CULTURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT CRM VOLUME 24 NO. 6 2001
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR National Park Service Cultural Resources PUBLISHED BY THE ^AnlAntr VOLUME 24 NO. 6 2001 NATIONAL PARK SERVICE \J OII t WII IS ISSN 1068-4999
Information for parks, federal agencies, Indian tribes, states, local governments, Conservation and and the private sector that promotes and maintains high standards for pre serving and managing cultural resources Archeology
DIRECTOR Case Studies in Collaboration Fran R MaineUa The Improving Collaboration Between Conservation and Archeology 3 ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR Jessica S. Johnson CULTURAL RESOURCE STEWARDSHIP AND PARTNERSHIPS Katherine H. Stevenson Mending the Past One Fragment at a Time—Archeological Conservation as a Scholarly Resource 5 EDITOR Lisa Young Ronald M. Greenberg
ASSOCIATE EDITOR Archeological Conservation Display 7 Janice C. McCoy Jeffrey Maish GUEST EDITOR Jesssica S. Johnson Field Conservation on the Housatonic and Hunley Shipwreck Excavations 8 Claire Peachey ADVISORS David Andrews Editor, NPS Neglect of an Obvious Issue—The Storage of Human Remains 11 Joan Bacharach Vicki Cassman, Kristen Martine, Jennifer Riddle, and Sali Underwood Curator, NPS Randall J. Biallas Historical Architect, NPS Integrating Conservation and Field Archeology—Insights from Central America ... .14 John A. Burns Harriet F. (Rae) Beaubien Architect, NPS Harry A. Butowsky Historian, NPS Rock Image Conservation at Petroglyph National Monument 17 Pratt Cassity J. Claire Dean Executive Director, National Alliance of Preservation Commissions Muriel Crespi Managing Archeological Collections Distance Learning 18 Cultural Anthropologst, NPS Mary Cullen Terry Childs Director, Hetorical Services Branch Parks Canada Archeological Conservation at the NYU Excavations at Aphrodisias 19 Roger E. Kelly Archeokxjist, NPS Kent J. Severson Antoinette J. Lee Historian, NPS The Diverse Roles of an Archeological Conservator 21 ASSISTANT Catherine E. Magee Denise M. Mayo Conservation and Materials Identification in the Field—A Maryland Case Study . . .23 Howard Wellman An electronic version of this issue of CRMcan be accessed Documenting an Early Cooking Disaster—The Conservation of the through the CRM homepage at Meaux Site Porringer 26
Conservation and Heritage Management Award 28 Catherine Sease Design and Imaging McCoy Publishing Services Cover: conservator stabilizing a vessel in a royal burial offering chamber, see article, p. 14; porringer [email protected] from Meaux site, see article p. 26; ceramic vessel after conservation treatment, see article, p. 5.
Statements of fact and views are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect an opinion or endorsement on the part of the editors, the CRM advisors and consultants, or the National Park Service. Send articles and correspondence to the Editor, CRM, U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, 1849 C Street, NW, Suite 350NC, Washington, DC 20240 (U.S. Postal Service) or 800 North Capitol St, NW, Suite 350, Washington, DC 20002 (Federal Express); ph. 202-343-3411, fax 202-343-5260; email:
2 CRM No 6—2001 Jessica S. Johnson The Improving Collaboration Between Conservation and Archeology
ollaboration between conserva American communities are also being included in tors and archeologists has been the decision-making process, such as the rock art discussed and analyzed numer preservation program at Petroglyph National ous times in print over many Monument described by Claire Dean. years.C1 Gradually, some conservators and archeol However, field experience for student con ogists are developing effective collaborative pro servators is still limited on U.S. excavations and jects that improve the preservation of objects and most go abroad to work on site in places such as architecture while adding information for the the Mediterranean or Middle East where archeo interpretation of the site. This issue of CRM logical conservation has a long history. Kent focuses on the contributions of conservators to Severson's paper describes the object and architec archeology during fieldwork, analysis, and long- tural conservation projects that give training term preservation of curated collections. Articles opportunities to both American and Turkish stu by a number of conservators, working through dents at the site of Aphrodisias. More field out the world, have been collected. Their descrip opportunities in the U.S. are needed. Only then tions illustrate the wide range of projects conser can students learn about the particular problems vators are involved with, including: of archeological conservation in the U.S. • treating objects in the field Other authors in this issue discuss how con • insuring their preservation and availability in servation can be better integrated into archeologi repositories cal fieldwork. Lisa Young describes how careful • collaborating on research planning and the use of supervised students • preserving architecture and objects as part of
Fieldwork larger preservation/tourist development pro 2 requires imagina jects tive adaptation of • working with federal and state agencies and typical conserva tion techniques. Native peoples on a collaborative approach to preservation. In the United States, conservation has long been a part of underwater and historical archeol ogy. The article by Claire Peachey about on-going work on the Housatonic and Hunley shipwrecks is one example. Colonial Williamsburg has had a laboratory for archeological conservation since the early 1930s, and the current conservator, Emily Williams, discusses how the information gained from treatment has recently added to the knowledge and interpretation of one site. Howard Wellman shows how the particular skills of conservators can generate information that improves interpretation. American conservators and archeologists have begun to collaborate more on long-term preservation of Native American materials in repositories such as the human remains rehousing project described by Vicki Cassman, et. al. Native
CRM No 6—2001 3 Cleaning and objects and structures for re-analysis and other stabilization of uses. Archeological professional organizations objects in the field allow for such as SHA and AIA are supporting this collab faster and better oration. As more conservation students are interpretation trained in the specifics of field conservation, and and improved long-term more archeologists become acquainted with how preservation. the inclusion of a conservator can help with their concerns in the short and long term, this collabo ration will only expand. Though theoretical per spectives have radically changed since 1904, W.M. Flinders Petrie's admonition still holds: The preservation of the objects that are found is a necessary duty of the finder. To disclose things only to destroy them, when a more skillful or patient worker might have added them to the world's treasures is a hideous fault.4
More collaboration will help ensure the preserva tion of our archeological resources for continued use in research and interpretation.
Notes See for example, B. J. Borque, "Conservation in Archaeology: Working toward Closer Cooperation," American Antiquity 45:4 (1980): 794-99; K. Morris, "Conservation of Archaeological Collections," North American Archaeologist 2:2 (1980): 131-36; J. allowed for conservation of objects recovered Johnson, "Conservation and Archaeology in Great from a historic site in Philadelphia. Catherine Britain and the United States: A Comparison," Magee describes the different roles she has filled Journal of the American Institute for Conservation 32:3 (1993): 249-69. on excavations depending on need. Rae Beaubien 2 See also, "A Unity of Theory and Practice Bridging uses her considerable experience in Mesoamerica to the Past: The University of Pennsylvania and the to describe how conservation can be better inte NPS," OW 20:10 (1997). This issue describes a grated into field archeology anywhere. number of architectural conservation projects on Finally, three short pieces describe how the archeological sites. profile of archeological conservation is being 3 There is a new training program in Ethnographic raised through the support of archeological orga and Archaeological Conservation in development at nizations. Jeff Maish describes a traveling poster the Cotsen Institute of Archaeology at UCLA in that was co-sponsored by the Society for collaboration with the J. Paul Getty Trust. For information see
4 CRM No 6—2001 Lisa Young Mending the Past One Fragment at a Time Archeological Conservation as a Scholarly Resource
n 1997, archeologists from the small contract was awarded to specifically con National Park Service (NPS) and John serve and reconstruct 25 ceramic vessels. The Milner Associates uncovered three facility in Silver Spring was fully outfitted with a well and privy features during an working archeological conservation laboratory, archeologicaI l testing and monitoring phase on although it lacked a permanent conservator. For Independence Park in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. this project, much of the needed equipment, sup The archeologists decided to fully excavate these plies, and materials was already in place, and only features, as they were to be impacted and a few additional chemicals and disposable sup destroyed when later development of the site plies had to be purchased. For more than two took place. A contract conservator was consulted years, conservation of the collection was carried during the excavation phase of the project, and out and over 7,500 objects were treated. Each the artifacts were recovered, sorted, and stabilized material group was examined by the archeologist in the field for transport to the laboratory. The and the conservator prior to beginning any treat more sensitive, or unstable artifacts, were routed ments, and an estimate for time, labor, and sup directly to a professional conservator for treat plies was prepared and submitted for approval. ment. Other waterlogged artifacts such as wood, While the park archeologist was fortunate to leather, bone, and tin-glazed ceramics were pack receive funding to support each step, there was Leather after aged and transported in containers of water and always the uncertainty of knowing whether or conservation were set aside for possible conservation in the not funding would be approved for each individ treatment. future. ual contract and whether we could move to the After the initial next stage of the project. For this reason, conser artifact processing vation tasks were carefully planned and imple stage, the materials mented to fit into each individual "contract" were transferred to the ensuring that treatments could be completed NPS Applied with the funding available. Archeology Center in From a conservator's viewpoint, all of the Silver Spring, artifacts undergoing conservation needed to Maryland, for further receive the same standard of treatment to ensure examination and long-term preservation. However, the archeolo analysis. Mr. Paul gists and project managers wanted to treat as Inashima, project many artifacts as possible quickly and inexpen director, recognized sively. Close cooperation between all the project the need to further team members allowed us to find ways to meet conserve and analyze these goals, while not jeopardizing the standard many of the materials, of treatment performed on any one group of arti and approached the facts. This standard meant that for every artifact NPS for funding to treated, a before-and-after-treatment photograph perform conservation was taken, an illustration of the artifact was pro on particular groups duced, and conservation documentation was of artifacts. Initially, a completed and archived with the site records.
CRM No 6—2001 5 The majority of the artifacts treated con The next two largest groups of materials sisted of ceramics and glass. Many of the vessels treated consisted of waterlogged leather and cross-mended, and could be fully re-constructed, wood. Over 500 leather objects required conser missing only a few, very small fragments. While vation including items such as nearly complete many archeologists do not typically spend this shoes, shoe soles and uppers, cut fragment, and amount of time reconstructing vessels, this collec pieces of larger garments. The wooden artifacts tion is rare in that it provides a unique look into varied more in size and function, as well as being the socio-economic lifeways of Philadelphians manufactured from different types of wood during the 18th century. Many of the vessels were species. Typically, whenever a large amount of manufactured from local clays and the vessel one material is discovered in a single archeologi- forms have been linked to local potters who have cal feature, the conservator makes decisions been documented as having traveled and worked regarding the appropriate treatment method, in other neighboring cities such as Alexandria, while considering other issues, such as time man Virginia. agement, and the space and resources available to Approximately two-thirds of the ceramics treat large quantities. When over 1,000 pieces of were treated during the first year of the project. waterlogged wood undergo conservation treat An early assessment of the collection indicated ment, it may seem advantageous to batch-treat that many of the ceramic vessels were composed the objects, but this may not always be possible if of like materials, suffered from the same degree of a variety of woods has been used or if there are degradation, and often required similar conserva significant differences in deterioration between tion treatment. Therefore, it was feasible to train objects. laboratory technicians and student interns to During the second year of the project, four assist with both the documentation and recon conservation assistants were hired to work part- struction of the vessels. As the project grew, and time to assist with conservation of the water more archeologists began to hear about the logged wood and leather, as well as the remainder ceramics being mended at the Applied of the ceramics. Minimally, each artifact had to Archeology Center, other NPS employees and be safely removed from water, dried out with archeologists began to volunteer their time on the minimal shrinkage, identified, and curated. project. In return, hands-on conservation train Experiments were conducted in order to find a ing was provided to volunteers as a means of way to bring the artifacts out of the water while treating more vessels. minimizing loss to the artifacts and the techno logical and historical information they contain. Exhibit on con servation at Various drying methods including controlled Independence slow drying, air-drying, solvent drying, and National freeze-drying were conducted on both wood and Historical Park, Philadelphia, leather samples from the site. Initial results indi Pennsylvania. cated that controlled slow drying after initial sur face cleaning and desalination could be an acceptable drying method for those wood and leather samples that would not undergo full con servation treatment. This type of research infor mation is invaluable to the conservator or arche- ologist who may be working in remote countries or less than ideal laboratories even here in the United States where equipment such as freeze- dryers and even fume hoods are not available for conservation work. Conservators who work with large, diverse collections of archeological materials are pre sented with challenges and issues that are unique. With many archeological projects, particularly in the United States, a conservator is often brought into the archeological process after excavation has
6 CRM No 6—2001 already begun. Frequently a budget for conserva levels, must be taken into consideration when tion work has not been included within the over preparing a budget at the beginning of a project. all project budget, leaving the archeologist and Both the archeologist and the conservator must project managers to seek out other funding address these challenges before the first shovel sources and creative ways to secure money for enters the ground, and communication through conservation of the artifacts. As described above, out the entire process is essential for both the volunteers, student interns, and laboratory tech good of the project as well as the artifacts. nicians were used throughout the project to assist with conservation tasks, documentation and Lisa Young is a private conservator and owner of treatments. This arrangement was primarily made Alexandria Conservation Services, Ltd., Annandale, Virginia. with the archeologists in an attempt to keep over all project costs down. The necessity to train vol Photos by the author. unteers and students, with different experience
Jeffrey Maish Archeological Conservation Display
he American Institute for The project evolved and was organized Conservation (AIC) and Objects through the efforts of the Archaeological TSpecialty Group presented a staffed Conservation Discussion Group of the Objects display on archeological conservation at the Specialty Group. This group has a principal goal annual meeting of the Society for Historical of establishing a continuing dialogue with the Archaeology (SHA) in Long Beach California, in archeological community. The poster presented January 2001. The display was funded jointly by archeological conservation in a general and the AIC and the Intersociety Relations approachable manner with the aim of informing Committee of the SHA. Entitled "Gone with the attendees of issues involved in conservation on Wind (but it doesn't have to be)," it presented site while also presenting the goals of the AIC. some of the main areas of involvement of object Conservators were on hand to discuss the poster conservation within archeology. The display also and also to receive feedback from archeologists attempted to address some of the conceptions/ on conservation needs and challenges. The dis misconceptions held about conservation. The play itself was made with portability and flexibil central panel included sections on some principal ity in mind so that it can be modified to fit spe areas of conservation concern: the definition(s) of cific archeological audiences. conservation; planning for conservation; on-site Conservators at the SHA display reported a participation, including stabilization; lifting and high level of interest and received many helpful transport; laboratory conservation and research; suggestions. It is hoped that the small display can and storage. The "urban myths of conservation" travel to future regional and national archeologi panel presented conservation not as in competi cal conferences and provide a further point of tion, but as a complement to archeology. A seg contact with the AIC and conservation commu ment of the excavation responsibilities could nity. Currently, brochures are also being devel therefore be turned to a conservation team mem oped to provide the same information to a much ber who could perform tasks that contribute to wider audience. For more information please research while at the same time freeing time for contact the AIC office at AIC, 1717 K. St. NW the archeologist to perform his or her research. A Suite 200, Washington DC 20006, 202-452- third "did you know?" panel presented some gen 9545, or visit the AIC web site at
CRM No 6—2001 7 Claire Peachey Field Conservation on the Housatonic and Hunley Shipwreck Excavations
dove every day, two times a day for bandages, silicone rubber, aluminum foil, dental two weeks in October 1999, on the molding putty, polysulfide rubber molding com site of the Civil War submarine H.L. pound, scraps of wetsuits, and expanding Hunley, and did not see the submarine polyurethane foam, to name only a few of the sub once.I It was there; we were not in the wrong stances that can help to gather information or pro place. However, such was the blackness of the vide support and strength to objects underwater. muddy South Carolina coastal waters that we Working on the Hunley site in October, we could only feel the iron vessel, not see it. It takes could not see, we could only feel. Therefore, to a little time to get used to doing archeological gather condition information that was more than conservation essentially blindfolded. As a diving verbally descriptive and subjective, we used den archeological conservator, I was removing layers tal molding putty to take molds of the metal of rock-hard concretion—a mixture of marine plates and rivet heads in the small areas of the organisms, sediment, and metal corrosion that submarine's surface from which we removed con had formed over time—from small areas of the cretion. The two-part putty could be mixed submarine's surface in order to get information underwater, pressed onto the metal surface, and about the condition of the metal beneath. It was pulled off after five minutes of curing. The molds certainly one of the more challenging condition were finely detailed, and provided technological reports I've had to write. and corrosion information the Oceaneering Doing conservation with underwater arche- International engineers needed to refine their ologists means a conservator might work on a plan for raising the submarine from the seabed cramped and lurching boat, on a sandy beach, on the following year, 2000. a noisy platform miles offshore, or even 30 feet During this short project, we did not raise down in black, muddy water. Working underwa any artifacts, so the conservation requirements ter requires some adapting of traditional conser were quite minimal. However, underwater arche- vation methods and materials Hunley sus pended in its lin to get the job done. The ing cradle after it problems are the same as on- was raised from land excavations: we need to the seabed. The backbone of the identify, strengthen, support, cradle consists of lift, and stabilize fragile arti a steel frame facts. But a slightly different work with four legs. On the tool kit is needed. For exam seabed, one at a ple, the water-based and sol time, 32 heavy vent-based adhesives and nylon slings were placed under the consolidants that are the sta submarine and ples of on-site archeological attached to the conservation on land sites are steel framework. Extruded foam useless underwater! Instead inserts, or "pil we use materials such as lows" were underwater-setting epoxies, formed-fitted to plumber's pipe-repair tape, the hull surface for maximum plaster of Paris, sand, mud, support. resin-impregnated medical
8 CRM No 6—2001 required a full-time conservation commitment, not only in the water, but also back on land, and long after the excavation season was over. We knew that the Housatonic wreck would probably contain typical shipboard artifacts of many different sizes, shapes, materials, and con ditions, and we had planned carefully for the excavation. This planning is the crucial first step in any excavation project, and always includes the archeologists and conservators, and possibly other specialists such as engineers, microbiologists, or geologists, depending on the scale and nature of the project. Working on shipwreck sites can involve handling objects from the tiniest button ology can be a conservation-intensive undertak Typical concre or textile fragment to enormous cannon, anchors, ing if artifacts are raised, or even if structures and tion from USS and ship timbers, or even entire ship structures. Housatonic. objects are only uncovered, studied and reburied, For the task of raising the 40-foot long, 16-ton or are managed in situ. Materials that have been Hunley intact from the seabed in August 2000, immersed in underwater environments for long intensive planning by archeologists, conservators, periods have undergone significant chemical and engineers, corrosion scientists, geologists, archi physical changes, and generally do not react well tects, and many others began years before the to being brought into a new environment rich in operation. oxygen, light, and heat. The deterioration prob For the Housatonic project, I had brought lems are often not fully understood, and the everything that would be needed for on-site con required conservation treatments can be long and servation. This meant dozens of plastic, sealable, complex. Many times, an object is not even visi Tupperware-type containers and self-seal, Zip- ble before some kind of conservation treatment is lok-type bags of every shape and size for individ performed on it, so the conservator may be the ual artifacts, as well as larger, sturdy, stackable first one to learn of the materials and details of an containers for bulk storage. Other essential water object. Underwater archeology is dependent on proof supplies include Tyvek for tags, Mylar conservation procedures, so the two disciplines frosted drafting film for drawings, non-corroding are closely intertwined. The archeologist cannot brass nails for tagging wood or for custom-build identify, and therefore cannot interpret, many ing crates, Sharpie permanent markers for water objects before conservation. proof and fade-proof writing, stainless steel tools Earlier in 1999, working a few hundred that won't rust in the salt air and water, hard plas yards from Hunley on the site of USS Housatonic, tic slates for drawing underwater and for object the Union vessel sunk by Hunley, our team (from supports, thin polyethylene foam for padding the Naval Historical Center, National Park and support, and rolls of plastic sheeting for cov Service, and South Carolina Institute of ering work tables, wrapping large artifacts, and Archaeology and Anthropology) excavated nearly lining makeshift storage tanks. 100 artifacts from three small test excavation areas. These Leather shoe included leather shoes, a rubber from USS Housatonic. gasket, zinc artillery fuses, wood fragments, a pistol of wood, brass, and iron, and several amorphous, heavily concreted objects ("concretions") that were unidentifiable—even after we brought them up to the surface and could see them. One long, curved concretion was almost certainly a sword. This project
CRM No 6—2001 9 X-raying USS ing on the material, in containers that would be Housatonic arti used to transport them to the laboratory at the facts at the Medical end of the field project. University of On the Housatonic project, several days of South Carolina. rough seas kept us from going offshore to exca vate, so this allowed time to do some active con servation on the artifacts and get some of them fully treated by the end of the six-week excava tion season. I had brought a deionizing column and portable conductivity meter, so I began desalination (salt removal) of some materials such as coal, ceramics, glass, and copper-alloy I also did some short chemical treatments of the ceram ics that had organic and iron staining on them. When possible to do so without damage, I removed obscuring concretion to identify an object to help the archeologists interpret the excavation areas. This did not include the unidentified "concretions," which we knew would become damaged and unstable if we began breaking them apart without knowing what was inside. Most of the conservation treatments could not be done without laboratory facilities. Many Anchored four miles offshore over the of the objects needed to be x-rayed for prelimi wreck of Housatonic, our dive boat was small and nary identification, followed by technological was filled almost entirely with people, dive equip research, and then long treatment times some ment, and the excavation dredge motor. There times using specialized equipment. Examples of was little room for artifact storage, and artifact typical treatment needs are desalination, concre drawing was impossible on the choppy seas. The tion removal, polyethylene glycol impregnation most that could be done on the boat was to keep and freeze-drying of organic materials, and elec a running log of artifact numbers, write identifi trolytic reduction of metals to remove corrosion cation tags as the artifacts were brought up, and agents. An added concern for the artillery fuses store the artifacts safely in a box of sea water. was that they might still be explosive. Many of When possible, the objects were immediately the Housatonic objects are still being conserved photographed. At the end of the diving day, we and studied, with the archeologists and conserva motored back to port, and then the conserving tors working together to reveal and interpret the day began and continued into late evening. The objects throughout the long processes. objects were brought back to the dig house, On the Housatonic project we were where the conservation lab consisted of the extremely lucky in that the Medical University of kitchen sink and the back porch, both frequented South Carolina agreed to x-ray our concretions by hordes of fire ants. for us shortly after we had excavated them, so we Usually the routine consisted of gently rins could begin site interpretation that much sooner. ing off loose mud and sand, then fully describing, That is when all the bets got paid up. The long, drawing, and photographing each object. This is curved concretion that I just knew was a sailor's always the first priority for the objects: record, sword... was a plain old bent iron bolt. record, record. Objects from underwater environ Claire Peachey is Head Conservator, Underwater ments can undergo rapid changes after excava Archaeology, Naval Historical Center/National Park tion, sometimes with a loss of information. After Service, Washington Navy Yard, Washington, DC. the objects were cataloged, they were stored in basins of clean fresh water or sea water, depend Photos courtesy U.S. Naval Historical Center.
10 CRM No 6—2001 Vicki Cassman, Kristen Martine, Jennifer Riddle, Sali Underwood Neglect of an Obvious Issue The Storage of Human Remains
or museums and universities, the of storage. In light of this goal, we sought two care and housing of Native specific genres of information. We first searched American human remains recov for published literature that would guide us in ered from archeological contexts our assessment of preservation, storage, and size have becomFe an issue of the utmost importance constraints as they related to the storage of since the enactment of the Native American human remains. Professional literature seems to Graves Protection and Repatriation Act focus mainly on excavation, transportation, and (NAGPRA) in 1990. While anthropologists, reconstruction (Bass, 1995; Ubelaker, 1989; museum managers, and Native American com White, 2000). Unfortunately, the literature munities negotiate and struggle with NAGPRA neglects the issue of long-term housing of human issues, a publicly available housing standard has remains. The second component of our evalua yet to be devised and agreed upon by these tion involved assessing the needs of Native diverse communities. Published information Americans, physical anthropologists, museum regarding the care and storage of human remains curators, and collection managers, conservators, is vague at best, and assessment of appropriate and archeologists. housing for human remains is compounded by a Discussion of Perspectives lack of communication between the different Native Americans. Different tribes have dif parties within anthropology and the Native ferent needs when it comes to demonstrating American community. This lack of communica proper respect for a deceased individual. tion is especially apparent within anthropology, Therefore, it is important to consult with the where each sub-discipline has a different and appropriate tribes when considering specific often informal "code of ethics" regarding the housing needs. Consultations specific to our col preservation and respectful housing of human lections revealed that, in general, it is important remains, and no public consensus exists between for human remains to resemble a human form in sub-disciplines. The following article considers storage. The bones should not be randomly scat the issue of long-term storage and care of human tered throughout the box, nor should different remains in terms of preservation, NAGPRA parts of an individual be stored in separate areas requirements, and research needs. or containers. For example, crania are sometimes Our discussion is inspired by a recent housed separately from the post-cranial skeleton. opportunity that was presented to the We have found that this arrangement is offensive Department of Anthropology and Ethnic Studies and disrespectful to Native Americans and others. at the University of Nevada, Las Vegas. Our exist It is preferable that the body be presented in a ing building, which houses classrooms, a labora manner that is as close to its position prior to tory, and storage facilities, will be demolished, excavation or retrieval as possible, keeping in and a new building erected in its place. Planning mind that a box for a fully extended adult is too a new building allows those of us working in the large and awkward to be safely handled. Finally, storage facility, which contains archeological and bone should be in contact only with inert organic forensic collections, to make recommendations materials. for upgrading storage. During our evaluation, we Collection Managers and Conservators. gave special attention to the housing of all The main concern of collection managers and human remains in the care of the Department. conservators is preservation. They often make Our primary goal was to identify and bal decisions about box materials, size, durability, ance the concerns of Native Americans, the needs organization, cataloging, and registration. of researchers, and the cost and space limitations Because our collective experience has shown that
CRM No 6—2001 11 handling causes the most damage to human oste- in which to study a given collection. Fiscal con ological remains, it is vital to create an environ straints related to the cost of conducting research ment that allows access, while simultaneously limit the amount of time a researcher can spend reducing damage caused by excessive handling. with a given collection. The operating schedule Limited space is also a major issue. Space of a repository, the time constraints of museum constraints often require boxes to be placed or personnel, and the needs of other researchers may stacked on high shelves. With this in mind, it is also restrict time. important to realize that boxes may be tilted at Accessibility also influences the amount of sharp angles as they are removed from shelves. time a researcher spends with collections. In Proper storage must allow for tilting, while also addition to proper organization, it is essential preventing the contents of boxes from rolling that the storage container be of adequate size. around and becoming damaged. Providing Researchers often find it frustrating to waste valu sturdy, wide, platform-ladders is recommended to able time trying to fit an individual into a box facilitate access under such circumstances. that is clearly too small. It is also helpful to have Keeping collections clean is yet another bones grouped together within a box. For challenge to collections managers. It is essential instance, keeping the hand bones together and to have storage containers that are made of mate sorted by right and left sides, keeping the ribs rials that are easy to clean. Dust tends to collect together, and keeping the vertebrae together in the best of environments, so it is good to have reduces the amount of time a researcher spends the boxes and shelves made of a material that can looking for and placing specific bones. Grouping quickly and easily be cleaned. also reduces the amount of handling a skeleton is Archival housing at the most basic level subjected to and reduces damage to the bones. starts with a storage box made from inert and Conclusions acid free materials. The box must also be durable After reviewing the needs of the various and able to support the weight of larger individu groups interested in the long-term housing of als, yet not be so heavy that it is difficult to human remains, we designed a storage box that maneuver. we hope satisfies at least the most important con Organizing collections in numerical order cerns of these groups. We have focused on the by catalog number greatly reduces the amount of issues of size, materials, and layout. time it will take to locate individuals. It is prefer Size is an important aspect of box building. able to organize individuals numerically by cata If the box is too small, there is a tendency to log number rather than by age, sex, race, or some either split up the individual or to force remains other variable because catalog numbers represent into a space in which they do not fit. If the box is a clear and understandable system that does not too large, then there is movement of material make presumptions about a researcher's interests or specific questions. Having Box without trays. Bones are a sortable electronic data separated by base containing a biologi foam wedges cal profile (i.e. age, sex, that also keep the bones from and race information) as shifting while the well as a bone inventory box is being is recommended to moved. reduce initial handling. Physical Anthropologists. Time constraints and accessibil ity are two prominent concerns of physical anthropologists. Researchers often have a limited amount of time
12 CRM No 6—2001 Box with trays. left sides, and are placed in There are sepa rate trays for the open trays above the long right and left bones. This layout facili hands as well as tates research by improving separate trays access and reducing the for the right and left feet bones. amount of time spent locat The trays for ing and placing bones, each set of while also approximating bones stack on top of each the original anatomical other. position of the individual. Such a layout also mini mizes handling and reduces the amount of damage to bones. Summary The housing of human remains, regardless of cultural affiliation, is a basic issue within anthro within the box, which is damaging to the bone. pology that has not been standardized or actively Large boxes are also unwieldy and impractical for discussed in current literature. Despite the indis storage and handling purposes. Through contin pensable function of a box, the issue of how to ual experimentation, we have concluded that a best create satisfactory housing has been sorely box size of 31" x 24" x 6" is the most appropriate neglected. There is a tendency to see the box as size given all the listed constraints. The box size is an easily resolved non-issue. However, as we hope based on maximum long bone lengths of a com we have shown, there are many issues to consider plete male as defined by Ubelaker's stature table when designing proper storage. The box we have (Ubelaker, 1989:146). designed is part of an ongoing project related to We suggest the use of inert materials, as rec storage and housing issues. We plan to continue ommended by conservators. A corrugated poly intercultural and interdisciplinary negotiations ethylene sheet, such as Corex, is an inert acid-free and further modify our design. We welcome material that is reasonably priced, durable, flexi feedback and would appreciate suggestions.* ble, lightweight, and easily cleaned. We also sug gest adding a layer of open cell polyethylene Note foam, such as Ethafoam, to the bottom (and pos * Send feedback to
CRM No 6—2001 13 Harriet F. (Rae) Beaubien Integrating Conservation and Field Archeology Insights from Central America
he over-arching reason to foster Factors Affecting Integration the integration of conservation Team structure. Most U.S.-trained archeol- and archeological field practices ogists working at Mesoamerican sites come out of is to ensure that newly excavated a strongly anthropological tradition, grounded in materialsT, both moveable and immovable, are a practice that emphasizes scientifically valid safeguarded for the future as meaningful sources method to produce a fresh, well-controlled data of information about the past. While it would set. As a result, the professional team may be seem a natural fit, this collaboration has in fact composed primarily of research area specialists, been all too rare in field archeology in Central without individuals specifically designated to America until relatively recently. My experiences carry out coordinated research functions such as as an artifacts conservator with U.S.-sponsored artifact registration and conservation, as it was projects in El Salvador, Honduras, and initially at Cerén (El Salvador) in 1989. Such a Guatemala1 have given me an opportunity to team structure may take a cue from funding reflect on the integration process, which in these sources that only support research. cases began from scratch. Several factors that Field preparation. The typological and appeared to affect progress are presented and chronological sequences underpinning current matched with some suggested strategies to research in Central America have typically uti increase the level of conservation-mindedness in lized ceramics and lithics, for these are the mate field archeology. Although focused on the situa rials that survive in abundance in the American tion in Central America, many of these strategies subtropics. Their relative hardiness, however, may are appropriate for excavations elsewhere, includ have served to give archeologists a false sense of ing the United States. preparedness, when faced with particularly fragile examples or unexpected materials in complex Copan, Hon deposits. Conservation approaches are still not duras. Structure regularly part of an archeologists field training, 16 showing tun nel access to either in textbooks, techniques classes, or field excavation areas. school situations, where new archeologists typi cally learn the practice. So, it is not surprising that they might rely on out-of-date sources for stabilization solutions or reconstruction materi als, such as molten paraffin wax or white glue, without understanding the consequences. Conservators, meanwhile, are still often trained with a bias toward singular items deserv ing specialized attention. This can be a limitation for a conservator working on site, who may be unaware of, choose to remain isolated from, or be ill-equipped to deal with, the full artifact inven tory and its research needs, site preservation issues, or project information systems of which conservation records should be an integrated part.
14 CRM No 6—2001 Copan, Hon Governmental guidelines. All of the duras. Conser Central American countries have endorsed cul vator stabilizing basketry remains tural patrimony preservation and protection, e.g., in a royal burial by ratifying various conventions of the United offering chamber Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural within Structure 16. Organization (UNESCO) in national legislation. The specific application of these concepts to archeological practice is generally articulated in the permit regulations, drawn up by governmen tal authorities overseeing excavations (typically a national institute within a ministry). Currently, the regulations primarily address architectural actions, but thus far guidelines are not provided for situations necessitating conservation in situ, and curation standards for lifted artifacts are been my experience that the lessons and benefits rarely mentioned. for both sides are best realized through sustained It is notable that a heightened awareness of contact during the course of a field season. preservation issues exists at sites with World At the outset, planning the finds processing Heritage designation, such as Cerén and Copan path—from excavation, handling, bagging, wash (Honduras). UNESCO specifies that a manage ing, and reconstructing to packing away in stor ment plan be developed, which balances the age—offers an important opportunity for dialog preservation needs of the site's cultural property, between archeologist and conservator. Because with tourism development and on-going choices made at each step have the potential to research; but it offers no direct assistance to gov impact research value, by alterations (good or ernmental authorities in formulating or imple bad) that are potentially introduced, this is a menting details of such a plan. chance to clarify research goals and procedures Conservation resources. The primary con for every type of material, as well as priorities for servation resource in most Central American more focused conservation attention. countries is a central laboratory, typically part of The project's information system is another the national institute and often in the national arena for integration. Details about how an arti museum. Since most projects lack a participating fact was processed should be part of its record, conservator, central laboratory personnel may be along with provenience and other technical brought in to provide advice when conservation observations and analysis; all of these form its issues arise in the course of excavation. Generally, research value. An integrated documentation sys more expertise is available for architectural issues, tem, along with a well-thought-out finds process in part because of a longer history of focus on ing system, and project documents that report this aspect and the existence of professional archi these aspects, promote awareness of the conser tecture programs. Conservators of other materials vation component of responsible archeological are typically apprentice-trained, with occasional practice at a time when ethics and curation stan access to regional workshops whose focus is dards are increasingly being discussed. museum practice, such as aesthetically-driven Collaborative research. A conservator approaches to ceramics conservation. As a result, brings considerable diagnostic skills to a preserva recommendations in an archeological setting may tion problem, which include characterizing com not be framed with regard to their impact on ponent materials, elucidating technology and rec research priorities, and experience in dealing with ognizing traces of use in artifacts that have altered issues posed by material in situ is still limited. significantly with time and burial. This informa Strategies to Promote Integration tion, often more extensive because specialized On-site integration. The particular issues lifting techniques were used, forms the basis of presented by archeological materials should be one of the most powerful strategies for promot part of a conservator's training, just as conserva ing integration on site: materials-based research tion issues should be part of an archeologist's that is carried out and published collaboratively training. Courses and workshops may be ade by archeologists and conservators.^ quate to convey specifics, as a starter, but it has
CRM No 6—2001 15 Copan, conservators often find parallels with their own Honduras. Conservator excavation situations—ones that could have been working in a handled differently or could be anticipated—and royal tomb thereby discover a resource network to tap. These within Structure new opportunities increase the number of avail 26. able work sites for field conservators. Ultimately, it is the excavated materials that benefit from the integration of our work, through improved recov ery, enriched research, safer display, and better storage, for a longer future as sources of meaning ful information about the past.
Notes 1 Archeological projects cited, with principal investi gators, and dates of authors involvement: Cerén Research Project, Cerén, El Salvador [Dr. Payson D. Sheets, University of Colorado/Boulder], 1989-1997; Early Copan Acropolis Program, Copan, Honduras [Dr. Robert J. Sharer, University of Pennsylvania Museum], 1992-1997; Copan Acropolis Archaeological Project, Copan, Honduras Funder priorities. Those who have experi [Dr. William L. Fash, Harvard University], 1993- enced the benefits of such collaborations might present; Aguateca Archaeological Project, Aguateca, consider advocacy at the funder level for active Guatemala [Dr. Takeshi Inomata, University of support of conservation as part of project bud Arizona], 1998-present. 2 gets. An argument could certainly be made on Examples of conservation chapters in field season research reports: Beaubien, H., S. Hornbeck, and E. the basis of research contribution, such as the Robertson, "La conservación de artefactos." In T. Cerén, Copan, and Aguateca (Guatemala) pro Inomata, ed., Informe del Proyecto Arqueológico jects have found, until such point as responsible Aquateca: La Temporada de 1998 (Instituto de archeological practice is acknowledged by grant Antropología e Historia de Guatemala, December ing agencies as reason enough to provide support. 1998), 67-72; E. Kaplan and H. Beaubien, "Artifact Governmental standards. One final strat Conservation 1994." In P. Sheets and L. Brown, eds., Preliminary Report of the Cerén Research Project, egy involves working with key personnel in the 1996 Field Season and 1994 Study Season (Boulder: national institutes that oversee archeology activ Department of Anthropology, University of ity. Countries such as El Salvador and Guatemala Colorado, 1996), 18-25. have negotiated bilateral agreements with the 3 Examples of published research collaborations U.S. to impose import restrictions on cultural between archeologists and conservators: material. These agreements include facilitated Fash, W., H. Beaubien, C. Magee, B. Fash and R. access to technical expertise and training related Williamson, " The Trappings of Kingship among the Classic Maya: Ritual and Identity in a Royal to cultural patrimony protection and preserva Tomb from Copan." In P. Drooker, ed., Fleeting tion. With assistance of U.S. conservators, the Identities: Perishable Material Culture in national institutes could develop improved stan Archaeological Research (Carbondale, IL: Center for dards for projects seeking permits, such as artifact Archaeological Investigations, Occasional Paper curation requirements or mandated conservation No.28, 2001), 152-169; Beaubien, H. and M. participation. Conservators working in the field, Beaudry-Corbett (forthcoming spring 2002), "Artifacts Made from Plant Materials." In P. Sheets, in turn, would be positioned to train others ed., Before the Volcano Erupted: the Ancient Cerén whose access to knowledge about field conserva Village in Central America (Austin: University of Photos by the tion may be limited. Texas Press), Chapter 17. author. Conclusion The ripple effect of any of these strategies Harriet F. (Rae) Beaubien is an objects conservator at the should never be underestimated. Whether from Smithsonian Center for Materials Research and visits to projects that happen to have conserva Education (SCMRE), Suitland, Maryland. Since 1991, tion labs, talks at professional meetings, chapters she has managed an archeological conservation internship program that combines research and technical studies at in field season research reports, or co-authored SCMRE, with conservation work on archeological sites, publications, those archeological projects without including those cited in this article.
16 CRM No 6—2001 J. Claire Dean Rock Image Conservation at Petroglyph National Monument
ock images, also known as rock southern California, a site depicting water crea art, are usually found as petro- tures is situated in the path of a seasonal spring glyphs (images incised, pecked or that when active, flows over the images—an asso abraded into a rock surface), pic- ciation which is hard to pass off as coincidental. tographRs (drawn or painted images), or images Since rock images are located outdoors, the created combining aspects of both forms within a nearest preservation comparison might be the single glyph. A third category are geoglyphs, or conservation of buildings and monuments. ground figures— designs created by placing rocks Although the conservation approach and materi on, or removing them from, a ground surface als applied to structures are often of use with rock resulting in alterations in texture, dimension, and images, they also are frequently not applicable color that form an image. because, unlike most structures, rock images are Due to the inherent nature of rock more intimately executed on and into living images—their size, location, and historical and landforms. Buildings and monuments are most contemporary use—their conservation presents commonly constructions that stand alone, some unique problems for the conservator and inserted into a space and retaining a certain land manager. With the exception of individual amount of physical independence from the sur images collected in the past (when to do so was rounding natural terrain. Put simply, they are considered acceptable practice), rock images are giant objects. If you were to try to define rock no longer collected, reducing them to objects images in terms of being "objects," then their that are gathered and placed in museum collec demarcating boundaries would be those of the tions to be managed and conserved as individual geology, biology, and environment of an entire articles of cultural heritage. Today, such actions geographic region. are not accepted as ethical, except under the most The sheer size and physical complexity of extreme situations, such as a site's imminent rock images make cooperative work between vari destruction due to land development. Even then ous entities essential for a conservator. The need it is common for strenuous efforts to be made to for this integrated approach to treatment is fur find an alternative to the demolition of the site. ther emphasized by the continued use of rock Thanks to recent re-evaluation of the arche images by Native Americans. The concerns of ology, the ethnographic record, and consultation these traditional owners must also influence how with Native Peoples, we now better understand the conservation of these places is undertaken. the importance of context with regard to the Petroglyph National Monument in meaning and function of rock images—informa Albuquerque, New Mexico, authorized in June tion that is vital when planning appropriate con 1990, has demonstrated a proactive approach to servation. The images and their context are cul conservation since its earliest days. The monu turally inseparable. They are an integral part of ment, managed through a partnership between the landscape in which they were created, often the National Park Service and the City of placed in carefully chosen locations associated Albuquerque, Open Space Division, and man with, even incorporating, natural features. A pet dated to protect over 15,000 petroglyphs within roglyph of an animal might be created to include its boundaries, has a long history of working with a ridge in the rock to form its spine, giving it a conservators to preserve the images. In 1992, the three-dimensional quality, or images might be Open Space Division asked me to provide general deliberately placed so as to appear to emerge or conservation advice. disappear through natural holes or fissures. In
CRM No 6—2001 17 Conservation treatment began soon after asked to hold a training workshop for the monu- with the enthusiastic support of staff from both ment staff, thereby providing formal instruction managing agencies. Painted graffiti was dealt with in both materials and methods, and as impor- first, as it was the most visually obvious and tantly, background information about the basic roused the most public outcry. Soon afterward, principals and approaches of professional conser- efforts were expanded to tackle the scratched vation practice. graffiti. Re-integration methods already com- Throughout the conservation work at the monly in use were adopted, but met with mixed monument, treatments have been undertaken success due to the extreme environmental condi- with careful consideration of the concerns of tions at the monument. Recently, the monument Native American communities in the area, with has supported a five-year-long project to develop whom the monument staff are involved in on- and field test longer-lasting re-integration meth- going consultation. This project provides an ods and materials for the treatment of scratched excellent case study of conservation treatment not graffiti. This has involved a second conservator, being approached as a "quick fix as needed" John Griswold, of Griswold Conservation answer to the care of cultural property, but rather Associates. as an integral part of the on-going management Since the beginning of the project, monu- of a major cultural resource. ment staff members have been actively involved working with the conservator to attain a certain /• Claire Dean, Dean and Associates Conservation level of skill in-house, thus enabling staff to Services' ^tlmd, Oregon, serves as the conservator to the i, r \_ Li L i Rock Art Research Institute, University of the tackle some or the problems themselves, espe- „.,. , „ , ... , • , , ... . i-p- i T ir»«r T wttwatersrand, South Africa, and sits on nthe Board r of cially when new graffiti occurred. In 1995, I was Dmctor$ ofthe American Rock Art Research Association.
Managing Archeological Collections Distance Learning
his online technical assistance and distance learning effort covers a wide range of issues Tand activities involved in caring for archeological collections. These include planning strategies, conservation, ownership of collections, accessioning and deaccessioning objects, cura- tion costs, digital records, and many others. The course focuses on the objects, records, reports, and digital data in the field, lab, office, and repository. This "one-stop shopping" effort is designed to help archeological professionals and students learn more about preserving and managing archeo logical collections over the long term. Managing Archeological Collections
18 CRM No 6—2001 Kent J. Severson Archeological Conservation at the NYU Excavations at Aphrodisias
phrodisias lies in southwestern main areas, all of which share personnel and facil Turkey, in a fertile valley 100 ities: miles southeast of the port of • sculptures Izmir. Famous for its sanctuary • buildings and in situ decorative elements, and of AphroditeA, the city enjoyed a long and pros • small finds perous existence from the lst-century B.C. Trevor Proudfoot, of Cliveden Conser through the 6th-century A.D. Professor Kenan vation Workshop, Ltd., England, supervises Erim began the modern archeological exploration sculpture conservation. Many of the sculptures at of Aphrodisias in 1961, under the aegis of the Aphrodisias were hastily reassembled shortly after New York University Department of Classics. In excavation using epoxy and polyester resin adhe- the course of his work at the site, he uncovered sives, iron or steel dowels, and resin mortar or many well-preserved buildings in the city center, plaster of Paris compensation. There is very little including the Bouleuterion, Theater, and documentation related to these early treatments Sanctuary of the Emperors (Sebasteion). These and in many cases the sculptures were incorrectly excavations also brought to light the numerous assembled and are now unstable. Removal of marble sculptures for which Aphrodisias is famous. these materials and the development of new After the death of Professor Erim in 1990, installations for the Aphrodisias Museum are Sculpture work the New York University Institute of Fine Arts essential for long-term preservation and better shop/depot at assumed sponsorship of the exploration of understanding of the sculptures by both scholars Aphrodisias with Aphrodisias in cooperation with the Faculty of and the general public. draped female portrait sculpture Arts and Science. Current work at Aphrodisias In 1994, a new workshop/depot for sculp (1996). includes the study and conservation of sculpture ture conservation was completed in the excava and structures, as well tion house compound. Major projects under as new fieldwork. The taken in this building have included treatment of goals of the new pro a well-preserved portrait sculpture of a young gram of fieldwork are noble and an associated draped female portrait, a to record and conserve large Himation statue, and life-sized portraits of the excavated build two boxers. In 1999, the first panel of a series of ings of the site and to approximately 60 sculpted panels uncovered in investigate the ancient the Sebasteion was treated; these reliefs will be city plan and urban the focus of sculpture conservation activities for development. As the several years to come. fieldwork progresses, In 1993, personnel from Cliveden new artifacts and deco Conservation initiated a program of wall stabi rative elements are lization and maintenance for standing structures uncovered, and previ on the site. Most of the buildings discovered in ously excavated arti the early years of excavations have remained facts are again the sub exposed with little or no protection for the last jects of study, all of 20-30 years. Using lime mortar that nearly dupli which require conser cates the mortar used in the original construction vation. of typical wall fabric, as well as materials and Conservation local workers, the system was first implemented activities at Aphro in the conservation of a late Byzantine church disias focus on three between 1994 and 1995. Since then, a late
CRM No 6—2001 19 Reconstructed building was reconstructed during the late 1980s, monumental but had not been inspected or maintained since gateway, or Tetrapylon, dur completion of the work in 1989. The Tetrapylon ing maintenance was scaffolded one half at a time in 1998 and operations in 1999, and inspected by the restoration architect, 1998. Tomas Kaefer, and myself. Together with this inspection, the condition of the monument was documented, surfaces cleaned, and repairs made to joints between the elements. Since 1996, small finds, such as coins, ceramics, smaller sculptures, iron and bronze arti facts, and glass, have been treated in a new, well- equipped laboratory located in the yard of the expedition compound. Student trainees, primar ily from the New York University Institute of Fine Arts Conservation Training Program and, in Roman house north of the Temple of Aphrodite recent years, from Ankara University's conserva and the public buildings to the east of the tion training program and the Middle East Bouleuterion have been treated. This work is cur Technical University (Ankara) archaeometry pro rently supervised jointly by Cliveden staff and gram, have been a welcome addition to the myself as senior field conservator. During the Aphrodisias conservation team. Under my super 2000 season, with the generous support of a vision, these students work primarily on small Samuel H. Kress Foundation award through the finds, but also participate in other projects as the World Monuments Fund, work was begun on need arises. the conservation of the Bouleuterion, beginning At Aphrodisias, conservators are charged with the stabilization of the massive limestone with the care and preservation conservation of piers of the stage building. This program will the accumulated artifacts, sculptures, and continue in coming seasons and include treat exposed buildings of 40 years of exploration, ment of marble revetments and replacement of together with new finds yielded by ongoing the numerous aging repairs to the seats. research and excavation. A project that sometimes Concurrent with the wall stabilization pro feels like an overwhelming burden is made possi gram, in situ decorative elements, such as wall ble through teamwork and the pleasure of living paintings, revetments, opus sectile floors, and and working in a beautiful setting with materials mosaics, are regularly treated. Mosaics are cleaned from a beautifully preserved ancient city. and, where necessary, consolidated and edged using lime mortars derived from the modern lime Notes mortar used in wall stabilization. The current 1 Professor Erim's work is summarized in: Kenan T. program of research at Aphrodisias does not Erim, Aphrodisias: City of Venus Aphrodite (New York and Oxford: Facts on File, 1986). include development of new roofing structures 2 For the most recent account of ongoing work at that would allow for display of in situ mosaics to Aphrodisias, see: R. R. R. Smith and Christopher the public. Therefore, both newly discovered Ratté, "Archaeological Research at Aphrodisias in mosaics and those from earlier excavations that Caria, 1997 and 1998," American Journal of have been cleaned for study are usually protected Archaeology, 104: 2 (2000): 221-253. Photos by the by reburial, with geotextiles next to the original author. Kent J. Severson is a conservator in private practice, in materials, followed by layers of clean sand and Boston, Massachusetts. He worked for Daedalus, Inc., soil. Between 1996 and 2000, wall paintings in (Cambridge, Massachusetts) from 1985 until 1996, when the apse corridor of the Basilica Church of he moved to Turkey to teach at Bilkent University, Aphrodisias (the converted Temple of Aphrodite), Ankara, and to devote more time to archeologicalfield- in the substructure of the stadium, and in the work. He has worked at Aphrodisias, Sardis, Sagalassos, Hacimusalar, and Anamurium, in Turkey, and at Mit Theater and the Theater Baths were consolidated Rahina, Egypt and Samothrace, Greece. He is currently and edged. Conservator for Special Projects at Sardis and Senior One of the most prominent monuments at Field Conservator at Aphrodisias. Aphrodisias is the reconstructed Tetrapylon. The
20 CRMN06—2001 Catherine E. Magee The Diverse Roles of an Archeological Conservator
ost people I meet think my purchased. Additionally, advanced planning work as an archeological con streamlines work in the field and ensures the servator simply involves appropriate care of our cultural heritage during reassembling broken pottery and after excavation. or stabilizinMg materials post excavation in a Tel Zeitah, Israel museum. While these are a few aspects of archeo The work at Tel Zeitah, Israel, may be what logical conservation, they really are only a very many people consider a typical involvement of a small part of my work. A conservator's involve conservator in an excavation. In a continuing ment can vary widely from archeological excava project such as this, the conservator's role is to tion to excavation. The role a conservator plays establish and refine a working field laboratory for depends on the site conditions and the condition a multi-year seasonal excavation. Establishment of the artifacts and their intended use by archeol- of a working field laboratory involves the ogists, researchers, and native communities. I advanced planning mentioned above. The con have chosen three excavations I have been servator can determine necessary analytical equip involved with in Israel, Egypt, and Honduras to ment by research on nearby sites to determine highlight the diverse roles a conservator can play typical burial conditions in the area. For example, on excavations. at Tel Zeitah the salinity of the soil was a concern Advanced planning is part of each excava because the site is adjacent to agricultural fields. tion whether it is overseas in remote areas or Ceramics and metals were expected; when exca minutes from a metropolis. No matter the type, vated from saline soils these materials will deteri scope, or length of work an excavation involves, orate without treatment. With knowledge of soil all digs require consultations between the conser conditions and expected artifacts, a conservator vator and archeologist to ensure goals can be met can plan and budget for appropriate materials and any specialized equipment or supplies are used to safeguard the long-term preservation of the archeological record. The author exca vating the burial Once on site, the conservator sets up the dais in Copan, lab and reviews previous season's finds, documen Honduras. tation, treatments, analyses, and storage and then begins on artifact backlogs and newly excavated finds. In conjunction with lab work, the conser vator is often called into the field to lift fragile artifacts or identify materials prior to excavation. In addition to artifact treatment, the con servator works with other staff, including the ceramic specialists, registrar, photographer, com puter specialist, botanist, and faunal analyst as well as volunteers and students to aid in their work and research. They can also establish proto cols for the current and future seasons. Once the season ends, it is the responsibil ity of the conservator to ensure that the artifacts are stored properly and to document all work conducted on artifacts in the form of treatment records and a final report for future records.
CRM No 6—2001 21 vide. The main aim of the work conducted by the author in Copan, Honduras, in 1996 and 1997, based on work begun by conservators and arche- ologists in 1990, was to excavate, analyze, and house materials from the burial dais from a late classic royal Maya tomb. This project is illustra tive of the collaboration between conservators, archeologists, and numerous other professionals in order to address ethical considerations, deal with safety issues during excavation, and synthe size past documentation and research. While it is uncommon for a conservator to completely excavate a deposit, it is within the realm of our expertise. The Copan project encompassed not only establishing excavation protocols and procedures but also completing analyses on excavated materials, properly storing excavated materials, and ensuring the health and The "Conserva Howard University Giza Cemetery tion Lab" at Project, Giza Plateau, Egypt safety of co-workers in a hazardous area working Giza. The second project to be highlighted was with hazardous material. A careful and collabora conducted at the Western Cemetery of the Giza tive approach was used to ensure the maximum plateau in Egypt. This one-season project's main information was gained and recorded before, dur purpose was to record and check an area previ ing, and after excavation. Excavated materials ously excavated in the early 1900s. Because few were stored using appropriate storage materials artifacts were expected, a minimal conservation for both the artifacts themselves and the tropical lab was set up on site. However, as the season climate, while maintaining accessibility for progressed, numerous tomb shafts overlooked in researchers and native communities. In combina the early 1900s were located and excavated yield tion with this, the conservator also redesigned, ing human remains and re-used painted lime cleaned, and painted the storage space for exca stone blocks. The conservator aided and advised vated materials including designing, creating in the excavation of the human remains while specifications, and overseeing the fabrication and working closely with the physical anthropologist installation of metal storage units. Additionally, to clean the bones for examination. Organic the conservator planned, designed, transported, material associated with one body was preserved. and installed a new exhibit in the local museum, This material was examined in situ and post exca and instructed conservation and archeology stu vation, and it was lifted both separately and with dents in field conservation theory and techniques. some areas consolidated with a polymer to allow for further examination and research if autho Catherine E. Magee is Loan Conservator, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of Natural History, rized by Egyptian authorities. As with most exca Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC. vations overseas, removal of samples for analysis is strictly controlled by government agencies and Acknowledgments in the case of Giza no samples can be taken from Tel Zeitah: Ron E. Tappy, Project Director the plateau for analysis even within Cairo. These and Principal Investigator; sponsored by the unexpected finds highlight the need for fore Pittsburgh Theological Seminary. knowledge of potential artifacts because a good Howard University Giza Cemetery Photos courtesy microscope and a few chemicals can allow for Project: Ann Roth, Director; sponsored by the the author. preliminary analyses and identifications to be National Endowment for the Humanities, made on site. Howard University, The Bioanthropology Structure 10L-26 Tomb Excavation, Foundation, and private grants. Copan, Honduras Structure 10L-26Tomb: William Fash, Director; sponsored by the Honduran Institute The final example represents comprehensive of Anthropology and History, Copan Acropolis involvement by conservators, and is illustrative of Project, Harvard Univesity and the Smithsonian the wide-ranging benefits a conservator can pro Center for Materials Research and Education.
22 CRM No 6—2001 Howard Wellman Conservation and Materials Identification in the Field A Maryland Case Study
ny archeologist can tell you that One major contribution can be the exami the scarcest commodity in any nation and identification of excavated materials project is time in the field. It on site. For example, different metals and their stands to reason, then, that alloys can be identified by means of their corro timelyA identification of critical materials found sion products, specific gravity, or chemical reac during excavation is well worth the expense, since tivity. This requires only simple microscopy, or a it can have a direct impact on the interpretation sensitive balance, or a small kit of reagents. The of past activities at the site, direction of the dig potential benefits are great: determining the level ging, and the focus of resources. of a culture's metallurgical sophistication or iden The modern academic-trained conservator, tifying conservation issues before they become with grounding in chemistry, art, physics, and problems (and artifacts are lost to poor handling material sciences, has training in instrumental and tardy treatment). Organic materials can also analysis, photo-documentation, and microscopic be identified; the animal from which a fragment examination. Conservators also have a whole of leather came can be identified with low-power suite of manual and artistic skills and their hall microscopy. Since different leathers are used for mark attention to detail. Armed with a few sim different purposes, this could have bearing on the ple tools common to most labs and many field interpretation of site use, understanding hus schools, conservators can bring these skills to any bandry practices, and past environmental condi field project, and make a valuable contribution. tions. This article, however, will focus on the Identifying char identification of wood species from archeological coal samples using a reflected samples, and the contribution of this specialized light stereo- skill to archeological fieldwork. Wood is one of microscope. the most widely used materials throughout his Note the photo graphic attach tory. It can typify the environment in which ment for docu humans lived and worked. It is used to make menting features, household items, tools, shelters, and transport. As and the reference materials to aid fuel, it is used for cooking, home heating, or in identification. industrial processes. Some trees provide necessi ties other than wood: seeds, nuts, and fruits for the sustenance of humans and livestock, bark or leaf fibers for textiles, and cordage. Resins are used for incense, coatings, adhesives, and sealants. And the internal structure of wood con tains information about changing environmental conditions and the passage of time. The identifi cation and examination of wood samples in the field, therefore, can make significant and timely contributions to the interpretation of the site. Wood Structure and Identification Wood has a structure that is heterogeneous in three dimensions, and this structure is signifi-
CRM No 6—2001 2} Comparison of a candy different between individ degraded ual genus and species of tree. archeological sample (top) to This means that with at least a reference one, and more often two or sample of alder three views of a sample, the (alnus sppj. genus and species of wood can be determined. The detail (genus or species) to which a sample is identified may be justified by the information needed. Family or genus identification may be enough to describe the environ ment in which the tree was growing (temperate conditions favor different trees over tropical or sub-arctic climates) and annual temperatures and rainfall can affect the width of annular rings, leaving a permanent record of climatic trends. On the other hand, specific species of wood were preferred for differ ent technologies, e.g., shipbuild ing versus food bowls. Analysis of the variety of woods found at a site can determine the use to which they were put (e.g., ash or maple shavings might suggest small item manufacture; oak shavings might suggest larger, sturdier items like barrels or structures), or may the samples cannot be replaced. With freshly cut determine the use of a piece within a larger struc or worked wood, the macroscopic and low- ture (e.g., the hull planking of a ship might be magnification (x2-10) features (annular rings and made of oak and the deck planking of teak). The vessel groups) can be enough to determine genus, presence of exotic species could also have impli and sometimes species of some distinctive woods. cations of trade, since some woods are highly val Other important macroscopic features may also ued for their strength, weather resistance, or their include the color and odor of the wood. appearance when used in decorative arts. Samples Unfortunately, archeological samples often are of wood or charcoal that are intended for den- obscured and decayed, and these features, espe drochronological analysis should also be identi cially color and odor, cannot be used easily. Good fied as minutely as possible, since not all woods references or reference collections are crucial, are suitable. Many dendrochronological records since decayed wood can differ significantly from (particularly in Europe and the Mediterranean new wood, obscuring critical features. region) are derived from oak, and cannot be eas Case Study ily compared to other species of wood. Proper Recent Phase II excavations at the Old identification before submitting them for analysis Chapel Field sites in St Mary's County, Maryland can save both time and money. (18ST233 and 18ST329), found direct evidence While some wood can be identified directly to identify this location as the site of one of the from the artifact, removing samples is necessary first Jesuit missions in Maryland.' One of the for precise identification, and for high magnifica features investigated was the cellar of a late-17th- tion viewing. This is a destructive process, since to early-18th-century structure. Among the diag-
24 CRM No 6—2001 nostic artifacts were two fragments of building building as an impermanent structure. It also timbers—a post and a sill. adds to the growing body of information about The wood samples from Old Chapel Field architecture and building styles in the late colo were brought to the Maryland Archaeological nial period of Maryland's history. Conservation Laboratory, which was both Conclusion "home" for the archeological team and the ulti Wood identification is only one of many mate repository of the artifacts recovered. There, conservation procedures that can be easily trans the wood was identified by thin-section ferred to a field project. For quick diagnostic pur microscopy as one of the species of southern yel poses, basic laboratory tools like balances, micro low pine, known variously as loblolly, shortleaf, scopes, and simple chemistry can be used to longleaf, slash, and pitchpine. examine, identify, and interpret many artifacts. The architecture of Chesapeake farmsteads Conservators, trained to be multi-faceted with is increasingly well documented, and the settlers the experience and practice in performing pre themselves left clear descriptions of what building cise, delicate tasks, can be crucial to enhancing styles and materials survived best in this semi- the data recovered during those all-too-short field tropical climate (Carson, et al. 1981; Stone, seasons. 1982; Stone, et al. 2000). Vernacular architecture developed in response to the poor survival rate of Notes 1 traditional English framed houses that suc Julia King, personal communication, 2001. 2 cumbed quickly to rot and termites. Additionally, Willie Graham, personal communication, 2001. the settlers' tool kits helped determine the wood used, as different woods are easier to work with References Carson, C, Barka, N.F., Kelso, W.M., Stone, G.W., different tools. and Upton, D. "Impermanent Architecture in the Despite its common use today, pine was not Southern American Colonies," Winterthur a favored wood for construction in Colonial Portfolio 16 (1981), 135-196. America. The high resin content made pit-sawing Stone, G.W. 1982. Society, Housing and Architecture extremely difficult as compared with poplar, and in Early Maryland: John Lewger's St. John's. it did not shape well by splitting or ax-shaping as Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, Department of compared with oak. As a softwood, it was easily Ametican Civilization, University of Pennsylvania. University Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, destroyed by rot and termites when left in con Michigan. tact with the ground, compared with chestnut, Stone, G.W, H.J. Heikkenen, W Graham, and J.A. black locust or cedar (also a softwood, but with King. Early Chesapeake Housing and the particular rot resistant properties still valued Evolution of the Virginia House, c. 1607-1730, today). To find pine in use as both post and sill unpublished paper presented at the Annual Meeting has several consequences. of the Society fot Historical Archaeology, 6 January The vernacular architecture in the 2000, Quebec, Canada, . Chesapeake area often relied on heavy posts, rather than earthfast sills, to support the rest of Bibliography Hoadley, R. Bruce. Identifying Wood: Accurate Results the structure. Any sill will rot quickly in contact with Simple Tools. Newtown, CT: The Taunton with the earth, and posts relied on their larger Press, 1990. volume (but smaller surface area) to increase their Odegaard, N., Carroll, S., and Zimmt, WS. Material life span. The presence of pine in both post and Characterization Tests for Objects of Art and sill strongly suggests that this was a cheaper, more Archaeology. London: Archetype Publications, 2000. expendable structure. Even if the building had Panshin, A.J. and De Zeeuw, C. Textbook of Wood dated from the post-Revolutionary period when Technology, 4th ed. San Francisco: McGraw-Hill mill-sawn pine was more common as a building Book Company, 1980. material, pine as an earthfast member still sug Howard Wellman is Lead Conservator, Maryland gests that "the builder was not thinking of a very Archaeological Conservation Laboratory. permanent solution...a rare, but not unheard of occurrence."2 Photos by the author. The identification of the wood helps to confirm the archeological interpretation of this
CRM No 6—2001 25 Emily A. Williams Documenting an Early Cooking Disaster The Conservation of the Meaux Site Porringer
n the past, archeologists, and others the first known owner of the site, and his sister outside the conservation profession, immigrated to Virginia from England sometime have often viewed archeological con prior to 1707. He was granted 200 acres in 1713 servation as an exercise aimed simply and the land remained in his family until the at preservinI g the morphology of an artifact.1 This 19th century. The research appears to suggest definition has often overlooked the profound that the cellar predates Meaux's ownership and contributions that a trained conservator can was perhaps filled in as a result of his acquisition make to the interpretation, or re-interpretation, of the land. of both artifacts and sites. Re-interpretation of an The porringer initially went to the artifact may occur as a function of the condition Department of Collections for study and exami assessment carried out in the course of deciding nation and remained there for approximately two on a treatment method, or it may be based on years. During this time it was classified as a information that becomes obvious during the pewter porringer of a specific type, according to treatment process, such as evidence of a coating. Ronald Michaelis's classification scheme for The conservation of the Meaux site porringer pewter porringers.2 This identification was made, illustrates this process and demonstrates the despite the thick layer of beige colored clay that information that conservation can add to the covered the artifact, partly on the basis of a small story of the site as a whole. amount of white metal visible in the bowl, partly In 1991, while as a result of the por Meaux site por the then landowner ringer's close confor ringer after treat ment with rem was landscaping his mation to known nant of pewter property, a feature was pewter porringer spoon visible in revealed on the types, and partly base. Photo by the author. Meaux site, a 17th- because of a rectangu century domestic site lar extension between located on the banks the body of the por of the Pamunkey ringer and the handle River in New Kent which, although exag County, Virginia. gerated, had parallels Several artifacts were in other pewter por unearthed, including ringers. a metal porringer, which were brought to By the time conservation began on the por Colonial Williamsburg for identification. The ringer, small amounts of dirt covering the object artifacts were placed on long-term loan to the and, in particular, the handle, had been lost and Colonial Williamsburg Foundation and it was the dirt beneath exhibited a greenish color gener arranged that Colonial Williamsburg's ally associated with copper corrosion. Although Department of Archeological Research would copper corrosion will precede that of either tin or excavate the feature, and analyze and conserve lead, the volume of copper present in 17th- any artifacts found therein. The feature, exca century pewter was rarely higher than 10% and vated over the course of two weeks, proved to be generally less than 3%, an amount that would be a cellar, containing over 2,000 artifacts, the unlikely to account for the degree of discol majority of which dated to between 1680 and oration seen in the soil.^ Two small test areas, one 1690. on the handle and one in the bowl, were mechan Historical research, carried out in tandem ically cleaned. The size of these areas was kept to with the excavation, indicated that John Meaux, a minimum as 17th-century pewter could con-
26 CRMN06—2001 tain up to 26% lead, and it was felt at the time ringer's current condition is as follows: while it that the lab was not equipped to accommodate was being used to cook or warm a meal that was the safe cleaning of large amounts of this material being stirred with a pewter spoon, the porringer by mechanical means. The test area on the handle became red-hot causing the spoon to melt into it. revealed a tinned metal surface with some indica This in turn caused the porringer to become tions of a copper substrate, although due to the extremely brittle so that even removing it from size of the area it was difficult to make out. Small the fire and placing it gently on the ground amounts of fibrous malachite, a corrosion prod would be enough to cause it to shatter. (This is a uct occasionally seen on cast copper alloy objects, fairly well known phenomenon known as a "hot particularly Chinese bronzes, were visible in the short," and the areas of loss in the bowl are in dirt overlaying the handle. The test area in the keeping with it.) As the metal cooled, it would bowl was located near, but not directly adjacent have become less brittle preserving a record of the to, a patch of the silvery metal and revealed yet event. The porringer would not, however, have more of the silvery metal. The object was also x- been repairable and as a result was probably dis rayed. The x-radiographs showed pools of dense, carded at this point. radio opaque material in the bowl surrounded by The story of the porringer has been areas of medium density material. The walls and extremely popular with the "behind-the-scenes" handle of the porringer were significantly less dense. tours that visit Colonial Williamsburg's conserva At this point, both curators and conserva tion labs. The visitors are drawn to an object that tors were mystified. The handle of the porringer humanizes the past. Attempts to find parallels to showed signs of being copper alloy, while the the porringer among brass artifacts revealed that bowl appeared to be pewter. Not only was this its closest relation was a late-17th-century socket not a recorded type, but it would also have been candlestick of probable English origin, which has hard to construct particularly as the x-ray showed recently been purchased by Colonial Williams no signs of rivets between the bowl and handle. burg. Not only has our knowledge of the artifact With the owner's permission, a small splin itself been enriched, but also our knowledge of ter of metal, roughly one millimeter by one mil the way in which forms and styles migrated limeter was removed from an area of loss, between classes of artifacts has been augmented. mounted in a resin block, and polished for metal lurgical analysis. Compositional analysis using Notes 1 Jessica Johnson, "Conservation and Archaeology in Energy Dispersive X-ray Fluorescence (EDXRF) Great Britain and the United States: a Com was undertaken at the Freer Gallery of Art in parison," Journal of the American Institute for Washington, DC, on the sample and the por Conservation^! (1993): 249-269. Emily Williams, ringer itself. Using EDXRF, primary x-rays are "Sixty-Five years of History: Archaeological fired at the object/sample, displacing electrons Conservation at Colonial Williamsburg," North from the inner orbitals of constituent atoms. This American Archaeologist 21:2 (2000): 107-113. 2 leads the elements to gain energy, which is Ronald Michaelis, "English Pewter Porringer," released as secondary or fluorescent x-rays. Apollo7:2(\976): 116-121. ^ Peter Hornsby, Pewter of the Western World 1600- Elements can then be identified by the wave 1850. Schiffer Publishing (1983). lengths they produce. The resin-mounted sample revealed that the Emily A. Williams has been the Associate Archaeological white metal seen in the base had melted over and Conservator at the Colonial Williamsburg Foundation in into another metal that appeared to be a copper Williamsburg, Virginia, since 1995. alloy. The EDXRF analysis of the handle, bowl, and white metal indicated that the porringer was made of brass and that the white metal was Acknowledgments pewter. The handle and bowl are of two different I would like to thank Tom Chase at the alloys (the handle contains approximately 67% Freer Gallery of Art for helping us to analyze copper, 9% zinc, 4% lead, and 15% tin, while the porringer and also Anthony North at the the bowl contains 72% copper, 18% zinc, 4% Victoria and Albert Museum and John Douglas lead and 1% tin). of the Antique Metalware Society for their help Based on the evidence at this point it is in identifying parallels to the porringer. believed that the most likely scenario for the por
CRM No 6—2001 27 Catherine Sease Professor Lawrence J. Majewski was the 1999 recipient. Professor Majewski joined the faculty of the Conservation Center of the Institute of Fine Conservation and Heritage Arts, New York University in 1960, becoming chair Management Award man six years later. Here he taught many generations of archeological conservators for 39 years. In addi n 1997, the president of the Archaeological tion to his teaching, Majewski was also active in a Institute of American (AIA) established an wide variety of projects to preserve our archeological I annual Conservation Award. This award is heritage. In his role as chief conservator of the Sardis made in recognition of an individual's or institution's excavations for more than 25 years, he trained many achievement in any of four areas: archeological con conservators in archeological field techniques. servation, e.g., the conservation treatment of an arti The Museum of London was the 2000 recipi fact, monument, or site; archeological conservation ent in recognition of the museum's long-standing science, e.g., making an advance in the treatment strong and consistent commitment to archeological methodology or analysis of the deterioration of conservation. The museum has promoted conserva archeological materials; archeological heritage man tion as a vital function of all its activities, both in the agement, e.g., the overall management of a site or field on excavations and in the museum in its dis group of sites including their preservation and inter plays and educational programs. The museum has pretation to the public; and education and/or public taken a leadership role in presenting the various aspects awareness of archeological conservation through of archeological conservation to the public, thereby teaching, lecturing, an exhibition, or a publication. raising public awareness of the excitement, importance, The award is open to international individuals or and challenge of preserving our cultural heritage. organizations, public or private, that merit recogni The Conservation Award of the AIA is unusual tion for their contributions to the preservation of in singling out individuals and institutions for their our archeological heritage. outstanding achievements in the preservation of our The 1998 Conservation Award was presented cultural heritage. As such, it is becoming a presti to the Department of Conservation and Materials gious award within the archeological community. Science at the Institute of Archaeology, University of For information about the nominating procedure for London, in recognition of its 60 years of training future awards, contact Catherine Sease (Chair of the archeological conservators. Not only did the Conservation and Heritage Management Institute train many generations of archeological Committee of the AIA) at the Peabody Museum of conservators, who have practiced all over the world, Natural History, P.O. Box 208118, New Haven, it also was largely responsible for defining the disci Connecticut 06480. pline of archeological conservation and determining its direction. Catherine Sease is Senior Conservator, Peabody Museum of Natural History, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
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