Coals, Source Rocks and Hydrocarbons in the South Palembang Sub-Basin, South Sumatra, Indonesia Rubianto Indrayudha Amier University of Wollongong

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1991 Coals, source rocks and hydrocarbons in the South Palembang sub-basin, south Sumatra, Indonesia Rubianto Indrayudha Amier University of Wollongong

Recommended Citation Amier, Rubianto Indrayudha, Coals, source rocks and hydrocarbons in the South Palembang sub-basin, south Sumatra, Indonesia, Master of Science (Hons.) thesis, Department of Geology, University of Wollongong, 1991. http://ro.uow.edu.au/theses/2828

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COALS, SOURCE ROCKS AND HYDROCARBONS IN THE SOUTH PALEMBANG SUB-BASIN, SOUTH SUMATRA, INDONESIA

A thesis submitted in (partial) fulfilment of the

requirements for the award of the degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

(HONS.)

from

THE UNIVERSITY OF

WOLLONGONG

by

RUBIANTO INDRAYUDHA AMIER (B.Sc. AGP BANDUNG)

Department of Geology 1991 013657 I certify that the substance of this thesis is original and has not already been submitted for any degree and is not being currently submitted for any other degree.

Rubianto Indrayudha Amier TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF TABLES LIST OF PLATES PAGE

CHAPTER ONE - INTRODUCTION 1

1.1 AIM OF THE STUDY * 2

1.2 PREVIOUS STUDIES 3 1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN 4

1.4 LOCATION AND ACCESS 7

1.5 . MORPHOLOGY 8

CHAPTER TWO - TERMINOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL METHODS 10

2.1 TERMINOLOGY 10

2.2 ANALYTICAL METHODS 14

2.2.1 Sampling 14 2.2.2 Sample Preparation 15

2.2.3 Microscopy 15 2.2.3.1 Reflected white light microscopy 15 and determination of vitrinite

reflectance

2.2.3.2 Fluorescence-mode microscopy 17

2.2.3.3 Maceral analysis 18 CHAPTER THREE - REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC 19 SETTING 3.1 REGIONAL GEOLOGY 19 3.2 STRATIGRAPHY 21 3.2.1 The pre-Tertiary rocks 22 3.2.2 Lahat Formation (LAF) 23 3.2.3 Talang Akar Formation (TAF) 24 3.2.4 Baturaja Formation (BRF) 26 3.2.5 Gumai Formation (GUF) 28 3.2.6 Air Benakat Formation (ABF) 29 3.2.7 Muara Enim Formation (MEF) 30 3.2.8 Kasai Formation (KAF) 32 3.3 DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF THE TERTIARY SEDIMENTS 33

CHAPTER FOUR - ORGANIC MATTER TYPE OF TERTIARY 38 SEQUENCES 4.1 INTRODUCTION 38 4.2 TYPE AND ABUNDANCE 39 4.2.1 Lahat Formation 39 4.2.2 Talang Akar Formation 41 4.2.2.1 DOM 41 4.2.2.2 Coal and shaly coal 42 4.2.3 Baturaja Formation 43 4,2.4 Gumai Formation 44 4.2.5 Air Benakat Formation 45 4.2.6 Muara Enim Formation 46 4.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RANK AND MACERAL TEXTURES 5 0 AND FLUORESCENCE INTENSITY

CHAPTER FIVE - ORGANIC MATURATION AND THERMAL HISTORY 54 5.1 INTRODUCTION 54 5.2 RANK VARIATION AND DISTRIBUTION 55 5.3 THERMAL HISTORY 61 5.4 SOURCE ROCKS AND GENERATION HYDROCARBONS 66 5.4.1 Source rocks for hydrocarbons 66 5.4.2 Hydrocarbon generation 74 5.4.2.1 Timing of hydrocarbon generation 77 using Lopatin Method 5.5 POTENTIAL RESERVOIRS 82

CHAPTER SIX - CRUDE OIL AND SOURCE ROCKS GEOCHEMISTRY 85 6.1 INTRODUCTION 85 6.2 OIL GEOCHEMISTRY 86 6.2.1 Experimental Methods 86 6.2.2 Sample fractionation 86 6.2.3 Gas chromatography analysis 86 6.2.4 Preparation of b/c fraction 87 6.2.5 Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry 88 analysis 6.2.6 Results 88 6.2.6.1 Gas chromatography 89 6.2.6.1 Gas chromatography-mass 92 spectrometry 6.3 SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY 6.3.1 Experimental Section 9 5 6.3.1.1 Sample extraction 96 6.3.2 Results 96

CHAPTER SEVEN - COAL POTENTIAL OF SOUTH PALEMBANG 100 SUB-BASIN 7.1 INTRODUCTION 100 7.2 COAL DIVISIONS IN THE MUARA ENIM FORMATION 101 7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MUARA ENIM COALS 103 7.3.1 Enim Prospect Areas 104 7.3.2 Pendopo Areas 105 7.4 COAL QUALITY 106 7.5 ASH COMPOSITION 108 7.6 STRUCTURES 109 7.7 COAL RESERVES HI 7.8 BUKIT ASAM COAL MINES 112 7.8.1 Stratigraphy 113 7.8.1.1 Quarternary succession 113 7.8.1.2 Tertiary succession 113 7.8.1.2.1- Coal seams 113 7.8.1.2.2 Overburden and 114 Intercalations

7.8.2 Coal Quality 115 7.8.3 Coal Reserves 116

7.9 BUKIT KENDI COALS 117 7.10 BUKIT BUNIAN COALS CHAPTER EIGHT - COAL UTILIZATION 120 8.1 INTRODUCTION 120 8.2 COMBUSTION 121 8.3 GASIFICATION 124 8.4 CARBONISATION 125

CHAPTER NINE - SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 128 9.1 SUMMARY 128 9.1.1 Type 128 9.1.2 Rank 131 9.1.3 Thermal History 132 9.1.4 Source rock and hydrocarbon generation 133 potential 9.1.5 Coal potential and utilization 136 9.2 CONCLUSIONS 137

REFERENCES 143

APPENDIX 1 Short descriptions of lithologies and organic matter type, abundance and maceral composition from wells studied.

APPENDIX 2 Summary of the composition of maceral groups in the Tertiary sequences from wells studied. ABSTRACT

The South Palembang Sub-basin, in the southern part of the South Sumatra Basin, is an important area for coal and oil production. In order to develop the economy of this region, an understanding of the coal and source rock potential of the Tertiary sequences within the South Palembang Sub-basin is essential. Collisions between the Indo-Australian and the Eurasian Plates formed the South Sumatra Basin and particularly influenced the development of the South Palembang Sub-basin since the Middle Mesozoic to Plio-Pleistocene. The Tertiary sequences comprise from oldest to youngest unit; the Lahat, Talang Akar, Baturaja, Gumai, Air Benakat, Muara Enim and Kasai Formations. These sequences were developed on the pre-Tertiary rocks which consist of a complex of Mesozoic igneous rocks and of Palaeozoic and Mesozoic metamorphics and carbonates. Coals occur in the Muara Enim, Talang Akar and Lahat Formations. The main workable coal measures are concentrated in the Muara Enim Formation. The Muara Enim coals are brown coal to sub-bituminous coal in rank, while the Lahat and Talang Akar coals are sub-bituminous to high volatile bituminous coals in rank. From the viewpoint of economically mineable coal reserves, the M2 Subdivision is locally the most important coal unit. Thicknesses of the M2 coals range from 2 to 20 metres. The coals can be utilized for electric power generation, gasification but are generally unsuitable as blends for coke manufacture. They have some potential for the manufacture of activated carbons. In general, coals and DOM of the Tertiary sequences are dominated by vitrinite with detrovitrinite and telovitrinite as the main macerals. Liptinite is the second most abundant maceral group of the coals and DOM and comprises mainly liptodetrinite, sporinite and cutinite. The Lahat, Talang Akar, Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations have good to very good hydrocarbon generation potential. The Baturaja and Gumai Formations have less significant source potential as this unit contains little organic matter but in some places these formations are considered to have good potential to generate gas. The vitrinite reflectance data and studies using the Lopatin model indicate that the onset of oil generation in the South Palembang Sub-basin occurs below 1500 metres. In general the Gumai Formation lies within the onset of oil generation zone, but in some places, the lower part of Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations occur within this zone. Crude oil geochemistry shows that the oils are characterized ' by high ratios of pristane to phytane indicating a source from land-derived organic matter. The presence of bicadinane-type resin and oleanane in the oils is further evidence of a terrestrial source. The biomarker and thermal maturity of the source rocks and coals from the Talang Akar Formation are similar to those of the oils studied. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was carried out at the Department of Geology, University of Wollongong under the tenure of a Colombo Plan funded by the Australian International Development Assistance Bureau (A.I.D.A.B). I am thankful to Associate Professor A.J. Wright, the Chairman of the Department for his support and for allowing me to use the Department facilities during my study. This study was carried out under the supervision of Professor A.C. Cook and Associate Professor B.G. Jones. I would like to thank to Associate Professor B.G Jones for his suggestion and guidance during the finishing of this thesis. I am also grateful especially to Professor A.C. Cook for introducing me to the field of organic petrology and also for his assistance, patience guidance and suggestions throughout this study. I wish to record my deep appreciation to Dr. A.C. Hutton for his suggestion, encouragement, help and general assistance during the finishing of this thesis. I also wish to thank all members of the staff of the Geology Department, University of Wollongong, for their help, including Mrs R. Varga, Mr Aivars Depers and Mrs B.R. McGoldrick who gave general assistance and helped in numerous ways. I thank the Government of Indonesia, particularly the Ministry of Mines and Energy for selecting me to accept the Colombo Plan Award. The author also wishes to specially thank the management and staff of PERTAMINA, particularly Ir M. Anwar, Ir L. Samuel, Ir L. Gultom, Ir. H.Hatuwe and Ir A. Pribadi for allowing me to collect and to use the samples and technical data from various wells of the South Palembang Sub-basin. I am also grateful to Ir Busono SE, Director of Directorate of Coal and to his predecessor, Drs Johannas for permitting me to study in the Geology Department, University of Wollongong. I would like also to thank the staff of the Directorate of Coal who helped and supported me in this

study. Special appreciation is given to Dr R.E. Summons, Mrs J.M. Hope and P. Fletcher from the Bureau of Mineral Resources in Canberra, for carrying out oil analyses and Rock-Eval pyrolysis of the source rocks samples. The assistance and guidance of Dr R.E. Summons particularly, is gratefully acknowledged. The author wishes to express his. gratitude to the A.I.D.A.B staff particularly to the Training Liaison Officers such as Mr B. Rush, Mrs G. Ward, Dr D. Engel and Mr B. O'Brien, and I would like also to thank Mr K. Passmore, Ms N. Lim and Ms Lisa Huff, for the assistances given during this study. I am thankful to all my colleagues particularly H. Panggabean, S.M. Tobing, N. Ningrum, T. Ratkolo, B. Daulay, Susilohadi, Y. Kusumabrata, K. Sutisna, R. Heryanto, B. Hartoyo, Herudiyanto, A. Sutrisman and A. Perwira K. for their help, support and suggestions during this study. These contributions of all these people are gratefully appreciated. Finally, I am forever grateful to my wife Ida and daughters, Indri and Emil who gave me endless support, love and encouragement during this study. LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 South Sumatra coal province and its demonstrated coal resources (after Kendarsi, 1984). Figure 1.2 Location map of Suraatran back-arc basins. Figure 1.3 Tectonic elements of South Sumatra Basin (after Purnomo, 1984). Figure 1.4 Oil well locations and their relationship with major tectonic elements of the South Palembang Sub-basin (after Pulunggono, 1983). Figure 1.5 Geological features of the Bukit Asam and -surrounding areas, and locations of boreholes studied (after Kendarsi, 1984). Figure 2.1 Flow diagram showing the method for polishing and mounting samples (after Hutton, 1984). Figure 2.2 Alteration of the macerals during coalification stage (after Smith and Cook, 1980). Figure 2.3 Diagram showing optical configuration for reflected white light and fluorescence-mode observation used in this study (from AS. 2856, 1986). Figure 2.4 Visual aid to assist in the assessment of volumeteric abundance of dispersed organic matter in sediments. Figure 3.1 Lineaments of subduction zones in western Indonesia (after Katili, 1984). Figure 3.2 Pre-Tertiary rocks underlying the Tertiary in the South Sumatra Basin (after De Coster, 1974). Figure 3.3 Distribution of Talang Akar Formation within the South Palembang Sub-basin (after Pulunggono, 1983). Figure 4.1 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM, shaly coal and coal in the Lahat Formation at five well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. Figure 4.2 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DON, shaly coal and coal in the Talang Akar Formation at ten well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. Figure 4.3 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM in the Baturaja Formation at six well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. Figure 4.4 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM in the Gumai Formation at ten well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. Figure 4.5 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM in the Air Benakat Formation at ten well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. Figure 4.6 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM and coal in the Muara Enim Formation at ten well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. Figure 5.1 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the MBU-2 well. Figure 5.2 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the PMN-2 well. Figure 5.3 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the GM-14 well. Figure 5.4 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the KG-10 well. Figure 5.5 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the KD-01 well. Figure 5.6 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the BRG-3 well. Figure 5.7 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the TMT-3 well. Figure 5.8 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the L5A-22 well. Figure 5.9 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the BL-2 well. Figure 5.10 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the BN-10 well. Figure 5.11 Schematic cross-section A-B through the Muara Enim area showing isoreflectance surfaces. Figure 5.12 Schematic cross-section C-D through Limau-Pendopo area showing isoreflectance surfaces. Figure 5.13 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from South Palembang Sub-basin. Figure 5.14 Pre-tectonic coalification Figure 5.15 Syn-tectonic coalification Figure 5.16 Post-tectonic coalification The relationship between coalification and tectonicsm as proposed by Teichrauller and Teichrauller (1967). Figure 5.17 Karweil Diagram showing relationship of time (Ma), temperature ( C) and rank scales (after Bostick, 1973). Scale H is used for calculating thermal history of Table 5.11 and 5.12. Figure 5.18 Hydrocarbon generation model for oil and condensate from source rocks containing terrestrial organic matter (after Snowdon and Powell, 1982). Figure 5.19 Pyrolisis data S2/Org.C Index, which is indicative of the amounts of already generated hydrocarbons, show the contribution of inertinites to generation of hydrocarbons. The Tmax data showing the maximum decomposition of inertinite-rich kerogens occurs at higher activation energies compared to inertinite-poor Figure 5.20 kerogens (after Khorasani, 1989). The relationship between S1+S2 values and the Score A for samples studied from the Muara Enim Formation and the Talang Akar Formation (after Struckroeyer (1988). Figure 5.21 Generalized zones of petroleum generation and approximate correlation with maxi mum palaeotemperatures and reflectance of vitrinite, exinite and inertinite (from Smith Figure 5.22 and Cook, 1984). Maturation model for the main organic matter groups and sub-groups (from Smith and Cook, 1984). Figure 5.23 Lopatin-type model for the coalification history of the Muara Enim area. Assumptions: no compaction effect, present geothermal gradient assumed to have operated since the Eocene, erosion approximately 250 metres. Figure 5.24 Lopatin-type reconstruction of coalification for the Pendopo area. Assumptions: no compaction effect, present geothermal gradient assuramed to have operated since the Eocene, erosion approximately 623 metres. Figure 6.11 N-alkane distribution profile in the saturated fractions in the extracts from the Muara Enim Formation (sample 5383). Figure 6.12 N-alkane distribution profile in the saturated fractions in the extracts from the Muara Enim Formation (sample 5384). Figure 6.13 N-alkane distribution profile in the saturated fractions in the extracts from the Talang Akar Formation (sample 5385). Figure 6.14 N-alkane distribution profile in the saturated fractions in the extracts from the Talang Akar Formation (sample 5386). Figure 6.15 The determination of petroleum formation zones by using Tmax. (after Espitalie et al., 1985). Figure 6.16 Modified Van Krevelen diagram using conventional whole-rock pyrolisis data (after Katz et al., 1990). Figure 7.1 General stratigraphy of the Bukit Asam mining area (after Von Schwartzenberg, 1986). Figure 8.1 The transportation net of the Bukit Asam coal, South Sumatra (after Kendarsi, 1984). Figure 8.2 Generalized relationship of coke strength and coal rank, indicated by vitrinite reflectance and carbon content of vitrinite, at constant type (after Edwards and Cook, 1972). LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 Oil fields in South Sumatra and their cummulative production until 1966 (after Koesoeraadinata, 1978). Table 2.1 Generalized classification of coal rank (from Cook, 1982). Table 2.2 Summary of the macerals of hard coals (from I.C.C.P. Handbook, 1963). Table 2.3 Maceral Groups (Stopes-Heerlen system of nomenclature). Table 2.4 Summary of the macerals of brown coals (from I.C.C.P. Handbook, 1971). Table 2.5 Proposed coal maceral classification system for coals (Smith, 1981). Table 3.1 Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin according to some authors. Table 3.2 Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin used in the present study based on Spruyt's Nomenclature (1956). Table 3.3 Stratigraphic column of Muara Enim Formation according to Shell Mijnbouw, 1978. Table 5.1 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the MBU-2 well. Table 5.2 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the PMN-2 well. Table 5.3 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the GM-14 well. Table 5.4 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the KG-10 well. Table 5.5 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the KD-01 well. Table 5.6 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the BRG-3 well. Table 5.7 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the TMT-3 well. Table 5.8 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the L5A-22 well. Table 5.9 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the BL-2 well. Table 5.10 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the BN-10 well. Table 5.10A Vitrinite reflectance values of Muara Enim coals measured from core samples. Table 5.11 Thermal history data from selected wells in the Muara Enim area. Table 5.12 Thermal history data from selected wells in the Pendopo-Limau area. Table 5.13 Summary of petrographic features and their significance in relation to oil generation and migration (from Cook and Struckmeyer, 1986). Table 6.1 Locations of crude oil and cutting samples. Table 6.2 The composition of the oils in terras of the polarity classes of saturated, aromatic hydrocarbons and combined NSO-asphaltene fraction. Table 6.2A Peak assignments for triterpanes present in Figure 6.6. Table 6.3 The composition of saturated normal hydrocarbons determined by GC analysis. The data is presented quantitatively and this is related to the peak of the internal standard 3-raethylheneicosane (anteiso C22) giving quantities in ug/mg. Table 6.4 The composition of isoprenoid and bicadinane hydrocarbons determined by GC analysis. The data is also presented quantitatively in relation to the peak of the internal standard 3-methylheneicosane (anteiso C22) giving quantities in ug/mg(ppt). Table 6.5 The composition of the triterpenoid hydrocarbons determined by GCMS. Table 6.6 The composition of the steroid hydrocarbons and four of the bicadinanes determined by GCMS. Table 6.7 The composition of the steroid and triterpenoid hydrocarbons and four of the bicadinanes of whole oil determined by GCMS. Table 6.8 The total organic carbon (TOO, rock eval data and the bulk composition of the South Sumatran shales/coals extract. Table 5.9 The composition of saturated hydrocarbons of South Sumatran shales/coals determined by gas chromatography analysis. Table 6.10 South Sumatran coals/shales GC results: isoprenoids. Table 6.11 South Sumatran coals/shales GC results: Isoprenoids ug/mg Saturates. Table 7.1 Coal qualities of the Enim Area (after KOG, 1987). Table 7.2 Coal qualities of the Muara Lakitan Area (after Shell, 1978). Table 7.3 Coal qualities of the Langaran Area (after Shell, 1978). Table 7.4 Coal qualities of the Sigoyang Benuang Area (after Shell, 1978). Table 7.5 Coal qualities of the Air Benakat Area (after Shell, 1978). Table 7.6 Coal qualities of the Prabumulih Area (after Shell, 1978). Table 7.7 Sodium oxide in Ash from the Muara Enim coals (after KOG, 1987). Table 7.8 Summary of coal resources in the Enim area (maximum overburden thickness 100 metres to top of the uppermost mineable seam; after KOG, 1987). Table 7.9 Coal qualities of the Kabau Seam from the Bukit Kendi Area {after Shell, 1978). Table 8.1 The differences in calorific value among the three main maceral groups for four German coals determined by Kroger et al., 1957 (after Bustin et al., 1983). Table 8.2 Comparison of the chemical composition between Lurgi semi cokes and Bukit Asam semi-anthracite coals (after Tobing, 1980)., CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION

In the South Sumatra Basin, coal occurs in the Muara Enim Formation, Talang Akar Formation and Lahat Formation. The main workable coal measures are concentrated at two horizons within the Muara Enim Formation. Ziegler (1918) recognized that the lower horizon comprised (from top to bottom), the Mangus, Suban, Petai, Merapi and Keladi seams, and the upper horizon comprized a composite set of coal .seams called the Hanging seam. The seams are in the range of some metres to more than 10 metres in thickness. The South Sumatra Basin also plays a role as an important: oil producing area. Recently there has been considerable discussion on the oil generation potential of coals. The Talang Akar Formation has been postulated as a source rock for oil because of the close association of coal measures and many of the oil pools in areas such as South Palembang Sub-basin. Oil production in South Sumatra was established in the late 19th century from the Air Benakat Formation. In 1922, •he petroleum company Stanvac established production from the Talang Akar Formation. The South Palembang Sub-basin is one of the oil and gas producing areas in South Sumatra. In the present study, organic petrography was used to determine the coal type and rank, and to define the poten­ tial of source rocks and maturation level of the organic 2 matter in the Tertiary sequences of the South Palembang

Sub-basin.

1.1 AIM OF THE STUDY

In general, the aim of the present study is to assess the rank and abundance of coal and dispersed organic matter in the Tertiary sequences of the South Palembang Sub-basin. The study is based on petrological research both on macerals in the coals and the relatively abundant dispersed organic matter in the clastic sedimentary sequences. The scope of this study is to : 1. describe and interpret coal type and rank trends in the South Palembang Sub-basin; 2. assess the abundance and composition of organic matter contained in the stratigraphic sequences; 3. determine the maturity of the organic matter and to evaluate the lateral and vertical rank variations within the South Palembang Sub-basin; 4. relate coal rank variation to coalification histories; 5 define hydrocarbon source potential of the various stratigraphic units and lithologies; 6. attempt correlations of potential source rocks with reservoired hydrocarbons; and 7. draw inferences concerning the future economic potential of coal and hydrocarbons in the South ^alembang "5ub-basin.

1,2 PREVIOUS STUDIES

The geology of the South Sumatra Basin is relatively well known from numerous publications (Wenneckers, 1958; Jackson, 1960; Pulunggono, 1969; Todd and Pulunggono, 1971; De Coster, 1974; Harsa, 1975; Pulunggono, 1983), especially the general geology of this area, primarily in connection with the search for oil and gas. Many authors have also described the potential of the coal measures of South Sumatra including Ziegler (1918), Koesoemadinata (1978) and Kendarsi (1984). Furthermore, a large exploration campaign was run from 1973 to 1979 by Shell Mijnbouw N.V covering an area of 71,450 sq km in South Sumatra (Fig.1.1). In general, the earliest attempts to examine the organic matter in sedimentary rocks were made by oil companies to define the maturation level of the source rocks (Shell, 1978a; Total Indonesie, 1988; Sarjono and Sardjito, 1989. Daulay (1985) in his Masters thesis, studied the petrology of South Sumatra coals, especially the Muara Enim coals from the Bukit Asam coal mines and from other places surrounding the mine area. In the framework of the execution of REPELITA III (Five Year Development Plan) 1979-1984, the Lahat Geological Quadrangle (1012) was mapped by the Geological Research and Development Center in co-operation with PERTAMINA, an Indonesian state-owned oil company. The geological map is at a scale of 1:250,000 and covers an area of about 18,700 sq km.

1.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOUTH SUMATRA BASIN

South Sumatra Basin is one of the most important oil and coal producing areas on the island of Sumatra. South Sumatra's oil production started as early as 1898 from the regressive sands of the Air Benakat Formation. The first fields were small and shallow and close to surface seeps on exposed anticlines. Surface structure has for many years guided most of the exploration. In 1922, Stanvac established production from the transgressive sands of the Talang Akar Formation, which have subsequently been the main exploration objective in South Sumatra. Between 1938-1941, Kuang-1, Ogan-3 and Musi-1 wells were drilled by BPM. In these wells, gas had been encountered in the Baturaja Formation. Moreover, in 1959, BPM completed well Limau-5A.144 as the first oil producer from the Baturaja Limestone reservoir in South Sumatra. In the South Sumatra Basin, many oil companies are operating at the present time under production sharing agreements with PERTAMINA. They include Jarobi Oil, Jambi Shell, Trend Sumatra Ltd, Caltex, British Petroleum, Asamera and Stanvac. PERTAMINA also operates in its own right. In general, the oil fields are clustered into three structural sub-basins; the Jambi Sub-basin, the Central Palembang Sub-basin and the South Palembang Sub-basin (Fig.1.3). According to PERTAMINA (1986), there are 57 oil fields within the South Sumatra Basin. The maximum oil production capacity from the basin was 62,200 BOPD and the cumulative production was 1,680 MMBO, on 1-1-1985. The occurrences of oil and gas in the South Sumatra Basin, largely occur in the Talang Akar Formation (93%) with 3% in the Air Benakat Formation and a few occurrences in reefs of the Baturaja Formation, the Gumai Formation and from sandstones in the Muara Enim Formation (Anwar Suseno, 1988). The Talang Akar Formation generally produces a paraffin based oil ranging from 35 to 37° API (Koesoemadinata, 1978), but the gravity ranges between 21 and 51° API. The Baturaja Formation typically produces oil which has an API gravity of 37.3 . Oil is also produced from the Air Benakat Formation and this is a low to medium paraffin-based oil, 45-54 API. However, from the same producing formation, an asphaltic-based oil, 22-25° API, is produced in Jambi and these low gravity oils are biodegraded. Table 1 shows some of oil fields in South Sumatra and their cumulative production until 1966 (Koesoemadinata, 1978). About 6 billion tons of coal reserves have been demonstrated in the South Sumatra Basin. These consist 6 mainly of hard brown coal and are clustered into several areas. Figure 1.1 also shows the coal potential of South

Sumatra Basin. In Tanjung Enim area, coal has been mined since 1919 in underground as well as open pit mines; the underground workings were abandoned in 1942. These coal mines are situated in Muaraenim Regency, about 180 kilometres west of Palembang and production comes mainly from the Mangus, Suban and Petai seams of the Muara Enim Formation. These coals are mainly hard brown coals, but in the immediate vicinity of some andesite intrusions, the coals reach anthracitic rank. According to Schwartzenberg (1986), the Bukit Asam Coal Mine has potential reserves of about 112 million tons which comprise about 1 million tons of anthracite, 45 million tons of bituminous coals and 66 million tons of subbituminous coal. The open pit was restricted to small areas with very favorable stripping ratios and draglines were used to remove part of the overburden until the late fifties. From 1940 to 1982 the open pit mine was operated by means of power shovels and trucks and a small belt conveyor system for coal haulage. Development of the Bukit Asam Coal Mine began in 1985 when a modern system of bucket wheel excavator operations with belt conveyors and spreaders was installed. The mine is operated by the state-owned Indonesian company PT. Persero Batubara Bukit Asam. 7

1.4 LOCATION AND ACCESS

Geologically, the study area is located in the South Palembang Sub-basin which lies in the southern part of the South Sumatra Basin (Figure 1.2). This sub-basin is bounded to the south by the Lampung High and to the north by the Pendopo High. Eastward, the South Palembang Sub-basin is bounded by the Iliran High and to the west by the Barisan Mountains (Figure 1.3). The Palembang Sub-basin covers approximately 125 x 150 kilometres (Pulunggono, 1983). The samples studied were collected from oil exploration wells and coal exploration boreholes which are situated in various oil and coal fields within the South Palembang Sub-basin. The oil fields are as follows; Prabumenang, Meraksa, Kuang, Kedatoh, Beringin, Tanjung Miring, Limau and Belimbing (Figure 1.4). Mostly, the oil exploration wells were drilled by PERTAMINA but some old exploration wells were drilled by Stanvac/BPM. In general, the oil exploration wells used in this study penetrated a high proportion of the Tertiary sequences and some reached basement. The initials, depth and year of drilling of exploration wells drilled by PERTAMINA are as follows; GM-14, 1398 m, 1969; KG-10, 1575.8 m, 1970; PMN-2, 1959.6 m, 1972; KD-1, 1858.5 m, 1976; BN-10, 2565 m, 1977; BRG-3, 2300 m, 1987; MBU-2, 2200 m, 1988. The three wells drilled by Stanvac/BPM are L-5A.22, 2287 m, 1954; ETM-3, 1633 m, 1959; and BL-2, 1675 m, 1965. 8

Coal core samples were collected from seven exploration boreholes, drilled between 1986-1988 by the Directorate of Coal, in several coal fields such as Suban Jerigi, Banko, Tanjung Enim, Muara Tiga, Arahan and Kungkilan (Figure 1.5). The maximum depths reached by these coal exploration boreholes range from 100 to 200 metres and all were drilled within the Muara Enim Formation section. These boreholes are annotated as KLB-03, AU-04, AS-12,

BT-01, KL-03, MTS-0 6, and SN-04. Administratively, the study area falls under Lematang Ilir Ogan Tengah Regency and Lahat Regency which are situated in the western part of the South Sumatra Province. The study area includes the Lahat Quadrangle which is bounded by the longitudes 103° 30'-105° 00'E and latitudes 03° 00'-04° 00'S (Gafoer et al., 1986). The population of this area is sparse with 40.4 inhabitants per square kilometres (Central Bureau of Statistics, 1978). Principally, the population is concentrated in various towns such as Prabumulih, Muaraenim and Lahat. In general, the area is covered by dense vegetation, particularly the hills and swamps. Irregular clearings are also found in some places for agriculture and cash-crop cultivation, such as rubber, coffee and pineapples. Wildlife such as tigers, bears, crocodiles, elephants and monkey roam the jungle in this area but their numbers are dwindling. In order to save these species, they are now 9 protected by law. Transport to other areas is by car, rail and boat. Pendopo, especially, can be also reached by air transport with regular services run by PT. Stanvac Indonesia. A railroad connects Palembang with Prabumulih, Baturaja, Muaraenim, Lahat and Tanjung Enim. The roads in this area are partly unsurfaced and therefore are muddy when wet at which time they are passable only by four-wheel drive vehicles.

1.5 MORPHOLOGY

Morphologically, this area can be divided into three units; the mountainous area, the rolling country and the plain. The mountainous area occupies the western corner of the Quadrangle with summits such as Bukit Besar (735 m) and Bukit Serelo (670 m). The slopes in this area are generally steep, the valleys narrow and locally cascades occur in the rivers. Braided streams develop in the foothill areas. The rolling country occupies half of the western portion of the quadrangle with summits reaching heights of some 250 metres. The slopes are generally gentle. The rivers have wide valleys, are meandering, and have deeps on many bends. The drainage pattern is dendritic. The low-lying plain area occupies the eastern portion of the quadrangle and is characterized by meandering streams and dendritic drainage patterns. Elevations on the plain range from 0 to about 50 meters. 10

CHAPTER TWO TERMINOLOGY AND ANALYTICAL METHODS

2.1 TERMINOLOGY

According to the International Committee for Coal Petrology (1963), coal can be defined as "a combustible sedimentary rock formed from plant remains in various stages of preservation by processes which involved the compaction .of the material buried in the basins, initially at moderate depth. These basins are broadly divided into limnic (or intra-continental) basins, and paralic basins which were open to marine incursions. As the underlying strata subsided progressively, and more or less regularly but sometimes to great depths, the vegetable debris was subjected to the classical factors of general metamorphism, in particular those of temperature and pressure". Based on this definition, generally it can be concluded that there are two basic factors involved in the formation of coal; firstly the type of peat-forming flora and depositional environment, and secondly the degree of alteration which is a function of time, temperature and pressure. In coal petrology, these factors determine the variables termed type and rank. According to Cook (1982), these variables can essentially be considered as independent because the type of a coal has no influence upon its rank and the reverse is 11

also true. Cook (1982) also considered that in coal petrography or more broadly in organic petrography, the term type is related to the nature of the organic matter found in a coal or sedimentary rock. In addition, Hutton (1984) stated that type is a function of both the type of precursor organic matter that was deposited as peat and the nature and degree of alteration that peat components underwent during the early stages of diagenesis which is a response to the first (biochemical) stage of coalification (Stach, 1968; Cook, 1982).

Rank generally refers to the stage of coalification that has been reached by organic matter. In coal particularly, rank can be defined as the relative position of a coal in the coalification series of peat through the stages of the different brown coals (lignite), sub-bituminous and bituminous coals to anthracites and finally meta-anthracites, semi-graphite and graphite. The term "rank" has been accepted as an international scientific term. The International Committee for Coal Petrology (ICCP), in the second edition of the International Handbook of Coal Petrography (1963) suggested "degree of coalification" as a synonym for rank. In coal petrology, the rank of coal is measured by the reflectance of vitrinite. The reflectance of vitrinite increases as the rank of coal increases (Table 2.1).

Petrographic variation of coal can be assessed in tejrmi s 12

y£ maceral groups (Stopes, 1935), microlithotypes (Seyler, 1954), or lithotypes (Stopes, 1919; Seyler, 1954). Macerals are the microscopically recognizable components of coal and are predominantly defined by morphology, color and reflectance in reflected light. Macerals are analogous with the minerals of rocks. The ICCP (1963) concepts for macerals are most closely applicable to Carboniferous black coals because they were based on these coals (Table 2.2). However, Smith (1981) showed that the basic concepts of macerals can be also applied to coals of Tertiary age. The term microlithotype was proposed by Seyler (1954) to describe typical maceral associations as seen under the microscope (minimum band width 0.05 mm). Lithotypes are macroscopically recognizable bands visible within a coal seam. On the basis of morphology, optical properties and origin, macerals can be divided into three main maceral groups; vitrinite, inertinite and liptinite. The origin, properties and subdivision of these three groups are shown in Table 2.3. Brown et al. (1964) divided vitrinite into two groups; vitrinite A and vitrinite B. Furthermore, Hutton (1981) and Cook et al. (1981) proposed additional terms for alginite within the liptinite group. The International Committee for Coal Petrology in the International Handbook of Coal Petrography (1971, 1975) has classified macerals of brown coal as shown in Table 2.4. ^3

This classification has been modified by Smith (1981) as shown in Table 2.5. He recognized that the huminite maceral group of the ICCP classification represents the same material as the vitrinite maceral group, but at an earlier stage of maturation. The system proposed by Smith (1981) has been adapted in its basic form as the system used in the Australian Standard for Coal-Maceral Analysis (AS 2856-1986). In addition, Cook (1982) also discussed the term bitumen which was termed eubitumen by Potonie (1950). In the International Handbook of Coal Petrography (1963, 1971), bitumen is still described as resinite which has a very low melting point. Bitumen can be mainly recognized at the sub-bituminous/bituminous coal boundary (Teichmuller, 1982). Teichmuller (1982) also noted that bitumen develops from lipid constituents of liptinites and huminites and generally occurs in vein-form or as fillings of bedding plane joints but sometimes it fills in empty cell lumens. Furthermore Cook (1982) stated that "bitumen is the term applied to all natural substances of variable color, hardness and volatility which are composed of a mixture of hydrocarbons substantially free from oxygenated bodies". He added that bitumens are generally formed from the degradation of natural crudes by processes such as microbial attack, inspissation or water-washing. Asphalts, natural mineral waxes, asphaltines and petroleum are all considered to be bitumens. Cook (1990, pers.coram) also 14

considered that some bitumens. (including the maceral exsudatinite) represent primary generation products. Impsonitic bitumens generally result from the alteration of reservoired oil, probably dominantly, but not exclusively, during the process of deasphalting. The coal petrographic terms used in the present study follow those described by the Australian Standard for Coal Maceral Analysis (1986).

2.2 ANALYTICAL METHODS

2.2.1 SAMPLING

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the core and cuttings samples studied were cbllected from various coal fields and oil fields in the South Palembang Subbasin area (Table 2.5). Sampling has mainly focused on the Muara Enim Formation, the Talang Akar Formation and the Lahat Formation. Samples were taken to give as wide a lateral and vertical coverage of the sequences which are rich in organic matter (coal-rich or coal) as possible. However, samples i were also collected from other formations to examine the degree of coalification and the origin of organic matter occurring in these sequences. Composite samples which were taken through the entire thickness of a coal seam have been obtained from cores from shallow boreholes. Cuttings samples were collected from oil exploration wells over intervals ranging between 20 to 50 metres for coal-bearing sequences and 50 to 200 metres for non coal-bearing sequences. Sampling was based on the procedure of the Standards Association of Australia (1975). In addition, four oil samples were also collected from BRG-3 well (2 samples) and MBU-2 well (2 samples). These samples were recovered from the Baturaja Formation ( both MBU-2 samples), Talang Akar Formation and Lahat Formation (BRG-3 samples).

2.2.2 SAMPLE PREPARATION

The method of preparation of polished particulate coal mounts for microscopic analysis is shown in Figure 2.1. All samples examined are listed in the University of Wollongong grain mount catalogue and where blocks are cited in this study, the catalogue numbers are used.

2.2.3 MICROSCOPY

2.2.3.1 Reflected white light microscopy and determination of vitrinite reflectance

Vitrinite reflectance measurements on the samples were made under normal incident white light using a Leitz Ortholux microscope fitted with a Leitz MPV-1 microphotometer. All measurements were taken using monochromatic light of 546 nm wavelength, in immersion oil 16

(DIN 58884) having a refractive index of 1.518 at 23 - l°c. In order to calibrate the microphotometer, synthetic garnet standards of 0.917%, and 1.726% reflectance and a synthetic spinel standard of reflectance 0.413% were used. The maximum vitrinite reflectance was obtained by rotating the stage of the microscope to yield a maximum reading and then the stage was rotated again through approximately 180° for the second maximum reading. The results of these measurements were averaged and the mean calculated to give the mean maximum vitrinite reflectance in oil immersion

(Rvmax). ICCP (1971, 1975) and Stach et al. (1982) recommended that one hundred measurements should be taken to obtain a precise mean value. Determination of R max standard deviations for a number coals showed that the standard error of the mean approaches the precision of the measurement standards, where twenty readings have been taken. Therefore, in the present study thirty to forty readings were taken on the coal. Brown et al. (1964) also recommended that the most accurate method of reflectance measurement is achieved by measuring vitrinite A (Telinite + Telocollinite). However, selective measurement of one vitrinite type is generally not possible with dispersed organic matter. In general, vitrinite macerals give the best measurements in relation to- rank assessment because they undergo changes consistenly with rank (Smith and Cook, 1980) and show less 17 inherent variability in reflectance according to type (Brown et al. 1964) (Figure 2.2) compared to liptinite and inertinite.

2.2.3.2 Fluorescence-mode Microscopy

In order to provide information on organic matter type, liptinite abundance and maturity, fluorescence-mode examination was carried out on all samples by using a Leitz Orthoplan microscope with a TK40 0 dichroic beam splitting mirror fitted in an Opak vertical illuminator. The fluorescence-mode filter system comprised BG3 and BG38 excitation filters and a K490 suppression filter. Figure 2.3 shows the optical system for reflected and fluorescence microscopy used in this study (modified from AS2856, 1986). A Leitz Vario-Orthomat automatic camera system which is fitted to the Leitz Orthoplan microscope, was used to take photographs of the samples. The camera system has a 5 to 12.5X zoom which provided a wide range of magnification. Kodak Ektachrome 400ASA/21DIN reversal film was used for all color photographs. Fluorescence-mode photographs were taken in oil immersion using the BG3/BG38/TK400/K490 filter system. Photographs were also taken in normal incident white light with the same type of film used for fluorescence mode. 18

2.2.3.3 Maceral Analysis

Conventional point count techniques for maceral analysis in coal and coal-rich block samples were carried out using an automatic point counter and stage The traverses were made on the surface of the samples. The total surface area of the block sample traversed was 2 cm x 2 cm and the yrain density was about 50%. Approximately 300 points were counted for each maceral analysis under reflected white light and fluorescence mode. The volumetric abundance of various maceral groups was expressed as a percentage of the total points recorded. Visual approximations of the abundance of dispersed organic matter in each grain mount sample were also made by assessing volumetric abundances as illustrated in Figure 2.4. The total dispersed organic matter (DOM) abundance was visually estimated in approximately 50 grains from several traverses across each block. This method was first described by Padmasiri (1984) and later modified by Struckmeyer (1988). The method used in this study is based on the Struckmeyer modification (1988). The total dispersed organic matter abundance is calculated using the equation : 2 (y x a) V = , where V = volume of a specific maceral n occurring as dispersed organic matter, y = number of grains containing the maceral in a given abundance category; n = number of grains counted. •>• n

CHAPTER THREE REGIONAL GEOLOGY AND TECTONIC SETTING

3,1 REGIONAL GEOLOGY

South Sumatra Basin is one of the Sumatran back-arc basins located along the island of Sumatra. These basins came into existence as a consequence of the interaction between the Sunda Shield as part of the Eurasian plate and the Indo-Australian plate (Katili, 1973; 1980; De Coster, 1974; Koesoemadinata and Pulunggono, 1975; Pulunggono, 1976; Hamilton, 1979; Pulunggono, 1983). Oblique collision and subduction has occurred along this margin since the Late Cretaceous (Figure 3.1). The South Sumatra Basin is an asymmetric basin bounded to the west and south by faults and uplifted exposures of pre-Tertiary rocks along the Barisan Mountains, to the north east by the sedimentary or depositional boundaries of the Sunda Shelf. The south-east boundary is represented by the Lampung High; the northern boundary, however, is poorly defined as the South Sumatra Basin is connected to the Central Sumatra Basin by a series of Tertiary grabens, although the Tiga Puluh Mountains are generally taken to be the boundary between the two basins (Figure 1.2). The South Sumatra Basin occupies an area of roughly 250 by 400 km (De Coster, 1974). The tectonic features present in the South Sumatra 20

Basin are the result of Middle Mesozoic to Plio-Pleistocene orogenic activity (Katili, 1973, 1980; De Coster, 1974; Koesoemadinata and Pulunggono, 1975; Pulunggono, 1976; Hamilton, 1979; Pulunggono, 1983). These orogenic activities were primarily related to the collision and subduction of the Indo-Australian plate underneath the Sumatra portion of the Eurasian plate. The Middle Mesozoic orogeny was the main cause of the metamorphism affecting Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata. These strata were faulted and folded into large structural blocks and subsequently intruded by granite batholiths, with postulated extensions in the subsurface parts of the basins. Pre-Tertiary features combine to form the basic northwest to southeast structural grain of Sumatra. In Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary time, the second significant tectonic event occurred when major tensional structures, including grabens and fault blocks, were formed in Sumatra and the adjoining Sunda Basin. The general trend of these faults and grabens is north to south and north-northwest to south-southeast. The last tectonic phase was the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny which caused the uplift of the Barisan Mountains and the development of major right lateral wrenching through the length of these mountains. The most prominent structural features within this Tertiary sedimentary basin are northwest trending folds and faults. Structurally, the South Sumatra Basin is subdivided 21

into four sub-basins, as seen in Fig.1.2; - Jambi Sub-basin; - North Palembang Sub-basin; - Central Palembang Sub-basin; and - South Palembang Sub-basin.

3.2 STRATIGRAPHY

Regional stratigraphic terminologies for the South Sumatra Basin have been proposed by several authors such as Musper (1937), Marks (1956), Spruyt (1956), De Coster (1974), Pulunggono (1983) and Gafoer et al. (1986), as shown in Table 3.1. The stratigraphic nomenclature used in this thesis is based primarily on that of Spruyt (1956), because Spruyt's nomenclature has been widely accepted as the basis for rock stratigraphic subdivisions, but alternative nomenclature has also been developed (Table 3.2). All these authors considered that two phases of sedimentation took place in the South Sumatra Basin; they were the Paleogene and Neogene cycles. With the onset of clastic deposition in the Paleogene, basement depressions and fault grabens became filled. Harsa (1975) pointed out that the whole sequence of basin fill represents one major transgressive-regressive sedimentary cycle which was accompanied by periodic volcanic activity and periodic movement along lines of basement faults. The Tertiary sequences were developed on the 22 pre-Tertiary surface of eroded igneous and metamorphic rocks. The pre-Tertiary rocks are generally considered as economic basement for the basin in terms of oil exploration.

3.2.1 THE PRE-TERTIARY ROCKS

Pre-Tertiary rocks crop out extensively both on the Sunda Shield and in the Barisan Range. Minor outcrops also occur in uplifts within the Tertiary retro-arc basins. These rocks generally consist of a complex of Mesozoic igneous rocks and of Paleozoic and Mesozoic metamorphic rocks and carbonates (Adiwidjaja and De Coster, 197 3). Adiwidjaya and De Coster (197 3) have also distinguished the basement rocks in the South Sumatra Basin as shown in Figure 3.2. They mapped the subcrop of the pre-Tertiary rocks in broad zones termed Zone A, B, C, D and E. Zone A consists of Permo-Carboniferous metamorphic rocks including phyllites, slates, argillites, quartzites and gneisses and occasional limestones. These rocks were intruded by diorite and granite batholiths. Zone B consists of Mesozoic metamorphic rocks including phyllites, quartzite, slates. These rocks are locally intruded by granite. In Bangka Island and other islands northeast of Sumatra, Triassic metamorphic rocks crop out extensively and they are intruded by granite batholiths of possible Jurassic age.

Zone C consists of Mesozoic metasedimentary rocks and 23

limestones associated with mafic igneous rocks such as diabase, serpentine, andesite and tuffs. The limestones have been dated as Early Cretaceous or possibly Late Jurassic age. Zone D consists of micritic limestone which is interpreted as possibly Cretaceous age. Zone E consists of a band of irregular width of granite, syenite and diorite. The main structural trends shown in the basement rocks are NW-SE and NE-SW. According to Adiwidjaja and De Coster (1973), the structural features of the pre-Tertiary roctes probably formed during the folding of the Palaeozoic and Mesozoic strata by the Mesozoic orogeny.

3.2.2 LAHAT FORMATION (LAF)

The name Lahat Series was proposed firstly by Musper (1937) for a sequence of andesitic tuffs and andesitic breccias which crop out upstream of Air Kikim. The type locality is situated in the western part of the town of Lahat, about 150 kilometres southwest of Palembang City. At this location, the Lahat Formation lies unconformably upon the pre-Tertiary basement rocks which are indicated as Cretaceous. Sediments of the Lahat Formation show angular grains of coarse sand to pebble size, mainly comprising volcanic fragments and unstable minerals. In the central part of the 24 basin, the Lahat Formation comprises grey-brown to dark grey shales interbedded with light green-grey to light blue-grey tuffaceous shales, siltstones and some tuffaceous sandstones and coals. Thin limestone and dolomite stringers and glauconite are occasionally present (De Coster, 1974). Based on the lithology of this formation, it is thought to represent a continental phase of deposition in fresh water to brackish limnic environments. This interpretation has also been supported by the discovery of fish remains, fresh water molluscs and pyrite from the Kepayang-1 well (Pulunggono, 1983). The thickness of the Lahat Formation is strongly controlled by the palaeotopography and fault blocks. In the south part of the basin, the thickness of the Lahat Formation is typically more than 765 metres, whereas about 1070 metres was found in the central part of the basin (Adiwijaya and De Coster, 1973). At the type locality, the formation reaches about 800 metres in thickness (Pulunggono, 1983). The age of the Lahat Formation is interpreted to be Eocene to Early Oligocene based on the spore-pollen analysis and K/Ar radiometric dating methods (De Coster, 1974).

3.2.3 TALANG AKAR FORMATION (TAF)

The Talang Akar Formation represents the second phase of Tertiary deposition in the South Sumatra Basin and 25

contains a continental fluviatile sequence composed of thickly bedded, very coarse to coarse sandstones, alternating with thin shales and some coals. The grit-sand facies was firstly recognized by Martin (19 52) from the borehole data of the Limau 5A-3 well and was also named the Talang Akar Stage. The lower part of the sequence generally consists of coarse to very coarse-grained sandstone alternating with thin layers of brown to dark grey shale and coal. Fossils are not found in this lower sequence. The upper part is dominated by alternations of sandstone and non-marine shale with some coal seams. The shales are grey to dark grey in colour and the sequence becomes more marine upwards as indicated by the presence of glauconite and carbonate and the absence of coal layers. Some fossils of molluscs, crustaceans, fish remains and Foraminifera are found in the upper part of the sequence; unfortunately they are not diagnostic fossils in terms of stratigraphic age. Based on these features, the Talang Akar Stage was further divided by Spruyt (1956) into two members; the Gritsand Member (the lower part) and the Transition Member (the upper part). Jackson (1960) reported that the "Gritsand Member" varies considerably in thickness from zero to at least 610 metres, whereas the "Transition Member" ranges between 61 to 360 metres. Figure 3.3 shows the distribution of the Talang Akar Formation in the South 2fi

Palembang Sub-basin, in terms of thickness. Lithologys and fauna of the Talang Akar Formation indicate a fluvio-deltaic environments passing upwards into paralic then into a marine environments (De Coster, 1974;

Pulunggono, 1983). On the basis of some palaeontological and palynological studies, and also by stratigraphic position, the Talang Akar Formation has been dated as Late Oligocene to Early Miocene (De Coster, 1974). Pulunggono (1983) reported that the age of the Talang Akar Formation can be dated using the Planktonic Foraminiferal Zones of Blow (1969) as N3 to lower N5 (Late Oligocene to lower part of Early Miocene).

3.2.4 BATURAJA FORMATION (BRF)

The Baturaja Formation was formerly known as Baturaja Stage. This term was introduced by Van Bemmelen (1932) to distinguish the carbonate facies of the lower part of Telisa Layer as proposed by Tobler (1912). He recognized firstly the Baturaja sequence at Air Ogan, near Baturaja town, about 180 kilometres south of Palembang City. In most areas of the basin, the Baturaja Formation lies conformably upon the Talang Akar Formation. In general, the Baturaja Formation is a platform carbonate, including some coral reefs which were developed on palaeo-highs especially at the edge of the basin. Towards the basin margins, the limestones grade into calcareous clays and fine to medium sands. According to Simbolon (1974), in Air Ogan the Baturaja Formation can be subdivided into two divisions; a lower bedded and an upper massive unit separated by calcareous shales. The bedded unit consists of lime mudstones and lime wackestones intercalated with marls, while the massive unit consists of mudstones, wackestones/packstones and boundstones with abundant large Foraminifera in the upper part. The Baturaja Formation occurs only on the broad shelf and platform areas of the basin. In some areas, this formation was not deposited. In structural high areas, the Baturaja Formation was deposited directly upon the* pre-Tertiary basement rocks. The thickness of the Baturaja Formation is strongly variable, depending on the palaeotopography, from about 60 to as much as 200 metres thick. In the Limau Anticlinorium area, the Baturaja Formation reaches 60 to 75 metres in thickness, while well data from Benuang, Raja, Pagardewa and Prabumenang show the maximum thickness reached is about 200 metres (Pulunggono, 1983). Based on the presence of Spiroclypeus, especially Spiroclypeus orbitoideus and Spiroclypeus tidoenganensis, the lower part of the Baturaja Formation is dated as Aquitanian (lower part of Early Miocene), while the upper part is dated as Burdigalian (middle to upper part of the Early Miocene) to Lower Langhian (lower part of Middle Miocene) on the basis of the presence of Eulepidina and the 28 absence of Spiroclypeus fauna (Adiwidjaya and De Coster, 1973). Pulunggono (1983) inferred that on the basis of the Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation (Blow, 1969), the age of the Baturaja Formation is probably N5-N8 (lower part of Early Miocene-lower part of Middle Miocene).

3.2.5 GUMAI FORMATION (GUF)

The most widespread rock sequence occurring in the Tertiary is the Gumai Formation which was deposited during the maximum phase of the marine transgression. Formerly, this formation was named by Tobler (1906) as Gumai Schiefer for the shale sequence which crops out at Gumai Mountain, near Lahat town. During the fifties, oil companies termed this sequence the Upper Telisa, but then the name was changed to Gumai Formation. In general, the Gumai Formation is characterized by fossiliferous, typically globigerinal marine shale, including minor intercalations of limestones and sandstones (De Coster, 1974). At the type locality, it comprises tuffaceous marl layers alternating with some marly limestone layers (Pulunggono, 1983). In Limau area, a dark grey shale, bituminous and containing thin layers of marl and marly sandstone from the Gumai Formation was penetrated by some boreholes. Faunas such Bolivina and Uvigerina are common in the Gumai Formation. De Coster (1974) believed the Gumai 29

Formation was deposited in warm neritic conditions which were indicated by the presence of these faunas, combined with the widespread occurrence of glauconitic foraminiferal limestone. The thickness of the Gumai Formation varies greatly with basin position. In the Palembang Sub-basin, the thickness of the Gumai Formation varies from about 15 0 to 500 metres, but in the Lematang Depression it reaches about 2500 metres (Pulunggono, 1983). The age of the Gumai Formation can be dated by using the Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation from Blow (1969) as -N9 to N12 ( lower part of Middle Miocene to middle part of Middle Miocene; Pulunggono, 1983).

3.2.6 AIR BENAKAT FORMATION (ABF)

The Air Benakat Formation corresponds with the onset of the regional regressive phase. In general, this formation comprises- shale with glauconitic sandstones and some limestones deposited in a neritic to shallow marine environment. Formerly, the Air Benakat Formation was named by Tobler (1906) as the Onder Palembang but this name was changed by Spruyt (1956) to the Air Benakat Formation. The upper part of this formation is dominated by tuffaceous sandstones alternating with marl or glauconitic sandstones. Tuffaceous claystones and sandstones are dominant in the middle part, 3n while the lower part consists mostly of claystone. According to Pulunggono (1983), the thickness of Air Benakat Formation ranges from 100 to 1100 metres. In the Limau area, about 600 metres of Air Benakat Formation was penetrated by Limau 5A-156 well (Pulunggono, 1983). The age of the Air Benakat Formation can be interpreted using the Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation from Blow as Nll/12 to N16 (middle part of Middle Miocene to lower part of Late Miocene; Pulunggono, 1983). In most reports, it has been interpreted to be mostly Late Miocene in age (De Coster, 1974).

3.2.7 MUARA ENIM FORMATION (MEF)

The Muara Enim Formation was first described as the Midden Palembang Series by Tobler in 1906 at the type locality, Kampung Minyak near Muara Enim town. At this type locality, the formation comprises three lithological sequences; coal units, claystone units and sandstone units. This formation lies conformably upon the Air Benakat Formation. Haan (1976) further divided the Muara Enim Formation into two members; Member A and Member B. During the Shell Mijnbouw Coal exploration program in 1978, the stratigraphic column of the Muara Enim Formation was further modified and the members have been divided into four divisions; - M4 comprises an upper coal division corresponding to 31

the Hanging Coals. - M3 comprises the middle clay, sand and coal division. - M2 comprises the middle coal division corresponding to the Mangus/Pangadang coals. - Ml comprises the lower clastic and coal division. Table 3.3 shows the stratigraphic column of the Muara Enim Formation. These divisions can be recognized throughout most of the South Sumatra Basin, with apparent wedging out of the upper and middle coal divisions on the basin margins. Shell Mijnbouw (197 8) reported that the coal seams of the middle and lower divisions are more widespread and thinner than the seams of the upper division due to a shallow marine influence during sedimentation. The lower boundary of the Muara Enim Formation was first defined by Tobler(1906) at the base of the lowest coal band in the South Palembang area (the Kladi coal) but this definition could not be applied to the North Palembang and Jambi areas where the coals are less well developed. Another criterion used by oil industry geologists to define the boundary is the top of the continuous marine beds or the base of the first non-marine beds; the base of the non-marine beds can be recognized by the presence of arenaceous units, displaying coal lenses and a lack of glauconite. The Mangus seams of the M2 division have good marker features, especially a clay marker horizon which can be recognized over a wide area. This clay marker contains 32 discoloured biotite which was deposited over a wide area during a short interval of volcanic activity and it can be used to correlate the coal seams over most of the South

Sumatra Basin. Fossils are rare in the Muara Enim Formation. Therefore, the determination of the Muara Enim Formation age is mainly based on its regional stratigraphic position rather than palaeontological data. Baumann et al. (197 3) determined the age of the formation as Late Miocene to Pliocene on the evidence of its regional stratigraphic position and the palaeontological data, admittedly rather poor, of lamellibranchs and arenaceous Foraminifera. On the basis of Planktonic Foraminiferal Zonation from Blow, Pulunggono (1983) determined the age of the formation as N16-N17 (lower part of Late Miocene - upper part of Late Miocene). The thickness of this formation is about 45 0 to 750 metres (De Coster, 1974).

3.2.8 KASAI FORMATION (KAF)

Conformably overlying the Muara Enim Formation is the Kasai Formation. This formation is often marked by a distinct pumice or lapilli horizon containing rounded pumice fragments of about 1 cm diameter. Light coloured, poorly bedded tuffaceous sands and gravels, often containing clear grains of crystalline quartz, are interlayered with light 33

•olo-red or bluish-green clays (Shell Mijnbouw, 1978). Rare, thin coal seams are also present. The Kasai Formation is interpreted to be Plio-Pleistocene in age based on its association with the orogeny and associated vulcanicity of that age.

3.3 DEPOSITIONAL HISTORY OF THE TERTIARY SEDIMENTS

In general, deposition of the Tertiary sediments in the South Sumatra Basin occurred during a period of relative tectonic quiescence which happened between the periods of tectonic upheaval in the Late Cretaceous-Early Tertiary and the Plio-Pleistocene (De Coster, 1974). De Coster (1974) stated that the tectonic quiescence probably resulted from a reduction in the rate of sea-floor spreading activity during that time. Consequently, sedimentation of the Tertiary sequences was mainly controlled by basin subsidence, differential erosion of the source areas and eustatic sea-level changes. The initial deposition of Tertiary sediments in the basin occurred in the Late Eocene and Early Oligocene in a continental environment. These deposits are represented by the Lahat Formation filling a terrain of substantial topographic relief which developed as a result of the orogenic activity during the mid-Mesozoic, the faulting of the Late Cretaceous and Early Tertiary and differential erosion of the exposed pre-Tertiary basement rocks. The 3 4

Lahat Formation formed as a set of alluvial fan, braided stream, valley fill and piedmont deposits and is characterized by a feldspathic basal unit. Probably, this unit is an erosional product of nearby granitic hills. The tuffs occurring in the Lahat Formation were derived from the intermittent vulcanism and probably from erosion of earlier-deposited tuffs. Indications of local swamp conditions can be recognized from the presence of thin coal layers. In the Late Eocene-Early Oligocene a fresh water to brackish, lacustrine environment developed in parts of the South Sumatra Basin and a shale sequence was deposited in this environment. During this time, the lakes may have had intermittent connections with the adjacent seas giving rise to some limestone, dolomite and glauconite-rich beds. According to De Coster (1974), probably in the Middle Oligocene, sedimentation of the Lahat Formation was interrupted by regional uplift which occurred in the late Early and Middle Oligocene. This interruption is represented by the unconformable contact between the Lahat Formation and the Talang Akar Formation. Deposition of the Talang Akar Formation began, in the Late Oligocene in the form of alluvial fan and braided stream environments filling topographic lows and depressions. Therefore, the Talang Akar Formation locally occurs overlying the pre-Tertiary rocks. This sedimentation continued in Early Miocene in a fluviatile, deltaic and marginal-shallow marine environment. During this time, the connection to open 3 5 marine conditions became more significant and the sea gradually encroached into the basin. Topographic relief became less pronounced as sedimentation continued. Subsequently, delta plain sediments developed over broad areas consisting primarily of point bar and braided stream deposits. These graded into delta front and marginal marine sands which in turn graded into prodelta shales laid down in the more distal parts of the basin. As the progradation continued, delta plain facies such as channel, crevasse-splay, flood-plain or marsh deposits were formed.

The Talang Akar Formation has its type area in the/ South Sumatra Basin but the term is also used for similar sequences in the Sunda Basin and Northwest Java Basin as far east as Cirebon in Java. The Talang Akar sequence is also recognized in the Bengkulu Trough, a fore-arc basin to the southwest of the South Sumatra Basin. As the sea level rose in the Early Miocene, the sea started to encroach upon the basement highs and the sediment input declined leading to deposition of the Baturaja platform carbonates in reef, back-reef and intertidal environments. In the early stages, the Baturaja Formation was deposited on shelfal and platform portions of the basin as platform or bank limestone deposits. In the later stages, further buildups of detrital, reefal and bank 36 limestones were formed on top of these banks in restricted localities. In the central part of the basin the Baturaja Formation grades laterally into argillaceous limestones or marl and vertically into shales of the Gumai Formation. Deep marine conditions became more widespread in the early part of the Middle Miocene as basin subsidence exceeded sedimentation and the deposition of Gumai shale continued. In some areas, the deposition of Gumai Formation was directly after the Talang Akar Formation. During this time, the basin experienced the maximum marine incursion and the most widespread phase of deposition. According to De Coster (1974), the South Sumatra Basin was probably connected with the Sunda Basin when sea covered most of the remaining topographic highs in the basin. In the Middle Miocene, the sea became shallower and environments of deposition gradually changed from neritic to continental. This event may be related to the regional uplift accompanied by vulcanism and by intrusion of diapiric masses and batholiths (De Coster, 1974). The Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations were deposited during this time in shallow-inner neritic to paludal-delta plain environments. During the deposition of the Muara Enim Formation, widespread areas of swampland and marsh were present throughout the basin and extensive, thick coals were formed at this time. The last of the major tectonic events in the South 17

Sumatra Basin was the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny. This orogeny was probably the direct result of renewed collision betwween the Indo-Australian Plate against the Sumatra part of the Eurasian plate. Sedimentation occurred in the basin during that time resulting in deposition of the Kasai Formation. The Kasai Formation consists mostly of erosional products derived from the uplifted Barisan and Tigapuluh Mountains and from the uplifted folds being formed in the basin during the orogeny. 33

CHAPTER FOUR ORGANIC MATTER IN THE TERTIARY SEQUENCES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

Cuttings samples from ten oil exploration wells drilled in the South Palembang Sub-basin were studied with an emphasis on the organic petrology and maturation level of the organic material. Selection of well sections to be examined was determined by availability of sample material and drilling data, as well as preferences given by PERTAMINA. The samples were taken from the PERTAMINA core shed at Plaju, Palembang, and were examined for maceral content at the University of Wollongong. The results of the analyses are expressed on a 100% maceral basis. Cuttings samples were selected by the author for study, on the basis of their content of coal and carbonaceous or dark shale particles. All samples are from Tertiary sedimentary sequences. Because of poor initial sample collection methods at the well site, some of the cuttings samples from the older oil exploration wells (L5A-22, TMT-3, BL-2, BN-10), contain vitrinite having oxidation rims ("frypanned" rims). The well locations are given in Figure 1.4. Some coal samples from the Muara Enim Formation were also collected from shallow boreholes located around the Bukit Asam coal mine as shown in Figure 1.5. Table 4.1 shows wells sampled 39 and the total number of samples from each formation. Bar diagrams and pie diagrams of organic matter type, abundance and maceral composition are shown in Figures 4.1 to 4.6. Short descriptions of lithologies and organic matter type, abundance and maceral composition from each well, are presented in Appendix 1.

4.2 TYPE

4.2.1 LAHAT FORMATION

The Lahat Formation is largely confined to the deeper parts of oil well sections studied, such as in the BRG-3, GM-14, BN-10, MBU-2, L5A-22 and PMN-2 wells. The Lahat Formation consists mainly of sandstone, shale, siltstone and thin coal, but in the MBU-2 well, it consists of volcanic breccia. Organic matter is predominantly terrestrial in origin. DOM content in the samples ranges from 0.09%-16.99% (average = 8.5%) by volume. DOM on mineral matter free basis comprises 21% to 99% (average = 84%) vitrinite, trace to 9% (average = 2%) inertinite and trace to 55% (average = 14%) liptinite. Several thin coal seams occur in the Lahat Formation. The coal content of the samples from this formation ranges from 2% to 34% (average = 18%) by volume. The coal comprises (m.m.f. basis) 73%-99% (average = 86%) vitrinite, 40

0.14%-7% (average = 4%) inertinite and 0.3-20% (average = 10%) liptinite (Figure 4.1).

Vitrinite is the dominant maceral present in this formation, both in DOM and coal. It occurs as well preserved stringers, laminae, lenses and disseminated particles. Detrovitrinite and telovitrinite occur in approximately equal amounts. Vitrinite is commonly associated with sporinite, cutinite, resinite and liptodetrinite. Sporinite and liptodetrinite are common in this formation. In general, the macerals of the liptinite group have a weak to very weak fluorescence intensity and fluorescence colours are dark orange to brown. In some samples it is very difficult to detect liptinite occurrences in fluorescence mode. Inertinite is rare in the samples and occurs mainly as inertodetrinite. Semifusinite and sclerotinite occur in the samples from GM-14 and BRG-3 but are present only in minor amounts. Fusinite occurs as thin layers and rarely as isolated lenses in a detrovitrinite matrix. Inertodetrinite is present in most of the samples but as a minor component. Bitumens occur associated with quartz or clay grains and they are characterized by yellowish green fluorescence. Oil cuts and haze are also present in the samples from the L5A-22 well, typically where oil is seen to be expelled during examination in fluorescence-mode from fractures in telovitrinite. Some oil stains were also found in 41 detrovitrinite and telovitrinite as shown in Plate 1. Pyrite commonly occurs throughout the samples and is typically framboidal in form.

4.2.2 TALANG AKAR FORMATION

The Talang Akar Formation was penetrated by all of the petroleum exploration wells used in the present study. Samples collected from this formation are mainly cuttings samples but some core samples were also obtained. Organic matter abundance of the Talang Akar Formation was determined from forty eight cutting samples. Sandstone, siltstone and shale are the dominant lithologies of the Talang Akar Formation. Coal layers are commonly present in this formation, varying in thickness from thin stringers to 2 metre seams.

4.2.2.1 DOM DOM content of siltstones, sandstones and shales, by volume, of the samples taken from the formation, varies between 1.82% to 37.91% (average = 13.63%). The highest proportion of DOM occurs in coaly shales. Vitrinite is the dominant maceral in DOM (m.m.f. basis) ranging from 41%-99% of the DOM (average = 90%). Liptinite ranges (m.m.f. basis) from sparse to 55% (average = 7%). Inertinite occurs only in minor amounts ranging (m.m.f. basis) from rare to 19% (average = 3%) . Vitrinite occurs in all lithologies as 12 fragments, laminae, lenses and thin stringers (Plate 2). Vitrinite layers commonly contain inclusions of liptinite macerals such as sporinite, resinite and liptodetrinite. Sporinite is the most common liptinite maceral in this formation. In general, liptinite has a weak to very weak fluorescence intensity and is dark orange to brown in colour. Sporinite occurs mostly as miospores and pollen grains and is disseminated throughout the coals and shales. Oil drops also occur in the samples and have yellow fluorescence. Framboidal pyrite is commonly present in this formation (Plate 3).

4 1

4.2.2.2 Coal and Shaly Coal In general, Talang Akar coals are well developed in the Pendopo-Limau area. The samples from the Talang Akar Formation comprise 24%-82% (average = 39.47%) coal and 12%-30% (average = 23.14%) shaly coal by volume (Figure 4.2). The coals (m.m.f. basis) comprise 48%-99% (average = 87%) vitrinite, 0.1%-19% (average = 3%) inertinite, and 0.53%-49% (average = 10%) liptinite. These coals vary from sub-bituminous to high-volatile bituminous in rank and are characterized by a high vitrinite and a moderate liptinite content. Shaly coals comprise (m.m.f basis) 48%-97% (average = 84%) vitrinite, trace to 22% (average = 4%) inertinite and 2%-30% (average = 12%) liptinite. The microlithotypes present in these coals are vitrite with lesser amounts of clarite. Vitrite layers consist of

i 43 celovitrinite and detrovitrinite and are associated with sporinite and minor resinite. Oil staining of polished surfaces of vitrinite is commonly present. Sporinite is the dominant liptinite maceral. It is dark orange in fluorescence mode. Bitumens are common in the Talang Akar Formation and show yellow to orange fluorescence as shown in Plates 4 to 9, and 12 to 13. They occur mainly in coals and are associated with oil cuts. Some exsudatinite occurs in the coals and is yellow to dark orange in fluorescence mode (Plates 8 to 11). Sclerotinite is also present and occurs as teleutospores. In some samples, sclerotinite was filled by bitumen as shown in Plates 10 and 11. During examination using fluorescence mode, oil was expelled from sclerotinite (Plates 14 and 15) and telovitrinite (Plates 16 and 17) in some samples.

4.2.3 BATURAJA FORMATION

The Baturaja Formation consists of platform carbonate deposits which comprise limestones grading to calcareous clays and fine to medium grained sandstones. A thick section of this formation was intersected by KD-01 well from 1363 metres to 1572 metres. In general, DOM in the samples from the Baturaja Formation is rare to abundant (<0.1% to 2.95% with average = 0.87% by volume). DOM (m.m.f. basis) in this formation comprises rare to 99% (average = 97%) vitrinite, barren to 1% (average = 0.2%) inertinite and 0% 44

to 8% (average = 2.8%) liptinite (Figure 4.4). Vitrinite is mainly present as detrovitrinite. Inertinite is rare and occurs as inertodetrinite. Minor sporinite also occur in the samples and has orange fluorescence. Fluorinite is present in the samples from BN-10 well and has a yellow flourescence. Pyrite is commonly present throughout the lithologies.

4.2.4 GUMAI FORMATION

The Gumai Formation consists of deep water marine shales and limestones. DOM content of the samples from this unit ranges from 0.05%-7.33% (average = 1.87%) by volume and comprises (m.m.f. basis) 24%-92% (average = 63%) vitrinite, 2%-37% (average = 22%) inertinite and 0%-57% (average = 15%) liptinite. Vitrinite is common in the lithologies and occurs as detrovitrinite. Inertinite is commonly present and occurs as inertodetrinite and micrinite, but sclerotinite and semifusinite are commonly present in the samples from the KG-10 well. Liptinite is represented by cutinite, sporinite, liptodetrinite, fluorinite and resinite. Sporinite is common and has orange to dark orange fluorescence. Cutinite is orange to dark orange in fluorescence mode and is thin-walled. Bitumens are sparse in the samples from the Gumai Formation, except those from the KG-10 well where they are 45 common to abundant with greenish yellow fluorescence. Oil drops are also present and show a yellow colour in fluorescence mode. Some phytoplankton are also present in the samples and occur as very small tests which in some cases are very difficult to recognize from the matrix. They have a green fluorescence colour. Euhedral pyrite is commonly present in the lithologies.

4.2.5 AIR BENAKAT FORMATION

The Air Benakat Formation consists of neritic to shallow marine deposits in which DOM ranges from 0.15% to 15.4% (average = 3.66%) by volume. High proportions occur in carbonaceous shale or claystone whereas low proportions, occur in limestone and marine sandstone. On a mineral matter free basis, DOM comprises 54% to 91% (average = 78%) vitrinite, rare to 7% (average = 3%) inertinite, and 7% to 39% (average = 19%) liptinite. Figure 4.5 shows the abundance of DOM in the Air Benakat Formation. Vitrinite is the most common organic matter in all lithologies with detrovitrinite the main maceral. This maceral is assocciated with the liptinite macerals suberinite, cutinite, resinite, sporinite and liptodetrinite. Liptodetrinite, sporinite and cutinite are commonly present in the Air Benakat Formation. They are orange in fluorescence mode. Minor greenish yellow fluorescing 46 fluorinite and orange fluorescing resinite are also present. Inertinite is rare and occurs as sclerotinite and inertodetrinite. In general, bitumens are abundant in the samples and they occur commonly in sandstone, siltstone and claystone. They have a yellowish-green to green colour in fluorescence mode. Desiccation cracks in the bitumens are commonly present and some of bitumens have a cauliflower shape. Oil drops are common in the samples from KG-10 well and show a yellowish-green colour in fluorescence mode. Framboidal pyrite is more common than euhedral pyrite.

4.2.6 MUARA ENIM FORMATION

The Muara Enim Formation includes the main workable coal measures of the South Sumatra Basin and contains the large brown coal (lignite) resources of the South Sumatra region. The Muara Enim Formation comprises three lithological sequences; they are coal units, claystone units and sandstone units as shown in Table 3.3. The coal beds in the basin range from a few centimetres to about 40 metres in thickness. The coals vary from brown coal to sub-bituminous in rank but locally reach anthracitic rank in zones of contact alteration. Organic matter in this coal-bearing sequence occurs as dispersed organic matter and as discrete coal seams. According to Cook and Struckmeyer (1986), DOM associated 47 with coals is generally similar in its origin, maceral composition and chemical properties to the organic matter in the coals, but can also show some systematic differences. The Muara Enim Formation occurs in nine oil wells studied and fifty seven cutting samples were taken from this formation. Twenty eight coal samples were also collected from seven cored coal exploration boreholes. In addition, maceral analysis data of the Muara Enim coals are also available from Daulay (1985) who studied the petrology of

the Muara Enim coals. In the cuttings samples studied, coal occurs as layers, lenses or streaks and contributes between 35.6% to 100% (average = 66%) by volume. Based on the results of maceral analyses of these samples on a mineral matter free basis, the Muara Enim coals comprise 74% to 88% (average = 81%) vitrinite, 3% to 12% (average = 6%) inertinite, and 8% to 17% (average = 13%) liptinite (Fig.4.6). The core samples (m.m.f. basis) have 75% to 97% (average = 86%) vitrinite, 1.75% to 8% (average = 5%) inertinite, and 2.25% to 16% (average = 9%) liptinite (Fig.4.6). Within the limits of sampling precision, the results for coals from cores and from cuttings are very similar. DOM contents of the Muara Enim Formation range from 1.87% to 7.98% (average = 4.37%) by volume. High proportions of DOM occur in coaly claystone or carbonaceous mudstone but in sandstone and siltstone the DOM content is 48

low. In the samples studied, DOM (m.m.f. basis) comprises 39% to 96% (average = 65 %) vitrinite, 0.2% to 7% (average = 3%) inertinite and 12% to 57% (average = 32%) liptinite. Telovitrinite is the main vitrinite maceral and occurs both in DOM and coal. Telovitrinite is commonly present in the coal as thin layers or small lenses which occur in the detrovitrinite matrix. Some of the telovitrinite cell lumens are infilled by fluorinite or resinite (Plates 18 to 21). In some cases they are filled by clay. Corpovitrinite and porigelinite (gelovitrinite) are scattered throughout the coals. ,f In general, inertinite is rarely present in the Muara Enim coals. Semifusinite, fusinite and sclerotinite are the main types of inertinite. Semifusinite and fusinite occur as layers or lenses as shown in Plates 22 and 23. Cell walls of the fusinite and semifusinite vary in thickness and degree of preservation. Scelerotinite includes teleutospores and scelerotia (Plate 24). Some cell lumens in sclerotinite are filled by resinite and mineral matter. In some samples, well preserved of mycorrhyzomes can also be found (Plates 25 to 27). The liptinite in the coal mainly comprises resinite, cutinite, liptodetrinite, sporinite, suberinite with minor fluorinite and exsudatinite. Liptodetrinite is a significant component of Muara Enim coals and comprises fine degradation products of other liptinite macerals. It has bright yellow to orange fluorescence. Resinite has yellow 49 to orange fluorescence (Plates 21 and 28 to 31). Cutinite is commonly present as tenuicutinite and has yellowish orange fluorescence, but some crassicutinites can be also found as shown in Plates 32 and 33. Sporinite is also commonly present in the coals and is yellow to dark orange in fluorescence-mode (Plates 34 to 37). It occurs mostly as miospores and pollen grains and is disseminated throughout the coals. Suberinite shows orange to dark orange fluorescence and it is also commonly present in the coals (Plates 38 to 41). Exsudatinite occurs in few samples and has a very bright yellow to orange fluorescence (Plates 40 to 43). In general the Muara Enim coals are rich in bitumens, hence an attempt has been made to estimate the abundance of bitumen by using the point counting method. Bitumen content of the coals (m.m.f. basis) varies from 0.75% to 5.5% (average = 3.1%). Bitumens occur mostly as medium to large discrete bodies which are commonly globular in shape (Plates 44 to 47). Flow structures occur and oil cuts are common from bitumens and indicate that the bitumens have been soft and mobile when entering the open spaces or during the development of fracture porosity (Cook, 1987). Teichmuller (1982) noted that this stage represents the very beginning of bituminization and can be related to the genesis of fluid petroleum. During this stage, bitumen fills the cavities, bedding planes and joints. Cook (1985) added that the abundance of bitumen may be related more to 50 the migration characteristics of fluids from the organic matter system than to any sharp threshold in the rate of generation of soluble bitumens. The occurrence of bitumens in veins may be due to fissuring caused by hydrocarbon generation pressures, rather than to passive emplacement into pre-existing cavities (Cook, 19 87). An interesting feature of the bitumen under microscope is the presence of desiccation cracks (Plates 48 to 51). In some samples, bitumens also appear as cauliflower-shaped aggregates. The bitumens have bright green to greenish yellow fluorescence, but commonly they show dark yellow fluorescence in their centre and gradually change to bright yellow fluorescence toward the outer margins. Mineral matter is commonly present in the Muara Enim coals and is represented by clay occurring as pods and infilling cell lumens. Framboidal pyrite is also commonly found infilling cell lumens. Quartz and siderite occur sparsely in the coals. The main microlithotypes of the Muara Enim coals are vitrite and clarite.

4.3 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RANK AND MACERAL TEXTURES AND FLUORESCENCE INTENSITY

Parallel with the increasing level of coalification, some physical and chemical properties of coal will be gradually or progressively changed. Peat and soft brown 51

coals have high bulk porosities and high water contents. With progressive coalification, moisture content decreases and calorific value and carbon content increase. Furthermore the pore volume of vitrinite also decreases during the coalification process. Stach et al. (1982) reported that the pore volume of vitrinite varies with rank from 0.05 cm3/g for vitrinite with 71% carbon content to 0.03 cm3/g for vitrinite with 94% carbon content, apparently 3 passing through a minimum of 0.025 cm /g at a carbon content of about 89%. Because of increasing carbon content and aromacity the three maceral groups, liptinite, inertinite and vitrinite, become more highly reflecting and increasingly opaque. Cell structures and plant tissues, readily discernible in low rank coals, become increasingly difficult to recognize at higher rank. Texture becomes more compact with coalification. In comparison with other macerals, vitrinite textures are sensitive to increasing temperature and pressure but they alter in a uniform manner during coalification. Telovitrinite textures are more sensitive to increasing rank than those of detrovitrinite (Smith, 1981). Smith (1981) further reported that in the Gippsland Basin, telovitrinite shows remnants of open cell lumens and cell walls and cell contents aligned parallel to bedding to about 1250 metres depth where Fornax is 0.30%. He also indicated that with • increased depth, the major process of telovitrinite metamorphism appears to be conversion of 52

textinite and well preserved texto-ulminite into eu-ulminite. At 1742 metres (R max 0.50%), almost all cell lumens of telovitrinite are completely closed. In the samples studied, Muara Enim coals occur at present depths between 40 metres to 1200 metres. Vitrinite textures of the coals from the BT-01 well taken at depths of 46 to 54 metres, R max 0.36%, still show cellular structures derived from vegetable material (Plates 52 and 53). Some of the telovitrinite cell lumens are infilled with fluorinite or resinite but in some samples they are filled by clay. At this rank, the vitrinite is texturally immature . retaining well preserved botanical structures and voids as shown in Plate 54. In other wells, telovitrinite becomes dense and compact and all cell lumens become closed with increasing depth. The telovitrinite is texturally mature (i.e. it has been through a gelification state which has largely obscured botanical features). These features can be seen in samples from BRG-3 which were taken from a depth of 1200 metres with R max of 0.50% (Plates 16, 17 and 55). The cell lumens are completely closed in samples with a vitrinite reflectance of 0.80% or greater. This occurs at depths of more than 2000 metres in the Talang Akar Formation in the MBU-2 well. Under ultra-violet light excitation, liptinite shows a progressive increase in the maximum of spectral fluorescence wavelengths with increasing maturation, and the total fluorescence intensity progressively decreases. At low rank, the liptinite macerals typically yield up to 80% 53 volatile matter and contain more than 9% hydrogen (Cook, 1982). With increased rank, the liptinite group macerals suffer a major loss of volatile matter and of hydrogen content. Associated with these chemical changes, the fluorescence colours of liptinite change from greenish-yellow in the peat stage to orange-brown in high volatile A bituminous coals (Bustin et al., 1983). The fluorescence intensities and fluorescence colours are related to presence of hydrogen in unsaturated bonds (Cook, 1980). Most liptinite macerals from the Muara Enim coals (Fornax 0.30% to 0.50%) have fluorescence colours ranging from yellow to orange and greenish yellow in the bitumens (Plates 46 to 50). The fluorescence colours of the liptinite parallel increasing rank and become dark orange or brown which are shown in the Talang Akar coals. Bitumens also become orange in this latter formation (Plates 56 to 61). 54

CHAPTER FIVE ORGANIC MATURATION AND THERMAL HISTORY

5.1 INTRODUCTION

The maturity of organic matter is an expression of the level of coalification reached. The level of coalification of organic matter can be also defined as the transformation of organic matter from peat through the stages of different brown coals, sub-bituminous and bituminous coals to anthracites and meta-anthracites (Stach, 1982). The metamorphism of organic matter is a product of two variables; time and temperature (Teichmuller and Teichmuller, 1982; Murchison et al., 1985; Waples, 1980, 1985). Cook (1982) and Kantsler (1985) added a third suggesting that at least three variables (pressure, heat due to burial of sedimentary sequences and the geological age of the sequences) are involved in the coalification process. The role of pressure is only involved in the early stage of biochemical coalification, resulting in compaction and expulsion of water (Bustin et al., 1983). Pressure is thought to have only a minor negative effect upon rank increase (Teichmuller and Teichmuller, 1968; Lopatin and Bostick, 1973). Huck and Patteisky (1964) claimed that high static pressure can have retarding effects on coalification. However, Bustin et al. (1983) pointed out that high tectonic pressure can lead to abnormal increases in vitrinite 55

reflectance. In most stratigraphic sequences increased temperatures accompany burial and thus more deeply buried coals are exposed to higher temperatures for longer time and are generally of higher rank. This relationship was first documented by Hilt (1873) who observed a progressive decrease in volatile matter in coals with depth (Hilt's Law). The level of coalification or rank of organic matter can be assessed by using a variety of chemical and physical methods. Some of the more commonly used of these indices are volatile matter yield, carbon content, moisture content and calorific value. Unfortunately these properties do not change uniformly with rank and consequently are not always suitable indicators. Vitrinite reflectance is one of the most commonly used methods for evaluation of the organic maturation. The optical properties of vitrinite macerals alter more uniformly during metamorphism than those of other macerals (Smith and Cook, 1980). Additionally, vitrinite is present in many types of sedimentary rocks. In the present study, measurements of maximum reflectance of vitrinite were made to determine the rank of coals from the South Palembang Sub-basin and also to assess the maturation level of the dispersed organic matter in the associated non-coal rock types. The assessment of organic maturation is an important parameter for evaluation of the coal quality and the hydrocarbon source potential of the sedimentary sequence. Measurements of maximum reflectance 56 of vitrinite were made on coal and DOM from cuttings samples. The results for cuttings samples may include some values for caved materials from overlying sequences but these can generally be recognized from their lithological characteristics. In addition, unpublished reflectance data, particularly of the Muara Enim coals, are available from Daulay (1985). The maturation profile for a sedimentary sequence at a given location is obtained by plotting vitrinite reflectance against depth for each sample from a well section. By comparing these maturation data with those at other locations in the basin, the pattern of maturity distribution within the basin can be used for locating hydrocarbon source rocks lying within the zone of oil generation. Vitrinite reflectance values from ten oil wells are given in Tables 5.1 to 5.10. The reflectance gradients of

these wells range from Rvmax 0.20 to 0.35% per kilometre. The vitrinite reflectance profiles with depth are presented in Figures 5.1 to 5.10. Isoreflectance surfaces have been constructed along section lines A-B and C-D (Figure 1.4) and these are presented in Figure 5.11 and Figure 5.12. The six oil wells illustrated in Figure 5.11 are located in the Muara Enim area, whereas the four oil wells in Figure 5.12 are situated in the Limau-Pendopo area. In addition, vitrinite reflectance values from seven coal exploration boreholes are given in Table 5.10A. 57

5.2 RANK VARIATION AND DISTRIBUTION

The mean maximum vitrinite reflectances obtained from samples examined for this study are plotted against depth in Figure 5.13. The most obvious trend shown in this figure is the increase in vitrinite reflectances with depth and this is more marked from a depth of below about 1500 metres

(Rvmax generally about 0.5%) to 2500 metres (R;/max generally about 0.9%). Some reflectance values plot below the trend. These values may relate to the presence of cavings but generally values from the Baturaja Formation plot below the trend whereas those from the Lahat Formation plot on or above trend. Several reasons have been given for suppressed vitrinite reflectance. Hutton and Cook (1980) found lower reflectance values where Botryococcus-derived alginite is present. Titheridge (1989) found lowered reflectance where sulphur content is high and it has been reported that reflectance is lower in some specific lithologies. The Baturaja Formation is a marine unit (containing limestone). Many marine oil shales have lower than expected reflectance values (Hutton pers. comm., 1991) and the lowered reflectance for the Baturaja Formation is possibly attributable to its marine origin. In the Muara Enim area, the increase in vitrinite reflectance with depth is associated with a high temperature gradient as well as being due to depth of burial (Figure 58

5.11). High temperature gradients in the Muara Enim area may relate to the effects of thermal metamorphism or volcanic intrusions adjacent to the Bukit Barisan Mountains. KG-10 well is an exception in that samples from it show low reflectance values (R max 0.44% and 0.48%) at depths of 1524 metres and 1546 metres. However, these low reflectance values probably correlate with the presence of cavings (Figure 5.11). Figure 5.12 suggests that the increases in vitrinite reflectance are probably related primarily to depth of burial in the Limau-Pendopo area. In this area, the thickness of the Tertiary, particularly of Talang Akar and Lahat Formations, is greater than in the Muara Enim area. The highest vitrinite reflectance values (R max 0.95%) occur in the Lahat Formation in the BN-10 well at a depth of 2542 metres. BN-10 is the deepest well used in this study and is situated in the Limau-Pendopo area. Relationship between coalification and tectonism has long been known (Patteisky and Teichmuller, I9 60; Teichmuller, 1962; Teichmuller and Teichmuller, 1966; Hacquebard and Donaldson, 1970; Diessel, 1975). Most authors suggest that the relationship between timing of coalification and that of tectonic deformation in a particular area may be investigated in two ways based on coal rank data. Firstly by comparison of the shape of the iso-rank surfaces and structural contours, and secondly, by comparison of the rate of rank increase with depth in a particular seam compared with the rate within a vertical 59 profile, such as a borehole. Teichmuller and Teichmuller (1966) divided the relationships between coalification and tectonism into three types; pre-tectonic coalification, post-tectonic coalification and syn-tectonic coalification. In pre-tectonic coalification, coalification is completed before tectonic deformation. Iso-rank surfaces would parallel structural surfaces (Figure 5.14). Complete post-tectonic coalification applies to an area in which little or no coalification took place during initial subsidence or during tectonic movements. Early and rapid deposition and folding under low geothermal gradients are commonly associated with post-tectonic coalification. Teichmuller and Teichmuller (1966) suggested that exclusively, post-tectonic coalification is probably never realized in real systems. With post-tectonic coalification, iso-rank contours are horizontal regardless of the degree of deformation (Figure 5.15). Syn-tectonic coalification patterns are produced in areas where coalification and tectonic movements occur contemporaneously. In areas where syn-tectonic coalification occurs the iso-rank surfaces are oblique to the structural contours (Figure 5.16).

In the area studied, the iso-reflectance line of Rvmax 0.3% is generally semi-parallel with the orientation of the Muara Enim Formation. This pattern is consistent with major pre-tectonic coalification but minor syn-tectonic coalification also may be present (Teichmuller and 60

Teichmuller, 1966). In the Muara Enim area (Figure 5.11), the iso-reflectance lines R max 0.4% to 0.9% generally intersect the formation boundaries at low angles. However the iso-reflectance lines are more regular and parallel with the orientation of the formation boundaries in the Limau-Pendopo area where partial syn-tectonic coalification patterns are evident (Figure 5.12). According to Teichmuller and Teichmuller (19 66) , this situation may arise in younger strata of a coal basin where folding movements are active during or very shortly after deposition and prior to maximum burial. The Talang Akar and Lahat Formations are intersected by the 0.5% to 0.9% R max surfaces. In terms of coal rank, the coals from these formations can be classified as high volatile bituminous coals. In general, vitrinite reflectances in the Muara Enim coals range from 0.30% to 0.50% R max with an average of 0.37%. The coals, therefore, range from brown coal to almost sub-bituminous coal in rank. The M2 coals, particularly the Mangus, Suban and Petai seams, are mined at the Bukit Asam coal mines. Vitrinite reflectance of dispersed organic matter of the Muara Enim Formation shows similar patterns to those of coals not affected by intrusions. In general, it ranges from 0.3% to 0.4% R max. Daulay (1985) divided the M2 coals in the Bukit Asam area into two categories related to the effects of thermal alteration by an andesite intrusion; coal not affected by 61 contact thermal alteration and thermally altered coals. Vitrinite reflectance of coal not affected by thermal alteration ranges from 0.30% to 0.59% Rvmax and from ,0.69% to 2.60% for thermally altered coals. Furthermore, Daulay noted that reflectances between 0.40% to 0.50% are dominant at Bukit Asam. By contrast, vitrinite reflectance decreases gradually from 0.35 % to 0.40% towards the north (Banko Area) and west of Bukit Asam. Coals from the boreholes BT-01 (South of Banko) and SN-04 (West Suban Jerigi) have vitrinite reflectances ranging from 0.31% to 0.41%. In the Kl-03 and KLB boreholes (Kungkilan area, southwest of Bukit Asam), vitrinite reflectance is relatively constant being in the range 0.41% to 0.44%. Vitrinite reflectance decreases again at the AU-04 and AS-12 boreholes (North Arahan and South Arahan, farther west of the Kungkilan area) ranging from 0.35% to 0.37%. The differences in vitrinite reflectance between coals from the Bukit Asam area and other areas are probably due to heating effects from igneous intrusions beneath the Bukit Asam and adjacent areas. Thus, it appears that even the coals referred by Daulay to the "not affected by thermal alteration" category show some evidence of localized heating.

5.3 THERMAL HISTORY

Thermal history of the basin can be estimated by 62

comparing data on sediment age and the level of coalification (Kantsler et al., 1978). The current thermal regime can be ascertained by reference to present downhole temperature data estimated from borehole logs. The relationship between maximum palaeotemperature and vitrinite reflectance has long been studied and documented by authors (such as Teichmuller, 1971; Dow, 1977; Bostick, 1973, 1979; Kantsler et al., 1978; Kantsler and Cook, 1979; Cook and Kantsler, 1980; Smith and Cook, 1980, 1984). Models for the prediction of palaeotemperatures, organic maturity and the timing of hydrocarbon generation have been developed by a number of authors. The first attempt to define mathematically the relation of time, temperature and rank was introduced by Huck and Karweil (1955). Later Karweil (1956) developed a nomogram for the three variables and it is known as the Karweil nomogram. The Karweil model is based on first-order reaction rates and appears to assume that a formation has been exposed to present downhole temperatures for all its subsidence history. Some modifications have been made by Bostick (1973) with the addition of an empirically derived reflectance relationship. The Bostick version of the Karweil nomogram is shown in Figure 5.17. Further developments on the prediction of palaeotemperature and thermal history from the Karweil nomogram were made by Kantsler et al. (1978). j 3

In the present study, estimations of palaeotemperature and thermal history in the South Palembang Sub-basin were made using the Karweil diagram as suggested by Kantsler et al. (1978). The palaeothermal history of the basin has been assessed using the age data for the sedimentary units, the

corresponding Rvmax data and the time (t), temperature (T)

and vitrinite reflectance (RQmax) nomogram of Karweil as modified by Bostick (1973). In the modification used, temperatures derived directly from the Karweil nomogram were named Isothermal Model Temperatures (Tiso). The isothermal model (Tiso) assumes that temperatures have remained constant since burial whilst the gradthermal model (Tgrad) assumes a history of constantly rising temperatures (Kantsler et al., 1978a; Smith, 1981; Smith and Cook, 1984). From these comparisons an assessment can be made of whether present day temperature (Tpres) is higher, the same or lower than the maximum palaeotemperature. The present geothermal gradient was obtained by using the formula: T = To + T*X (Smith, 1981). where T is borehole temperature, To the surface temperature, X is depth and T = dT/dX, the geothermal gradient. The surface temperature of the Muara Enim-Pendopo/Limau area (onshore) used in the calculations is assumed to be 26 "C. The borehole temperature data were obtained from the geophysical well logs of the oil wells studied. The results of the calculations show that the present geothermal 64 gradient in these areas varies from 37°C/km to 40°C/km (average = 39 C/km) in the Muara Enim area and 36°C/km to 40°C/km (average = 38°C/km) in the Pendopo-Limau area. These geothermal gradients are lower than those reported by Thamrin et al. (1979). According to those authors the average gradient geothermal gradient and heat flow in South Palembang Sub-basin are 52.5°C/km and 2.55 HFU (Heat Flow Units). Furthermore, Thamrin et al. (1979) reported that in the Beringin field (Muara Enim area), the geothermal gradient and the heat flow are 56.5°C/km and 2.66 HFU while the values from the Tanjung Miring Timur field (Pendopo area) are 55 /km and 2.66 HFU respectively. The Benuang* field (Pendopo area) also has a high reported geothermal gradient having a value of 55 C/km. Based on these data the top of the oil window can be expected to be encountered at shallow depths of approximately 1300 metres. This position for the top the oil window is also suggested by the reflectance data which show that the 0.5% reflectance values lie at approximately 1300 metres depth. Thamrin et al. (1980, 1982, 1984) stated that the high geothermal gradients occurring in the Sumatran basinal areas are influenced by high palaeoheat flows which accompanied Tertiary tectonism. Further, they concluded that the high geothermal gradients in these areas reflect rapid burial followed by uplift and erosion. The high heat flow in the basin results from magmatic intrusions and associated mantle waters penetrating the shallow pre-Tertiary basement to 65 within a few kilometres of the surface, exposing the Tertiary sedimentary cover to high temperatures (Eubank and

Makki, 1981). Tectonically, the Sumatran basinal areas are situated between an inner (volcanic) arc and the stable Sunda Shelf. The volcanic inner arc is represented in Sumatra by the Bukit Barisan Range which is mainly composed of folded pre-Tertiary rocks. Eubank and Makki (1981) suggested that in a continental back-arc basin where the sialic crust is thinned but rifting is not complete, the crust is not an effective thermal blanket. Where the crust is thin and highly fractured, simatic heat will be rapidly conducted upward by magmatic diapirism and convective circulation of water in the fractures. In a continental setting, sediments quickly fill the incipient rifts and are subjected to high heat flow. Scale "H" of Karweil's diagram was used in the present study to calculate isothermal model temperatures. Cook (1982a) suggested that Tgrad can be obtained from Tiso values by multiplying with a conversion factor of 1.6. Smith and Cook (1984) suggested testing isothermal and gradthermal models against present temperatures to establish the relative palaeothermal history of a formation. According to Smith (1981) and Smith and Cook (1984) a quantitative estimate can be obtained by defining the following ratio: Grad : Iso = (Tpres - Tiso) / (Tgrad - Tiso). ee

If the ratio is lower than 1, the present geothermal gradients are probably lower than in the past and the formation history approaches the isothermal model. If the ratio is close to one the formation history approaches the gradthermal model. If the ratio is greater than one, present temperatures are greater than the effective coalification temperature. Thermal history data from selected wells in the South Palembang Sub-basin are listed in Table 5.11 and Table 5.12. From data given in these tables, it can be seen that, in general, the present temperatures are lower than isothermal temperatures. These indicate that the palaeotemperatures were higher than the present temperature. Probably the sediments of the South Palembang Sub-basin underwent a period of rapid burial prior to a period of uplift and erosion. Pulunggono (1983) stated that a tensional movement during Paleocene?/Eocene to Early Miocene times enhanced block faulting with consequent subsidence of faulted block areas along existing faults (NE-SW and NW-SE). Maximum rates of subsidence of the faulted blocks were indicated inferred in uppermost Oligocene to earliest Miocene times. During this phase, the rate of sedimentation began to exceed the rate of subsidence and the faulted blocks were rapidly infilled. 67

5,4 SOURCE ROCKS AND GENERATION HYDROCARBONS

5.4.1 SOURCE ROCKS FOR HYDROCARBONS

Potential hydrocarbon source rocks are rocks containing preserved organic matter which includes the remains of marine and fresh water animals and plants and terrestrial plants. For many years, marine rocks were regarded as the only prolific source for oil (e.g. Tissot and Welte, 1978) but over the past 30 years it has become clear that terrestrial and fresh water organic matter can also generate commercial quantities of petroleum. A number of authors have recently suggested that coal has played a significant role in sourcing hydrocarbons in important oilfields such as in Australia (Gippsland Basin), and in Indonesia (Mahakam Delta). Oils derived from terrestrial organic matter are generaly waxy in character as identified by Hedberg (1968) and Powell and McKirdy (1975) and are believed to be associated with coals or terrestrial organic material which is particularly rich in liptinite. Authors (such as Smith and Cook (1980); Smyth (1983); Tissot and Welte (1984); Cook (1987) have agreed that the liptinite group is considered to be most significant producer of hydrocarbons per unit volume organic matter. Vitrinite-rich source rocks are thought to be producers of both gas and some oil (Cook, 1982; Smyth, 1983). Cook (1987) pointed out that the difference in specific generation capacity between liptinite and inertinite are, 68

for most coals, balanced by the much greater abundance of vitrinite. The generative potential of vitrinite is put at one tenth of that of liptinite (Smyth et al., 1984; Cook et al., 1985). Moreover, Tissot (1984) concluded that the source potential of Type III kerogen is three or four times less than that of Type I or II kerogen. According to Snowdon and Powell (1982), the maceral vitrinite is generally associated with the generation of methane during catagenesis. In addition, Khorasani (1987) demonstrated that vitrinites formed under dysaerobic conditions can * become perhydrous and partially oil prone. These vitrinites are considerably more hydrogen rich than the classical orthohydrous vitrinites. Inertinite may have some generative potential (Smith and Cook, 1980; Smyth, 1983). According to Struckmeyer (1988), the generating potential of inertinite is considered to be approximately one twentieth that of liptinite. Khorasani (1989), however, stated that inertinite has virtually no genetic potential for generating liquid hydrocarbons. Her statement has been supported by pyrolysis the data index (S2/Org.C) which is indicative of the amounts of hydrocarbon already generated (Figure 5.18). These data show that the contribution of inertinite to generation of hydrocarbons, prior and within the oil window as defined by Khorasani (1989), is negligible. Moreover, the Tmax data (Figure 5.18) suggest that maximum decomposition of inertinite-rich kerogens occurs at higher 69 activation energies compared to inertinite-poor kerogen. However Smith and Cook (1980) suggested that inertinite maturation may occur at much lower levels of rank than assumed by Khorasani. According to Rigby et al. (1986) and Kim and Cook (1986), extracts from liptinite-rich coals are dominated by branched and cyclic alkanes. In comparison vitrinite yields a high proportion of long chain n-alknes. At a vitrinite reflectance of 0.3-0.4%, vitrinite-rich coals can yield significant amounts of n-alkanes (Rigby et al., 1986). Marked n-alkane generation occurs over the range 0.4 to 0.8% vitrinite reflectance. A model for the generation of oil and condensate from terrestrial organic matter has been made by Snowdon and Powell (1982) as shown in Figure 5.19. They recognized that the proportions of organic matter type in terrestrial source rocks strongly controls both the level of thermal alteration necessary for the section to function as an effective source rock, and the ultimate product (gas, oil or condensate) which will be generated. In the South Palembang Sub-basin, coal measures sequences occur within the Muara Enim, Talang Akar and the Lahat Formations. As described in Chapter Four, in general, these coals are rich in vitrinite, contain significant amounts of liptinite and generally contain sparse inertinite. Detrovitrinite and telovitrinite mainly occur in approximately equal amounts in these coal measures. 70

Detrovitrinite generally has a higher specific generation capacity which may be significant in relation to oil generation (Cook, 1987). Gore (1983) suggested that detrovitrinite may be markedly perhydrous and incorporate sub-microscopic or finely comminuted liptinite, algae, resins and the remains of a prolific animal and microbial life including bacteria, rotifers, rhizopods, nematodes, worms, insects, molluscs, copepods, larvae, sponges, fish, vertebrates, zooplankton and phytoplankton. Telovitrinite however tends to be orthohydrous and may incorporate lipids, including fatty acids and proteins derived from the cell contents, secondary cell walls, suberinized cell walls, bacteria, resin ducts, cuticles and spores (Shortland, 1963; Benson, 1966). Liptinite macerals occurring in the Lahat and Talang Akar Formations are mainly represented by sporinite and liptodetrinite, while the liptinite macerals in the Muara Enim coals occur mainly as resinite, sporinite, cutinite and liptodetrinite with significant amounts of suberinite also present. Cook (1987) suggested that the high percentage of resinite and suberinite in some coals may be a significant factor in relation to the timing of oil generation. He also added that most Indonesian crude oils appear to have a low naphthenic content suggesting that the contribution from resinite is typically low. A study of liquid hydrocarbon potential of resinite taken from M2 coals of the Muara Enim Formation, was 71

undertaken by Teerman et al. (1987) using hydrous pyrolysis methods. From this study, Teerman et al. (1987) indicated that a large percentage of resinite can be converted into hydrocarbons. Oil-pyrolysates are light, non-paraffinic products consisting predominantly of cyclic isoprenoids and their aromatic derivatives. The composition of these hydrocarbons, however, are very distinct and different from the composition of naturally occuring oils. Teerman et al. (1987) concluded that resinite is probably not a significant source for liquid hydrocarbons due to the lack of similarity between these light non-paraffinic pyrolysates and naturally occuring oils. Lewan and Williams (1987) also suggested that resinites have not been a significant source for petroleum. In the Muara Enim Formation, bitumens and oil cuts generally are more abundant than in other Tertiary rock sequences from the South Palembang Sub-basin. The secondary liptinite maceral exsudatinite is present in all of the coal measures sequences and commonly occurs within vitrinites having a reflectance between 0.4 and 0.8%. It is directly related to the formation of hydrocarbons (Cook and Struckmeyer, 1986). Fluorinite is abundant in the Muara Enim coals which have vitrinite reflectances between 0.35 and 0.50%. Teichmuller (1974) regarded fluorinite to be primarily derived from essential plant oils but some fluorinite may be high pour-point crude oil trapped within the coals. Small amounts of fluorinite have also been found 71 within the Talang Akar coals. Oil droplets and oil hazes occur mainly in the Talang Akar Formation and some in the Lahat Formation. Oil hazes are mainly associated with telovitrinite where the oil comes from cracks or veins in the telovitrinite and flows out during fluorescence examination mode. Most of the features described above are related to oil generation. Cook and Struckmeyer (1986) summarized the occurrence of petrographic features related to oil generation as shown in Table 5.13. Assessment of the hydrocarbon generating potential of source rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin was made by calculating the volume of liptinite to vitrinite in DOM and coal. This calculation was introduced by Smyth et al. (1984) and later modified by Struckmeyer (1988): Score A = Liptinite +0.3 Vitrinite +0.05 Inertinite (all values in volume % of sample) Score A is based on the volume and composition of organic matter in a sample. An example for this calculation is shown below;

Sample A contains approximately 6% (by volume) organic matter consisting of 3% vitrinite, 2% inertinite and 1% liptinite. Based on the calculation above, sample A has a score of 2.

For quantification of Score A, the data set is compared to values of S1+S2 from Rock-Eval pyrolysis (Struckmeyer, 73

1988). According to Cook and Ranasinghe (1989), SI is considered to represent free bitumen-like compounds within the rock and is taken as a measure of the amount of oil generated, whereas S2 represents the main phase of loss of hydrocarbons due to destructive distillation. S1+S2 is measured in kilograms of hydrocarbons per tonne of rock. A classification for source rock quality based on values of S1+S2 was introduced by Tissot and Welte (1984) as shown

below; < 2kg/tonne poor oil source potential 2 to 6kg/tonne moderate source potential > 6kg/tonne good source potential > lOOkg/tonne excellent source potential Figure 5.20 shows a plot of S1+S2 values and Score A for four samples from the Muara Enim and Talang Akar Formations of the South Palembang Sub-basin. SI and S2 values have been produced by Rock-Eval analysis (Chapter Six). Scores of hydrocarbon generation potential of 5.9 and 19.2 have been calculated from two Muara Enim samples (5383 and 5384) and correspond to values of 5.2 and 126.9 for S1+S2. The highest score and S1+S2 value occur in a coal sample (5384). These figures indicate that the samples have good to very good source potential. Also score A values for the Muara Enim Formation have been calculated from thirty samples collected from wells studied. The results of these calculations indicate that the Muara Enim Formation has very good source rock potential with an average value about 23.2 1 \

[see Table 5.15), Similar values were also obtained for the Talang Akar samples (5385 and 5386). Hydrocarbon generation scores for the samples range from 8.2 to 16.5 and correspond to S1+S2 values of 5.5 and 78.6. The data indicate that the samples can be classified as good to very good source rocks. Again these figures are supported by data calculated for forty five samples collected from the Talang Akar Formation showing very good hydrocarbon generation potential. Score A values for samples from other formations have also been calculated. The Lahat Formation is categorized as having a good source rock potential with a score of 8.96/ Reports from several sources, such as Shell (1978), Purnomo (1984), Suseno (1988) and Total Indonesie (1988), also suggested that the Lahat can be considered as potential source rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin. Lacustrine shale deposits of the Lahat Formation are expected to be good quality source rocks and equivalent sequences are known as a good source in the Central Sumatra Basin having high TOC values. Good source rocks are also present in the Air Benakat Formation which has a score of 6.96. The highest scores for the Air Benakat samples occur within the upper part of the Air Benakat Formation although results may be slightly affected by cavings from the Muara Enim Formation. Poor score values were found for the samples from the Baturaja and Gumai Formations. The scores range from 0.2 to 0.7. 75

5.4.2 HYDROCARBON GENERATION

The principal zone of significant oil generation is generally considered to occur between vitrinite reflectances of 0.50% and 1.35% (Heroux et al., 1979; Cook, 1982; Smith and Cook, 1984; Cook, 1986). Initial napthenic oil generation from some resinite-rich source rocks may occur, however, at maturation levels as low as a vitrinite reflectance of 0.4% (Snowdon and Powell, 1982). Cook (1982, 1987) considered that oil generation from coals occurs at a much lower level of coal rank and is largely complete by 0.75% R max. Gordon (1985) suggested a threshold for oil generation from coals from the Ardjuna Sub-basin of about 0.45% vitrinite reflectance. Humic organic matter becomes post-mature for oil generation between vitrinite reflectances of 1.2 and 1.4%, at which time the source rocks become mature for gas generation (Kantsler et al., 1983). Oil is generated from organic matter at temperatures ranging from 60°C to 140 C. At higher temperatures, the humic organic matter becomes post-mature for oil generation but mature for gas generation as shown in Figure 5.21 and 5.22 (Kantsler and Cook, 1979). Organic matter type strongly influences the range of maturity over which organic matter generates oil (Tissot and "7 6

Welte, 1978; Hunt, 1979; and Cook, 1982). Smith and Cook (1980) suggested that the effect of organic matter type variation on oil generation is complex because different types of organic matter undergo breakdown over different temperature ranges and yield a variety of hydrocarbon compositions. According to Leythauser et al. (1980), oil generation occurs firstly from Type I Kerogen (alginite), then from Type II Kerogen and finally from Type III Kerogen (vitrinite). In contrast Smith and Cook (1980, 1984) reported that this order is reversed and the inertinite is the first to generate hydrocarbons during burial metamorphism, then vitrinite with liptinite being the least* responsive maceral group at low temperature. Based on the isoreflectance surfaces (shown in Figure 5.11) in the Muara Enim area, the lower parts of Muara Enim and Air Benakat Formations are early mature in the BRG-3 and KD-01 wells, while the middle part of the Gumai Formation is mature in the KG-10 and MBU-2 wells. The upper part and lower part of the Talang Akar Formation are also mature in the PMN-2 and GM-14 wells. In the Pendopo area, the Gumai Formation is generally mature in almost all wells studied except in BN-10 where the lower part of the Air Benakat Formation entered the mature stage, as shown in Figure 5.12. It can be concluded that the Gumai Formation is in the mature stage throughout the well sections studied. Furthermore, with an exception for the BRG-3 well, the Muara 77

Enim Formation is immature for oil generation throughout the well sections in the South Palembang Sub-basin. However some indications of oil generation are present within this formation. The Talang Akar and Lahat Formations are relatively mature to late mature for oil generation. Locally these formations occur within the peak zone of oil generation (R max 0.75%). If coal is accepted as a source for oil (Durand and Paratte, 1983; Kim and Cook, 1986; Cook and Struckmeyer, 1986), thermal maturation has probably already generated hydrocarbons from the organic matter of these formations. This conclusion is supported by the presence of abundant oil drops, oil cuts, exudatinites and bitumens in the samples from the Talang Akar and Lahat Formations.

5.4.2.1 Timing of Hydrocarbon Generation using Lopatin Method

In order to asses the timing of hydrocarbon generation, the method of Lopatin (1971), as modified by Waples (1980, 1985), has been used in the present study. Lopatin (1971) assumed that the rate of organic maturation increases by a factor r for every 10°C increase in reaction temperature. The factor r was taken to be close to a value of 2. For any given 10 C temperature interval the temperature factor (x) is given by x = 2 where n is an index value Lopatin 73 assigned to each temperature interval. The Lopatin model is based on an assumption that the dependence of coalification on time is linear (i.e. doubling the reaction time at a constant temperature doubles the rank). The sum of the time factors (dtn), which describe the length of time (in Ma) spent by each layer in each temperature interval, and the appropriate x-factors was defined by Lopatin as the Time-Temperature-Index (TTI); nmax

TTI = s (dtn) (x), nmin where n .„ and n . are the values for n of the highest and max mm 3 lowest temperature intervals encountered. Lopatin (1971) suggested that specific TTI values correspond to various values of vitrinite reflectance. Waples (1980) has modified Lopatin's (1971) original calibration but Katz et al. (1982) showed that Waples correlations are likely to be incorrect for reflectance values higher than approximately 1.3%. Furthermore Waples (1985) reported that the threshold for oil generation at an R max value of 0.65%, which was proposed in his previous work, was almost certainly too high. He further stated that different kerogen types have different oil-generation thresholds. Therefore, a new correlation between TTI and oil generation was proposed by Waples (1985). In this 79 correlation the onset of oil generation is shown to vary from about TTI = 1 for resinite to TTI = 3 for high-sulphur kerogens to TTI = 10 for other Type II kerogens to TTI = 15

for Type III kerogens. In the present study, subsidence curves for selected well sequences were constructed employing simple backstripping methods and assuming no compaction effects, and the TTI's were calculated assuming constant geothermal gradients. The subsidence plots are based on time-stratigraphic data in well completion reports and by correlating between wells in the studied area. The amount of sediment cover removed from the sequence was estimated using the method suggested by Dow (1977) . The loss of cover was estimated from linear extrapolation of the reflectance profile, plotted on a semilog scale, to the 0.20% reflectance intercept. The result indicates that the average thickness of cover lost in the Muara Enim area was about 250 metres, whereas in the Pendopo area approximately 625 metres of cover lost was lost. The maturation modelling and burial history for these areas are given in Figure 5.23 and Figure 5.24. Top of the oil window has been plotted at TTI=3 while bottom of the oil window has been plotted at TTI=180. For the Muara Enim area, the subsidence curve shows that burial during Early-Middle Eocene was probably slow to moderate and mostly continuous. During the Early Oligocene, the rate of sedimentation began to exceed the rate of sn

subsidence and the palaeotopography was rapidly filled in. During this period the sea level began to rise as the major Tertiary transgressive-regressive cycle commenced. The peak of the transgressive phase occurred in about the Early Miocene when the Gumai Formation was accummulating. In the Middle Miocene, the rate of subsidence progressively increased resulting in the deposition of the Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations. During this phase of subsidence, oil source rocks of the Lahat and Talang Akar Formations entered the generative window at about 7-8 Ma BP. Probably during Late Miocene, these formations would have been generating oil and some gas. The sediments were uplifted by a Plio-Pleistocene orogeny probably in Late Pliocene. Total Indonesie (1988) also reported that the onset of oil generation in the Muara Enim area probably occurred 5 to 8 Ma BP which corresponds to the end of the Miocene or beginning of the Pliocene. Based on the Lopatin model, in the Muara Enim area, the oil window zone can be expected at about 1300 metres depth. Average reflectance values of 0.54% occurred at this depth. In general, sedimentation history of the Pendopo-Limau area is similar to that in the Muara Enim area. The thickness of section suggests that the Pendopo area was the depocentre of the basin. An exception is the Baturaja Formation which is thickest along margins of the basin and -\ 1 Ji

on palaeotopographic highs. Therefore, the Baturaja Formation is relatively thinner in the Muara Enim area. The significant accumulation of sediments has played an important role in the maturation of the oil source rocks (the Lahat and Talang Akar Formationss). In the Pendopo area, oil generation from the Talang Akar and Lahat Formations probably started earlier (11-9 Ma BP) than in the Muara Enim area. Shell (1978) suggested that Middle Miocene can be considered as the timing for generation of oil in the Pendopo area. The initiation of the oil window is at 1200 metres depth corresponding with a vitrinite reflectance value of 0.53%. However Shell (1978) reported that the South Sumatra crudes indicate that their generation and expulsion commenced at an equivalent vitrinite reflectance value of 0.68%, and a vitrinite reflectance value of 1.20 is considered to be the onset of the gas expulsion. Following the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny, the structural features of the South Palembang Sub-basin were affected. The Tertiary sediments were folded and the faults were also rejuveneted by this orogeny. As discussed above, in the Pendopo area, the onset of oil generation probably started in the Middle Miocene while in the Muara Enim area the generation of oil may have started at the end of the Miocene-beginning of Pliocene and prior to the final pulse of the Barisan orogeny. 32

Tn relation to this event, trapping can be expected in older structures in the Pendopo area. In the Muara Enim area, however, the picture become more chaotic. In this areas, the zones which are modelled in the oil window would be faulted down into the gas window, or they would be faulted up above the oil window. Another possibility is the zones which are modelled above the oil window would be pulled down into the oil window or the gas window.

5.5 POTENTIAL RESERVOIRS

In the South Palembang Sub-basin, a number of potential-* reservoir rocks occur within two main parts of the stratigraphic sequence, firstly within the regressive and secondly within the transgressive sequence. The regressive sequence is represented by the Muara Enim and Air Benakat Formations, whereas the transgressive sequence is represented by Baturaja and Talang Akar Formations. The Muara Enim Formation is a major reservoir in the Muara Enim Anticlinorium. It has been reported that minor oil production was obtained from the Muara Enim Formation in the Muara Enim field. The sandstones of this formation are medium- to coarse-grained, moderately rounded and have fair to medium porosity (37 to 39.5% porosity; Pertamina, 1988). The sandstones of the Air Benakat Formation are fine- to medium-grained and have a fair to medium porosity. 33

Hydrocarbon accumulations in the Air Benakat Formation have been found in the Muara Enim Anticlinorium. According to Purnomo (1984), about 20 m3 oil per day have been produced in this area and after twenty eight years the production rate declined to about 5 m3. The oil is of paraffinic type

with 35 to 45° API. In 1959, oil was produced by the L5A-144 well for the first time from the Baturaja Formation of the transgressive sequence. In general, the contribution of the Baturaja Formation as a reservoir for oil in the studied area is minor. Kalan et al. (1984) reported that three major depositional facies have been recognized in the Baturaja Formation; basal argillaceous bank carbonates, main reefal build-up carbonate and transgressive marine clastic rocks. Within these facies, good porosity is restricted to the main reefal build-up carbonate facies. This porosity is secondary and developed as a result of fresh water influx leaching the reefal carbonate and producing chalky, moldic and vugular porosity. According to the drill completion reports of the KG-10 and MBU-2 wells, porosity of Baturaja reefal facies varies between 7.6 and 25.4% in the MBU-2 well to 59 to 89% in the KG-10 well. The most important reservoir rocks within the South Palembang Sub-basin are sands from the Gritsand Member of the transgressive Talang Akar sequence. The reservoirs are multiple and the seals intraformational. Sandstones of the Talang Akar Formation are commonly coarse-grained to 34 conglomeratic and fairly clean as the result of high energy during their deposition. The porosity ranges from 15 to 25% (Hutapea, 1981; Purnomo, 1984). API gravity of the oil ranges from 15 to 40.2 . In the South Palembang Sub-basin, the majority of the oil is trapped in anticlinal traps but some oils are found in traps related to basement features such as drapes and stratigraphic traps. The most common setting for an oil trap is a faulted basement high with onlapping/wedging-out Talang Akar sandstones on the flanks and Baturaja Formation on the crest as the reservoirs. 35

CHAPTER SIX CRUDE OIL AND SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY

6.1 INTRODUCTION

In the present study, four crude oils and four rock samples recovered from Tertiary sequences in the study area were analysed. The details of the sample locations are given in Table 6.1. The analyses included Gas Chromatography (GC) analysis and Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectometry (GC-MS) analysis. In addition, four rock samples were crushed and analysed for TOC content and also for their pyrolysis yield/ The analyses were carried out by R.E. Summons and J.M. Hope at the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra. The results of the oil analyses show that the oils have hydrocarbon distributions derived from proportionally different contributions from plant waxes, plant resins and bacterial biomass. The oils were characterized by high concentrations of cadinane and bicadinane hydrocarbons. In general, the oils are mature. The four rock samples contained 3.7 to 51.2 wt % TOC (Table 6.8), thus the samples can be classified as ranging from shale to coal. Based on the Rock-Eval Tmax values, three samples were categorized as immature, and one sample, recovered from the deepest part of the BRG-3 well, was approaching the mature stage. The GC traces show bimodal distributions of n-alkanes and Pr/Ph ratios in the 86 intermediate range of 4 to 5. Two samples contained high concentrations of bicadinanes and oleanane.

6.2 OIL GEOCHEMISTRY

6.2.1 EXPERIMENTAL METHODS

6.2.2 SAMPLE FRACTIONATION

From four oil samples, approximately 100 mg of each whole oil was placed on a 12 g silica gel column. Three fractions (i.e. saturates, aromatics and polars) were collected (in 100 ml round bottom flask) by eluting the column with 40 ml petroleum spirit, 50 ml petroleum spirit/dichloromethane (1:1), and 40 ml chloroform/methanol (1:1). Each fraction was reduced in volume on a rotary evaporator to approximately 1 ml and then transferred to a preweighed vial with dichloromethane (0.5 ml). The solvent was carefully removed by gentle exposure to a stream of dry nitrogen. Each fraction was weighed and labelled. Percent compositions were calculated on the basis of the original weights.

6.2.3 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY ANALYSIS

A Varian 3400 GC equipped with a fused silica capillary 87 column (25m x 0.2mm) coated with cross-linked methylsilicone (HP Ultra-1) was used for GC analysis. The GC analysis was carried out on the saturated hydrocarbon fractions. The samples, in hexane, were injected on column at 60°C and held isothermal for 2 minutes. The oven was programmed to 300 C at 4 C/min with a hold period of 30 minutes. The carrier gas was hydrogen at a linear flow of 30 cm/sec. Data were collected, integrated and manipulated using DAPA GC software. An internal standard,

3-methylheneicosane (anteiso-C22), was added at the rate of 25ug per mg of saturates to enable absolute quantitation of the major peaks.

6.2.4 PREPARATION OF B/C FRACTION

The full saturated hydrocarbon fraction proved to be unsuitable for GC-MS owing to generally high proportions of waxy n-alkanes. An aliquot of each of the saturated fractions was converted to a B/C fraction by filtration through a column of silicate. The sample (l.Omg) in pentane (2ml) was filtered through the silicate and the column washed with a further 5ml pentane. The non-adduct (B/C fraction) was recovered by evaporation of the solvent and the n-alkanes by dissolution of the silicate in 20% HF and extraction of the residue with hexane. This method has the advantage of being rapid and clean but a small proportion of the low MW n-alkanes remains in the B/C fraction. 88

6.2.5 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY-MASS SPECTOMETRY ANALYSIS

GC-MS analysis was carried out using a VG 70E instrument fitted with an HP 5790 GC and controlled by a VG 11-25 0 data system. The GC was equipped with an HP Ultra-1 capillary column (50m x 0.2mm) and a retention gap of uncoated fused silica (1.0m x 0.3 3mm). The samples, in hexane were injected on-column (SGE OCI-3 injector) at 50 C and the oven programmed to 150°C at 10°C/minute then to 300°C at 3°C/minute with a hold period of 30 minutes. The carrier gas was hydrogen at a linear flow of 30cm/sec. The mass spectrometer was operated with a source temperature of 240 C, ionisation energy of 7 0eV and interface line and re-entrant at 310°C. In the full scan mode, the mass spectrometer was scanned from m/z 650 to m/z 50 at 1.8 sec/decade and interscan delay of 0.2 sec. In the multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) mode, the magnet current and ESA voltage were switched to sequentially sample 26 selected parent-daughter pairs including one pair (m/z 404—> 221) for the deuterated sterane internal standard. The sampling time was 40ms per reaction with 10ms delay giving a total cycle time of 1.3s. Peaks were integrated manually and annotated to the chromatograms.

6.2.6 RESULTS

The general nature of the crude oils from reservoirs in ^q

the MBU-2 and BRG-3 wells is summarized in Table 6.2 in terms of the polarity classes of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons and combined NSO-asphalthene fraction. The oils are generally dominated by saturated hydrocarbons ranging from 63.7% to 77.4%. Therefore, the oils can be classified as paraffinic (naphthenic) oils. Aromatic hydrocarbon content of the oils ranges from 20.7 to 27%. The 540 and 541 oils are relatively higher in aromatic hydrocarbon content (25.6 and 27%) respectively than those from the 542 and 543 oils (24 and 20.7%). The saturated and aromatic ratios from the oil samples range from 2.1 to 3.3. The amount of polar compounds of the oils is below 10% (1.8% to 9.3%). The highest amount of this compound (9.3%) occurs in the oil 541, while the lowest (1.8%) occurs in the oil 543. Figure 6.1 shows the bulk composition of the crude oils.

6.2.6.1 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY The GC profiles shown in Figures 6.2 to 6.5 have been annotated to provide peak identification. The carbon number of the n-alkanes are identified by numbers. Isoprenoids are denoted "i" whereas the cyclohexanes are denoted "C" with the carbon number. The alkane distribution profiles of the total saturated fration of the crude oils examined are given in Figures 6.2 to 6.5. The abundances of n-alkane, isoprenoids and bicadinanes are listed in Tables 6.3 and 90

5.4, The GC analysis of saturated hydrocarbon fractions (C12+) of the oils revealed bimodal patterns of n-alkane distributions in all oil samples. These compounds are probably derived from contributions of bacteria (low MW) and terrestrial vascular plant waxes (high MW). The waxy n-alkanes, with a slight odd over even predominance, were present in all oil samples and were most abundant in oil sample 540 from the BRG-3 well. Low molecular weight alkanes predominated in oil samples 541, 542 and 543. Snowdon and Powell (1982) pointed out that the waxy oils are believed to be associated with coals or terrestrial organic material which is particularly rich in dispersed liptinite such as spores and cuticles. Isoprenoid alkanes were generally abundant relative to the n-alkanes. Oil samples 540 and 541 have higher Pr/n-C17 ratios (2.08 and 2.77) respectively than those of the oil samples 542 and 543 which have ratios of 0.7 and 0.9 (see Table 6.4). Ph/n-C18 ratios of the whole oil samples range from 0.25 to 0.47. The highest Ph/n-C18 ratio (0.47) and Pr/n-Cl7 ratio (2.77) occur in the oil 541 which also contains relatively high waxes. The highest wax content occurs in oil 540 and this sample also has a relatively high Pr/n-C17 ratio (2=08) but the lowest Ph/n-C18 ratio (0.25). According to Palacas et al. (1984) and Waples (1985), oils which are derived from land plant sources have a relatively high ratio of pristane to n-C17 (>1) and a low 91 ratio of phytane to n-C18 (<1). These two properties are characteristics of predominantly land-derived source organic matter deposited under moderately oxidizing conditions. On the basis of the Pr/n-C17 and Pr/Ph ratios, two groups of oil can be distinguished, Group 1 and Group 2. Group 1 includes oils from the BRG-3 well (540 and 541) whereas Group 2 contains oils 542 and 543 from the MBU-2 well. High Pr/n-C17 and Pr/Ph ratios present in the oils of Group 1 clearly show that these oils were derived from terrestrial plant matter. The Group 2 however shows lower Pr/n-C17 and Pr/Ph ratios. This suggests the Group 2 oils may have originated from a different non-marine source compared with the Group 1 oils or may have an additional contribution from a marine source. Pristane to phytane ratios of the oils are relatively high ranging from 2.11 to 8.0. The highest ratios are for the oils 540 and 541 (with 6.5 and 8.0), whereas the oils 542 and 543 have a lower ratio (with 2.11 and 3.42). High pristane to phytane ratios (greater than 3.0) characterize high wax crude oils which primarily originated in fluviatile and deltaic environment containing a significant amount of terrestrial organic matter (Brook et al., 1969; Powel and Mc Kirdy, 1975; Connan, 1974; Didyk et al., 1978; Connan and Cassou, 1980). Padmasiri (1984) pointed out that a high pristane to phytane ratio is probably due to the presence of less reducing conditions during early diagenesis where phytanic acid was mainly 92

converted into pristane through decarboxylation rather than

direct reduction to phytane. Pristane and phytane were accompanied by high abundances of 1-14, 1-15, 1-16, 1-18 and 1-21. Higher isoprenoids such as 1-25 and 1-30 (squalane) were in very low abundance or undetected (Figures 6.2 to 6.5). The other series of compounds evident in the GC traces were a series of triterpenoids. This series occurs as extra peaks in the low molecular weight end of the GC traces (see Figures 6.2 to 6.5). According to Summons and Janet Hope (pers. comm., 1990), these are monomeric (sesquiterpene) analogues of the bicadinanes and constitute the building blocks for the polycadinane resin compounds. These bicadinanes were assigned as W, T and R1 with the addition of another compound eluting after T and denoted T'.

6.2.6.2 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY MASS SPECTROMETRY Metastable reaction monitoring (MRM) chromatograms for m/z 191 reaction of the oils studied (Figure 6.6) show the series of C27, C29+ pentacyclic triterpanes. Tissot and Welte (1984) noted that these series are considered to have originated from the membranes of bacteria and cyanobacteria. The stereoisometric ratios of 22S/22S+22R for C32 and C31 r hopanes, (Ja/[3a+a(3 for C30 hopane and 20S/20S+20R for C29 norhopane can be used as maturity parameters. The 22S/22S+22R ratios of the oil studied are considered to be high, ranging from 51 to 61% (Table 6.5.). They are 93 close to the end-point value of 60% which occurs once oils are generated from mid-mature source rocks (Seifert and Moldowan, 1978; Mckenzie et al., 1980). The maturity of the oils is also indicated by a high ratio for 20S/20S+20R with C29 norhopane, ranging from 40 to 56%. Furthermore, the Ba/Ba+afl ratios for C30 hopane are generally < 0.1, evidence of a mature signature of the oils. From Figure 6.6, it can be seen that the most abundant class of compounds detected were the bicadinanes. They were present in high concentration in many traces. The strongest response of the bicadinanes are shown in the m/z 191 reaction trace (Figure 6.7). In other oils, they also' co-eluted with or eluted very close to the trisnohopanes (Ts and Tm) as shown in the m/z 217 responses (Figure 6.8). The occurrence of bicadinanes has been reported in oils from Indonesia, Brunei, Sabah, and Bangladesh by authors such as Grantham et al., (1983), Van Aarsen and de Leeuw, (1989), Alam and Pearson, (1990), and Van Aarsen et al., (1990). Van Aarsen et al., (1990) pointed out that bicadinanes are cyclisation products of dimeric cadinanes released during maturation of polycadinane a component of damar tropical tree resin of the Dipterocarpaceae family. Many species of Dipterocarpaceae grow at the present time in most of the South Sumatra forest areas. The present and previously reported occurrences of bicadinanes show strong links to terrigenous organic input. Table 6.6 shows the composition of four of the bicadinanes and the steroid 94 hydrocarbons determined by GC MS. All samples contain C27-C29 steranes. In some cases the relative abundance of C27-C29 steranes can be used as indicators of the nature of the photosynthetic biota, both terrestrial and aquatic, while triterpanes are usually indicators of depositional and diagenetic conditions (Huang and Meinschein, 1979). Land plant inputs are usually inferred from a dominance of the C29 steranes. However algae also possess a wide range of desmethyl sterols (C26-C29) and may produce an oil with a major C29 component. The distribution of steranes and methyl steranes from the samples is shown in Figure 6.8 and listed in Table 6.5 and

Table 6.6. In the present study, organic facies of the oil samples were identified using a triangular diagram which shows C27-C29 sterane distribution (Figure 6.9). This triangular diagram was adapted from Waples and Machihara (1990). This diagram shows that the origin of most of oil samples may be higher plants which have a strong predominance of the C29 sterane. The distribution of hopanes, steranes and bicadinanes from all the samples is shown in Table 6.7. Biodegradation of a crude oil can be indicated by the removal of n-alkanes, isoprenoids and other branched alkanes, and even some cyclic alkanes (Bailey et al., 1973; Goodwin et al., 1983; Cook and Ranasinghe, 1989). In the early stages of biodegradation, low molecular weight n-alkanes are removed, whereas the isoprenoids are 95

residualized. Therefore, degraded oils contain fewer normal paraffins or waxes than non-degraded ones. In extensively biodegraded oils, all C14-C16 bicyclic alkanes are removed, followed by steranes. In very heavily biodegraded oils, up to 50% of the 50a(H),14a(H),17a(H)20R isomers from the C27-C29 steranes are removed and finally regular steranes are also removed and changed into diasterane (Cook and Ranasinghe, 1989). Therefore, in severely biodegraded oils, a high concentration of diasteranes is present. Figures 6.2 to 6.5 show that for the oils studied, abundant n-alkanes (C9 to C34) are present. Volkman et al. (1983) noted that non-degraded oils show low values for the pristane/n-C17 and phytane/n-C18 ratios.

6.3 SOURCE ROCK GEOCHEMISTRY

6.3.1 EXPERIMENTAL SECTION

Four rock samples comprising shales and coals were collected from different rock formations, that is, the Muara Enim and Talang Akar Formations. In general, the samples were treated by similar methods using GC analysis, preparation of B/C fractions and GC-MS analysis. Because the samples were rock, sample extraction was carried out as described below. 96

6.3.1.1 SAMPLE EXTRACTION

The samples were crushed and analysed for TOC content using a Leco carbon analyser. The samples were also analysed for their pyrolysis yield using a Girdel Rock-Eval II instrument. The crushed sediments were extracted using pre-washed soxhlets and thimbles, using 87:13 CHCL3:MeOH as solvent and continuing the process for 48 hours. The extracts were filtered using micrometre filters and then evaporated to near dryness. These extracts were then treated as oil and separated into the different polarity fractions by column chromatography.

6.3.2 RESULTS

The results of the total organic carbon (TOC), Rock-Eval data and the composition of the extracts in terms of the polarity classes of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatic hydrocarbons and combined SO-asphaltene fraction are shown in Table 6.8 and Figure 6.10. Linear alkane distribution profiles of the saturated fractions of the extracts are given in Figures 6.11 to 6.14. Table 6.9 shows the composition of saturated hydrocarbons determined by GC analysis of this fraction. Pristane and phytane ratios are given in Table 6.11. Table 6.8 shows that all the samples exceed the minimum critical limit accepted for hydrocarbon generation from 37 clastic rocks (0.5 wt% TOC) as mentioned by Welte (1965) and Phillipi (1969). The two shale samples contained a lower percentage TOC (3.7 and 4.1 wt%) than the two "coal" samples which contained 26.9 and 51.2 wt% TOC, although only one sample can be classified as true coal. The two coal samples also had relatively high HI values of 230 and both could possibly represent source rock intervals, although only the deepest sample which has Rymax 0.83%, is considered to be mature. A source rock potential study of the Tertiary sequences from the South Palembang Sub-basin has also been carried out by Sarjono and Sardjito (1989) as summarized below; Formation Total Organic Carbon Tmax

Lahat 1.7 to 8.5 436-441 Talang Akar 0.3 to 8.0 425-450 Baturaja 0.2 to 1.5 425-450 Gumai 0.5 to 11.5 400-440 Air Benakat 0.5 to 1.7 >430 Muara Enim 0.5 to 52.7 >430

In the present study, the Rock-Eval Tmax data show that the samples from Talang Akar Formation were approaching the appropriate maturity of 433 to 446°C. Espitalie et al., (1985) suggested that the beginning of the oil-formation zone is at Tmax of 430 to 435°C, whereas the beginning of the gas zone starts with Tmax of 465 to 470°C for Type III 98 and 450 to 455°C for Type II kerogen (Figure 6.15). However Tmax is infuenced by organic matter type with liptinites generally giving higher Tmax values compared with vitrinite

(Cook and Ranasinghe, 1990). The production index (PI) of the samples varies from 0.06 to 0.20. Espitalie et al. (1985) also noted that the PI can be used as another criterion of maturity. They suggested the oil-formation zone begins at PI values between 0.05 and 0.10. The maximum oil formation is reached at Pis of 0.30 to 0.40. Beyond this the PI values tend to remain stationary or even decrease (gas formed). A plot of the hydrogen index (HI) and oxygen index (01) is given in Figure 6.16. It is clearly seen that the samples are categorized as Type III kerogen which would be largely derived from the woody portions of higher plants. The GC traces of the four samples all show bimodal distribution of n-alkanes and Pr/Ph ratios in the intermediate range of 4 to 5. The coal sample from the Muara Enim Formation (5384) shows a predominance of odd carbon number waxy n-alkanes which implies a high terrestrial plant input (Figure 6.12). Shale sample (5385), which was taken from the Talang Akar Formation, shows a predominance of low carbon number n-alkanes without significant odd/even predominance (Figure 6.13). The shallow (5383) and deep (5386) samples both show about equal abundances of short and long-chain n-alkanes, but additionally, sample 5386 has only a weak odd/even 99 predominance (Figures 6.11 and 6.14). Based on the distribution of C31 aB hopanes (22R>>22S), it is clearly shown that the shallow samples (5383 and 5384) are very immature (Rvmax 0.41 and 0.47%). The Talang Akar samples (5385 and 5386) having reflectance values of 0.71 and 0.83%, however, show some mixed characteristics with an immature distribution of C31 aB hopanes (22R>>22S), an immature C29 sterane 20S/20R pattern, a mature aB (hopane)/Ba (moretane) ratio and a mature C27 sterane distribution. The 20S/20R ratio of C28 sterane is intermediate. Based on these characteristics, it may be concluded that the deepest sample (5386) is only just approaching oil generation maturity but the sterane 20R/20S ratio of the oil sample 541 was similar to the sample 5386. A high concentration of bicadinanes and oleanane was also shown in the Talang Akar samples (5385 and 5386) . These characteristics are also found in the two oil samples which were taken from the same well. However, due to the limitations of the data, these similarities could not be used to determine whether the Talang Akar samples represent a source rock for the oils. The biomarker signature and thermal maturity of the deepest sample (5386) shows similar patterns with those from the oil sample (541). 100

CHAPTER SEVEN COAL POTENTIAL OF SOUTH PALEMBANG SUBBASIN

7.1 INTRODUCTION

The regional stratigraphy of the South Sumatra Basin shows that coal seams occur more or less continuously over a number of the Tertiary formations such as the Lahat, Talang Akar and Muara Enim Formations. The coals with economic potential are largely within the Muara Enim Formation. An assessment of coal potential in the South Sumatra Basin was made by Shell Mijnbouw during a major coal exploration program from 1974 to 1978. The area for coal exploration included the South Palembang Sub-basin. In the South Palembang Sub-basin, several government institutions such as the Directorate of Mineral Resources (DMR), the Mineral Technology Development Centre (MTDC) and the Directorate of Coal (DOC) have also been involved in exploration for, and development of, the Muara Enim coals. The volume of coal available in the South Palembang Sub-basin was assessed by Shell Mijnbouw (1978) at approximately 2,590 million cubic metres to a depth of 100 metres below the ground surface. These reserves are clustered into two areas; the Enim and Pendopo areas. Two thirds of the volume of the coal is found in the seams of the M4 unit but the coals are low in rank. 101

7.2 COAL DIVISIONS IN THE MUARA ENIM FORMATION

As mentioned in Chapter Three, the Muara Enim Formation can be divided into four subdivisions (from top to bottom); M4, M3, M2, Ml subdivisions (See Table 3.3). The oldest unit, the Ml subdivision consists of two coal seams, the irregularly developed Merapi seam and the 5-10 metres thick Kladi seam at the base of the unit. Neither of these seams generally offer a resource potential within the range of economic surface mining. The interseam sequence between the Kladi and Merapi seams is characterized by brown and grey sandstone, siltstone and claystone with minor glauconitic sandstone. The M2 subdivision comprises three coal units (from top to bottom); Mangus, Suban and Petai. Haan (1976) recognized that most of these units locally split into two seams which are designated as follows; Mangus unit : Al and A2 seams Suban unit : BI and B2 seams Petai Unit : CI and C2 seams These seams can be found in the area around Bukit Asam. From the viewpoint of economically mineable coal reserves, the M2 subdivision is locally the most important coal unit, particularly in the Enim area. The coals are mainly hard brown coal in rank, but high rank anthracitic coals can be also found in the immediate vicinity of some andesite intrusions. 102

The interseam rocks in the M2 subdivision are limnic (perhaps in places, lagoonal/brackish) and mainly consist of brown to grey claystone and brown-grey fine-grained to medium-grained sandstone and some green-grey sandstones. The coal seams of the M2 subdivision have several good marker features which can be used to identify the seams convincingly. A clay marker horizon within the Mangus seam is used to correlate the interval over most of the area. A well known tuffaceous horizon that separates the Al and A2 seams of the Mangus unit also can be used as a marker bed. This horizon was probably deposited over a wide area during a short interval of volcanic activity. The M3 subdivision contains two main coal layers, the Burung in the lower part and the Benuang in the upper part, both of which are only of minor economic significance. These coal layers have several characteristic sandstone horizons and they can be recognized in most areas. The thickness of the M3 division varies from 40 to 120 metres. The uppermost and stratigraphically youngest part of the Muara Enim Formation is the M4 subdivision (120-200 metres thick). The M4 subdivision contains the Kebon, Enim, Jelawatan and Niru seams. The coals of this subdivision were formerly called the Hanging layers in the Bukit Asam area. Jelawatan and Enim seams contain coal of a lower rank, with a lower calorific value and higher moisture content than those of the M2 Subdivision. In some areas the M4 seams offer an interesting resource potential. 103

The predominant rocks of the M4 Subdivision are blue-green tuffaceous claystone and sandy claystone, some dark brown coaly claystone, some white and grey fine-grained to coarse-grained sandstone, with sparse glauconite indicating marine-deltaic to fluvial conditions.

7.3 DISTRIBUTION OF MUARA ENIM COALS

In the South Palembang Sub-basin, the Muara Enim coals are clustered in two areas; Enim and Pendopo area. During the major coal exploration program from 1974-1978, Shell Mijnbouw divided the Enim area into two prospect areas; West Enim area (includes Arahan-Air Serelo-Air Lawai area) and East Enim area (includes Banko-Suban Jerigi area). In these areas, a detailed coal exploration program was also undertaken by DMR (1983-1985) and DOC (1985-1988). Data from these institutions and from Shell Mijnbouw (197 8) have been used in the present study. The Pendopo area is divided into three prospect areas; Muara Lakitan-Talang Langaran, Talang Akar-Sigoyang Benuang, and Prabumulih areas. In addition, one particular aspect .of the Muara Enim coals is the presence of anthracitic quality coals caused by thermal effects of andesitic intrusions. These coals can be found near the intrusive bodies of Bukit Asam, Bukit Bunian and Bukit Kendi. They will be discussed separately. 104

7.3.1 ENIM PROSPECT AREAS

The Enim Prospect areas can be divided into two areas; West Enim areas including Arahan, Muara Tiga, Banjarsari and Kungkilan area, and East Enim areas including Banko and Suban Jerigi area. The Bukit Asam coal mines actually, are included in the West Enim area, but, because it has already been mined since 1919, its coal resources will be discussed in a separate section (Section 7.8). The oldest coal seam of M2 subdivision, Kladi seam, has been reported to occur in the Air Serelo area. The Kladi seam offers a good prospect in terms of quality and is up to 9 metres in thickness. The coal is relatively clean and high in rank. In the Enim area, the Petai seam (C) of the M2 subdivision is developed throughout the areas as a 5-9 metres seam. Locally, this seam splits into two layers (CI and C2) which have been recognized at the southern part of West Banko and also at Central Banko (Kinhill Otto Gold, 1987). The combined thickness of these seams commonly exceeds 12 metres. In general, the most uniformly developed seam in these areas is the Suban seam (B) of the M2 Subdivision. This seam has a thickness varying from 15 to 20 metres and is characterized by up to six claystone bands. It has been reported that the Suban seam splits into a thicker (10-15 metres) upper (BI) and a thinner (2-5 metres) lower (B2) 105 seam in East Banjarsari, West Banko and Central Banko

(Kinhill Otto Gold, 1987) . The Mangus seam (A) of the M2 Subdivision occurs as two leaves, Al and A2, in most areas except in Arahan, South Muara Tiga and West Banko. In these latter areas, the Mangus seam is split into numerous thin streaks and interbeds by thick fluvial intersections. The A2 seam is fairly uniformly thick (8-12 metres) in most areas except Central Banko where it tends to split. , The Al seam is generally 8-10 metres thick, but it splits into numerous thin seams in the areas mentioned above. A 9 to 12 metres thick development of the Enim seam occurs over large areas and it is generally free from dirt bands. The thickness of this seam reaches approximately 27 metres at Banjarsari and North Suban Jerigi area. Another interesting seam is the Jelawatan seam which has a thickness between 6 to 15 metres at Banjarsari and Suban Jerigi area.

7.3.1.2 PENDOPO AREA

During the Shell Mijnbouw Coal Exploration Program, the studied areas near Pendopo included Muara Lakitan and Talang Langaran, Talang Akar and Sigoyang Benuang, West Benakat and Prabumulih areas. Coals from the M2, M3 and M4 subdivisions are found in these areas.

Seams present in the M2 subdivision include the Petai, 106

Suban and Mangus seams. The Petai seam occurs in the Sigoyang Benuang, Prabumulih and West Benakat area. The thickness of this seam varies from 5 to 8 metres. The Suban seam is found at Sigoyang Benuang and West Benakat. The Suban seam has a thickness between 9 to 13 metres. The most widely distributed seam in the M2 subdivision is the Mangus seam. It occurs over all of the Pendopo areas. The thickness of the seam varies from 6 to 13 metres. The thickest development of the Mangus seam is found in the West Benakat area but unfortunately the dips of the seam are relatively steep, around 15 . The M3 subdivision is represented by the occurrence of the Benuang (Burung) seam which has a thickness of about 5 to 9 metres. This seam can be found in the Talang Langaran, Sigoyang Benuang and West Benakat areas. Coals of the M4 subdivision are found in the whole Pendopo area. These coals are the Niru, Jelawatan, Kebon, Enim and Niru seams. The Enim seam offers an attractive mining target in terms of thickness as it ranges from 9 to 24 metres. The thickness of the Niru seam varies from 6 to 11 metres. The Jelawatan seam reaches 15 metres in thickness in the Talang Akar area, while a 5 metre thick development of the Kebon seam is found in the Muara Lakitan area. 107

7.4 COAL QUALITY

On the basis of the potential use for brown coal as a thermal energy source (calorific value and moisture content being the main determinants of suitability) the quality of South Sumatra coals was summarized by Shell Mijnbouw (197 8). According to Shell Mijnbouw (197 8), the older coals of the Ml and M2 subdivisions contain about 30-50% moisture, while the moisture content of coals of M3 and M4 subdivisions ranges between 40-65%. The dry ash-free gross calorific value of Ml and M2 coals ranges between 6500 and 7500 kcal/kg, and it varies between 6100 and 7000 kcal/kg for the M3 and M4 coals. The inherent ash content of coals is usually less than 6% (dry basis). Sulphur content of the coals is generally less than 1% (dry basis) but locally it increases to 4% (dry basis) in some areas. Kinhill Otto Gold (19 87) has also determined the quality of coals from specific areas such as the Enim area. According to the Kinhill Otto Gold result's, the rank of coals in the Enim areas, varies between sub-bituminous A (ASTM)/brown coals, Class 1 (ISO)/Glanzbraunkohle (German classification) and Lignite B/brown coals, Class 5/Weichbraunkohle (Kinhill Otto Gold, 1987). Quality values for the coals typically range between : Total Moisture: 23-54% Ash (dry basis): 3-12% Sulphur (dry basis): 0.2-1.7% 10 8

CV net (in-situ): 10-20 MJ/kg

Sodium in ash: 1.8-8%

Grindability: 37-56 HGI

Further details of the coal qualities of the Pendopo and Enim areas are given in Table 7.1-7.6, where the parameters of thickness, total moisture (TM), ash, sulphur, volatiles and calorific values are listed. Values are averages for each seam and for each area or sub-area.

7.5 ASH COMPOSITION

The ash composition data were obtained from Kinhill

Otto Gold (1987). According to this report the major mineral components in Sumatran coals are; quartz (detrital) and kaolinite. Small amounts of pyrite (marcasite), volcanic feldspar, Ca and Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates and sulphates, and phosphates, are also present. Volcanic tuff bands which are commonly present in the coals, contain mainly kaolinized volcanic glass.

A study of sodium content in the coal ash was also done by Kinhill-Otto Gold (1987), particularly for coals in the

Enim area. This study is important in relation to use of these coals in thermal power station. The Na~0 values above

3-4% are indicative of undesirable fouling and slagging characteristics in industrial boilers and strongly lower the ash fusion temperatures. Substantial impact on boiler operation is expected above 6-8% Na~0. The results 109

of sodium-in-ash analyses are listed in Table 7.7. The analyses were performed on coal samples following the

procedures of ISO. According to Kinhill-Otto Gold (1987), the upper seam group (M4), with the Enim and Jelawatan seams, has moderate sodium content (below 2.5%) and peak values rarely reach 5.0%. The lower group of seams (M2), including the Al, A2,

B/Bl and C/C1-C2 seams, has a moderately high to high Na20 content.

7.6 STRUCTURES

In general, the tectonic style of the area under study is characterized by fold and fault structures. Pulunggono (1986) recognized that these structures run parallel with a WNW-ESE trend. He also concluded that the Plio-Pleistocene orogeny was responsible for these WNW-ESE trending folded structures with accompanying faults. Within the Pendopo areas, the general trends of folds is NW-SE. This trend can be observed at Muara Lakitan area and Talang Langaran area. The NW-SE folds at Muara Lakitan have gently to moderately dipping flanks, less than 20°. The average inclination of coal seams in the Muara Lakitan area is about 8°, while that in the Talang Langaran area, is steeper (15 ) than that in the Muara Lakitan. Low seam dips (about 6 ) are found in the areas of Talang Akar and Sigoyang Benuang but they become steeper (20°) in the 110 vicinity of N-S and NE-SW faults. Numerous small faults trending N-S and NE-SW occur in the West Benakat area. Steep dips of the coal seam (around 15°) cause difficulties from the mining point of view. In the Prabumulih area, dips of coal seams are generally low (6-10°). In general, the strike direction of the fold axes in the Enim area occurs at approximately E-W (80-100°; see Figure 1.5). This direction turns towards WNW-ESE (100-130°) in the northwestern part of the Bukit Asam area. In the Northwest Banko area, directions of 130-160° are predominant. The structural features of the Banko-Suban Jerigi area are more complicated than those in other areas. Numerous folds and faults are present in these areas. A NW-SE anticlinal axis is closely related to numerous displacements along NNE-SSW, NNW-SSE, NE-SW and WNW-ESE directions. Dip angles range from 5 to 2 . In the Arahan area, particularly in the northern part of this area, dips of coal seams are relatively low (around 7°), but they become higher (9-10 ) in the southern area. Relatively steep (around 14-19 ) dips of coal seams are present in the Air Lawai areas. Although the coal seams of this area offer good prospects in term of thickness (9-20 metres), the dips of the seams are too steep for surface mining. As discussed above, the geological structures of the Banko-Suban Jerigi area are complicated due to intensive faulting. Therefore, the mineable areas are restricted to some of the relatively larger blocks bounded by fault Ill planes. Dip angles of coal seams vary between 5 to 20 .

7.7 COAL RESERVES

As mentioned previously, Shell Mijnbouw (1978) divided the Pendopo area into four subareas; the Muara Lakitan and Talang Langaran area, Talang Akar and Sigoyang Benuang area, West Benakat area and Prabumulih area. Coal reserves for each of these areas were also estimated. An in-situ coal volume of approximately 300 million cubic metres can be expected in the Muara Lakitan and Talang Langaran areas combined with a maximum overburden thickness of 50 metres, a minimum coal seam thickness of 5 metres and a maximum 15 dip of the seam (Shell Mijnbouw, 1978) . The Talang Akar and Sigoyang Benuang areas have about 1,330 million cubic metres in-situ coal volume. The coal resources of the West Benakat area, however, were not calculated, because the coal seams are either too steep or too thin. In the Prabumulih area, surface-mineable coal reserves for seams of more than 5 metres in thickness and less than 15 dip amount to 400 million cubic metres down to 50 metres depth. Although coal reserves in the Enim area had already been estimated by Shell Mijnbouw, the reserve estimates were also made by Kinhill otto Gold (1987) and the latter are used in the present study. The classification of the geological reserves used by Kinhill Otto Gold follows the US 112

Geological Survey system. A summary of coal resources of the Enim area is given in Table 7.8.

7.8 THE BUKIT ASAM COAL MINES

Coals occurring in the Bukit Asam Mines area are known as the Air Laya Coal Deposit because one of the mines operating is in the Air Laya area. These coals have been mined since 1919 in underground workings but the mines were abandoned in 1942. Since then, coal mines have been operated by surface mining systems. Another coal mine is located in the Suban area where anthracitic coals are mined. The mines are operated by the state-owned Indonesian company, P.T. Tambang Batubara Bukit Asam (Persero). The geology of the Air Laya Coal Deposit was studied in detail by Mannhardt (1921), Haan (1976), Frank (1978), Matasak and Kendarsi (1980), and Schwartzenberg (1986). The Air Laya Coal Deposit is characterized by the close proximity of sedimentary and plutonic petrofacies. The thermal and kinematic impacts of the plutonic intrusions have decisively influenced the structure and the coal quality. Mannhardt (1921) assummed that the plutonic intrusions are probably laccoliths. The coal seams exposed in the Bukit Asam Mines belong to the M2 Subdivision of the Muara Enim Formation (Figure 7.1) . 113

7.8.1 STRATIGRAPHY

7.8.1.1 QUATERNARY SUCCESSION

This unit consists mainly of river gravel and sands from the ancient Enim River and overlies soft clay deposits which are interbedded with bentonite layers of former ash tuffs and occasional large volcanic bombs (Schwartzenberg, 1986). The thickness of this unit is about 20 metres.

7.8.1.2 TERTIARY SUCCESSION

In the Bukit Asam Coal Mines, the Tertiary succession can be divided into two subunits; coal seams, overburden and intercalations.

7.8.1.2.1 Coal seams:

Three coal units of the M2 Subdivision occur in the Bukit Asam area, they are; the Mangus, Suban and Petai seams. The Mangus seam is split into two layers (Al and A2 seam) by a 4 to 5 metres thick unit of tuffaceous claystones and sandstones. The thickness of the Al seam is about 2.5 to 9.8 metres, whereas that of the A2 seam is around 4.2 to 12.9 metres thick. The Suban seam also splits into two layers (BI and B2 seam). The BI seam is usually the best developed of the 114

sequence with an average thickness of 11 metres. The B2 seam is about 2 to 5 metres in thickness. The lowest coal seam in the Bukit Asam area is the Petai seam. It varies in thickness between 4.2 to 10.8 metres.

7.8.1.2.2 Overburden and Intercalations:

The overlying strata consist of claystones and siltstones which are interbedded with up to three bentonitic clay layers (each only a few metres in thickness). The claystones are blue-green to grey in colour and are usually massive but sometimes they are finely banded. Clay ironstone nodules are abundant in this unit. They vary in size from small pebbles to large cobbles. Tuffaceous claystone and sandstone occur as the intercalation layers between the A (Mangus) seams. This unit is continuously graded from the base where quartz and lithic fragments are enclosed in a clay matrix, to the top where the rock is fine-grained and clayey. The thickness of this unit is about 4 to 5 metres. The interseam strata between Al-Bl and B1-B2 coal seams are characterized by similar rock types to those of the overlying strata but plant remains occur more frequently in the interseam strata. A thin coal intercalation of 0.2-0.4 metres in thickness occurs within the A2-B1 interval. This coal is known as the Suban Coal Marker. The thickness of 115 the A2-B1 interval is around 18 to 23 metres, whereas that of B1-B2 interval is up to 5 metres. In the western part of the Bukit Asam area, the intercalation between B1-B2 disappears and the B1-B2 seams merge together. A sequence of some 33-40 metres of siltstone and silty sandstone occurs between the B2 seam and C (Petai) seam. This sequence consists of glauconitic sandstone alternating with thin lenticular and ripple-bedded siltstone layers. These sedimentary structures suggest sedimentation within tidal zones (Schwartzenberg, 1986). In the Suban mine, an andesite sill is intruded into the B2-C intercalation and increased its thickness from about 35 to 60 metres.

7.8.2 COAL QUALITY

The Bukit Asam coals are characterized by a wide range of quality due to the intrusion of a number of andesitic plutons during the Early Quarternary. The heating has increased the extent of coalification and advanced the rank of coals. In terms of coal rank, three classes of coals are found in the Bukit Asam area. They are semianthracite to anthracite, bituminous and sub-bituminous coals. Kendarsi (1984) and Schwartzenberg (1986) described the quality of the Air Laya coal deposit. According to them, the total moisture of the Air Laya coals varies between 4 and 26%. The ash content of the coals ranges between 6-7% and reaches maximum values of around 10% in the areas of greater 116 coalification (Schwartzenberg, 1986). Volatile matter of the coals is about 32.1% (as received), while fixed carbon content is around 40.3% (as received). Heat value of the coals ranges between 5425 to above 6000 kcal/kg (as received). The sulphur content of the coals varies between each seam. The Al seam contains 0.5%, A2 and BI seams contain 0.3%, B2 seam contains 0.9%, and C seam contains 1.1%. From these figures, it can be concluded that the lower part of the M2 Subdivision was more influenced by marine conditions. Kendarsi (1984) reported the quality of coals from the Suban mine on an air dried basis as described below: Gross CV 7900-8200 Kcal/kg Inherent moisture 1.7-2.3 % Total Moisture 3.7-6.2 % Volatile matter 8.2-16.8 % Fixed Carbon 75.0-84.4 % Ash 1.6-5.8 % Total sulphur 0.7-1.2 %

7.8.3 COAL RESERVES

Schwartzenberg (1986) estimated and described the reserves of the Muara Enim coals in the Air Laya mine based on the ASTM-Standards (D 388-77) as described below: 117

Class Group Approximate Tonnages

Anthracite 3Semianthracite 1,000,000

Bituminous lLow Volatile 15,000,000 2Medium Volatile 3High Volatile A 4High Volatile B 30,000,000 5High Volatile C Sub-bituminous lSub-bituminous A 66,000,000 2Sub-bituminous B

Total 112,000,000 tones

The reserves of anthracitic coals at the Suban mine have been reported by Kendarsi (19 84) to be approximately 5.4 million tonnes.

7.9 BUKIT KENDI COALS

Bukit Kendi is located about 10 kilometres southwest of Bukit Asam. Ziegler (1921) described the coals of this area and identified the coal sequences as (from young to old); the Hanging seams, the Gambir seams, the Kendi seam and the Kabau seam. The Hanging seam comprises 2 to 8 seams which total 15 metres in thickness. This seam probably belongs to M3-M4 subdivision (Shell, 1978). The Gambir seams consists 118

of 1 to 3 layers having a thickness between 2 and 10 metres. This seam probably belongs to the M3 subdivision." The Kendi seam is 8-30 metres in total thickness in the Bukit Kendi area. The Kendi seam comprises 2 to 3 layers and can be correlated with the Mangus-Suban-Petai sequence of the M2 subdivision. The Kabau seam is split into two layers with 2 to 6 metres total thickness. This seam is believed to be equivalent with the Kladi seam of the Ml subdivision. The rank of Kendi coals has been upgraded, by an andesitic intrusion, from brown coal to high volatile bituminous coal. Unfortunately this coal is distributed only in limited small areas due to the structural complications in this region. Naturally coked coals have also been found in this area, and they probably belong to the Kabau seam. The quality of the Kabau seam is described in Table 7.9. Shell Mijnbouw (197 8) estimated the in-situ resources of the Kabau seam about 0.5 million tonnes, down to 100 metres depth.

7.10 BUKIT BUNIAN COALS

Bukit Bunian is located 10 kilometres south of Bukit Kendi. In this area two coal groups occur which were designated by Hartmann (1921) as the Tahis and Bilau seams. The Tahis seam can be correlated with the Kladi seam of the Ml subdivision (Shell Mijnbouw, 1978), whereas the Bilau 119 seams are believed to be equivalent with the Mangus, Suban and Petai seams. The Tahis seam is split into two layers and has a total thickness up to 4 metres. The Bilau seams can be divided into three; Bilau 1, 2, and 3. The Bilau 1 is a poorly developed seam consisting of 2 or 3 thin layers and often contains carbonaceous clay. The thickness of this seam varies from 0.5 to 1.5 metres. The best developed coal seam is Bilau 2 about 10-15 metres in thickness, whereas the thickness of Bilau 3 seam varies from 1.5 to 8 metres. The quality of the Bunian coals was reported by Shell Mijbouw (197 8). According to this report, the reflectance values of the Bukit Bunian coals are about 0.6 to 0.8% and the coals have gross calorific values of about 7100-7900 kcal/kg (dried air free). Inherent moisture of the coals varies between 10 to 18%. Volatile matter contents of the coals range from 40 to 55% (dry). The coals contain less than 5% ash and contain less than 1% to 2.6% sulphur on a dry basis. In the area closer to the intrusive body, gross calorific values of the coals increase to about 8300-8500 kcal/kg (dried air free) and volatile matter content decreases to about 4%. Inherent moisture content of the thermally upgraded coals drops to 1%. The resources of coal have been reported to be more than 35 million tonnes, but these resources would be difficult to mine by either open-pit or subsurface methods due to very steep dips (20-55°) and the complicated structural setting. 120

CHAPTER EIGHT COAL UTILIZATION

8.1 INTRODUCTION

In Indonesia, the utilization of coal for domestic purposes can be divided into two categories; firstly as direct fuel, for example in power plants, lime, brick tile burning and cement plants, and secondly as an indirect fuel or as a feedstock for chemical industries. In this last case a major use is coke as a reductant in ore smelting and

foundries. The utilization of coal cannot be separated from the application of coal petrographic studies because the behavior of coal properties such as type and rank will influence the utilization of coal. Petrographic methods are generally the most suited for determining the genetic characteristics of coal, the rank of coal and can be also used to predict the behavior of coal in any technological

process of interest. At the present time, the South Sumatra coals, particularly from the M2 subdivision of the Muara Enim, are mainly used for steam generation. This energy is used directly and indirectly in industrial processes and by utilities for electric power generation. Semi-anthracite coals from the Suban mine are used mainly as reductant in the Bangka tin smelter. 121

The coals are transported by train from the Bukit Asam mines to supply the cement manufacturing plant at Baturaja town, the electric power plants at Bukit Asam itself or at Suralaya (West Java), and to supply the Bangka tin smelter on Bangka Island (see Figure 8.1).

8.2 COMBUSTION

Mackowsky (1982) and Bustin et al. (1983) noted that the generation of energy or heat from coal by combustion is the result of reactions between the combustible matter of the coal and oxygen. Four coal characteristics related to rank and petrographic composition influence combustion (Neavel, 1981; Mackowsky, 1982); calorific value, grindability, swelling and ignition behavior, and ash properties. The relationship between calorific value and maceral groups has been discussed by Kroger (1957) as shown in Table 8.1. From these data it can be concluded that macerals which have a high hydrogen content, would have markedly higher calorific value. Liptinite macerals of low rank coals contain relatively high hydrogen. Therefore, the calorific value of this maceral is also high. In contrast the inertinite macerals have low calorific values, which are partially caused by their low hydrogen content. Mackowsky (1982) recognized that the calorific value of the three maceral groups are almost the same for coals of low volatile bituminous rank. 122

The use of coal for combustion at present is dominated by its use as pulverized fuel for electric power generation. Baker (1979) considered that moisture content of coal is the most important factor to be considered in fuel pulverized plant design because variable and excessive moisture can cause serious problems in the operation of pulverizers. Therefore, coal must be dry before entering the pulverized fuel plant. In most power station boilers, coal must be pulverized to a particle size mainly below 7 5 microns (Ward, 1984). Therefore grindability of a coal is an important characteristic because of the additional energy required to grind a hard tough coal. Based on the ASTM Standard D-409, this property of coal is known as the Hardgrove Grindability Index (HGI); the higher the HGI values, the easier coals are to pulverize. In terms of energy required, the higher HGI values mean less energy is required for grinding than for lower HGI values. The grindability of the Muara Enim coals ranges between 37-56 HGI. The HGI is related to rank and type of a coal. This relationship has been studied by Neavel (1981). He noted that the HGI increases with increases in rank to about 1.40% vitrinite reflectance (about 23% volatile matter and 90% C) and decreases at ranks greater than 1.40% vitrinite reflectance. Low-volatile bituminous coals are generally much easier to pulverize than high-volatile coals. Coals rich in liptinite and inertinite, are much more difficult to 123 grind than vitrinite-rich coal. The Muara Enim coals are rich in vitrinite but are easy to grind and commonly accumulate in the finer fractions, being enriched in the small size range. In addition, mineral content of coal is also related to the HGI values. In low rank coals, the HGI values increase with increases in mineral matter content. Neavel (1981) reported that increases in the amounts of liptinite, vitrinite and pyrite can be correlated with an increase in the explosive tendencies of dust. Furthermore, he added that the tendency for spontaneous combustion in stockpiles is mainly related to the presence of coals rich in fusinite or pyrite. The Muara Enim coals have a low content of fusinite (less than 1%), but the tendency for spontaneous combustion is still high due to their low rank and, in some cases, high pyrite content. The behavior of the individual coal macerals during the combustion process has been observed by Ramsden and Shibaoka (1979) using optical microscopy. They indicated that vitrinite-rich particles from bituminous and sub-bituminous coals expand forming cellular structures. However fusinite-rich particles show little or no expansion. Expansion is greatest for medium volatile coals where it is mainly influenced by the rate of heating. They also noted that the burn-off rate is influenced by the maceral content. Vitrinite-rich particles have a higher burn-off rate than fusinite-rich particles. Reid (1981) noted that the ash properties are related 124

to mineral composition in the coals. Mineral matter affects the development of deposits and corrosion. Variations in type of mineral matter also can affect ash fusion properties. Coals that have low ash fusion temperatures are likely to cause slag deposits to form on the boiler surfaces. Boilers can become coated or corroded by slag deposits. The major elements of the ash in the Muara Enim coals, that is Fe, Mn, Ca, Mg, Na and K, are bonded to the coal. These elements are present in minerals such as quartz, kaolinite, pyrite, detrital volcanic feldsphar, 'Ca and Ca-Mg-Fe carbonates, sulphates and phosphates. Sulphur is a major contributor to corrosion by flue gases. Sulphur content of Muara Enim coals varies between 0.2 to 1.7%.

8.3 GASIFICATION

Gasification of coal is another possibility for using Muara Enim coals. Through gasification, the coal is converted into gas by using oxygen and/or steam as the gasification agent. The gas yielded can be used as an alternative to natural gas. Gasification testing of the coals from the Bukit Asam mines has been done by using the Koppers-Totzek process (Gapp, 1980). According to tests, the coals produced good results for gasification. In South Sumatra, a large nitrogen fertilizer industry is based on natural gas. This industry is located near 125

Palembang City. Continued future operation of this facility depends on an assured supply of natural gas as its feedstock. Reserves of mineral oil and natural gas are limited whereas abundant coal is available. By using coal gasification technology, synthetic gas can be produced economically for ammonia and methanol production. Hartarto and Hidayat (1980) estimated that one coal gasification plant would consume about 700,000 tonnes of coal per year to produce 1000 tonnes ammonia per day. He added that from these figures, about 7000-8000 tones of sulphur can be produced a year as a useful by product. Most of Indonesia's sulphur requirement is still imported because there are no large sulphur deposits within the country. Therefore, sulphur from coals could replace this import.

8.4 CARBONISATION

In the area of coal carbonization or coke making, the application of coal petrology plays an important role. Maceral and reflectance analysis can be used to predict the behavior of coals used for coke. In general, coals in the bituminous rank range (from about 0.75% to 1.7% vitrinite reflectance) will produce cokes when heated, but the best quality cokes are produced from coals in the range vitrinite reflectances from 1.1 % to 1.6 % (Cook, pers. coram, 1991). However, not all bituminous coals can produce coke. Carbonisation or coke making is a process of destructive 126 distillation of organic substances in the absence of air (Crelling, 1980; Neavel, 1981; Cook, 1982; Makowsky, 1982). In this process, coal is heated in the absence of air and turns into a hard sponge-like mass of nearly pure carbon. Coke is mainly used in iron making blast furnaces. In the furnace, the coke has three functions; to burn and to produce heat, to act as a reductant, and to support, physically, the weight of ore, coke and fluxing agents in the upper part of the shaft (Cook, 1982). In order to improve coking properties of Muara Enim coals, a Lurgi low temperature carbonization pilot plant was built in the Bukit Asam area (Tobing, 1980). The result of the tests indicated that metallurgical coke of sufficient strength and porosity could not be made on an economical basis. Tobing (1980) described the chemical characteristic of the semi cokes which were produced from the Lurgi plant and they were similar to the Bukit Asam semi-anthracitic coals as shown in Table 8.2. The Bukit Asam semi-anthracitic coal is used by the tin ore smelting in Bangka and ferro-nickel smelting at Pomalaa (Sulawesi). Edwards and Cook (1972) studied the relationship between coke strength and coal rank which is indicated by vitrinite reflectance and carbon content of vitrinite (Figure 8.2). They suggested that coal containing between 86% and 89% total carbon in vitrinite can form cokes without blending with other coals. Coal which has a vitrinite content between 45% to 55% and an inertinite content of close to 127

40%, is very suitable for coking coal. These target specifications are not met by the coals from the South Sumatra Basin. 128

CHAPTER NINE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

9.1 SUMMARY 9.1.1 TYPE

The composition of maceral groups in the Tertiary sequences are summarized in Table 9.1 and Appendix 2. The results of the present petrographic study show that the Muara Enim, Talang Akar and Lahat Formations contain lithologies rich in DOM and a number of coal seams. In general, vitrinite is the dominant maceral group within the Tertiary sequences. The second most abundant maceral group is liptinite. In the Gumai Formation, however, inertinite appears to be the second most abundant maceral to vitrinite.

Table 9.1

No. Formation Range R max Coal DOM (%)V V I L V I L (%) (%) (m.m. f. ) (m.m. f.)

1. Lahat 0.54-0.92 86 4 10 84 2 14 2. Talang Akar 0.50-0.87 87 3 10 90 3 7 3. Baturaja 0.53-0.72 97 tr 3 4. Gumai 0.36-0.67 63 22 15 5. Air Benakat 0.31-0.58 81 13 78 3 19 6. Muara Enim 0.30-0.50 65 3 32 In the South Palembang Sub-basin, on a mineral matter free basis the vitrinite content of the DOM from Tertiary sequences ranges from 65% to 97% (average = 81%), whereas in the coals, it ranges from 81% to 87% (average = 84%). Both 129 in the coals and DOM, detrovitrinite is the main vitrinite maceral group and predominantly occurs as a detrital groundmass interbedded with thin bands of telovitrinite. In some cases where the coals are affected by thermal effects from intrusions, telovitrinite is the main type of vitrinite as reported by Daulay (1985). Vitrinite from the youngest coal seams (Muara Enim coals) still shows cellular structures derived from plant material. Some of the telovitrinite cell lumens are infilled by fluorinite or resinite. Gelovitrinite, mainly corpovitrinite and porigelinite are scattered throughout the coals. With increasing depth and age, telovitrinite becomes dense and compact, and the cell lumens are completely closed. This occurs in the coals from the Lahat and Talang Akar Formations. For the thermally affected coals, vitrinite is mostly structureless, massive and contains few pores (Daulay, 1985). The dominance of vitrinite in these coals is indicative of forest type vegetation in the humid tropical zone, without significant dry events throughout the period of accumulation. Cook (197 5) noted that coals which have a high vitrinite content were probably deposited in areas of rapid subsidence. In some cases vitrinite-rich coals have a high mineral matter content. Inertinite is generally rare in the South Palembang Sub-basin. On a mineral matter free basis, it ranges from sparse to 22% (average = 5%) in the DOM while in the coals it ranges from 3% to 6% (average = 5%). The highest 130 inertinite content occurs in the Gumai Formation. In the Tertiary sequences, inertinite mainly occurs as inertodetrinite but semifusinite, fusinite and sclerotinite can also be found in the coals' from the Muara Enim and Talang Akar Formations. Some well-preserved mycorrhyzomes occur in the Muara Enim coals. Micrinite also occurs in some coals and DOM and it is present generally as small irregularly-shaped grains. Liptinite content of DOM ranges on a mineral matter free basis, from 3% to 32% (average = 15%), whereas it ranges from 10% to 13% (average = 11%) in the coals. Cutinite, sporinite and liptodetrinite are the dominant liptinite macerals in the Tertiary sequences. In general, the liptinite macerals from the youngest sequences can be easily recognized by their strong fluorescence colours compared with liptinite in the oldest sequences. Suberinite has strong green to yellow fluorescence and mostly occurs in the Muara Enim coals. Fluorinite is also common in the Muara Enim coals. It has green fluorescence and commonly infills cell lumens or occurs as discrete small bodies. In some cases, fluorinite also occurs in the Air Benakat and Gumai Formations, but in minor amounts. In the Muara Enim coals, cutinite and sporinite have a yellow to yellowish orange fluorescence. However, they give weak fluorescence colours ranging from orange to brown in the Talang Akar and Lahat coals. Exsudatinite occurs mostly in the Muara Enim and Talang Akar 131 coals, but it also occurs in some of the Lahat coals. It has bright yellow fluorescence in the Muara Enim coals and yellow to orange fluorescence in the Talang Akar coals. Bitumens and other oil related substances such as oil drops, oil cuts and dead oils occur either associated with DOM or coal throughout the Tertiary sequences. In general, bitumen and oil cuts are mostly present in the Muara Enim coals and have a greenish yellow to bright yellow fluorescence. In the Talang Akar coals, bitumen has yellow to orange fluorescence. Bitumen occurs mostly within vitrinite, largely in cleat fractures of telovitrinite but also some in detrovitrinite. Based on the petrographical observations, bitumen is probably derived from the liptinite macerals where these macerals have a higher H/C ratios. vitrinite macerals also provide some contribution.

9.1.2 RANK

Mean maximum vitrinite reflectance of coal samples from shallow drilling and oil well samples from the South Palembang Sub-basin was plotted against depth as shown in Figure 5.21. The vitrinite reflectance gradients of the basin range from 0.20% to 0.35% per kilometre. A marked increase in vitrinite reflectance with depth is shown from, a depth of below about 1500 metres (R max 0.5%) to 2500 metres (R max 0.9%). The Talang Akar and Lahat Formations are intersected by the 0.5% to 0.9% R max surfaces, and are -\o,o

thermally mature for oil generation. Therefore, coals from these formations can be classified as high volatile bituminous coal. The Muara Enim Formation has vitrinite reflectance values ranging from 0.3% to 0.5% and is thermally immature to marginally mature for oil generation. Consequently, the coals from this formation are brown coal to sub-bituminous in rank. Chemical parameters such as carbon content, calorific value and moisture content from the Muara Enim coals (see Table 7.1 in Chapter 7) also support that classification. In some places the Muara Enim coals affected by intrusions have high vitrinite reflectances, ranging from 0.69% up to 2.60% and they can be classified as semi-anthracitic to anthracitic coals. The Baturaja and Gumai Formations are thermally mature while the Air Benakat Formation is immature to marginally mature for oil generation. Relationships between coalification and tectonism can be defined by comparing the shape of the iso-rank surfaces and structural contours. In general the iso-reflectance lines in the South Palembang Sub-basin are semi-parallel with the orientation of the formation boundaries. Therefore, a major pre-tectonic coalification event is present in this area, but partial syn-tectonic coalification patterns are also evident in the Limau-Pendopo area.

9.1.3 THERMAL HISTORY

The present geothermal gradient in the South Palembang 133

Sub-basin ranges from 36°C to 40°C/kilometre, with an average of 38°C/kilometre. However, Thamrin et al., (1979) reported that the average geothermal gradient in the South Palembang Sub-basin is 52.5°C per kilometre. The high geothermal gradient may result from rapid burial during sedimentation which followed Tertiary tectonisra. At least three major tectonic events occurred in the South Sumatra Basin, that is the mid-Mesozoic, Late Cretaceous to Early Tertiary and the Pio-Pleistocene orogenic activities. These orogenic activities were mainly related to the collision and subduction of the Indo-Australian plate against the Eurasian plate. The gradthermal model and palaeothermal calculations suggest that the present temperatures are lower than in the past. These also indicate that the sediments of the South Palembang Sub-basin underwent a period of rapid burial prior to a period of uplift and erosion.

9.1.4 SOURCE ROCK AND HYDROCARBON GENERATION POTENTIAL

Organic petrology data show that the Lahat, Talang Akar, Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations have better source potential for liquid hydrocarbons than the Baturaja and Gumai Formations. According to Sarjono and Sardjito (1989), however, the Baturaja and Gumai Formations have good to excellent source potential based on the TOC and Rock-Eval pyrolysis data. The differing results are probably caused 134 by the limitation of samples from these formations used in the present study. From petrographic studies the Lahat, Talang Akar and Muara Enim Formations are considered to have good source potential for gas and liquid hydrocarbons but based on the Tmax data, only the Lahat and Talang Akar Formations are considered to be early mature to mature with Tmax values ranging from 430°C to 441°C. This is supported microscopically by the presence of bitumens and other oil related substances within the coal and shaly coal samples. The Muara Enim Formation is immature to early mature with Tmax values of less than 420°C, although coals from this formation contain significant amounts of bitumen and oil related substances. The Muara Enim and Air Benakat Formations are considered to be gas prone but in some places they may also generate oil. The organic matter in the Gumai and Baturaja Formations comprises mainly vitrinite and they probably generate dominantly gas. Vitrinite reflectance data show that the oil generation zone is generally reached below 1500 metres depth in the Muara Enim area, but it is reached below 1200 metres depth in the Pendopo area. In the Muara Enim area, the top of the oil window generally occurs in the top of the Gumai Formation, but in some wells it occurs in the lower part of the Muara Enim, Air Benakat or Talang Akar Formations. In the Pendopo-Limau area, the upper and middle parts of the Gumai Formation occur within the top of the oil generation 135

zone. The Lopatin model indicates that the onset of oil generation occurs at 1300 metres depth in the Muara Enim area, while in the Pendopo-Limau area it occurs at 1200 metres depth. In the Muara Enim area, oil may have been generated since the Late Miocene (8-7 Ma BP), while it occurred in the Middle Miocene (11-9 Ma BP) in the Pendopo area. Gas chromatography and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses indicate that the oils in the South Palembang Sub-basin were derived from terrestrial higher plant material. These oils are characterized by high ratios of pristane to phytane and by the high concentrations of bicadinanes and oleanane. In the present study, geochemical data from the source rocks and coals, particularly from the Talang Akar Formation, reveal that these samples are just approaching oil generation maturity and their biomarker signatures are almost similar with those in the oil sample studied. A number of potential reservoir rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin occur within the regressive and transgressive sequences. The Muara Enim and Air Benakat Formations from the regressive sequences have good potential as reservoirs. The transgressive sequences are represented by the Talang Akar and Baturaja Formations. The most important reservoir rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin are sandstones from the Gritsand Member of the Talang Akar 136

Formation. In the South Palembang Sub-basin, oil is mainly trapped in anticlinal traps, but some oils are also found in traps related to basement features such as drapes and stratigrapic traps.

9.1.5 COAL POTENTIAL AND UTILIZATION

In the South Palembang Sub-basin, coal seams occur within a number of the Tertiary formations such as the Lahat, Talang Akar and Muara Enim Formations. The coals with economic potential are largely within the Muara Enim Formation. In the Muara Enim Formation, the most important coals in terms of quality and thickness occur in the M2 Subdivision. The M2 coals are sub-bituminous in rank and locally increase to semi-anthracitic in the area influenced by andesitic intrusion. Although the coals from the M4 Subdivision comprise two thirds of the volume of the coal in the South Palembang Sub-basin, they are low in rank (brown coals). The thickness of the coal seams varies from 2 to 20 metres. The moisture content of the M2 coals is about 30 to 60%, calorific value of the coals is about 6500 to 7 500 kcal/kg (dried air free). The inherent ash content of the coals is less than 6% (dry basis), and sulphur content is generally less than 1%. The volumes of coal available in the South Palembang 137

Sub-basin are approximately 2,590 million cubic metres to a depth of 100 metres below the ground surface. These reserves are clustered in the Muara Enim and Pendopo areas. The coals from the South Palembang Sub-basin are mainly used for steam power generation. Semi-anthracitic coals are used as reductants in the tin smelter. Another possibility for using the South Palembang coals is gasification where the gas yielded can be used as an alternative to natural gas. The South Palembang coals do not have coking properties and even where blended with other coals which have vitrinite contents between 45% to 5 5% and inertinite contents of close to 40%, they are unlikely to give satisfactory blends. The Lurgi low temperature carbonization pilot plant may allow more diversified coal

use

9.2 CONCLUSIONS

The Tertiary South Palembang Sub-basin is the southern part of the back-arc South Sumatra Basin which was formed as a result of the collision between the Indo-Australian and Eurasian plates. Tectonic activity in the region continued to influence the development of the basin during the Middle Mesozoic to the Plio-Pleistocene. The Tertiary sequence comprises seven formations, deposited in marine, deltaic and fluvial environments, which are underlain by a complex of pre-Tertiary igneous, 138 metamorphic and carbonate rocks.. Economically, the South Sumatra Basin is an important region in Indonesia because it is a major petroleum producing area and the coals are suitable for exploitation as a steaming coal. One large mine is presently operated by the Indonesian government through the Bukit Asam Company with the coal available for both internal and export markets. With regard to petroleum, few petrographic studies have been carried out to characterise the organic matter in the source rocks or to elucidate the geothermal history of the basin. This study was undertaken to further knowledge of the coal and source rocks in the South Palembang Sub-basin, a sub-basin in which many studies have been carried out on the petroleum but few on the coal and its resources. Evaluation of the organic matter in representative coal, carbonaceous shale and clastic rock samples from the seven formations was based on maceral type and abundance studies using reflected white light and fluorescence mode microscopy. The maturity of the rocks was assessed using vitrinite reflectance data which was then used to determine the geothermal history as described in the Lopatin model. In addition Rock Eval geochemistry of selected samples1 was undertaken. Four oils from the Talang Akar, Lahat and Baturaja

i Formations were characterised using gas chromatography and gas chromatograph-mass spectroscopy techniques. In general, petroleum potential of the seven formations 139 in the South Palembang Sub-basin ranges from poor to good to very good. Specific conclusions arrived at during this study are listed below.

In the South Palembang Sub-basin coals occur in the Lahat, Talang Akar and Muara Enim Formations but the main workable coal measures are concentrated in the Muara Enim Formation. The coals occur as stringers, ranging from centimetres in thickness, to seams up to 20 metres thick. The Muara Enim coals are widely distributed over the entire South Sumatra Basin. Coal in the Talang Akar and Lahat Formation is similar in occurrence to the coal in the Muara Enim Formation. From the viewpoint of economically mineable coal reserves, coals from the M2 Subdivision are the most important coal units in South Sumatra. The coals can be utilized for electric power generation and gasification but are unlikely to be satisfactory as blend coals in carbonisation processes. The clastic units contain dispersed organic matter (DOM) which constitutes up to 16% of the bulk rock, with some carbonaceous shales associated with the coals containing up to 40% organic matter. Many of the samples examined contain bitumens, oil drops, oil cuts and oil haze when examined in fluorescence mode. These components together with the presence of exsudatinite are accepted as evidence for oil generation in 140 some of the units, especially the Muara Enim and Talang Akar Formations. Based on the reflectance data, the Muara Enim coals are classified as brown to sub-bituminous coals in rank. Some anthracitic coals are also found in the area near andesitic intrusions. The Talang Akar and Lahat coals can be classified as sub-bituminous to high volatile bituminous coals in rank. The Gumai, Baturaja, Talang Akar and Lahat Formations are typically oil mature, but in some places, the lower part of the Muara Enim and Air Benakat Formations are also mature. The reflectance profiles of the Palembang Sub-basin. increase at 0.20% to 0.35% per kilometre and, based on the reflectance data the oil generation zone is generally reached below 1500 metres depth. The average geothermal gradient in the South Palembang Sub-basin is relatively high, at more than 40 C/km; therefore, oil may be found at shallow depths. Based on the gradthermal model and palaeothermal calculations, the present temperatures are lower than in the past. Using the Lopatin model and taking the top of oil window at TTI = 3, oil generation can be expected to commence at depths of 1200 to 1300 metres which fits well with the top of the oil window as predicted from reflectance data. Oil generation in the Talang Akar and Lahat Formations is predicted to have started approximately 9-11 Ma BP. Coals and DOM in the Tertiary sequences are dominated by 141 vitrinite with detrovitrinite and telovitrinite as the main macerals. Liptinite occurs in significant amounts and comprises mainly liptodetrinite, sporinite and cutinite. In general, inertinite is rarely present in the sequences. Bitumens are mainly found in the Muara Enim coals but they are also found in the Talang Akar and Lahat coals. The coals and DOM are mostly derived from terrestrial higher plants. Coals and DOM from the Lahat, Talang Akar, Air Benakat and Muara Enim Formations can be considered as having good to very good source potential for gas and liquid hydrocarbons. In some places, the DOM from the Baturaja and Gumai Formations may also generate gas. Assessment of the source rock potential of the various units was carried out using the Score A method which is based on the volume and composition of macerals. Score A values of up to 16-19 were obtained for some samples from the Muara Enim and Talang Akar Formations, indicating very good source rock potential. The same samples gave high SI + S2 Rock Eval values, also indicating very good source potential. The crude oil geochemistry indicates that the oils are derived from terrestrial land plant sources, a factor that is supported by the petrographic data. The oils are dominated by saturated hydrocarbons (up to 77% of the total oil) and can be classed as paraffinic oils. Aromatic hydrocarbons constitute up to 27% and polar compounds comprise up to 9% of the oil. 142

The saturated fraction is characterized by a bimodal n-alkane pattern with isoprenoid alkanes relatively abundant. Pr/n-17, Ph/n-18 ratios and pristane/phytane ratios indicate that the oils were derived from terrestrial organic matter. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry showed that the oils contained a series of C27, C29+ pentacyclic triterpanes, bicadinanes, hopanes and C27-C29 steranes. The Gritsand Member of the Talang Akar Formation is the most important reservoir in the South Palembang Sub-basin but sandstones from the Muara Enim and Air Benakat Formations also have good reservoir potential. A review of the data shows that within the South Palembang Sub-basin the Pendopo-Limau area, in the northeast part of the sub-basin, has the greatest potential for hydrocarbon generation and, therefore, is the most prospective region. 142(a)

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Struckmeyer, H.I.M., 1988. Source rock and maturation characteristics of the sedimentary sequence of the Otway Basin, Australia. Phd Thesis (unpubl.), University of Wollongong. 340 pp. Sudarmono, 1974. Pola struktur di daerah cekungan Sumatra Selatan. Paper presented at PIT IAGI 3rd, Jakarta. 20 pp. Suhendan, A.R., 1984. Middle Neogene depositional environments in Rarabutan area, South Sumatra. Proc Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 13th Ann. Conv. 63-73. Summons, R.E., 1987. Branched alkanes from ancient and modern sediments: Isomer discrimination by GC/MS with multiple reaction monitoring. Org. Geochem., 11(4). 281-289. , Brassell, S.C, Eglinton, G., Evans, E., Horodyski, R.J., Robinson, N., Ward, D.M., 1988. Distinctive hydrocarbon biomarkers from fossiliferous sediment of Late Proterozoic Walcot Member, Chuar Group, Grand Canyon, Arizona. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta., 52. 2625-2637. Summons, R.E. and Jahnke, L.L., 1990. Identification of the methylhopanes in sediments and petroleum. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 54. 247-251. Suseno, A., 1988. Beberapa catatan dari studi cekungan Sumatra Selatan di Den Haag, Netherland. Explorasi Pertamina UEP-II Report (unpubl.) Taylor, G.H., 1971. Coal petrography. CSIRO Aust. Div. Coal. Res. Tech. Commun., 45. 4-19. and Liu, S.Y., 1989. Micrinite-its nature, origin and significance. Int. of Coal Geol., 14. 29-46. Teerman, S.C, Hwang, R.J., Williams, H.H., 1987. Liquid hydrocarbon potential of Sumatran resinite. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 16th Ann. Conv. 231-240. f 1989. Evaluation of the source rock potential of Sumatran coals by artificial maturation coal. Proc. Indo. Petrol. Assoc. 18th Ann. Conv. 469-490. — _ _ __ Teichmuller, M., 1962. Die Genese der Kohle. Quatrierae Congres International de Stratigraphie et de Geologie du Carbonifere, Heerlen 1958, Comte Rendu, 3. 699-722. 159

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Vogler, E.A. and Meyer, 1981. Comparison of Michigan basin crude oils. Geochim. Cosraochira. Acta., 45. 2287-2293. Volkman, J.K., Alexander, R., Kagi., R.I., Noble, R.A. and Woodhouse, G.W., 1983. A geochemical reconstruction of oil generation in the Barrow Sub-basin of Western Australia. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 47. 2091-2105. and Woodhouse, G.W., 1983a. Deraethylated hopanes in crude oils and their applications in petroleum geochemistry. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta, 47. 785-794. Von Schwartzenberg, T., 1986. The Air Laya coal deposit, South Sumatra, Indonesia. Braunkohle, 38 (Heft 11). 307-315. Waples, D.W., 1980. Time and temperature in petroleum formation: Application of Lopatin's method to petroleum formation. Bull. Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol., 64(6). 916-926. , 1985. Geochemistry in Petroleum Exploration. International Human Resources Development Corporation, Boston. 232 pp. and Machihara, T., 1990. Application of sterane and triterpane biomarkers in petroleum exploration. Bull. Can. Petrol. Geol., 38(3). 357-380. Ward, C.R., 1984. Coal Geology and Coal Technology. Blackwell Scientific Publication, Victoria. 345 pp. Welte, Dietrich H., 1965. Relation between petroleum and source rock. Bull. Am. Assoc Petrol. Geol., 49(12). 2248-2268. Wenneckers, J.H.L., 1958. South Sumatra basinal area, in Habitat of Oil. Tulsa, Oklahoma, Am. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. Syrapho. 1347-1358. Youtcheff, J.S., Given, P.H., Baset, Z. and Sundaram, M.S., 1983. The mode of association of alkanes with coals. Org. Geochera., 5(3). 157-164. Ziegler, K.G.J, 1918. Verslag over de uitkomsten van mijnb. geol. onderzoekingen in Z. Bantam. Jaarboek Mijnwezen Ned. Post Indie, Vol. XLVII, 1918, Verh. I (1920). 40-140. FIGURES TO CHAPTER ONE AREAS:

NORTHERN PROSPECTS BN. BENTAYAN TG TAMIANG BA. BABAT KL.KLUANG PENDOPO PROSPECT ML MUARA LAKITAN TL. TALANG LANGARAN--

TK TALANG AKAR "I | 330 j> BROWN COAL, MOISTURE CONTENT i60% SB. SIGOYANG BENUANG-- WE. WEST BENAKAT 400 PR. PRABUMULIH } ENIM AREA AR.ARAHAN "I 120 — (WEST-ENIM J AL. AIRLAWAI-- -- SJ, SUBAN JERIGI -- BO, BANKO ~J> 450— (EAST- ENIM) MOISTURE CONTENT 28-36% SOUTH EAST PROSPECTS GM GUNUNG MERAKSA I 10 KE. KEPAYANG I 50 MU MUNCAKABAU-- :} VJ. AIR MESUJI 250 6 TOTAL 5135 EQUIVALENT OF 6162 x IC TON (50 METER DEPTH)

Figure 1.1 South Sumatra coal province and its demonstrated coal resources (after Kendarsi, 1984). — 10°N

GULF OF THAILAND

SOUTH CHINA SEA

SINGAPORE / KALIMANTAN

INDIAN OCEAN

DIRECTION OF MOVEMENT STUDY AREA LOCATION MAP SCALE 200 10O»"i 10°S

Figure 1.2 Location map of Sumatran back-arc basins Figure 1.3 Tectonic elements of South Sumatra Basin (after Purnomo, 1984). 4*00

a.

,fl Di 4J fl •H n '1 •ftH Hl ,d id CO 04 §43 o •H -M « +» 3 — o rt On H CO 00 0) cn M CD H ,fl M 4J - •H 0 0)«H fl fi 0 0 +> 0» ta oi flfl 3 it) DH 09 304 CH •oH o

M €) c c o 2 = « = S 55SS -" O OOQ if O

3* 30 4«00 ca 0) H 0 TJ X C CU rO u 0 -Q CiO W < 0 JJ ca •H fl • M 0 — fl• H ^ m 4J co id o\ CU U rH X 0 JO H - •H wo w 0 fl rH id ro ca 0 •a >H ca- c uA 3 id x 4-> cu rfl u u CU ro cu *W •P Om-i H fl id id •H *- U T3 •H C T3 Ol 3 CU 0 0-H H M TJ 0 rH fl CU fl -P U ca ca m

CU

•H Cu. FIGURES TO CHAPTER TWO IMPREGNATION

•Ji 05 < cr " ACUATION c a. a F i a O c £ « • > •*» SETTING

I c a o cn tS —I t u 03 > GRINDING LU 120 220 400 600 ''200 GRIT LAP "••GRIT LAP —••WET ANO ORY —H*WET ANO ORY —^WET ANO ORY PAPER PAPER PAPER

npregnation with Astic Resin —

<' POLISHING Pr Water ooat

CHROMIUM SESQUIOXIOE CHROMIUM SESQUIOXIOE SELVYT CLOTH SELVYT CLOTH I MAGNESIUJtUMM OXIDE MAGNESIUM OXIDE SELVYT CLOTH SELVYT CLOTH I i Washed in Washed in Distilled Water Propan-2-oI

I Air IDrie d Air Dried

MOUNTING ON PLASTICSNE

EXAMINATION Figure 2.1 Flow diagram showing the method for polishing and mounting samples (after Hutton, 1984). A

co c o E cr a o o c s a < cr r- LU 2

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ta . C " ta " Q r - t - « >< c u I! - J w -»_: = ; ; — *i 6 ~ ~ — f oc.- ai U - - a. - UO.- - ~ 3 - - - O i • 3 0-. 5 % 1.0%

SPARSE COMMON

2.0% 10%

ABUNDANT MAJOR

Figure 2.4 Visual aid to assist in the assessment of volumeteric abundance of dispersed organic matter in sediments. FIGURES TO CHAPTER THREE LATE CARBONIFEROUS-EARLY PERMIAN 3UB00CTION PERWIAH-EARLY TRIASSX: SUBOUCTrON

ta O O mm). OOmmmm. O LATE TRtASSJC - JORASSC 3UBOUCTION i. A> _ CRETACEOUS EA«LY TERTIARY 3UB0UCT10H

• m. m. & A, Cl. TERTIARY SUBOUCTrON A A JL_ PRESENT SUBOUCTrON PATERWOSTER FAULT 'DIRECTION OF SPREADING

Figure 3.1 Lineaments of subduction zones in western Indonesia (after Katili, 1984). fTTfflzon. A Zoo* 0

Zona £ [777? gratilt* mZZtX. < •' I Zona C

Kl L0METRE3

KRAKATAU

Figure 3.2 Pre-Tertiary rocks underlying the Tertiary in the South Sumatra Basin (after De Coster, 1974)

FIGURES TO CHAPTER FOUR LAHAT FORMATION N = 15 DOM 0.09-16.99%(Av.= 8.50%) by vol. COAL 2 - 34 % (AV. = 18 %) by vol.

Vol. % •40

COAL

-30

COAL

20 DOM

10

Total Abundance

Average Abundance

Figure 4.1 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM, shaly coal and coal in the Lahat Formation at five well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. TALANG AKAR FORMATION rrr: ^^*"*ta^ J<^ yy \ • ' ^v y\ | [\ ., . V N = 48 / llK... \ / * L XIK • • * \ j "™~^J \ \ DOM 1.82^37.91% (Av= 13.63%) / \V \ \ by vol. 1 Sh.COAL 12-30% (Av= 23%) by vol. COAL 24-97%(Av= 39.47%) by vol. Vol.% SHALY COAL

Total Abundance Inartinite Average Abundance | '•.'.*•.'.'• LipTinite

Figure 4.2 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM, shaly coal and coal in the Talang Akar Formation at ten well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. BATURAJA FORMATION

N = 6

DOM 0.1-2.93% (Ava0.87%)by vol.

VoL%.

-a. OOM

.2

_l

0

Total Abundance i Vltrfntte

Average Abundance Inertinite

Liptinite

Figure 4.3 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM in the Baturaja Formation at six well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. GUMAI FORMATION N = 24 DOM 0.05- 7.33% (Av=l.8 7%)by vol

VOl.% DOM

—4

-3

_2

.1

0 DOM

Vitrinite 3 Total Abundance

aftC#)Average HUH. Atmcul j Inertinite< l-.'-y.-'.-l Liptinite

Figure 4.4 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM in the Gumai Formation at ten well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. AIR BENAKAT FORMATION N = 24

DOM 0.15-15.44% (Av = 3.66 %) vobyl

voi.%

DOM- .15

.10

3 -5 =3 DOM

[ ' j Totol Abundance j Vi trin ita

Average Abundance Inertini te Liptinite

Figure 4.5 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM in the Air Benakat Formation at ten well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. MUARA ENIM FORMATION IM = 57 DOM 1.8 7-7.98% fAv= 4.37%) by vol. COAL 35.6-100% (Av = 66%) by vol.

voi.% rr.A. I0O C0AL

_30 COAL

DOM

Total Abundance

Average Abundance

Figure 4.6 Abundance range and average abundance by volume and maceral group composition of DOM and coal in the Muara Enim Formation at ten well locations in the South Palembang Sub-basin. FIGURES TO CHAPTER FIVE MBU- 2 TD s 2200 m

0,1 0.2 0,3 0.4 OJ 0,6 0.7 0.8 0.9 % Vttrfnite Reflectance

Figure 5.1 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the MBU-2 well. PMN-2 TD = 1959: 6m

0,1 0,2 0,3 0,4 0.3 0.6 0.7 % Vitrinite Reflectance

Figure 5.2 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the PMN-2 well. GM- 14 r TD= 1398 m u. u N* 2 •—i » i 318

— 500

< fi E

•84

a. li. Q 3 — 1000 O

I0»4 BRF nee.

TAF iteo LAF l«4«_ 6M 0.1 0,2 0,3 0.4 a3 OJS 07 o,a % Vitrinite Reflectance Figure 5.3 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the GM-14 well. KG-10 TD-I575 .8 m

U. < it. 167

u. UJ .2 rao.

U.

<

12TB. 6UF 1447. 1817. BRF TAF iu iii u.4 iii ii.i. ii/ -u.y Vo Vitrinite Reflectance Figure 5.4 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the KG-10 well. KD- 0| TD » 1858.5 m

LL.

Sloo 468

u. UJ 2

946. — 1000 £ c

i sea- a. LL. © — 1500 3 a 1872.

ie«7. BRF TAF n B M 0,1 0,2 0,5 0,4 OJ 0.6 OJ" 0.6 % Vftrfnlte Reflectance

Figure 5.5 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the KD-01 well. BRG-3 T.D . 2300 m - o

<

S»4 900

U

1— .1000 o E 1221

Ik a 1900 Q. < 18 81 a u. 3 — 20O0 O 2 0 64 20 64: JPOE- TAF |.0 *280. LAF

% Vitrinite Reflectance Figure 5.6 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the BRG-3 well. TMT-3 TD-1633 m

U. .UJ 2 310

300 u. c r* as £ <

a «w- o 1000 Urn 3 a «9 1164 ... ,,.

1500

issA. t • i i i i i i i •3W O.i 33 0,-5 tt4 UJ 0.6 CL7 Q.d % Vitrinite Reflectance Figure 5.7 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the TMT-3 well. L-5A 22 TD* 2237 m

u. LU 828. 2

U. r— 500 a <

964. 1000 LL. 3 (3 1290. 1312 3RF_

a — 1500 LL. <

1900.

2000 U. < -I

SM 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.6 OJ" 0.3 0.9 % Vitrinite Reflectance Figure 5.8 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the L5A-22 well. BL-2 TD= 1675 m

03 500

8(2 •

U. — 1000 3 •£ - a. o _ 1323 8RF a LS»6 — 1300 u. <

0,1 as as o^ as o.6 0,7 o.a 0.9 % Vitrinite Reflectance

Figure 5.9 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the BL-2 well. BN G-IO T.D. 2565 m -O

MEF t«4

aa

< L_

E 1207

3 9 i ess DOC a. 1667 a) a

2 427 LAF I 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 I.I % Vitrinite Reflectance Figure 5.10 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from the BN-10 well. I' UJ 0 a id JJ o £ 0) DlM HLl ^>M0 50 QD>O •H I Ol o c o •H JJ §ta o flJ rd I M mCQ o(d 10 0 2 O O <0 U C • •H

•H •4

u (_>(/)

S3M13W N! Hid3Q Depth (in metres)

U~

•

ScQ • 5e o+ JL OOOB _. 1000- * m o+ %. o + 0 & 0 MEF +>o

0 ABF o o + e+ • . 61 D •• • + GUF • v • • • 2000" • BRF

• TAF a a a • LAF

i r\s\/\ _ 3000 i ' i | i | . , 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0

Rvmax (%)

Figure 5.13 Plot of reflectance against depth for samples from South Palembang Sub-basin. 0 c • m. o 0c —~ — « 0 0 0) -H — CM 1 -m •U --I 09 S3 0 0 mm. 0

U3 CO r-t rd

U*5 fi 0) w U 0 3 •H rao .rm a c0u JJ • o c T3 ^3 0 0 C cn C -: 03 r-l / I 0 <3 a •u 0 •oH

Syn-te c coalif j •H S H-H rO 05 in 0 E-* r-l U • in u 0 3 5i 0 cS •H A jj 0 JJ 0 — (0 T3 OJ c*- H

in a; (0.51 0.6 0.6 L5 3 ! 4 5 (6) (7JV.R.— 40 35 30 IS 20 IS 10 5 i V.VM 10.51 0.7 OJBJ OJ I US i 2.5 3 I i S (S) (7| %R.- o.e i h Iii' -v.fli (asi 0.6 0.71 as 10 t.s 2.0 ?',*,? (6H?>V.R." I (Sb-.R. CL5) 0.6 0.71 0.8 iniin' UO ' ' iU S i ' 2.0 i2.S 3 J 1*71 IS JO 35 30 2S 20 15 10 S 4 (2- V.VM 1 I i 1 I I! 49 JS JO 35 30 75 20 15 10 5 I V,VM lime in million years 10 12 20 30 40 50 100

200-

100

0-001 001 002 Z-SCALE figure 5.17 Karweil Diagram showing relationship of time (Ma), temperature { C) and rank scales (after Bostick, 1973). Scale H is used for calculating thermal history of Table 5.11 and 5.12. s I • e °g e - m__Z a E « : v. r e • o e _ e o fl c •I it v

D X T3 CD u CD X M—I 8 J-> EH 0 0 (0 c 0 CD ca o a a i C •H H CD CD JJ CD co 0) 0 JJ •H J3 o •H 0 H •H o >i CO 01 fl JS-O 0-H •H o M QjJ3 o o (0 jJ T3 JJ CTi E •H CD 3 > S U O J3 O JJ CD 00 OJ •H U rd C <7l o JJ 0 CD •H H c c fQ CO 0 ' fl JJ H CO o U CD o fl u sS flM I* •H CD 0) Ju5 fO rO CD JJ M ro JJ U CD 01 JJ Ll O CD »8 CD v. CD 8 c •H 0 I Ol* CN X J3 CD o 8 C CJ W JJ CO 0) CD o 5 o CO o (0 W 0 JJ CO CD o m JJ 0 JJ 0-H o (0 c CO I •H 10 (D CD Ofll o(0 o CO > O0 JJ CD 0 •H J(J0 JJ M CO •H •H W rO CD C 4J JJ •H d C CD (0 0 JJ rd H CD OWl U U > O u (O0 •H T3 CD s •H >i fl >i fl JJ u CU -H X-ri U CD CO to M • LD CD to o o •H

8 2° o 8 8 8 o o N 10 * (Ut) H ±s d A c i < d o d fl 10 fl 0 c ° rO a-0d o © •H •flH CcO 2 N CVO c 0 1 § JrJO u M fl o 0 CD \ C0J iw a— J-i JJ ro c sz CD co •>— -©© © d u M Ho. \ o> CD oc © 0 s? X\ 8 JJ o 1 » o \ • to a fl JJ — CD fO o c o O 0 c © 9 o» •H B o *— — c JJ K «-0> JmZfm. fl U So CX CO o c rO D 0-H *p o >> o U X W c c1 ' o 3 CD § DTK fl ' ! = 3 u 6 Oi 1 © o CD JJ 6 cn Ol 0 U ' © rUO 0~ - 4 fl co L.6 4-1 CN V o C > V H CO ID \;t. JQ CD (0 cn — 1 J= U •H rH 6 1 o» rO JJ - X CJ V / 5 = CO H 6 -r V 0 ° c0n i-H O O H — (E M•» 01 LDd T3 VJ CD us \a CD fl M 3 H 0 0 0 U JJ 0H RIN I TIN I IlNI T SIN I •H or JK > VERY GOOD

GOOD

Q O

FAIR

POOR

0 Muara. Enim Fat.

• Tata fig Akar RB.

i i - i i i i I i I '' I l I | i I l , \ ill' 0.2 O.S 1.0 5.0 K> 50 KX> ISO A: Liptinite ••• 0.3 Vitrinite +0.05 Inertinite (Vel. %of sample)

Figure 5.20 The relationship between S1+S2 values and the Score A for samples studied from the Muara Enim Formation and the Talang Akar Formation (after Struckmeyer (1988). Figure 5.21 Generalized zones of petroleum generation and approximate correlation with maximum palaeotemperatures and reflectance of vitrinite, exinite and inertinite (from Smith and Cook, 1984).

Figure 5.22 Maturation model for the main organic matter groups and sub-groups (from Smith and Cook, 1984). tfl fl 0 0 A •H JJ • C+JH ta 0 ft« a) CD •H | ROM JJ (0 CO Q)"M flH J0J o ta 5W e •H r< OtjO •mH CD CD LT) H • &JJ CN rd rd cd 0 * 0 M C OH rd CDft CD CD to 0 JJ X Q) rd 4J .§ M a) ft> M 0 »Jfrld 0 ard JJ M m M 0 0 ft H rd CD JJ ft 0 fl iH rd Sm>d fl sE CD 0 P0 0 fl fl•H OJA' 0 tfl ta •H ta 0 JJ JJ rd M JSJ 0 0 Q) I rd JJ c ft c «. -H & 0 4J 0 0-g Ho fl JJ Ond 0 £0 tfHl rd 0 JJ=! fl0 uCn M ro CN m CD U g •H 04 (IW Hidaa

CD 0 JJ U •H CJ fl JJ CD •H ro w CO •UH 4CJD 4-1 T3 •H CD H fl JJ (0 0 0 •H IrMo U JJ CD U ft rfl 0 4-1 ft • 0 S 9 CO 0 > CD M fl u Xr oJ J 0 22 •H 0 0 S JJ C J^ CJ fl > •> 0 CrNn M CO CD 10 JJ fl £j CO 0 § >i fl• H 3 H 0 JJ CO CD o ft CO JJ CD gs rd rfl H £• C3O JJ •H CD to C X < CD 0 LU LU •H S-i 2 7. JSJ -d ft t- LU 1 $ ft O fl rO ro (0 o •H CD 0u) o JJ U -1 rd ro H 0c o ft rfl• H 0 0 CO 1 ft jtasj 0 a 0 CD M ••ox CD a JJ *i 0 0 * CN Pm CD CD 1 01 C LT) CD CD JJ U CD A fl 0 M JJ CD W to M CD CD •SH 0 U X CU 4-1 ft JJ FIGURES TO CHAPTER SIX 54 0 5 41 N-ALKANES

AROMATIC

POLARS

542 54 3

Figure 6.1 Bulk composition of the crude oils from South Palembang Sub-basin. gd • * CD 0 u JJ fl• H 4-1 rd rd JJ JJ rd 1 CO >iH CO C •SH Jf l CD CD 0 CO Cu OS C CD rO a • • fl MrO d • •• H 0 CXU H T3 0 CO cd rd CD • •* U u fl 0) •H V>i ro fl • «fcC Q rO CO X MH JJ CD • « d CO fl- CD rio • H rO « JJ M Jjd «d c Cw H N u rO EH fl CD • • JJ M M •» rd (0 CU T3 3 CO •H • 0 • % 4-1 CO U CO OM CD CD id M rud CO CD of3 ftT- £j ft 0 fl (3 fl3 CO rd M d •H JJ a CD fl 0 U 0 w JJ 0 £ VJ H rd M CD rd M rO X fl 0g U JJ 3 0 CuD M £ M JJ XCJ •H fl > CD 0 H to o J3 JJ rO ^» JJ • • CJ if) W 0 VJ H JJ CD CN CD 4-1 • *. • H 0) CD Sh

C JJ rfl • CO O) >iH to C -H X CD CD o co cu os c O CD rd to v •• c ro xJ •• *H u cu H d 0 to DS rfl to CD •« U d a CD -H >i rfl fl •* CQ xi .* rfl w H JJ CD •• TJ rfl co fl - CD I -H rfl PS JJ C to ^ rfl CU H * to rfl EH fl CD •• JJ to to rfl rfl CU T3 IS co -H • o •» 4-1 CQ to C d 0 J* CD CD to rfl JO to rfl w CD E ftd e ft 3 o c ro fl co ra tod -H JJ Ol CD C H 0 to 0 JJ CD X) to H rfl J5 to CD rd 6 1 fd -fl fl 0 fl U JJ to to 2 O CD X to JJ CJ -H fl • CD 0 H CO rH XJ JJ rfl ^* JJ O Ln co 0 to H JJ CD ro O 4-1 •* • H Ol CD >i vo ft fl to JJ 6 -H -H CD 13 T3 CO to CO to •• fl fl O in CD OlH U r-l JJ •PLH, -OH rfUl -IH fl H o

o LO

o rd

51 ftd LU 0 fl to d Ol CD 0 to o JJ CD ro

D r\i 6-0 •« cp 0 CD CD > to JJ fl -H o "r>. 4-i flrd roJJ JJra • to 0) >iH to fl -H X) CD CD 0 to CU PS C A CD (0 to XJ •• fl rd xJ •• *H o U CU H d •to 0 to PS rd too- V d fl CD -H >i td fl •- CQ X! HX JrfJl CwD •• d ro co c - CD LO JCJD C1 -HM rfXl PS ^ rd CM H - to fO H fl CD •• JJ to to Id ro CM TD S . W -H r_z • 0 " : 4H to to C "0 £ 0 X 0) 0! to : rd JQ to id £ 10 CD g ftTJ 2 | ft 3 o fl ,_ itodd fl HC Q rJoJ n 0) CD fl CO m 0 to 0 JJ O JO to H rd J5 to o id 6 I rox; fl 0 fl 0 JJ to tog 0 CD XJ to JJ i—i CJ -H fl r\i • CD 0 H to m X JJ rd «# JJ O in w 0 to H JJ CD in o «H •* i—i • H 0) CD >i <£> ft fl to JJ 6 -H -H CD (0 T3 CO to to to •• fl p o m CD •&H H- H U r1H JflJ PLI 0 (0 «H H IK, es C27 cc 370—>I9I RI 48 w a i ' Ca i ~ *"• J_-^V»Y-^*^—• • IK

68. C28 384-H»I9I U. RI

8 JAJAJW-^JWlU-^JiV 1—1—

IS 16 K C32 a 440—»I9I » a 1314 i •^^JA-*Jta^AiU ta^/^tataW^taJ^A.-^ J^JhAm-r~ 186.

88 C33 C8 454—7191 20

8 v^.^^K\^^^J^^Ji^i^

Figure 6.6 Metastable reaction chromatograms of a typical South Palembang oil showing the distribution of hopane. Refer to Table 6.2A for peak identification. Each chromatogram is identified by carbon number (e.g. C27) and specifiIntensityc .transitio n measured (e.g. 370->191). Ri: Relative LU 7! UJ < z< 7 "-» T O X < o eS_ Q o CO o < CD • o -t- O O z m IO LcUc X o O LU ID LU UCJL ta-c 5 () n 0< . % < *c" o•> u o < o o z •> *- m m CD X < •) < to z o o u o cC LU c 0) X -1 m c to 2 o <3 ta, o 0 zII o (1 II rn- II oII II II JJ _l X «*- rfl X o iS r- i- cc K.- « I to to 0) XJ 0 •JuHJ JrfJl U c to r0o toCD x) U rH CTl 0> rH C *N -H I "0 to d 0 CD cCJ JJ 0CD CJ •toH fl to d JJ CD CO JJ C CJ 0 CD U H CD* CD mD PS tfl CD to

•H

CC

Figure 6.8 Metastable reaction chromatograms of a typical South Palembang oil showing the distribution of steranes and methylsteranes. Each chromatogram is identified by carbon number (e.g. C27) and specific transition measured (e.g. 372->217). RI: Relative Intensity. Notes for the peak assignments for steranes present in the chroiatograis.

1. 20S-5c(H) ,13B(B ,17a(B|-diaster&ne(C27 ) 11. 20S-5a(B),146(B),lla(B)-iethylsterane(C29) 2. 20R-5o(B) ,136(1 ,17a(B) -diasterane(C27| 12. 20R-5a(B),148(B),17a(Bj-iethylsterane(C28] 2QS-5a(B| ,13B(B ,lTa(H)-diiethylsterane(C28 ) 13. 20S-5a(B),146(B),11a(B)-iethylsterane(C28) 4, 20K-5a!B) ,136(B ,l?a(B) -dnethylsterane|C28) 14. 20R-5a(B),146(B),17o(B)-iethylsterane(C28) 20S-5a(B) ,136(B ,17a(B)-diaethylsterane(C29 | 15. 20S-5o(B|,146(B),no(B)-ethylsterane(C29)

6 < 20S-5a(B) ,14B(B iHolB) -sterane(C27) 16. 20R-5Q(B))146(B),17a(B)-ethylsterane(C29) 20R-5a(B) ,MB(B ,17a(B) -sterane(C27) 17. 20S-5a(B),148(B),17a(B)-ethylsterane(C29) 8. 20S-5a(B) ,146(6 ,17o(B) -sterane(C27) 18. 20R-5o(B),146(B),17n(B)-ethylsterane(C29) 9. 20R-5a(Bj ,14B(B ,lTa(B) -sterane(C27) *: Cis cis trans C30 bicadinane 10. 20R-5afflj ,146(B ,17a(B) -diaethylsterane(C29) T= Trans trans trans C3D bicadinane T' = Trans trans trans C30 bicadinane »= Boiobicadinane C31 E' = C30 bicadinane C27

Figure 6.9 Facies interpretation using triangular diagram displaying C27-C29 steranes distribution (after Waples and Tsutomu Machihara, 1990). 5383 5384

N-ALKANES

AROMATIC

POLARS

5385 5386

Figure 6.10 Bulk composition of the extracts from South Palembang Sub-basin, in terms of the polarity classes of saturated hydrocarbons, aromatics and combined NSO-asphaltene fraction. d E CD 6 o JJ •H a O rd fl ro CD to W fl cr c JJ rfl cr CO rfl to CD (0 co ro CD fl o XJ £ 'CD JJ CD fl •H XJ CD JJ H to CD ^> •H CO 'LO M-l JJ • &o u -* flto rfl cno 0 to on Z •H JJ LO JJ X CD o — fl CD CO H XC D ^- LU O & o ta..-*r •H JJ CM to c CO ^ JJ £Z CO •H LL. o fl ^ •H CO ta. .—2 'ro d G 0 o- r- 0 •H CD JJ CD fl •H rfl JJ rfl O o M CJ H ro "C\J rfl to UJ

CD to fl 0i •H

-o -0 CD g o JJ •H o rfl fl ro 0) to W i 1 fl rfl (3 o JJ to cc o rfl rfl CD co fl 'CD CD £ xi CD JJ X! c JJ o •H CD "Ln I H to •H CO 4-i JJ co 0 u r•o o. to rfl in c to CD ! LU H ! i o JJ •H X JJ CD CO CD fl CD mQ XJ fl •H JJ 0 to c JJ •H •H co JJ CO rfl r^cxi •H C 0 d O Cn CD •H CCN JJ rfl CJ M rfl HCD to rftol fl

I Ol •H CD Cn d to CD ro JJ rfl 0) i CD to fl c E JJ rO ro o co H CM j CD ro ro EH I X! CD i CD JJ C5 co X! O fl JJ rx •H CD CM i CD o. H I C3 _S •H to CD 4-1 H-l __3 r LO 0 CO CD to JJ • CM 1 to a JCJJ -- * ^ rfl m CM c X CO 1 CD 0 CD ro CM CD !_° — •H Lf) CM CO - XJ JJ 3 JJ O o ^ fl CO CM LU •H •H to CO JJ C CD 0. "^ CD fl co 0 ^* 0 "m •H •H _^ •H —> CD JJ CD JJ rfl ~? C CJ rfl rfl 3 CD M to 0 "Oj H MJ Cn r(fol

10 CD to fl Oi •H Cn

~v L_a

cc ! E ! _w ro CM CD pr^- c£

CD CM Talan g Aka r

i th e * 3. pCD n th e saturate d P3 J •rte i CD 0 1 O -^ •HH to>W m ^^ i IN """~^ CD 0 CO " *"% pin/f * Qto 0-JJ .• CO -4 rfl vo CM C to co ^. 1 *» 'Sc ^ 0 JJ ro * *>•• T i •H X m CM ~ 3 JJ CD : CM ^ ! J fl-5 8 CD^ CM ». _£=' : s •H X! a / .->.-> -^C o Ml.,. II. ___ LL CM i 5 =? (sa m 0. CO "4. 1 ^ 'w ^ i CD -^ pro CO ^ alkan e dist r action s i n t rmatio n mm. i l to 0

j i fcM-i Cn M pr\j »»• -# -a H 1 i VO CD __o to g •H Cn -CD TYPE III TYPE II TYPE! m\CX\

410" -410 420 Immature Immature Immature .420

-430 -•440 1 pi WilliffiQiuiiiiii 450 JSasZZZ -450 460 PIGa s .460 Mmm * 470."ml sllilllll _470 1> Wilt InWilli K 480 Condensate o wet gas E 490 \- Non existence BOO of 940- Tmax 920

930 940 990 !: dry gas .: -. 990 1 60O

Figure 6.15 The determination of petroleum formation zones by using Tmax. (after Espitalie et al., 1985). DOO

TYPE II

200- TYPE ni

1 I I T » 50 100 150 200 250 OXYGEN INDEX Figure 6.16 Modified Van Krevelen diagram using conventional whole-rock pyrolisis data (after Katz et al., 1990). FIGURE TO CHAPTER SEVEN CO VO < CO JJ «cH* •H ^ * fl Oi CQ to CD CD X! JJ €CD N 4-1 JJ 0 to 10 X>.i XS! rao coo to 0) c coco to •H 0 M JJ > 3 = c cn \ \ / (0 E e V. CO c e ° -o / to to •co w JJ CD a a CO §_l =cn / to to CO JJ « / a. o c i^ to •D

CD to fl \ Ol •H JVX (| UOIJDOIJOJ IDOQ LUIU3 OJDn^J UOI| DILI JO J IDHOuag j{v

dnojg 6uDqLue|oct

auaoojicj auaaoi.id-oiVN auaooj/j

AWVIia3l FIGURES TO CHAPTER EIGHT N

PAUEMBANS I w K«rTOpoti atang. $V—rrrrn.'''* ProbumuUh % Muaraenim '-, Km 9 ^jM"*Ton jung e nim %»^ BUKH^ASAM MINE ( SOURCcN?F COAL ) S 0\.U T H 5£^ SUM A\T ERA

SURALAYA STEAM (POWER PLANT (POINT OF DELIVERY)

LEGEND

i— Raiiwoy if • ••*•*••« System Location — Waterway L— Nsw Trade

lOOKm

Figure 8.1 The transportation net of the Bukit Asam coal. South Sumatra (after Kendarsi, 1984). LU u 4- in h- (3 Z LU C3 to- LU id' o >- cr < LT to­ rn 1- r*

I 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 MEAN MAXIMUM VITRINITE REFLECTANCE,%

i i i 80 82 84 86 88 90 % CARBON IN THE VITRINITE (dmmf)

dmmf sdry mineral matter free

Figure 8.2 Generalized relationship of coke strength and coal rank, indicated by vitrinite reflectance and carbon content of vitrinite, at constant type (after Edwards and Cook, 1972). TABLES TO ALL CHAPTERS Table 1.1 Oil fields in South Sumatra and their cummulative production until 1966 (after Koesoemadinata, 1978).

0 OIL FIELD YBAR OF DEPTH OF FORHATIOH OIL TYPE API CUMULATIVE DISCOVERY RESERVOIRS PRODUCTION (U (BARREL)

Sungai Takai 1963 40-595 Kuara Eoii Paraffinic 43.1 4,281,222 Suban Jeriji 1905 363-763 Air Benakat Paraffinic 43.7 8,670,834 Hangunjaya 1934 201-2251 Air Benakat Asphaltic 24.8 15,836,554 Teipino 1931 589-824 Air Benakat Paraffinic 41.1 76.343.699 Bajabang 1923 824-1007 - Paraffinic 44.7 37,269,022 . lenali Asaa 1931 320-1171 Air Benakat Asphaltic 23.8 80,335,861 6 u • a i Paraffinic 40.5 - Betung 1923 110-400 Air Benakat Paraffinic 40.5 2,115,716 Carang Ringing 1903 50-366 - Paraffinic 42.5 - Babat 1902 30-320 Air Benakat Paraffinic 36.5 - Kebao 1941 360-550 - Paraffinic 55.7 - Raja 1940 1983 Air Benakat Paraffinic 46.0 16,851,348 Boh 1962 1220 - Paraffinic 44.0 140,462 laipung tfiny&k - - Kuara Enii Asphaltic - - Iruh 1941 1006 Talang Akar Paraffinic 38.0 1,474,777 Huang 1944 700-793 Talang Akar Paraffinic 40.0 27,495,042 Lilin 1936 900-? Talang Akar Paraffinic - 482,320 T.Akar Pendopo 1922 854 Talang Akar Paraffinic 37.0 331,425,405 Liiau 1928 1357-1632 Talang Akar Paraffinic 28.0 158,945,473 Gunung Eeiaia 1938 1891-1934 Talang Akar Paraffinic 38.0 16,807,313 Air Benakat 1933 439-467 Talang Akar Paraffinic 36.0 102,370,655 Jirak 1931 210-290 Talang Akar Paraffinic 37.0 45,509,927 Tanjung Tiga 1940 1342-1403 Talang Akar Paraffinic 28.0 35,429,231 ifest T.Hiring 1938' 1284-1537 Talang Akar Paraffinic 28.4 1,541,100 Talang Jiiar 1937 1098-1281 Talang Akar Paraffinic 28.5 125,546,539 Prabuiulih Vest 1953 1446-1720 Talang Akar Paraffinic 32.5 7,244,023 Karangan 1957 1341 Talang Akar Paraffinic 27.7 - Abab 1957 1830 Talang Akar Parafinic 35.0 2,990,595 Selo 1937 580 Talang Akar Paraffinic 35.0 492,482 Be tan 1949 1983 Talang Akar Paraffinic 35.0 3,990,595 Deras 1951 1830 Talang Akar Paraffinic 35.0 957,050 o

E o u"Hia'|OA M0|H i - e A I o o =f o c -J > C3 0> 03 2 5 O - r OU. = 2 u l«oo u/»ojg isoo PJ«H cc o 4-1 UJ o fl sousscajonu aiqatoaiep ON (0 o o o o o o o *. -* O o o IO IO IO — - O o > a •H 4J (0 u •H 4-1 •H O CQ C CQ < T> — D «C < o 0ro) CN N CO u •HH

0 0 0*0 Om7n9)m,0 ?«* O IO in ^r 1.1 I CN ,1,1,1.1 cu H 2 < • < o •S O

(V n •9 r. a > ci ci odd I I [

= e I 5 E = E o •o • = e = O a- o * ". = 2 > a o o — z > _i > to Table 2.2 Summary of the macerals of hard coals (from I.C.C.P. Handbook, 1963).

Group Maceral Maceral Submaceral- Maceral Variety-

Vitrinite Telinite Telinite 1 Cordaitotelinite Telinite 2 Fungotelinite Xylotelinite Telocollinite Lepidophytotelinite Collinite Gelocollinite Sigillariotelinite Desmocollinite Corpocollinite Vitrodetrinite

Liptinite Sporinite Tenuisporinite Crassisporinite Microsporinite Macrosporinite Cutinite Resinite Alginite Liptodetrinite

Inertinite Micrinite Macrinite Semifusinite Fusinite Pyrofusinite Dearadofusinite Sclerotinite Plectenchyminite Corposclerotinite Inertodetrinite Pseudocorposclerotinite

•+• Incomplete, can be expanded as required. w JJ A: X c W I CU 1 CO u (0 tn 1 •H M JJ JJ •H tn .c I tn £ Ta­ 0 CJ CO U) u •H co JJ cu u Itl 0 c e ro c 0) rn cu * u rH -H <-\ 0 cu 3 •«H CU CU rH 4J c cu M V rO rH CU » •H 4J COro cu 3 3 rH (0 4-1 u 4J CO W Cu U WJ cn cu X s 0 JH rH rH O u0 • O m m c JJ C rH 0 JJ JJ 4J 0 UJ o fO c 3 •u o CO tn •H rfl 10 •H CO 3 c CU rH c C rH rH H cu o s CO >, 0O c c0u cn cn cu u s Q) • 0 •H JJ ,0 ro TJ Z ro cu U-l u Z c 0) g cn 3 T3 cu cu >, > rH c e U >i a 0> M 4J •5 0 CU TJ CO jJ c >i 0) cu rfl rfl rO CU 0 JJ to c JJ CU • c CQ cn cu tr> u U S 2 ~ X cuu CO JH >1 a, rO CU JJ CO C C 0 u -u cn cu C 3 • 1-1 c X -U 4H CQ CL, J* m c 0 aj to •W -«H JJ rfl A! ro CO TJ •H u s rfl o X rH rH rO TJ5 4rHO C CU cu 3 c cu cu cn OJ a u U CO uj 0 >i u c >. rfl U0 rfl CU JJ >1 rH o cn 2: -H 3 O Q rfl CU 0 CU CU CCOO cu r-i CU rfl rcHo CU» 3 3 -H rO I •H cu JJ U r-\ JJ U -rfHl cu cu cu C rH rH J=. CJ 0 ns fO JJ 4J OJ UJ 0) u •H rH -H CU J3 en CU VJ U G 0 O CTi C 3rf l C3U •H C 0 U O •4 il JJ 0) UJ M CO JJ 3 n • »a CU m x a o 0O rH CO c CU U 0 B T3 Cn CJ tn <*H ;* DUO CO 0 e 0 cu u cu I cu -H cu (X H H CQ c cn CU tfl cu cu OJ CU rH CU rH -H & u O w • 0 3 CO rH TJ (0 rfl o 3 0 0 rfl IJ CJ -H >i cn CU •oP cn 0 Cu X. •H H c T5 •H >. JC e C,U w •H 0 JJ c T3 M • rH JJ O 4J Dl 0 C rfl C CU JJ •rH 3 U •H rfl 0 sz ro rd U •H CO (0 tn 0 rM JJ U C rfl -4 H •O CO 0) U g O •H rfl • CU rfl cu 0 1-M1 rfl tn < x u •H -M O -H 02)- CO 0c< E CU N 0 fl HH 3 rJ 0) >• 3 -H CJ cu cu •H r-t cn cu o CJ e >i CU C JJ JG T3 W T3 JJ TJ -H >, CJ 0 CO -H rfl ro o 3 JJ O U X U s e C X X 0 E rfl cu CM •H on CQ CN CU JJ CU CM JJ H 3 •H 0 c JJ JJ •H rJ EH rJ CU JJ c •H > Table 2.4 Summary of the macerals of brown coals (from I.C.C.P. Handbook, 1971).

Group Maceral Maceral Subgroup Maceral Submaceral+

Textinite Humotelinite Ulminite Texto-Ulminite Eu-Ulminite

Attrinite Huminite Humodetrinite Densinite

Gelinite Porigelinite Levigelinite Humocollinite Corpohuminite Phlobaphinite Pseudophlobaphinite

Sporinite

Cutinite

Resinite

Liptinite Suberinite

•

Alginite

Liptodetrinite

Chlorophyllinite

Fusinite

Semifusinite

Inertinite Macrinite

Sclerotinite

Inertodetrinite

+ Incomplete, can be expanded as desired Table 2.5 Proposed coal maceral classification system for coals (Smith, 1981).

Maceral Group Maceral Sub-Group Maceral

Liptodetrinite Sporinite Cutinite EXINITE Suberinite Resinite Fluorinite Exsudatinite Bituminite Alginite

Textinite Texto-ulminite TELOVITRINITE Eu-ulminite Telocollinite

Attrinite VITRINITE DETROVITRINITE Densinite

• Desmocollinite

Corpovitrinite GELOVITRINITE* Porigelinite Eugelinite

Sclerotinite Semifusinite Fusinite INERTINITE Macrinite Micrinite Inertodetrinite

Gelovitrinite is only recognized when 10 microns diameter and when not part of telovitrinite. 0 +-> Di a •H M 0 u u ns c •H tfl rO e re M rC e -i £ o w CM 0 >i w •H 4aJ o rdO X U 4-J W m fO 01 tu w H LrUe 3 a. tH DCO i Table 3.2 Stratigraphy of South Sumatra Basin used in the present study based on Spruyt*s Nomenclature (1956). E E E E o o o o IO CD <\J o CM CM CM I I I I O o o o o o CM 3 >« o z: •<= O o £ — J3 ° " J? c a o • ° »- 3 u 3 w ? * « 5 CM -3 O to ° • cl a " I £ 2. o c in i c] o 5 • - !1«• a 13 •H o co .. c *c- a• C . o o * :* 4J c il o c (0 " ** tT 2 o E 0 o — _ "O _ • 5 - £ ^ ' e ** o c ; •= J= 3 a 3 "* u. U o O o E - = " „ >• C «o» E X C o U o o o o a • c W 3 • 2 2 * *! M a mU « c . <* ^ o 3 O o t $• 3 oCO § O . 1 >• o 6 1 c « c o ° * e) — .$2 SI >- O o o °" ^ *- o "> ? i :-= •o •- a o 8 ^> • >» c o c — .O 3 b • a ° s = «- • o c — o >. — — O O r> »- ca • ? o c "i Ho IE — O g o w o O = c ' I £ to -q JB * * s cn .> Dl CT v» ton o 2 a C 3 c 2.*- *c- w. 3 D^cQ n IaH n — a _a c a i— •a CCj a i— cu c o = 3 a a 3 «j OJ a LU XI c CD 21 to Q. 2 I I I § I I I JUL rn CVJ 21

dV^ (qdw) (° dW) d«V q jsqiuaw D JBqiUBW U0I4DLUJ0-J U014DUJJO-J (DSD>{ UOIjDlUJO-j |DOQ LUIU3 DJDn^ 4D>jD"uag JIV dnoJQ 5uDquj3]Dd

SUSOOIL^ AdV|ld31 Table 5.1 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the MBU-2 well. Table 5.2 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the PMN-2 well. Table 5.3 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the (34-14 well.

.oi' Mn • VJ.:l rf w . . ' W • ' Wi I • " ""-ri' "an*"* ' * 3 C "arrcc

- I. VJ f „ ,

r-ira 2«f

JMVI v

, / 0*37 ' *nn_,",c 0.24 22 0.022 wc: " 7 : - r» *. LWbll. ^n "20- 5 0.25 uc: vW WW 0.029 1 C f II! — tt »• * 2 t 1 22273 WWW Ww :' " W t W C u T 1 ; " 0 7 ' T * 5 :n n niii 3C www ww i TV J ..... T - w nut | A * * * •2 ^ 22 75 ~ £ M ~ - el w * w w AS: 1 W 0.050 nut « * r> •» l" : L. WC, . W - w w . w WiTI :n n .*. *« fS w W ..www A - "• W ? * ?77 r» w _ f» n ,1 1,". I W W WW (fl - r.n A3E :a L w W * • u * f*w W . WT I niyi WW ? 1* " 3 :CI^_JR !3 * n * n *cc :a il w £; w w w • tl. ' * - - w w :507a ;i 7 < . • w u » T 0. J5 0.025 cue r, i *n nn WW 1 i. ..». - .. a»T „ w 1 1 Hi in n r.-it T.i. C 77 W • w w T nt 11»J5 1OTJ-TS w TJC 77 • W J T . W 0."* •* w 0."'"7 ; .TI T •nan.;! -i :n .". r. u 77 • «- w V We. ••* l W V 32 L.ni C W t W T I IHflile "jcw-.s n 'C in n ,",17 i AC 77 W We. W "*U (. U T WW « • TU W * W W 1 un i •J * s - We. w W •in <_;,s ,1 tl n mi •C -hi" 1 WW " . W w . w w u 1 W ^2S22r'2ELTS ^r^rt'awr ffl ."'I'm WIHMWI W, W WI W WI WW; t WH W ?« « I 11 III

itHlUA Wl W.WIWHW WikWArrMM

Table 5.4 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the KG-10 well. Voi" »!• !

>.ir*iro amn Table 5.5 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the KD-01 well. Table 5.6 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the BRG-3 well.

..mm "If,!", nerrac

"'il

ire omn

1>M»I ¥ ! C71 • it UIU A \ f. I -os/iinne

1 7 0 W n n fi Jfl - 7 * n 73 in fl * * m W W w W W W 1 W -W w • ww wu W • W W w uc: :r, 1 rt /) n •» i 1 M in 1 A 0 7 , 1 w • I J w t 1 W 1 V - w lie; Li. W 1 V • *• I w W u • W W I 7*5 SX " M w . 7 7 n—? * n in n -77 uc: :J 1 - w - w Vtf 1 W • W u I J 7 4fl £ 7 3 n r. _: n n '7 n 17/ uc: L W « w w www • W v * Y 1 V • V W T mou 1 n .1 171 c. WWW w KEF Ub . w^ W • W L> w IOOE: n ;n 7 a W • 1 W i W ' T rt 7 7 3 uc: --a W 4 W W w w W » W W w 7 710:7 (ins.-n '. 'Q 1] r noe 11 w • - - - v 1 1 w w w . w wit. t ucz w p w mm 'iiana !7£7_:s 1 : wi a a :i •n 1 777 -. lm W W W [WWW WW W e w w floi 1 w W 1 W Ul 77o;n n:5 a _ f TW 4. ww ia .1 mo ADC W *. - V W - w an W e W W W Hwl in 710S1 n 77 j w 1 w !52"*2 W WW V 1 - W n -n w '2 l. w W - 3 • W ft ms .:ww - U > w WW I 770EE (7in.(1 J 1 w w w 22 ! ( n S7 (7 WW<* W w , * 1 w . T w 1 ft mo rfloe-.n w t W U W 22 1 w 22257 n w 1 1 WU w -w w ft ',Ei •s 770c: lOE/.Ea w • w w I w 17 5i i w 1 -. -J T WW ww 1 ,-/s L. w ni 17 773E3 17 ^ • W T w b W *V WW r, >,», w w kb. * w - I n m'' H 4 fl1 JJ 1 ^ *Z '0 77Q7n 16 4 . w h • L, J W W ™ ' w "AC 1 W < L.4. W ( W e w w 7icn.i; G.04 ro 12. 2227; t, • m> ml W T in 17077 ft mn L. 1 W W - w u W < Kmm * u 0.2! W * w w W 12, 77377 2'23-2i 77 0.32 U W 0.327 in 7777-7S IE ww < 2237- *A : W W e> W - W n :» w w 0.C23 1 ' 7707S 5 0JM 71 1 -.; 7 m . 1 Le. t 1 -1 • w w < 77 77077 ?7c;.:: 11 L> W 1 .k w t , -1. W T WW L I 0.04 'Af 77 7707: iies_r- '0 7 "7 ' - W I k. W - 1 «J Wi. W W m, ,', c « ^ 12 >» A * 3 "* * * ** W T i L. 4. • W W ir, IE WW* W~WW i_ WW IE 7702! 7707 L W I w W w W 1 w w w w rt t ; emtio fa rn re '1 WW 1 W.I W WW V. W ill u w 1 W w W 1 u W( * s % IIIUA Jl „ w 1 ar»f 7 7w*/'/m WiH. y Ih.AII Mil Table 5.7 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the TMT-3 well.

Table 5.8 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the L5A-22 well. Table 5.9 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the BL-2 well. Table 5.10 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the BN-10 well. Table 5.10 Reflectance values and temperature data against depth in the BN-10 well. Table 5.11 Thermal history data from selected wells in the Muara Enim area.

Crl] Un Wall flanr-h 0 «» Ana Cnrrnvfi nm Tnrac Tien Tnr»rt Cr'ri-Tcn Tcn-f^no up i . nil .El | Js. w wu I. .HA nm<. | u| MU. I Wit lUIWUl I I WW • . . I UU . Jl UW..WW i ii w II Ii W m w y n n n n U) (ay) 3„ 2. 0.

790CC QDC-7 in7n n cn in wen eq aw cw tc?i „-fAl iui « W*.w w w wiiw) w tUtu W . WW ill lit* W5U8 WW I1 MwCt W W• . T • •+* b3

ton -fl n (_i.wwi witw w Iwt-w J. ww iw rtCi 95 117 1 u*. We tW

•jiacc apt* i i7ir\ n c7 u enc 01 !!8 1QQ -0.24 C4.WWW UltW W II iw J , w ' It JUl We. IUW 22273 BRG-3 2190 3.33 21.S TAF 111 120 132 -0.11

22975 9RG-3 2241 0.37 22 TAF 114 127 203 -0.13

22924 MHU-2 1450 0.55 14 6UF 32 31 145 -0.05 25

11007 UOII-1 17RD rt C7 1C CMC Oi as

22940 MBU-2 1830 0.79 13 TAF 93 124 133 -0. oc

noon CM-ii tiiQ n it ts ciic 7R an too .n no is L.W4.UW Wfl '+ ILTw W.WI IW WW* IW WW . I. w M.WW L. V

inor; eu_u tini n Ei in lie 70 an too _n 17 L.W4.WW 3iTlT IwWT W.w* WW U1I IW WW I kU W.WI

22550 ICD-1 1553 0.52 15 SUF 30 30 128 -0.02 25

22552 KD-1 1725 0.57 19 TAF 37 100 150 -0.21

23557 KD-! 1302 0.51 35 LAF 39 32 131 -0.!4

22595 PMN-2 1855 0.55 22 TAF 95 20 144 -0.09 25

23598 PMN-2 1900 0.53 23 TAF 98 94 !50 -0.03 Table 5.12 Thermal history data from selected wells in the Pendopo-Limau area.

Spl.Hc Sal] Depth R MX Age Forsatian Tgrss. Tjso. Tgrad. Sr2d:Iso Tsurf. °r

nsin iKi-11 fttfi ri fi ti cue 7ft fte toe -fW.Wt I flf ie WWW4.W WWrt wk I I III W.wk IW SUWWIF I7W0 II1195 IUI u Uw W.WI i.W

11S11 !EI_11 117i ft ml tO QDC n 118 189 -0 cc b.HL I LwA 1_4. ll.IT J.WW IU will W » w W

11611 IU-11 1770 ft SS 11 tnn ISO -0.05 L w w im. w uwrt i_i. Itiu w « w w LM TAF 37 1 WW

?95?9 ttk-w ^(\na fl 7a in -0.05 l-WWUW L.WH We. bWWU W.vw WW LAF 105 110 175

IIRIO i KA-H ilea n ai 11 LAF tn 100 150 0.20 L WW*. W WWrt (.*. t. I WW J.UI Wfc I 1 L.

22521 L5A-22 2224 0.32 23 LAF 114 105 153 0.14

23534 TMT-3 1254 3.54 18 TAF 73 SO 144 -0.27 25 73 30 144

22539 TMT-3 1488 0.53 20 TAF 82 90 144

83 ai 22500 TMT-3 1513 0.57 22 TAF 83 8•dim2 1477 -0.14

1110Q BL-2 1133 0 « 14 SUF 74 100 150 -Li] 25 w • WW

mot 0 ci 3L-2 1334 i nt kWbW I Vi • WW 19 81 90 144

11101 tiin 3 " 91 aa i» We- w W 3L-2 uw TAF 142 W * WW ww WW

woe tCQi fl 71 11 tna 3L-2 i ww-* TAF WW -rt 1fl e. W4_ W W Well. Li. 1 wu 173

111O0 1CCC fl 71 tnc tea UW*. w W 3L-2 Veil. 24 TAF 91 (www 1 WW i WW

23181 3JH0 1255 0.55 15 SUF 73 100 150 -0.40

23182 BN-10 1654 0.52 17 8RF 84 110 175 -0.25

22187 8JMQ 1934 0.55 26 TAF 95 105 163 -0.12

22133 8M-10 2112 0.33 27 TAF 100 115 184 -0.20

22131 3N-I0 2253 0.35 28 TAF 105 IIS 183 -0.12

22132 9H-10 2235 0.32 25 LAF 110 120 192 -0.12

22137 SN-10 2542 0.35 40 LAF 115 118 189 -0.03 FEATURE - SIGNIFICANCE MICRINITH DISPROPORTIONATION REACTIONS HIGH CARBON (MICRINITE) AND HIGH HYDROGEN (OIL PRODUCTS) FLUORINITE IN SOME CASES NON-MIGRATED OIL

EXSUDATINITE FORMS AND OCCUPIES FRACTURES REPRESENTS PARTIALLY MIGRATED OIL-LIKE MATERIAL

OIL CUT AND INDICATES THE PRESENCE OF HAZE FREE OIL SECONDARY FLUORESCENCE INDICATES THE PRESENCE OF BITUMENS

Table 5.13 Summary of petrographic features and their significance in relation to oil generation and migration (from Cook and Struckmeyer, 1986). TABLE 6.1 LOCATIONS OF CRUDE OIL AND CUTTING SAMPLES

SAMPLE WELL SAMPLES FORMATION DEPTH NO. TYPE (M)

540 BRG-3 OIL LAHAT FM. 2265-2267 541 BRG-3 OIL TALANG AKAR FM. 2209-2211 542 MBU-2 OIL BATURAJA FM. 1808-1812 543 MBU-2 OIL BATURAJA FM. 1845-1848

5383 BRG-3 CUTTINGS MUARA ENIM FM. 680-690

5384 BRG-3 CUTTINGS MUARA ENIM FM. 900-910 5385 BRG-3 CUTTINGS TALANG AKAR FM. 2106-2110 5386 BRG-3 CUTTINGS TALANG AKAR FM. 2190-2194 eo -o "O ^ i_ *1 a> C7> (35 OT CO c C C C o o o o c a W cn cn cn co 2- __ W rt. •o -~ © CM O) "=L rl 5. —i. "O « i cn in cn cn 01 d H CO co r^ CJ rr g S ra 3 CO CO rZ r-.' Of ca CO CD r- r^ 0PJ) >W. (0 JJ rd caa rd •o fl •> i a> •H TJ O i— o cu cn • >• rr CJ rr CD ca 4J g i o r^ CD CJ cri H id au> cn 0) CD r>- •H M T3 CC 0 fl cu J-> fl OJ ra• H i ca CO CO CJ CO •u i >- CD 4-1 0 -5. E to CO cri ,— 4-1 0 CJ O ^" 0 ca TJ a c OJ fl 0 ca rrj 01 •H ca u 4J ra ca w o 00 *-; •H H (0 CO 0c E E rr "3" cri co ca u O *"*' CJ CJ CJ 1- 0 -Q ' k. ga> 4-> rud 0c < 0 •H CJ-H OT a> U rH 0 P e*w ^___^ (0 U 0 CN CD cn CD CU rH TD fd 3 E cri CD CD r-' X 0 >i M CD cn r- CD £4 Pi rflW a CO CM r^ co If r^ o CD cri U3 0) cn T- *— 3o ""£" r— •— CU o H c •9 o E-» % rr o m- CJ CO S rr rr rr rr cn cn cn cn ru

UJ 2 ^_ CJ -.— OJ < co CO CJ CJ z =5 D -J r6r 6a: cn 3 o a. CD 2 2 Table 6.2A Peak assignments for triterpanes present in Figure 6.6.

Peak no. Compound name Carbon number

1. 18a(H)-22,29,30-trisnorneohopane(Ts) 27 2. 17a (H) -22, 29 , 30-trisnorhopane (Tin) 27 3. 17a(H), 21|3(H)-30-norhopane 29 4. 17a(H),21a(H)-30-norhopane 29 5. 18a(H)-+18(3(H)-oleanane 30 6. 17a (H) , 21(3(H)-hopane 30 7. 22S-14a(17(3 (H) ,H 21 a17 (Ha) (H -moretan) , 21(3 (H)-diahomohopane e 30 8. 22R-14a(H ,17a(H) ,21(3 (H)-diabishomohopane 31 9. 22S-17a(H , 21(3 (H) -homohopane 31 10. 22R-17a(H , 21(3 (H)-homohopane 31 11. 17(3 (H),21a(H)-homomoretane 31 12. 22S-14a(H ,17a(H),21p(H)-diabishomohopane 31 13. 22R-14a(H , 17a (H) , 21(3 (H) -diabishomohopane 32 14. 22S-17a(H , 21(3 (H) -bishomohopane 32 15. 22R-17a(H ,21(3(H)-bisnorhopane 32 16. 22S-14a(H , 17a (H) , 21(3 (H) -diatrishomohopane3 2 17. 22R-14a(H , 17a (H) ,21(3 (H)-diatrishomohopane 33(?) 18. 22S-17a(H , 21(3 (H)-trishomohopane 33(?) 19. 22R-17a(H , 21(3 (H) -trishomohopane 33 20. Cis cis trans C30 bicadinane 33 W C3Tran0 sbicadinan trans trane s C30 bicadinane T Homobic adinane(C 31) T' C30 bicadinane R Unknown compound R' x uo 1^. m- f^. co to CM r^ CO Ol CM eo ^ CO O tO r- O Cl oi oi to u uS to CO CM O b oi — r- Ol uS tO CM CO CO O cn o co uo CO *- m- m— to r^ co .- oi o P5 V - O N 3 UO CM Ol rr CM rr UO m- UO CO mm U> CO m r^ UO CM CO 2 CO CO CO m~ co o w r~ CM oi ci b b CO O UO ww O " UO CO .- CJ rr mZ o b o p •- in rr m- m- CO to O rr CO : CM o cn cn CO 3 CO mi O eo O CO O *T U0 m- m- O *~ O eo f» co »- O *~ Ol Ol O «l ffl ' ^ N CO N eo uo S 2 OJ Ci rr r^ rr CO O) oi CM mi CO O N Ol N rr O CO rr CJ r» r« co mm O co rr oi mi O *~ r- r» Ol CO uo m r-* co rr co to CM CO uo CO Ol uo to o o CO CO oi Oi mi CO uo r-» m- cn CO o to to uo •- to CM rr co •» 13 m O CM »- U o ca cu 0 CO Ol rr C 4-> • co uo r~ co o eo ir> r- Si O r-; CD CM uo — CO CoO CO rr CM 0 fl * CoO ^cr. CM co co CO r ^ IB h 'CM cn UO CM Ol tO UO CM jQ cu rd CJ • Ol O o rH ca CD to 00 rr to cn co o r^ 8 CO p ra cu a CM r« T- CM co ZZ CO eo oi u u S3 rr co CM o> rs» rr uo CJ. 0 a cu cu . o cn co co co o rH & X fl cn oo co ro 8 to rr o> ca u ra eo CM m- rr CO CM uo rr to oi V e CM -« i/i in n >I-H ca \ O O CM co rr O X 0 0 & CO m- fd 4-) CJ fl to co o to CM m en rr oi — co eo uo tO CM 4J -H CM H CM cn »- r» uo CO UO OSI ^ uo rr uo co ra rd TJ cu c U rc~o rr cno cuo oi co r^ rr O p. T3 CU fl •H co «- H JJ CU CO Ol O UO CO CO © rr in »- eo — r- Ol UO Ol CO cn mr to rr Ol r^i rr CO CO 0 cu rd xj ca CM uo cn co to CM »" "i T ^ C X H H .CM CO CO uo tri i— oi to" O cu u CO — r- E-t CU >vH o CM CM CM CO i rH XJ 4-> CO CO mm ' T3 in ^- eo to CO U) N CO CD to s OJ rr CM CO CM to to' rr CU 4-> •H CM co r~ en uo CM CM CM tO CO ^- 4-> co rr o to rr r- co to • ca cu -u CO m- m- o o o CM ra ca-H g fl rr O CM U •H 1 rd U0 rr O CO r*. o> ^ co uo CM 8 CM CO rr .- r- to *- CM r~' rr r*»' rr fl ca ca m CM * r Ul N CM m- «> — Ol >i-H »- CO — to Iii N O IO o 4J & CJ CO m- m- o rd H x; -a r- m- ID rd 4-> )H f~ ID ID Ol CO Ol Ol o rr o rr ID Ol ca Cn CO cn to m uo CM to rr tm- rr fl rd CM r>* CM cn .- CO p U> rr CJ c O en co m~ r- o w rd "d 15 •H CM m- m- p s 6 id' Ol r. co 0 fl c> rr CO mt 0> UO r- oi to CM CO CM u fd rd •H CM co o o r~ CM uo rr r-' uo flO +J & CM uo O CO CO .- o> p CO U co co CM r* O CM tO mi ID o 0 >i ca CM m- m- i •H >tH -—m UO CM uo oi cn to CO CO CO m— CM uo CO — 03 4-> X3 CU H CN rr co cn uo Ol rr rr co' uo •H > fd CN CM IO ^ V (O CM r* co uo CJ UO CM CM CO CJ CM •— mm O mi ID mi rZ ca T3 -H fl u Ol m- 0 CO 4J U in ini oi CJ 6- ca CO CM Ol 0> CJ eri »oi mi r~' 0 B-H fl H O U 4-> -H CO CM eo CJ cu r- co cn m~ o c? p rr C71 Ol to cn co co o Ol oi rr cb to CU fl 4-> CM m- LO eo CM r— ID m- Ol CJ p rd cu O CM eo co — cu • tit T- mm m- O X cu fl1 a § uo CO CM CD EH T3 D 4-> *—' cD rr o rr co CM O Ol CO CO Ol CO 00 UO CO CM UO cn rr CO UO CO O '" cb cd cn uo r» rr CO CM O 5 _ .O—) C^M» CwM~ C.O. 5 n 5w r» CO CO CO h* o UO O) CO o uo eo r~ CM CO co en. co to CO CO o O ^ « CD o o CM a oo uo r^ oo cn co co r^ 5 1o o rr «o -^ oi cu -C CM tn tn «ry H CM tO m- m- Ol Ol Cl o f1-. to r^ m 5 I CO rr Ol ' r» oi ^r cb csi to Ol o ?Z m- Ol Ol CM CJ *- O o O o r- rr co c" V N ci 10 5 (0 T) to OJ OJ H ca o to tn UO CO CO co r~ CM o O o s N N n ID O co CQ •- — »- CM a. 3 tx CO CD to CO •o S ra uo a CO r^ CO r- r» a gi cn 3 b uo cb b ^ -2 UOO) UOOl OCO CM in .— e O N N 10 o a 8m 1n CO rr CM CM o rr- " ** 3. Q. « uo r^ CM rr Q. CO CO r~: Ol Cm to to CO r^.—. r^ I* E trj cr O mm CM CO u O m- CM CO rr rr rr rr UO UO UO UO a Srr rr rr o - w n uo to uo •ivn vuo tirn uj z. S r- CM — CM «- Ol ^- Ol m- CM J- CM «C rt co ?3 CM ft fi 3 S ft CO Ol CM z 6 6 3 5 6 6 5 5 6 6 5 5 ct cs ra oo rr c n cn cc cr a g co ca 2 5 ro ca 5 2 m m 5 2 Table 6.4 The composition of isoprenoid and bicadinane hydrocarbons determined by GC analysis. The data is also presented quantitatively in relation to the peak of the internal standard 3-methylheneicosane (anteiso C22) giving quantities in ug/mg(ppt). OIL NAME BMR# Pr Ph Bicad W Bicad T Bicad R Peak Area as read from crtromatogram- - •

BRG-3/1 540 39705 4954 4916 6638 1964 BRG-3V2 541 38810 5913 3968 7807 3008 MBU-2/1 542 9241 4383 2851 4356 1980 MBU-2/2 543 15273 4468 424 467 297

Pr Ph Bicad W . Bicad T Bicad FT Pr/Ph Pr/nC17 Bicad W/ cig/mg(ppt) saturates Bicad T

BRG-3/1 540 29.55 3.69 3.66 4.94 1.46 8.01 2.08 0.74 BRG-3/2 541 20.23 3.08 2.07 4.07 1.57 6.56 2.77 0.51 MBU-2/1 542 8.55 4.05 2.64 4.03 1.83 2.11 0.70 0.65 MBU-2/2 543 14.56 4.26 0.40 0.45 0.28 3.42 0.90 051

Pr Ph Bicad W Bicad T Bicad R' fiayrng(ppt) whole oil

BRG-3/1 540 20.24 2.53 2-51 3.38 1.00 BRG-3/2 541 12.89 1.96 1.32 2.59 1.00 MBU-2/1 542 6.09 2.89 1.88 2.87 1.30 MBU-2/2 543 11-27 3.30 0.31 0.34 0.22 O cr CO r-~ UO CM CM r-» CM a CO 8 CO a o uo co .O Ol a-. CM W O rr rf CO —' -^ •O 2 O CO CO a a CM 0 a u c a s m. CO co r>- c a uo co -- a o o o o •" 2 o O b oi co' b •o 2 o rr CO co ca OJ Ol a o r-- CO rf CO CM o u m. b uo rr UO a a CM CO CM o CO o CO CO uo CM •a CO CO CO uo CM CO CO a co o CO oo o

CM a o Cm CO Oi V uo CO CM o CO CM rr CJ a 8 r~ T r-» CD uo' CD b r^ co Si zz CM o o •4- 52

CO 3 i O rr CM oo CO CD Ol co oi r> o> a CO r- co CM CM a oi oi CO O CD CO CO CO rr *- CO .— .— uo uo UO uo co O b b b b 55 P ra < CJ • JO r~ cn o o I ° O o uo to rr ra" CO rr uo cri to -Z uo m S b UO b b b b ra I P CM « • TJ < eo a 9»s = O .

rr CM CM CO rr •<- uo UO to uo CO O CJ U O o M to w o b b CU fl CO F uo cu < X! 0 CM < E-t W CU 4-> CM rr u rr X! OJ «•> UO r- CM EH 13 CoO M0 CO CO co 1 r- t- Lf) co co r^ uo r-~ CM rr < M0 < CO CO r~ CO r>- CO CO CO r- 0 CU H o o o H cr in uo uo uo fl . xs fl E-t o o uo uo CO o> co a c uo CM to CM CM co CO b r-^ uo r^ D CO 2 uo r- cu CO r- .- cr ca o CO < rr rr rr rr CO 2 uo uo uo CD rr CU 2 CM CM CO CO CM CM < 6 . 6 5 5 LU Z cr cr CD CO 2 — CM — CM -j ro co CM o] CQ 2 Z2 o m «c 6 6 5 5 rx CC CD CD a. a. Z> 2> tc a to" r*-* TJ 3 JO rr V CO r- 8 mi mi O 3 co co "

eo »- —

TJ co r* to a £ M .81* 1 0) CO =s CO a rr ,_ 4-) TJ CM oi ui cb •H cu u> r» CM a CO rr Ui fl S8 u« • rr CM M rd b .- co' CM -Q 4-> C CO m- CM m- •H CM 9 E rr co CM CM ui b CM T3 -C io r- co CM & UO rd r* »- CM CM r-- CO CM 9 Ui § U Si S 8 8 8 o 5 •H T3 £ r~ a E CO CO l^ CM •H (CMj aC CO j; 8 8 CM b -j 0 CU o to rH X! (0 CU 4J •P co e E CO CO Ui CO CM c w in O a a r»' CJ -^ O O CO s uo rr 0 • co co eo rJ o a. 10 cu W to m co m- XJ -H S CM C E to CM o r» +J fl U (j ra oi m- pi K 0 U ._ St to r^ Ui CO 4-1 fm. n -m, CO *- *~ CM 0 w >1 uj rr ui Co CO m- CM "d X3 CM «l E Ui cn ._ rr CcJo =e ui cb ui © fl fl mi. " a r~ 10 0 rd V r». Ol m- 8' rr ft ° CO •H cu 3 mi f~ CJ X 4-> w fl rr eo CM w "*• •H C-H • CQ 0 S E r to CO CM OX) rH c^ oi eo c Q. o co ai 8 - a M cu 6 rd 4J 0 U cu CJ 0 T3 Ol • c Ol rr poo CM c 5 M OJ to ui 8 b to 0 -d H Ol CM X >i-H EHX! O r» O r~- CM rr & 8 d r> 8 rZ fc o si " X us rr • E O O o * a CO. CU Ui Ui Ui co « a. "X H CJ J- fl •5S i — CM cb ui EH CO g. OL to CM co re Ol ui rJ CM O co X O CeO « rr o S Urri m Ul CM CM s s CO CM CM < ft 6 6 5 5 CO CM CM rr CD rD z—1 6 6 5 -j CD £ 2 2 6 cc rr co a Q co 2 2 TABLE 6.8 THE TOTAL ORGANIC CARBON (TOC), ROCK EVAL DATA AND THE BULK COMPOSITION OF THE SOUTH SUMATRAN SHALES/COALS EXTRACT. SAMPLE NO. PARAMETERS 5383 5384 5385 5386

WELL NO. BRG-3 BRG-3 BRG-3 BRG-3 DEPTH (m) 680-690 900-910 2106-2110 2190-2194 TOC (%) 4.1 51.2 3.7 26.9 TMAX 421 419 433 446

SI 0.44 7.45 0.86 15.63

S2 4.77 119.50 4.61 62.95

S3 2.64 21.60 2.05 1.85

PI 0.08 0.06 0.16 0.20

HI 117.20 233.40 123.92 234.01

OI 64.86 42.19 55.11 6.88

EXT (g) 15.9 4.0 13.3 4.6

EOM (mg) 42.3 172.8 50.5 90.6

SUB. SAMP (mg) 42.3 53.3 50.5 53.4

SATS. (mg) 3.0 2.2 9.6 7.3 AROM. (mg) 2.2 1.7 6.3 14.0

POLARS (mg) 21.3 22.8 18.2 17.7

RECOVERED(%) 62.6 50.1 67.5 73.0

SATS. (%) 7.1 4.1 19.0 13.7 mgHC/g TOC 127.8 7.6 427.4 79.2 TABLE 6.9 THE COMPOSITION OF SATURATED HYDROCARBONS OF SOUTH SUMATRAN SHALES/COALS DETERMINED BY GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY ANALYSIS.

PEAK AREA ug/mg(ppt) SATURATES

SAMPLE NO. SAMPLE NO. 5383 5384 5385 5386 5383 5384 5385 5386

STD 9508 52922 28921 44535 10 10 10 10 C15 8884 26102 52310 56751 9.3 4.9 18.1 12.7

C16 16193 50353 76123 77943 17.0 9.5 26.3 17.5

C17 20377 56165 83554 85047 21.4 10.6 28.9 19.1

C18 20819 53925 79422 81012 21.9 10.2 27.5 18.2

C19 19635 45424 74163 75810 20.7 8.6 25.6 17.0

C20 18721 44586 59798 65728 19.7 8.4 20.7 14.8

C21 18941 61264 50266 66926 19.9 11.6 17.4 15.0

C22 22648 93581 44658 79592 23.8 17.7 15.4 17.9

C23 26137 129605 38186 91170 27.5 24.5 13.2 20.5

C24 25794 135150 31169 89727 27.1 25.5 10.8 20.1

C25 27109 196732 28403 98455 28.5 37.2 9.8 22.1 C26 23992 183559 21046 81651 25.2 34.7 7.3 18.3

C27 23852 122077 19812 73874 25.1 23.1 6.9 16.6

~ C28 18571 105479 14505 67934 19.5 19.9 5.0 15.3

C29 22111 111830 16474 58425 23.3 21.1 5.7 13.1

C30 28539 164898 26571 56599 30.0 31.2 9.2 12.7

C31 21530 86153 15615 45803 22.6 16.3 5.4 10.3

C32 12838 65890 9352 34292 13.5 12.5 3.2 7.7

C33 11851 56659 9813 29113 12.5 10.7 3.4 6.5

C34 5194 38060 3582 20892 5.5 7.2 1.2 4.7

C35 3933 26357 2455 13012 4.1 5.0 0.8 2.9 Table 6.10 South Sumatran coals/shales GC results: isoprenoids.

SAMPLE NO. WELL NO. DEPTH PRISTANE PHYTANE (m) Peak area as read from chromatogram

5383 BRG-3 680-690 22161 5771

5384 BRG-3 900-910 56820 12166

5385 BRG-3 2106-2110 125180 27403 5386 BRG-3 2190-2194 109549 21077

TABLE 6.11 SOUTH SUMATRAN COALS/SHALES GC RESULTS: ISOPRENOIDS ug/mg Saturates

SPL. WELL DEPTH PRIST. PHYT. PR/PH PR/nC17 SUM NO. No. (m) ratio ratio C15-C35

5383 BRG-3 680-90 23.3 6.1 3.8 1.1 424.1 5384 BRG-3 900-10 10.7 2.3 4.7 1.0 355.3

5385 BRG-3 2106-10 43.3 9.5 4.6 1.5 271.0 5386 BRG-3 2190-94 24.6 4.7 5.2 1.3 310.2 Table 7.1 Coal qualities of the Enim Area (after KOG, 1987). H&ie of area luara Tiga Vest Banjarsari North Sooth Kungkilan South North Central South Bukit flesar Banko Suban Jerigi Muara Tiga Arahan Arahan Banko Banko Kendi

Coil in-situ

Total Moisture,J 28.0 26.2 38.7 41.2 25.7 23.4 31.0 35.9 35.0 33.4 20.0

Ash (dry), SI 6.5 6.0 5.9 6.6 11.7 7.0 7.2 7.2 10.0 8.9 2.9

Sulphur (dry), X 0.39 0.45 0.21 0.20 0.34 0.22 0.22 0.75 0.3 0.53 0.17

V.K (daft, • 50.0 49.3 53.2 52.5 49.9 49.2 51.1 51.4 50.0 50.6 50.7

Fixed Carbon (daf).X 50.0 50.7 46.8 47.5 50.1 50.8 48.9 48.6 50.0 49.4 49.3

C.V gross, KJ/kg 20.3 21.1 16.1 15.6 19.4 21.8 18.7 17.3 17.5 18.3 23.8

C.V nett, KJ/kg 18.9 19.7 14.6 14.0 18.0 20.4 17.2 16,0 16.01 6.24 22.4

Na,0 in ash, I 2.7 5.5 2.5 1.6 3.7 6.0 3.4 4.2 6.0 - - ' 2

Coal as lined

Total Hoisture, X 25.3 25.9 38.2 39.8 25.2 23.1 30.4

Ash (dry), X 12.4 9.0 6.4 13.4 15.9 10.8 11.5

Sulphur (dry), X 0.38 0.44 0.21 0.20 0,32 0.22 0.22

U (daf), .X 49.9 49.2 53.1 52.3 48.6 49.0 51.0

Fired Carbon (daf], X 50.1 50.8 46.9 47.7 50.4 51.0 49.0

C.V gross, KJ/kg 19,3 20.5 15.8 14.7 18.5 21.0 18.0

C.V nett, KJ/kg 17.9 19.1 14.3 13.2 17.2 19.6 16.5 h'a 0 in ash, X 2.1 3.8 2.0 1.5 2.8 4.1 2.1 Table 7.2 Coal qualities of the Muara Lakitan Area (after Shell, 1978). H-2 N-4 QUALITY PARAMETER PANGADANG BENAKAT (ION) ON)

GROSS CV (D.A.F.), KCAL/KG 6720 6720

TOTAL MOISTUHB (A.L), X 42 45

VOLATILE MATTER (D.A.P.), J 53 54

ASH (DRY), X 5 7

TOTAL SOLPHOR (DRY), X 0.2 0.2

Table 7.3 Coal qualities of the Langaran Area (after Shell 1978). N-2 B-3 N-4 DUALITY PARAMETER PANGADANG BENUANG BENAKAT Oil (6K) (14MJ

GROSS CV (D.A.P.), KCAL/KG 6780 6690 6470

TOTAL MOISTURE (A.L), X 40 43 48

VOLATILE HATTER (D.A.F.), X 53 54 57

ASH (DRY), X 6 5 9

TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), X 0.3 0.2 0.3 Table 7.4 Coal qualities of the Sigoyang Benuang Area (after Shell, 1978).

H-2 H-3 H-4 QUALITY PARAMETER PANGADANG PETAI BENUANG BENAKAT JELAWATAN LEMATANG UPPER LOWER (7-9M) (9M) (5M) (7-9M) (22-24H) (8M) (10-11M)

GROSS CV (D.A.F.), KCAL/KG 6640 6680 6880 6530 6450 6530 6380

TOTAL MOISTURE (A.R.), X 42 35 35 - 48 ? 53?

VOLATILE MATTER (D.A.F.), X 53 52 50 51 56 57 58

ASH (DRY), X 6 7 7 15 7 8 II

TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), X 0.8 0.6 1.0 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2

Table 7.5 Coal qualities of the Air Benakat Area (after Shell, 1978).

M-2 QUALITY PARAMETER PANGADANG LOWER UPPER (10-13M) (11-13M)

GROSS CV (D.A.F.), KCAL/KG 6780 6830

TOTAL MOISTURE (A.R.), X 42 38

VOLATILE MATTER (D.A.P.), X 56 53

ASH (DRY), X 8 .

TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), X 0.5 0.6 u CO JJ 4-1 rrj rfl CO u < o — X C3 ac •H 9 U PM 0J XJ 4J 4-1 0 Caa n cu OO •H 4-> •H H id H H H (d CD S— 0X5 U M CO U3 mm. • o CO CO CD CO H o •8 EH Table 7.7 Sodium Oxide in Ash from the Muara Enim coals (after KOG, 1987) .

Sodiui oxide in ash, Na 0 (XI Area u Seal C/Cl + C2 B/Bl A2 Al Enii Jelawatan

North Arahan 6.9 2.7 3.0

Sooth Arahan 3.7 • 2.6 2.8 + 2.0 4.2 • 3.7

Sooth Mnara Tiga 3.8 • 2.S 3.8 T 2.5 3.3 4 5.4 3.2 4 2.0

Kungkilan E.4 4.3 4 3.2 7.8 + 2.6

Banjarsari 18.1 13.8 3.1 7.6 + 3.0 2.5 + 2.3 1.1 4 9.8

Muara Tiga Besar-Iest 4.3 4 1.8 3.3 4 2.S 4.2 • 5.4 2.6 4 2.2

Muara Tiga Bern-Middle 5.5 + 2.4 5.1 • 3.4 2.6 t 3.0 1.7 • 1.5

Muara Tiga Besar-Niddle 7.5 4 7.1 7.2 + 2.6 4.6 f 3.5 5.0 4 4.8

Muara Tiga Besar-Sast 4.7 i 3.3 5.0 • 2.6 6.3 + 5.1 8.0 T 9.2

Air Lajra-North 2.6 • 1.2 2.7 t 0.7 3.3 4 1.0 2.5 • 0.8

Air Laya-South 0.5 4 0.3 0.4 4 0.4 0.5 + 0.4

Bukit Asai, upgraded coals 1.0 t 0.1 0.8 4 0.2

Vest Banko-North 5.3 + 2.1 6.5 r 2.7 5.3 • 2.6 3.1 + 1.7

Vest Banko-South 4.3 + 2.4 7.5 • 2.4 6.4 r 4.8 3.0 4 0.9

Central Banko 5.2 4 3.5 8.4 r 5.6 5.8 t 3.3 8.3

Suban Jerigi (East l North) 1.7 • 1.0 0.7 + 0.4

Average for each seai 6.0 5.4 4.5 4.2 2.1 0.9 3> _ «a CJ zHZ ca mjO un CM B— aa t*» c— "^ mml i i 1 i 1 1 i 1 I 1 •J zm CO CO n CN* CO C=> CO un •ra QO "•• un a* "™^ <=>

-a -*•> *J 4* M C=» un m-f-» C•*3• 1 i 1 i 1 1 C3 CM OF* •—M CSi ft ••j* --an» OO CM ^^ ^" 0 a 4J ca w 0 *Lm. s W rd JJ as 0J u •J to IM . 8 u *j un CM *JO r*> c-» CD rd —*m •<—< 90 1 i CF1 ca co e— e«<=o> <=» 1 1 ••»•• 1 o« u •a ur» «*» **• M o —•-• *-» "^ •P •« •— •"-•t to a A a) OJ a gjj 4> -O • a C9. «J) m trt •**> -** ^ w rtcJ. 10 » o rd m 3ftf e— t* u •*» XJrH an 4J | to _ a ta OJ o •H 0) ta rtu • mmt •"^ rtrt* o o en cn c=> to 2 a a a- •"*• a CJ m OJ OH u 0 ca X! * OB 4J 0) 0 fl 10 fl •H CD -^j oo a) E u «Q) CO un un ca BOJ c3 m 0 ft 0 p §• CM «M & OJ • cj «M CJ rd 1 •—» ca x.-» aa caa CJ CJ X 4Jr^ *-a» u OB g w CM CM CM p rd 00 • ca g MH ca *J 3 *-mt UI ca a-i a -*--3* -*-a > =1 CA Wl *-tVr»t »- 4J a a ca a ai o •E* «l a 3-• -*-C n» an wm ca ac CO tMC oa CJ co QO SB 3B4 Table 7.9 Coal qualities of the Kabau Seam from the Bukit Kendi Area (after Shell, 1978).

GROSS CV (D.A.F), ICAL/IG 8400-3850

[NHEREHT MOISTURE (A.D), I < 2.5

VOLATILE KATTER (D.A.F), X 27.0-34.5

ASH (DRY), X < 4

TOTAL SULPHUR (DRY), 5 0.3-2.3

7I7RIMTE EEFLZC7AHCZ, I 0.3-1.22 Table 8.1 The differences in calorific value among the three main maceral groups for four German coals determined by Kroger et al., 1957 (after Bustin et al., 1983).

SEAM VOLATILE * CALORIFIC VALUE MATTER cal/g (Btu/lb) (daf) Vitrinite Liptinite Inertinite

36.13 7925(14265) 8680(15625) 7841(14114)

Zollverein 31.97 8109(14597) 8696(15652) 8038(14468)

Anna 28.36 8343(15017) 8619(15514) 8343(15017)

Wilhelm 23.50 8368(15062) 8360(15048) 8216(14788)

* Volatile matter determined on vitrinite only. TABLE 8.2 COMPARISON OF THE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION BETWEEN LURGI SEMI COKES AND BUKIT ASAM SEMI-ANTHRACITE COALS (AFTER TOBING, 1980).

THE BUKIT ASAM THE BUKIT ASAM CHARACTERISTICS LURGI SEMI COKES SEMI ANTHRACITIC

COALS

MOISTURE (%) 2.1-7.4 1.21 - 11.4

ASH (%) 6.7 - 16.9 0.41 7.09

FIXED CARBON (%) 69.8-80.7 57.98 83.44

VOLATILE MATTER (%) 5.5-12.2 6.56 - 23.34

CALORIFIC VALUE (kcal/kg) 6314 - 7395 6038 8164

SULPHUR (%) - 0.25 - 3.36 Table 9.1 Maceral composition and rank from MBU-2 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. R max DOM Coal Sh.Coal

(m) % VIL VILVIL

(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 22917 40-45 MEF 0.31 62 5 33 87 4 9 2. 22919 170-75 MEF 0.33 - - - 83 5 12

3. 22920 250-55 MEF 0.37 34 1 65 81 4 15

4. 22923 495-500 MEF 0.39 52 tr 48 84 7 9

5. 22926 705-10 MEF 0.40 92 2 6 56 12 32 6. 22929 975-80 ABF 0.42 83 2 15 - - - 7. 22933 1348-50 GUF 0.47 70 30 tr - - -

8. 22936 1644-46 GUF 0.57 99 tr 1 - - -

9. 22938 1800-02 BRF 0.72 99 tr tr - - -

10. 22940 1878-80 TAF 0.74 - - - 97 1 2

11. 22941 1880-82 TAF 0.73 96 tr 4 97 1 2

12. 22942 1887 TAF 0.87 - - - 97 1 2

13. 22944 1968-760 TAF 0.82 99 tr tr - - - Table 9.2 Maceral composition and rank from PMN-2 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. R max DOM Coal Sh.Coal (m) % VIL VILVIL (m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 23676 435-40 MEF 0.30 87 8 5 -

2. 23678 550-55 MEF 0.36 82 5 13 80 8 12 - - -

3. 23681 722-24 ABF 0.36 79 5 16 81 2 17 - - -

4. 23683 838-40 ABF 0.37 84 3 13

5. 23684 916-18 ABF 0.36 85 1 14

6. 23686 1128-30 ABF 0.38 76 2 22

7. 23688 1218-20 ABF 0.39 71 5 24

8. 23690 1488-90 GUF 0.47 73 tr 27

9. 23691 1568-70 GUF 0.47 98 tr 2

10. 23692 1660-62 BRF 0.48 92 tr 8 11. 23693 1737-39 TAF 0.50 86 6 8

12. 23694 1812-14 TAF 0.56 88 5 7 88 3 9 - - -

13. 23695 1820-22 TAF 0.54 86 tr 14 91 4 5 ~ - - 14. 23696 1866-68 LAF 0.54 96 2 2

15. 23697 1886-88 LAF 0.57 43 tr 57

16. 23698 1920-22 LAF 0.58 83 tr 17 Table 9.3 Maceral composition and rank from GM-14 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. Rvmax DOM Coal Sh.Coal (m) % VIL VILVIL

(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 23271 200--05 MEF 0.34 83 5 12 2. 23273 300--05 MEF 0.38 84 4 12 63 14 23 - - -

3. 23274 330--35 ABF 0.36 80 2 18 ------

4. 23276 566--68 ABF 0.41 80 2 18 ------

5. 23277 758--60 ABF 0.40 84 115 ------6. 23278 794--96 ABF 0.42 88 2 10 ------

7. 23280 1248--50 TAF 0.51 86 68 ------

8. 23281 1258--60 TAF 0.49 85 3 12

9. 23282 1264--66 TAF 0.53 ------81118

10. 23283 1274--76 TAF 0.53 ------85 4 11

11. 23284 1280--82 LAF 0.50 45 1 54 87 4 9 Table 9.4 Maceral composition and rank from KG-10 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. R ma DOM Coal Sh.Coal (m) % VIL VILVIL

(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 23560 456-61 MEF 0 .30 71 10 19 84 3 17

2. 23561 544-46 MEF 0 .32 ---83 4 13 3. 23562 602-04 MEF 0..3 5 64 2 34 72 7 21

4. 23563 736-40 MEF 0..4 5 ---74 5 21 5. 23565 838-40 ABF 0..4 4 74 5 21 ------

6. 23567 1090-92 ABF 0..4 6 79 4 17 ------7. 23568 1248-50 ABF 0..4 1 65 9 26 ------

8. 23569 1300-02 ABF 0..5 0 83 116 ------

9. 23570 1430-32 GUF 0..5 1 94 15 ------

10. 23571 1526-28 TAF 0.,4 4 99 tr 1 72 7 22 - - - 11. 23572 1566-68 TAF 0. 54 95 41 ------Table 9.5 Maceral composition and rank from KD-01 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. R max DOM Coal Sh.Coal

(m) % VIL VILVIL (m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 23536 535--40 MEF 0.32 49 7 44 56 9 35 59 10 31 2. 23537 590--95 MEF 0.37 79 7 14

3. 23539 715--20 MEF 0.41 83 5 12 4. 23545 1165--67 ABF 0.45 73 5 22 ------

5. 23547 1270--72 GUF 0.52 79 15 6 ------

6. 23548 1325--27 GUF 0.51 64 24 12 ------

7. 23550 1558--60 GUF 0.52 61 31 8 ------

8. 23551 1642--44 BRF 0.54 99 tr tr ------

9. 23552 1726--28 TAF 0.57 99 tr tr ------10. 23553 1746--48 TAF 0.63 81 tr 19 91 1 8 - - -

11. 23557 1802--04 LAF 0.61 99 tr tr ___-_- Table 9.6 Maceral composition and rank from BRG-3 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. R max DOM Coal Sh.Coal (m) V%VILVILVIL (m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 22950 610-20 MEF 0.38 90 2 8 92 1 7 2. 22952 720-30 MEF 0.41 60 5 35 70 17 13

3. 22953 800-10 MEF 0.47 90 3 7 96 1 3

4. 22954 900-10 MEF 0.47 28 2 70 79 10 11

.5. 22955 1070-74 MEF 0.50 90 3 7 89 2 9

6. 22957 1206-10 MEF 0.49 95 tr 5 87 3 10 7. 22958 1252-56 ABF 0.53 94 3 3

8. 22960 1402-06 ABF 0.58 96 2 2

9. 22962 1548-52 ABF 0.63 98 tr 2

10. 22963 1654-58 GUF 0.66 90 8 2

11. 22964 1706-10 GUF 0.65 92 7 1

12. 22965 1710-14 GUF 0.67 96 4 tr

13. 22967 1886-90 GUF 0.67 99 1 tr 14. 22969 2042-46 BRF 0.70 93 tr 7

15. 22970 2106-10 TAF 0.71 98 2 tr

16. 22971 2150-54 TAF 0.75 99 1 tr 17. 22972 2182-86 TAF 0.81 98 2 tr

18. 22973 2190-94 TAF 0.83 91 2 7 97 1 2

19. 22974 2222-26 TAF 0.84 99 tr tr 98 tr 2

20. 22975 2238-42 TAF 0.87 99 tr tr 96 tr 4

21. 22976 2241 TAF 0.87 98 2 0 99 1 tr

22. 22977 2254-58 TAF 0.82 99 tr tr 48 3 49

23. 22978 2266-68 LAF 0.82 83 tr 17 73 7 20 Table 9.7 Maceral composition and rank from TMT-3 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. R max DOM Coal Sh.Coal v (m) % V I L V I L V I L (m.m. f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 23584 446-48 MEF 0.34 95 1 4 81 3 16 2. 23586 492-94 MEF 0.36 96 1 3 84 3 13

3. 23588 698-700 ABF 0.33 50 1 49 4. 23589 798-800 ABF 0.40 82 tr 18 5. 23590 898-900 GUF 0.40 60 tr 40

6. 23591 1000-02 GUF 0.42 98 tr 2

7. 23594 1254-56 TAF 0.56 90 1 9 88 2.10 - - -

8. 23595 1296-98 TAF 0.50 98 tr 2

9. 23596 1314-16 TAF 0.51 86 3 11 69 10 21 - - -

10. 23597 1336-38 TAF 0.51 91 5 4 96 1 3 - - -

11. 23599 1488-90 TAF 0.53 59 tr 41 74 tr 26 - - -

12. 23600 1518-20 TAF 0.57 72 tr 28 92 tr 8 - - - Table 9.8 Maceral composition and rank from L5A-22 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. Rvmax DOM Coal Sh.Coal (m) %VILVILVIL

(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 23614 130-35 MEF 0.36 2. 23615 430-35 MEF 0.38 56 1 43

3. 23616 628-30 ABF 0.38 72 4 24

4. 23617 748-50 ABF 0.39 87 1 12

5. 23618 848-50 ABF 0.41 72 5 23

6. 23619 952-54 GUF 0.49 85 10 5

7. 23620 1110-12 GUF 0.52 80 18 2

8. 23621 1274-76 BRF 0.53 89 11 tr

9. 23622 1332-34 TAF 0.53 98 1 1

10. 23623 1778-80 TAF 0.66 87 tr 13 83 2 15

11. 23624 1804-06 TAF 0.68 90 3 7 97 1 2 12. 23625 1816-18 TAF 0.76 49 1 50 81 5 14

13. 23626 1840-42 TAF 0.77 97 tr 3 75 2 23

14. 23628 2008-10 LAF 0.79 90 1 9 85 2 13

15. 23629 2070-72 LAF 0.78 62 10 28 92 3 5

16. 23630 2168-70 LAF 0.81 68 tr 32

17. 23631 2224-26 LAF 0.82 22 67 11

18. 23632 2272-74 LAF 0.81 91 9 tr Table 9.9 Maceral composition and rank from BL-2 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. R max DOM Coal Sh.Coal

{m) %VILVILVIL

(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 23286 798-800 ABF 0.44 64 16 20 ------2. 23287 902-904 GUF 0.48 67 20 13 ------

3. 23288 1098-100 GUF 0.51 78 4 18 ------4. 23289 1198-200 GUF 0.53 91 1 8 ------

5. 23291 1394-96 TAF 0.53 99 tr 1 ------6. 23293 1430-32 TAF 0.55 99 tr 1 ------7. 23294 1530-32 TAF 0.63 97 21 ------

8. 23295 1576-78 TAF 0.65 --- ___9154

9. 23296 1584-86 TAF 0.72 98 1 1 97 1 2 - - -

10. 23297 1602-04 TAF 0.68 99 tr 1 96 1 3 - - - 11. 23298 1606-08 TAF 0.72 99 tr 1 94 1 5 - - - Table 9.10 Maceral composition and rank from BN-10 samples.

No. Spl.No Depth Form. Rvmax DOM Coal Sh.Coal (m) %VILVILVIL

(m.m.f) (m.m.f) (m.m.f)

1. 23166 200--05 MEF 0.32 86 6 8 84 3 13 2. 23168 260--65 MEF 0.30 80 tr 20 97 2 1

3. 23169 320--25 ABF 0.31 81 6 13 - - -

4. 23170 370--75 ABF 0.33 77 16 7 - - -

5. 23172 500--05 ABF 0.32 73 1 26 - - -

6. 23175 700--05 GUF 0.36 42 15 43 - - -

7. 23177 810--15 GUF 0.38 76 4 20 - - - 8. 23179 1150--55 GUF 0.49 55 4 40 - - -

9. 23181 1355--60 GUF 0.55 80 18 2 - - -

10. 23182 1654--56 BRF 0.63 99 tr tr - - -

11. 23185 1866--68 TAF 0.59 95 1 4 - - -

12. 23186 1910--12 TAF 0.62 99 tr 1 92 2 6

13. 23187 1984--86 TAF 0.66 - - - 89 1 10 14. 23188 2048--50 TAF 0.74 - - - 93 2 5

15. 23189 2112--14 TAF 0.83 96 tr 4 - - -

16. 23190 2180--82 TAF 0.87 - - - 99 tr 1

17. 23191 2268--70 TAF 0.86 99 tr 1 - - -

18. 23193 2396--98 LAF 0.93 98 2 tr 98 2 tr

19. 23195 2452--54 LAF 0.92 98 tr 2 - - - PLATES 1-61 Plate 1. oil stain associated with cracks in vitrinite. Sample no. 23628. Lahat Formation. R max 0.79%; field width = 0.41 mm, in reflected white light.

Plate 2. Thin layers of telovitrinite (TV) in claystone. Sample no. 23628. Lahat Formation. R max 0.79%; field width =0.41 mm. in reflected white light.

Plate 3. Abundant pyrite in carbonate rocks. Sample no. 23620. Gumai Formation. R max 0.52%; field width = 0.27 mm, in reflected white light.

Plate 4. Yellowish orange fluorescing bitumen (B) showing desiccation cracks in shale. Sample no. 23694.

Talang Akar Formation. Rvmax 0.54%; field width = 0.29 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 5. As Plate 4 but in reflected white light. Abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and some pyrite minerals (Py) in shale. PLATE I PLATE 2

PLATE 3

PLATE 4 PLATE 5 Plate 6. Yellowish orange fluorescing bitumens (B) and some exsudatinites (Ex) in shale. Sample no.

23595. Talang Akar Formation. Rvmax 0.50%; field width =0.15 mm, fluorescence mode.

Plate 7. As Plate 6 but in reflected white light. Abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and some pyrite minerals in shale.

Plate 8. Bitumen (B) and exsudatinite (Ex), yellow colour, infilling vitrinite fissures. Sample no.

23594. Talang Akar Formation. Rvmax 0.54%; field width 0.23 mm, fluorescence mode.

Plate 9. As Plate 8 but in reflected white light. Talang Akar coal showing telovitrinite (TV) and detrovitrinite (DV).

Plate 10. Abundant bitumen (B) and exsudatinite (Ex), yellow to orange, infilling vitrinite fissures and sclerotinite (SC) cell wall. Bright yellow fluorescing oil cuts (OC) indicating liquid hydrocarbon generation. Sample no. 23281. Talang Akar Formation. Rvmax 0.49%; field width 0.46 mm, fluorescence mode. Plate 11. As Plate 10 but in reflected light. Talang Akar coal containing abundant detrovitrinite (DV), sclerotinite (SC), and pyrite (Py). PLATE 6 PLATE 7

PLATE 8 PLATE 9

— 'W %»~* "*-•*- v D_^^!^Py ^^fl

r^A. . '"**& * .4m\ •kferfw, /^#*£23 1 *#"2 BHEIM^^^* » well XflMHnOBF"T'V ^'B 1 Bv SGrti *>»3idJBdB ftdB B||. . _Z, (9 SP>;. (fl arw -J 1 PLATE 10 PLATE II Plate 12. Bright yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) and oil cut (OC) infilling vitrinite fissures. Sample no. 23695. Talang Akar Formation. R max 0.50%; field width 0.46 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 13. As Plate 12 but in reflected white light showing detrovitrinite (DV) and mineral matter (MM).

Plate 14. Bright yellow fluorescing oil hazes (OH) expelled from scelerotinite and dark yellow sporinite (S) in the Talang Akar coal. Sample no. 23596. R max 0.51%; field width 0.41 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 15. As Plate 14 but in reflected white light showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV), inertodetrinite (It) and sclerotinite (SC).

Plate 16. Bright yellow fluorescing oil hazes (OH) expelled from telovirinite cracks in the Talang Akar coal.

Sample no. 23596 Rvmax 0.51%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 17. As Plate 16 but in reflected white* light mode. PLATE 13

DV

-Tk ** "- TV

™^i PLATE 15

TV

PLATE 17 18 Greenish yellow to bright yellow fluorescing fluorinite (FL) in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23702. R^ax 0.35%; field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 19 As Plate 18 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 20 Bright orange fluorescing resinite (R) in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23273. R max 0.38%; v field width 0.27 mm in fuorescence mode.

Plate 21 As Plate 20 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 22 Some gelovitrinite, texinite and semifusinite macerals in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no.

23562. Rvmax 0.35%; field width 0.27 mm in reflected white light mode

Plate 23 Abundant fusinite and semifusinite and some gelovitrinite macerals in the Muara Enim coal.

Sample no. 23613. Rymax 0.41; field width 0.41% in reflected white light mode. PLATE 18 PLATE 19

PLATE 20

* ** j*m ' <*rtV- ^'flflM t ^> SF^jtL-flj LTC, -^JT^MH

\ GV I^^Sjj

PLATE 22 PLATE 23 Plate 24 Abundant sclerotinite (SC) associated with detrovitrinite (DV) maceral in the Muara Enim

coal. Sample no. 23678. Rvmax 0.36%; field width 0.27 mm in reflected white light mode.

Plate 25 Abundant detrovitrinite (DV) associated with sclerotinite (SC), inertodetrinite (It) macerals. Well-preserved mycorrhyzomes (RH) is present in

the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 22927. Rvmax 0.31%; field width 0.27 mm in reflected white light mode.

Plate 26 Bright yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) occurs in

the Talang Akar coal. Sample no. 23694. Rvmax 0.58%; field width 0.46 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 27 As Plate 26 but in reflected white light mode showing abundant detrovitrinite, sclerotinite and well-preserved mycorrhyzomes (RH).

Plate 28 Greenish yellow fluorescing resinite (R) occur in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23608. R max 0.41%; field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 29 As Plate 28 but in reflected white light mode showing texinite maceral. PLATE 24 PLATE 25

PLATE 26 PLATE 27

^mmW ^k _W ___* h WFL»T. *My ____ L

^ ^< ^^k^ i>^i • • v^ ™ t> • •flSSSSfl^SSii'^^HK ^ •

PLATE 28 PLATE 29 Plate 30 Greenish yellow fluorescing resinite (R) occur in

the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23705. Rvmax 0.36%; field width 0.36 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 31 As Plate 30 but in reflected white light mode showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and pyrite

(PY).

Plate 32 Bright yellow fluorescing cutinite (C) occurs in the clay/shale of the Air Benakat Formation. Sample no. 23545. R max 0.45%; field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 33 As Plate 32 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 34 Yellow fluorescing sporangium (Sp) occur in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23614. R max 0.36%; field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 35 As Plate 34 but in reflected white light mode. PLATE 30 PLATE 31

PLATE 32 PLATE 33

PLATE 34 PLATE 35 Plate 36 Yellow fluorescing sporangium (Sp) occur in claystone of the Muara Enim Formation. Sample no.23614. R max 0.36%; field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 37 As Plate 36 but in reflected white light mode showing some detrovitrinite and sclerotinite.

Plate 38 Yellow fluorescing suberinite (Sub) occur in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23612. R max 0.41%; field width 0.27 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 39 As Plate 38 but in reflected white light mode showing some gelovitrinite.

Plate 40 Bright yellow fluorescing exudatinite(Ex), yellow suberinite (Sub) and sporinite (Sp) in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23678. R max 0.36%; field width 0.46 mm in fluorescence mode.

Plate 41 As Plate 40 but in reflected white light mode showing abundant detrovitrinite maceral. PLATE 36 PLATE 37

PLATE 38 PLATE 39

PLATE 40 PLATE 41 Plate 42 Yellow fluorescing bitumen and exudatinite occur in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23538. R max 0.35%; field width 0.46 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 43 As Plate 42 but in reflected white light mode showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV).

Plate 44 Greenish yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) and orange fluorescing sporinite (S) in the Muara

Enim Formation. Sample no. 23539. Rvmax 0.41%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 45 As Plate 44 but in reflected white light mode showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV) and inertodetrinite (It).

Plate 46 Greenish yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23613. R max 0.41%; field width 0.41 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 47 As Plate 46 but in reflected white light showing abundant detrovitrinite. PLATE 42 PLATE 43

PLATE 44 PLATE 45

PLATE 46 PLATE 47 Plate 48 Bright yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) showing desiccation cracks in the Muara Enim Formation

Sample no. 23543. R max 0.52%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 49 As Plate 48 but in reflected white light mode showing telovitrinite (TV) and detrovitrinite (DV).

Plate 50 Greenish yellow fluorescing bitumen (B) occurs in the Muara Enim coal. Some desiccation cracks are present in the sample. Sample no. 23543. R max 0.43%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 51 As Plate 50 but in reflected white light mode showing some detrovitrinite (DV) and telovitrinite (TV).

Plate 52 Greenish yellow fluorescing fluorinites (Fl) occur in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23704. R max 0.38%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 53 As Plate 52 but in reflected white light mode showing abundant detrovitrinite (DV). PLATE 48 PLATE 49

PLATE 50 PLATE 51

PLATE 52 PLATE 53 Plate 54 Thin layers of telovitrinite associated with gelovitrinite in the Muara Enim coal. Sample no. 23562. R max 0.35%; field width 0.27 mm, in reflected white light mode.

Plate 55 Telovitrinite in the Talang Akar coal. Sample no. 22940. R max 0.79%; field width 0.20 mm in reflected white light mode.

Plate 56 Orange fluorescing bitumen (B) and bright fluorescing orange oil hazes (OH) in the Talang Akar Formation. Sample no. 23694. R max 0.54%; field width 0.29 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 57 As Plate 56 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 58 Orange fluorescing resinite (R) in the Talang Akar Formation. Sample no. 23694. R max 0.54%; field width 0.27 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 59 As Plate 58 but in reflected white light mode.

Plate 60 Orange fluorescing bitumen in the Talang Akar Formation. Sample no. 23694. R max 0.54%; field width 0.29 mm, in fluorescence mode.

Plate 61 As Plate 60 but in reflected white light mode showing telovitrinite (TV) and detrovitrinite (DV). -I •' . r**r 2L SSftSR" j£& * -I -•£.

* -v, (flV

- *•- v ir* a •flflBr' PLATE 54

PLATE 56

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22920 250-255 Kuara Snia 0.2? 20 ClaystaaOsiltstaEC, doa eoaaon, r Mr.r iT-rf.•ItK '.';'< T-T J .

abundant, V>L'I {V=S!f L='5, 1=4!; sajor to abundant vitrinite; oc ! wrt »» r *" n i *•rt • iKiinrt^ri'" L *J ««W«IAW Lawi viULV-w | nuuuuikUi' -« wumuawu

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eonaon iiuvmuv., ut.tjui. ;>"»»'i rare suberinite, dull yellow; abundant bitumens, jrcenish 7"li-wi r> kn « ,-*« ft t* i i ! 'IWiiUJ'iil b HOOK «-**'Q Muara Snis. 0.40 20 Sandstone)siltste.,e>c!aystone, don

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22929 975-930 Air Senakat 0.42 20 Sandstcne>siItstcfsOcsrborrate, des ahnnn'anf fn Anmmnn W\(\T f V —32 tfUUIIUUIIU UW WWillHIWII ) > ' -. • L • ' * 'J w i

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n r. . i i n wwaij •/i/,u \i-uij j.-V) u~y/( Jtujui f-n umiBri/inr /i^rwritn' f-tinif/« rtnnvi/iAinf m-mi owuiiuauu ww ui w T j. wi mi uw } auuituuuu (•rllAlTlfTillllfn rt -\ rfl m rt * -IrtW-t.-tAl'intr-rt. UWlWf Ui All A WW t WUUW Wll WUl AaWAAliAUW • rt rt r» m --1 n rirmuiifmi tn CIA Inorif iirn' fn ' WUUllllW 11 dWUli.lU0LliJ.WW> I3UAWAUUA11AUWJ <\ nn n A -\ n r Mnf/l/irifr>i»vi l-fl .- rt m m rt r> au uiwu.il u i A u wwuw "LLIIUUJ wwwtAuii nitftrii>i>n rn nYvnitinifn rtiif mi f n <3UUW ! llli. UW J JWU1 1.U1UU) WUWi.111. WW J rrrt 1 I nw r-n ii n I I n »»n i\ii n • CT^*»»*c« jvnuii uu UUAA wLUiigU) apdiaw »#tptniifn /lit ll nininrliii n nn rt nl A n *- •n LWUilllUlyf UUAA WlCHlfjWj tiuuuuanw UW n n o m n « Hifnnnii rf KAI^IVI nn tr n I 1 n M ' wutaiBWll yj.i/uiiwj| giwwuxdii /WAAU»J -^ rt ™ m rt t> .inn pf IT anrl /> 1 «i tr in «Ap>« I n WUIKWUU wuui uu auu wj.u; miiiw i ttu i

(1 1ft OR fliwpfntt/iNci'lfrffniirt n/iw unimiiAiif f * U W U I u www %f w u wiu jr J wwuw/ «3 l A w<3 uwuw j uwu ai/iiuuuuu uU 1 «n»«n» i/\r\r Mz-a ) r-n r:ci* ***] wwumuti) » / u/ i \ i*vu| u"i«( i-w/j WUUA nhitt./4nnf v\r\T fv=3ft r = P [=3!' duuuuanv) t'u/i \ » "iy u j u"iu| i-w | j M« :riK fn i\!ntif\f4Anf «4nf«nirif'i»i«ifn mujwi. uu uuuiiuuiiu WWVIWVIUL.IUI.UW) nr»ni\/t«rif f n I niri f »>)»ilTn' nnmmn n CiUU IJUtlll U UWAWCAUJ. J. il J. UW| WUIUUUll ! nnnrrifi/ifwi ni fn run mrn LJlWlWWUWULAilAUWj 1 UOLlliUW ) m»Irtrnf i tiif«" «\nrinnrtnf JWAWIWULIIAWW] iLUUHUUU U linfni^nfTtitiifn nnf ini f n onnwinifn liywwuwuliiliww) wuwi.UJ.wW) oyut uiuu, nfll lnr.i fn iln i 1 nrt I I AW i nnmrann VWAAUW uw UUli )viiU*| wuumwu nn c i « i f « «7* llfii.1 LWrJAHAOW) JUAAU* '

UuClU

n'minrlAiif fn nn«»n« nifittwnn .1 »Afl •» i f» fj ciuuiiuuiiw uu uuuiauu uiuuiawii) giwwuidii tTftl 1 nr.i fn n » i n* h f n n i 1 n M • nnminnn j WA A u* uu UIIQIIU jv-iiuw) wumuuu IMT* t r n

K i i» DARA !/•> f Wl(iyt3UUlJW/OtliiUOUWllW* i mlilt WU 11 HUll ] nil uw u'itti* c *r\r\T «'u=7Q r-ifi T=^i' etui l/U/l l( 1 - 1 J ) li"lU| 1,-mf I ] WW Oil uuuiiuuuuf i/u/i ( i"ui| u-n | L- u / ,

»\ KliTirt n W f nrtt BAirif »1 ni tn /"'!l!Sr.?l 'j, wu HUUII u uwui.wfiwiiiiiuwf wuiaisun -fnlniri'ttiKifn tnlnirifft'nirn' nAi»»flri JwiGVIutiiiiuC) uCiwtj.witiii.ow, wwmaUu ?iipi(titn flnm> Pun i »* i f n • IfUVr^ti? LUOltllUW) 3W Mil 1 UO Llk 1UW } aunuvi '•nlnnnti nit n< AtMininnf tn nnmrtnn iviw iw wiuiww , duuuuiiiiv uu ww»*wn miknoini tn nut iinrn nunfiiin* nnmmnn SUuCi lit i. ww t CU wliii ww , uuu^, wumiiun

ClUUllUClUW I Inr-Anntninitn w n I 1 n M f n n»»»»»>.-«n< LlpUWuCCllUlUW, JWJ.1WP UU ULail^W; rikun/innf nitimnn n* I 1 n M i n n IUAAIA' UWUUUUUU UlUUHV.il) Jl-UUlidll QIWWM,

rt 17 1Q Sandstoac>claystcr.c, dos abundant to UUUUU a 1 0 _ Q £ fl Air Benakat uuu .J i u WUIklHWU) I'U'L ^ l"UT| U IW) L ** I ) abundant detrovitrinite; ccsaon iacrtodctrinite; eoaaon sporinite and cutinite, yellow to orange; censer, to sparse resinite, orange to dark orange; cesser, liptodetrinite. yellow rilirifl"! . ULigO , Jj.tl.Jlar: . J sparse fluorinite, bright yellow; abundant hituscn, greenish yellow, _ „ . - . • m .t A 1 £ 11 CrtaloNcllfcfririQ rinm rnmmnn \t) j ) } IIKOi 31B-01J AIT SSfluK't C.JO Wl WHU IS/ 5 I I WWWWIlS, »W« UtmilllWU) I'ml- i i-ug, u-l*, J.-./, uuu.iufinw rlof rnwil-rinif o- nn^rea i norfi ni to • - w u i u . I u I I II I WW , drUI J. IHWIWIIIIWW, r-mtimnn cnnrinifo jn/i /-11+• j " j _o • V P I . 0 W .u un W W~WI I II I WW W...W WWW.lt.WW, ; ^ ' » W»> rn nr.nno- entree fPlinitS CTuMSS! ww ui uiigw. www. ww . ww . h i ww, wi .113.1 rnmmnn 1 i ntnript ri nyf a nrarjng fn nafk WWI.KMW.I I IUUUU..I I II I WW , WlUl.gW mil WW. (\ orange; abundant bitumen, greenish yellow to yellow; ccsson oil drops, ye!loss; coair.cn pyrite.

I«Q« 1112-1120 Air Benakat 0.38 20 Shale)sandstone, dorr comr.crt; V>LM u uuuu 7C I-00 T-Ol• ahunrtanf fn nnmmnn (V=7' •• , L-ilt , i-u / j SBUIIGSIIU uw uwmmwii detrovitrinite; sparse to rare inertinite; cosscn liptodetrinite, yellow to orange; cor.ir.on to sparse cutinite, yellow to orange; sparse rnnrim'ro anrl "pcinifg nr2n36 tO O W w l i il I Um UKU I WW .... WW , WlUl.gw WW oar,, orange, spsrss . I-WI miww, bright yellow; abundant bit-sen, greenish yellow to yellow, cosson n w r i f a W ) i I UW I

23583 1218-1220 Air Benakat 0.39 25 Shale, dorr, abundant to cesser,; \')L>I (y=71, L=24, 1=5); abundant to cosson rlofrnwirri nita- <;ri2,r£S inSrtmite! uww.wl.w. it.iww, www. ww >..w.w.»..ww| rnmmnn 1 i nr nrlofri ni fo VSllOW tO WWI.....W.. i.wwwwww. iniww, /.i iw" ww orange; cosson sporinite, yellow to dull yellow; sparse resinite, dark i/o 11 AW* r^ninmnn kifiimpn hrlGRt ; w i i wn , UWIUMIWII uiuumuM] UI I gn u jSiiwn, IWIW UII wi www , ; w i i wn , rnmmnn fn enarca m/fita WWIIIUIUII uw upuiuw y) i iuw<

r\t\*ftt\ 4 i fl p < J nn n r, - rt - i"i i 7 00 ChaleNnarhnnafo nlnmnnmmnn* W \ [ \ j 22590 1485.420 U li " 2 i wi4( wu uNuiSfwuruwiiuww, uwm wwrnuwu, WW/I fV-7 0. I -07 T-frana^* ahnnnanf [ l-llj, L-UI| i-WIUUUj, UUUIIUUHU riof mi/if rinif a • enarca fn r2T2 uuwi unui nnuwj upui uu uw IUIW inertinite; ccsston liptodetrinite 2nd sporinite, yellow tc orange; sparse mifirtifo nrsnflO' rara racinifa dSTk* UUWIIIIUW) wtuiigw, IUIW IWUIIIIUU) uwilv nranno- rara fl iinr i ni to b T 1 G ht W I Ull g w , IUIW • I WW I IIIIUU) ui 1311b wollnw* rnmmnn niftiiiian Vfil 1 Qltf " t w 1 1 un 1 wuiintiwH u 1 UUIHW 11 ) ; w 1 t wn , rnmmnn nwf i f a WWItlHIUII uy 1 1 uw •

10Cni t C C C 1 C 7 A ^11*9 i Ti i7 OP. ChalaS^arhnnafa n n m n n m win n f n LUUW! iuCwiuiw W U l7« U I UiTl IV UIIU I W/ WUl UWIIUUW, UUIII WWIIIIIIWH WW enarca- V\l \T M/-0Q j ;? T = tr2CSi ' WUUJ WW , l/W/1 ll"UU| *- ^ j i-uiuww/, enarca nofrnwifrinira* enarca fn fOfg jpUIUU UWUIU1IUIIHIUW) W WW I Ww UW IUIW inarfipito1 cnarea fn rare cnnrinito IIIWIUIIIIUW, UUUIWW UW iuiw UUWIIIIIUW 9nn nnfinifa wollnw fn nfannp- unu UUUIIIIUW, j w 1 1 wn uu wiuiigw, enarca 1 1 nf nn*of r i n T f a *r?f!2S tC dlfk wwuiww IIUUUUWWI IIIIWW, ui unjv uw uuir> nranno- rara rocini'fa rtarl; f! T 3 R G P ' wiungw, IUIW IWUIIIIUU, uuir uiuiigwj rara hifuman nrannp' rara nil n>nn£. IUIW U lUUUIWII; W 1 W M 5 w , IUIW Wll UIUWU, uallnw* rnmmnn m/r'to } -. * I w » | WWIIIHIWM W ^ I I WW 1

23592 1550-1552 Baturaja 0.48 19 Lisestone)snale, dor. sparse; V>LM {y=92, L=S, I:trace); sparse f £ r a marMnira1 <*,ara e n n r •• n i *> a .->, r a n n o • r ? r a

: i nr nfior r i ni r a • . I W U W W W U I l:iiuw. -nmninn ni/ri

OOP, CO 0 7-1 "1 i anfl '. I/ a r n :n i u I u 11 g •- n .. i / \ i \: ; w - o« : - o * - 5 ' . / Li" A \ » -WW , --U, i. "U / ,

e n a r e p iintnnafrinifo .innna fn H a r i/ WUUIWW ilWUWWWulMIIUW) wiungw UW JUI (\ oranna« rara n i r rimon . enarca nwr i f a uiungw, IUIW UIUUIIIWII, wuuiww w JM ' uw .

' C 1 0 - '. 2 1.1 '. !ea f 1 ;p tn n.nal\Cha*o Anm ihnnnanf w M \T UUUI f UIIUIUi WW HI U U U 11 U U 11 U • l/U/1 f w - a Q r-C 1 . ma i ;' V-Qfl **U| | WWUl \I«UU| * - 0 1 > fij'nr fn annrtrianf falnuifrinifa . ~ \> I , HIUJWI - W UUUIIUUHU * W t W f I UI Ml I UW

cnlarnfimfa a n rt inarfnWafrinifa- WWIWIWUllllUW - I i W HIUI UUUUWI IHIUW, nnmmnn ennrimfa nranna T n nart WWIIIIIIWII uuui • 11 i u w t wiuiigu uw wui r\ nranna• enarca /'iinniro nranna * J I Ull gW , WUUIWW WUUIIMUW, UI UIMUi mmmnn ! i^f/iriaf rmiro nranno rn nia ri/ w WIIIIIIWH IIWUWUWUI i II i uu) uiuiigw uw wui o

nranno* a n n n n a n f f n uiwujw| uuuuuunu uu

f f •flon. \ . . Talann * 1/ a r Kit ChalaSrnal n n m a h 11 n n a n r ,' U - 0 fi I - M i u i u 11 g A iv u i I u wu WIIUIW/WWUI, WWUl UWUIIWUHU \ 1 *"U U J t'IT| '•'Mral' r-nai M/-0.1 i -C T -

•llUjgl U W UUUIIUU.IIU UWwtUIIUI i i I I 'w w t enarca -alnwifrinifa- enarca UUUI WW MWIWIIUI , I . I mi w , WUUIWW en 1 amr inir: WWIWiwwllltWV rnmmnn ennnnifa anri "tirinifa nranna WWIIIIIIWII WMWI III I UU mm I I W WUUllllUU, Ul Ull JU

ovnnafiniro /a 1 1 niii l< WAUUUUIMIUW] ;wiiun ahnnnanf hi f union i-ai Inu f n nranna* UUUHUUIIU WIUUUIWH] ; w . i w •> uw wiuiigwg

imae iflcciofia 1 r tfl I u w u • u u w i/ST-l (\I--R T-1 I -t\ • sniinrignr

' ' 1 ~ •-. \ I *" wl U ] . "" L ( _ * L y , UUUIIUUHU n'arrnwifrinifa* enarca I norr i nifa• UWUIWT'UI III I UU, WUUIWW MIWI UllllUW, nnmmnn fn enarca "iitinifa nranna WWIIIIIIWII uw wuuiww wuuiiiiuu) wi un gw haritr nranno* enarca ennrinifa a n n wui iv wiuiigWf wuuiww uuwi IHIUW uiiu lintnnarrinifa nranna rn na rt/ IIWWWUWUIIIMUW, wiungu uu u u i <"*. ifinnuo nranno' a ro u t w rocimfo ri a r i/ nranno* nnmmnn nurif Q IWUIIIIUU, wui iv wiungw, WWIIIIIIWII w/i •

T0SQ7 loop.icafl nlav/efnna'»narhnnara n'nm enarca ^ n WIU/WUWIIWfWUIUWHUUW, ml w III WUUIWW uw r rara* l\V\T M-C7 \l • <0 :*-ranol'

enarca -*arrnwifrinifa* rara WUUIWW WWUIWflUI IHIUWf iuiw inorr-'nifa* enarca ennrinifa nranna I IIWI UllllUW, WUUIWW WMWI. HI WW) wiuugw "• n na ri/ nranna uw uui i\ wi un gw i iO 3ha!e;sanaswcne ;ca.rw-cna.e>siits-cne, ' OW-i $"•"> V>L)I • V=83, '.:!7, I=tracs); scarse dors; sparse cetrcvitrinite; trace iner.im-e; sparse to rare spcr*n'-a, 3ranga _z a2rk orange; rare cuuiniss, orange; rare res.niie, da.-K orange; sparse tc rare cituaer., yellow. HVTT MXUV • fTU- T i PIUUU HOH u • ua IT

unni ui. I/DI ui lUiwnuun ib nal 11 fui I"/

o r, n. -j," -r :--oi r-M IUULU ^ 1,

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i.lWUWU'-wli.lllUU, J^llUri UW WLtlliSjWi

rtrt*r»rtn r!nf»"inifft i-fnnnnioh HA, l I /\r; < wu Uitnu 11 - J. U U L , I I J. U N. t jl'-k.iiLuil ; «- * x w * ;

-. '/\i\ r\A -\ ni~ hi kinifin :1»/iriMnn n/\] i ntj • •A W 'J ti'J U II '- W 1 Iw WiIIW.ll ) Q 1WWI11J11 ^ W A 1 W It 5

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1 TIO'7" ift. ft _ i f> > flM,\r!n(inf«» .1 nr-si r-o ) yufil'Wittj Jtui UtJUl'u UUU'"-JWI 7-1li- ,t/ii. ,'»,i>.il.i.r M'-Ji -• » , u-iu j

-4 \ > rm/i inn. f ei Ahiinnnnf •T j j iia^ui uw -tUUUUUtlU in r-fi lfiinf»iBi f«> , .1 UW J. U * 1 U i, In 1 WW |

i/tnilAn ^/•.irtirTrninifn' /* n f» in i"i FI

rift I n n«r 1 « i r/i» i\ rtii«fif,«f JWAWL^WkULUw, UUUIIUUUU

! int fl/inf m' B i fn TT n I I n i-f fn -i •* <* n rf /i • H'Wt,UUwiHi,lil-i.\,| ,'V-*iUfl JW jlifcllfijW!

lUfinrt^Fif i" •"» A-inm/*. »» nfifini RI *n nnl 1 ny '1W U IJUUIl U UW VUiltilU U J-Uli-liLVU | J W 1 J.U N

fn, rtnl . nn ilriui fi«w«ft« r»n««»i «i rn wU J U J. _ jl»HU*i W WUltilU ii wUUwUliUU|

rrn 1 I A r.r • /» n. n m i- « niii'i ni i-fl /in i. j nn i :.ii.l ' w J. J. w " . J'jlHUtWli vuulJUVw) UU11 J m. j. - -J *

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llliwlUU I

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rt *« nrfrt • -« hnn,H * n r U I (• u r» * T\ U ». •' ;f h r wTlllllgW, UuauWUIlU W 1. U Ulcl W 11 J W i. Lfc li •-•

rr/, 1 1 -IT- -rr*i f .-. •» *•*•**« JWllW", Ujli-us. •-,UI»i*UU.

. :«««i^t- <\ .n in 22275 566-56.-, Air Benakat UllttiC'SttllUOUUIIW.WWIAH-; Jll(*lv. *u j Wl r •-„ ,R„Rri,«f i«-. -r\r\r iy-jr- :!0 uu uwunuu.iu uwm, • • U' i \ ' -i/ v » w-.jf

"* -0 W Rr^inriR *f fl/lfKrtirif *i» . W . JfiLiJl, _ - 'J i i UUUIIUUHU 'J W v L 'J ' 1- - l L '•

' »rt rf I n i (•" > f.fni««n ; i f " fi f L IlC ,. U Lil 1 UW ) WUIUU1W ll llWUWW*-

yCiiw* uw udi A wiuiifcw » JUULJW

IHRKI ni'f« ,,., - •nil'1 i » n n .1 .• J u U L mil lUK) W L Ullijw . 1

i W O 1 11 k v W ) UUl'l ^ L **V1fe W •

liuui niiuui £ L w w i. id n ;v,iiw»i

,K .. 'CQ. uw \T n/-ai r-i \. •*•' 11 riofrnv/ifrinira* enarca WWUIWIIU UW) W rJ U i m. W inrnnar rvnita I u U W WW ill I I' I UW t nranna <*" n n1 a r t/ nranna1 enarca wi uiigw uu wui iv wl u 11 g w , WUUIWW niit-inifa nranno* rara * 1 nnr i ni 'f a .. w u i 11 i \J w <• wi uiigwf i uiw 1 1 UWI 1 H I uw, i/ul'flu' nnmmnn nifnman hn n'n¥ ; w . i un , UWIIIHIWII u i UWIIIWH ] ui i gn u i/Oi Inu' nnmmnn n w r i f a j w i i w n , UWIIIUIWM u / i i ww •

\'i,11 TO-l-TaX Air uoml/cir 1 10 "ha 1 a \eanricf nna • ."nmmnn tn enarca *-./... •» . .. -ill UWHUI1L1 U J . T (_ WIIU I W/ UUIIUUUWHW , WWIIIIIIWII UW WUUI WW 'Um* ;,/\! \ T M/-0.Q I - * fl 7-1 W nnmmni uwili, t / w/ I ; V-wS T L- i u , I-L / , WW Wl Aarrnu.trinira• cnorca fn fara uCwiwfiul IIIIWW) wpuiww UW IUIW i narr-i n i r a • nnmmnn 1 i nrnriaf r I ni fa II W I ul.ltuw, UW HIUI Wll I I U UWUWUI MIIUW] i/allnu "n nranna* enarca ennrinifa Jul iun wu wiuiigw. wuuiww wyuiiniww, mtf mi f a ann t.unr i ni f a i/pllnw ffl WUUIIIIUWUIInranna* rarUa rac-.nifi uw i ' iat i u nrannaw f ; w .* . w cnorn e w i un gw , IUIW I WW I ll I Uw •, ui un gw , WUWiW

Kifii«an HrTnhf i/allnw* ?P.?Arc? ByMffi UIUUUIWII u i i gn u ; w i i wn , wuuiww u/liuw n n n a n < 1,! C * 0. E P. T-jlann \l/ar fl C1 10 Cha'a\narhnnafa\eanr»efnna» enarca wwtwu Iw-rw-IuSw luluiig nhui u.u. IL UIIU i w iuui WUIIU ww / wuuuu uun w , wuuiww Anm \l\\ \T M/-QR I -fl T-.g] -••M I W Will , t/W/1 \I"JU| WW) i-wj fief rnwi f ri ni f a • rara i nPTTl"! f! 11.2 " f2f UWUI Wl IUI MIIUW) I UI W IIIWI W I II I UW j • UI ' i nf nrlaf ri ni f a \>?}^(yH *"fl 0r2.n.CS' I r w WUUW UI IIIIVU] ,' " ' '' w n wk/ w 3 i nnmmnn nyrif a wwiimiwii p/ i • u w •

n -j rj n * 'OGQ 'IRA Talann '.bor fl .(Q *? K fno i • l/M\T fV-flC ( - < *7 ?;-?!• **-jnr Luwui iiluu !LUW iuiuiig nl\ui u . 4u ww wwu i , i / w / i \i-vuj *-- ' **-| •"•"*/•• ""•J"1 f-n ahiinrianf rlafrnuifrinifa* nnmmnn UW UUUIIUUHU UWUI Uf IUI III I UU| WWIIIIIIWII i-alnwi f r i ni f a* nnmmnn fn enarca UWIUI IUI IIKUWi -• W m UIW 11 UW WUUIWW nnrnnnalinifa* nnmmnn fn enarca uui uuww > i II i uw , wummuii uw w wui ww fucinifa anrl eomifneinifa* nnmmnn IUUIHIUW UHU WWillllWWIHIUWj WWIIIIIIWII ennr. n i f a nranna f n Harif nranna- uuui iiiluwf w i u 11 g w uu uui n uiuiigw, ria ri/ nranna • UUI l \ UI w 11 g w , a hn nrianf Kifnman wp11nule UUUHUUIIU u i uu ill wu f i G i i w n i i. nnmmnn avnrlaf^nifa wallnuieh nranna* w wii tin w II WAUUUullllUWj, I w I i w n i w I i w i w H g w ,

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22522 1773-1730 TalariS Akar 0 55 2' Cr,*la\c.c>r,rlerr,.,aSr..>rr,r,ri»r0\r.A»l. huwivu i I i W IIUU I U I Ull 3 flhUI U t w U UU UHUIW'UUIIWWUWIIW/WUIUWIIUWWr-WWUI] nnmmnn rJnm f V * *3 7 • T-frano 1-111' w win nt w 11 wwui \ i ~ w i , A-WIUWW) w- I u / , enarca nnal /V/-Q*J 7 -Q* I - f G "• .

WUUIWW WWUI v I - w u , l-(-t W I W / | ahnnnanf riof rnwi f r i ni f a • enarca UUUIIUUHU WWUl Ul IUI IIIIUW) WUUlww ffilfiVl tr\ Hi r? ' r3r° -"n harran UWIUIIUI IIIIWW) IUIW UW WUI I Wll i J\9'fT rii^aTr i °i t*Q • enarca fn rara UlUI UUUUUl IIIIUW) WUUIWW UW IUIW 1 1 nf P.Hpf T, n'fQ Airit nranna fn IIUUWWWUI IIIIUW] UUI IV W I Ull 3 w UW brnwn* rar? rp*?*ff'^° kmyn* rara U I Wlfil , I U l W i WU I II I UW | Ul Willi, IUIW ^nnrinit'P* Aorit nranna rn hrnwn*

upui i 11 i u w T u u i ii w i u 11 3 w uw ui WIIII, nnmmnn nuri fa W WlltlllWII Ujl | | U w I

22524 ia04-!S05 Talang Akar 0.58 20 Coal>Shale>car!sonate; abundant caal fV-97 I-! I;1)'- f-omwnn rlnn fU-Ofl i, r uj) A i | m," t. i • uum in ult uuui \ i - J u ) 1-3' Ll71 • "SIT fn ahnnrianf A u, u-iyj ma j w i uu wuwnwuii u tslOVltrinira* ahnnHanf uwiwf i Wi iiiiuw) UUUHUUIIU dfiuTCVi trifll *"a* nnmmnn enlarnfinifa* UWUI Wl IUI IIIIUW, UWIIIHIWH WWIWIWWIIIIWW) sporinite, dark orange ts drown; sparse resinite, orange to dark nranna* nnmmnn r n enarca Wl u I I 3 W , WWIIIIIIWII UW UUUI WW I i nf nriaf r i n i f a nranno rn hrnun- , IMUUUWUII.IIUW) wiuiigw uw uiwnii, nnmmnn nu r i fa WWIIIIIIWII w / I I UW I

22525 !8!5-lS!8 Talaris Akar 0 75 20 Caal}sh3ls)','",,,nn"-=- "ir"- '«»' m. w v i. w IWIW IWIW i u i ui i 3 nr\ui w . i w uu uuui r UIIU lu/uui uuiiuuui IIIUJUI uuui "V-8! 1:5 I — 1 A 1 - .himrt.nf Anm \ i ** w i j i"U| w. - i t ; , UUUHUUIIU uuui M/-^Q 7-1 l-Knl' mainr fn ahnnrianf l l"TU| i*l | U ~ W W / , IIIUJUI UW UUUHUUIIU riafrnwifrinifa anri folnyifrinifo- UWUI Wl IUI IIIIUW UIIU UWIUIIUI IIIIUW] nnmmnn fn enarca i narf nriof ri ni f a anH WW III Ml Wll UW WUUIWW IIIWI UUUUUl llll UW UIIU en 1arnf i n.i ,ra fa •- enarca eamifneinifa* WWUIWIWUIIllUWW I Wl UUUI I UW )) WUUIWW UWIII I I UW I II I UW j ahnnrianf linfnrlafrinifa nronna rn UUUIIUUHU I IMUWUWUI IIIIUW) Wl UII3W UW hrnun * nnmmnn racinifa rlarlr nranna ui wmi, w uiiiiiiw 11 IWWIIIIUW, uui n w i un 3 w rn hrnun* enarca ennrinifa anH uw u 1 u n 11 , WUUIWW wpwi IIIIUW UHU nnfinifa Airit nranna fn hrnwn UU U I ll I UW ) uu 1 n w 1 w 11 3 w uw ui wtin ,

22526 1S40-1S42 Talang Akar 0.17 25 ShaIe>carhcnate>ccaI)saRdstane; nnmmnn Anm M/-07 T-frana I -"J 1 • WWIIIIIIWII UWIII \ i - j i , A-UI UWW ) W-w i | nnmmnn nnal (W-7C T-9 \-/)li)> nnmmnn UWIIIHIWH UWUI \ > * I W ; . - L , W ~ W w I , wWniuiW I I Wafrnwifrinifa in rJnm * nnmmnn UWUI Ul IUI IIIIUW III W Will , W UIIIIIIW II falnwifrinifa in nnal* enarna fn rara UW 1 W I IUI IUI UW 1 U WWU 1 ) WUUI WW UW I Ul w inorfnriafrinifo* raro en 1afnf i ni fa• I II W> I UUUUUl IIIIUW) IWIW WWIWI WW IIIIUW, rnmmnn 1 i nf nHaf r i n i f a nranno rn riarlf W W III IUW I I lipUWWWUI MilUWi Wl till JW UW UUI ft nranno* enarco rn rara racinifa Hart/ wf UHJW, wuui ww uw i ui w i ww IH i uwf uui n nronna rn hrnun- raro ennrinifa Wart* wi w 11 3 w uw w i w n 11 , iuiw wwui in i UU) uui »

9 9 ft-JO OflflQ-Oflin I a h a f n 7Q 01 ChalaVnnal* ahnnnanf n'nm M/^an . T;1 L w W u W (.WWW w. w I w L. U II U U W • ' W L. I UIIUIW/WWWI) UUUHUUIIU UUUI \ I "UU j Al] I -Q ) • mainr fn ahnnrianf nnal \/\ I "I T \. ~ -J I , UIUJ Wl UW UUUIIUUHU UUUI) l/W/A /V-C1R T-0 1-111 mainr fn ahnnrtanf i, < - U w , A**U) L ~ i W / , UIUJ Ul UW UUUIIUUHU rlafrn wifrinifa* nnmmnn fain wifrinifa* UWUIWIIUI IIIIUW) WWIIIIIIWII uwiwriui IIIIUW) rara i narfinifa* nnmmnn fn enarco IUIW IIIWI UllllUW) WWIIIIIIWII uw wuuiww ennrinifa Air it nronria r n hrnun- wuwi IIIIUW) wui r. w i wn 3 w uw uiwnii) nnmmnn fn onirca racinifa Airit UWIIIHIWH UW WUUIWW IWWIIIIUW) Ulil II nranna* rara nnfinifa Harlf nranna- w i u 11 3 w , IUIW UUUIIIIUW) uui ft w i u 11 3 w , nnmmnn linfnriafrinifp nf anna f n fjarif w wui ill wii i I u uww w w i IMIUW) w i un 3 w UW UUl A orange,

22522 2070-2072 Lahat 0.78 22 Coal'shale; abundant coal (V=32; 1=3; l-Cl* ahnnrianf fn nnmmnn rtnm (U-f*'J* L-w / ) UUUIIUUII w UW WWIIIUIWII uwm v I -ww , [-IP,* 1-001* ahnni-Janf Hafrnwifrinifa• 1-lU, WWW/) UUUllwUHU UWUIWIIUI llll UW) rnmmmnn f al mi i f r i ni f a • enarca rnmmmnn f al mi i f r i ni f a • enarca fn TSfS WWiiulllllWII UWIUIIUI lllIII lI UW)] WUUIWWUUIWWW UU IUIW inorfnriafrinifo* enarca enlarnfinifa- IllClUWWWUIIIIIUW) WUUIWW WWIWI W UllllUW, rnmmnn ennrinifa Hark nranna *

WWIIIIIIWII wuwi IIIIWW, WUI ft Ul wn -w t enarca nnfinifa Airit nranna* enarca Spul ww wUu I II I UW) uui I* Ul Ull-w, wpuiuw racinifa Aor\t nranna fn hrnun* IWWIIIIUW, WUI M Wl WUIJW UW W I wrtn , abundant to cor.scn oil h3zes, bright yellow.

2158-2170 Lahat 0.81 23 Sh3le)carbanats)sandstcne; sparse don MI-GO T-frflra l-TlM' rnmmnn [v-oa, i-irace, L-WW/, .»«i»»» detrovitrinite; rare inertinite;

en.reci fn r_r_ • !jny222."i&ItS, dark WUUIWW UW IUIW llf/fwtwww-'t - — i orange to brown; rare sporinite, dark nra nna fn nun* enarrcac hi fnman w i w 11 3 w ww wn 11t uuui w hri nhf nranna- rara racinifa Aor'u mm I I 311 U Wl UIIJW , IUIW IWWIIIIUW) WUI"

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111 .-llll n . r fl Q1 10 Sandstone>sh3!e>carbonate; sparse das- m • U I IU (V=91, 1=9, L=trac9); cession to An*3i«Aft A&t rn wifrinifa* rnmmnn fn Sp3i ww uSliiui I Ul IIIIUW, WWIIIIIIWII WW sparse inertodetrinite; rare to barren liptinite; abundant to ccmracn nwrifa UJ l l uw• tfRr r UAUP . ar.o •uuu unuu . uu u

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