professor Lord Colin Renfrew antiquarian, Joseph Attard-Tabone, a long-established figure in the island for his work on conservation and and offer our profound thanks for their continuing site identification. role in promoting the prehistory of Malta.

xix

Acknowledgements

This volume records research undertaken with fund- They were helped by Vincent Van Walt, who provided ing from the European Research Council under the technical assistance. Al Ruffell and John Meneely did European Union’s Seventh Framework Programme geophysical evaluation and GRP location of the cores. (FP/2007-2013)/ERC Grant Agreement n. 323727 During fieldwork, Tim Kinnaird and Charles French (FRAGSUS Project: Fragility and sustainability in were assisted by Sean Taylor, Jeremy Bennett and small island environments: adaptation, cultural change Simon Stoddart. We are grateful to the Superintend- and collapse in prehistory – http://www.qub.ac.uk/ ence of Cultural Heritage, Malta and Heritage Malta sites/FRAGSUS/). All the authors of this volume are for permission to undertake the analyses and much indebted to the ERC for its financial support, and to practical assistance. the Principal Investigator of the FRAGSUS Project, For Chapter 5, we would like to thank all at Her- Prof. Caroline Malone (Queen’s University, Belfast, itage Malta, the Ġgantija visitor’s centre and the Uni- UK), for her central role in devising the project and versity of Malta for their friendly and useful assistance seeing this research through to publication. throughout. In particular, we would like to thank For Chapter 2, we extend warm thanks to the George Azzopardi, Daphne Caruana, Josef Caruana, staff of the 14CHRONO centre at QUB, especially Nathaniel Cutajar, Chris Gemmell, Reuben Grima, Stephen Hoper, Jim McDonald, Michelle Thompson Joanne Mallia, Christian Mifsud, Anthony Pace, Ella and Ron Reimer, all of whom took a keen interest in Samut-Tagliaferro, Mevrick Spiteri, Katya Stroud, the FRAGSUS Project. The success of the FRAGSUS Sharon Sultana and Nick Vella. We also thank Tonko Project in general and the radiocarbon dating exercise Rajkovača of the McBurney Laboratory, Department has depended on their work. We thank the Physical of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, for mak- Geography Laboratory staff at the School of Geogra- ing the thin section slides, the Physical Geography phy, University College Dublin, for the use of their Laboratory, Department of Geography, University of ITRAX XRF core scanner. In particular, we would like Cambridge, and the ALS Global laboratory in Seville, to thank Dr Steve McCarron, Department of Geogra- Spain, for processing the multi-element analyses. phy, National University of Ireland, Maynooth and Dr For Chapter 6, Reuben Grima wrote the first Jonathan Turner, Department of Geography, National draft of this contribution, receiving comments and University of Ireland, University College, Dublin. additions from the other authors. We thank Prof. Patrick Schembri for sourcing and For Chapter 7, Simon Stoddart wrote the first collecting the Acanthocardia samples from the Natural draft of this contribution, receiving comments and Museum of Natural History. Sean Pyne O’Donnell additions from the other authors. thanks Dr Chris Hayward at the Tephrochronology For Chapter 9, we thank Sharlo Camilleri for pro- Analytical Unit (TAU), University of Edinburgh, for viding us with a copy of the GIS data produced by the help and advice during microprobe work. Dr Maxine MALSIS (MALtese Soil Information System) project. Anastasi, Department of Classics and Archaeology, We are grateful to Prof. Saviour Formosa and Prof. University of Malta, helped identify the pottery from Timmy Gambin, both of the University of Malta, who the settlement cores. Dr Frank Carroll helped show facilitated the donation of LiDAR data, together with us the way forward; but sadly is no longer with us. computer facilities, as part of the European project Chris Hunt, Rory Flood, Michell Farrell, Sean Pyne ERDF156 Developing National Environmental Monitor- O’Donnell and Mevrick Spiteri were the coring team. ing Infrastructure and Capacity, from the former Malta xxi Acknowledgements

Environment and Planning Authority. A number of the grant. The research team also wants to record our individuals were happy to share their recollections of indebtedness to the administrators of the grant within shepherding practices in Malta and Gozo over the last our own institutions, since this work required detailed sixty or seventy years; others facilitated the encoun- and dedicated attention. In particular we thank Rory ters. We are grateful to all of them: Charles Gauci, Jordan in the Research Support Office, Stephen Hoper Grezzju Meilaq, Joseph Micallef, Louis Muscat, Ċettina and Jim McDonald – CHRONO lab, and Martin and Anġlu Vella, Ernest Vella and Renata Zerafa. Stroud (Queen’s University Belfast), Laura Cousens Simon Stoddart would like to thank Prof. Martin (Cambridge University), Glen Farrugia and Cora Jones and Rachel Ballantyne for their advice in con- Magri (University of Malta), the Curatorial, Finance structing Figure 11.4. The editors would like to thank and Designs & Exhibitions Departments in Heritage Emma Hannah for compiling the index. Malta and Stephen Borg at the Superintendence of Firstly, the FRAGSUS Project is the result of Cultural Heritage. Finally, we thank Fr. Joe Inguanez a very generous research grant from the European (Emeritus Head of Department, Department of Soci- Research Council (Advanced Grant no’ 323727), with- ology, University of Malta) for offering us theleitmotif out which this and its two partner volumes and the of this volume while a visiting scholar in Magdalene research undertaken could not have taken place. We College, Cambridge: ‘Mingħajr art u ħamrija, m’hemmx heartily thank the ERC for its award and the many sinjorija’ translating as ‘without land and soil, there is administrators in Brussels who monitored our use of no wealth’.

xxii Foreword

Anthony Pace

Sustainability, as applied in archaeological research designed by the participating institutional partners and heritage management, provides a useful perspec- and scholars, was to explore untapped field resources tive for understanding the past as well as the modern and archived archaeological material from a number conditions of archaeological sites themselves. As often of sites and their landscape to answer questions that happens in archaeological thought, the idea of sus- could be approached with new techniques and meth- tainability was borrowed from other areas of concern, ods. The results of the FRAGSUS Project will serve to particularly from the modern construct of develop- advance our knowledge of certain areas of Maltese ment and its bearing on the environment and resource prehistory and to better contextualize the archipela- exploitation. The term sustainability entered common go’s importance as a model for understanding island usage as a result of the unstoppable surge in resource archaeology in the central Mediterranean. The work exploitation, economic development, demographic that has been invested in FRAGSUS lays the founda- growth and the human impacts on the environment tion for future research. that has gripped the World since 1500. Irrespective of Malta and Gozo are among the Mediterranean scale and technology, most human activity of an eco- islands whose prehistoric archaeology has been nomic nature has not spared resources from impacts, intensely studied over a number of decades. This transformations or loss irrespective of historical and factor is important, yet more needs to be done in the geographic contexts. Theories of sustainability may field of Maltese archaeology and its valorization. provide new narratives on the archaeology of Malta Research is not the preserve of academic specialists. and Gozo, but they are equally important and of It serves to enhance not only what we know about central relevance to contemporary issues of cultural the Maltese islands, but more importantly, why the heritage conservation and care. Though the archae- archipelago’s cultural landscape and its contents ological resources of the Maltese islands can throw deserve care and protection especially at a time of light on the past, one has to recognize that such extensive construction development. Strict rules and resources are limited, finite and non-renewable. The guidelines established by the Superintendence of sense of urgency with which these resources have to Cultural Heritage have meant that during the last two be identified, listed, studied, archived and valued is decades more archaeological sites and deposits have akin to that same urgency with which objects of value been protected in situ or rescue-excavated through a and all fragile forms of natural and cultural resources statutory watching regime. This supervision has been require constant stewardship and protection. The idea applied successfully in a wide range of sites located in of sustainability therefore, follows a common thread urban areas, rural locations and the landscape, as well across millennia. as at the World Heritage Sites of Valletta, Ġgantija, It is all the more reason why cultural resource Ħaġar Qim and Mnajdra and Tarxien. This activity management requires particular attention through has been instrumental in understanding ancient and research, valorization and protection. The FRAGSUS historical land use, and the making of the Maltese Project (Fragility and sustainability in small island historic centres and landscape. environments: adaptation, cultural change and col- Though the cumulative effect of archaeological lapse in prehistory) was intended to further explore research is being felt more strongly, new areas of and enhance existing knowledge on the prehistory interest still need to be addressed. Most pressing are of Malta and Gozo. The objective of the project as those areas of landscape studies which often become xxiii Foreword

peripheral to the attention that is garnered by prom- FRAGSUS Project, will bear valuable results that will inent megalithic monuments. FRAGSUS has once only advance Malta’s interests especially in today’s again confirmed that there is a great deal of value world of instant e-knowledge that was not available in studying field systems, terraces and geological on such a global scale a mere two decades ago. settings which, after all, were the material media in FRAGSUS also underlines the relevance of which modern Malta and Gozo ultimately developed. studying the achievements and predicaments of past There is, therefore, an interplay in the use of the term societies to understand certain, though not all, aspects sustainability, an interplay between what we can learn of present environmental challenges. The twentieth from the way ancient communities tested and used the century saw unprecedented environmental changes very same island landscape which we occupy today, as a result of modern political-economic constructs. and the manner in which this landscape is treated in Admittedly, twentieth century developments cannot contested economic realities. If we are to seek factors be equated with those of antiquity in terms of demog- of sustainability in the past, we must first protect its raphy, technology, food production and consumption relics and study them using the best available meth- or the use of natural resources including the uptake ods in our times. On the other hand, the study of the of land. However, there are certain aspects, such as past using the materiality of ancient peoples requires climate change, changing sea levels, significant envi- strong research agendas and thoughtful stewardship. ronmental degradation, soil erosion, the exploitation The FRAGSUS Project has shown us how even small and abandonment of land resources, the building and fragile deposits, nursed through protective legislation maintenance of field terraces, the rate and scale of and guardianship, can yield significant information human demographic growth, movement of peoples, which the methods of pioneering scholars of Maltese access to scarce resources, which to a certain extent archaeology would not have enabled access to. As reflect impacts that seem to recur in time, irrespec- already outlined by the Superintendence of Cultural tively of scale and historic context. Heritage, a national research agenda for cultural heritage and the humanities is a desideratum. Such a frame- Anthony Pace work, reflected in the institutional partnership of the Superintendent of Cultural Heritage (2003–18).

xxiv Chapter 4

Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Katrin Fenech, Chris O. Hunt, Nicholas C. Vella & Patrick J. Schembri

4.1. Introduction respectively. These studies showed the progress of the Holocene marine transgression and the infilling of the Molluscs often have quite specific environmental estuaries, and Fenech (2007) also showed the persis- requirements (Evans 1978, 82; Giusti et al. 1995; Schem- tence of open, exposed terrestrial environments in the bri et al. 2018). Many species require only a few square catchment of the Marsa estuary over c. 7000 years. At metres of habitat, so they are excellent micro-habitat the Neolithic Xagħra Brochtorff Circle (Schembriet al. indicators. Their shells can be dispersed, for instance 2009) and the Neolithic and later temple site at Tas-Silġ by running water, but generally, compared with other (Fenech & Schembri 2015), molluscan analysis demon- biotic materials used in palaeoecology (such as pollen strated long histories of anthropogenic disturbance grains or seeds), they do not disperse far from their life and sparse vegetation since the later Neolithic, but a habitat and therefore provide important indications considerable portion of these studies was done on shells of local environments. Alkaline sediments, which are recovered by troweling and dry sieving with a large very common in the Maltese Islands, will preserve fraction and therefore subject to a form of taphonomic molluscan shells and other calcareous biogenic mate- bias caused by the exclusion of most very small taxa. rial over thousands of years. This makes the analysis Analysis of a cave fill near Victoria on Gozo, based on of molluscan shells potentially a very important tool assemblages recovered by sieving, identified a phase for the reconstruction of past environments in Malta. of spectacular erosion caused by Classical period agri- Geologists and archaeologists recognized the cultural practices, followed by a more stable grazed value of molluscs as palaeoenvironmental indicators landscape in the Medieval and post-Medieval periods as early the first quarter of the nineteenth century ad (Hunt & Schembri 2018). Inevitably, the research done (Conybeare 1824; Preece 1998; Evans & O’Connor 2005, before the start of the FRAGSUS Project was very partial 41). Molluscan analysis is still, however, comparatively in coverage. The environmental history of the Maltese rare as a palaeoenvironmental tool, and for instance is Islands was still largely unknown. less commonly used than pollen analysis (e.g. Preece To investigate the environment and landscape of 1998, 158; Fenech 2007). the Maltese Islands and the changes they underwent In the Maltese Islands, the application of the over time, a full molluscan analysis was made of the technique has been limited and there has been no material extracted from sectioned sediment cores. The comprehensive palaeoenvironmental study using shell assemblages found in the FRAGSUS cores were molluscan analysis. Trechmann (1938), Giusti et al. controlled by their depositional environment, sur- (1995) and Hunt (1997) used the sporadic occurrence rounding habitats and taphonomic factors. They often of land snails in Maltese Quaternary deposits as an included molluscs from all four major habitat-groups: indication that these had accumulated in open, exposed marine, brackish water, freshwater and terrestrial. conditions. The highly cemented Quaternary deposits Although it is logical that species would be limited precluded anything other than the production of spe- to particular major habitats and that live individuals cies lists by these authors. Pedley (1980) suggested a from other major habitat types would not occur (for brackish depositional environment for the Pleistocene example, a freshwater habitat would not be expected Fiddien Valley Tufa on molluscan evidence. Fenech to also support live marine and terrestrial species), (2007) and Marriner et al. (2012) analysed cores taken in the result of the analyses of molluscan assemblages Holocene estuarine deposits at Marsa and Burmarrad, from cores is not always easy to relate to the type 115 Chapter 4

of environment when species from different major from habitats dominated by trees or shrubs, and from habitats are admixed. In the present study, it was garrigue. The Maltese low garrigue is also an exposed not always straightforward to determine which snail habitat but quantitatively and to some extent qualita- group is autochthonous (i.e. occurred naturally as live tively, its molluscan assemblages differed from those individuals), and which groups are allochthonous (e.g. of other exposed habitats presumably because of its washed into the coring site from elsewhere by run-off very open nature. However, this study also showed during storm events or by waves during storms or even that assemblage composition is determined more by by tsunamis). Thus for instance, a storm might have the micro-habitat preferences of the species, especially overtopped a bay-bar leading to insertion of marine the spatial and temporal availability of shelter and taxa into a non-marine lagoon, but at the same time shade, than by macro-habitat type. Many species were run-off from heavy rain might have washed land found in more than one macro-habitat, albeit in dif- snails into the same deposition site. Additionally, ferent relative abundances, very likely because of the allochthonous recycled material might arrive on a site extreme mosaic nature of the present day landscape of as sediments and their contained molluscs may have the Maltese Islands where different habitats may occur been eroded and redeposited. In some cases, it was within very close proximity to each other, allowing a possible to discern which species were autochonous mixing of molluscan assemblages, especially of the and which had been transported to the deposition site less stenoecious species. The mixing that occurred in from elsewhere. the deposits studied here, compounds the problem A further complicating factor is that some dep- of the natural ‘mixing’ of assemblages and therefore osition sites were at times affected by erosion, for only allows broad generalizations to be made about instance scour during fluvial or mud-flow events or the environment of the catchments of the coring sites. by marine storm waves. These erosion events led to Stenotopic species (those with narrow environ- non-sequences or hiatuses, sometimes recognizable mental tolerances) are most informative about the as very marked and abrupt changes of the molluscan environments present and we have used these as fauna, and by abrupt sediment changes. indications that particular habitats were present at Previous studies of non-marine molluscs from in the catchment of the coring sites. Habitats whose various (undated) Quaternary deposits around the presence was inferred in this way included brackish Maltese Islands revealed the occurrence of several water (with such species as Hydrobia spp. and Ovatella freshwater or wetland species that are now extinct, myosotis), running freshwater (e.g. Pseudamnicola (s.str.) indicating the previous occurrence of rare periods moussonii), slower moving water and ponds and lakes characterized by much wetter conditions, at least (e.g. Lymnaea truncatula, Planorbis spp., Gyraulus crista, locally (Hunt & Schembri 1999).1 On the other hand, Bulinus truncatus, Ancylus fluviatilis), freshwater wet- several species that occur today, such as the woodland lands (e.g. Carychium schlickumi, Oxyloma elegans, indicator Lauria cylindracea, had no palaeontological Vertigo antivertigo), sheltered habitats (e.g. Oxychilus record (see Trechmann 1938; Thake 1985a & b; Giusti draparnaudi, Oxychilus hydatinus, Vitrea spp.), wooded et al. 1995; Allen & Eastabrook 2017; Hunt & Schembri habitats (Lauria cylindracea), and garrigue (e.g. Tro- 2018). These previous studies form the basis of the choidea spratti and Muticaria macrostoma). research undertaken, together with more recent studies The molluscan analyses undertaken here comple- of the ecology of non-marine molluscs in local environment the pollen analyses (see Chapter 3) by providing mental regimes (Schembri et al. 2018) that now allow data about the environment and landscape. The chang- various species to be more or less reliably assigned to ing compositions of the molluscan assemblages further a specific habitat. One of the aims of these ecological suggest how climatic and weather events and patterns studies was to analyse the habitat and micro-habitat of human activity affected the depositional environ- distribution of current species and assemblages in ment and the catchments of the respective coring sites. order to determine their specificity to different habi- While the resolution of environmental reconstruction tat types. On the assumption that the ecology of the provided by analysis of the molluscan assemblages species would not have changed significantly in the may not be as high as that provided by pollen, given time spans considered, species and assemblages from the greater number of plant species involved and the archaeological and older contexts might then be used habitat specificity of many plants, molluscan assem- to reconstruct past environments and to study envi- blages have the advantage of reflecting local conditions, ronmental change. since the transport of molluscs is usually over much Brackish and freshwater assemblages apart, four shorter distances than for pollen. present-day terrestrial assemblages were recognized: This chapter will describe the core material stud- those from exposed habitats, from sheltered habitats, ied and the methods applied. Results of the analysis are 116 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

discussed core by core. An environmental reconstruc- into Mollusc Assemblage Zones (MAZs) by applying tion based on the molluscs from the early Holocene stratigraphically constrained cluster analyses to per- to the Late Roman period highlights changes in the centage abundance data using CONISS software in landscape through time. The molluscan evidence indi- TILIA (Grimm 1987). Several deposits contained no cates major erosion events and may be used to suggest molluscan remains. As TILIA does not recognize 0 as their causes. Extinct species, taxa that previously had a value for percentage calculations, a nominal value no local fossil record and some useful indicator species of 1 was given to these deposits in a separate category are then discussed in the context of the environmental to allow the calculations. insights they provide. The molluscs were identified to the lowest tax- onomic level possible with the help of: a reference 4.2. Material collection, Giusti et al. (1995) for the non-marine molluscs, Doneddu and Trainito (2005) and other standard Eight sediment cores from six different locations across identification manuals for the marine species. The the Maltese Islands were analysed (Fig. 2.4). With the vast majority of shells larger than 2 mm were heavily exception of the Marsa 2 core, these were taken between fragmented. Identification was nonetheless mostly 2013 and 2015 (see Chapter 3).2 The Salina Deep Core possible at least to genus level because of distinctive and Marsa 2 core had been extracted with a mechanical shell features. Indeterminate fragments of helicid land corer by local companies experienced in geologi- snails that could not be quantified in terms of actual cal site investigations.3 The other cores were taken numbers, were counted as 1. Similarly, the tests of the with an Eijkelkamp percussion auger by FRAGSUS rock urchin Paracentrotus lividus found in several sam- team members Chris O. Hunt, Sean Pyne O’Donnell, ples, were noted as 1. Although bivalve valves occur Michelle Farrell and Rory Flood. These were then cut naturally in pairs, they usually occurred singly or in in half lengthwise at NIU Maynooth and subjected to uneven pairs in the samples. Each valve was counted core logging at University College Dublin. One half as one individual.5 of each of the cores, in its’ plastic tube and wrapped All other shells were counted in actual numbers in cling-film was then sent to Malta for the molluscan and then grouped according to their macro-habitat: analyses. Summary and detailed descriptions of the marine, brackish water-associated, freshwater-as- cores are provided in Chapter 2 and Appendix 3. sociated and land snails. The freshwater-associated molluscs and the land snails were further subdivided 4.3. Methods and grouped according to their more specific habitat requirements (Table 4.1). The presence of the sub- The core sections were consecutively divided into terranean, burrowing land snail Cecilioides acicula segments between 3 and 13 cm in thickness. All seg- was used as an indicator for erosion events when ments were weighed and their Munsell soil colour found in subaqueous deposits. Table 4.1 also lists the was recorded. Depending on the size of the samples, previously known fossil record of the species found small sub-samples weighing between 4 and 20 g were and their current status. The complete dataset of the taken from every segment and archived for future shells found per sample/depth for all cores is given reference.4 The material from the segments was then in Appendix 5. stirred in water. When necessary, sodium hexameta- phosphate was added to facilitate the breaking up of 4.4. Radiocarbon dates and Bayesian age-depth aggregated particles. Once disaggregated, the sediment models was wet sieved through nested 500 and 63 micron (μm) test sieves and dried. Stones larger than 8 mm As discussed in Chapter 2, a chronology was built diameter were sorted out from the >500 μm fraction. with the radiocarbon dates (Tables 2.3 & 2.4) using The material in each fraction was then weighed and Bayesian age-depth modelling techniques (Blaauw the silt/clay content calculated. The dried material & Christen 2011). The molluscan data were plotted from the 500 μm sieve was sorted for shells, other onto this time-scale to reveal the changing patterns organic remains and artefacts such as pottery under a of occurrence through time. stereomicroscope. The fine sediments retained by the 63 μm sieve were bagged, but not sorted, as they were 4.5. Results found to be sterile apart from tiny charcoal fragments. Mollusc percentage abundances were calculated in For core descriptions, logs and precise location, see TILIA (© Grimm 1987), which also generated the Chapter 2. As the Marsa 2 core had been taken previ- diagrams. The molluscan diagrams were subdivided ously in 2002, see Appendix 3 for soil colours. 117 Chapter 4

Table 4.1. List of freshwater molluscs and land snails found in the cores, their locally registered habitat requirement, palaeontological record from Quaternary deposits in Malta and Gozo, and current status and conservation in the Maltese Islands (Giusti et al. 1995; Schembri et al. 2018; updated by the present authors) Species Habitat Fossil record Current status and conservation Pomatias sulcatus (Draparnaud 1801) Ubiquitous and very Dwejra (Gozo); Wied Common; not threatened The Maltese populations previously eurytopic tal-Baħrija assigned to this species are now regarded as belonging to Tudorella melitense (Sowerby 1843) (see Pfenninger et al. 2010) Pseudamnicola (s.str.) moussonii (Calcara Running freshwater Wied tal-Baħrija Patchily distributed because of 1841) the restricted distribution of its habitat; locally endangered Carychium cf. schlickumi Strauch 1977 Freshwater wetlands Wied tal-Baħrija Present status unknown but at best likely to have a patchy distribution due to the restricted distribution of its habitat; may be extinct Lymnaea (Galba) truncatula (Müller 1774) Ponds, lakes, slow-moving Wied tal-Baħrija Widespread in freshwater water habitats but such habitats are scarce locally; vulnerable Planorbis Müller 1774. Two species Ponds, lakes, slow-moving P. planorbis: Ta’ Sarraflu P. planorbis is probably extinct; occur P. planorbis (Linnaeus 1758) and P. water (Gozo) and archaeological P. moquini is rare; its habitats moquini Requien 1848) which are difficult deposits Ta’ Vnezja; have a restricted distribution to tell apart on shell characters alone P. moquini: Wied tal-Baħrija locally; vulnerable Gyraulus (Armiger) crista (Linnaeus 1758) Ponds, lakes, slow-moving Wied tal-Baħrija Extinct water Bulinus (Isidora) cf. truncatus (Audouin Ponds, lakes, slow-moving Ta’ Sarraflu (Gozo); Extinct 1827) complex water Wied tal-Baħrija Ancylus fluviatilis Müller 1774 Slow to fast-moving Ta’ Sarraflu (Gozo); Common; patchily distributed freshwater Wied tal-Baħrija because of the restricted distribution of its habitat Oxyloma elegans (Risso 1826) Freshwater wetlands Wied tal-Baħrija Extinct Vertigo cf. antivertigo (Draparnaud 1801) Freshwater wetlands Wied tal-Baħrija Extinct Truncatellina callicratis (Scacchi 1833) Leaf litter in shady situations Għajn il-Kbira (Gozo) Previously thought to be rare but but occasionally also in now regarded as common and relatively open environments quite widespread; not threatened Granopupa granum (Draparnaud 1801) Open country and occupies Wied tal-Baħrija; Għajn Widespread; not threatened many micro-habitats in this il-Kbira and Xagħra macro-habitat; eurytopic Brochtorff Circle (Gozo) Lauria cylindracea (Da Costa 1778) Woodland usually in forest No fossil record previous Rare mainly due to the dearth of remnants but also in well to the present study woodland habitats in the Maltese developed maquis Islands; not threatened Vallonia pulchella (Müller 1774) Freshwater wetlands Wied tal-Baħrija Present status unknown but rare and at best likely to have a patchy distribution due to the restricted distribution of its habitat Pleurodiscus balmei (Potiez and Michaud Leaf litter in shady Għajn il-Kbira (Gozo) Common and widespread; not 1838) environments but threatened occasionally also in relatively open environments Chondrula (Mastus) pupa (Linnaeus 1758) Ubiquitous and eurytopic Wied tal-Baħrija; Għajn Common and widespread; not il-Kbira and Xagħra threatened Brochtorff Circle (Gozo) Vitrea Fitzinger 1833. Three species occur Leaf litter in shady Wied tal-Baħrija; Għajn As a group, relatively widespread (V. contracta (Westerlund 1871), Vitrea sp. environments il-Kbira and Xagħra and common; not threatened Giusti, Manganelli and Schembri 1995, Brochtorff Circle (Gozo) and V. subrimata (Reinhardt 1871)) but difficult to tell apart without anatomical examination

118 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.1 (cont.). Species Habitat Fossil record Current status and conservation Oxychilus Fitzinger 1833. Two species Leaf litter in shady situations Wied tal-Baħrija; Xagħra Both species are common and occur: Oxychilus draparnaudi (Beck 1837) but Oxychilus draparnaudi Brochtorff Circle (Gozo) widespread; not threatened and Oxychilus (Mediterranea) hydatinus also in relatively open (Rossmässler 1838); often difficult to environments tell apart on shell characters alone, especially if juvenile Cecilioides acicula (Müller 1774) Burrower Wied tal-Baħrija; Għajn Frequent and widespread; not il-Kbira and Xagħra threatened Brochtorff Circle (Gozo) Ferussacia (s.str.) folliculus (Gmelin 1791) Leaf litter in shady situations Għajn il-Kbira and Xagħra Common and widespread; not but occasionally also in Brochtorff Circle (Gozo) threatened relatively open environments Rumina decollata (Linnaeus 1758) Open country and occupies Widespread in Common and widespread; not many microhabitats in this Quaternary deposits and threatened macro-habitat; eurytopic archaeological sites

Muticaria macrostoma (Cantraine 1835) Open country mostly in Għajn il-Kbira, Xagħra Common and widespread; not sensu Giusti et al. 1995, garrigue habitats Brochtorff Circle and threatened Dwejra (Gozo) Papillifera papillaris (Müller 1774) Mainly open country but also Għajn il-Kbira, Xagħra Very common and widespread; in sheltered habitats; very Brochtorff Circle and Ta’ not threatened eurytopic Sarraflu (Gozo); Wied tal-Baħrija Xerotricha Monterosato 1892. Open country but also in X. conspurcata, was found Both species are common and Two species occur: X. conspurcata some sheltered habitats; at Għajn il-Kbira and the widespread; not threatened (Draparnaud 1801) and X. apicina somewhat eurytopic Xagħra Brochtorff Circle (Lamarck 1822), which are difficult to tell (Gozo); X. apicina was apart on shell characters alone found in Wied tal-Baħrija Trochoidea spratti (Pfeiffer 1846, sensu Open country, especially in Ubiquitous in Common and widespread; not Giusti et al. 1995) garrigue, but also in some Quaternary deposits and threatened sheltered habitats; somewhat archaeological sites eurytopic Cernuella Schlüter 1838. Three species C. caruanae is ubiquitous Xagħra Brochtorff Circle C. caruanae and C. cf cisalpina are occur: C. caruanae (Kobelt 1888), C. cf and C. cf cisalpina is more (Gozo); Wied tal-Baħrija widespread and abundant and cisalpina (Rossmässler 1837) and C. restricted by both are not threatened. C. cf virgata is cf virgata (Da Costa 1778); difficult to eurytopic very probably extinct differentiate based on shell characters alone if juvenile Cochlicella acuta (Müller 1774) Ubiquitous and very Widespread in Very widespread and abundant; eurytopic Quaternary deposits and not threatened archaeological sites Caracollina lenticula (Michaud 1831) Ubiquitous and eurytopic Għajn il-Kbira and Xagħra Widespread and abundant; not Brochtorff Circle (Gozo) threatened Theba pisana (Müller 1774) Ubiquitous and eurytopic Għajn il-Kbira, Xagħra Widespread and abundant; not Brochtorff Circle and Ta’ threatened Sarraflu (Gozo) Eobania vermiculata (Müller 1774) Ubiquitous and eurytopic Widespread in Quaternary Very common and widespread; and Holocene deposits not threatened Cantareus apertus (Born 1778) Open country normally Għajn il-Kbira and Xagħra Relatively common and on leafy vegetation and Brochtorff Circle (Gozo) widespread; not threatened eurytopic Cantareus aspersus (Müller 1774) Open country normally Wied tal-Baħrija Very common and widespread; on leafy vegetation and not threatened eurytopic Pisidium Pfeiffer 1821. Two species Slow to fast-moving water Wied tal-Baħrija Both are presently very rare occur: P. casertanum (Poli 1791) and but also in ponds, and lakes; due to a highly restricted P. personatum Malm 1855); difficult to in Malta can co-occur in the distribution; endangered differentiate based on shell characters same habitat alone

119 Chapter 4 0 6 0 4 0 2 CONISS e 2 1 n E B D C Total sum of squares A A o Z 0 0 4 0 0

2 Total molluscs Total 0

0 Burrower 1 0

8 Terrestrial 0 6

0 Brackish Brackish 4 0

2 Marine Marine 0 0 1

0 Silt/Clay 8

0 Fine sand Fine 6 0

4 Coarse sand Coarse Burrower 0

2 Gravel 0 4

0 Helicioid juveniles Helicioid 2 0 4 0

2 Cecilioides acicula Cecilioides 0 Ubiquitous 4 0

2 Pomatias sulcatus Pomatias 0 4 0

2 Eobania vermiculata Eobania 0 4 0

2 Cochlicella acuta Cochlicella 0 4 0

2 Cernuella caruanae Cernuella 0

. 1

p s 8 0 6 Open country 0 4

sp. 2 Trochoidea 0 4 0

2 Leaf litter Muticaria 0

4 sp.

Papillifera papillaris Papillifera 2

Granopupa granum Granopupa

Xerotrichia

subcylindrica 0 6 0 4 Brackish water 0

2 Truncatella

0 myosotis 6 0 4 0

2 Ovatella 0

8 sp.

gaederopus 0 4

0 Hydrobia 2

Marine bivalves

sp.

Spondylus 0

Ostrea sp. 0 4

Loripes lactea Loripes 2

sp.

Cerastoderma n

e m

e 0

sp. 2

Cardium

sp. Abra

rida r

l T

u colia

i r

sp. a c

u r

ssoa 0

s 2

i R

u t

e R

conica

ulus c

n 0

u r 4

x renella 0

e 2 l i P

e H Marine gastropods 0 0

p s

a 6

u p

s 0

b 4

l 0

i G

u r

s 2

b i

G 2

h c i

l y C

p s .

p s

Conus mediterraneus Conus m

i 0

t 4

i r

e 0

C 2 g

u r

Calliostoma .

Marsaxlokk 1 molluscan histogram (C.O. Hunt & K. Fenech). Bolma p s

p s

Bittium

1 P

B total molluscs

s 0

cm)

( 2

t % Alvania

Depth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0

1 1 2 2 3 3 4

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Calculated

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

1 5 2 7 3 4 6 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 8 7 9

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Figure 4.1. M arsaxlokk

120 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.2. Molluscan zones for the Marsaxlokk 1 core (MX1). Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. ad Molluscan assemblages Environment MX1- (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) A1 386–326 n/a Sterile Bedrock/bedrock interface A2 326–286 ad 171–523 Total of 195 shells, of which Cerithium sp. Shallow marine environment becoming (1779–1427 bp) 26%, B. reticulatum 15%, G. adansonii 10%, shallower towards the top, as indicated Hydrobia sp. 6%, T. subcylindrica 3% by the appearance of the shoreline species Truncatella subcylindrica Few fragments of marine molluscs between 326–306 cm; from 306 cm upwards there was a sharp increase in the variety and abundance of marine species; concurrently, appearance of brackish water/saltmarsh species, which were 20% of total molluscs B 286–197 ad 422–678 Total of 126 shells, of which C. acuta Major inwash event into a shallow (1528–1272 bp) 21%, C. caruanae 16%, O. myosotis 10%, B. lagoonal or restricted shallow marine reticulatum 9%, Hydrobia sp. 6% environment; land snails reveal an exposed and open environment with Assemblages with generally less than 20 rocks/stones and some scrubby patches; shells per sample, containing land snails, reappearance of Truncatella subcylindrica brackish water and marine species and Ovatella myosotis suggest a very marginal shoreline and a possible saltmarsh environment C 197–127 ad 816–1158 Total of 2078 molluscs, of which Hydrobia Saltmarsh or restricted shoreline (1134–792 bp) sp. 43%, T. subcylindrica 19%, Cerithium sp. to very shallow marine lagoonal 14%, O. myosotis 0.8% and C. acuta 0.4% sedimentation as indicated by the mudsnail Hydrobia sp. and the two Marine and brackish water species shoreline species T. subcylindrica and O. dominated the assemblages; number myosotis; fine layering suggests aquatic of molluscs generally exceeded 100 per deposition mainly of land-derived sample, once reaching more than 300; sediments in quiet waters; continued land snails occurred irregularly in small presence of open ground taxa, numbers throughout particularly C. acuta suggests open, exposed terrestrial environments while Xerotricha conspurcata may indicate the removal of dense vegetation, either through anthropogenic or natural causes D 127–86 ad 1146–1486 Total of 274 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Present day sea level is at 125 cm; very (804–464 bp) 46%, O. myosotis 23%, T. subcylindrica 15%, close to the previous zone in terms C. acicula 1%, C. acuta 0.3% of environment; again, a restricted shoreline to shallow marine or lagoonal Predominantly brackish water and environment as indicated by the mud- shoreline species; marine molluscs snail Hydrobia sp. and the shoreline/ occurred in very low numbers saltmarsh species T. subcylindrica and throughout; land snails were very rare O. myosotis; hardly any land snails, but and only found towards the top of the the presence of the burrower Cecilioides zone; apart from the lowermost sample, acicula may indicate erosion events that the total number of molluscs found was led to the deposition of land derived well below 100 sediments on the coring site E 86–14 ad 1357–1663 Total of 729 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. This part also lies above the present day (593–287 bp) 40%, Cerithium sp. 15%, T. subcylindrica sea level and it is likely that the marine 10%, C. acuta 8% and O. myosotis 0.5% molluscs and the brackish water mudsnail Hydrobia sp. were washed on land Mixed assemblages containing mainly through wave action; the saltmarsh marine and brackish water molluscs; land species O. myosotis is no longer found snails were found in most samples, but beyond 70 cm, but the shoreline species exceeded 20% of all molluscs only in the T. subcylindrica occurs throughout; uppermost 10 cm the land snails suggest an open and exposed environment; X. conspurcata was only found once close to the top of core, indicating dense vegetation

121 Chapter 4 0 4 0 3 0 2 0 1 CONISS e 1 n B3 B2 B1 A4 A3 A2 A C4 C3 C2 C1 o Total sum of squares Z 0 8 0

Total molluscs Total Silt/clay 0

8 Fine sand Fine

Coarse sand Coarse 4

Gravel Burrower

Terrestrial

8 Freshwater

Burrower

0 Brackish 4

s Marine u o t i u 0 q 8 i b U 0

4 Helicioid 0

4 Cecilioides acicula Cecilioides 0 4 0

2 Pomatias sulcatus Pomatias

Cochlicella acuta Cochlicella 2

sp.

Open country Chondrula pupa Chondrula

0 Cernuella 2

0 Trochoidea spratti Trochoidea 2 0

2 Rumina decollata Rumina sp.

0 4 0

2 Muticaria 0 Leaf litter 4 0

2 Papillifera papillaris Papillifera 0

2 Granopupa granum Granopupa ’water

0 F Clausiliidae 2

0 Cantareus apertus Cantareus 2 0

2 Truncatellina callicratis Truncatellina

Mercuria similis Mercuria

0 Pleurodiscus balmei Pleurodiscus 2 0

Oxychilus hydatinus Oxychilus

/ moussonii Brackish water 0 4

0 Ferrusaccia folliculus Ferrusaccia 2 0

2 Pseudamnicola

0 Truncatella subcylindrica Truncatella 2 0 8 0

4 Ovatella myosotis Ovatella e 0

i 8 sp. r a M 0

4 Hydrobia 0 4

Indeterminate 2

sp.

0 Loripes lactea Loripes 2

. Cardium 2

0 4

sp.

Rissoa

sp.

Pirenella conica Pirenella

Gibbula Cerithium

0 sp. 6 1

Wied Żembaq 1 molluscan histogram (C.O. Hunt & K. Fenech). Wied sp.

0 Bittium 2

Alvania 2 Depth (cm) Depth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5

1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 Calculated dates BP dates Calculated 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Wied Zembaq 2 3 4 5 Figure 4.2.

122 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.3. Molluscan zones for the Wied Żembaq 1 core (WŻ1). Zone Depth Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment WŻ1- (cm) ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) A1 548–510 3587–3352 bc Total of 48 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Key indicators are Hydrobia sp. and (5537–5302 bp) (56%), O. myosotis (4%), P. moussonii (8%), Ovatella myosotis, suggesting shallowing Muticaria sp. (6%) brackish water, possibly indicating the development of a bay-bar at sea margin Mixed assemblages from the major habitat to the inlet; presence of freshwater groups, but less than 20 specimens per species Pseudamnicola moussonii is sample; freshwater molluscs at 515 cm consistent with inwash from a freshwater stream; very open and erosive terrestrial environments; Muticaria sp. are likely derived from the rocky wied sides, while Cochlicella acuta, Pomatias sulcatus and the helicoids may be associated with very lightly vegetated steppe or garrigue A2 510–462 3272–2993 bc Total of 86 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Further shallowing of the brackish water (5222–4943 bp) (35%), O. myosotis (33%), Muticaria sp. (6%) and clear transition to salt marsh as and P. moussonii (2%) indicated by the increased presence of O. myosotis; evidence of freshwater stream; Similar to A1, but a sharp rise in the increase in karstland species Papillifera number of brackish water species papilaris and Muticaria sp. coupled with a decrease of taxa associated with very lightly vegetated steppe or garrigue may suggest removal of natural vegetation A3 462–415 2993–2639 bc Total of 181 shells, of which O. myosotis Continuous strong presence of saltmarsh (4943–4589 bp) (48%), Hydrobia sp. (35%), Muticaria sp. species O. myosotis, particularly towards (5%), C. acicula (1%) and P. moussonii (0.5%) the top of the zone; karstland species like Muticaria sp. occur throughout, Sudden decrease of brackish water species evidence of a freshwater stream only but increase in land snails; towards the top once (at 423 cm); increase again of of this zone, the situation is reversed again; species characteristic of lightly vegetated only freshwater snail found steppe and garrigue like Cochlicella acuta and Pomatias sulcatus; presence of the burrower Cecilioides acicula at the base of this zone may point to an erosion event, perhaps in relation with a storm, as suggested also by the presence of marine taxa A4 415–385 2698–2284 bc Total of 377 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. The freshwater channel may have (4648–4234 bp) (43%), O. myosotis (41%), P. moussonii (11%) meandered closer to the coring site or and Muticaria (1%) may reflect an increase in precipitation, as indicated by the presence of P. Sudden increase in freshwater snails, moussonii, which requires running, reaching 28% at the top of this zone; perennial freshwater; very brackish dramatic decrease in land snails (now lagoonal to saltmarsh conditions are less than 5% throughout); zone is clearly suggested by an increasing presence of dominated by brackish water species; Hydrobia sp., while the initial dominance marine taxa are absent of O. myosotis decreases from 60% to 20% at the top of the zone; the very few land snails indicate a landscape similar to the previous zones B1 385–365 2495–2072 bc Total of 80 shells, of which O. myosotis Saltmarsh conditions indicated by a high (4445–4022 bp) (64%), P. balmei (14%), C. acicula (5%), number of O. myosotis and the sudden Muticaria sp. and P. papillaris (each 4%) absence of Hydrobia sp.; breakdown of denser vegetation, washing leaf litter Sharp decrease in the number of shells species like Pleurodiscus balmei into the found. No more freshwater snails, but a channel; open country/karstland species steady increase in land snails, reaching 50% Muticaria sp. and P. papillaris occur at the top of this zone; first appearance of throughout; taxa indicative of light leaf litter species; brackish water species vegetation are rare consist only of O. myosotis; marine molluscs are absent

123 Chapter 4

Table 4.3 (cont.). Zone Depth Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment WŻ1- (cm) ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) B2 365–320 2386–1936 bc Total of 47 shells, of which Muticaria Continuous absence of the fresh water snail P. (4306–3886 bp) sp. (19%), O. myosotis (9%), O. hydatinus moussonii may point to an aridification of the (4%) and C. acicula (4%) landscape, due to natural and/or anthropogenic causes; this may have accelerated the breakdown Dramatic decrease in the number of of denser vegetation with more leaf litter shells found; assemblages consisted species being washed into the channel through chiefly of land snails, brackish water increased erosion together with open-country species were rarely found; one marine and ubiquitous taxa; the presence of the burrower shell occurred at the top of this zone, C. acicula suggests severe erosion events; these together with land snails, possibly due would have overwhelmed the brackish water taxa to an inwash event at times by the sediment flux B3 320–285 2014–1644 bc Total of 55 shells, of which C. acicula The permanent presence and proportion of the (3964–3594 bp) (40%), O. hydatinus (9%), Muticaria sp. burrower C. acicula increased steadily, indicating (9%), C. acuta (5%) continuous severe erosion, which included the inwash of stones; the shade species Oxychilus Dramatic decrease in the number of hydatinus, which also lives underneath stones, shells per sample, rarely exceeding 10; was the only leaf litter species found, indicating the assemblages consisted exclusively a further aridification of the landscape; open of land snail taxa associated with leaf country/karstland species, mainly Muticaria sp., litter, open country/karstland and occurred in low numbers throughout, while lightly vegetated environments species associated with light vegetation such as C. acuta were rare C1 285–250 1714–1371 bc Total of 90 shells, of which O. myosotis Increasing sand may reflect the proximity of (3664–3321 bp) (46%), Hydrobia sp. (13%), Muticaria sp. the shoreline or may result from higher-energy (8%) and O. hydatinus (2%) stream-flows; the coherent molluscan assemblages do not suggest violent inwash events; succession Assemblages were dominated by of marine-brackish taxa is indicated by Cardium marine and brackish water associated and Loripes, which are typically shallow-marine molluscs; land snails occurred taxa from sheltered locations; these are succeeded throughout, but unlike in the previous by the lagoonal Hydrobia sp. and then followed by zone, the burrower C. acicula was absent the salt-marsh O. myosotis, pointing to shallowing marginal marine then lagoonal water passing into salt marsh; Muticaria sp. suggests inwash from the rocky sides of the wied and C. acuta, P. sulcatus and the helicoids suggest very lightly vegetated terrestrial habitats C2 250–235 1403–2033 bc Total of 9 shells, O. myosotis (33%), The stony deposits could reflect vigorous flows (3353–2983 bp) Hydrobia sp. (11%) and Muticaria sp. in the wied, but may also be consistent with (11%) the approach of the open shoreline with rising sea levels; the continuation of O. myosotis and Assemblages contained only 1 to Hydrobia sp. points to a marginal lagoon/saltmarsh 5 molluscs per sample, all heavily environment fragmented and belonging to marine, brackish water and terrestrial environments C3 235–165 1231–907 bc Total number of shells: 116, of which Coarse sand and stones continue to dominate the (3181–2857 bp) Bittium sp. (11%), Rissoa sp. (9%), lower half of this zone, again reflecting vigorous Hydrobia sp. (8%) and Muticaria sp. flows and possibly wave action with continuously (15%) rising sea levels, as also indicated by the increase in marine species like Bittium and Rissoa spp.; Number of molluscs increases O. myosotis continues to decline, the persistence irregularly up to 17 shells per sample; of Hydrobia sp. is consistent with a lgaoonal most samples contained an admixture environment; leaf litter species were few and only of marine, brackish water and land found in the upper part of the zone, probably snail species; brackish water species as a result of inwash events; the other terrestrial were generally the least common species are consistent with open, exposed habitats, with Muticaria sp. and P. papillaris suggesting inwash from the rocky sides of the wied and T. spratti, Cernuella sp., C. acuta and P. sulcatus indicating very lightly vegetated ground

124 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.3 (cont.). Zone Depth Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment WŻ1- (cm) ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) C4 165–115 477 bc–ad 124 288 shells in total, mainly Bittium sp. (56%); The persistence of Hydrobia sp. in this (2427–1826 bp) Hydrobia sp. (5%); Muticaria sp. (3%) zone points to a lagoonal environment; the marine taxa were all very small and Increasing dominance of marine molluscs associated with sandy/muddy bottoms in the mixed assemblages, reaching more and marine algae, possibly washing into than 80% at the top of this zone; brackish the inlet; leaf litter species were reduced water species are rare and generally less to only one specimen in the entire zone than 10%; the remainder are land snails, (O. hydatinus), while the open country decreasing from 80% at the base to around species generally persisted throughout, 10% at the top as did species associated with very light vegetation

Table 4.4. Molluscan zones for the Wied Żembaq 2 core (WŻ2). Zone Depth Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment WŻ2- (cm) ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) A1 521–478 3495–3097 bc Total of 212 shells, of which O. myosotis Key indicators are Hydrobia sp. and Ovatella (5445–5047 bp) (59%), Hydrobia sp. (16), Muticaria sp. (8%), myosotis, suggesting shallowing brackish P. moussonii (0.5%) water and development of a saltmarsh; presence of one specimen of the freshwater Mixed assemblages, at times from all the species Pseudamnicola moussonii was inwashed major habitat groups; one freshwater from a freshwater stream; presence of a few mollusc at 503 cm leaf litter species indicates dense vegetation in the vicinity. Muticaria sp. and the other open country species are likely derived from the rocky wied sides, while Pomatias sulcatus and the helicoids may be associated with very lightly vegetated steppe or garrigue A2 478–379 3170–2781 bc Total of 192 shells, O. myosotis clearly Further shallowing of the brackish water and (5120–4731 bp) dominating (70%). Hydrobia sp. (7%), clear transition to salt marsh as indicated by Muticaria sp. (5%), P. balmei (2%) the sharply increased presence of O. myosotis; at the base of this zone, this is coupled with Fewer marine molluscs and land snail an increase in coarse sand; no more evidence species than in A1; sharp rise in the of freshwater stream; decrease in leaf litter saltmarsh species O. myosotis taxa and the karstland species Muticaria sp. coupled with a decrease of taxa associated with very lightly vegetated steppe or garrigue B1 379–336 2469–1926 bc Total of 54 shells; no clearly dominating Sharp decrease in brackish water species, (4419–3876 bp) species. Muticaria sp. (11%), O. myosotis coupled with an increase in land snails; (7%), leaf litter species (9%),C. acicula (2%) beginning of breakdown of denser vegetation, washing leaf litter species likePleurodiscus Sharp decrease in the number of shells balmei into the channel; erosion is indicated found; no more marine or freshwater by C. acicula; open country/karstland snails, brackish water species occur species Muticaria sp. and P. papillaris occur irregularly in small numbers only throughout, taxa indicative of light vegetation are also present B2 336–300 2138–1579 bc Total of 40 shells, dominated by the land Significant breakdown of vegetation and stark (4088–3529 bp) snails C. acicula (33%). O. hydatinus (10%), increase in erosion inwash events indicated by Muticaria sp. (8%) C. acicula and the appearance of stones; this may point to aridification of the landscape, Further decrease in the number of shells which may have accelerated the breakdown found; assemblages consisted chiefly of denser vegetation with leaf litter species of land snails, brackish water species continuously being washed into the channel were rarely found; only one marine shell through increased erosion together with occurred at the top of this zone, together open country and ubiquitous taxa; the strong with land snails, perhaps due to an inwash presence of the burrower C. acicula suggests event severe erosion events; like in WŻ1, the sediment flux would have overwhelmed the brackish water taxa at times

125 Chapter 4

Table 4.4 (cont.). Zone Depth Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment WŻ2- (cm) ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) C1 300–273 1825–1258 bc Total of 82 shells; Bittium reticulatum Strong presence of stones and increasing coarse (3775–3208 bp) (34%), Rissoa sp. (8%), Hydrobia sp. sand may reflect the proximity of the shoreline (12%), O. myosotis (5%), Muticaria sp. or may result from higher-energy stream- (4%) flows; the molluscan assemblages may perhaps suggest one violent inwash event (at 285 cm) in Assemblages showed a strong this initially coherent sequence, where marine component of marine and brackish taxa (mainly Bittium sp.) are succeeded by the water associated mollusk; land snails lagoonal Hydrobia sp.; the land-derived inwash occurred throughout, but unlike in the event carried O. myosotis and various land snails previous zone, the burrower C. acicula from open country onto the site; after this event, only occurred once at the base of this Hydrobia sp. briefly dominate the assemblages, zone while more land snails like Muticaria sp. suggests inwash from the rocky sides of the wied and C. acuta, P. sulcatus and the helicoids suggest very lightly vegetated terrestrial habitats; marked decrease in diversity and abundance of leaf litter species may point to aridification of the landscape C2 273–228 1584–944 bc Total of 155 shells; Bittium reticulatum Again, the stony deposits could reflect (3534–2894 bp) (30%), Hydrobia sp. (8%), Muticaria sp. vigorous flows in the wied, as indicated by the (6%), C. acicula (2%) overwhelming presence of land snails at the base of this zone, including the erosion indicator/ Assemblages contained between 2 and burrower C. acicula; the following increase in sand 36 molluscs per sample, increasing may perhaps be consistent with the approach of towards the top of the zone; all were the shoreline, but land derived erosion continues heavily fragmented and belonged to to wash in open country and ubiquitous land snail marine, brackish water and terrestrial species, including C. acicula; perhaps as a result of environments aridification, only one leaf litter species was found in the entire zone; the continuation of O. myosotis and Hydrobia sp. points to a marginal lagoon/ saltmarsh environment, which gradually shows stronger marine influence towards the top of this zone C3 228–178 1127–375 bc Total of 52 shells; Coarse sand and stones continue to occur in this (3077–2325 bp) Bittium reticulatum (33%), Hydrobia sp. zone, again reflecting vigorous flows and possibly (10%), O. myosotis (21%), Muticaria sp. wave action with continuously rising sea levels, (8%) as also indicated by the increase in marine species like Bittium sp. O. myosotis features strongly at Number of molluscs varies between 4 the base of this zone but then occurs only once and 21 per sample, increasing irregularly again (at 185 cm); the persistence of Hydrobia sp. to up to 17 shells per sample; most is consistent with a lagoonal environment; leaf samples contained an admixture of litter species were only found once, at the base of marine, brackish water and land snail the zone, probably as a result of inwash events; species, but one sample contained only the other terrestrial species are consistent with land snails (at 193 cm); brackish water open, exposed habitats, with Muticaria sp. and T. species were generally the least common spratti suggesting inwash from the rocky sides of the wied C4 178–115 566 bc–ad 241 Total of 493 shells; Several stony deposits, possibly consistent (2516–1709 bp) Bittium reticulatum (44%), Hydrobia sp. with the approach of the open shoreline with (9%), Muticaria sp. (3%), T. subcylindrica rising sea levels, as also indicated by the (2%) overwhelmingly marine taxa; also here, the persistence of Hydrobia sp. in this zone points Increasing dominance of marine to a lagoonal environment; the marine taxa are molluscs in the mixed assemblages, more diverse and numerous than in WŻ1, but reaching more than 75% from 161 cm also here they were all very small and associated upwards; brackish water species are with sandy/muddy bottoms and marine algae, found in low numbers in most samples; possibly washing into the inlet; leaf litter species the number of land snails varies greatly were found only once in the entire zone (O. hydatinus), while the open country species persisted throughout, as did species associated with very light vegetation. C. acicula at the top may be the result of recent burrowing

126 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

4.5.1. Marsaxlokk (MX1)6 was taken at a distance of around 5 m from WŻ1 and The coring site was located on the northern shore in extended to 5.25 m, also without reaching bedrock. the inner harbour in Marsaxlokk Bay on a field at a The Bayesian model provides the date frames for both distance of less than 100 m from the sea. The multi-pe- cores, shown in Figure 4.2 and Tables 4.3 and 4.4. riod site of Tas-Silġ, occupied between the Neolithic Similarities can be observed between the coring Temple Period and Late Roman era is located less than sites WŻ1 and WŻ2, because of their proximity. Dif- 1 km uphill to the north (Bonanno & Vella 2015). The ferences in the zones in both cores may be because coring site is 1.25 m above present day sea-level. The the thalweg (i.e. the main channel) is quite narrow and Marsaxlokk 1 core (MX1) had a total reported depth meandering, with the meanders migrating through of 3.86 m and consisted of four core-tubes. time. This may have led to a cut-and-fill stratification, The basal date is likely to be in situ, but the dates where WZ2 would have missed the channel deposits above and the pottery fragment recovered from the containing Pseudamnicola moussonii in Zone A, but core are most certainly recycled. The Bayesian model received an increased stone inwash in Zone C. Table is used for the interpretation of the various zones, 4.5 compares and combines the data of both cores. which show one major inwash event (MX1-C), while the rest of the core shows a fairly steady small-scale 4.5.2.1. Conclusion: Wied Żembaq sedimentation since the early first millennium ad (Fig. The cores cover a good part of the Temple Period 4.1; Table 4.2). from around 3500 cal. bc and following periods up to The land snail assemblages in this core from cal. ad 115–829 (see Tables 2.3 & 2.4). They revealed Marsaxlokk showed a predominantly open country several changes in the palaeogeography and palae- (garrigue and karstland) environment. Only one oenvironment. It appears that the relative sea level leaf litter species was present (Xerotricha sp.), and was still rising at Wied Żembaq, possibly because of it occurred only twice, possibly indicating the past local tectonics, but it is also possible that what can be occurrence of shrubs. The majority of land snails seen as marine deepening and shallowing may reflect belonged to the ubiquitous group, which may reflect meandering of the channel and coastal change rather a disturbed environment. than sea level oscillations. The brown sediments which directly overlay the Molluscs in Zone A, dated from c. 3500 to c. 2300 bedrock are indicative of a buried B horizon of a well cal. bc in WŻ1 and WŻ2 (up to c. 2200 cal. bc), indicated developed palaeosol (see Chapter 5), in which any land that during the Temple Period, the landscape in Wied snails have weathered out long ago and only fragments Żembaq was dry and open, despite the presence of a of marine species survived. Given its position below perennial, running freshwater stream, as indicated present day sea level and the fact that marine-linked by P. moussonii. Evidence for this stream occurred quiet water sedimentation occurred one metre further only sporadically in zones A1 and A2 of WŻ1 and up, it is possible that there may have been fairly recent A1 of WŻ2, but was clearly manifest in A4 of WŻ1, tectonic displacement here. indicating a distinctive humidity event that possibly The section shows strong inwash of terrestrial led to the establishment of shrubs or dense vegetation material, but there are also signs for gentle, fairly further upstream. It appears from WŻ1 that the end continuous sedimentation close to a shoreline behind a of this zone (2300±200 cal. bc) may reflect events at bay-bar, in some kind of shallow lagoon with a marine the end of the Temple Period. Immediately following connection or in a shallow embayment only slightly the humidity event, a progressive breakdown of the connected with the open sea. landscape can be observed in both cores (Zone B), where now leaf litter shells (i.e. Lauria cylindracea) 4.5.2. Wied Żembaq (WŻ) were washed into the valley as a result of landscape Two cores were retrieved at a location close to St degradation. It is unclear whether this breakdown is a George’s Bay in Birżebbuġa in a flat area at the mouth result of anthropogenic pressure or severe aridification of Wied Żembaq. The coring site is 1.05 m above present or a combination of the two that led to the end of the day sea level and the distance from the present shore- Temple Period, as evidence for the freshwater stream line is around 250 m. Close by, on a hill overlooking did not reappear after this date. Erosion events, so the coring location, are the Neolithic remains of Borġ strong that even stones and the burrower Cecilioides in-Nadur and remnants of a Bronze Age settlement acicula were moved in the mud-flows, progressively and wall (Tanasi & Vella 2011a & b). accelerated to the end of this zone at about 1543±172 The Wied Żembaq 1 core (WŻ1) extended to a cal. bc (see Table 2.2) in the Bronze Age. Some sort of depth of 5.48 m and consisted of five tubes, but bed- stabilization can be observed in Zone C in both cores, rock was not reached. The Wied Żembaq 2 core (WŻ2) where however freshwater species remain absent, leaf 127 Chapter 4

Table 4.5. Integration of molluscan zones from Wied Żembaq cores 1 and 2. Date/Period Zone Description Environment cal. bc/ad (2σ)

c. 3500–2300 bc in A Both cores show broad similarities in the particle Dry and open landscape, lightly vegetated WŻ1 size distribution and molluscan assemblages, steppe or garrigue; denser vegetation probably though WŻ2 has the occurrence of P. moussonii further upstream; shallowing of lagoon and c. 3200–2200 bc in only once, towards the base of this zone; expansion of saltmarsh; presence of a perennial, WŻ2 sediments datable to the end of the Temple running freshwater stream Period were only found in WŻ1 Temple Period to Bronze Age c. 2300–1500 bc in B Strong similarities with regards to molluscan Aridification of the landscape, disappearance WŻ1 assemblages and particle size distribution of freshwater stream; breakdown of denser vegetation, increase in erosion; sharp decline in c. 2200–1500 bc in saltmarsh species, probably due to high influx of WŻ2 land-derived inwash of eroded sediment c. 1500 bc–ad 500 in C Broad similarity in the molluscan assemblages Reappearance of saltmarsh environment, WŻ1 and WŻ2 but differences in the particle size distribution, which however again progressively declines as probably due to a meandering of the channel lagoonal/marine species increase due to rising sea level; continuous aridification leads to sharp decrease in dense vegetation, open country/ karstland and light vegetation dominate litter species were scarce and the open country and little denser vegetation at times. Numerous strong ubiquitous species persisted throughout, while marine storm events caused inwash of land snails and often influence grew steadily, marginalizing the saltmarsh. fragmentary marine molluscs, together with coarse sand and gravel. These alternated with quieter phases 4.5.3. Mġarr ix-Xini (MĠX) characterized by fine-grained sediments and lagoonal The coring location was less than 100 m away from faunas. The continuously varied stratigraphy mirrored the present-day shoreline and in a level area towards the changing influences governing the site, with bay- the middle of an elongated alluvial plain at the mouth bars forming and breaching repeatedly. Evidence of Wied Mġarr ix-Xini that opens on the south-east- for viticulture was found from the late Punic Period ern coast of Gozo. The catchment area for the valley until a severe erosion event, probably around the is approximately 4.5 sq. km. There are no Neolithic third/fourth centuries ad, which may perhaps have remains in the immediate vicinity, but rock-cut trench- destroyed the vineyard. ing pans and vats, thought to be late Punic or Roman, have been found close by.7 The sediment core had a 4.5.4. Marsa 2 total reported length of 709 cm and extended from 0.34 The floodplain at Marsa, today largely covered by the to 7.43 m depth. It consisted of eleven core-tubes (see Marsa Sports Grounds, lies at the base of the largest description in chapter on cores). The Bayesian model catchment in the Maltese Islands (43.8 sq. km) and is provides the date frame for the core and the molluscan surrounded by numerous archaeological sites that zones are shown in Table 4.6. testify human presence at least from the Ġgantija phase onwards (c. 3450–3200 cal. bc) (Fenech 2007). 4.5.3.1. Conclusion: Mġarr ix-Xini The core had been extracted by a mechanical corer in The earliest sediments retained in this core were June 2002, prior to the building of a sports complex datable to the Punic period. Older sediments had not on the site at a distance of c. 200 m from the present been preserved at this site. Although a large quantity shoreline, and at a spot 1.18 m above mean sea level. of sediments was washed through fluvial action down As this core was not part of the FRAGSUS coring the valley of Mġarr ix-Xini, evidence for a perennial programme, soil colours and additional information freshwater stream was not found. It is possible that, are in Appendix 3.8 as in Wied Żembaq, there may have been a stream The core had a total length of 9.4 m, which in the more distant past, but run-off was already translated into 143 segments of 5 cm, divided in two ephemeral by the time sedimentation started in the halves. Problems were encountered when extracting Punic period. The light vegetation and karstland of the Marsa 2 core, caused by wet sandy sediments that the area is evident from the land snail faunas. Only could not be retained in the core and stones/boulders the very rare occurrences of leaf litter taxa suggest a that caused gaps in the stratification. 128 Molluscan remains from the valley cores 0 8 0 6 0 4 0 2 CONISS 3 1 2 1 I 2 E J F A H C G B B D D D Total sum of squares Zone 0 0 4 0 0

Total molluscs Total Burrower 0

8 Terrestrial

Brackish Brackish

4 Marine

Burrower Silt/clay 0

8 Fine sand Fine

Coarse sand Coarse

4 Gravel 0

2 Cecilioides acicula Cecilioides 0 8 0

4 Ubiquitous Helicioid fragments Helicioid 0

2 Theba pisana Theba 0

Pomatias sulcatus Pomatias Eobania vermiculata Eobania 0

2 Cochlicella acuta Cochlicella 0

2 Cernuella caruanae Cernuella 0

Open country

Trochoidea spratti Trochoidea

sp.

Rumina decollata Rumina 0

4 Muticaria Muticaria 0

Leaf litter

Papillifera papillaris Papillifera Granopupa granum Granopupa 0

2 Clausiliidae

Xerotrichsa conspurcata Xerotrichsa Truncatellina callicratis Truncatellina Brackish 0

2 Oxychilus hydatinus Oxychilus 0

2 Truncatella subcylindrica Truncatella 0

2 Ovatella myosotis Ovatella 0

8 sp.

4 Hydrobia 0

p Indet. marine Indet.

Turbonilla lactea Turbonilla

Retusa truncatula Retusa

sp.

Epitonium

sp.

Pisinna glabrata Pisinna Jujubinus Jujubinus

0 .

Gibberula p s

sp.

Alvania arine

M Ostrea

Conus ventricosus Conus p s

Gibbula

Hexaplex truncatus Hexaplex sp.

2 Pirenella conica Pirenella Nassarius Nassarius 0

Loripes lactea Loripes sp.

sp. 4

Cerithium

Tricolia

sp.

2 Rissoa

sp.

Bittium

sp.

Mġarr ix-Xini molluscan histogram (C.O. Hunt & K. Fenech). 0

Cardium sp. i 0 n

2 i Abra X

- Depth (cm) Depth 0 x 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 i 5

0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 r 1 1 2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7 r

a Calculated date BP date Calculated 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 g 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 1 2 3 4 M Figure 4.3. 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2

129 Chapter 4

Table 4.6. Molluscan zones for the Mġarr ix-Xini 1 core (MĠX1). Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) A 743–730 no date Total of 23 shells, of which Cerithium sp. Mixed marine environment, dominated (22%), Gibbula sp. (14%), Hydrobia sp. by sandy bottoms Cerithium( sp.) with (9%), Muticaria sp. (9%) hard substrate close by (Gibbula sp.); the few land snail fragments washed in Cracked bedrock interface with sand and were mainly Muticaria sp., P. sulcatus mud, containing molluscs from marine, and a few heliciid fragments, indicating brackish water/lagoonal and terrestrial a predominantly open, karstland environments environment with very little vegetation in the valley B1 730–683 at 702 cm: Total of 610 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Possible formation of a bay-bar may 487–236 bc (85%), Cerithium sp. (3%), Muticaria sp. have led to increasingly brackish water (2437–2186 bp) (1%) conditions; a combination of gravel, land snails General fining up of sediments and and marine molluscs at the base of this increase in the overall number of zone may point to a flood and storm molluscs, but an inwash with stones event, with soil erosion indicated by again at the top of the zone; land snails the presence of the burrower C. acicula; are present throughout, marine molluscs the presence of grape seeds of Vitis decrease while brackish water species vinifera attests viticultural activity increase considerably in the vicinity, in a landscape that was predominantly open, with light vegetation and grassland, surrounded by karstland (Muticaria sp., C. acuta, P. sulcatus) B2 683–607 448–194 bc Total of 340 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Continuation of brackish water (2398–2144 bp) (75%), Cerithium sp. (4%), Muticaria sp. conditions with lagoonal and marine (3%) influence; as in the previous zone, there appears to have been another fluvial Stones with coarse sand dominate most flood event in combination with a of this zone, silt/clay at the top; marine wave-based storm event; the increase molluscs in varying amounts were in marine diversity and coarse sand present in most samples, as were land compared to the previous zone may snails; brackish water species were the be due to stronger wave action; the most common land snails, chiefly Muticaria sp. and P. sulcatus, indicate a predominantly open country/karstland with little vegetation and grassland; seeds of Vitis vinifera indicate the continuation of viticulture in the vicinity C 607–568 288–24 bc Total of 186 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Possibly another storm event, where (2238–1974 bp) (72%), Cerithium sp. (10%), O. myosotis the waves would winnow finer material (2%), Muticaria sp. (2%) and once in suspension it would flow out to the sea as a gravity current and Number of shells decreased, possibly be lost to the site, as indicated by the due to rapid sedimentation; silty coarsening-upward pattern; strong soil brownish grey sediments at the base erosion is suggested by the burrower progressively getting lighter in colour C. acicula; seeds of Vitis vinifera indicate and coarsening up to the top of the zone; continuation of viticulture in the increase in sand and stones is coupled vicinity; with an increase in marine molluscs, absence of lagoonal species, but good while the land snail numbers remains presence of the infra-littoral sand species relatively steady, but low Cerithium sp. throughout in a brackish water environment dominated by Hydrobia sp.; presence of a saltmarsh is indicated by O. myosotis and the coastal species T. subcylindrica; first appearance of the leaf litter speciesO. hydatinus. Muticaria sp. and T. spratti indicate continuation of open country/karstland conditions, grassland is suggested by C. acuta.

130 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.6 (cont.). Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) D1 568–518 204 bc–ad 59 Total of 440 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Predominantly a brackish water (2154–1891 bp) (66%), Cerithium sp. (6%), Muticaria sp. (2%), environment with growing lagoonal/ C. acicula (2%) marine influence; decreased presence of saltmarsh species O. myosotis Increase in the number of shells found; and coastal T. subcylindrica; larger sediments were light grey and very sandy, diversity of land snails, indicating a coarsening upwards; stones were found mosaic of dense and light vegetation in only one sample, probably as a result and persistence of open country/ of a fluvial inwash event, as indicated by karstland; the high number of land snails and the severe terrestrial erosion is suggested burrower C. acicula; one sample at the base by the burrower C. acicula of the zone contained no land snails, all other samples had a mixture of marine, brackish water and land snails, with the brackish water species Hydrobia sp. dominating the assemblages D2 518–504 98 bc–ad 168 Total of 47 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. The marine molluscs washed onto (2048–1782 bp) (40%), Cerithium sp. (11%), Muticaria sp. the site came from sandy, lagoonal (4%) and rocky habitats, suggesting disturbed waters through wave In this thin sandy zone, the brackish water action during a storm; Hydrobia sp. Hydrobia sp. were a minority, a variety of were present, but at much lower land snails and marine molluscs dominated, numbers than in the previous zones; suggesting another storm event no leaf litter species were found, the land snail assemblages consisted chiefly of the karstland species Muticaria sp. and the ubiquitous C. caruanae and P. sulcatus. D3 504–447 67 bc–ad 197 Total of 740 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Mixed assemblage of marine species (2017–1753 bp) (79%), Cerithium sp. (3%), Alvania sp. (3%), from lagoonal, sandy and rocky Muticaria sp. (1%) habitats suggest strong wave- induced movement at the seafloor Light grey sandy sediments, often with during windstorms; these storms stones; sediments initially fining upwards, were likely combined with heavy indicating quieter times of sediment input rainfall as indicated by the presence but then coarsen upwards again, suggesting of land snails throughout, including an event; the occurrence of the burrower C. amounts of shells per sample greatly acicula; the land snail spectrum was varied between 9 and 353 individuals; all very similar to zone D1, indicating assemblages contained marine, brackish little change in the environment; water and land snails brackish water conditions persisted, but there was no longer evidence of a saltmarsh E 447–430 ad 59–318 Total of 60 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Due to the high stone and sand (1891–1632 bp) (22%), Cerithium sp. (27%), Gibbula sp. (5%), content, the mud snail Hydrobia sp. Muticaria sp. (5%), C. acicula (2%) was no longer dominant; the stone influx may be due to a fluvial inwash Mixed assemblages in all samples, very event, as indicated by the presence high stone and sand content of land snails, notably the karstland Muticaria sp. and the ubiquitous P. sulcatus, the latter being associated with soils, as is the burrower C. acicula; as before, the inwash event may have been in combination with a severe storm, which through wave action would have washed the proportionally high number of marine mollsucs, mainly associated with sand and rocky bottoms onto the site; continuation of viticultural activity close by

131 Chapter 4

Table 4.6 (cont.). Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) F 430–375 ad 96–356 Total of 782 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Initially the zone shows a fairly quiet (1854–1594 bp) (86%), Cerithium sp. (2%), Muticaria sp. brackish water environment with (1%) only very few marine molluscs and land snails being washed in, with Mixed assemblages throughout, but Hydrobia sp. reaching more than 300 the base of this zone shows a strong individuals in one sample (at 423 cm); dominance of the brackish water the situation changes soon afterwards mudsnail Hydrobia sp.; a sudden increase with a sudden influx of stones, coarse of sand and stones is accompanied by a and fine sand, fining up to the end of strong increase in marine and land snails this zone, but with silt/clay remaining reduced to around 10% only; during this episode, sand- and rock-associated marine molluscs are washed in, but the overall number of molluscs per sample decreases dramatically; the land snails contained no leaf litter- associated species and again reflect open country/karstland and lightly vegetated surroundings G 375–333 ad 218–474 Total of 569 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. Possibly due to a heightened bay-bar, (1732–1476 bp) (92%), T. spratti (2%), Muticaria sp. (1%), the marine influence is very little in this C. acicula (0.5%) zone, which is characterized initially by brackish water sandy muds; Hydrobia sp. Assemblages consisted chiefly of the reaches the highest percentages in the brackish water Hydrobia sp. with little core, indicating a fully blown brackish to no marine molluscan influx; initially, water environment; there was inwash of also the land snails were rare, but with an array of land snails, predominantly the sudden inwash of stones and coarse open country/karstland species; grape sand, possibly during a predominantly seeds suggest that viticulture was still fluvial event, their numbers increased practised at this time; a storm event led to the inwash of limestone pebbles accompanied by open country/karstland species, and heavily fragmented marine molluscs H 333–210 ad 313–566 Total of 289 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. The land snails show that the terrestrial (1637–1384 bp) (22%), Cerithium sp. (15%), B. reticulatum environment was highly open and (12%), Muticaria sp. (4%) exposed, throughout; there is no further evidence of viticulture being Despite the length of this zone, practised in the area; at the base of the number of molluscs found was this zone, there is an increase in coarse comparatively low, indicating dilution and fine sand; this is coupled with an during rapid sedimentation; the increase in marine shells and decrease molluscan assemblages are mixed, with a in land snails, indicating strong marine very strong marine and terrestrial input, influence; it is suggested that the severe considerably diminishing the brackish event at the end of zone G may have water influence, except at 296 cm, where led to the breakdown of the bay-bar, for the last time a clear brackish water dramatically diminishing the brackish environment was detected water body and increasing marine influence in the bay; the subsequent silt/clay unit was associated with a rise in Hydrobia sp. suggesting re-establishment of the brackish lagoon; coarsening sediments, which become predominantly stony, are then associated with a sharp decline in Hydrobia sp. and rise in marine molluscs; the final sediments in the zone are silt/clays, but contain mostly unidentifiable fragments of land and marine shells, while brackish water species are no longer present

132 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.6 (cont.). Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) I 210–138 ad 598–818 Total of 391 shells, of which Cerithium sp. Predominantly a sandy marine (1352–1132 bp) (28%), B. reticulatum (13%), Hydrobia sp. environment, where the influx of stones (5%), Muticaria sp. (2%) and silt/clay appears to be mainly land-derived through fluvial events, as The sediments consisted mainly of indicated by the presence of land snails; marine sands, at times with stones and the occurrence of O. myosotis points to a throughout with very little silt/clay; saltmarsh in the vicinity of the severely this was reflected in the molluscan diminished brackish water body as assemblages, which were dominated indicated by the low numbers of by an array of marine molluscs from Hydrobia sp. found; land snails occurred all kinds of substrates, with sand in low numbers in all samples, once dominating also including the burrower C. acicula, indicating land-derived erosion J 138–50 ad 753–982 Total of 217 shells, of which Hydrobia sp. The last zone shows the silting up of (1197–968 bp) (32%), Cerithium sp. (8%), Alvania sp. 5%, the bay and turning it from marine Muticaria sp. (7%) to terrestrial through increased land- derived erosion; marine wave action Most of the molluscan assemblages plays a diminishing role, brackish- contained marine, brackish water and water shells also occur, but in very land snail species, in low numbers; the low numbers; here C. acicula may be number of marine molluscs decrease as intrusive as a burrower; the presence of land snails increases; the the land snails continue to attest the silting-up of the bay is also indicated by open country/karstland of the previous the increase in silt/clay and changing zones; leaf litter is scarce, there is sediment colour to light brown very light vegetation and grassland as suggested by e.g. T. pisana and C. acuta

As there was a lack of suitable material for dat- bodies in the vicinity: a perennial running freshwater ing in the lower three metres of the core, the first date stream, slow moving water/ponds and associated obtained was at 6.17 m, placing that part of the core into wetlands at least since the end of the Late Bronze Age the end of the Late Bronze Age. The Bayesian model onwards, until the harbour silted up. During the era was adopted to calculate the age against the depth of of the Knights of St John, the area was described as a the core from this date onwards. With the help of the swamp, and the water of the freshwater stream was CONISS analysis, the core could be sub-divided into collected in a reservoir (Abela 1647). five major zones (Fig. 2.4; Table 2.7). The terrestrial environment throughout appeared to be predominantly open, with some light vegetation. 4.5.4.1. Conclusion: Marsa Evidence for dense vegetation/scrub was found from Despite the 9.4 m length of the core, the sediments the end of the Late Bronze Age onwards, but could that presumably belonged to prehistory could not be have, like the freshwater environments, existed before securely dated and hardly contained any land snails. as these shells were found in the same levels. The noted As such, it is difficult to draw any conclusions about reduction of the freshwater environments in Zone D the prehistoric environment other than ‘open and also had an impact on the leaf litter snails and it is lightly vegetated’. possible that this may have been because of progressive The area of the coring site was formerly subjected aridification. The lack of vegetation cover may have to numerous high-energy events, which included led to more intense erosion, which then eventually led land-derived flooding, during which vast amounts of to the silting up of the harbour, gradually turning it sediments that often contained stones were carried into eventually into a terrestrial environment. the harbour. An unknown amount of these deposited sediments may have then been subjected to further 4.5.5. Salina Deep Core erosion. Wave-action during windstorm events also The coring site lies at the end of the Burmarrad Plain, could have led to the removal and redeposition of a large alluvial plain at the base of the second larg- marine sediments at the coring site. est catchment in Malta, with an area of 34.8 sq. km. Nonetheless, the eventful stratigraphy also Numerous archaeological remains, including two Neo- showed that in the past there was an array of freshwater lithic temples in the vicinity, date back to the Temple 133 Chapter 4 ares u S 12 0 S s q I of 0

6 m CO N s u a l t e 2 1 n I J E L T o K B C A H G D M o F F Z

100 0

r e

Total molluscs Total w

u B

Terrestrial

Freshwater/wetlands 8

e 0

n Brackish i

r a

4 M

/ t

n d i

n e

er s F r

w o o C r

40 8 0 Gravel B u

40 8 0 s Cecilioides acicula Cecilioides u it o 0

iq u

U b id

c i

4 l e H

Theba pisana Theba

Pomatias sulcatus Pomatias

4 Cochlicella acuta Cochlicella r y n t 0

2 Cernuella caruanae Cernuella

co u en 0 O p 0 8

4 itte r spratti Trochoidea l

sp.

f Rumina decollata Rumina

e a

Papillifera papillaris Papillifera

Muticaria

sp.

l i

Granopupa granum Granopupa

s l

spp. an d Xerotricha 0 et l

Vitrea

antivertigo

/ schlickumi

cf. Truncatellina callicratis Truncatellina

cf.

ate r Oxychilus hydatinus Oxychilus

w h Vertigo

e s Carychium

Planorbis planorbis Planorbis

Planorbis moquini Planorbis

truncatus

cf. Lymnaea truncatula Lymnaea

Pisidium casertanum Pisidium

Bulinus ish F fluviatilis Ancylus

c k

Pseudamnicola moussonii Pseudamnicola Oxyloma elegans Oxyloma

Br a Truncatella subcylindrica Truncatella 0

4 Ovatella myosotis Ovatella

0 sp. 8

a 4 id 0

2 r e Hydrobia

n e V

sp.

2 Abra 0

4 Tapes decussatus Tapes 0

2 Pecteniidae Parvicardium exiguum Parvicardium 0 8 0

4 Ostrea edulis Ostrea Loripes lacteus Loripes

ne Kellia suborbicularis Kellia

ar i M sp. 0 8 0

4 Cerastoderma

0 sp. 8

Cardiidae 4

Acanthocardia Turbonilla lactea Turbonilla 0

Rissoa ventricosa Rissoa

Retusa truncatula Retusa Pirenella conica Pirenella 0

2 Hexaplex trunculus Hexaplex 0

4 Gibbula adansoni Gibbula

0 spp. 8 0

4 Cerithium Marsa 2 molluscan histogram (C.O. Hunt & K. Fenech). 0 8

0 )

m c

ittium reticulatum ittium

(

B h t

) P 0 0 D

5 B

l 10 0 15 0 20 0 25 0 30 0 35 0 40 0 45 0 50 0 55 0 60 0 65 0 70 0 75 0 80 0 85 0 90 0 95 0

(

s e

at 50 0 D 100 0 150 0 200 0 250 0 300 0 330 0 Figure 4.4. Mars a 134 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.7. Molluscan zones for the Marsa 2 core (MC2). Zone Depth Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment (cm) ad (bp) for the start MC2- of each zone (2σ) A 943–900 no date Bedrock and sterile sediments at the base B 900–680 no date Total of 97 shells, of which A marine environment is clearly suggested by Cerastoderma sp. 24%, Ostrea sp. 13%, the number and variety of marine molluscs Cerithium sp. 11%, Hydrobia sp. 9% and found, indicating fluctuations between C. acicula 2% lagoonal (e.g. Cerastoderma sp.), marine (e.g. B. reticulatum and Cerithium sp.) and Despite the length of the zone, brackish water conditions (Hydrobia sp.); the only a few molluscs were found, predominantly sandy/gravelly sediments are most of them heavily fragmented; likely gravity-flow deposits spreading out the molluscan assemblages were across the bottom of the harbour from floods in predominantly marine, but often the catchment; the deposited sediments which mixed with a few brackish water and included stones and boulders, at times also land snails contained land snail fragments, while many samples were completely sterile, indicating rapid deposition, especially at the top of the zone; severe land-derived erosion is also indicated by the burrower C. acicula; the few land snails point to open country with light vegetation (T. spratti and C. acuta) C 680–645 no date Total of 22 shells, of which T. spratti A sudden mass of land derived sediments and 45%, Cerithium sp. 5%, C. acicula 5% molluscs at the beginning of this zone suggest very strong erosion of open country soils into Mainly land snail assemblages with the harbour basin only a few marine molluscs; high stone and coarse sand content, fining upwards D 645–590 at 617 cm: Total of 2122 shells, of which Hydrobia Lagoonal and brackish water biota dominate 1521–876 bc sp. 41%, Cerastoderma sp. 15%, B. again and increase strongly in number in (3471–2826 bp) reticulatum 10%, P. moussonii 0.7 %, T. muddy sandy sediment; severe soil erosion, spratti 2%, C. acicula 2% however, continues as evidenced by the burrower C. acicula; an array of freshwater The molluscan assemblages at the molluscs was also washed onto the site, base consisted of a few land snails indicating perennial running water (P. only, but gradually get mixed with moussonii) as well as slow moving water, marine, brackish water and freshwater ponds (e.g. Lymnaea sp.), and wetlands (e.g. molluscs, dramatically increasing the C. schlickumi) in the vicinity; the presence of total number of shells per sample; dense vegetation is suggested by the leaf litter only a few stones found, but sand snails (e.g. Vitrea sp.) increased to around 50% E 590–523 1407–765 bc The zone was missing due to wet Likely rapid deposition of sandy sediments, (3357–2715 bp) sandy sediments possibly due to a very severe storm event

F1 523–355 1164–593 bc Total of 15019 shells, of which The brackish water snail Hydrobia sp. was the (3114–2543 bp) Hydrobia sp. 43%, Cerastoderma sp. most common species found, but marine and 14%, B. reticulatum 9%, P. moussonii lagoonal influence remained noticeable; 1%, C. acuta 2%, C. acicula 1% Strong soil erosion continued throughout Molluscan assemblages are this zone, as the burrower C. acicula was predominantly marine, with a very present throughout; the floodwaters also strong brackish water signature; carried freshwater molluscs out of perennial freshwater molluscs and land snails freshwater bodies into the harbor; a stream, occur throughout, the total number slow moving freshwater bodies, ponds and of shells per sample vary significantly associated wetlands are indicated; the leaf litter throughout; some stones occurred snails suggest dense vegetation/scrub, while towards the base, but the sandy open country species were also washed in; the muddy sediments broadly portray a grassland species C. acuta was proportionally fining upwards trend most common in the lower third of the zone but they occurred throughout alongside other Helicioids, indicating light vegetation

135 Chapter 4

Table 4.7 (cont.). Zone Depth Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment (cm) ad (bp) for the start MC2- of each zone (2σ) F2 355–290 292 bc–ad 215 Total of 2105 shells, of which Hydrobia Dramatic change in the environment; mainly (2242–1735 bp) sp. 67%, Cerastoderma sp. 6%, B. brackish water, as suggested by Hydrobia reticulatum 12%, P. moussonii 0.04 %, C. sp., with a saltmarsh close by (O. myosotis); acuta 2% marine and lagoonal influences appear less pronounced than in the previous zone; Mixed molluscan assemblages freshwater bodies and wetlands seem to have throughout, predominantly brackish significantly diminished: only the perennial water, with waning marine influence; running freshwater P. moussonii was found land snails occurred in all samples, the in small numbers intermittently; a slow freshwater snail diversity was greatly moving water/pond is only once suggested diminished and the total number of by P. planorbis; the reduction of the freshwater shells per sample was lower than in bodies may be due to anthropogenic the previous zone; the sediments were interventions in the swampy plain or due to mainly silty clays that contained less aridification; erosion continued to occur, but sand than before, with the coarse sand leaf litter species were no longer found, and content fining upwards even open country species were rare; the few ubiquitous species indicate light vegetation/ grassland G 290–255 ad 268–575 Total of 120 shells, of which Hydrobia Predominantly marine environment with a (1682–1375 bp) sp. 32 %, Bittium reticulatum 27%, C. strong brackish water influence, as suggested acuta 3% and C. acicula 2% by the diminished number of Hydrobia sp.; no freshwater or wetland shells were found in this This zone marks the beginning zone; the very few land snails are indicative of another event, coarsening up of grassland (C. acuta) and light vegetation to a boulder in the next zone; the (Helicioid fragments); the erosion indicator number of shells strongly decreased C. acicula was found at the base of the zone, progressively, the uppermost sample which, coupled with the increase in the stone of this zone only contained one content, marked yet another severe erosion shell; concurrently, the stone content event increased dramatically H 255–210 ad 490–775 No shell content; this unit consists of The boulder probably reflects a storm (1460–1175 bp) a boulder I 210–168 ad 701–1047 Total of 449 shells, of which Hydrobia A saltmarsh seems to have occurred briefly at (1249–903 bp) sp. 53%, P. moussonii 5%, C. acuta 8%, the base of this zone, indicated by O. myosotis; T. spratti 4% brackish water environments then became established; a running perennial freshwater The assemblages were mixed, stream and slow moving water are indicated although marine molluscs occur only nearby; dense vegetation is suggested once once; brackish water species generally by Vitrea sp.: the other land snails indicate dominated, land snails were found in open country/garrigue (e.g. T. spratti), light all samples, freshwater shell occurred vegetation and grassland is suggested by the occasionally; the sediments were ubiquitous species and C. acuta; the presence coarsening up towards the top of the of the burrower C. acicula in these waterlain zone deposits points to severe soil erosion J 168–125 ad 917–1266 No shell content; this unit consists of The boulder probably reflects a storm (1033–684 bp) a boulder K 125–77 ad 1148–1496 Total of 203 shells, of which C. acuta The former brackish water environment (802–454 bp) 42%, C. caruanae 10%, T. spratti 4%, P. has now turned into a terrestrial one – the moussonii 2%, Lymnaea sp. 2% assemblages contained only land snails and a few freshwater snails; apart from this change, The assemblages above the second the shells found indicate similar terrestrial stone contained no marine or brackish and freshwater environments as in zone I; water species; a few freshwater dense vegetation in the vicinity is suggested molluscs were interspersed with the by the presence of Xerotricha sp. C. acicula, land snails formerly an indicator of erosion, may now be authochtonous; there is no evidence for a saltmarsh L 77–33 ad 1427–1717 The sediments were wet and sandy Continuation of silting up of the former (523–233 bp) and could not be retrieved by the corer harbour

136 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.7 (cont.). Zone Depth Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment (cm) ad (bp) for the start MC2- of each zone (2σ) M 33–0 ad 1699–1901 Total of 70 shells, of which C. acuta The zone shows a terrestrial environment, (251–49 bp) 17%, C. caruanae 16% T. spratti 10%, which no longer had a notable freshwater Vitrea spp. 1% influence, possibly as a result to anthropogenic action as the swamps had been drained and The assemblages exclusively the freshwater source diverted to a reservoir contained land snails; the sediments (Abela 1674); the land snails point to similar contained a small stone only once, and environments as before, with dense vegetation generally showed a stable sand/silt/ in the vicinity (Vitrea spp.), open country clay content (T. spratti), grassland (C. acuta) and light vegetation (C. caruanae); the presence of the burrower C. acicula may here be intrusive and not the result of erosion events

Period (Evans 1971). The Salina Deep Core (SDC) was The marine taxa present in the lowest parts of extracted in January 2014 from beside the sea water the core are in terrestrial sediments of probable Late channel (Is-Sukkursu) by the Salina salt pans using a Pleistocene age. These assemblages are thus very likely mechanical corer. The core reached an overall depth to be recycled. The CONISS clustering groups some of 28.5 m, but as a result of loss of material in the first of these with the basal assemblages of the Holocene 11 m while coring, caused by hydro-collapse of wet and marine transgression. This is perhaps suggestive that sandy sediments, only material from 11 m downwards the marine environments in which these molluscs lived could be analysed (see Chapter 2). The segments of during previous temperate phases were very similar core studied varied in length between 3 and 13 cm. to those during the initial stages of the Holocene Freshwater and land snails were identified and counted transgression, with turbid, turbulent waters, perhaps (Fig. 4.5; Table 4.8). Marine and brackish water species of slightly abnormal salinity. were also identified and counted, but as their species As the marine transgression continued, the Salina diversity and abundance was disproportionately larger Inlet rapidly achieved normal marine salinities. Two than the non-marine molluscan assemblages, they were mildly eutrophic phases, marked by fairly restricted plotted separately (Fig. 4.6; Table 4.8). faunas with high Corbula gibba, are apparent early in The Bayesian model provides the date range for the transgression, during the base of zone C and during this core from about 8000 to 2000 cal. bc (see Table 2.2). zone E. C. gibba is able to flourish in oxygen-poor waters With the help of the CONISS analysis, the non-marine and is thus regarded as a marker for eutrophication. In molluscs in the core could be sub-divided into twelve the deep sea, for instance in the Adriatic (e.g. Siani et zones. al. 2000) the S1 Sapropel (a layer highly organic mud formed as a result of widespread eutrophication) is 4.5.5.1. Conclusion: Salina Deep Core contemporary with the second and more marked of A high sedimentation rate affected the area since at least these phases of eutrophication, thus suggesting that c. 6000 cal. bc. In the space of 1500 years alone, nearly Malta was affected by an event of regional significance. 12 m of sediments filled the sea water channel (Is-Suk- These events in the Salina borehole are contemporary kursu), although the actual sedimentation is likely to with pollen diagram phases marked by high Pistacia have occurred through severe storm episodes rather scrub and interpreted as indicative of periods of higher than at a steady pace, as indicated by the presence of rainfall at about 6700–6600, 6300–6200, 4300–4100 the burrowing snail C. acicula. From earliest prehistoric and 3400–2800 cal. bc (see Fig. 3.3). It is tentatively times to at least 2000 cal. bc, there was ample perennial suggested that leaching during these phases led to freshwater in the plain, forming slow moving water nutrient enrichment and thus eutrophication in the bodies and perhaps ponds, with associated wetland confined waters of the Salina Inlet and more widely vegetation (Fig. 4.6; Table 4.9), as is indicated by the throughout the central Mediterranean. aquatic freshwater taxa. The availability of freshwater A further phase marked by low diversity and may have encouraged dense vegetation, allowing the high C. gibba and suggestive of eutrophication is pres- leaf litter snail species to form a prominent group in ent in zone H, at 22 m. This coincides with the first this analysis, but open country/karstland species also appearance of cereal pollen and coprophilous fungal occurred throughout. spores. It can therefore be suggested that eutrophication 137 Chapter 4 4 . 2 1.8 1.2 CONISS 6 . Dissimilarity 0 e n I F J 1 K B A H D G C o E2 E Z 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 Total non-marine molluscs non-marine Total Total non-marine 0 0

1 Silt/clay 0 8 0

6 Fine sand Fine 0

4 Coarse sand Coarse Grain size 0

% Gravel 0 0 1

0 Burrower 8 0

6 Terrestrial 0 4 0

2 Freshwater/wetlands Burrower 0 0 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 Cecilioides acicula Cecilioides 0 0 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 Helicoidae 0 4 s u 0 o

2 i u sulcatus Pomatias q i 0 b

U Eobania vermiculata Eobania 0 6 0 4 0

Cochlicella acuta Cochlicella Chondrula pupa Chondrula 0 0 1 0 8 0 6 0

sp. 0

Cernuella caruanae Cernuella Xerotrichia 0 0 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 Open country 0

2 Trochoidea spratti Trochoidea 0 4 0

2 Rumina decollata Rumina 0

Papillifera papillaris Papillifera

sp. 0 4 0

Muticaria Granopupa granum Granopupa 0 4 0

2 Clausiliidae 0 0 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 Truncatellina callicratis Truncatellina 0

spp.

Leaf litter 2 Vitrea 0 0 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 Oxychilus hydatinus Oxychilus 0 0 1 0 8 0

6 Wetlands folliculus 0

antivergo

. 0 f

Frussaccia

Vertigo

schlickumi

Vallonia pulchella Vallonia

Oxyloma elegans Oxyloma

Carcchium

Planorbis moquini Planorbis 0

Pisidium

Slow-moving water, ponds s 0 4 0

2 Lymnaea 0 4 0

Gyraulus crista Gyraulus

truncatus

. 0 f

c 4 0

2 Bulinus 0 0 1 0 Salina Deep Core molluscan histogram (C.O. Hunt & K. Fenech). 8 e r Running freshwater 0 6 o 0 C 4 p 0 2

e % non-marine molluscs Pseudamnicola/Mercuria

e Ancylus fluviatilis Ancylus D

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 a (cm) Depth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 n 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 i l

0 0 0 0 0 a BP dates Calculated 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S 9 8 7 6 5 Figure 4.5.

138 Molluscan remains from the valley cores 4 2 0 2 6 1 2 1 8 CONISS 4 Total sum of squares I F E B A D C H G o n e Z 0 0 5 1 0 0 0 1 0

5 Total molluscs Total 0

1 Eutrophic 0 8

6 Marine 0 4

2 Lagoonal 0

0 Silt/clay 1 0

8 Fine sand Fine 0 6

0 Coarse sand Coarse 4

2 Gravel 0 0 1 0 8 e 0 n i 6 r a 0 4 M

Bittium reticulatum Bittium Gibbula adansoni Gibbula 0 4

2 sp.

Rissoa ventricosa Rissoa

c conica Pirenella

sp.

h Gibberula p o

r 0

t 2 Alvania E u 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 l a gibba Corbula n o

o 0

sp. 4 g a

0 L

2 Abra 0 0 1 0 8 0 6 0 4

2 Cerastoderma glaucum Cerastoderma

. sp

0 4

2 Hydrobia

Marine molluscan histogram for the Salina Deep Core (C.O. Hunt & K. Fenech). Depth 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

0 0 0 0

Calculated dates BP dates Calculated

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

7 6 5 8 Salinas Deep Core Figure 4.6.

139 Chapter 4

Table 4.8. The non-marine molluscan zones for the Salina Deep Core. Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) A 2850–2680 7737–6811 bc Among 2183 marine and brackish Basal part possibly belongs to the Late (9687–8761 bp) water molluscs, a total of 39 freshwater Pleistocene and includes recycled marine and land snails, of which P. moussonii and possibly non-marine molluscs; marine 15%, Muticaria sp. 15%, P. sulcatus 9%, Holocene starting at around 2696 cm; Lymnaea sp. 6%, O. hydatinus 3% predominantly an open country/ karstland environment (Muticaria sp.) with very Assemblages consisted of only land light vegetation (Helicioidae); Evidence of snail fragments at the base of the running freshwater stream (P. moussonii) zone; freshwater shells were found and shortly after of shallow pond from 2690 cm onwards, together (Lymnaea sp.) and associated wetlands with land snails; the sediments at the from c. 9000 bp onwards; concurrently, base were initially very stony, then appearance of denser vegetation/scrub (O. predominantly silty/clayey and then hydatinus) very sandy at the top of the zone B 2680–2518 6925–6494 bc Among 6267 marine and brackish Presence of running freshwater stream (8875–8444 bp) water molluscs, a total of 44 freshwater (P. moussonii) and shallow pool with and land snails, of which P. moussonii poor conditions (Lymnaea sp.), as well 16%, Lymnaea sp. 11%, Vitrea spp. 9%, as grassland (C. acuta), open country/ T. spratti 9%, C. acuta 9% and C. acicula karstland and garrigue (T. spratti) 2% particularly in the lower part of the zone; no evidence for wetlands throughout; the Several samples devoid of land- and upper part suggests a breakdown of the freshwater shells, especially in samples dense vegetation, where leaf litter species that contained more than 70% of sand, (Vitrea sp.) were also washed onto the indicating marine events, particularly site; severe soil erosion is suggested by C. in the upper half of the zone acicula in the upper part of the zone

C 2518–2500 6502–6146 bc Among 664 marine and brackish water Strong erosion washed in a large number (8452–8096 bp) molluscs, a total of 63 freshwater and of shells, indicating a fast running land snails, of which Vitrea sp. 22%, freshwater stream (P. moussonii and A. P. moussonii 16%, Lymnaea sp. 13%, C. fluviatis), slow moving water/pond rich acicula 13% and C. caruanae 6% in vegetation (Lymnaea sp. and G. crista), dense vegetation (Vitrea sp.), as well Sharp increase in the number of shells as open country and patches of light found; silty/clayey sediment was vegetation (C. caruanae), but again, and mixed with substantial amount of fine hereafter, no evidence for wetlands sand D 2500–2335 6468–6114 bc Among a total of 7963 marine and Strong land-derived erosion at the base (8418–8064 bp) brackish water molluscs, 70 freshwater of the zone; persistence of freshwater and land snails, of which P. moussonii bodies but at the top of the zone no more 14%, Lymnaea sp. 13%, T. callicratis evidence for running freshwater stream, 10%, C. caruanae 10%, T. spratti 4% and possibly as a result of aridification; C. acicula 4% increase in the percentage of leaf litter snails, possibly as a result of breakdown Decrease in the number of shells of dense vegetation; open country (T. found; silty sediments are initially spratti) and patches of grassland with light mixed with a lot of sand, but towards vegetation in the vicinity the top of the zone predominantly silty/clayey E1 2335–2305 6187–6926 bc Among a total of 4448 marine and Severe soil erosion (C. acicula), resurgence (8137–7876 bp) brackish water aolluscs, 52 freshwater of freshwater stream (P. moussonii) and and land snails, of which Vitrea spp. continuation of vegetated slow-moving 25%, P. moussonii 13%, Lymnaea sp. water/pond (Lymnaea sp. and G. crista); 13%, O. hydatinus 11%, C. caruanae 11% environment similar to the previous zone and C. acicula 10%

Marked increase in the number of shells; sediments contained notably more sand than at the end of the previous zone

140 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.8 (cont.). Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) E2 2305–1955 6123–5891 bc Among 2992 marine and brackish Massive land-derived erosion (C. acicula), (8073–7841 bp) water molluscs, a total of 30 freshwater liberating leaf litter taxa as well as open and land snails, of which O. hydatinus country and taxa associated with light 20%, C. caruanae 14%, C. acuta 10%, P. vegetation; paucity of shells found is likely moussonii 7% and C. acicula 7% to be due to the very rapid sedimentation

Sharp decrease in the number of molluscs, with many samples containing no shells; sediments were very clayey with little fine sand F 1955–1925 5609–5142 bc Among 162 marine and brackish water Highest proportion on non-marine shells (7559–7362 bp) molluscs, a total of 22 freshwater and possibly due to another severe land- land snails, of which O. hydatinus 32%, derived erosion event (C. acicula), this C. caruanae 27%, P. moussonii 14%, C. time accompanied by an increase in fine acicula 14% and Lymnaea sp. 9% sand after perhaps a brief respite which could have allowed the environment and Short zone, where the land-derived snail populations to recover; environment inwash contained an increase in fine appears to be similar to the previous sand and shells zone, with a running freshwater stream (P. moussonii), a pond (Lymnaea sp.), some dense vegetation (O. hydatinus) and light vegetation (C. caruanae) G 1925–1670 5583–5380 bc Among 650 marine and brackish water Massive erosion (C. acicula), now possibly (7533–7330 bp) molluscs, a total of 43 freshwater and as a result of early agriculture, which land snails, of which C. acicula 28%, would have led to a breakdown of the P. moussonii 25%, O. hydatinus 23%, B. vegetation, allowing leaf litter and other cf. truncatus 7%, T. spratti 2% and C. taxa to be liberated and carried into the acuta 2% inlet; fewer taxa would have arrived once the stores in the soil had been exhausted; Relatively fewer shells found, with as in Zone E2, intermittent evidence of some samples containing no non- permanent freshwater bodies (P. moussonii, marine shells at all; amount of fine G. crista); appearance of B. cf. truncatus, sand varied, but sediments were indicative of transient, patchily distributed predominantly very silty/clayey ponds, possibly as a result of the ongoing erosion H 1670–1550 5256–4909 bc Among 790 marine and brackish Even more massive erosion (C. acicula), (7206–6859 bp) water molluscs, a total of 40 freshwater possibly fluctuating hydrology levels (P. and land snails, of which C. acicula moussoni and Lymnaea sp. once replaced 33%, C. caruanae 23%, P. moussonii 7%, by B. cf. truncatus); more leaf litter species Lymnaea sp. 3% and Vitrea spp. 3% released, perhaps due to a renewed breakdown of the vegetation Short zone, with a general increase in the number of shells; predominantly silty/clayey sediments with an increase in sand compared with the previous zone I 1550–1330 4805–4306 bc Among 20845 marine and brackish Continuous erosion with marine and (6755–6256 bp) water molluscs, a total of 316 terrestrial inwash events (C. acicula), freshwater and land snails, of which C. increase in erosion of grassland (C. acuta), acicula 19%, C. caruanae 19%, C. acuta open country/karstland and areas with 14%, P. moussonii 8% and Lymnaea sp. dense and light vegetation (O. hydatinus 8% and C. caruanae); presence of fast running freshwater (P. moussonii and A. fluviatis), Increase in the number of shells, ponds rich in vegetation (Lymnaea sp. and possibly due to intermittent periods G. crista) and reappearance of wetlands of stabilizing environmental/climatic conditions, although erosion still continued unabated; samples initially contained up to 50% of sand, fining upwards to around 25%

141 Chapter 4

Table 4.8 (cont.). Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) J 1330–1213 3866–3038 bc Among 33124 marine and brackish Evidence of massive erosion and terrestrial (5816–4988 bp) water molluscs, a total of 443 inwash throughout (C. acicula), mainly freshwater and land snails, of which C. eroding areas of grassland (C. acuta) acuta 32%, C. acicula 14%, P. moussonii and very light vegetation (C. caruanae); 10%, Lymnaea sp. 6% and Vitrea spp. 5% continuous presence of freshwater bodies, as in the previous zone, but no wetland Increase in the amount of non-marine species were found; leaf litter shells were molluscs, reaching a maximum of 78 still washed in, as were open country/ shells per sample; sediments are silty/ karstland species, with a notable increase clayey with a high sand content (up of the garrigue species T. spratti to 50%) K 1213–1100 3198–2435 bc Among 19107 marine and brackish Continuous evidence of strong terrestrial (5148–4385 bp) water molluscs, a total of 277 inwash and erosion (C. acicula); running freshwater and land snails, of which C. freshwater stream still present (P. acuta 16%, C. acicula 14%, P. moussonii moussonii), but may have been reduced 14%, T. spratti 10%, Lymnaea sp. 7%, in size and flow strength as A. fluviatis is and Vitrea spp. 5% no longer found; disappearance of B. cf. truncatus, G. crista, P. moquini and Pisidium Number of shells found comparatively sp. may point to severe aridification and an similar to the variations in the previous impoverished pond environment, in which zone; the sediments also contained a only Lymnaea sp. survived; the land snails similar amount of sand, first increasing found are very similar to the previous zone (coarsening up) and then decreasing and as such show little change (fining up)

Table 4.9. Molluscan zones for the Salina Deep Core (SDC). Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. bc Molluscan assemblages Environment (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) A 2850–2805 unknown 2183 marine and brackish water molluscs; very Basal part of core is terrestrial, possibly small, sometimes mono-specific, assemblages; of Late Pleistocene age, including taxa include Cerastoderma glaucum, Abra sp., recycled marine taxa Corbula gibba, Bittium reticulatum B 2805–2700 unknown Very small assemblages dominated by Basal part of zone is terrestrial, possibly Cardiidae, C. glaucum, Acanthocardia sp., C gibba, of Late Pleistocene age, including B. reticulatum recycled marine taxa; highest part is base of Holocene marine sequence, with a low-diversity assemblage characteristic of rather confined, turbid, turbulent environments of possibly slightly abnormal salinity; B. reticulatum suggests presence of marine vegetation C 2700–2565 7008–6533 bc Larger, higher-diversity assemblages, dominated Assemblages are consistent with a (8958–8483 bp) by B. reticulatum, C gibba, Cerastoderma spp. and mosaic of environments including fine with lesser Abra sp. Nassarius sp, Acanthocardium sand, gravel, rock, marine vegetation sp., Rissoa sp. Ostrea edulis, Cerithium sp. Kellia and normal marine salinities, with an spp. and Hydrobia spp. input from brackish waters; high C. gibba in the basal part of the zone may suggest modest eutrophication D 2565–2375 6601–6211 bc Assemblages dominated by B. reticulatum, Assemblages suggest marine waters (8551–8161 bp) C. gibba, Cerastoderma spp. and with lesser with a mosaic of substrates, including Parvicardium exigens, Abra sp., Acanthocardia sp., fine sand, gravel, rock, marine Rissoa sp. and Kellia sp. vegetation E 2375–2300 6263–5971 bc Fairly sizeable assemblages of moderate Assemblages suggest quite turbid, (8213–7921 bp) diversity, dominated by C. gibba, Abra sp., B. eutrophic marine waters with limited reticulatum, with lesser Parvicardium sp, Retusa marine plants and a waning connection truncatula, Acanthocardia sp., Kellia sp. Hydrobia to brackish waters sp.

142 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.9 (cont.). Zone Depth (cm) Date ranges cal. bc Molluscan assemblages Environment (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) F 2300–2208 6115–5883 bc Small, relatively low-diversity assemblages Assemblages are suggestive of marine (8065–7833 bp) dominated by B. reticulatum, with some Rissoa waters with abundant marine plants sp., C. gibba and Hydrobia sp. and rocky and gravelly bottoms, and a connection to brackish, perhaps lagoonal waters G 2208–2190 5990–5716 bc Small, low-diversity assemblages dominated by The assemblages are suggestive of fairly (7940–7666 bp) B. reticulatum and C. gibba, with some Cardiidae eutrophic marine waters with muddy and Abra sp. and gravelly bottoms and abundant marine vegetation H 2190–2110 5964–5684 bc Small assemblages with low but rising diversity, These assemblages are consistent with (7914–7634 bp) dominated by C. gibba, with some B. reticulatum, a rather eutrophic marine to brackish Hydrobia spp., Cardiidae and Acanthocardium sp. environment, with predominantly gravelly bottoms and some marine vegetation I 2110–1915 Small assemblages with high diversity, Assemblages are suggestive of normal dominated by B. reticulatum, with some marine waters with a slight connection Cerastoderma spp., Loripes lacteum, Parvicardium to brackish waters; there was abundant exiguum, Abra sp., C. gibba, Rissoa spp., Cerithium marine vegetation and a mixture of spp. and Hydrobia spp. muddy, gravelly and rocky bottoms J 1915–1700 Small assemblages of moderate diversity, Assemblages are suggestive of normal dominated by B. reticulatum, with significant marine waters, possibly slightly 1700–1670 Rissoa sp., C. gibba, Abra sp., and eutrophic at the bottom and top of some Cerastoderma spp., L. lacteum, P. exiguum, the zone where C. gibba peaks; there Acanthocardia sp. and Turbonilla lactea is evidence for muddy, gravelly and rocky bottoms and abundant marine vegetation K 1700–1670 Small and rather variable assemblages of low Assemblages are consistent with normal diversity, with Cardiidae, Cerastoderma sp. marine waters, sandy and gravelly Pectenidae, Abra sp., Acanthocardia sp. and B. bottoms and some marine vegetation; reticulatum Pectenidae might suggest relatively clear waters L 1670–1330 Variably sized assemblages, large in the Assemblages are consistent with normal middle of the zone, of fairly high diversity, to slightly eutrophic marine waters, dominated by B. reticulatum and with significant with a minor connection to brackish Cerastoderma spp., Abra sp. and Rissoa spp. There environments; there is evidence for are some L. lacteum, P. exiguum, C. gibba, Kellia sandy, gravelly and rocky bottoms and spp., and Hydrobia spp. abundant marine vegetation M 1330–1210 Large assemblages of moderate diversity, Assemblages are suggestive of marine heavily dominated by B. reticulatum, with some waters of normal salinity, with a minor Cerastoderma spp., L. lacteum, P. exiguum, Abra connection with brackish environments; sp., Rissoa spp., Cerithium spp., T. lactea and there was very abundant marine Hydrobia spp. vegetation and sandy and rocky bottoms N 1210–1180 Small, low diversity, very variable assemblages The low diversity and prevalence of with high Cerastoderma spp., Abra sp., B. Cerastoderma, which has oligohaline reticulatum and Rissoa spp. tolerances, may suggest marine waters of slightly abnormal salinity, perhaps consistent with development of a saline lagoon behind a bay-bar; taxa are consistent with sedimentary bottoms, with some rocky places and variable marine vegetation O 1180–1100 Large assemblages of high diversity, with high The assemblages are suggestive of B. reticulatum and Hydrobia spp. with some L. marine waters of normal salinity, with loripes, P. exiguum, Abra sp. and Rissoa spp. a strong connection to brackish waters; taxa are consistent with abundant marine vegetation and sandy and rocky bottoms

143 Chapter 4 0 6 1 0 8 CONISS Dissimilarity e F E A H D C G n - - - B2 B1 - - - - o - - 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Z 0 0

4 Total molluscs Total

Total molluscs Silt/clay 0

8 Fine sand Fine Coarse sand Coarse 0

4 grain size

Gravel % Burrower

Terrestrial

8 Freshwater 0

4 Burrower Brackish Marine 0 8 0

4 Cecilioides acicula Cecilioides 0 8 0

4 Helicoid juveniles Helicoid 0 8 Ubiquitous 0

4 Pomatias sulcatus Pomatias 0 8 0

4 Cochlicella acuta Cochlicella Open country 0

2 Cernuella caruanae Cernuella 0

2 Trochoidea spratti Trochoidea Rumina decollata Rumina 0 8 Leaf litter 0

4 Papillifera papillaris Papillifera 0

sp.

Truncatellina callicratis Truncatellina 0

4 Oxychilus

antivertigo

cf.

Wetlands

4 Vertigo 0

4 Vallonia pulchella Vallonia

schlickumi 4

. cf

Oxyloma elegans Oxyloma 0

4 Carychium 0

8 sp.

4 Planorbis Slow-moving water, ponds 0

sp.

truncatus 0

. cf

Lymnaea 0

2 Bulinus 0 Running freshwater 8 0

4 Pseudamnicola/Mercuria 0

Ancylus fluviatilis Ancylus

littorina

cf.

Truncatella subcylindrica Truncatella Brackish water Paludinella 0 8 0

4 Ovatella myosotis Ovatella 0

8 sp.

4 Hydrobia Marine 0

sp.

4 Cardium Xemxija 1 molluscan histogram (C.O. Hunt & K. Fenech). 0 8 0 4

1 reticulatum Bittium a

0 j Core depth (cm) depth Core 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 i 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x 0 1 m

0 Calculated dates Calculated 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 e 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 X 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Figure 4.7.

144 Molluscan remains from the valley cores 1 2 0 6 0 CONISS Dissimilarity o n e 2 - F 2 - E 2 - A 2 - H 2 - D 2 - C 2 - G 2 - B2 2 - B1 Z 1 5 0 1 0

5 0

Total molluscs Total molluscs Total

1 0 Silt/Clay

8 0 Fine sand Fine 6 0

4 0 Coarse sand Coarse grain size

2 0 Gravel Burrower

1 0 Oher terrestrial Oher

8 0 Woodland

6 0 Freshwater

4 0 Brackish

2 0

Burrower Marine 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 0 Cecilioides acicula Cecilioides 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 0 Helicioid juveniles Helicioid Pomatias sulcatus Pomatias Ubiquitous 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 0

Cochlicella acuta Cochlicella Chondrula pupa Chondrula 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

Open/karst land

2 0 Cernuella caruanae Cernuella

Trochoidea spratti Trochoidea Rumina decollata Rumina 4 0

2 0

Leaf litter macrostoma Muticaria

Papillifera papillaris Papillifera Truncatellina callicratis Truncatellina 1 0

8 0

Woodland sp. 6 0 4 0

2 0 Oxychilus 4 0

2 0 Lauria cylindracea Lauria

8 0

antivertigo

6 0

. cf

Wetlands 4 0

2 0

Vertigo Vallonia pulchella Vallonia 4 0

2 0

Oxyloma elegans Oxyloma

schlickumi

. cf

6 0 4 0

2 0 Carychium 1 0

8 0

sp. 6 0 4 0

2 0 Planorbis Slow-moving water, ponds 1 0

8 0

sp. 6 0 4 0

2 0 Lymnaea 1 0 Running freshwater 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 0 Pseudamnicola/Mercuria Ancylus fluviatilis Ancylus

2 0 Truncatella subcylindrica Truncatella Brackish water 1 0 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 0 Ovatella myosotis Ovatella 1 0

8 0

sp. 6 0 4 0

2 0

Marine Hydrobia

sp.

4 0

sp.

2 0

Rissoa Gibbula

Base of Xemxija 2 molluscan histogram (C.O. Hunt & K. Fenech). Cerithium 8 0 6 0 4 0

2 0

Bittium reticulatum Bittium

2 a (cm) Depth j

1 0 1 5 0 2 0 2 5 0 3 0 3 5 0 4 0 4 5 0 5 0 5 0 6 0 6 5 0 7 0 7 5 0 8 0 8 5 0 9 0 9 5 0 Calculated dates BP dates Calculated 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 8 0 9 0 Figure 4.8. X e m x i 145 Chapter 4

Table 4.10. Molluscan zones for the Xemxija 1 core (XEM1). Table 4.10: Molluscan zones for Xemxija 1 core (XEM1) Zone Depth cm Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) 1-A 990–888 7568–6779 bc Total of 168 molluscs, of which P. It is likely that these sediments (9518–8729 bp) moussonii 80%, V. pulchella 11%, C. accumulated by colluviation and acicula 3%, Oxychilus sp. 2%, Cardium alluvial processes behind a coastal sp. 0.6% barrier; running freshwater (P. moussonii), slow moving waters or The lowermost sample was sterile, the ponds (Planorbis sp.), damp grassy maximum number of shells found in a (V. pulchella) and dense vegetation sample was 27; assemblages consisted (Oxychilus sp.) were present; soil erosion predominantly of freshwater species, events in the catchment are indicated with a few land snails periodically by C. acicula and the presence of stones washed in; one marine shell fragment and coarse sand; O. myosotis points to only; influx of stones and coarse sand in saltmarsh and Cardium sp. to marine the lower half of the zone, which then waters nearby; these are rare enough to fines up and becomes predominantly suggest emplacement on the deposition silty/clayey site by wave-action during storms 1-B1 888–790 6391–6014 bc Total of 15 molluscs, of which C. acicula Dramatic environmental change, (8341–7964 bp) 47%, P. moussonii 33%, P. papillaris 7%, possibly due to intense aridification, Planorbis sp. 7% perhaps as a result of the 8.2 ka bp event; the sediments are colluvial in Only very few molluscs were found in origin, probably accumulating behind this zone, many samples were sterile; a coastal barrier; extreme reduction a few small mudballs were found at of the freshwater bodies is suggested the base of this zone, indicating rapid by the reduction in aquatic taxa; open sediment influx, the remainder was karstland is indicated by P. papillaris; predominantly silt/clay with small severe erosion onto the site and hostile amounts of fine sand conditions may have led to the paucity of molluscan remains 1-B2 790–670 5720–5252 bc Total of 105 molluscs, of which C. Erosion within the catchment seems (7670–7202 bp) acuta 50%, C. acicula 25%, V. pulchella to have diminished during this zone; 8%, Oxychilus sp. 2%, Cardium sp. 1%, in the lower part of the zone a few leaf Hydrobia sp. 1% litter snails Oxychilus( sp.) may indicate the former presence of scrub but these Predominantly land snail assemblages, and overlying assemblages are rich in no subaqueous freshwater species; the erosion indicator Ceciliodes acicula, inwash of one marine mollusc and one suggesting the breakdown of vegetation brackish water mollusc; after an initial and a phase of soil erosion; higher in the increase, the presence of small mud zone the open country T. spratti peaks balls decreases; the top part consists and Cochlicella acuta becomes important, mainly of silt/clay with small amounts perhaps consistent with some garrigue, of fine sand light grassland or dunes; Vallonia pulchella and Vertigo cf. antivertigo are present in the upper part of the zone; they were which were probably associated with marsh and reeds; the occasional marine taxa were probably thrown into the site by wave action 1-C 670–570 4324–4062 bc Total of 564 molluscs, of which Dramatic environmental change (6274–6012 bp) Planorbis sp. 62%, P. moussonii 28%, C. and expansion of freshwater bodies, cf. schlickumi 4%, O. myosotis 3%, A. probably behind a coastal barrier fluviatilis (2%) and perhaps reflecting increased precipitation; moving water species The molluscan assemblages consisted P. moussonii, A. fluviatilis, suggest a exclusively of different freshwater rapid perennial freshwater stream; this associated or tolerant species; the fed a freshwater lagoon, indicated by sediments were predominantly silt/clay Planorbis sp., Bulinus cf. truncatus and with little fine sand throughout and Lymnaea sp. Encroaching wetlands are coarse sand only in the lower half of the suggested by rising C. cf. schlickumi, O. zone elegans, V. pulchella and V. cf. antivertigo Seaward, O. myosotis indicates upper saltmarsh, presumably part of the low coastal barrier

146 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.10 (cont.). Zone Depth cm Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) 1-D 570–480 3512–3094 bc Total of 1791 molluscs, of which O. myosotis Rising O. myosotis points to (5462–5044 bp) 63%, P. moussonii 22%, Planorbis sp. 8%, C. encroaching saltmarsh; freshwater cf. schlickumi 1% species decline in percentage and diversity, suggesting diminishing Molluscan assemblages consist of brackish input from freshwater streams, water, freshwater and at times a few declining water quality and land snails; one sample contained solely the gradual disappearance of freshwater shells; the number of shells freshwater lagoons; the last found varied greatly, the highest number freshwater species left is Lymnaea being 508 shells, and one sample containing sp., which is tolerant of poor no shells; variations in the particle size habitats; wetland taxa decline, distribution were also noted, with the then recover, suggesting that irregular increases in coarse sand and small fringing reedbeds diminished, stones then expanded; the very few land snails indicate the presence of light grassland (C. acuta, T. callicratis) and scrub (R. decollata); leaf litter species were found only at the top of this zone, in association with C. acicula, possibly as a result of the breakdown of dense vegetation and soil erosion due to aridification or human activity 1-E 440–366 1953–1574 bc Total of 87 molluscs, of which O. myosotis Swampy marshland is indicated by (3903–3524 bp) 23%, V. cf. antivertigo 23%, C. cf. schlickumi V. cf. antivertigo and C. cf. schlickumi, 17% O. elegans 13%, C. acuta 10%, Bittium but the former freshwater bodies reticulatum 9%, Lymnaea sp. 2% were reduced to shallow pools (Lymnaea sp.) and the freshwater Dramatic decrease in the number of shells stream appears to have vanished, found, with several sterile samples; the possibly as a result of continued assemblages were often mixed with marine aridification; C. acuta denotes the species; freshwater snails were rare, but presence of dry grassland or dunes; wetland and land snail species were the saltmarsh (O. myosotis) was frequent; still present initially, but reduced the sediments reflect severe erosion in the or more distant; the small marine catchment, with at least three events marked species Bittium reticulatum is usually by an influx of stones and coarse sand associated with seaweed and may have been blown or washed into the site with aquatic vegetation by storm waves overtopping a coastal barrier; storms are also indicated by the increase in coarse sand and stones 1-F 366–220 1279–556 bc Total of 842 molluscs, of which O. myosotis Soil erosion and inwash of eroded (3229–2506 bp) 95%, C. acuta 2%, V. cf. antivertigo 0.6%, C. materials from nearby slopes acicula 0.2% is suggested by C. acicula at the beginning of this zone; this event Assemblages were strongly dominated may have led to the infilling of by brackish water species, freshwater the previous shallow pools and shells were found only at the base of this marshland; this may have resulted zone and again at the top; land snails in the extension of the saltmarsh, occurred intermittently in low numbers; the as indicated by the dramatic distribution of coarse sediments indicates at increase in O. myosotis; the few least two inwash events land snails suggest that a little dense vegetation, indicated by taxa indicative of leaf litter, may have been present at the base of the zone; but higher in the zone there is evidence only for grassland or dunes (C. acuta) and open karstland (P. pappilaris)

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Table 4.10 (cont.). Zone Depth cm Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) 1-G 218–155 ad 52–510 Total of 375 molluscs, of which The sudden appearance of the brackish (1898–1440 bp) Hydrobia sp. 75%, O. myosotis 15%, P. water/lagoonal Hydrobia sp. in large moussonii 6%, Bittium reticulatum 2% numbers may indicate the formation of a brackish lagoon behind the coastal Molluscs from all major habitat groups barrier; the proximity of the coast is were found in this zone, of which land also suggested by T. subcylindrica, snails were the rarest; the number of while saltmarsh (O. myosotis) persisted; shells per sample varied between 1 and running freshwater directly entering 253 specimens the lagoon is indicated by P. moussonii; again, open country/karstland and grassland was present 1-H 158–48 ad 737–830 Total of 10 molluscs, of which Hydrobia The site had completely dried up; (1213–1120 bp) sp. 10%, T. subcylindrica 10%, Bittium the freshwater stream was no longer reticulatum 10%, C. acicula 10% detected; this is perhaps because of anthropogenic water management (the Dramatic reduction in the number stream is today caught in a reservoir); of molluscs found, with many sterile as a result, wetland species were also samples; shells from all major habitats absent and the saltmarsh disappeared; were present; the sediments showed a infrequent inwash events from the sea dramatic increase in stones and coarse led to the deposition of a few marine/ sand, first coarsening up and then lagoonal shells; the very few land snails fining up suggest light vegetation (e.g. C. caruanae), while the burrower C. acicula may either be intrusive or may have been part of soil erosion and inwash, as suggested by the deposition of coarse sand and stones

Table 4.11. Molluscan zones for the Xemxija 2 core (XEM2). Zone Depth cm Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) 2-A 933–890 7526–7221 bc Total of 353 molluscs, of which O. Saltmarsh environment, as indicated by (9476–9171 bp) myosotis 71%, P. moussonii 14%, Lymnaea O. myosotis, probably behind a coastal sp. 4%, C. acuta 0.5%, C. acicula 0.5% barrier, with nearby running freshwater (P. moussonii), slow moving water/ All samples contained shells, their ponds (Lymnea sp. and Planorbis sp.) and numbers varied between five and 81; vegetated wetlands (O. elegans); sparse the assemblages consisted mainly of land snails indicate grassland (C. acuta); brackish water associated species, often the presence of the burrower C. acicula mixed with freshwater/wetland snails; may be intrusive, as the particle size land snails periodically appeared in the distribution would not necessarily point upper half of the zone in low numbers; to input of sediment resulting from the sediments were silty/clayey with severe erosion small amounts of fine and coarse sand throughout 2-B1 890–740 7197–6787 bc Total of 25 molluscs, of which C. acicula Dramatic change in the environment. (9147–8737 bp) 28%, Oxychilus sp. 16%, P. moussonii 12%, The saltmarsh disappeared, but running Muticaria sp. 4% freshwater (P. moussonii) and slow moving water/pond (Lymnae sp.) were As in Xemxija 1, only a few molluscs still present, probably behind a coastal were found, with many sterile samples, barrier, in the lower half of this zone; indicating rapid sedimentation; the the upper half of the zone is sudden change in sediment colour from characterized by an absence of light grey to reddish brown suggests an freshwater-associated snails; in fact, the event, but the calculated date for this last occurrence of P. moussoni falls into event would be several hundred years the date range of the 8.2 ka bp event, before the similar change in Xem1; suggesting that the freshwater species initially, the samples contained a may have vanished as a result of the relatively stable amount of fine sand abrupt aridification that led to the

148 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.11 (cont.). Zone Depth cm Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) (around 20%), but there was a sudden drying up of the water bodies; light increase of coarse sand and stones at vegetation suggested by C. caruanae 765 cm, peaking at 750 cm and then and some leaf litter by Oxychilus sp.; gradually fining upwards the presence of the burrower C. acicula may perhaps be autochtonous and not necessarily the result of heavy erosion 2-B2 740–670 6054–5437 bc Total of 120 molluscs, of which C. acuta A slow recovery of the freshwater (8004–7437 bp) 40%, Lymnaea sp. 22%, C. cf. schlickumi bodies behind the coastal barrier 13%, Oxychilus sp. 5%, C. acicula 2% is indicated by the reappearance of Lymnaea sp., a freshwater snail Increase in the number of shells per tolerant of poor conditions and thus sample, ranging between three and a pioneer species; wetlands soon 26; assemblages contained mainly became re-established (C. cf. schlickumi), land snails, with freshwater snails as did denser vegetation (Oxychilus re-appearing in the upper part of the sp.), while light grassland persisted, zone; the amount of sand gradually as suggested by common C. acuta decreased from 25% to 5% and the Helicioid juveniles; with the slow re-establishing of a freshwater body, the number of shells also increased, indicating a slowing down of the previous rapid sedimentation 2-C 670–615 5500–4877 bc Total of 307 molluscs, of which Planorbis Freshwater bodies were now fully (7450–6827 bp) sp. 39%, P. moussonii 15%, C. cf. re-established behind the coastal schlickumi 4%, O. myosotis 3% barrier; shallow standing or slowly moving water is suggested by Planorbis Between 14 and 41 shells per sample; the sp., fed by a steady running freshwater assemblages consisted only of freshwater stream (P. moussonii and A. fluviatilis); associated shells and intermittently expansion of the water body pushed a few brackish water molluscs; the back the wetland margins; O. elegans sediments were silty/clay with sand, indicates plant growth in the pond or sand increasing from 5% to 15% and at the water edge; slow return of the then fining up towards the end of the saltmarsh (O. myosotis) in the vicinity zone; tncrease in sand appears to be linked to increased running freshwater (P. moussonii)

2-D 615–415 4974–4381 bc Total of 1877 molluscs, of which O. Fluctuations in the freshwater bodies (6924–6331 bp) myosotis 45%, P. moussonii 28%, Planorbis coupled with increases or decreases sp. 11%, C. cf. schlickumi 3%, Lauria in the saltmarsh as evidenced by cylindracea 0.2% O. myosotis; presence of woodland is indicated by L. cylindracea shortly Marked variations but general increase after 4400 bc, while the grassland is in the number of shells per sample; also found (C. acuta) intermittently; strong but fluctuating presence of major rainstorms occurred around brackish water species among freshwater 4000 bc, which led to the inwash of associated snails; land snails were few the brackish water Hydrobia sp. from and irregularly found, among which first the nearby sea and C. acicula from the appearance of the woodland indicator L. hinterland, after which the saltmarsh cylindracea; was again diminished through generally the sediments had a silt/ increased flowing freshwater (P. clay content above 90% in all but moussonii); this fluvial event also left four samples, indicating fairly stable its mark at the same depth in Xem1; conditions between periodical inwash there appear to have been strong events weather induced fluctuations in the running freshwater flow, which often affected the population of Planorbis sp., which do not tolerate intensive water movements; this species disappears at the top of the zone after a major fluvial inwash

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Table 4.11 (cont.). Zone Depth cm Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) 2-E 410–360 2837–2470 bc Total of 30 molluscs, of which Lymnaea The date suggests that this zone (4787–4420 bp) sp. 33%, V. cf. antivertigo 33%, O. elegans describes the beginning of the end of 10, C. acuta 6%, L. cylindracea 6% the Temple Period and it is marked by a dramatic change in the environment; Dramatic decrease in the number of there is no more evidence for running shells found, one sample was sterile; freshwater, indicating that stream assemblages consisted of mainly either dried up or the water output was freshwater/wetland molluscs, with dramatically reduced, possibly due to brackish water species occurring only severe aridification; the only freshwater once, and land snails only in two snail found is Lymnea sp., indicative for samples; the sediments had an increased poor conditions in the now very shallow content of coarse sand, stones occurred freshwater pool, which, however, in the middle of the zone; together with sustained some vegetation and the the very low amount of molluscs found, wetland surrounding it (O. elegans); his indicates very rapid sedimentation severe erosion and subsequent inwash events of sediments is suggested by C. acicula in the beginning of the zone; inwash events occurred throughout and the continuous presence of coarse sand and at one point also stones may have contributed to the shallowing of the freshwater pond. Some woodland still existed (L. cylindracea) as did grassland (C. acuta); evidence for the previously extensive saltmarsh occurred only once (O. myosotis), possibly indicating that the inwash events were of terrestrial origin, as no marine or subaqueous brackish water species (Hydrobia sp.) were found 2-F 360–240 2231–1715 bc Total of 870 molluscs, of which O. Dramatic change of the environment, (4181–3665 bp) myosotis 93%, C. acuta 4%, P. moussonii the pond and wetlands silted up and 1%, P. papillaris 1%, Hydrobia sp. 0.6% got replaced with grassland a saltmarsh (C. acuta and O. myosotis), the latter The assemblages consisted expanding rapidly, though patches of predominantly of brackish water species, grassland persisted throughout; the freshwater/wetland species were rare, woodland indicator was no longer land snails occurred in small numbers found, and apart from the grassland intermittently; marine shells were found species C. acuta, the only other land at the top of the zone; the sediments snail identified was the open country were silty/clayey, sand generally species P. papillaris; while the pond occurred in lower amounts than in the resurfaced once briefly (Lymnaea sp.), previous zone; one event in the middle the running freshwater stream remained of the zone had small stones washed in, elusive, indicating a continuation of another at the top had a notable influx of the previous aridification; a strong sea fine sand storm at the top of the zone may have led to the breakdown of a bay-bar and led to an influx of a few marine shells, Hydrobia sp. and fine sand; this event was also found in Xemxija 1 at the same depth 2-G 240–147 873–245 bc Total of 398 molluscs, of which Hydrobia Continuation of seaward inwash onto (2823–2195 bp) sp. 59%, P. moussonii 22%, O. myosotis the site with a sharp increase in the 12%, Bittium reticulatum 4%, C. acuta brackish water mud snail Hydrobia 0.7% sp., which replaced the saltmarsh indicator O. myosotis; the marine The zone contained molluscs from all inwash events may have been in major habitat categories in differing conjunction with strong rainfall, mixes; brackish water associated as the running freshwater species species were the most common ones, P. moussonii reappears, but it no longer P. moussonii was the only freshwater formed ponds or wetlands; with the

150 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

Table 4.11 (cont.). Zone Depth cm Date ranges cal. bc/ Molluscan assemblages Environment ad (bp) for the start of each zone (2σ) associated snail found, wetland species waning and subsequent disappearance were absent; land snails occurred of the freshwater stream, the saltmarsh intermittently, as did marine molluscs; extended again (O. myosotis) and the the sediments were predominantly silty/ brackish water body in the nearby clayey throughout without notable sea vanished (Hydrobia sp.), leading changes in the low sand content to the inwash of marine species (B. reticulatum); the very few land snails found are indicative of grassland (C. acuta) with light vegetation and open country/garrigue (T. spratti) 2-H 147–103 ad 74–777 Total of 5 molluscs of which C. acuta The site had now completely dried (1876–1173 bp) 40%, the remainder indeterminate up, there is no longer evidence for Heliciid fragments a saltmarsh, freshwater or marine influence; the very few land snails Dramatic reduction in the number are indicative of grassland and light of molluscs found, with many sterile vegetation samples, particularly at the top of the zone; as in Xem1, the sediments received a strong increase in stones and coarse sand, coarsening up

Table 4.12. Correlation and integration of molluscan data from Xemxija 1 (XEM1) and Xemxija 2 (XEM2). Date XEM1 XEM2 cal. bc/ad (bp) (2σ) 7550–6250 bc Zones 1-A, base of 1-B1 Zones 2-A, up to middle of 2-B1 (9500–8200 bp) Key taxa: P. moussonii, Planorbis sp., V. pulchella, O. Key taxa: O. myosotis, P. moussonii, O. elegans, C. acuta hydatinus Saltmarsh with freshwater bodies and wetland, Pre-Neolithic Period Freshwater bodies and wetland, leaf litter grassland 6250–4150 bc Zones part of 1-B1, 1-B2 Zones part of 2-A, 2-B2, 2-C (8200–6100 bp) Key taxa: P. moussonii, Planorbis sp., P. papillaris, C. Key taxa: P. moussonii, Lymnaea sp., Planorbis sp., C. acuta, C. acicula acuta Early Neolithic Period Aridification leading to drying up of freshwater Aridification and disappearance of saltmarsh, bodies, establishment of grassland followed by appearance of grassland, superseded by shallow freshwater pools fed by a stream and surrounding wetlands and reappearance of the saltmarsh 4050–2350 bc Zones 1-C and most of 1-D Zone 2-D (6100–4400 bp) Key taxa: P. moussonii, Planorbis sp., O. myosotis Key taxa: O. myosotis, P. moussonii, Planorbis sp., L. cylindracea Temple Period Variety of freshwater bodies and associated wetlands; from c. 3250 bc onwards, strong Continuous fluctuations between saltmarsh and fluctuations of precipitation led to decreases in the freshwater bodies, due to variations in precipitation; freshwater water bodies and extension of saltmarsh appearance of woodland c. 4050 bc 2350–1950 bc Zone top of 1-D Zone 2-E (4400–3900 bp) Key taxa: O. myosotis, Lymnaea sp., O. elegans Key taxa: Lymnaea sp., V. cf. antivertigo, L. cylindracea, C. acicula End of Temple Period, Disappearance of running freshwater stream, Early Bronze Age persistence of saltmarsh and poor quality shallow Severe erosion events, and as in XEM1, (Tarxien Cemetery freshwater pool and vegetated wetland disappearance of freshwater stream but persistence Phase). of poor quality shallow freshwater pool and vegetated wetland; saltmarsh diminished, but woodland still occurred

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Table 4.12 (cont.). Date XEM1 XEM2 cal. bc/ad (bp) (2σ) 1950–650 bc Zones 1-E and half of 1-F Zone F (3900–2600 bp) Key taxa: B. reticulatum, O. myosotis, Lymnaea sp., C. Key taxa: O. myosotis, C. acuta acuta Bronze Age to Phoenician/early Punic Breaking down of bay-bar, sudden marine Expansion of saltmarsh and disappearance of influence, presence of small shallow freshwater freshwater/wetlands after 1750 bc; no more evidence pool with associated vegetated wetlands, which for woodland; presence of grassland and open disappear after 1150 bc; after that, extension of country/garrigue saltmarsh, surrounding landscape is open country and lightly vegetated grassland/steppe 650 bc–ad 850 Zones: upper half of 1-F and 1-G Zones: 2-G and 2-H (2600–1100 bp) Key taxa: O. myosotis, P. moussonii, Hydrobia sp., C. Key taxa: O. myosotisi, Hydrobia sp., P. moussonii, B. acuta reticulatum, C. acuta Early Punic to Arab Period At first strong presence of saltmarsh, but the As in XEM1, marine inwash of sediments with eventual breaking down of bay-bar led to the Hydrobia sp. and B. reticulatumi, severely diminishing inwash of sediments with Hydrobia sp. and B. the saltmarsh, but with a stronger signature than reticulatumi, severely diminishing the saltmarsh; in XEM1; reappearance of running freshwater until brief reappearance of freshwater stream around around 150 bc, but no formation of wetland or ad 650, without formation of pools or wetland; pools; after 150 bc, reappearance of saltmarsh with presence of grassland and open country/garrigue marine influence; presence of grassland and light vegetation ad 850–1450 Zone H no data (1100–500 bp) Key taxa: B. reticulatum, Hydrobia sp., C. caruanae

Arab Period to pre- Occasional marine influence, fast sedimentation Knights Period and disappearance of saltmarsh; presence of light vegetation in this case was caused by agricultural erosion of gravelly alluvial fans debouching from tributary valleys. nutrient-rich topsoil and inwash into the Salina inlet. The basin has a catchment of around 7 sq. km. Archae- Further eutrophication events are suggested by high C. ological remains near the location include a number of gibba at the base and top of zone I and in the middle of Neolithic tombs and the remains of a temple (Evans zone L. All of these coincide with a sudden significant 1971). The valley has been a prime area for agriculture expansion of Plantago lanceolata and expansion of some to this day (National Statistics Office 2016). coprophilous fungal spores in the pollen diagram, A CONISS analysis was performed with both interpreted as reflecting a major expansion of livestock cores in the TILIA graphs, and both could thus be grazing and disturbance through agricultural activities. linked and sub-divided into seven different mollus- The second event also coincides with a rise in cereal can assemblage zones (MAZs), discussed below. The pollen, suggesting an intensification of arable activity. links, however, are at times only broadly linear with In all of these cases, it is plausible to regard the eutroph- respect to the measured depth in both cores, which ication of the Salina Inlet as reflecting rises in the input may be a result of the different energy environments of nutrients resulting from agricultural activity. of the water flow and cut-and-fill stratification (Figs. 4.7 & 4.8; Tables 4.10–4.12). Bayesian models provide 4.5.6. Xemxija 1 and 2 the date frame for the cores, with WZ2 covering the The extraction site of these cores, taken less than 1 m last c. 7675 years (see Chapter 3, Table 3.6). apart, was situated at the end of Pwales Valley outside the Simar Nature Reserve and at a distance of less than 4.5.6.1. Conclusion: Xemxija 100 m from the sea at Xemxija Bay. Geographically, the Of all the cores analysed, the two from Xemxija were the area is a graben described as a low-lying, flat bottomed only ones which showed a semi-continuous sequence basin (Bowen-Jones et al. 1961, 34). The flattish floor of from the early Holocene. The cores revealed varied the graben is flanked by steep slopes, with substantial freshwater environments that were susceptible to 152 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

prolonged droughts and increased rainfall periods dur- environment and interplay of the natural forces in ing prehistory and beyond until the area was covered several ways. Sudden soil colour changes in the sedi- in made ground, probably fairly late during the British ments pointed to at least 15 major events and marine Period. The combination of a relatively small catchment sediments alternated several times with terrestrial area with a relatively low-energy environment provided deposits. These were always accompanied by dra- a rare insight into the past environment and climates matic changes in the sediment textures. The particle of the Maltese Islands. Prolonged droughts appear to size analysis (Appendix 4) showed that, on numerous have left their mark at around 6200 cal. bc and after 2500 occasions, stones were incorporated in the sediment cal. bc, shortly after which several freshwater species suggesting highly energetic flows. The molluscan were no longer found and are now extinct. These may assemblages contained throughout an admixture of very well coincide with the droughts associated with shells belonging to three major habitat groups: terres- the 8.2 ka and 4.2 ka bp events. Severe fire events were trial, brackish water-associated and marine snails in largely absent from these cores and human impact may widely varying amounts. The possible erosion indicator be difficult to detect through the molluscan analysis. It C. acicula occurred irregularly throughout, but only in is perhaps possible that the presence during the fifth the upper 60 cm of the core (depth from surface down millennium bc (between c. 6.15 and 3.6 m in the core) to 1.2 m) was it likely to have been part of the natural of Lauria cylindracea, for which there was no previous assemblage and to have lived in the sediments. fossil record, may have been the result of importing The lowermost dated deposit may be attributed soil around tree saplings for planting at Xemxija. It is to the Punic period (510–360 cal. bc; UBA-33096). It perhaps more likely, however, that the species was able is probable that earlier valley fill sediments had been to flourish in the wetland vegetation surrounding the removed, presumably by running water and it is freshwater bodies in the valley floor. probable that further erosion (by running water or the sea) affected the accumulating sediments on several 4.6. Interpretative discussion occasions between that time and the present day.

4.6.1. Erosion – evidence of major events from the cores 4.6.1.2. Marsaxlokk Erosion is fundamentally a natural process, though Although the core was only 3.86 m long, there were often driven and modulated by human activities. The ten distinctive changes in the sediment colour during majority of the studied sediments had accumulated this interval, from at least cal. ad 435–670 (at 2.86 m; following erosion of soils or exposed older deposits 1444 bp; UBA-29351). A terrestrial soil was overlain within the catchments, transported to the deposition by marine sands, then alluvial/colluvial derived silts, sites by running water. In ephemerally active regimes, followed by a distinctive layer of decomposed plant typical of semi-arid, seasonal environments such as material that was overlain by coarse marine sand con- those characterizing much of the Maltese Holocene, taining a piece of Punic pottery. Further marine silts material may be repeatedly eroded and re-depos- passed into alternating terrigenous and marine silts, ited as it moves through the catchment. This storage and terrestrial, possibly colluvial, silts. Most of the and re-mobilization of sediments and their contained samples contained marine gastropods and bivalves, biogenic materials led to some radiocarbon ages not while brackish water shells were prominent and ter- being in stratigraphic order in the cores.9 Major ero- restrial species occurred throughout. The total number sion events could be recognized in the cores through of molluscs varied greatly. The irregular presence sudden changes in the sediment colour, coarsening of of C. acicula may suggest that several severe erosion texture and the appearance of large clasts and in the events occurred. composition of the mollusc assemblages. In particular, Cecilioides acicula, which buries itself in the soil at depths 4.6.1.3. Wied Żembaq varying between 20 cm and 2 m, possibly provides In the Wied Żembaq 1 core over the last 3.5 millen- some indication for erosion events (see Chapters 2 & 5), nia bc, changes in the soil colours were less marked especially when it was found in waterlain sediments at than in the other cores. Nonetheless, the presence of the coring sites. This suggests that significant quantities horizons of limestone pebbles at c. 3.5–3.62 m and of soil may have been displaced by erosion over the 2.17–3.15 m suggest an episodically very energetic studied interval. depositional environment and erosion within the catchment. Most samples contained molluscs belong- 4.6.1.1. Mġarr ix-Xini ing to at least three major habitat groups, but several The sediments of the core retrieved from the allu- samples had only land snails, albeit in low numbers. vial plain in Mġarr ix-Xini reflected the high energy There are several horizons marked by the erosion 153 Chapter 4

indicator C. acicula and molluscs from several habitat entering a marine basin. Sedimentation was very rapid, groups, notably near 4.44 m, and between 2.85 and in response to enormous sediment flux from the large, 3.35 m. Marine influence increased considerably in steep catchment, but also because accommodation the top metre of studied material. space was created by the very rapid rate of sea level rise during the early Holocene. The relatively offshore 4.6.1.4. The Marsa 2 core nature of sedimentation was indicated by the gener- Fifteen major changes in sediment colour could be ally low counts for terrestrial molluscs, particularly observed in the Marsa 2 core, probably from the Neo- between 22.5 and 18.5 m. This interval contained very lithic Ġgantija phase onwards. Very strong marine few marine molluscs, but the possible erosion indicator influence could be detected from 9 m upwards in the C. acicula was often present in the core. The sherds molluscan assemblages. There is a sharp change from of Tarxien Phase pottery found near the top of the brownish oxidized sediments of largely terrestrial/ sampled sequence again point to the energetic nature eroded soil origin to dark grey reduced marine sedi- of the environment and the likelihood of sediment ments. The lack of dateable material in the lower part storage and recycling within the catchment. of the core is an indication of very rapid deposition. The particle size distribution, characterized by coarse 4.6.1.6. Xemxija sands and gravel, suggests highly energetic deposi- Owing to the basin structure of Pwales Valley, where tional regimes. Major events deposited quantities of the influence of the nearby sea was limited and the gravel on three occasions. Rapid deposition was also depositional environment was generally not very indicated by thick layers of hydro-collapsing fine sands energetic, the vast majority of the sediments accumu- that could not be retained by the corer, at 5.25–5.95 m, lated because of material arriving from the catchment and towards the top of the core close to the ground- during precipitation events sufficiently powerful to water table. The molluscan assemblages varied, but cause run-off. Both the Xemxija cores are thought to usually contained at least three major habitat categories span much of the Holocene period, and certainly the (marine, brackish water and land snails), also often last c. 7500 years. freshwater molluscs. The possible erosion indicator That part of Xemxija 1 below 6.7 m is marked C. acicula was particularly frequent above 6.5 m. The by rather mixed mollusc assemblages, including the extent of recycling in this energetic but episodically possible erosion indicator C. acicula and the intermittent active environment is brought into sharp relief by the occurrence of freshwater snails. These are consistent finding of two conjoining potsherds more than one with several severe events. The presence of small mud metre apart in the core and by the stratigraphically balls between 7.8 and 6.7 m indicates torrential rains disordered radiocarbon dates, with insecure dates and high stream flow velocities (Wigand & McCal- evident until the Late Bronze Age, a feature remarked lum 2017). Quieter, more organic-rich sedimentation on also in the neighbouring Marsa 1 core by Carroll then occurred. Sedimentation became more energetic et al. (2012). Towards the top of the core, marine mol- between 5.65 and 5.01 m and then intensified further. luscs become rare. In the upper 50 cm of the core the Some of these events saw a considerable influx of presence of C. acicula may be autochthonous, given marine molluscs. Mud balls were prominent between that this was now a terrestrial environment. 4.4 and 3.5 m, again indicating torrential rains and high stream flow velocities. The occurrence of wind- 4.6.1.5. Salina Deep Core blown quartz sand in this part of the core suggests the The roughly 17 m of marine sediments from the Salina proximity of a dune system. Deep Core displayed a large number of sedimentary Xemxija 2 closely mirrored the events found in events, probably from close to the beginning of the Xemxija 1 and provided additional information. Often Holocene. The sediment colours were dark reddish high C. acicula and frequent mud balls between 8.08 brown in the basal terrestrial sediments, but the and 7.18 m indicate episodic torrential rainfall, high overlying marine sediments are light brown/grey to streamflow and strong soil erosion. This may possibly dark grey/brown, reflecting post-depositional sed- coincide with the 8.2 ka bp event.10 Quieter sedimen- iment reduction in the presence of organic matter. tation then occurred, but between 4.13 and 3.18 m the The sediment textures range from clayey stony silt number of shells decreased dramatically. The possible diamicts to sands, silts and clayey silts. It is likely that erosion indicator C. acicula was found at 4.01 m, and most of the sampled marine sequence resulted from again, the massive presence of gravel-sized mud balls the deposition of turbidites (sub-marine mass flows). up to 2.78 m indicated episodic torrential rainfalls Typically, this type of sedimentation in shallow waters with high stream flow velocities. Wind-blown very is caused by very turbid or hypercritical fluvial flows fine quartz was abundant throughout. 154 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

In both cores, from 1.5 m depth upwards, there not mirrored at Salina. Open country/karstland snails was a notable influx of stones and coarse sand and the were irregularly present in small numbers at both sites. deposits were often devoid of any mollusc remains. The light brown colour of the sediments indicates 4.7.3. Temple Period (c. 3900–2400 cal. bc) severe terrestrial soil erosion. This period was marked by a decisive change in the environment at Xemxija, where there was now a full- 4.7. Environmental reconstruction based on non- blown freshwater environment that was host to a marine molluscs large variety of freshwater/wetland snail species and which indicated the presence of perennial running, The following reconstruction is based on the dated slow-moving and ponded freshwaters. The presence results from all the cores, depending on their date of the marginal saline marshland species O. myosotis ranges and suitability. As the non-marine assemblages was occasionally found again until 3630–2930 cal. bc, in the cores were predominantly death assemblages increased substantially after this point in both cores, from within the catchment areas, the emerging picture perhaps indicating an increase in the extent of the is of a general nature. saline marshland habitat. The land snails found after this date showed the existence of woodland habitats 4.7.1. Early Holocene (c. 8000–6000 cal. bc) at Xemxija. The base part of the cores from Xemxija and the Salina From the Salina Deep Core, the upper part, from Deep Core contained material that was radiocarbon 14.74–11.4 m, has also been dated to the Temple Period. dated to c. 8000–6000 cal. bc (see Chapter 2). The mol- No clear picture or trend emerged. The molluscan luscan assemblages suggest the presence of perennial assemblages contained predominantly ubiquitous streams, slow moving water bodies and ponds, which snails, followed by open country/karstland species and today no longer exist in these areas. Both sites also had leaf litter species. The freshwater/wetland-associated areas of saline marshland as evidenced by the presence molluscs showed a wide diversity and abundance, of Ovatella myosotis. The margins of the freshwater indicating a continuous presence of perennial running bodies, the extent of which are unknown, had relatively freshwater, slow-moving water and ponds in the Bur- lush plant growth, which provided the leaf litter/damp marrad Plain. Despite this, the saline marshland species habitat for different species. Open country/karstland O. myosotis was not found in the samples. was also in the vicinity. The prevalence of ubiquitous The lowermost deposits of the Wied Żembaq cores snail species points to a disturbed and, possibly at can be attributed to the Temple Period, from around times, harsh environment. The molluscan evidence 3600 cal. bc onwards. The general picture from this site from Xemxija suggests a shallowing and subsequent is that during the Temple Period, there was a perennial drying up of the water bodies towards the end of the freshwater stream in the valley, as evidenced by the seventh millennium bc, which may very well have freshwater snails Pseudamnicola moussonii/Mercuria been associated with the global 8.2 ka bp event that led similis. This probably created a saline marshland at the to severe aridification through prolonged droughts. mouth of the valley, which provided the habitat for This was followed by massive mud-flows containing O. myosotis. The land snails here were predominantly barely any plant material, which may suggest that the open country/karstland species, followed by ubiquitous local environment was quite barren at the end of the species. Leaf litter-associated snails were generally in a Early Holocene. minority, despite the presence of a freshwater stream.

4.7.2. Mid-Holocene (c. 6000–3900 cal. bc) 4.7.4. Early to later Bronze Age (2400–c. 750 cal. bc) The period appears to have continued to be marked The Bronze Age period saw a dramatic decrease in by environmental instability and prolonged droughts, freshwater-associated snails at Xemxija, possibly asso- during which the freshwater bodies at Xemxija were ciated with the 4.2 ka bp event.11 Most notable was the still absent. The signature is different in the Salina Deep sudden absence of the running freshwater species P. Core owing to different energy environments, where moussonii/M. similis in both cores. The absence or dra- very high sedimentation rates could be observed at the matic reduction of freshwater input may have led to a coring site and non-marine molluscs, including fresh- situation where several species vanished and possibly water/wetland associated species, occurred irregularly became locally extinct from several sites, particularly throughout. The saline marshland species O. myosotis after c. 1500 cal. bc. Ubiquitous land snails dominated, was no longer found at Xemxija and Salina. Of the land most prominently the light grassland/dune species snails, ubiquitous species prevailed in both sites, where Cochlicella acuta, while leaf litter species and open Xemxija had a decrease in leaf litter snails but this was country/karstland species occurred only occasionally. 155 Chapter 4

The leaf litter woodland indicatorLauria cylindracea was Vitis vinifera, dated to the Punic period, show that vines no longer found from around 1800 cal. bc onwards. had meanwhile been imported and grew successfully Other cores with segments dated to the Bronze on Gozo (see Chapters 3 & 7). Age included Wied Żembaq and Mġarr ix-Xini and In the Marsa 2 core, initially deposits dated to Marsa 2, all of which contained relatively high-energy the start of that period still contained quite abundant sediments. At the former site, the snails associated and diverse freshwater snails, but by the end of the with running freshwater vanished during this period. period, only P. moussonii/M. similis indicated the pres- The stream may not have disappeared completely, ence of a freshwater stream. The rare occurrence of as leaf litter species and the brackish water/saline Planorbis sp. pointed to a slow-moving/stagnant water marshland species O. myosotis occurred in good num- body in the plain. Ubiquitous snails were dominant, bers, although the latter occurred rather irregularly. followed by open country/karstland species and a Open country/karstland species increased, as did few leaf litter snails. the ubiquitous species. At Mġarr ix-Xini, leaf litter The situation at Marsaxlokk, a core with a less species were generally very sparse, the analyses were secure radiocarbon chronology but covering the period dominated by open country/karstland species and in question, revealed an absence of perennial freshwa- ubiquitous snails throughout. As deposits belong- ter at the coring site. Ubiquitous snails predominated ing to the Temple Period were not found, it is not in the assemblages, followed by open country/karst- possible to comment on any changes. In Marsa 2, the land species. Leaf litter species were only found on non-marine molluscan assemblages in the deposits two occasions. The presence of the coastal marshland that were dated to this period showed the presence species O. myosotis would indicate that some seasonal of running freshwater, slow-moving/standing waters freshwater influence occurred. and wetlands. The land snails indicated habitats for leaf litter species. Open country/karstland species also 4.8. Concluding remarks occurred. Again, the most prominent snail group was the ubiquitous species. Full molluscan analyses of snails belonging to all major habitat groups rarely feature in the Mediterranean 4.7.5. Latest Bronze Age/early Phoenician period to Late literature. The results obtained through the FRAGSUS Roman/Byzantine period (c. 750 cal. bc–cal. ad 650) Project provide valuable insights into the past environ- There are no radiocarbon dates for the sediments cover- ment, landscape and climate that the study of only one ing this section in the Xemxija cores, but the calculated singular habitat group could not have achieved on its ranges in Xemxija 2 at 2.57 m showed a decrease in the own. The numbers of snails found varied greatly in the saline marshland, increasing influence from the nearby cores, but while they may not have reached statistically sea, and a reappearance of the perennial freshwater viable numbers in many of the samples, the marked stream at about 750 cal. bc as indicated by P. mousso- variations themselves tell a story of episodes of severe nii/M. similis. The same signature was found in Xemxija erosion and environmental recovery when placed in 1 slightly further up at 2.1 m, but the calculated age context with the sediments in which they were found. range is several hundred years younger and there is The presence of specific indicator species helped to no overlap. Nonetheless, the reappearance of this snail provide insight as to what environments were present still fell into the period. P. moussonii/M. similis were in the catchment at any given time. the only freshwater snails found in this section. Land Although the cores, widely distributed in the snails were generally very scarce in both cores from Maltese Islands, did not cover the same time inter- Xemxija, and among the few found, ubiquitous species vals, together they covered the different periods of dominated. No leaf litter species were recovered, whilst Malta’s prehistory and history, allowing a more or open country species were very scarce. less continuous picture to emerge. Few of the depos- At Wied Żembaq, the brackish water saline its dating to the early Holocene, prior to the arrival marshland species O. myosotis was now very scarce, of the first settlers, contained leaf litter species that possibly indicating that the freshwater input into the would support the notion of a previously forested or valley was even more limited now than it was before. densely vegetated environment, at least within the The amount of leaf litter species also decreased, while catchments of the coring sites. When the first settlers open country/karstland species and ubiquitous snails arrived, possibly around 6000 cal. bc, the non-marine prevailed. molluscs showed a predominantly open landscape At Mġarr ix-Xini, the radiocarbon chronology is and freshwater habitats in Salina and Xemxija, but also insecure, but the picture is similar to that of the the people probably faced an environment that had previous period. The presence of several grape pips of recently recovered from a prolonged drought, during 156 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

which rare torrential rainfall caused severe erosion, While only one juvenile specimen had been found possibly as a result of the 8.2 ka bp event. by Giusti et al. (1995) in the Quaternary deposit of Wied The rise of the Neolithic and flowering of the tal-Baħrija, 36 specimens were found in the Salina Temple Culture occurred during a relatively humid Deep Core in association with other extinct species. As climatic period: freshwater was abundant at Xemxija, the samples in this core did not contain material post Salina and, on a smaller scale, at Wied Żembaq and c. 2500 cal. bc, it is unknown when this species became leaf-litter species which suggest dense vegetation in extinct. Sub-fossils of this species have recently been favoured sites, although much of the landscape was found together with Oxyloma elegans, in an undated lightly vegetated. Once agriculture started, it is not Holocene deposit at Salini (Cilia & Mifsud 2012). clear whether the frequently occurring soil erosion episodes resulted from vegetation removal or modification Bulinus (Isidora) cf. truncatus (Audouin 1827) complex by cultivation and landscape disturbance caused by Specimens of this freshwater species have been found people and their livestock, or from natural processes in Xemxija 1, Marsa 2 and in the Salina Deep Core. This relating to the removal of vegetation by drought. It is species is indicative of a variety of perennial flowing likely that all these processes were involved, as they and standing water bodies, where it lives on the banks are today. Towards the end of the Temple Period, the among vegetation and on stony beaches (Giusti et al. species diversity and abundance of the non-marine 1995; IUCN 2017). Extinct today from the Maltese molluscs became severely reduced, especially leaf litter Islands, it was found in deposits pre-dating the end and freshwater taxa. This is suggestive of desiccation of the Temple Period in Xemxija 1 and in the upper and/or land degradation. Furthermore, the presence half of the Salina Deep Core. In the Marsa 2 core it was of marine molluscs at Xemxija indicated the breaching last found in deposits dated to the Late Bronze Age/ or overtopping of the bay-bar during storms. Early Phoenician Period. The Bronze Age seems to have been initially char- This species is an intermediate host for the schis- acterized by rather dry climates and very little dense tosomiasis (bilharzia) parasite, and the disease has been vegetation, for instance at Wied Żembaq. By about 2000 traced back to Neolithic times in Chad and in Egypt, cal. bc increasing freshwater and leaf-litter taxa seem where it is likened with the Aaa disease (King & Bertsch to indicate a rise in effective moisture, an environment 2015). It is possible that locally, Bulinus truncatus were which may have persisted with some fluctuations until also an intermediate host for the parasites causing the the Roman Period, when the assemblages in the cores disease (trematode worms of the genus Schistosoma), at Xemxija and Marsa are consistent with the drying of which then could have negatively affected the local freshwater bodies and decreases in dense vegetation, human and animal populations. Untreated, infection most probably the result of increasing climatic aridity with the parasites is deadly in c. 60 per cent of cases. that seems to have persisted to the present day. Oxyloma elegans (Risso 1826) 4.9. Notes on selected species A freshwater-wetland species associated with areas bordering a perennial stream, where it lives on per- The analyses above were based on several indicator manently wet ground, but also on plants in the water species, which have specific habitat requirements. (Giusti et al. 1995; IUCN 2017). Extinct today from Among these, some species are today extinct, whilst the Maltese Islands, it was found in good numbers others had no previous palaeontological record in in Xemxija 2 from the lowermost deposits onwards the Maltese Islands suggesting that some might be (c. 7000 cal. bc) with interruptions up until shortly after recent introductions (compare Table 4.1, after Giusti the end of the Temple Period. In Xemxija 1 it was found et al. 1995). between the early Temple Period (from c. 4000 cal. bc) and deposits dated to the Bronze Age at around 1500 4.9.1. Extinct species: cal. bc. In the Salina Deep Core and in Marsa 2, it only occurred once, in a storm deposit dated to the Tarxien Gyraulus (Armiger) crista (Linnaeus 1758) (late Neolithic) phase, while in Marsa 2 the storm This freshwater species occurs in perennial shallow deposit cannot be dated more closely than before the waters of a wide variety of habitat types including end of the Late Bronze Age/early Phoenician period. ponds, lakes and coastal lagoons with abundant aquatic vegetation (Heino & Muotka 2005; Zettler & Daunys Vertigo cf. antivertigo (Draparnaud 1801) 2007; Zealand & Jeffries 2009). It tolerates freshwater This now locally extinct hygrophile species lives among to water with low salinity (Seddon et al. 2014) and decomposing plant material and under flood debris can resist periods of partial drying (Giusti et al. 1995). in swampy meadows, and river and lake margins that 157 Chapter 4

may be flooded occasionally, but never seasonally dry dormant under stones, wood or litter (Giusti et al. up (Giusti et al. 1995; Welter-Schultes 2012). Although 1995). Although today common and widespread in the its presence in Malta was based on specimens from a Maltese Islands, it had no previous fossil record. Two Quaternary deposit at Wied il-Baħrija where it occurred sites revealed its occurrence since prehistory – Wied in association with Oxyloma elegans (Giusti et al. 1995), Żembaq (c. 800 cal. bc) and, much earlier, the Salina its occurrence preceded and outlived the latter species Deep Core (c. 5300 cal. bc). in both Xemxija cores by several hundred years. In the Salina Deep Core it was found only once, in a deposit Pseudamnicola (s.str.) moussonii (Calcara 1841) and dated to c. 6000 cal. bc. In Marsa 2, one specimen was Mercuria cf. similis (Draparnaud 1805) found in a Late Bronze Age/early Phoenician deposit. These were the most widespread and commonly occurring freshwater species. They were present in all cores 4.9.2. Species with no previous fossil record: except in Mġarr ix-Xini (Gozo) and in Marsaxlokk. Unless they were the only freshwater species present Lauria cylindracea (Da Costa 1778) (as in Wied Żembaq), they appeared as pioneer spe- This is the only woodland ‘indicator species’ in the cies before any other freshwater snails and persisted Maltese Islands, where today it occurs in remnants longer, even when others had long vanished (e.g. of forest and in maquis communities under leaf litter. Xemxija and Marsa). Both species are indicative of a With no palaeontological record, its introduction date perennial running freshwater stream and their shells to the Maltese Islands was unknown (Giusti et al. 1995). look very similar, a secure distinction cannot be made Lauria cylindracea was found in small numbers in the on the basis of the shell alone. Mercuria cf. similis Xemxija 2 core. The deposits are not closely dated, (Draparnaud, 1805) has no secure fossil record and is but it would appear that the species may have been thus believed to be a relatively recent introduction to introduced to the area around 4000 cal. bc, possibly in the Maltese Islands (Giusti et al. 1995). Although they conjunction with olive tree saplings that were planted are placed in different genera, both belong to the same there, as indicated by the pollen from Xemxija 1 (see family (Hydrobidae), share the same habitat and were Chapter 3). As the olive is not native to Malta, it must thus listed in the graphs as Pseudamnicola/Mercuria. have been imported, when the roots would have been covered with soil and leaf litter that could have Ovatella (Myosotella) myosotis Draparnaud 1801 contained this tiny snail species. The species occurred A more terrestrial than aquatic species, it is always last in Xemxija 2 core deposits that were not closely found close to beaches without strong wave movement. dated, but may possibly be from around 2000 cal. bc, This brackish water species tolerates environments at a time when in the same core Vertigo cf. antivertigo with low salinities and lives on the shores of pools in became extinct and other freshwater/wetland snail saline marshlands and valley mouths that reach the species disappeared. coast, where it is found amongst algae, under stones or wood and on muddy substrata (Giusti et al. 1995; 4.9.3. Other indicator species: Welter-Schultes 2012). As such, it is a good indicator of an environment with a steady freshwater influence Truncatellina callicratis (Scacchi 1833) close to the sea. The species is associated with very dry, calcareous grassy sites, open rocky hillsides, and above all, leaf Cecilioides acicula (Müller 1774) litter, where, in the Maltese Islands the evidence sug- This widespread subterranean species has been regu- gests, it is mainly found (Giusti et al. 1995). It has not larly found in archaeological deposits in the Maltese been reported from the Quaternary deposits of the Islands, often in very high numbers (e.g. Fenech & Maltese Islands, but a few shells were found in the Schembri 2015), where it may be intrusive. This bur- archaeological excavations at the Xagħra Brochtorff rowing species lives among plant roots and deeply Circle in Gozo, dated to the Temple Period (Schembri embedded stones, usually at depths of 20 to 40 cm et al. 2009). Its presence was noted in all coring sites below the soil, but depending on the substrata, it has except Marsaxlokk and its earliest occurrence could be been found at depths of two metres and more (Giusti et noted in Xemxija 1 and the Salina Deep Core, in both al. 1995; Boddington et al. 1987). This species occurred instances in deposits dated to c. 5900 cal. bc. prominently in all cores investigated, which had been taken in alluvial plains and where sediments accumu- Ferussacia (s.str.) folliculus (Gmelin 1791) lated only by erosion processes. The presence of this Another leaf litter species, characteristic of damp burrower among other surface-dwelling snails in the habitats. It withstands long periods of dryness samples suggests a tolerance and association with 158 Molluscan remains from the valley cores

severe erosion events that de-stabilized substantial MX2 were analysed, the molluscan assemblages resem- amounts of soils of which this species was part. Where bled the ones of MX1 and reflected the energy-driven material was available for dating, these invariably changes in the depositional environment. The molluscan resulted in radiocarbon age inversions, underlining spreadsheet for MX2 is provided in Appendix 5. the massiveness of these events. 7 These are thought to be associated with the production of wine and work by the Superintendence of Cultural Heritage has shown that production could have started Notes in Punic times (see also Jaccarini & Cauchi 1999 for the Mġarr ix-Xini Regional Park Project; Bonanno 2008; Pace 1 For example, Oxyloma elegans, Bulinus truncatus, etc. & Azzopardi 2008). 2 Two cores were extracted from Marsa in June 2002. Of 8 The mechanical retrieval of the cores from Marsa was these, the Marsa 1 core formed part of separate PhD pro- sponsored by Ms Linda Eneix through the OTS Foun- jects by Frank Carroll (Queen’s University Belfast) and by dation in 2002. Katrin Fenech (University of Malta). For the FRAGSUS 9 Radiocarbon age inversions have been detected in Project, Fenech’s half of the unprocessed Marsa 2 core similar coring locations in other countries, where they was subjected to similar investigations to those made were found to be a consequence of re-deposition of old for the Marsa 1 core. The aim was to get fresh data from sediments (see Stanley & Hait 2000; Angulo et al. 2008). Malta’s largest water catchment, to compare and contrast 10 The 8.2 ka bp event denotes a global abrupt cold event the findings with Core 1 and, through radiocarbon and that resulted in an aridity crisis, which interrupted the other dating, to put the results in a chronological context. humid Early Holocene. Evidence of this event, which 3 The Marsa 2 core was extracted by A.N. Terracore Ltd., lasted several hundred years, was found in the Mediter- whereas Salina Deep Core was extracted by SolidBase ranean in Spain (Gonzales-Samperiz et al. 2009), North Ltd. Africa (Benito et al. 2015), Sicily (Tinner & Lotter 2001), 4 All sub-samples and residues are being kept at the France (Magny et al. 2009) and the eastern Mediterranean Department of Classics and Archaeology, University (Pross et al. 2009). of Malta. 11 In Xemxija 1, the deposits attributed to the Bronze Age 5 After Ridout-Sharpe 1998, 338. span from 465 to c. 326 cm, and in Xemxija 2 from c. 390 6 Another core, MX2, was extracted at less than a metre to c. 265 cm. The upper limits of these ranges were distance from the coring site of MX1. It was one metre assigned according to the sedimentation rates calculated long and extended from 1–2 m in depth. The contents of by Rowan McLaughlin.

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Temple landscapes

The ERC-funded FRAGSUS Project (Fragility and sustainability in small island environments: adaptation, cultural change and collapse in prehistory, 2013–18), led by Caroline Malone (Queens University Belfast) has explored issues of environmental fragility and Neolithic social resilience and sustainability during the Holocene period in the Maltese Islands. This, the first volume of three, presents the palaeo-environmental story of early Maltese landscapes. The project employed a programme of high-resolution chronological and stratigraphic investigations of the valley systems on Malta and Gozo. Buried deposits extracted through coring and geoarchaeological study yielded rich and chronologically controlled data that allow an important new understanding of environmental change in the islands. The study combined AMS radiocarbon and OSL chronologies with detailed palynological, molluscan and geoarchaeological analyses. These enable environmental reconstruction of prehistoric landscapes and the changing resources exploited by the islanders between the seventh and second millennia bc. The interdisciplinary studies combined with excavated economic and environmental materials from archaeological sites allows Temple landscapes to examine the dramatic and damaging impacts made by the first farming communities on the islands’ soil and resources. The project reveals the remarkable resilience of the soil-vegetational system of the island landscapes, as well as the adaptations made by Neolithic communities to harness their productivity, in the face of climatic change and inexorable soil erosion. Neolithic people evidently understood how to maintain soil fertility and cope with the inherently unstable changing landscapes of Malta. In contrast, second millennium bc Bronze Age societies failed to adapt effectively to the long-term aridifying trend so clearly highlighted in the soil and vegetation record. This failure led to severe and irreversible erosion and very different and short-lived socio-economic systems across the Maltese islands.

Editors: Charles French is Professor of Geoarchaeology in the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge. Chris O. Hunt is a Professor in the School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool. Reuben Grima is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Conservation and Built Heritage, University of Malta. Rowan McLaughlin is Senior Researcher in the Department of Scientific Research at the British Museum and honorary research scholar at Queen’s University Belfast. Caroline Malone is a Professor in the School of Natural and Built Environment, Queen’s University Belfast. Simon Stoddart is Reader in Prehistory in the Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge.

Published by the McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3ER, UK.

Cover design by Dora Kemp and Ben Plumridge.

ISBN: 978-1-902937-99-1 ISBNISBN 978-1-902937-99-1 978-1-902937-99-1

9 781902 937991