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AGRICULTURAL ADMINISTRATION-- (RESEARCH AND EXTENSION) NETWORICJ
NETWORK PAPER 24 ISSN 0951-1873 June 1991
GOVERNMENT AND NGO COLLABORATION IN NATURAL RESOURCES IN ZIMBABWE
Dennis MUNGATE and Sara MVUDUDU Dennis MUNGATE can be contacted at The Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement, P B 7701, Causeway, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Sara MVUDUDU can be contacted at the Forestry Commission, P 0 Box 8111, Harare, Zimbabwe.
Network Personnel:
Coordinator: John Farrington Assistant Coordinator: Kate Wellard Secretary: Kate Cumberland
This Network is sponsored by:
The Overseas Development Administration (ODA) 94 Victoria Street, London SW1E 5JL.
The research for and writing of this Network Paper was funded by the Overseas Development Administration under an Economic and Social Research Grant. The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily carry the endorsement of the ODA nor of any other institution.
Photocopies of all or part of this publication may be made providing that due acknowledgement is made. Requestsfor large- scale reproduction of network material should be directed to ODI as copyright holders. The Network Coordinator would appreciate use of this material in training, ,receiving details ofany research or programme design, implementation or evaluation. CONTENTS
Page
Acronyms
Editorial Introduction by Kate WeHard 11
1. Experiences of Collaboration with NGOs in Agricultural Research and Extension by The Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement, Zimbabwe 1980-1990 by Dennis Mungate
Government Policy on NGOs 1 MLARR Planning and NGOs 4 NGOs and Planning 6 NGOs Involvement in Zimbabwe 9 NGOs Activities in Zimbabwe 11 NGOs Involvement in Agricultural Research 16 The Future 18 Endnotes 20 References 22
2. Forestry Commission Linkages with Non- Governmental Organisations in Forestry Research and Rural Afforestation Development: The case of Zimbabwe by Sara Mvududu 23
Introduction 23 Historical Background to the Forestry Commission 23 Government Forestry Research 26 Non-Governmental Organisations in Forestry 30 Lessons and Outlook for Future Collaboration 37 References 39
ACRONYMS
AGRITEX Agricultural, Technical and Extension Services AWC Associations of Women's Clubs CSFP Child Supplementary Feeding Programme DDC District Development Committee D&D Diagnosis and Design ENDA Environment and Development Activities, Zimbabwe FC Forestry Commission FED Forestry Extension Division GoZ Government of Zimbabwe MFEPD Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development MITCO Village Forestry Committee MLARR Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement MoH Ministry of Health MoU Memorandum of Understanding NGO Non-Governmental Organisation ORAP Organisation of Rural Associations for Progress PDC Provincial Development Committee PSIP Public Sector Investment Programme RAP Rural Afforestation Project R&SS Department of Research and Specialist Services SFPP Supplementary Food Production Programme VIDCO Village Development Committee VOICE Voluntary Organisations in Community Enterprise ZSAN Zimbabwe Seeds Action Network 11 EDITORIAL INTRODUCTION
Kate WeHard Research and Extension Network ODI
With the tremendous growth in NGO development activities in Zimbabwe in the first decade since Independence, Government policies and attitudes towards NGOs have moved from hostile and indifferent to positively encouraging, whilst maintaining a supervisory role.
In the first paper in this volume, Dennis Mungate shows how the Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement (MLARR) is involved in planning NGO projects, ensuring they fit with national development priorities and that the necessary support services are available. NGOs' participation in the Government planning structure is currently limited. However the ability of NGOs to implement both complementary and alternative research and extension programmes to Government and to mobilise communities towards sustainable development is increasingly being recognised.
At the same time, public sector agricultural institutions such as the Department of Research and Specialist Services (R & SS) are attempting to reorient their programmes away from a traditional commodity and market focus towards small farmers on Communal Lands, but are facing formidable resource constraints. There is thus a strong case for improving NGO- Government collaboration in on-farm experimentation and extension and in the publication of research findings in a format accessible to the rural community.
The second paper, by Sara Mvududu, documents the experience of the Forestry Commission (FC) in working with NGOs. The FC's experience of small-scale afforestation is relatively recent, whilst NGOs are now highly active in the field. Collaboration in establishing village and farm nurseries, and in training and extension has proved successful where both are pursuing similar objectives. In research, the FC's Social Forestry Research Project and the Woodland Community Management project of Environment and Development Activities (ENDA)-Zimbabwe, both funded by the Ford iii Foundation, are starting from similar knowledge bases and are intended to be mutually reinforcing.
Finally, the paper discusses the Mutoko Agricultural Development Project which aims to improve interaction between farmers, research and extension organisations. The project has made significant steps at field level towards bridging the gulf between the various agricultural and forestry institutions, and is strengthening farmers' organisations to take on in a sustainable fashion many of the tasks currently undertaken by the project.
EXPERIENCES of COLLABORATION with NGOs in AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH and EXTENSION by THE MINISTRY of LANDS, AGRICULTURE and RURAL RESETTLEMENT,ZIMBABWE 1980-1990
Dennis Mungate Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement
GOVERNMENT POLICY ON NGOs
Background
The attitude of the government to NGOs in Zimbabwe has, over the last decade ranged from: indifference, hostility, reticence and wait-and-see to direct involvement, supervision and welcoming of NGO activities. The changes in attitude can be attributed to the general political developments in the country. In 1980, after a bitter war of liberation, government trust and knowledge of foreign-based organisations was low, with political disturbances in the south and western parts of Zimbabwe fuelling this mistrust to the extent that one organisation, the Organisation of Rural Associations for Progress(ORAP), underwent "considerable strainmin 1983-4, [with] the suspensiotz of a considerable number of groups due to the far reaching effects ofthe military cutfews..."(Chavunduka et al., 1983). Another area of conflict was the ideology of development. Whilst NGOs believed in successful development through working from below with little or no interference from the state, the government emphasized state chartering and direction of development.
Meetings were held, workshops conducted and specific areas ironed out whilst role stratification was enunciated. This helped create sound working arrangements. To date, many areas of mistrust have been ironed out but more still needs to be done to create institutional linkages between the Government and NGOs at village, district, provincial and national level.
The Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) recognises the role played by NGOs who work in partnership with its ministries and departments in national development efforts. GoZ welcomes the cooperation of all organisations who share its aims of raising the standard of living of the rural poor. The Government has openly made appeals to NGOs to provide relief measures 2 in emergency cases such as purchasing and distribution of food, as well as longer-term development assistance, and NGOs have frequently responded positively to such government requests.
Policy Statements
There is no comprehensive policy on NGOs in Zimbabwe. However, the thrust of government policy can be found in various speeches and statements by ministers and officials during the period. The Government recognised that the task of development is mammoth and cannot be tackled by itself alone.
"the task of developing Zimbabwe...is an operation that must be tackled by the people themselves with government providing and or harnessing all resources at its disposal. Government appreciates that NGOs can and do play a vital role in development, with the proper vision and approach and with good and open communication and collaboration with Government, they can act as valuable partners in the development process. Silveira House has lived to this image for it has worked hard with the people for many years and has successfully built up a valuable grassroots network that readily facilitatesfurther development." (President R G Mugabe, 7 October 1989).
The President was, however, quick to provide guidance on how NGOs should operate.
"However, I would like to urge you to continue co-operating with the arms ofgovernment in order to maximise results." (Ibid., 1989)
The Vice President, S Muzenda, in 1987 explored the various areas where NGOs and The Government of Zimbabwe (GoZ) could collaborate.
"Priority is being given to long term projects in the development ofsmall scale irrigation schemes, water projects, provision of agricultural inputs, encouraging co-operative efforts, improvements in livestock and grazing schemes, food storage and processing. The small size and specialised nature of such projects render them ideally suitable for participation of church and NGOs who are often quicker to react to situations and who are usually closer to the peasant communities. 3 For this reason, the Government of Zimbabwe has felt it necessary to keep its doors open to internal and external organisations with an interest in rural development."
However, an underlying concern was security and, at a time of internal unrest, the Vice President issued a warning to those organisations whose actions were, it was argued, inconsistent with their stated goals:
"What we need is constructive assistance. Government would not hesitate to intervene whenever it felt that the activities of persons employed by Non-Governmental Organisations or persons who came in the name of the church are working contrary to the aspirations of our people and our national sovereignty". (Ibid., 1987).
GoZ has also expressed its desire to have the NGOs coordinate their activities not only with it but among themselves.
"Government would want to see better co-ordination between NGOs so that their objectives do not conflict witlz government." (S Muzenda, 1987).
"We believe that without coordination progress in a modern society is impossible - unnecessary quarrels, duplication of resources takes place with the result that much wastage occurs." (Dr L Chitsike,.Permanent Secretary, 1987).
He also expressed his support to NGOs and encouraged them to strengthen the then NGO coordinating body, Voluntary Organisations in Community Enterprise's(VOICE) field operations and support government development programmes.
In spite of these statements, there are still grey areas at project formulation and implementation level. Some believe that GoZ has to relax its regulations and procedures in order to facilitate NGO partnership.
"In general, GoZ has overlooked and underestimated the important role of NGOs in development. It is clear that in future increases in donor J1 nding will be channelled more to tile NGO sector.
Often GoZforgets to thank and acknowledge what the NGOs are doing. The weakness of NGO/GoZ relations is primarily on the side of GoZ." (Dr S Mahlahla, 1990). 4
The lack of a comprehensive policy framework on NGOs has led to two sets of problems. First, NGOs feel they are excluded from consultation in the formulation of development plans, only being asked to respond when plans are already at the implementation stage. Secondly, a lack of policy framework often creates a situation where political influence, rather than the use of empirically documented information, determines where and how NGOs can intervene. Similarly, daily newspapers, by highlighting certain needy areas, affect the distribution of assistance. GoZ should guide NGO participation in terms of its areas of participation, limitations and the general development of the country as a whole.
MLARR PLANNING AND NGOs
Parent ministries such as The Ministry of Lands, Agriculture and Rural Resettlement (MLARR) are mandated with the responsibility for all development activities in their sector. They are also responsible for ensuring that NGO programmes fit with national priorities.
At the onset of independence, GoZ initiated Development Planning as an instrument for achieving guided, rapid socio-economic development and transformation. The means through which GoZ objectives for development were to be achieved and it represented a broad framework within which the instruments for achieving project/programme were contained.
Under the Transitional National Development Plan (1982-85) specific issues were to be emphasised in the agricultural sector, eg.
• Fair distribution of land ownership and use
▪ Food self-sufficiency
▪ Contribution to foreign exchange earning and raw materials for industry
• Land conservation and environmental protection
• Development of human resources to full potential. and rural development: 5
▪ Cooperative development
▪ Resettlement schemes • Development of communal areas through public investment, provision of common facilities and development of common services and modification of the traditional communal system.
Following the First Five-Year Development Plan (1985-1990)% sectoral projects need to highlight the following areas:-
of economic activity; ▪ increase local participation in all areas
▪ prompting rural development; • creation of additional employment opportunities;
between development and the ▪ achieving a correct balance environment;
▪ raising the standard of living;
m promoting of regional economic activities;
• generation of foreign currency.
Any projects submitted have to reflect sectoral goals. It is the responsibility of the Ministry to vet the projects, and to check how they fit into the plan.
Whilst GoZ intends to spearhead agricultural development activities, the Public Sector Investment Programme which disburses public and donor funds is severely strained through government cut-backs under the structural adjustment programme. Thus, financial constraints are an important factor behind the Ministry's increasing openness towards other agencies operating in agriculture.
NGO-MLARR Agreements
Individual ministries are also to make agreements and establish working relations with any NGO, provided it is registered with the Registrar of Welfare Organisations'. 6 As all NGO activities involve, inter-alia, setting out administrative institutions, repatriation of funds and recruitment of personnel, before an NGO can begin its operations a legal framework of operation is required. This legal framework, or Memorandum of Understanding(MoU) clearly expresses the desire of GoZ and the NGO to mutually approach identified problems and cooperate to establish working relations. The speCific problem or theme identified should be of interest and concern to GoZ ie. within the National Development Plans and be within the scope and activities of the NGO. GoZ is represented by the parent Ministry to embark on specific projects within the MoU.
An MoU is a general agreement. It only identifies the broad areas of concern such as crop research, livestock research and forestry research. An NGO can have one MoU enabling it to draw out or embark on several projects under an identified theme.
The MoU enhances accountability of NGO activities in the country and takes anything from one year to four years to establish. The major reasons for delay are: initial presentation of the draft and requisite follow-up by NGOs concerned.
NGOs AND PLANNING
Zimbabwe had a decentralised planning structure with Development Committees at Village, Ward, District and Provincial level'. NGOs are involved at each of these levels in presenting their plans for consideration by the Committees, in receiving requests for assistance from the Committees and, to a lesser extent, reporting on the progress of their activities.
Currently NGO participation in planning ends at provincial level. Many critics have highlighted the need for NGOs to participate up to national level. Before this can occur, several factors must be overcome. On the one hand, government often does not know the magnitude and duration of NGO support and thus cannot budget for it. On the other hand, local NGOs may not know the level of support they are to secure from their parent NGOs and donors. This restricts their level of commitment on a long-term basis. If NGOs generated their own funds, they would determine the level and direction of support and thus be in a position to participate meaningfully to the development plans on a long term basis. 7 All provincial plans are integrated into national plans. Requisite ministries reassess the impact of the plan objectives under implementation to provide a basis for rational allocation of resources. Sectoral planning sections ensure that new projects are designed to meet sectoral objectives in pursuit of plan objectives. The ministries formulate, prepare and appraise projects for submission to The Ministry of Finance, Economic Planning and Development (MFEPD) that contribute toward the attainment of stated plan objectives, in consultation with the Provincial Development Committees. MFEPD collates and makes requisite adjustments before submitting to the President and Cabinet.
Because the planning process is lengthy, NGOs have found it more convenient to fund directly projects requested by the community. As they are close to the community, the NGOs can respond quickly to such problems without necessarily referring to Government. Thus, MLARR have little input at project formulation and are only called to provide services once the project has been approved'.
Communities in dire need of assistance sometimes make direct appeals to NGOs for help. Since many NGOs have flexible planning, such requests may be given attention (if funds are available) even if the period does not coincide with government national budgets. In some cases, NGOs sometimes draw out their projects from the national plans. In others, projects are identified by observing failures in existing government or NGO projects. Launching an integrated project, World Vision International was quoted:
"The scheme was started after we noticed that some conventions of advising farmers were not producing desired results. Failures arose when technical advice to farmers was packed and presented to field officers without consultations with farmers on the ground, resulting in misunderstanding.... We want to implement a• diagnostic approach to farmers problems. We want to listen to and understand their problems before we prescribe a solution." (Herald, 17 December 1990).
In recommending projects for funding, (eg. from the parent NGOs), the following areas seem to be important:
The project requests are based on area needs assessment and priorities which originate from the participating community. 8 Planning should demonstrate sensitivity to the socio-economic situation of the community.
At implementation, GoZ strives to intervene and influence the-direction of NGO activities in the following areas.
GoZ has embarked on villagisation to enable orderly settlement of people. The village is the basic unit for planning and all projects, public or NGO-sponsored, are to be discussed and prioritised within the village unit. This differs from NGOs who perceive communities as target beneficiaries. This approach may transcend village boundaries.
GoZ provides support services, such as training, regulatory services and advisory services, to train and assist rural people in the project area. This will not only enhance the people's capacity to influence planning, but will also assist GoZ in monitoring the nature of NGO support.
GoZ provides guidelines for operations in the priority areas.
In some cases GoZ seconds personnel to the project. This ensures that government officials are acquainted with specific projects.
When a new intervention is planned, GoZ provides a format for new projects funded by public and NGO agencies. Information is required on project location, cost, financing, inputs, manpower and training requirements, time-scale and indicators for monitoring and evaluation.
Projects are appraised on technical and economic grounds.
All ongoing projects are monitored by a Committee chaired by MFEPD which sits on a monthly basis.
Training of target beneficiaries in all technical subjects is the responsibility of government. This means that collaboration with NGOs can provide a channel for technical skills to be impoarted and for wider aspects of government policy to be transmitted to the people. 9 Periodic reference is made to what the NGOs are doing in relation to their agreed terms of reference at registration. NGOs are allowed to modify their models and mode of intervention should situations change significantly from those anticipated. To do this, they have to inform the Registrar General.
NGO INTERVENTION IN ZIMBABWE
NGO interventions have gone through two distinct but interrelated phases, namely,from welfare and relief activities to development-oriented,long-term interventions by the end of the 1980s. This evolution appears to have been the result of guidance or influence of the local NGOs by their donors or sister NGOs in the North; the experience acquired by the local NGOs themselves; the call by GoZ to assist in specific areas and the aspirations of the clientele, the poor, especially in emergency relief.
At the onset of independence, NGO activities were purely to provide relief and emergency services. This involved education of the destitute families, provision of monthly allowances, clothes, blankets and food emergency aid to war victims, reconstruction of destroyed homes and medical services.
In the mid-1980s, NGOs in Zimbabwe began to realise that "the harvest is plenty and the gatherers are few." With a shoestring budget and paucity of staff, NGOs realised that long-term development should be their ideal. Thus they began staff development and reorientation, improvement of management and recruitment of qualified professionals in agriculture. Evidence of this is to be found in the early retirement of several experienced personnel from research, extension and training who subsequently joined NGOs.
New relationships were created involving NGOs, GoZ and the people. Acknowledging the work of VOICE, L Chitsike, then Permanent Secretary in the Ministry of Co-operatives had this to say:-
"The change in policy from social welfare to various fields of endeavour including co-operatives in virtually all provinces of Zimbabwe, was commendable."
Silveira House had to evaluate its pre-1980 strategy to create a new plan intended to develop the whole person: 10
"The plan intended to develop an individual's physical and material needs; intellectual and practical abilities, social needs; to conscientise them to be critically aware of the social, economic and political factors which build up and which destroy society and to develop the moral and spiritual needs of the person." (Silveira House, 1989).
As a result, programmes were initiated to cover all walks of life in the rural areas: agriculture, nutrition, carpentry, blacksmithing, appropriate technology, co-operatives and credit unions, departments, civics and industrial relations, education for living and leadership training.
The same insight was observed at ORAP,an NGO based in Bulawayo. This organisation encourages people to discuss among themselves, analyse their problems, set priorities and plan their activities before getting assistance. One beneficiary in the project confirms the strategy:
"ORAP told us if you use your brain and hands, you can develop." (ORAP, 1985)
In the late 1980s NGOs mainly provided money, materials and specialist labour whilst the community worked on the projects. In this instance, projects are viewed as a prerequisite to commitment and sustainability. Community involvement therefore became a blueprint, a by-word which would enable participants as well as beneficiaries to perceive and tackle hurdles in development in an organised manner, ie. taking cognisance of their aspirations and what can be achieved.
The Child Supplementary Feeding Programme(CSFP) is a classic illustration of the change in NGO philosophy. CSFP was started as an emergency programme in 1980 by NGOs and later handed to the Ministry of Health (MoH)to administer. CSFP was viewed as a temporary measure set up for humanitarian reasons to provide extra nutritive foods for children under five years of age (Loewenson and Sanders, 1988, p. 141).
As a programme, it became very costly, with over 250,000 children being fed. A long-ter-ft solution to malnutrition had to be found and the philosophy changed from feeding to production. A new programme, Supplementary Food Production Programme (SFPP), was initiated with vegetable gardens and projects on small livestock. CSFP ceased in 1985 and SFPP is still in operation. A manual, "Inter-sectoral Management for the Supplementary Food Production Programme", helps enhance staff work from different sectors. 11
The period 1985-1987 thus witnessed a change in the mode of intervention by NG0s, as a result of NGO and GoZ gaining confidence in areas of mutual trust, with the resultant instilling self-reliance on the people.
By far the most indelible mark left by NGO intervention is the community gaining confidence in itself to initiate and guide its own development. People ask themselves: why do we buy bread when we could make it? Why do we rely on food handouts when we can grow it?
"We do not call ourselves groups, but rather amalima, which means meeting together for working and helping ourselves. Groups are built around that idea, and then we go to ask for help from outside. We know what we want. We did not come into being as beggars. We have something to contribute to development." (ORAP, 1985).
This confidence is very much in line with government's policy of self-reliance on the part of the community and thus helps reduce services from government.
Despite its undoubted successes, certain problems accompanied the shift into both community and development programmes. A wide variety of projects were labelled "community" programmes and as a result economic viability criteria tended to fall back into second place. This caused difficulties of project sustainability, and repayment of loans in credit programmes'.
NGO ACTIVITIES IN ZIMBABWE
From MLARR's experience of NGO .activities6, the following appear to be their main strengths: (i) Providing opportunities for training and research, thus offering an integrated approach to development.
(ii) Organisation of villagers into groups/structures to discuss and prioritise their problems, and participate in community projects. This has resulted in community confidence to solve problems themselves.
(iii) Provision of assistance - money and materials - to needy areas, thus assisting/complementing government services. 12
(iv) Creation of employment for local NGO staff and project beneficiaries.
(v) Provision of capital goods, vehicles, infrastructure, computer-hardware and scientific material.
(iv) Working in areas in which government has not hitherto made inroads, such as child nutrition.
(vii) Enabling GoZ to focus on those areas which had previously given a low priority such as child welfare and the disabled. Projects targeted to these communities have been used as vehicles to raise the standard of living of such people. These issues are emphasised at project formulation as a pre- requisite for support by a particular NGO.
(viii) Their philosophy of participation, involving beneficiaries in planning and implementing have been accepted in government project formulation strategies and training programmes.
These activities, however, are descriptive and qualitative. They lack a quantitative approach and analysis to enable them to be dovetailed into government programmes or planning systems. This is the challenge facing GoZ/NGO relations: can NGOs quantify their assistance and project future trends so that government can accommodate those projections in annual plans? The advantages would include: identifying areas where NGOs are strong and relating these efforts to improve government services.
At the onset of independence, GoZ initiated Development Planning as an instrument for achieving guided, rapid socio-economic development and transformation. The planning process become an on-going exercise which involved the formulation of plan objectives, strategies and plan implementation instruments, as well as worked out indicators and targets. The plan became the means through which GoZ objectives for development were to be achieved and it represented a broad framework within which the instruments for achieving project/programme were contained. The plan noted the predominance of the private capital in manufacturing industry and the need for change of ownership in all sectors of the economy as expressed in the first Five Year Development Plan (1985-1990). 13 This was to be achieved through economic growth, full employment, economic and social welfare, reconstruction and socio-economic transformation. The plan highlighted rural development and rural resettlement as the main areas of focus.
Implicitly, GoZ became the spearhead in modernising peasant agriculture. As we go into the 1990s, the capacity of public funds towards this goal will be severely strained to the point that other agencies will have to chip in.
Or anisation and Management of A ricultural Research in Zimbabwe
Agricultural research in Zimbabwe is mainly commodity and market-oriented and is conducted by a number of organisations in both the public and private sector.
The Department of Research and Specialist Services (R&SS) is the predominant publicly-supported agricultural research organisation in Zimbabwe falling under MLARR. It carries out research on all aspects of agriculture except those pertaining to: tobacco, conducted by the Tobacco Research Board; sugar by the Zimbabwe Sugar Association; pigs under the Pig Industry Board, all of which are parastatals. Animal health and diseases research is carried out by The Department of Veterinary Services and agricultural engineering by AGRITEX, both public sector organisations. Forestry research is conducted by the Forestry Commission, a parastatal, whilst that on fish comes under the Department of National Parks and Wild Life; both organisations operate under the umbrella of the Ministry of Environment and Tourism. In addition, there are several private research organisations, including the Seed Company of Zimbabwe, the Zimbabwe Sugar Association; the Agricultural Research Trust and the Commercial Cotton Growers' Association.
The Agricultural Research Council is comprised of Representatives from all the main research organisations, as well as the Parent Ministries and farmers' organisations'. It coordinates all forms of agricultural research and has two main functions:
to keep under review all agricultural research in the country with particular attention to the adequacy of such research for the needs of the country and; 14 (ii) to promote all aspects of agricultural research and to ensure maximum coordination between persons and authorities who are undertaking, or are about to undertake, any forms of agricultural research.
0 erational Objectives of A ricultural Research in Zimbabwe
Stated in broad terms, the task facing research organisations is that of producing new knowledge and understanding, and ensuring continuous advances in appropriate agricultural technology. The research process must embrace many types of research activities ranging from strategic, through tactical to developmental research. P Chigaru (1984) states that strategic research seeks to broaden the basis of knowledge necessary to solve problems. This is commonly referred to as basic research. This type of research is long term and demands committed reliable finance and manpower resources. Tactical research, on the other hand, aims to solve specific problems, while developmental research is designed to adopt and test technology to the specific needs of a particular set of environmental conditions. The last two are commonly referred to as applied and or adaptive research. In general, it is felt that NGOs cannot tackle basic research because this requires high levels of capital, is long term, and needs a team of dedicated scientists. NGOs can, on the other hand, conduct adaptive research as this is at an advanced stage of operation: They can take research results from researchers and test it on a wider scale and provide feedback to researchers.
Successful developmental research depends on adequate support and output from the strategic and tactical stages in the overall research process. Whilst the latter can be "borrowed" from elsewhere, adaptive or developmental research is local and specific. In Zimbabwe, the infrastructure for developmental research is relatively advanced and various research stations scattered throughout the country help research focus on specific commodities for specific areas.
The mfindate of research was broadened in 1980 to include and emphasise the problems of small farmers. R&SS has since taken heed of this by incorporating the following themes into its research programmes:
(i) Communal Areas Research trials: evaluating new varieties of most field crops and field testing improved production technology in communal area agriculture. 15 (ii) Farming Systems Research: diagnostic surveys in communal areas to describe existing systems and production constraints are followed by adaptive experimentation with the target groups identified.
(iii) Farming Systems Development: this theme helps improve existing farming systems by testing new technologies introduced.
(iv) Increased formal communication between research and extension organisations. This has resulted in creation of institutions at National Level: Committee for the On-farm Research and Extension Linkage(COFREC) and Regional On-farm Research and Extension Linkage (ROFREC).
AGRITEX has institutionalised research efforts in agricultural engineering in the following themes:
Animal power: draught power, harness; and types of tillages technology to meet the needs of small farmers
Tractor power: testing various types of tractors and attachments.
Soil engineering: the impact of various tillage methods otz soil structure and soil loss. Soil run-off is also researched for various types offarming.
Veterinary Services conducts research solely on animal health and cattle diseases. Of particular concern are the tsetse fly and foot and mouth disease, which affect both large- and small-scale farms.
Limitations of Public Agricultural Research Programmes
The constraints faced by the public research institutions are well-known:
1. Due to a widespread mandate to carry out research activities to meet the needs of both large and small farmers, there has been formidable pressure on resources (manpower,finance and equipment) to the extent that some 16 programmes have been discontinued prematurely, ie. before conclusive results could be drawn.
2. Research activities transcend national boundaries. There is need for coordinating national with regional activities. Efforts in determining this regard have resulted in the formation of the Southern Africa Centre for Co-operation in Agriculture Research (SACCAR).
3. The Department of R&SS evolved from commodity and market-oriented bases. Small farmers may not respond to this type of research to their scale of production and food requirements which come before marketing the surplus, and due to their geographical distribution which results in diverse soils and rainfall.
4. Public-funded programmes rarely reach the grassroots due to limited operational resources.
NGOs INVOLVEMENT IN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
The involvement of NGOs in agricultural research is not new, particularly' for the commodity organisations such as Commercial Cotton Growers Association who charge their members a levy to conduct research programmes. However, for NGOs such as ENDA-Zimbabwe, this is a relatively new activity.
On the positive note, if properly organised and coordinated, such NGO involvement will help to:-
(i) diversify NGO areas of intervention. If successful, the NGOs' credibility is enhanced.
create NGO networks transcending geographical, national and international boundaries;
(iii) bolster state resources (manpower, finance and transport) which are always limited. 17 On the other hand, NGOs' involvement in traditionally public programmes such as research raises several areas of concern: (i) The majority of local NGOs are usually not self-financing, but depend on external assistance. Research, particularly basic research, is long term and demands continuous monitoring and documentation of results. Any break due to financial uncertainties or constraints will immediately jeopardise the programme. NGOs who do not have independent financial resources may suffer in this respect. Government, on the other hand, depends on predictable sources of income such as grants, loans and taxation.
(ii) NGOs in developing countries are not accountable to the host governments but to their parent organisations. Such NGOs, therefore, are not represented in national parliaments. In the case of an NGO research/extension programme failing, it is the Minister, not the NGO, who is answerable to parliament.
(iii) Due to their experience in and commitment to emergency and relief programmes, NGOs are likely to continue supporting such programmes in the event of disasters occurring elsewhere in the world. Research programmes, which are non-emergency in the short term sense, are likely to suffer.
(iv) National governments have their own areas of agricultural research to meet the needs of their countries. NGOs on their own may thus duplicate or conflict with activities of the research agency unless their programmes are properly worked out in liaison with the government.
However, if NGOs liaise with government programmes their involvement in research can be very productive: (i) NGOs could visit various research stations and map out areas of operation within their means.
(ii) NGOs could help in publication of pamphlets and bulletins on research programmes' design, research and results in a 18 format accessible to rural people and Service workers. Dissemination of research results is a very important component of any research programme.
(iii) With Subject Matter Specialists in Extension and Research Officers/Specialists in the research department, NGOs can help carry out adaptive research programmes in specific areas. This help could include identification of farmer collaborators and contributions of financial resources for inputs, transport to the site and publication of farm results.
(iv) NGOs can help sponsor seminars, workshops and lectures on research programmes at local, national and regional levels. The rationale would ensure the spillover and rapid spread of research results.
(v) With their experience on emergency and relief exercises, NGOs can help government in designing on-farm experimentation.
(vi) Related to (v) above, NGOs could help design agricultural research programmes for low rainfall areas where relief aid is often called for. As the majority of the communal lands are in the low rainfall areas the resources required in researching their farming systems is extensive.
THE FUTURE
Zimbabwe has embarked on policies to improve food, foreign exchange earnings and reduction of the national debt with structural adjustment at the heart of this. Structural adjustment policies involve, inter alia, a shift of responsibility for socio-economic development from government alone to the commercial and voluntary sectors and the people as a whole. NGOs are thus likely to become useful partners in development. Their experiences, concepts and expertise can be usefully documented and dovetailed into government programmes. In particular, the following need emphasis.
NGOs need to convince government that they merit appropriate and consistent policies based on consultations and exchange of views. 19 NGOs need to create the capacity to generate funds for their operations. This will enable them to work out programmes under their own control.
As NGOs' projects are small in scope and content and include non-economic objectives, the traditional methods of evaluation such as cost-benefit analysis may not apply. Rather, some participatory evaluation methods need to be developed. This could involve NGOs, communities and government.
The doubts, misgivings and suspicions that have hitherto estranged relations between GoZ and NGOs need to be removed. Governments are considered too bureaucratic while at the same time having technical strengths, whilst NGOs are perceived to be too secretive but able to communicate with villages. These features need to be reconciled.
NGOs need to reconcile their budgeting arrangements with GoZ's annual budgets to facilitate the granting of government technical support to NGO projects.
Without proper coordination, NGOs may in fact promote inequality among rural villages.
The time taken to draw out agreements is unnecessarily long. This needs to be reviewed.
Government and NGOs together need to create an institution to ensure that NGOs' activities are coordinated. 20 ENDNOTES
1 The main development plans have been: Growth with equity (1981); Transitional National Development Plan (1982-85) and the First Five Year Development Plan (1986-90).
2 The National Council of Social Welfare maintains a register of NGOs operating in Zimbabwe. The purposes of registration are to inform the government about the NGO and the type of assistance offered to avoid duplication of efforts among NGOs themselves. This also facilitates clearance of vehicles and equipment from the Department of Customs and Excise as these are facilities reserved for Welfare Organisations. However, as cited above, over 800 NGOs operate in the country, the majority of whom are not registered. Some NGOs feel that registration is lengthy and unnecessary.
3 Planning Procedure:
Village Level: 100 household families constitute a village. A Village Development Committee (VIDCO) is a planning institution. The villagers discuss, prioritise and organise their plans for the village. This helps attain commitment and sustenance to the project. People are exposed to the development constraints and opportunities so that they contribute meaningfully to development in consultation with government and other agencies.
Ward Level: 4-6 villages constitute a ward. A ward chairman collates the village plans in consultation with government and NGOs. The latter provide technical and material support to the projects.
District Level: 6-10 councillors constitute a district and war chairmen present all ward plans. The District Administrator is the overall chairman. He presides over a meeting comprising all district heads of ministries and the people's representatives. NGOs present themselves on ad hoc or planned basis to highlight their programmes. ,Government Ministries lead the technical subcommittees and provide the requisite inputs to project proposals. In the event of funds being available, action plans are drawn and resources set aside accordingly for implementation to take place.
Provincial Level: The District Administrator and the District Council 1
21 Chairman collate district plans and submit them to the Provincial Development Committee (PDC). Chaired by the Provincial Administrator, the PDC comprises all District Administrators, Provincial Head of Ministries and Departments and the Programme Officers of NGOs. PDC is the technical team that works out strategies for implementation. Projects are rated, ranked and prioritised.
Provincial Governors chair the Provincial Council comprising Provincial Head of Ministries/Departments as advisors with councillors from district and rural councils, politician members of Parliament traditional leaders who seriously examine the proposals.
The roles of the Provincial Governors are:-
- consultative: to consult with everyone in the Province in order to be informed of and keep abreast in the area. He can approach any ministry and or department on any issue concerning the province. - coordinative: to bring out about a horizontal coordination between departmental programmes that are planned and executed so as to avoid duplication. He chairs meetings with NGOs to solicit funds, check progress on on-going projects. He reports the progress to the requisite ministries. - development: to mobilise and organise people for development. Where communities disagree on specific issues-boundaries, loss of land to projects, inadequate compensation, allocation of projects to the district - the governor guides and directs the community. - political: inter and intra party relations and political activities in the province are nurtured, kindled, guided in accordance with Party regulations.
4 C de Jong, Assistant Director, Pers. comm.
5 According to the then Voice Executive Director, Mr Gamanya, only 9% of income-generating projects were successful (The Herald, 1990). See also Ann Muir's Impact Evaluation Study of 4 NGOs income- generating projects in Zimbabwe (Muir, 1991).
6 Memorandum of Understanding and Quarterly Review Reports on Projects (MLARR files, various).
4, 1
22 7 The Agricultural Research Council Membership in 1987 was 16: 9 from public sector research organisations and ministries; 2 from the private sector; and 5 farmers' representatives: 3 representatives for the 6000 large-scale commercial farms (Commercial Farmers' Union); 1 for the 9000 small-scale commercial farmers, The Zimbabwe National Farmers' Union; and 1 representative for the 760,000 communal area farms (National Farmers' Association of Zimbabwe). (Avila et al., 1989).
**********
REFERENCES
Avila, M; Whinguiri, E E and Mombeshora. 1989. Organisational Management of On-Farm Research in the Department of Research and Specialist Services, MLARR.
Chavunduka, D M; Huizer, G; Khumalo, T D and Thede, N. 1985. 'The Story of ORAP in Zimbabwe's Rural Development". Bulawayo: ORAP.
Chigaru, P. 1984. "Future Directions of The Department of Research and Specialist Services". Unpublished Mimeo. Harare: Ministry of Agriculture.
Loewenson, R and Sanders, D. 1988. 'The Political Economy of Health and Nutrition" in Stoneman, C (ed.), Zimbabwe's Prospects. London: Macmillan.
Muir, Arm. 1991. Evaluating NGO Approaches to Poverty Alleviation: Zimbabwe Case Studies". Draft Working Paper. London: ODI.
Silveira House. 1989. "Silveira House 1964-1989: 25 Years". Annual Report. Harare: Silveira House. 23
FORESTRY COMMISSION LINKAGES with NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS in FORESTRY RESEARCH and RURAL AFFORESTATION DEVELOPMENT: The Case of Zimbabwe
Sara Mvududu Forestry Commission, Harare
INTRODUCTION
The main forestry-related issues in Zimbabwe are the large-scale and accelerating loss and deterioration of the forest cover; a rapidly increasing demand for fuelwood; the need for conservation of ecosystems, genetic resources, energy and wood use; traditional competition between agriculture and forestry for land and other resources; the need for public and governmental recognition of the roles of forestry and trees; the need to maintain, improve and better utilise industrial forests; limited seed supplies; limited participation of rural people in planning and operating tree projects; and above all, shortcomings of the forestry institutions, including their management and research, as well as the gross inadequacy and discontinuities of the rural afforestation budgets.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND TO THE FORESTRY COMMISSION
Environmental problems in the communal areas (formerly the "trust lands") can be viewed at least in part as the result of successive legislation, starting with the Land Appointment Act (1930) which confined farmers to set areas and forced them to crop the same land over and over again. Added to this have been problems of increasing population, inappropriate land use practices and imposed and often poorly designed conservation policies which have led to a serious degradation of the communal areas' resource base.
Whilst various attempts were made during the colonial period to address the question of natural resource preservation, these met with limited success, particularly in the communal areas. The Macllewaine report cif 1940 proposed regulation of natural resource use in these areas but the subsequent Natural Resources Act(1942) ended up focusing on commercial 24 land. The establishment of eucalyptus plantations and nurseries and small localised forests for pole and wood fuel production by District Councils or the central government authorities under the District Commissioners was proposed. However, the colonial government appeared uncommitted to the communal areas and the few funds and staff allocated to the programme were quickly absorbed into agricultural activities.
The Forestry Commission (FC) was established in 1954 as a parastatal organisation subsuming the forestry responsibilities from the Department of Forestry in the Ministry of Agriculture. The PC was accorded the mandate to implement the Government of Zimbabwe's forestry strategy which included the administration of state forests, the conservation of timber resources, and the regulation and control of forest products. It is classified as a revenue earning parastatal organisation and is under the nominal control of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. The Forestry Commission has 6 divisions: Research and Development, Forestry Extension, Commercial, Indigenous and Wildlife Resources, Finance, Personnel and Administration.
The Rural Afforestation Programme
Discussions between the Whitsun Foundation, a non-profit development organisation in Zimbabwe, the Forestry Commission and the Department of Agricultural Development held in 1979 concluded there was an urgent need for a study to assemble information on the timber resource of Zimbabwe, especially in the communal areas and to develop a project suited to both Government and aid agencies for inclusion in an integrated rural development programme.
The study team, led by the Whitsun Foundation, found that to achieve an increase in the number of trees growing in the rural areas, the project would need components to raise public awareness of the need for increased rural wood supplies, conduct research into wood supply and utilisation, improve extension services to the rural population who were not generally used to planting trees and to improve the institutional framework within government (Whitsun Foundation, 1980). A pilot project was proposed to test different approaches to rural forestry and develop an institutional framework to implement a rural afforestation programme. 25 As a response to the study and with the government's priority on more broadly-based rural development, the Rural Afforestation Division was created to manage, develop and utilise forests in Communal Areas. It was also the home of the Rural Afforestation Project (RAP) which received financial support from Ford Foundation and started in 1982.
The most effective components of the project, both in terms of cost- effectiveness and in encouraging people to plant trees, were the Support Fund, an in-kind facility to provide seeds and polythene pots to small farmers, groups (including women's groups and schools), and community nurseries; a programme of involvement with schools and communities through a Tree Growing and Tree Care Competition; forestry field days and National Tree Planting Day (Forestry Commission, 1990).
Other aspects of the project were less effective and raise questions of viability. The costly and heavily subsidized FC central nurseries have not produced the range of species wanted by farmers. The Forestry Commission is now decentralising its nursery programme and is beginning to support the development by farmers and District Councils of small, dispersed nurseries producing a wider range of species. Forestry Commission nurseries should concentrate on the introduction of improved trees, trees which are difficult to germinate, those with low survival rates, or which could be more productive by provision of fertiliser, water and other inputs, and trees which are not commonly planted and for which seed stock is not available. The nurseries can also act as centres for rural forestry extension and training.
On-farm forestry extension has been carried out by the agricultural extension service, AGRITEX. The original intention was that the Forestry Commission would provide training .and backstopping to AGRITEX. However, the development of a strategy for on-farm forestry extension has been hindered by wide differences in levels of training and experience of AGRITEX and FC personnel and by diverging objectives in their respective rural afforestation activities with FC emphasis on woodlots and AGRITEX on agroforestry and farming systems. It also became apparent that the project under-emphasised protection and management of indigenous woodland for multiple end use (fodder,fuelwood, poles, timber, grazing), the need to shift responsibility for seedling production to farmers and local communities and the importance of multipurpose (particularly fruit and leguminous) species. The limited participation by the rural population in tree planting and management in RAP I may partly be attributable to the lack of sociological inputs into the design of technical packages. 26 The second phase of the project is attempting to correct these shortcomings and concentrate on developing forestry extension through the existing structures, while maintaining the support fund programme for tree planting and nursery development. In an effort to develop appropriate indigenous tree management, a pilot programme on woodland conservation and management will be carried out in selected districts.
GOVERNMENT FORESTRY RESEARCH
Forestry research is carried out and funded almost entirely by the Research Division of the Forestry Commission through its research centre and five field stations. Various donor agencies contribute towards forest research through education, funding the development of facilities and through technical cooperation officers.
The Research Division has a comprehensive organisational structure covering all aspects of forestry, but its strength have been in species introduction and provenance trials, genetic improvement of tropical pines and eucalyptus, and development of a large seed product unit. Tree breeding has concentrated on the main commercial softwoods, pine and eucalyptus, the pine programme being directed towards commercial plantations, whilst the eucalypt programme is aimed equally towards the improvement of commercial plantations and plantations for fuelwood in the farming and communal lands. Most of the management studies are concerned with these three main species but attention is now being given to pole-cropping E.grandis, and spacing trials are to be established for eucalypts in semi-arid conditions to provide basic information on the management of communal land fuelwood stands. A series of studies have been undertaken to collect basic information for formulating a pest management policy. Particular attention is being paid to the problem of termite control in establishing eucalypt woodlots.
On-Station and on-farm research
The introduction of new species for trial has been a major part of the research programme for many years and to date some 4,000 plots with over 200 species have been established in various parts of the country. Very little work has been done on the introduction and trial of arid-zone exotic species for planting in the dry areas of Zimbabwe (silvicultural zone V). However, 27 a ncw field research station has been set up at Chesa with the objective of identifying species suitable for fuel woodlots and/or for inclusion in tree/pasture/food cropping systems and to provide research back-up for the rural afforestation programme.
On-farm trials in the Inyozani resettlement area, Matopos are being carried out simultaneously with the on-station trials. Measurements from the two trials indicate that some species are doing better on the farms than at the station. The trials are serving extension as well as demonstration purposes. Many farmers in these villages, having observed the success of the trials, have now taken to tree planting and conservation.
Farmers often plant vegetables within their woodlots, intercropping with the trees. Inyozari is a dry area so microcatchments are being introduced to encourage natural revegetation and support tree planting efforts on degraded land. Termites and grasshoppers have attacked species such as eucalypts. However, the results of trials on indigenous and fruit trees are encouraging.
The Research and Development Division, through its Matopos and Shurugwi trials, is starting to recognise that research should not be confined only to planning, executing and communicating the research itself, but should be linked backward to national planning objectives and forward to the users of research results. Both trials have a strong socio-economic component to reflect users' needs. The diagnosis and design (D & D) system of problem identification and resolution is followed (Raintree, 1987).
The Search for Forestry Research Priorities and Farmer Needs
Identification of farmer innovators and the incorporation of farmers needs into the principles, practices and technologies of forestry research and extension has been somewhat neglected by the Forestry authorities. Forestry extension and rural afforestation in Zimbabwe have tended to specialize on single commodities in contrast to farmers requirements as revealed through farm surveys which often show a non-commodity need, such as multipurpose trees for agroforestry.
Researchers and extensionists are not rewarded for raising problems and making requests. Most field staff lack the capacity to respond to needs and requests articulated by farmers for material or information. Forestry 28 Extension management information systems are designed to feed information upwards to central management rather than downwards to serve farmers. Thus, whilst in Mutoko district the farmers are quite advanced in the application of various agroforestry techniques, the District Forest Officer has no documentation of such techniques because the reporting system covers only nursery production and woodlot establishment.
There are practical implications here for the Forestry Research and Extension Divisions: to encourage field staff to search for, support and spread farmers innovations; to judge and reward staff by the requests they make in response to analysis of and demands by farmers, and to develop information and supply systems to respond to those demands. Freedom and means for staff to visit and spend time with farmers are crucial. Unfortunately access to transport and permission to use it are frequent problems: travel and allowances are still regarded as high-profile privileges which are sparingly allocated by management to field staff, especially under tightening budget constraints.
Social Forestry Research Pilot Project
The Shurugwi Social Forestry Research Pilot Project was initiated in the Midlands Region in 1987 with funding from Ford Foundation to strengthen the capacity of the Forestry Extension Department to promote tree planting in communal ares. One of its main objectives is to develop methods to enable farmers to participate in the planning and implementation of tree growing projects. It also aims to identify the major constraints to effective social forestry extension, and to investigate the roles which government and non-government workers can play in social forestry extension, particularly AGRITEX extension workers and Local Government community workers. A further objective of the project is to generate technical information on tree species and management for inclusion in training and extension programmes.
Organising for participation has been the main thrust of field activities during the initial project period. The project is organised at the Village Development,Committee (VIDCO) level, the smallest administrative unit. Each VIDCO comprises about 100 families who are represented by an elected committee responsible for co-ordinating development. Initial meetings held in the 5 project locations led to the formation of forest committees "MITICOS". There are approximately equal numbers of men and women on each MITICO. 29 Two people from each VIDCO attended a nursery training course, after which nurseries were set up. The project provided materials for these nurseries, in the form of mesh wire, poles and polythene pots. The planting plans devised by each VIDCO included up to 50 species, mostly indigenous, but also eucalyptus and other exotic species. This system whereby the MITICO has been responsible for originating work in the nursery has only worked in one VIDCO. In the others the nurseries have either been neglected or are being worked by only a handful of people. Discussions held with farmers revealed that nursery work is probably best handled by schools which seem to have an abundance of labour and time which the farmers themselves lack.
The VIDCOs are relatively new structures formed after Independence, in 1984. A number of villages, usually about five, were combined together and traditional lineage leaders were displaced by elected committees. The notion of elected leadership, compounded by the haste with which the new committees were formed, resulted in some cases in the election of unsuitable leaders and continuing conflicts between new and old. Land allocations, for example, are supposed to be made by the councillors but traditional leaders (kraal heads and chiefs) are still respected and many continue their traditional responsibilities including allotment of land. Furthermore, villages traditionally co-operated on the basis of sharing of common resources while the new VIDCOs rarely follow such division. These problems are compounded by the heavy demands made on the VIDCO to mobilise people for numerous government projects, in which they have no real power over resource allocation or decision-making.
The Shurugwi project findings are .being used by the Forestry Extension Division (FED) in strengthening and modifying its activities and approach. Thus, FED is encouraging the running of community nurseries and is handing over central nurseries to District Councils, schools, communities, groups and individuals. The project has also highlighted administrative and policy constraints to tree planting. The *availability of land to plant trees is a particular problem in many common areas, where almost every available portion of land has been taken up for agricultural cropping and there are few areas remaining for grazing. 30 NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANISATIONS IN FORESTRY
NGOs participate extensively in forestry and agroforestry development activities in rural areas. They provide materials for tree planting; conduct courses, workshops and seminars on nursery and woodlot establishment and management; and carry out research on agroforestry and wood energy and surveys on indigenous tree knowledge. A number of NGOs also have their own training centres where short courses or demonstrations in afforestation/agroforestry wood energy research are offered. On National Tree Planting Day, various NGOs and government agencies have assisted in promotion and education programmes.
In many cases, NGOs rely on technical assistance from the Forestry Commission, since they often lack highly trained staff. FC has trained both government and NGO personnel in tree planting techniques and extension for farmers in communal areas.
Over twenty NGOs who collaborate or coordinate their activities with the Forestry Commission on afforestation and other forestry related issues have been identified. These can be divided into those concentrating on training and awareness-raising, research, and coordination. Some of these are discussed below: a) Training and Awareness-raising
Associations of Women's Clubs(AWC) offers various training courses to its members: vocational, domestic and income generating skills, nutrition and hygiene, club management etc. With the assistance of the Forestry Commission, the AWC regularly conducts courses in rural afforestation and provides material support such as fencing for woodlots established by its members. AWC has a full-time forester to co-ordinate its forestry activities.
Glen Forest Training Centre provides training to co-operatives, communal and resettlement farmers, women and NGO staff in agroforestry and appropriate technology. The Centre conducts on-farm agroforestry trials, intercropping Leucaena with maize and other crops. 31 Redd Barna (Norwegian Save the Children) provides assistance to communal areas, resettlement schemes, displaced persons and schools. Its contribution towards tree planting is second only to government. Redd Barna conducts training courses in agricultural and technical skills to enable parents and communities to become self-reliant and be able to provide a better future for their children. In its drive towards a good environment for children Redd Barna has, in collaboration with the Forestry Commission and Ministry of Education, sponsored a national Tree Growing and Tree Care Competition for schools. The Colleges and Schools Tree programme has proved to be a very effective extension vehicle for the afforestation programme.
Zimbabwe Red Cross, as part of its overall objectives of improving health, supports tree planting activities in the rural areas. Volunteers have actively participated in tree planting in Midlands, Manicaland and Mashonaland provinces during the past four years. The organisation provides support for nursery equipment, fencing material and tools for use in woodlot establishment. The Red Cross is one NGO which requires technical support from the Forestry Commission in carrying out its afforestation activities. In its 1990 Annual Report, the organisation recognised the importance of close liaison with various institutions as evidenced by its co-operation with the Forestry Commission. The strength of the Red Cross lies in mobilisation of community organisations and the planning and funding of projects. Co- operation with the Forestry Commission, whereby the Forestry Department brings in expertise for nurseries and woodlots, is thus of benefit to both partners. Such cooperation is in evidence in several provinces, particularly Manicaland.
The Association of Zimbabwe Spirit Mediums, an indigenous NGO, has as a core objective the protection of indigenous trees in Zimbabwe's communal areas. The Association assists District Development Committees in the implementation of programmes such as the protection of water sources, woodlands and wildlife. 32 b) NGOs and Forestry Research
Environment and Development Activities (ENDA) Zimbabwe is a professional service NGO with a large environmental research programme. Its "Community Management of Woodland" project is a community-based project which incorporates indigenous technical knowledge and experience of the management of indigenous woodland resource. It operates in four areas of Chivi and Zvishavane districts in southern Zimbabwe, all dry agricultural areas. Village level research carried out by community workers with farmers has highlighted three key issues that form the basis of the project:
Trees are essential in maintaining the ecosystem and where depleted, trees need to be planted;
Trees are a multipurpose resource and to meet the communities' woodland resource needs, a diverse woodland is required;
Farmers perceive indigenous woodland management as a necessary strategy.
Village plans tailored to local needs were then developed and a list of local tree requirements produced through the community worker's village appraisal and planning meetings. Trees from the list are grown in the community nursery and planted as part of communal management of grazing lands or,individual on-farm plantings.
ENDA's research has highlighted the multiple uses of trees in semi-arid communal areas as well as important management issues such as the different roles of men and women in tree planting. The initial research established the importance of the community in the development not only of environmental projects but any undertaking likely to impact on their woodland resources and management systems.
ENDA is also carrying out research into the propagation and use of various indigenous species throughout its nurseries. The Forestry Commission expects to benefit considerably from the results when they are made public. This project, like the Social Forestry Research project of the Forestry Commission, has been funded by The Ford Foundation and the two are intended to be mutually reinforcing. However, there is no formal 33 mechanism for ensuring reciprocity and so far exchange of information has been limited. c) Coordination
Mutoko Agricultural Development Project is a joint undertaking between the Mutoko District Council, AGRITEX and COOPIBO, a Belgian NGO. It was started in 1989 with funding from the EEC and Broederijk Delen (also Belgian). Mutoko Communal Lands lie in the Mutoko District within the poorer agro-ecological zones III and IV. The area is overpopulated and overstocked and suffers from serious degradation of soils and an overall deterioration of the ecological system. Levels of economic and infrastructural development are low.
The project is based on the premise that Zimbabwean agricultural service institutions - both government (AGRITEX, Forestry Commission and Agricultural Finance Corporation) and local NGOs - have difficulties in reaching and mobilising communal farmer households, and some of the services which they provide are not tailored to the needs and capabilities of communal people. It uses farmer representatives, volunteers elected by their VIDC0s, to establish and maintain a link between their community, the project and the agricultural service institutions. The farmer representatives are key in mobilising people, demonstrating new agricultural practices and providing feedback in both directions.
Specifically, the Mutoko project is assisting AGRITEX staff and farmer representatives to demonstrate and teach farmers correct cropping practices based on the current extension advice, and is promoting interaction between farmers, and agricultural and forestry research and extension organisations with a view to the development of more economically and ecologically sustainable farming systems. It also has as a. specific objective the improvement of interaction between farmer groups and agricultural service organisations through the strengthening of farmer organisations. Farmer groups are generally more accessible to the service organisations and have often been more successful in implementing new technologies. Furthermore, well organised people are seen to be better equipped for fruitful dialogue and discussion. Thus the Mutoko project is trying to strengthen farmer organisation through regular meetings with farmer representatives and training provided by two local NG0s, Silveria House and Self-Help Development Foundation. 34 The project has paid attention to the analysis of the farming system and the search for possible improvements leading to a sustainable increase in productivity, including sustainable and low input technologies to halt the degradation process. Some of the technologies identified include agroforestry, water conservation and the use of organic fertiliser.
Close cooperation with the relevant institutions and participation of farmers in the process of technology development has enabled agriculture to be placed in a wider perspective so that, for example, a forestry component has been added. Within the afforestation component, the Forestry Commission has offered the necessary technical back-up through training farmers in nursery and woodland establishment and management. Farmer representatives from nine groups were taken to visit the Forestry Commission's Social Forestry Pilot project in Shurugwi and were so impressed they started their own nurseries. The groups were initially formed as Saving Clubs and therefore have a strong economic base. The results from the project are quite encouraging, although several of the groups are beset with problems such as leadership.
In designing a social forestry project it is essential to consider the economic and social organisation of the community. In the Mutoko Agricultural Project, it has been very easy for the foresters to mobilize farmers to undertake nursery work and tree planting because they were already cooperating together through the Savings Clubs. Where the farmers are scattered, members have paid one farmer to water the nursery. When demonstrations are conducted by the Forest Extension officer, however, all farmers are present.
The Mutoko Agricultural Development Project is an excellent example of where the forestry and agricultural departments have succeeded in bridging their traditional divergence caused by differences in, for example, staff training and management, in policies such as land use and by a lack of integrated planning of renewable natural resources use. The project staff have succeeded in using the existing institutions appropriately and collaboratively within Mutoko district on an interdisciplinary basis.
The Mutoko project aims above all, through the strengthening of farmers' organisations, to set in place sustainable institutions with which they can work and then withdraw. 35 Summary of field level experience on working with NGOs
Forestry Commission Provincial Officers have observed a number of problems caused by lack of co-ordination with NGOs on forestry and environmental issues. Some NGOs do not always consult with organisations who are already working on the ground, leading to duplication of projects or uneven distribution of resources. Some unscrupulous farmers have exploited such situations and secured material input support such as fencing from both the Forestry Commission and an NGO. Consultation between NGOs and government agencies would facilitate the pooling of resources as well as its distribution. Some NGOs do not attend development meetings such as District Development Committees (DDCs) which are intended to facilitate co-ordination. This creates problems as there is then no way of checking who is doing what in the district.
The debate on the strength of NGOs as agents of development has focused on their advantages over other (government) agencies. NGOs are said to be closer to the grassroots and therefore better situated to appreciate the needs of the local people than government agencies. Some have argued that NGOs recognise people as the protagonists of development and therefore involve people in all basic stages of the development projects, with a view to empowering them. NGOs themselves have claimed to use participatory "bottom up" processes of project implementation and help poor people gain control of their lives. They work with and strengthen local institutions. Further, they claim to operate projects which are low cost, innovative, flexible and experimental. Experience in Zimbabwe has also shown that NGOs can ensure projects are tailored to the local environment.
However, not all NGOs can be said to follow such practices. Some NGOs are themselves highly centralized and thin on the ground yet do not make use of Forestry Commission or Agricultural field staff who are already somewhat conversant with people's problems and .aspirations, within their field of operation. Rather than creating sustainability, some NGO-funded programmes have tended to create a dependence syndrome so that, while the Forestry Commission is emphasising the need to make satellite nurseries economically viable and self-sustaining, several NGOs have insisted that the nurseries they are funding give seedlings to the surrounding communities free of charge. Those NGOs are seen as generous by local people who, naturally enough, prefer to work with them rather than the Forestry Commission or other NGOs who emphasise self-reliance. However, at least. one NGO evaluation has recommended that the nurseries they support 36 should begin to sell their seedlings and plough back the money to buy inputs for the following season. (Red Cross, 1990).
Instances have also been noted where NGOs arrive in an area with a preconceived project and are unable or unwilling to take into account the actual needs and priorities of the local people for whom they purport to be working.
In the light of the above observations it becomes essential to investigate whether NGOs have the capacity to create sustainable projects and whether they endeavour to create, improve and promote local capacity and support institutions for self-reliant development. Similarly, NGOs micro- development policies may not augur well with national development and can cause distortions and imbalanced rural development.
Co-ordination amongst the various development agencies must also be examined. In some cases the efforts of certain projects can negate those of others. For example, when government departments or NGOs promote income-generating projects such as bakery or brick-making which require huge amounts of fuelwood without concomitant afforestation projects, this militates against conservation and afforestation efforts elsewhere. There is also concern in some parts of Matebeleland, where commercial farmers cut and sell timber without due regard to the environmental damage, that current legislation is inadequate to deal with the situation.
Despite increasing interest in NGOs in Zimbabwe, very little is known about their activities. Their role and actual contribution to development has not been properly documented, or analyzed and there is no viable machinery to monitor their activities. Researchers who have evaluated NGOs' role in development seldom circulate their findings and results do not find their way to members of the public, perhaps because they are often sponsored and supervised by the NGOs themselves. This lack of research data on NGO activities has hampered understanding and knowledge on basic issues such as the types of development activities NGOs are involved in and the extent to which they involve people in designing and implementing projects that reflect people's priorities. 37 Recommendations
From the above discussion, a number of recommendations can be made to improve inter-institutional collaboration and understanding:
First, NGOs involved in research, extension and training work on forestry and agroforestry should make their activities known to the Forestry Commission.
Secondly, intra- and inter-institutional linkages need to be strengthened. There is a need for a committee to represent all NGOs and Government departments participating in agroforestry and afforestation activities. This committee should also be tasked with dissemination of information.
Thirdly, to improve coordination at provincial and district level, there is a need for NGOs to register themselves and to attend the appropriate Development Committees. It is of great importance that NGOs make their activities known to all agencies concerned at all levels.
Finally, NGOs should offer material assistance (loans) to farmers and groups in areas where government proves to be inadequate, such as' fencing to ensure that farmers' trees and crops are protected.
LESSONS AND OUTLOOK FOR FUTURE COLLABORATION
The Forestry Extension Service has insufficient resources to cover its entire mandated area and collaboration with NGOs and other government agencies allows forestry activities to complement and support each other. In some instances NGOs are more flexible in resource allocation and the disbursement of funds to meet pressing needs.
Forestry Extension Services have fundamental difficulties in operating effectively with farmers in marginal areas such as agro-ecological zones IV and V and are already over-stretched. NGOs, on the other hand; are ideologically disposed to working with poor communities in marginal areas and are already operating in many of these in Zimbabwe. Thus it makes economic and logistical sense for the Forestry Extension services to 38 collaborate and work with NGOs there. Forestry Extension should be integrated with other extension systems, particularly agriculture, to ensure maximum impact. The involvement of the Forestry Commission in research and other activities with NGOs is likely to intensify especially with the advent of structural adjustment programmes.
It should however be appreciated that NGOs' initiatives are generally on a very small scale, involving a few villages or, at best, a region and they rarely have the inclination or the resources to countenance major expansions of their activities. While these initiatives are important incremental learning models, wider social forestry developments are unlikely to take place without the support of the Forestry Department.
Within many NGOs, such as the Mutoko project, there is a strong linkage between extension and research, in contrast to the usual formal system of operating them as separate services. The potential advantage of links are well known: reducing the number of stages between the farmer and the technology being developed, improving the possibilities for communication between farmers and those serving them and increasing the emphasis on adaptive or applied research. Many NGOs have the advantage of not being linked to any political party or government organs and thereby better able to serve all sections of society. • Fore-thought, constant monitoring and collaboration are essential in dealing with environment and development. Preliminary evidence indicates that areas of collaboration between Forestry Commission and NGOs exist in a spatial dimension. However, much sensitivity is required, not merely in identifying how complementarity might derive from respective strengths and weaknesses, but in recognizing and respecting the principles and agenda underlying the activities of each. 39 REFERENCES
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