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When Does Conservation Genetics Matter? Heredity 87 (2001) 257±265 Received 14 February 2001, accepted 26 June 2001 SHORT REVIEW When does conservation genetics matter? WILLIAM AMOS* & ANDREW BALMFORD Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, U.K. Is this short review we explore the genetic threats facing retain more useful genetic variability than they `should', for declining populations, focusing in particular on empirical example by enhanced reproductive success among the most studies and the emerging questions they raise. At face value, outbred individuals in a population. Such ®ndings call into the two primary threats are slow erosion of genetic variability question the validity of simple models based on random by drift and short-term lowering of ®tness owing to inbreed- mating, and emphasize the need for more empirical data ing depression, of which the latter appears the more potent aimed at elucidating precisely what happens in natural force. However, the picture is not this simple. Populations populations. that have passed through a severe bottleneck can show a markedly reduced ability to respond to change, particularly Keywords: endangered species, evolutionary potential, gene- in the face of novel challenges. At the same time, several tic diversity, heterozygosity, inbreeding depression, population recent studies reveal subtle ways in which species are able to management The perceived importance of genetic problems in the conser- or thousands of generations. Rate of loss is inversely vation of endangered species has ¯uctuated considerably over proportional to the genetic eective population size (Ne). In the last two decades, and remains the subject of debate. An practice, this means that the primary determinants of loss are early high-pro®le case study reported that cheetahs have low the size of the lowest population to date, and the time (in levels of genetic variability, poor sperm quality and poor generations) for which it has been held at around that level. reproductive success in captivity (O'Brien et al., 1983; O'Brien In contrast to loss of variability, the eects of inbreeding et al., 1985; O'Brien et al., 1986). It was concluded that the depression will begin to be felt within a few generations of a species had suered a genetic bottleneck, stripping it of decline, and their strength will depend primarily on the variability and leaving it prone to problems associated with magnitude of the drop in population size. This point is inbreeding depression. Although later studies (Caro & illustrated by considering a large population reduced to an Ne Laurenson, 1994; Caughley, 1994; Merola, 1994; Caro, 2000) of just 20. After ®ve generations at this size, essentially all have revealed many inconsistencies and the story has now been surviving individuals will be close relatives and, depending on largely rewritten, the cheetah project helped stimulate growing the breeding system, inbreeding depression would likely be at interest in the role of genetics in conservation. or near its most severe. In contrast, according to the well- Today, many conservation studies include a genetic element, known equation and the list of possible problems being considered has expanded to embrace loss of evolutionary potential, suscepti- t Ht H0 1 1=2Ne ; bility to disease, mutational meltdown, and more. In this review we re-examine the main genetic threats faced by small where H is initial heterozygosity and H is heterozygosity t and declining populations and discuss the empirical basis for 0 t generations after a decline to size N (James, 1970), on average deciding which of these are most likely to pose serious e some 88% of heterozygosity at selectively neutral loci will problems over the sorts of time-scales that concern conserva- remain. tion practitioners. In doing so, we have made a conscious eort to look to the future by speculating about areas and concepts which are only now coming to light. Loss of variability Of the various possible genetic problems which face a When a population is driven to the brink of extinction and declining population, loss of genetic variability and inbreed- held there for several generations, a large proportion of that ing depression have historically received most attention species' neutral variability may be eroded by chance loss of (O'Brien, 1994). Although often treated as one and the same alleles. One well-documented case of such genetic drift comes phenomenon, these two processes are in reality very dierent, from the Mauritius kestrel, which was reduced to a single pair and operate over radically dierent timescales. In general, in the 1950s, recovered slowly at ®rst, but now numbers over variability is lost very slowly, usually over hundreds 500 birds. Comparisons of microsatellite diversity before and after this bottleneck reveal that some 50% of the heterozyg- *Correspondence. E-mail: [email protected] osity present in 19th century specimens has been lost, in good Ó 2001 The Genetics Society of Great Britain. 257 258 W. AMOS & A. BALMFORD agreement with theoretical expectations based on the length 2000). Consequently, other factors must be responsible for the and depth of the bottleneck (Groombridge et al., 2000). species' current low nuclear variability. The possibility that Fortunately, the Mauritius kestrel looks to be the exception extreme but short-term depletion may have little impact on a not the rule. Using the above equation, it is easy to show that species' heterozygosity is supported by data from the Antarctic loss of heterozygosity is extremely slow compared with the fur seal. This species suered parallel and maybe more severe timescales over which conservation biology operates. For depletion at the hands of sealers (Bonner, 1968), yet currently example, a mammal with generation length of 10 years shows little evidence of genetic erosion (Wynen et al., 2000; reduced to an Ne or 50 in 1900 would still have 90% of its Gemmell et al., 2001). Results like these run counter to heterozygosity today. Species with shorter generation lengths intuition because moderate heterozygosity persisting in bottle- would experience greater loss per year for a given population necked populations may have been poorly reported (Amos & size, but such species generally exist at higher population Harwood, 1998). densities with larger eective population sizes even when in Two other points about heterozygosity are worth consider- decline. This expectation is borne out by a recent study in ing. The ®rst is that cheetahs and northern elephant seals are which expected losses of heterozygosity were calculated for 80 only two of many species which show very low variability for declining mammal populations, including most of the `classic' no clear reason. Several species have low heterozygosity examples of genetic depletion (Menchini et al. submitted). The despite no evidence of population decline, and carnivores in results are striking. Over 90% of all species are unlikely to particular appear to have low variability relative to other have lost more than 10% of their heterozygosity (see Fig. 1). mammals (Merola, 1994). One example is the European Thus, while many studies claim to show a link between badger, whose lack of variability for years frustrated biologists known population bottlenecks and low levels of genetic keen to use genetic markers to study its breeding behaviour variability (Hoelzel et al., 1993; O'Brien, 1994), closer exam- and population structure (accordingly this fact has not been ination usually reveals that the expected loss of heterozygosity published because it is a negative result!). Clearly, one should is far less than might be thought (Amos & Harwood, 1998). be cautious in inferring that low heterozygosity in any species, For example, claims that the cheetah has lost `90±99%' of its threatened or otherwise, is necessarily the result of bottlenec- variability through `one or more bottlenecks' (O'Brien, 1994) king (Amos & Harwood, 1998). are dicult to reconcile with a current population size The second point concerns the relationship between the numbering thousands (Amos & Harwood, 1998). Indeed, to variability being measured and the variability that is important lose 99% of its variability would require 16 generations of to the organism. Heterozygosity is only one measure of genetic sib±sib mating (Ne 2)! Similarly, the northern elephant seal is diversity, and tends to be less sensitive to population bottle- described as extremely genetically depleted (Hoelzel et al., necks than alternatives such as allelic diversity. More import- 1993), yet excellent historical records show that its bottleneck, antly, genetic diversity is usually assayed by (presumed) neutral although severe, probably only lasted two or three generations. markers. These re¯ect the passive loss of variability through Based on plausible parameter values, it seems highly unlikely genetic drift but are less informative about variability that that this decline could explain the loss of more than 25% of the impinges on ®tness. For example, a strongly balanced poly- species' nuclear genetic variability, although mitochondrial morphism like sickle cell anaemia in humans would be almost variability may have been aected more strongly (Weber et al., impossible to eliminate by bottlenecks alone. Consequently, loss of immediately useful variability will always tend to lag behind loss of neutral variability. Moreover, selection during population declines may favour heterozygosity itself through overdominance or genetic incompatibility (Tregenza & Wedell, 2000). For example during population crashes of Soay sheep, individuals that are heterozygous for adenosine deaminase show higher survival than homozygotes (Gulland et al., 1993), and it is noted that population collapses can actually trigger an increase in mean heterozygosity of the population as a whole (Bancroft et al., 1995; Pemberton et al., 1996). The consequences of loss of variability Nevertheless, assuming that a species has lost useful variab- ility, what are the likely consequences? One possibility is that ®tness will be reduced as a direct consequence of a reduction in Fig. 1 Frequency distribution of the expected loss of genetic the number of heterozygous loci.
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