Drug Trafficking in SSA By

Heroin: In countries all along the eastern Drug Trafficking in Sub Saharan seaboard of SSA, from Kenya to South Africa, Africa by FCN including Mauritius, Afghan heroin, transiting via Pakistan heads to East and Southern SSA is a transit destination with cocaine Africa as a destination for African markets and shipped into West Africa from South America onwards into Europe and to a lesser extent and heroin shipped into East and Southern North America. According to the ENACT Africa from Asia headed to markets in Europe project, the heroine trade is “best and North America. It is also becoming a understood as forming an integrated regional continent where, not only cannabis , which is criminal economy based on the transit of commonplace, is consumed, but where the heroin from Afghanistan to the West, and with production of synthetic drugs, made from a spin-off trade for local consumption. Along imported precursor chemicals is on the rise. this trafficking route, much of the heroin is Drug trafficking affects many countries, first shipped to Africa on motorised, wooden though different illegal drugs seagoing dhows built in Total Criminal Proceeds in Sub are prevalent in different Saharan Africa in US$ Billions FCN the UAE designed for regions and to a greater and 2020 fishing. The vessels are lesser extent. Countries with loaded with between the largest drugs markets are Mining Fishing 100kg and 1,000kg 10 2.5 in Nigeria, Tanzania, South Wildlife consignments of 2 Goods Piracy Africa, Guinea, Uganda, Ghana, 9 contraband off the Sierra Leone, DRC, Benin & Logging 12.5 Makran coast of Modern Slavery Mauritius. 8.3 southern Pakistan. The

Drugs dhows anchor off the Enact Africa’s, Drug Demand 3 Theft 15 coast of Africa in and Use in Africa Report 20191 international waters, and estimate SSAs drug usage rate ﬂotillas of small boats in 2018 at about 1.6%, but with collect the heroin and ferry it to various a 5% increase projected / expected up to beaches, coves or islands, or ofﬂoad it into 2050. As SSA’s population is set to double by small commercial harbours. Dozens of such 2050, the number of drug users will increase sites are used for landing the consignments by an estimated 150%, including an along the entire eastern coastline – from north additional 14 million Africans, on top of the of Kismayo, Somalia, to Angoche, 14 million current drug users. Not only will Mozambique. This route is used all year round the continent experience the most rapidly apart from during the three-month monsoon growing consumer market in the world, period.” This dhow based supply line is also certain regions, notably West and East Africa, supplemented by the use of containers at are becoming more important to the various deep-water container ports along the distribution of drugs around the world. coast. Several ports have fallen under

1 See: https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2019-08-28-drug-demand-and-use-in-africa-reaseach-paper-cb.pdf substantial criminal influence and are used to Western Europe each year, (representing transship a number of other illicit goods, such about 20% of the total). countries that have as elephant ivory and timber. been particularly affected include Guinea Bissau, once described as Africa’s first “Narco With heroin drug usage increasing in SSA, State” a decade or more ago, as well as the rates of HIV among people who inject neighbours Guinea and The Gambia, as well drugs are several times higher than among as Cape Verde. the rest of the population, and there are high rates of hepatitis C in this group. Cities with Synthetics: Countries involved in producing the biggest heroin consumer markets, like and distributing significant amounts of Mombasa, Cape Town and the synthetic drugs include: CAR, South Africa, Johannesburg–Pretoria Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, metropolitan area, are also Burkina Faso and the beset with violence Ivory Coast. Estimating associated with the drug the value of the illegal trade. drug trade across SSA is Cannabis: Cannabis has challenging, not least been grown for because, most of the consumption and export trade transits the region, across SSA for decades, with and is not consumed the crop providing locally, although this is significant revenue to small- changing. As SSA moves scale farmers, with little from its transit status to alternative sustainable and Higher Risk Countries for illegal becoming an important drugs acceptable livelihoods. destination for drug usage, 2 According to the OCI , criminal proceeds will increase. For example, countries with significant cannabis the cocaine that transits West Africa for production are Uganda, Eswatini, Malawi, Western Europe, generates an estimated CAR, DRC, Nigeria, Ghana, Sierra Leone, street value of US$2.1 billion, in European Togo, The Gambia & the Ivory Coast. cities, but this translates into only an Cocaine: Cocaine from South America has estimated 2% (US$40 million3), for those long targeted smaller West African countries involved in West Africa, from payments made as transit locations, where organised crime largely as protection and facilitation and corruption manipulate safe passage payments. Consequently, SSA generates little mostly into North Africa and into lucrative from its transit role, but criminals fair much Western European markets. It has been better in terms of generating proceeds, estimated that approximately 40 million estimated at approximately US$3 billion tonnes of cocaine transits West Africa for

2 See: https://ocindex.net 3 See: https://www.oecd.org/corruption/illicit-financial-flows-9789264268418-en.htm from the world’s 2nd largest and fastest estimated 2% (US$40 million6), for those growing regional market. involved in West Africa, from payments made largely as protection and facilitation According to UNEP, reporting in 2014, the payments. Consequently, SSA generates little street value of illegal drugs in East, Central from its transit role, but criminals fair much and West Africa was US$2.65 billion4. The better in terms of generating proceeds, regions with the highest illegal drug use, estimated at approximately US$3 billion across Africa, was reported as 55% for West from the world’s 2nd largest and fastest Africa, 19% for East Africa, 12% for Southern Africa, 8%, for North Africa, and 6% for growing regional market. 5 Central Africa . This suggests Southern According to UNEP, reporting in 2014, the Africa’s value for illegal drugs used locally street value of illegal drugs in East, Central would be US$336 million, amounting to and West Africa was US$2.65 billion7. The approximately US$3 billion in total. regions with the highest illegal drug use, Although dated the UNODC reported in across Africa, was reported as 55% for West 2011, that Africa generated US$1.5 billion in Africa, 19% for East Africa, 12% for Southern proceeds for Cocaine, with 62% or US$1 Africa, 8%, for North Africa, and 6% for 8 billion available for laundering. Central Africa . This suggests Southern Africa’s value for illegal drugs used locally Synthetics: Countries involved in producing would be US$336 million, amounting to and distributing significant amounts of approximately US$3 billion in total. synthetic drugs include: CAR, South Africa, Although dated the UNODC reported in Nigeria, Ghana, Benin, Burkina Faso and the 2011, that Africa generated US$1.5 billion in Ivory Coast. Estimating the value of the proceeds for Cocaine, with 62% or US$1 illegal drug trade across SSA is challenging, billion available for laundering. not least because, most of the trade transits the region, and is not consumed locally, although this is changing. As SSA moves from its transit status to becoming an important destination for drug usage, criminal proceeds will increase. For example, the cocaine that transits West Africa for Western Europe, generates an estimated street value of US$2.1 billion, in European cities, but this translates into only an

4 See: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?end=2018&locations=ZG&start=2006 5 See: https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/images/2019-09-23-drug-use-map.png 6 See: https://www.oecd.org/corruption/illicit-ﬁnancial-ﬂows-9789264268418-en.htm 7 See: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?end=2018&locations=ZG&start=2006 8 See: https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/images/2019-09-23-drug-use-map.png Extracts from Individual Country Threat Assessments by FCN

The following extracts are taken from Deep Dive Threat Assessments on Sub Saharan African Countries relating to Drug Trafﬁcking: For more details see: https:// theﬁnancialcrimenews.com/topics/ssa-threat-assessment/

Nigeria: : The NRA9 assessed the ML threat of illicit trafﬁcking in narcotic drugs and psychotropic substances as “Medium-High”. Nigeria has an estimated 146,000 people10 with illegal drug use disorders (2017), representing 0.46% of the population.

According to the US CIA11 Nigeria is a “transit point for heroin and cocaine intended for European, East Asian, and North American markets; consumer of amphetamines” and a “safe haven for Nigerian narcotrafﬁckers operating worldwide.”

Nigeria has long been identified as an import and transit route for illicit drugs, such as cocaine and heroin, and a grower and exporter of cannabis sativa. Cocaine is trafficked from Columbia, Bolivia, Brazil, Peru and Mexico amongst others, through the United Arab Emirates and South Africa, into major international airports and across borders from Nigeria. Subsequently, the drugs are trafficked onward to Europe and to Asia.

Similarly, traffickers smuggle heroin from Pakistan, Thailand and Afghanistan by sea and/or by air into Ethiopia, South Africa, Dubai (UAE), Doha (Qatar) and Turkey, where they are flown into Nigeria for onward distribution to Europe and the USA. Owing to Nigeria’s porous borders, (note also the Economic Community of West Africa (ECOWAS) policy on free movement of persons and goods among member states which is abused to traffic narcotic drugs within the region) has been very difficult for the authorities to break the activities of the drug syndicates.

Nigeria has emerged over the past decade as a signiﬁcant producer of methamphetamine, and whilst domestic use is rising, “most is reportedly exported to South Africa where 1 kg of meth sells for up up to €10,000. It is also trafﬁcked to South-East Asia, in particular Japan, where 1 kg can reportedly fetch €130 00012.”

The UNODC 2018 report on Drug Use in Nigeria13 reported that “in Nigeria, one in seven persons aged 15-64 years had used a drug (other than tobacco and alcohol) in the past year. The past year prevalence of any drug use is estimated at 14.4 per cent (range 14.0 per cent - 14.8 per cent), corresponding to 14.3 million people aged 15-64 years who had used a psychoactive substance in the past year for non-medical purposes”and that “Cannabis is the most commonly used drug. An estimated 10.8% of the population or 10.6 million people, had used cannabis in

9 See: https://www.nﬁu.gov.ng/index.php/resourses/ar/nrareport 10 See: https://ourworldindata.org/illicit-drug-use 11 See: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ﬁelds/329.html 12 See: https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/meth-has-found-its-market-in-nigeria 13 See: https://www.unodc.org/documents/data-and-analysis/statistics/Drugs/Drug_Use_Survey_Nigeria_2019_BOOK.pdf the past year. The average age of initiation of cannabis use among the general population was 19 years”.

According to the OC Index14, “Drugs markets are pervasive in Nigeria. Psychotropic substances (opiates, especially Tramadol, amphetamine and codeine) are increasingly both traded and abused in Nigeria. Methamphetamines and Tramadol are the synthetic drugs that lead this market – both are smuggled and sold in the country. The port of Lagos is a major hub for Tramadol imports, supplying the entire West African region. Mexican and Nigerian networks have worked together to build crystal meth labs (mainly in the south-west of the country), and Nigerian-sourced methamphetamine now competes in the Asian and South African markets. Domestic abuse of Tramadol and codeine is very high, especially among Nigerian youths, the latter being consumed mainly in the form of cheap codeine-based cough syrups. Nigeria heads the list of West African countries that produce and export cannabis to Europe. The country's lax border controls, corrupt officials and globally networked organised-criminal groups facilitate the cannabis trade. The country is also one of the largest producers of cannabis in the region. Nigeria’s south-west region (comprising Ondo, Osun, Oyo and Ogun states) and the south (Edo and Delta states) produce much of the cannabis that is consumed in West Africa. Cannabis is also widely consumed domestically, and evidence from the National Drug Law Enforcement Agency indicates that cultivation is on the rise. While cocaine is associated with affluent consumers and tends not to be used domestically among poorer segments of the population, Nigeria nevertheless plays a major role in transnational cocaine trafficking.“

Tanzania: Tanzania has an estimated 247,000 People15 with illegal drug use disorders (2017), representing 0.52% of the population. The NRA reports that drug trafﬁcking is the second largest likely generator of criminal proceeds in Tanzania, after corruption. A total of US$45 million in illegal drugs was seized, between 2011 and 2015, valuing that at US$15 million a year. Based on estimates on the value of Drug Trafﬁcking across SSA, Tanzania is estimated as generating US$58.5 million a year.

Based on the ﬁndings of the African OCI, “Tanzania is a major trans-shipment country for illicit narcotics. Despite declaring a ‘war on drugs’, the interdiction capacity of government forces is weak, marked by corruption and porous borders. The country is at the nexus of a number of inland and coastal trafﬁcking routes.” Tanzania has become a major landing point for Afghan heroin entering Africa by maritime and air routes. Synthetic drugs and cocaine also pass through this hub.

14 See: https://ocindex.net 15 See: https://ourworldindata.org/illicit-drug-use Zambia: Zambia has an estimated 81,000 People16 with illegal drug use disorders (2017), representing 0.52% of the population.

According to GIATOC17, “ the drugs markets – for example, for cocaine and synthetic drugs – have only a limited inﬂuence on society in Zambia, but their impact has been manageable.” Whilst the sale and distribution of cannabis in the country and across the region is an important component of the informal economy, the cultivation of cannabis crops provide a safety net for poorer populations living in rural areas. In December, 2019, the Government passed legislation proposing to legalise cannabis for exports and for medical purposes18, making it the second SSA Country to do so after Lesotho.

In the NRA, Zambia was identified as a transit point used by drug traffickers, but the Head of Zambia’s Drug Enforcement Commission has stated that, “Recent years have seen Zambia turning from a transit point to a consumer nation of hard drugs,” and, “drug trafficking in Zambia has reached street level with resultant formation of criminal gang groups in isolated residential compounds,” and that “Illicit drugs have continued to fuel crime, violence and other social problems that harm communities. Illicit drug abuse also contributes to gender based violence (GBV) and rapid spread of infectious diseases like HIV and hepatitis.“ The DEC Head also highlighted the connection between drug trafficking, drug abuse and money laundering, where money laundering “has also continued to have far reaching consequences,... as it undermines legitimate economic activities and negatively reduce tax revenue.”

Malawi: Malawi has an estimated 80,000 people19 with illegal drug use disorders (2017), representing 0.51% of the population. Drug trafﬁcking is rated as “Medium High” under the 2018 NRA.

According to the NRA, an increase in drug trafficking cases was noted in Malawi, and about 70,00kgs of cannabis is seized annually, with both local and international individuals being implicated. Trafficking of cannabis, (locally known as “chamba”), appears to be identified as the most prevalent drug trafficked in Malawi, with 775 reported cases, 737 prosecutions and 520 convictions reported in the period 2013 to 2016. The drug destinations are reportedly South Africa and Zimbabwe. Other drug trafficking arrests of foreign nationals at the Kamazu International Airport were also recorded, where suspects were found to be in possession of cocaine originating from Asia and South America.

According to the OC Index, “cannabis is ubiquitous throughout Malawi and the country is described as a prominent source for African and European markets. In terms of the heroin trade

16 See: https://ourworldindata.org/illicit-drug-use 17 See: https://ocindex.net/country/zambia 18 See: https://www.lusakatimes.com/2019/12/16/zambia-legalises-marijuana-growth-for-exports-and-for-medical-purposes-only/ 19 See: https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/number-with-drug-use-disorders-country?tab=chart&country=~MWI and cocaine trade. Malawi is considered a trans-shipment country and the drug trades have limited impact on society. However, domestic use of heroin is reported to be growing. Data on synthetic drugs is extremely scarce, but their use in Malawi is reported to be limited and restricted to urban centres.”

Malawi passed new laws in early 2020, in the footsteps of Zimbabwe, Zambia and Lesotho, which have already legalised medicinal cannabis, as well as South Africa, where medicinal and recreational use was decriminalised in 2018.

South Africa: South Africa has an estimated 537,000 people20 with illegal drug use disorders (2017), representing 0.92% of the population. While financial crimes form the bulk of organised criminal activities in the region, drug trafficking comes in second, contributing 23% in the past year. The region is rapidly becoming a global hub for the smuggling, trafficking and distribution of drugs21.

According to the US INCSR 2018 Report22, South Africa is reported as the “largest market for illicit drugs in Sub-Saharan Africa, and serves as a transshipment point for cocaine and heroin primarily destined for Europe.

South American cocaine enters South Africa primarily via air to Johannesburg’s O.R. Tambo International Airport. A portion is distributed for local consumption and the remainder is trafﬁcked internationally, often controlled by Nigerian criminal organisations.

Heroin, primarily of Afghan origin, typically arrives in ports in Tanzania, Kenya, and Mozambique from South West Asia before being subsequently smuggled by land into SA, often transiting Zambia and Botswana.

Methamphetamine (known locally as “tik”), methcathinone (“cat”), and methaqualone are synthesized from precursor chemicals imported primarily from India and China……Cannabis is the most commonly used illicit drug in South Africa. A dangerous trend that has emerged in poorer communities is the use of a combination of heroin and marijuana called “nyaope.”

In 2018, South African authorities seized a record amount of cocaine in a single seizure in the Eastern Cape, when a shipment valued at ZAR 720 million (US$39 million) was intercepted, originating in Brazil and destined for Singapore.

The US INCSR 2020 Report23 states that South Africa was identiﬁed as one of the “major sources of precursor or essential chemicals used in the production of illicit narcotics....South Africa is a leading regional importer of chemicals used in the production of illicit drugs, particularly

20 See: https://ourworldindata.org/illicit-drug-use 21 See: https://enactafrica.org/research/trend-reports/three-key-organised-crime-threats 22 See: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/2018-INCSR-Vol.-I.pdf 23 See: https://www.state.gov/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Tab-1-INCSR-Vol.-I-Final-for-Printing-2-25-20-508.pdf synthetic drugs”. Some precursors used in South Africa to synthesise methamphetamine largely originate in Nigeria and India. Law enforcement reportedly dismantled 58 clandestine laboratories between 2018 and 2019, many of which included precursor chemical seizures. Precursor chemicals seized in these raids included ethanol and toluene.

It is important to note that while the heroin is intended for European markets, there is a spin-off trade for local consumption, and a developing local market. In addition to heroin – cannabis, cocaine and new psychoactive substances (NPS), have emerged as lucrative business for the criminal markets, with the country emerging as the leading regional importer of chemicals used in the production of synthetic drugs, signalling that NPS is a growing issue.

The South African Police Service’s (SAPS) annual crime statistics24 indicate that drug-related crime continued to rise and reported that “323 547 cases of drug-related crime were recorded during 2017/2018. This reﬂects an increase of 10,5% or 30 858 cases compared to the previous year”

Zimbabwe: According to the Interpol’s National Central Bureau (NCB) in Zimbabwe25, whilst the country’s primary crime areas of concern include wildlife crime, particularly stock theft, it also includes firearms, human beings and trafficking in drugs. Drug syndicates use Zimbabwe as a transit country, especially for cocaine and cannabis bound for foreign markets. Recent evidence indicates that Zimbabwe itself has a growing consumer market for these drugs too. The substances that are most commonly used in Zimbabwe include alcohol, cannabis, heroin, glue and cough mixtures. Historical usage of US$ in Zimbabwe provides South African drug traffickers, with an opportunity to exchange drug proceeds in SA Rand into US$ for further laundering in Zimbabwe or in nearby countries (e.g. Zambia, Botswana), under the guise of US$ cash from supposed real estate sales in Zimbabwe.

According to the OC Index26, “the domestic market for synthetic drugs is growing and Zimbabwe is also a transit country for the drugs bound for South Africa.”

Cannabis (locally referred to as “mbanje”) remains the most popular illicit drug mainly because it is grown locally or smuggled in from neighbouring countries such as Malawi and Mozambique. Zimbabwe is a transit country for drugs destined for other countries in the region such as South Africa. Local Zimbabweans are often used to transport these drugs, and are usually paid in drugs, as opposed to cash, which then enters the local market.

According to the OC Index, the “illicit drugs markets in Zimbabwe have a moderate inﬂuence, in particular the illicit trade in synthetics and cannabis. The domestic market for synthetic drugs is growing and Zimbabwe is also a transit country for drugs bound for South Africa. Cannabis is

24 See: https://www.saps.gov.za/services/annual_crime_report2019.pdf 25 See: https://www.interpol.int/en/Who-we-are/Member-countries/Africa/ZIMBABWE 26 See: https://ocindex.net widely cultivated and consumed in Zimbabwe and provides a trading commodity for export. As in many other illicit markets in the country, organised criminal groups control the trade.”

Kenya: Kenya has an estimated 220,831 people27 with illegal drug use disorders (2017), representing 0.49% of the population. The OC Index28 2019 has identified drug trafficking, particularly the heroin trade, as one of the higher scoring drug trafficking activities (score 7/10).

The 2020 INCSR Drug and Chemical Control report states that, “Kenya is a signiﬁcant transit country for a variety of illicit drugs, including heroin and cocaine, and domestic drug consumption is growing within the country. Precursor chemicals used to produce methamphetamine and other illicit drugs continue to transit Kenya. Cannabis and miraa (khat) are grown domestically for both local use and export”.

According to the OC Index, “Heroin is judged as the most signiﬁcant drug in terms of its effects on society,” and, “this is because the nexus between the heroin trade and other forms of crime in Kenya, including smuggling of commodities and humans, and poaching. Kenya is a transshipment point for all four illicit narcotics markets and experts note its strategic position as an international hub.”

“Consumption of heroin, cannabis and synthetic drugs is widespread in Kenya. Although cocaine usage is less common, it is reportedly on the rise. Experts also report high levels of cannabis cultivation, one of the factors affecting the debate on legalising cannabis”.

According to the 2018 Annual Crime Report, “In the period under review a total of 3,386 cases were detected as compared to 4,510 cases in the year of 2017. This was a decrease of 1,124 or 24.92%.”.

Ethiopia: Ethiopia has an estimated 464,000 people29 with illegal drug use disorders (2017), representing 0.5% of the population. The OC Index30 2019 has identified drug trafficking, particularly of cannabis as one of the higher scoring drug trafficking activities (score 5/10), followed by cocaine (4/10). Ethiopia is a transit country for cannabis trade to Asia and Western Europe and “Ethiopia is also a transit point for cocaine, heroin and synthetic drugs, in part enabled by corrupt security officials. Although there is no major domestic consumption of these drugs, heroin use is reported to be on the rise, as is domestic supply”.

The Interpol Overview of Serious and Organised Crime in East Africa31 report identifies Ethiopia as a key transit for cocaine traffic from South America. The report states that “In Ethiopia, cocaine trafficking is rapidly increasing due to direct flights from Sao Paulo, Brazil to Addis Ababa. The

27 See: https://ourworldindata.org/country/kenya 28 See: https://ocindex.net

29 See: https://bolt.boltignite.com/review/1874/1541$Y5GIhxUJgNjoCYnQTwGAKAUzMMg/8716/?next=/review/1874/1541%24Y5GIhxUJgNjoCYnQTwGAKAUzMMg/#

30 See: https://ocindex.net

31 See: https://enact-africa.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/2018-12-12-interpol-east-africa-report.pdf ﬂight routes have created favourable conditions for trafﬁcking cocaine from South America to Asia and Europe via Addis Ababa.”

According to the US CIA World Factbook32, Ethiopia, “is a transit hub for heroin originating in South West and South East Asia and destined for Europe, as well as cocaine destined for markets in Southern Africa.” Ethiopia is one of the major producers and exporters of Khat, which is a ﬂowering plant containing an amphetamine-like stimulant, and “is cultivated for local use and regional export, to Djibouti and Somalia (legal in all 3 countries).”

Ivory Coast: According to the OCI33, Drug Trafﬁcking involves mostly Cannabis & Synthetics (6/10), with Heroin (4/10), and Cocaine (3/10) less important. Cannabis has been grown for consumption and export in West Africa, for decades with the crop providing signiﬁcant revenue to small-scale farmers, many of whom have little alternative sustainable livelihoods.

The Gambia: The Gambia has an estimated 9,680 People34 with illegal drug use disorders (2017), representing up to 0.5% of the population.

Drug markets in the Gambia, are according to the OCI, “established, given the country’s role as a transit state in the transnational trade. The Country is a significant trans-shipment point for Cocaine being trafficked from South America to European markets. It is one of the main countries for Cocaine trafficking in Africa, and huge volumes of Cocaine shipped by sea and air have been seized. State corruption is a significant contributor to the trafficking environment, as drug trafficking groups act with impunity in the Country, able to use Gambia as a regional staging point for receipt and onward shipping of large volumes of cocaine.”

The OC Index also states that, “There is also a growing domestic market for Cocaine consumption, led in part by the increase in tourism development and the consequential inﬂux of European tourists. According to the Country’s Interior Minister, Cannabis is the most problematic drug in The Gambia and is responsible for most of the drug related crimes committed in the Country. The Country currently opposes the decriminalisation of Cannabis use and conﬁscates over a million metric tonnes of marijuana every year. Young people are the demographic group that most consume Cannabis. The Gambia also acts as a transit point for Heroin, en route to Europe. The volume of Heroin trans-shipping via the Gambia is increasing and the government has indicated that it perceives this growing market as a national threat.”

Cannabis has been grown for consumption and export in West Africa, including in the Gambia for decades, with the crop providing signiﬁcant revenue to small-scale farmers, with little alternative sustainable and acceptable livelihoods.

32 See: https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ 33 See: https://ocindex.net/country/cote-divoire/ 34 See: https://ourworldindata.org/illicit-drug-use Mauritius: Understanding the history of drugs in Mauritius is key to contextualising the problem. Substance abuse in Mauritius dates back to the 1970s when heroin was ﬁrst introduced on the island. Since then, the problem has escalated to alarming levels. The Word Drug Report in 201035 revealed that Mauritius had the highest prevalence of heroin use in Africa.

Mauritius has an estimated 8,810 people36 with illegal drug use disorders (2017), representing 0.71% of the population.

According to the OCI, Mauritius receives low scores in most criminal markets, apart from for illicit drugs, which are deemed to be the most signiﬁcant problem. The most pervasive criminal market in Mauritius is the heroin trade, (8/10), suggesting a severe negative inﬂuence on Mauritian society. This score is in large part due to high levels of domestic consumption. Mauritius is reported to have one of the highest rates of heroin use in the region.

Mauritius is reported to have one of the highest rates of heroin use in the region. OC Index - 2019

Other significant issues are the extent to which state institutions and systems are involved with drug trafficking organisations, and levels of corruption, both of which enable heroin trafficking to occur. High and growing levels of synthetic drug use are also reported, due in large part to low prices. Mauritius is a transhipment point for synthetic drugs (7/10) being trafficked to neighbouring countries. The chemicals used for the production of drugs are imported via the internet either in powder or liquid form, and it is estimated that about 95% of those ingredients are imported from China37.

Unlike heroin or cocaine, synthetics can be produced at home with people using products such as pesticides, rubber, rat poison and detergents, among others.

The cannabis trade is viewed as less of a concern, (5.5/10). Mauritius is neither a large producer nor destination country, for cannabis herb or resin, though increasing use of synthetic cannabis is of concern.

According to the NRA, Mauritius has been experiencing serious drug use and a trafficking problem since the 1980s. This proliferation has benefitted from the development of extensive air and sea networks to the African continent, Asia, Europe and Madagascar. The NRA has rated the ML threat associated with the illicit trafficking in drugs as High.

According to the Mauritius Police Anti Drug & Smuggling Unit38,

35 See: https://www.unodc.org/unodc/en/data-and-analysis/WDR-2010.html 36 See: https://ourworldindata.org/illicit-drug-use 37 See: https://enactafrica.org/enact-observer/synthetic-drugs-on-the-rise-despite-mauritiuss-best-efforts 38 See: http://police.govmu.org/English/Organisation/Branches/Pages/Anti-Drug-and-Smuggling-Unit-.aspx • heroin - locally known as "Brown Sugar" is smuggled mainly by human courier, concealed in double linings of suitcases, handicrafts products and other goods ﬁt for this purpose

• cannabis - locally known as “Masse" is one of the product (leaves) of the Cannabis plant which is illegally cultivated in the mountains, forests and cane ﬁelds. Only the leaves are consumed when dry by smoking, with consumers coming from all walks of life and the problem existing islandwide.

• psychotropic substances are mostly legal pharmaceutical products, which are illegally acquired and consumed as a substitute for heroin and cannabis. A notable drug, “Subutex”, is used as a substitute for the treatment of opium addicts.

Heroin arrives into Mauritius from the African mainland, originating from Afghanistan to Pakistan’s Makran coast, where shipments set off to Africa’s eastern coast, mostly to Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania and Mozambique. From there, heroin is taken by land to South Africa and shipped or ﬂown to Europe or America, with heroin arriving in Mauritius, for example from couriers from the Eastern Coast of Africa.