A Study of Thomas Tidholm's Translation of the Hitch Hiker's

2005:087 C EXTENDED ESSAY

A Study of Thomas Tidholm´s Translation of The Hitch Hiker´s Guide to the Galaxy

Annika Riekkola

Luleå University of Technology C Extended Essay English Department of Language and Culture

2005:087 - ISSN: 1402-1773 - ISRN: LTU-CUPP--05/087--SE Abstract The purpose of this paper was to determine whether Thomas Tidholm’s translation of The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy is a near equivalent of the original text, especially regarding humorous material. For the study of this problem, the English text was read in parallel with the Swedish translation and the material was restricted to every tenth page. A number of linguistic areas were analyzed: proper names, invented words, metaphors, similes, additions, omissions, mistranslations and wordplay.

Overall, the study shows that Tidholm’s translation is quite faithful to the original text and many linguistic features have been translated fairly directly. Although several mistranslations are found in the analysed material, they are not severely damaging to the text. The study also demonstrates that much of the humour is preserved or recreated in the translation.

1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Background...... 1 1.2 Aim...... 2 1.3 Method and material...... 2 1.4 Outline ...... 3 1.5 Key to abbreviations...... 3 2. Translation theory...... 4 2.1 History and definitions ...... 4 2.2 Difficulties in translation...... 5 3. Analysis of The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy...... 7 3.1 Proper names ...... 7 3.1.1 Personal names ...... 7 3.1.2 Geographical names ...... 8 3.2 Invented words/terms ...... 9 3.3 Metaphors and similes...... 11 3.3.1 Metaphors ...... 11 3.3.2 Similes ...... 14 3.4 Additions ...... 16 3.5 Omissions ...... 17 3.6 Mistranslations ...... 18 3.7 Wordplay ...... 22 4. Summary and conclusion ...... 25

Bibliography ...... 28 1. Introduction

1.1 Background Translation enables a great number of people to gain access to a wide assortment of literary works from all over the world, thus pushing cultural horizons and expanding human knowledge and imagination. However, since translation involves the procedure of transferring a text from one language to another, i.e. from a source language to a target language (Munday 2001:5), this process is lined with several intricate difficulties. As there is no complete correspondence between any two languages, a word-for-word translation is next to impossible. Consequently, the translation will differ, more or less, from the original. The question is how, and to what degree? It can perhaps be argued that some works are, at least in certain aspects, more challenging to translate than others. One such candidate may reasonably be the cult classic The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy by Douglas Adams; profuse with humorous and satirical language, this science fiction novel also features a vast number of invented names and words, most of which are usually quite unlikely. Therefore, it is of special interest to determine whether the original impression of the novel, and especially its wit and humorous aspects, are retained in translation. At the time of the author’s demise in the spring of 2001, The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy had sold more than 14 million copies worldwide (Harris 2001). The classical book has also been adapted for the screen and will be shown on Swedish cinemas in July 2005. In this study, the Swedish translation of the first four parts of Adams’ novel will be analyzed: ‘The Hitch Hiker’s guide to the Galaxy’, ‘The Restaurant at the End of the Universe’, ‘Life, the Universe and Everything’ and ‘So Long, and Thanks for All the Fish’. These have all been translated by Thomas Tidholm, a distinguished poet, playwright and author of children’s books (Berggren 2000). The fifth part of the novel, ‘Mostly Harmless’, will not be examined here, as the Swedish translation is made by another translator, Nille Lindgren. The

comparison will cover such qualities as meaning, form and effect in order to assess the correspondence between the original text and the translation.

1.2 Aim The aim of this essay is to determine how closely the translation keeps to the original and what dissimilarities there are. Special attention will be paid to the humorous aspects of the language in translation to establish whether the comic effect is preserved or lost.

1.3 Method and material The method chosen for this study is parallel reading; the original text is read in parallel with the translation while comparing the correspondence of form, meaning, effect etc. Furthermore, the material to be analyzed has been restricted to every tenth page, beginning on page 15 in the English version and on page 7 in the Swedish version. This has been done with the ambition to present an average of comparisons throughout the book. Particular focus for the study will be on such linguistic areas as: — Proper names — Invented words — Metaphors and similes — Additions and omissions — Mistranslations — Wordplay The primary sources for the analysis are The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy: A Trilogy in Four Parts (1992), by Douglas Adams and the Swedish translation Liftarens Guide till Galaxen (2004). Secondary sources include various books on translation theory as well as some dictionaries, foremost the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2001).

1.4 Outline The study will begin with an introduction to translation theory where a brief history, definitions and difficulties related to the subject will be presented. This opening is then followed by the analysis, where each subsection will be introduced and the results and comments on the findings will be given. Subsequently, the study will be ended with a summary and conclusion.

1.5 Key to abbreviations ST: Source Text (English) TT: Target Text (Swedish) SL: Source Language (English) TL: Target Language (Swedish) HHGG: The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy LGG: Liftarens Guide till Galaxen LDCE: The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English

2. Translation theory

2.1 History and definitions In order to evaluate any translation, it is vital to form a definition against which to measure the work. In the field of translation, however, there is no single definition that all scholars agree on, since in the course of time there have been an abundance of theories on the subject. The ‘word-for-word’ vs. the ‘sense-for- sense’ translation constitutes the oldest conflicting approaches, dating back to the days of Cicero (first century BCE) and St Jerome (late forth century CE) (Munday 2001:19). Yet, these approaches are still highly relevant and can be said to form the foundation of modern translation theory. They are often regarded as the forerunners of the ‘literal’ vs. ‘free’ and ‘form’ vs. ‘content’ methods (Munday 2001:20). Subsequently, these methods have undergone modifications to allow for specific circumstances, such as cultural adaptation, receptor orientation etc, and have branched out to form the contemporary approaches to translation. As a result of the numerous theories, there are practically equally many definitions of what constitutes a ‘good’ translation. Today, the most common approach is what Ingo, writer of several articles and books on translation, refers to as “to strike the golden mean”1 (1991:20); i.e. where preserved meaning and idiomatic language are of the highest priority. This, as Ingo remarks, is not to say that the translator has the right to neglect the characteristic qualities of the original text and he further suggests that there should not be a relentless demand on preserved form but rather a demand on equivalent form (1991:21). Klingberg, who has written a number of papers on children’s literature, is even more rigorous and states that “nothing less than what really could be said to be the original in translation should be presented” (1986:14). This means that as much as possible of the meaning must be preserved and the same is also true of such delicate qualities as the effect and atmosphere of the original. In this study, it is

1 My translation. 4

mostly Klingberg’s definitions that will be used, as they often approximate a close translation.

2.2 Difficulties in translation The numerous models of translation theory notwithstanding, there is no one approach to eliminate all obstacles of converting a text from one language to another. The fundamental problem is that languages differ considerably from each other. Nida ventures that the difference is so great that “some insist that one cannot communicate adequately in one language what has been said originally in another” (1964:2). A word in one language may have several meanings, some more subtle and peripheral than others and will give rise to certain associations. In translation, the word may have lost or gained new qualities and associations. Any translation, therefore, even a faithful one, can still be regarded as a new creation. Furthermore, the translation needs to preserve the style of the original text. It is an essential requirement, since the style as Ingo remarks “is not a decoration but a choice determined by the purpose of the text and the intentions of the author”2 (1991:158). This may present several problems to the translator; as everyone else, s/he has a personal style of writing, which in particular determines his or her choice of words, even if the goal is to match the original as closely as possible. Another aspect to consider is cultural context adaptation. The SL text may contain words and phrases that are specific to the cultural environment of a certain country. The translator will then have to decide whether to keep the original word or phrase in order to preserve the flavour of the SL, or to change it into a suitable TL equivalent to make the text more interesting and easier to understand (Klingberg 1986:11). Closely related to this aspect is also the translation of comic features, which constitutes a great challenge. The difficulty can be divided into two categories: problems due to linguistic differences between the SL and the TL and problems based on the lack of knowledge of the

2 My translation. 5

ST cultural phenomena by the readers of the TT (Hygrell 1997:48). Both denotation and form are often important for the function of comedy (Hygrell 1997:48) and meaning and form may therefore constitute opposite polarities in translation; conflict as to which property has precedence over the other in order to best communicate a text may arise. In fact, the procedure of translating a text often involves such linguistic quandaries in dealing with various forms of wordplay, where the humour or pun is closely tied to the words and structure of the SL. It is obvious that translation is not a straightforward process but a complex procedure which requires much consideration, besides pure linguistic deftness and skill. Far more complicated than a simple substitution of words, translation must attempt to capture as much as possible of all the dimensions of the original text.

3. Analysis of The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy

3.1 Proper names Proper names include names of persons, places, institutions etc. Here, personal names and geographical names in translation will be analysed.

3.1.1 Personal names The general rule is that personal names without any specific meaning should not be altered in translation, in order to preserve the cultural flavour of the original (Klingberg 1986:43). However, in children’s books, older custom allows for names to be given a form which the readers of the TL is more familiar with (Klingberg 1986:43-44). In the case of descriptive names, where the meaning is essential to the understanding, these should be translated (Klingberg 1986:45). The following personal names are found in the analysed material of HHGG/LGG: (ST) (TT) Joseph (35) Josef (32) Arthur Dent (45) Arthur Dent (43) Paula Nancy Millstone Jennings (55) Paula Nancy Millstone Jennings (55) John Ainsworth (495) John Ainsworth (560) Trillian (85) Trillian (91) Peter (325) Peter (367) Russell (485) Russel (547) Fenchurch (515) Fenchurch (585) Yvonne (515) Yvonne (586) Jim (515) Jim (586) Murray Bost Henson (555) Murray Bost Henson (633) Anjie (515) Anjie (585) Thor (415) Tor (472) McKenna (485) McKenna (547) Prosser (25) Prosser (19) Ford Prefect (25) Ford Prefect (19) Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz (35) Prostetnic Vogon Jeltz (32) Zaphod Beeblebrox (75) Zaphod Beeblebrox (79) Slartibartfast (115) Slartibartfast (127) Agrajag (395) Agrajag (450) Effrafax (355) Effrafax (379) Prak (455) Prak (518) Pag (375) Pag (427) Zipo Bibrok 5x108 (375) Zipo Bibrok 5x108 (425) The Great Green Arkleseisure (155) Den Store Gröngölingen (169) Wombagger the Infinately Prolonged (315) Wombagger, den Oändligt Utsträckte (355) Wonko the Sane (565) Wonko den Friske (645) Grunthos the Flatulent (55) Grunthos den Väderspände (55)

Most real personal names in HHGG have been left untranslated. In the case of Arthur Dent, the surname has no obvious connotation in the context of the novel and has therefore not been translated. Joseph and Russell have, quite needlessly, been rendered as Josef and Russel. Thor has likewise been changed to Tor. In this particular case, however, the change in form is necessary since it refers to a known character (the God of Thunder), which can thus more readily be recognised by the readers of the TL. In the case of proper names that belong to a fictitious source language, such as Zaphod Beeblebrox, the names have been left untranslated, according to the rule of maintaining their exotic quality. Discriptive names, such as Wombagger the Infinately Prolonged, Wonko the Sane and Grunthos the Flatulent have been translated fairly directly. The name Grunthos, however, may be intended to refer to grunt, which means ‘to make short sounds or say a few words in a low, rough voice’ (LDCE). If this is so, part of the function, in this case the humorous effect, has been lost. This is also true for Arklseisure, an invented word without lexical meaning. The Great Green Arkleseisure has been translated as Den Store Gröngölingen (‘The Great Green Woodpecker’ or ‘Greenhorn’). As seisure closely resembles seizure, which means ‘a sudden attack of an illness’ (LDCE), it is possible that the ST name, though fictitious in form, has connotations; in the novel, some believe that the bearer of that name sneezed out the universe. This dimension has been lost in the TT. In terms of the comical effect, however, the translation has not harmed the original text.

3.1.2 Geographical names As a rule, the geographical names of the SL should be kept in the TL but a translation is permissible when the name possesses meaning (Klingberg 1986:50). These are the geographical names found in HHGG/LGG:

(ST) (TT) the Cold Hillsides (455) Kalla Kullarna (519) the Great Red Plain (669) Stora Rödslätten (585) the Third Reach of the Unknown (65) Tredje Distriktet av det Okända (66) the Lalamatine District (175) Lalamatine-distriktet (193) Rickmansworth (15) Rickmansworth (8) Greenbridge (55) Greenbridge (55) Essex (55) Essex (55) Southend (65) Southend (67) Devon (505) Devon (572) England (325) England (367) Malaga (555) Malaga (633) Sahara (555) Sahara (633) Magrathea (105) Magrathea (115) Magramal (335) Magramal (379) Squornshellous Zeta (345) Squornshellus Zeta (391) Stavromula Beta (395) Stavromula Beta (450) Kria (55) Kria (55) Viltvodle VI (155) Viltvodel VI (169) Dalforsas (455) Dalforsa (519) Frogstar B (235) Snokstjärnan B (263)

The geographical names in HHGG are often invented ones, as is likely to be expected in a science fiction novel. These names, when they carry meaning, have then been translated fairly directly into their equivalents in the TL. Geographical names of existing places, even those that possess elements of meaning such as Rickmansworth and Greenbridge, have, as one would expect, not been altered, since the purpose is merely to identify the locations. Geographical names have also, when necessary, been modified to suit the spelling conventions of the TL, such as in Viltvodle – Viltvodel and Squornshellous – Squornshellus. The one true peculiarity is Frogstar; this name has been translated as Snokstjärnan (‘Grass snake star’) and not as Grodstjärnan (‘Frogstar’), which seems arbitrary and inconsistent.

3.2 Invented words/terms There are an abundance of invented words in HHGG, and this is an important characteristic of the novel. Thus, the translator must be careful to reproduce this creativity. The purpose of these fictitious words is usually to create an effect of humorous absurdity or to give a feeling of the exotic. Both form and meaning can

be of great importance and the rule is, as always, to preserve as much as possible of the original. These invented words and terms are found in the analysed material:

(ST) (TT) (1) Slo-Time envelope (425) ultrarapidbehållare (486) (2) Maxi-Slorta Hypernuclear Devices (375) Hypernukleära Maxi-Slakt-manicker (427) (3) the Definit-Kil cannon (165) Död-på-eftermiddagen-kanonerna (181) (4) Spectrum-Bypass-O-Matics (335) spektralavledare (379) (5) Refracto-Nullifiers (335) fragmetonixer (379) (6) The Somebody-Else’s Problem Field (335) Någon-Annans-Problem-fältet (379) (8) Lux-O-Valves (335) inverterade vacuumsugar (379) (9) the Nil-O-Grav fields (425) anti-gravitationsströmmarna (487) (10) Omni-Destructo-Zap rays (375) Omni-Destructo-Zap strålar (427) (11) grillion (375) grillioner (427) (12) the Altairan Dollar (245) den altairiska Dollarn (276) (13) the Flainian Pobble Bead (254) den fliniska Kulpåsen (276) (14) the Triganic Pu (245) den triganiska Pun (276)

Overall, the translation has kept the core of the original meaning, such as in Slo- Time envelope (1), where Slo is a clipped form of slow and Slo-Time is congruent with ‘slow motion’, which in turn corresponds to the TL equivalent ultrarapid. An envelope can be ‘a layer of something that surrounds something else’ (LDCE), and can be matched with the SL word behållare. In the same fashion, the fictitious word Slorta (2) can possibly relate to slaughter and has been translated as slakt. Invented terms which involve lexical words, such as The Somebody-Else’s Problem Field (6), have been translated word-for-word. In the case of the Definite-Kil cannon, the translator has chosen a freer translation, Död-på-eftermiddagen-kanonerna (‘Dead-in-the-afternoon- cannons’). This concession is justified, as the purpose is foremost to preserve the comical effect. The meaning, however, has been lost in the case of Omni-Destructo-Zap, where the prefix omni means ‘everything or everywhere’ (LDCE). Destructo is derived from destroy (‘förstöra’). In the ST, the translator has chosen not to translate the intended meaning of the words. Thus, part of the quality is unnecessarily lost, and the translator should at least have attempted a translation.

Grillion (11) is an invented alien count noun to donate a vast number, and the translator has found it suitable to preserve the original word. However, it would have been advisable to modify the SL word according to the TL spelling conventions, griljoner, in order to make it resemble similar TL count nouns. The last three entries, (12), (13) and (14) denote fictitious currencies. Most of these have been translated rather directly, subjected only to minor changes in spelling. Here, a close translation seems especially crucial to maintain the foreign atmosphere of the original. Pobble Bead, however, has been translated as Kulpåse (‘bag of marbles’). Although the translation is rather artistic, Pobble is an invented word, without obvious connotations of meaning, and Pobble Bead could also have been written as Pobbelpärlan. This procedure would also have preserved the melodious ring of the SL.

3.3 Metaphors and similes “Semantically exocentric expressions” (Nida 1964:219), such as metaphors and similes, often constitute a great challenge in translation as these constructions cannot always be translated word-for-word and still maintain their sense.

3.3.1 Metaphors By definition, a metaphor is ‘a way of describing something by comparing it to something else that has similar qualities’ (LDCL). In addition, a metaphor creates an image that functions to describe a situation more accurately (Newmark 1995:84). When a literal translation is impossible, the translator has the choice of converting an original metaphor into another metaphor, simile or non-metaphor. S/he may also create a metaphor from a non-metaphor (Nida 1964:219). Some of the metaphors listed below will be commented on.

(ST) (TT) The real universe arched sickeningly Det verkliga Universum välvde sig sjösjukt away beneath them (65) under dom (67)

Darkness gripped the ship (165) Det blev mörkt ombord (181)

An intestinal jumble of plumbing. (265) En sjösjuk rörmokares uppkastningar (299) laying on the patience with a trowel (215) som nu fick lägga på tålamodet med murslev (240)

a single spotlight stabbed down into the en ensam ljuskägla föll som en klubba ner darkness (225) i mörkret (252) then he straightened up and aimed a look at så rätade han upp sig och måttade en blick the policeman which hit him with the full mot polismannen, som träffade denne med force of every inch of the six light-year’s den fulla kraften från varje tum av hela det distance between Earth and Ford’s home avstånd på mer än sex ljusår som låg mellan near Betelgeuze (325) Jorden och Fords hemplanet i närheten av Betelgeuze (368) his consiousness stepped out again for a hans medvetande tog sig en sväng ut quick breather (325) igen för att få lite luft (368) a puzzled frown crept across his face (385) rynkades nu hans panna i förvåning (439)

Disappointment crept into Arthur’s face and Besvikelsen promenerade långsamt snuggled down into its accustomed över Arthurs ansikte och satte sig tungt på place (455) sitt vanliga ställe (518) the island of petrol pumps (505) skogen av bensinpumpar (572) the tangled web of irresolutions (505) den snårskog av villrådighet (572)

He gazed at the Pacific again […] but it lay Han såg ut över havet igen […] men det låg there calmly and played with the där bara helt stilla och lekte med sandpipers (565) strandpiparna (645) the taps and shower attachment would Duschen och kranarna skulle ha fått have made a gargoyle jump (265) Den Lille Vattenkastaren att kissa på sig (300)

The ST passage The real universe arched sickeningly away beneath them is an example of where the translator has converted the ST into a metaphor. The TT equivalent välvde sig sjösjukt is fitting, as the extract is preceded by the following text: “Five wild Event Maelstroms swirled in vicious storms of unreason and spewed up a pavement. On the pavement lay Ford Prefect and Arthur Dent gulping like half-spent fish” (65). Hence, both Maelstrom and fish conjure up the thought of the sea, and this denominator keeps the TT more cohesive than the original. Grip means ‘firm hold’ (LDCE), i.e. a powerful, physical action. In the passage Darkness gripped the ship, it is evident that the translation has lost much of its force and dynamic. The metaphor has been converted to sense even though it could well have been written as Mörkret grep tag om skeppet. This would even be preferable, since the context, where a spirit is just to be conjured aboard whilst the ship is under heavy bombardment, allows for a more dramatic effect. An intestinal jumble of plumbing is an example of a metaphor converted into another metaphor, En sjösjuk rörmokares uppkastningar. Here, it is evident that the translator has attempted to recreate a similar image, where both intestinal and 12

uppkastningar (‘vomit’) allude to the digestive system. However, the TT metaphor is too abstract, since the original metaphor aims at describing a piece of plumbing. Thus the translation is poorer since it fails to be equally accurate. Here, the form has taken precedence over the meaning, and in this example it does not work. In the case of the taps and shower attachment would have made a gargoyle jump, the metaphor to metaphor conversion is more successful. The reason the translator has altered the image is that a gargoyle is a water drain decoration in the form of a stone figure, often found in Gothic churches (Bonniers Stora Lexikon 2002). As such decoration is unfamiliar to most people in Sweden, the translator has changed it. Although the image of a gargoyle jump is different from Den Lille Vattenkastaren att kissa på sig, the metaphor still expresses the suggestion of something startling or incredulous. The TT image may possibly be a little more emotive or embarrassing, almost heightening the humorous effect of the original. An example of a metaphor which has been translated as a simile is a single spotlight stabbed down into the darkness. The equivalent of stabbed down, i.e. föll som en klubba ner (‘fell like a club down’) is different in form but conveys nearly the same image. In the case of the islands of petrol pumps, the translator has chosen to create a metaphor. Island, as it is used here, simply means ‘refuge’ (LDCE). In the TT, this has been changed to skogen (‘the forest’). The reason is most likely to construct a ‘smoother’ translation; the context does not call for absolute accurateness and the translator has instead captured the sense of the great number of pumps. In one of the examples, a tangled web of irresolutions, the metaphor has been changed slightly into an expression that is more familiar to the readers of the TT. The construction tangled web has been altered to snårskog (‘thicket’). This has resulted in a different image, yet the basic meaning is the same.

Most of the remaining metaphors, which make up the vast majority, have been translated directly, or nearly so. This is a correct interpretation of the ST style, since the humour often lies in the contrast of the familiar and the absurd, such as in the Pacific […] lay there calmly and played with the sandpipers. The comical style of the novel is such that it hints at the possibility of a real occurrence on the side of the metaphor.

3.3.2 Similes A simile is ‘an expression that describes something by comparing it with something else, using the words ‘as’ or ‘like’’ (LDCE). It is therefore a more cautious form of metaphor and, in the same fashion, similes should be translated in a way that is intelligible in the TL. Still, as much as possible of the original image should be reproduced. The material contains a vast number of similes and these constructions are an important characteristic of the novel. Therefore, the quality of the translation depends to a high degree on how successfully these expressions have been handled.

(SL) (TL) like half-spent fish (65) som halvdöda fiskar (66) like mountain goats (65) som bergsgetter (67) like a hawk (225) som en hök (252) like a young and uncertain bird (405) som en ung och något osäker fågel (462) as if they where nothing more than som en smörkniv i ett paket smör (414) two combs (365) the terrifying shuddering of the ship (165) skeppet skakade som i frossa (182)

by comparison, bigness itself looks really all storlek verkar som fluglort om man jämför titchy (245) (275) his lips were too thin and too long läpparna för tunna och munnen för bred, and when they parted his teeth looked och när den öppnades och man såg too much like a recently polished tänderna påminde arrangemanget alltför bay window (225) mycket om en nyförkromad kylargrill (252)

He prowled along his small chamber Han smög omkring i sin loge och liknade like a mantis contemplating an en bönsyrsa som gjorde sig redo för sitt evening’s preying (225) nattoffer (252) he said, with a hiss like a river flowing sa han med en väsning som påminde om through a steel mill (415) när en flod rinner genom en turbin (472)

bellowed Thor like an enraged bull (415) bölade Tor och lät som en uppretad tjur (472)

His eyebrows were leaping up and down Hans ögonbryn for omkring som om dom as if they wanted to punch each other (415) försökte komma åt att slå ner varann (474)

Shadows of thought and memory crossed Tankar och minnen rörde sig över hans his face like the shadow of clouds ansikte som molnskuggor över ett crossing the land (455) landskap (518)

He danced dizzily over the edge (495) han dansade som en sömngångare över kanten (559)

The umbrella lay like a recently squatted Paraplyet låg där som harkrank som daddy-long-legs, expiring sadly on the som just hade fått sig en omgång av ground. Tiny gusts of wind made it flugsmällan. Små vindpustar fick den twitch a little (505) att fladdra lite (573)

The appallingly permed woman was Det var den anstötligt permanentade waving to them […] like stupid bird kvinnan som vinkade åt dom […] som en with a broken wing (515) enfaldig fågel med bruten vinge (585)

She shook her head […] as if trying Hon skakade på huvudet […] som om hon trying to clear it (535) försökte vakna (608)

How do you feel? Like a military Hur känner du dig? Som ett pussel, sa Arthur. academy, said Arthur, bits of me keep Det är små bitar av mig som hela tiden passing out (45) försvinner (44)

The simile as if they were nothing more than two combs is meant to create the image of two closely and easily joined objects, and is matched with the image of en smörkniv i ett paket smör (‘a butter knife in a packet of butter’). It is a fair translation since a literal one, som två kammar, makes poorer sense. Some similies closely resemble those of the ST, although one or a few words may have been changed. In the case of a recently polished bay window, the TL equivalent for bay window is burspråksfönster. The translator, however, has decided on kylargrill (‘radiator grill’). This alteration has most likely been done so that the TT readers will be more familiar with the object. Still, it does not change the original image significantly, even if the protruding arch of a bay better corresponds to the shape of the mouth. A few ST constructions, such as He danced dizzily over the edge, are examples of when sense has been converted into a simile: Han dansade som en sömngångare över kanten (‘He danced like a sleepwalker over the edge’). As the extract is followed by “as the dreamland dropped sheer away beneath him” (495), there is a slight shift of association, from vertigo to sleep, yet the meaning is equivalent.

The simile Like a military academy was altered completely to Som ett pussel (‘Like a puzzle’). The reason for this is that the ST simile plays on the verb passing out, which can mean ‘to finish a course of study at a military school’ (LDCE). In the context, Arthur has just been through a matter transference beam and therefore the verb has double connotations, since it also refers to a physical condition. The subsequent part, bits of me keep passing out, means that he feels fragmented. The TT simile follows det är små bitar av mig som hela tiden försvinner (‘small parts of me keep disappearing’3). In terms of meaning, the TT simile is translated quite successfully, yet the wordplay is lost. Lastly, quite a few similes have been translated directly, since there has been no need to alter them.

3.4 Additions Additions to the text can be of two kinds: a semantic addition where new meaning is added, or an addition which is meant to make the text more explicit (Ingo 1991:255). The additions found in HHGG are hereby presented (my italics):

(ST) Arthur Dent sat and quivered (55) (TT) Arthur Dent satt där och darrade (56)

Here, the translator has added där (‘there’), by way of introducing Arthur and to make it explicit that he too is present; it is in the beginning of a new chapter and so far, only Ford Prefect has been mentioned.

(ST) He thought that one of them wasn’t making a lot of sense (25) (TT) Han kände att någonstans, hos nån av dom, var det nånting som liksom skevade lite (19)

In this case, the translator has rewritten the original passage and added new constructions in order to preserve as mush as possible of the humorous effect. This has been done by means of a purposely repetitive composition.

3 Not a literal translation. 16

(ST) Primal light exploded (65) (TT) Urljuset exploderade oupphörligt (67)

The addition in this example is semantic; it suggests that the explosion was a continuous event, rather than a one-time occurrence, which is probably the intention in the ST, where the extract is part of a string of events.

The HHGG contains very few additions and although the translation should resemble the original as much as possible, there are in fact situations where the TT could have benefited from minor inserted explanations. After all, the ST may include a meaning that is not obvious to the readers of the TT. An example where a suitable addition would have been justified is the following one:

(SL) A hatchway opened, crashed down through the Harrods Food Halls, demolished Harvey Nichols […] (575) (TL) En lucka öppnades och fälldes med ett brak rakt ner genom Harrods Matavdelning, utplånade Harvey Nichols […] (656)

Many TT readers may have heard of Harrods, but it is highly unlikely that everybody knows that Harvey Nichols is a department store; here an addition would have been advisable.

3.5 Omissions In every case when a part of an original text is omitted, there is a potential loss of information and even a slight shortening usually results in inexact translation (Klingberg 1986:73). Since it can be assumed that the author has chosen his or her words with care, the translator should avoid such exclusions. The recommendation by Klingberg is that no omissions ought to be allowed which compromise content or form (1986:79). Overall, there are few occasions of serious omissions in HHGG. Such omissions that affect form or meaning to some degree will be presented here (my italics).

(ST) You don’t, said Ford patiently, actually need him here (25) (TT) Ni behöver ju faktiskt inte ha honom här (19)

Although this is only a minor omission, a part of the content has been lost, i.e. that which explicitly describes the speaker’s state of mind. Furthermore, the part could readily have been kept as it is not difficult to translate.

(ST) He turned and walked back to the hated door. – Er, excuse me, said Ford following after him, which government owns this ship? (75) (TT) Han vände sig om och gick mot den hatade dörren. – Äh, ursäkta, sa Ford. Vilken regering är det som äger det här skeppet? (78)

Here, the omission gives rise to uncertainty as to whether Ford (initially) stays behind. Such a slight alteration may imply reluctance, scepticism etc. It is, however, not very vital in the context, but there is no reason to omit the part.

(ST) sitting and looking very startled and confused (175) (TT) sitta där och se förvirrad ut (193)

This is an example of where enriching information has been omitted. Startled means ‘surprised’ or ‘slightly chocked’ (LDCE) and this quality is not fully accounted for in the TT.

(ST) an icky sort of general well-disposedness towards things (545) (TT) en allmän välvilja mot lite av varje (621)

In this case, the omission has resulted in the loss of humorous quality, as icky contrasts with well-disposedness.

3.6 Mistranslations A mistranslation of even a small detail can be serious if it alters the meaning or atmosphere of the original text (Klingberg 1986:86). Every passage must be thoroughly analyzed in order for its function to be properly assessed, since even a near-equivalent can be inadequate to capture the author’s intended meaning or effect. Several mistranslations are found in the analysis of HHGG and LGG. They will hereby be presented and commented on (my italics).

(ST) explained the computer brightly (95) 18

(TT) förklarade datorn högt och tydligt (103)

In this case, the context rather suggests the meaning ‘cheerful’, as it pertains to a statement made by the ship’s perky computer about imminent collision, wherein the comic effect lies. The word glättigt would have been a better choice in order to preserve the humorous effect.

(ST) ten degrees starboard (95) (TT) tio grader ut i det blå (103)

Here, the translator has taken too much liberty in changing the ST, since a more faithful translation would have been tio grader styrbord. It can be argued that, since it is a command given by a person who is unfamiliar with steering a starship, the translation has been chosen to illustrate inexperience. However, the ST is most likely a parody of the technical lingo of science fiction and thus this parody is lost. The TT expression ut i det blå (‘out into the blue’) sounds unsuitably dreamlike and poetic.

(SL) shrugged (105) (TL) rös (115)

A shrug is a gesture which aims to show that ‘you do not know something or do not care about something’ (LDCE) and shrugged is thus clearly different from the word rös (‘shivered’), which is ‘to shake slightly because you are cold or frightened’ (LDCE). The extract pertains to the reaction of one of the characters in the novel after looking at what appears to be an abstract piece of art. In the context, it is suggested that the viewer cannot make sense of the symbols in question. In the TT, the mistranslation creates the false impression that the piece of art evokes fear or discomfort. The fault, however, is not vital in the context and does not affect the plot.

(ST) Marvin rose from a pile of rubble (185) (TT) Marvin klev upp ur en hög med sopor (204)

The TT word sopor (‘waste’, ‘garbage’) may evoke negative associations, i.e. that of filth and dirt, and creates a different, false image of the situation. Since the rubble in the context refers to the remains of a semi-destroyed building, a more suitable, neutral equivalent would be spillror (‘debris’).

(ST) There to meet with a small slug (315) (TT) Möte med en liten slugg (355)

Since a slug is a ‘slow-moving creature […] like a snail but without a shell’ (LDCE), the invented word slugg has lost this meaning in the TL. It seems unjustified not to translate the ST word, although its meaning is not vital in the context.

(ST) stretcher (445) (TT) staket (508)

Wrong word; the SL word stretcher has been translated into staket (‘fence’), instead of the correct correct word bår.

(ST) on the right (175) (TT) på vänster sida (193)

This is clearly a simple mistake, where right and left have been mixed up. It is not of any great importance in the context, however.

(ST) ridden on Halley’s Comet (555) (TT) suttit på Halleys Comet (633)

Here, much dynamic has unnecessarily been lost in the TT. To write ridit (‘ridden’) instead would not have presented any problem.

(ST) the high sun baked down on The Great Red Plain, and The Great Red Plain rippled in the heat (585) (TT) solen stekte Stora Rödslätten och Stora Rödslätten blev skrynklig (669)

The semantic content of the TT is rather odd; even though the ST may have been intended to be literal for the sake of comedy, it is more likely that it merely intended to be a description of the visual effect of atmospherical turbulence. If so, a more equivalent description would have been dallrade i hettan.

(ST) He expanded his chest to make it totally clear that here was the sort of man you only dared to cross if you had a team of Sherpas with you (415) (TT) Han spände ut bröstet för att göra det fullkomligt klart att han var den sortens man som man knappast gav sig på om man inte ägde en bulldozer (472)

A Sherpa is ‘a Himalayan person who is often employed to guide people through mountains’ (LDCE). Since the element of surprise is so essential to the humorous effect of the novel, a team of Sherpas in the ST is an excellent choice, as it is exotic, yet familiar enough for the reader to understand that it refers to a person of some importance. The word bulldozer in the TT succeeds in conveying the same meaning, but some of the humour is lost, as the word is less unexpected and somewhat cruder, implying mere brutal force. Therefore, it would have been advisable to have preserved Sherpa in the translation.

(ST) most of the people living on it where unhappy for most of the time. Many solutions were suggested for this problem, but most of these where largely concerned with the movements of small green pieces of paper […] And so the problem remained; lots of the people where mean, and most of them where miserable (15) (TT) dom flesta av dess innevånare var olyckliga större delen av sin tid. Många lösningar på detta problem blev föreslagna, men de flesta handlade på ett eller annat sätt om cirkulationen av små gröna papperslappar […] På detta sätt kvarstod problemet; många av innevånarna var elaka, och dom flesta var det synd om (7)

The word mean can correspond both to ‘unkind’ or ‘unwilling to spend any money’ (LDCE). Here, the (possible) mistranslation is due to lexical ambiguity; the context indicates that it is rather a matter of money (i.e. the small green pieces of paper). It follows from the extract that the lingering problem of unhappiness can be caused by a non-occurring circulation of money, as a result of people’s unwillingness to spend their funds. A more suitable word would thus

be snåla (‘cheap’). However, it is also conceivable that the author does spring the word mean in the sense of unkind, without consideration to the context, in which case elaka is not a mistranslation. It should be noted that in most cases, many of the mistranslations are of minor importance, since the fictitious character of the novel (where unpredictable events and situations frequently arise) often renders almost any translation as probable.

3.7 Wordplay Translating wordplay involves great difficulty, as much depends on the comprehensive quality of the original words; structure, meaning and sound often blend to create the effect. Ingo aptly argues that the more the language functions as a means of pleasure, the harder it is to translate the text (1991:16). The play on words includes everything from puns based on homonymy to alliterations and constructions with a certain melodious ring. It is obviously desirable to preserve as much as possible of both the form and meaning of the original text. Many constructions based on wordplay, as presented below, are found in the text.

(ST) Go bang your heads together, four-eyes (235) (TT) Ta och slå ihop dina huven så dom spricker (263)

Here, a crucial part of the humorous effect is lost, since the word-play is based on the SL word four-eyes. In the TL, the word means ‘someone who wears glasses’ (LDCE) and the equivalent in the SL is glasögonorm; in the ST it is the literal meaning which is intended, as it refers to a two-headed being. To incorporate glasögonorm in the TT (something like ‘glasses’ and ‘snake’ written as one word), would make no sense. Yet, a direct translation, such as fyröga would have kept the semantic quality, although the wordplay would still have been lost.

(ST) the party should fly, not in the normal sense that parties are meant to fly, but literally(405) (TT) partyt skulle lyfta – inte i den vanliga bemärkelsen utan bokstavligt (461)

The comic effect in this example relies on the SL word fly, which in this context has two relevant meanings, ‘to move through the air’ (LDCE) and ‘to go well’. This ST wordplay has been matched quite well with the ambiguous TT word lyfta, thus successfully preserving both meaning and effect.

(ST) what’s your connection with all this? This, said Marvin, indicating with his less damaged arm all the electrodes which connected him with the Krikkit computer (435) (TT) hur är du inblandad i den är soppan? Såhär, sa Marvin och visade med sin minst tilltygade arm på alla elektroder som kopplade honom samman med datorn (497)

The word connection also has double connotations, that of attachment and electric cable. The pun lies in the abstract intended in the question and the literal in Marvin’s answer. The construction inblandad i den här soppan in the TT does not fully cover the literal aspect, as soppan (‘the soup’) has nothing to do with Marvin’s arm. Still, it is a close translation.

(ST) we’ll meet the meat (225) (TT) Be kotletterna att komma (252)

In this example, the humorous effect in both the ST and TT version has been preserved in terms of meaning, with the absurd scenario of meeting one’s dinner. However, the phonological dimension of the original text has been lost in the translation: meet and meat are homophones, and therefore pronounced in the same way [mi:t] (LDCE), giving the English text a melodious ring. The translator might have been able to produce a more equivalent form by not inserting att, thus producing a smoother, unbroken alliteration.

(ST) the three-quarters-crazed creature (395) (TT) det halvgalna kreaturet (450)

Here, the wordplay in the ST is based on the initial k-sound of the construction quarters-crazed creature. This effect is lost in the translation, but in terms of style and meaning the passage has still been reconstructed to a near equivalent.

(ST) Mr Prosser thought it sounded perfectly potty (25) (TT) Mr Prosser tyckte att det lät vrickat till etthundra procent (19)

Again, the translation has resulted in the loss of the English alliteration of the initial p-sound.

(ST) Fits in with the general weirdness of the week. Week of the Weirdos […] (555) (TT) Funkar som guld bland alla veckans vakanser. Väck i Väckan […] (633)

This is an example of a rather successful reconstruction of the wordplay of the ST, primarily in terms of form. The original alliteration, which is based on [w], has been matched with [v] in the TT. Since the intention of this extract is foremost to sound outrageous, the difference of meaning between the two versions is of lesser importance.

(ST) This man is the bee’s knees, Arthur, he is the wasp’s nipples. He is, I would go so far as to say, the entire set of erogenous zones of every major flying insect of the Western world (555) (TT) Den här mannen är ett fynd, Arthur. Han är den felande länken. Han är den förlorade sonen. Han är för mycket. Han är fikonets absoluta kärna. Han är allt som börjar på F i hela västra hemisfären (633)

Here, the word play in the ST has been altered to alliteration in the TT. The ST is quite rich on humorous nuances, where the play begins with the bee’s knees (LDCE: ‘think you’re the bee’s knees’ – ‘used to describe someone who thinks they are very clever, very good at something etc’) and is followed by the fictitious expression the wasp’s nipples. All the key words have been altered in the TT, yet the function of the passage, i e that of sounding outrageous, is near equivalent.

4. Summary and conclusion Translation is not a straightforward process; far from being a simple choice between the polarities of ‘word-for-word’ and ‘sense-for-sense’ translation, the best approach often lies somewhere in between, i.e. “to strike the golden mean”. The goal of “only the original in translation” is a difficult one to attain, given such obstructions as cultural adaptation and the non-equivalence of words between languages. Still, it should be the aim of any translation, since it is the most comprehensive approach and includes all the facets of the original text: meaning, form, effect, atmosphere etc. The order of importance of these qualities may differ depending on the source of the translation. In The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, which has been analysed in the present study, both meaning and form, but especially the comical effect, are of great importance. The aim of this study was to assess how well Tidholm’s Swedish translation of the novel corresponds to the original, given the hypothesis that a near equivalent translation in terms of humour would be hard to attain. It has been demonstrated that most personal and geographical names have not been translated into Swedish, as they have no particular meaning in the context, while descriptive names have been rendered fairly literally. As the study shows, part of a possibly intended meaning has at times been lost, such as in Arkleseisure, where the context suggests a relation to the word seizure; an aspect not present in the translation. In other cases, a possible humorous effect has disappeared, such as in Grunthos, where the word is similar to grunt but has been left untranslated. Overall, however, the results show that the translation has been carried out fairly well; the one exception is the seemingly arbitrary translation of Frogstar to Snokstjärnan. The novel also features many invented words or terms. As the study indicates, most of these have been translated rather successfully. Only in one case where a translation would have been justified, i.e. that of Omni-Destructo-Zap, the construction has not been translated, thus resulting in a loss of meaning. A freer translation may sometimes be permissible, for example in the Definit-Kil cannons, which has been translated as Död-på-eftermiddagen-kanonerna, where 25

both the comical effect and the meaning have been preserved. However, the free translation of Pobble Bead to Kulpåsen has resulted in the loss of form, i.e. the melodious ring of the original. In addition, metaphors and similes occur frequently in the novel, wherefore they constitute another of its important characteristics. Most of these have been translated fairly directly. This is important for the sake of the comical function, since apart from being simply descriptive, the intention of the TT is also to suggest actual occurrences. In general, the translator has often been successful in preserving both meaning and effect. Furthermore, the study shows that there are only a few additions and omissions in the analysed material, and although these may result in the loss or gain of meaning, the change is usually not of vital importance in the context. In fact, some extra additions might have been advisable on a few occasions, such as after Harvey Nichols, to give the target readers the same information as the readers of the original, as this is also part of an equivalent translation. A surprising number of mistranslations are found in the translation. Although some meanings do deviate rather significantly, the erroneous translations are still of lesser importance, since the fictitious and unpredictable character of the novel is such that any translation could seem equally likely, for instance in the case where mean has been translated as elaka instead of snåla as a description of human beings. The fault is greater when the rather ‘immediate’ function of the comic elements has been lost, which has occurred on a few occasions, for example when Sherpa has been translated as bulldozer and brightly as högt och klart. In the case of wordplay, which should be one of the most difficult aspects of translation, the transformed text has often been able to present a near equivalent or a successful substitute and the translator has frequently showed great creativity. A good example of this is a passage that had been altered from an original nonsense play on insect parts to a segment where the humour is partly based on alliteration.

On the whole, the study shows that the translator Thomas Tidholm has managed to preserve much of the original text. When concessions to meaning have been made, it is often in favour of the preservation of the humorous effect. The humour has thus, overall, been preserved quite successfully. A smaller number of inconsistencies and mistranslations could however have been avoided, as they tarnish to some degree what is otherwise a great achievement.

Bibliography

Primary sources Adams, D. (1992) The Hitch Hiker’s Guide to the Galaxy: A Trilogy in Four Parts. London: Pan Books. Adams, D. (2004) Liftarens Guide till Galaxen. Stockholm: Månpocket.

Secondary sources Berggren, G. (2000) ’Poems by Thomas Tidholm’. http://www.thomas.tidholms.Hemsida_files\english.htm [2005, Januari 14]. Bonniers Stora Lexikon. (2002) Stockholm: Bonnierförlagen Nya Medier AB. Harris, P. (2001) ‘Douglas Adams Dies at Age 49’. http://books.guardian.co.uk/print/0,3858,4185774-99819,00.html [2005, May 06]. Hygrell, D. (1997) Att Översätta Komik. Uppsala: Almquist & Wiksell International. Ingo, R. (1992) Från Källspråk till Målspråk. Lund: Studentlitteratur. Klingberg, G. (1986) Children’s Books in the Hands of the Translators. Lund: Bloms Boktryckeri AB. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. (2001) Barcelona: Cayfosa-Quebecor. Munday, J. (2001) Introducing Translation Studies: Theories and Applications. London; New York: Routhledge. Newmark, P. (1995) Approaches to Translation. New York: Prentice Hall. Nida, E. A. (1964) Toward a Science of Translating. Leiden: E. J. Brill.