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Cuaderno De Documentacion SECRETARIA DE ESTADO DE ECONOMÍA, MINISTERIO SECRETARÍA GENERAL DE POLÍTICA ECONÓMICA DE ECONOMÍA Y ECONOMÍA INTERNACIONAL Y HACIENDA SUBDIRECCIÓN GENERAL DE ECONOMÍA INTERNACIONAL CUADERNO DE DOCUMENTACION Número 86-23º (alcance) ¡Feliz año 2009! Alvaro Espina Vocal Asesor 30 Diciembre de 2008 (14 horas) CD 86-23º de alcance 30 de Diciembre de 2008 [A] “Los sistemas de propiedad no son autónomos, sino que dependen en su definición de toda una constelación de procedimientos legales, civiles y penales. La evolución de la legalidad tampoco puede ser contemplada como algo derivado del sistema de precios. Los jueces y la policía deben ser remunerados, pero el sistema mismo desaparecería si estos agentes tuvieran que estar vendiendo en cada momento sus servicios y decisiones. De modo que la definición de los derechos de propiedad, basados en el sistema de precios, depende precisamente de la no-universalidad del sistema de precios y de propiedad privada. El sistema de precios no es universal, y probablemente en un sentido profundo no puede serlo. En la medida en que es un sistema incompleto debe estar complementado por un contrato social, implícito o explícito”. [B] “Con independencia de nuestras teorías omnicomprensivas acerca del mercado, los economistas debemos reconocer que hay bienes que podrían ser comprados y vendidos, pero que no lo son. Pueden aducirse muchos ejemplos. Las decisiones judiciales y los votos no pueden ir hacia el mejor postor. Los individuos no pueden renunciar a ciertos derechos legales. Los valores que se ofrecen a la venta en el mercado tienen que respetar, entre otras, la regulación sobre transparencia: no está permitido ofrecer valores sin proporcionar esa información, incluso cuando lo que se notifica al comprador es que tales valores no respetan la regulación. Cuando se me pregunta si la razón para que estas mercancías potenciales se vean universalmente impugnadas es que comercializarlas violaría [los derechos de] la persona, mi respuesta resulta menos clara. Más que con la preservación de la integridad individual, muchas de estas impugnaciones parecen relacionadas con la operatividad del sistema social...... El mercado es un sistema; la política, otro. El uso del mercado y de su lenguaje para hablar de política conduce a resultados que ofenden nuestra intuición; e igual sucede cuando el mercado emplea el lenguaje político. Contemplar los problemas políticos desde la perspectiva de cualquier otro sistema suele conducir a conclusiones insatisfactorias. La multiplicidad de sistemas de control en el mundo real probablemente no resulta accidental.” Kennet J. Arrow1 1 Kenneth J. Arrow: [A] “Gifts and Exchanges”, Philosophy and Public Affairs, 1972, 1-4, pp. 343-362; [B] “Invaluable Goods”, Journal of Economic Literature, 1997, Vol. 35, nº 2, (Junio), pp. 757-765. 1 Tras Estocolmo: Los números de Krugman Tras regresar de recoger el premio Nóbel, Krugman le ha echado las cuentas a Europa. Si cada país emprende por separado un plan de reactivación –lo que, al paso que van las cosas, se presentará como algo inexorable, por mucho que arrastren sus pies los más recalcitrantes- por cada euro gastado por el Estado sólo se conseguiría un crecimiento del PIB de 0,73 euros; y por cada euro de déficit –y deuda- en que incurriera el Estado sólo se conseguiría un crecimiento del PIB de 1,03 euros2. Conclusión: a los estados europeos no les sale a cuenta embarcarse en planes de expansión por separado, porque en general los resultados son muy inferiores al esfuerzo realizado (fundamentalmente, porque más de una cuarta parte del esfuerzo expansivo de cada país enriquece a los vecinos, vía aumento de importaciones, ya que, en promedio, cada euro de crecimiento del PIB implica un aumento de 0,4 euros en las importaciones). Ahora bien, si estos planes se coordinan y se adoptan todos al mismo tiempo, por cada euro gastado por los estados europeos se obtiene un crecimiento del PIB europeo de 1,18 euros y por cada euro de déficit –y deuda- en que incurren los estados se consigue un crecimiento del PIB europeo de 2,23 euros (o sea, la rentabilidad obtenida por cada euro de deuda contraida es del 123%, reduciendo el apalancamiento). La razón de esta diferencia es que de los 0,4 euros de importaciones, 0,27 euros van hacia importaciones intracomunitarias, mientras que sólo 0,13 son extracomunitarias. Estas son las paradojas de los beneficios derivados de la acción colectiva. Claro que, como explicaba Mancur Olson, alguien puede tener la tentación de hacer de gorrón, o de viajero sin billete (free-rider). Para ello, sólo tiene que arrastrar un poco los piés hasta que los demás países adopten sus planes de expansión, lo que beneficiaría también al crecimiento del rezagado, a través del tirón sobre sus exportaciones, sin 2 La formulas empleadas para estimar el multiplicador del gasto expansivo (dY/dG) y el impacto del déficit sobre el euro (dY/dD) son: dY/dG = (1-m)/[1 - (1-m)(1-t)c]; y dY/dD = (1-m)/[1 - (1-t)(1-m)c - t(1-m)], en las cuales c y m son las propensiones marginales al consumo y a importar, y t la presión fiscal marginal. En los cálculos, m = t = 0,4; c = 0,5. 2 incurrir en el más mínimo gasto o riesgo, robando el empleo de los demás y mejorando el equilibrio relativo de sus cuentas públicas y su balanza externa a cuenta de los desequilibrios de los demás. Gráfico I No es difícil adivinar que el país con más fuerte tentación de no pagar billete es Alemania, cuyo crecimiento es precisamente el que más depende de las exportaciones3. Pero ¿qué sucedería si nadie hiciese nada? Pues sucedería que el PIB caería a plomo, pero lo haría menos en los países que más importan (como España, que importó de Alemania 47.631 M. €, siendo su octavo socio comercial, pero sólo exportó 20.687 M. €, ocupando el puesto 14º). 3 Según el Instituto federal de estadísitica: “Germany’s economy is very much export-oriented and hence also export-dependent. At the same time, due to scarce natural resources Germany also depends on imports – in particular, in the energy sector (mineral oil, natural gas). In 2007 Germany exported goods worth 965.2 billion euro and imported goods worth 769.9 billion euro. Thus, both exports and imports reached their highest-ever level. The foreign trade balance achieved a “record surplus” of 195.3 billion euro.” Véase: http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/EN/Navigation/Statistics/Au ssenhandel/Aussenhandel,templateId=renderPrint.psml__nnn=true (con el gráfico adjunto) 3 En cambio, el presunto gorrón sería el más perjudicado. Mientras el dólar se apreciaba respecto al euro, Alemania se permitía el lujo de actuar como lastre, tanto en materia de planes de expansión europeos, como esperando que el BCE no bajase los tipos al ritmo adecuado (con los sindicatos alemanes volcados en congelar sus salarios reales y reducir los salarios relativos para ganar posición competitiva, como vía para conservar el empleo4). Gráfico II 4 GROSS MONTHLY EARNINGS IN THE 3RD QUARTER OF 2008: +3.0% TO EUR 3,105 “A full-time employee in the industry or in the service sector in Germany earned an average gross EUR 3,105 per month in the third quarter of 2008. That was 3.0% more than in the third quarter of 2007. In the former territory of the Federal Republic, average gross monthly earnings amounted to EUR 3,224 (+2.9%), in the new Länder EUR 2,355 (+3.4%). Over the same period, the consumer price index rose by 3.1%; hence, its increase was by 0.1 percentage points larger than that of all-German earnings. ”Véase: http://www.destatis.de/jetspeed/portal/cms/Sites/destatis/Internet/EN/Navigation/Statistics/Ve rdiensteArbeitskosten/Bruttoverdienste/Bruttoverdienste.psml 4 Probablemente el exceso de confianza de la dirigencia económica alemana en lo invulnerable de su economía, por estar orientada hacia la exportación -orientación que recibió un impulso definitivo tras la adopción del Euro, que triplicó el superavit de la balanza, como se observa en el Gráfico III-, proviniera estos últimos meses de la depreciación del Euro respecto al dólar y el yen (debido a la búsqueda compulsiva de seguridad y a la inversión del carry-trade respecto al yen). Lo que pasa es que en ese estúpido frente de guerra (“crass warfare”, en palabras de Krugman), a frau Merkel (nein-Merkel) el tiro ya le está saliendo por la culata, porque el racaneo monetario de monsieur Trichet5 está disparando de nuevo la cotización del euro frente al resto de monedas. El viernes 19 de diciembre el euro ya cotizaba a 1,47 dólares y a 0,95 peniques, y Brad Setser vaticinaba a corto plazo la paridad con la libra y la recuperación del tipo de cambio record a 1,6 dólares. Es dudoso, sin embargo, que el descenso de la competitividad- precio de las exportaciones alemanas denominadas en dólares modifique la actitud de los dos guerreros teutónicos, ya que dos terceras partes de las exportaciones y siete de cada diez euros importados provienen de la Unión Europea (aunque, la suma de las exportaciones a EEUU y Reino Unido significaron en 2007 el 15% del total, como se observa en el gráfico II, y otro 11% se dirigía hacia Asia, de donde provenía el 17% de las importaciones –ocupando China ya la tercera plaza con un 7%-, mientras que los dos grandes países anglosajones sólo remitían el 11,6% de las 5 Obsérvese la ironía que emplea Brown Brothers Harriman recomendando a “Mr. Trichet” que siga cuidándose de mantener el euro fuerte (para mejor conveniencia del resto del G10 y para estupefación de todos los observadores avisados, tras comprobar la revaluación del euro en 17%/15%/12% respecto a dólar/libra/yen durante las últimas semanas).
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