Introduction 1 Mapping the Invisible: Critical Perspectives on Invisibility

Notes

Introduction

1 Although Warhol is credited with this phrase and has used it in an exhibition, photographer Finkensteiln who had taken photos of Warhol claims to have been its real author. He claims that he had said to a crowd of people who had gathered in order to be in a photo with Warhol that they would indeed be famous, but only for 15 minutes. 2 In The Transparent Society (1992 [1989]) Gianni Vattimo interrogates the transparency of the postmodern world. 3 The meaning and impact of Ralph Ellison’s novel will be discussed in Chapter 1. 4 Arundhati Roy also explains that the government had promised financial compensation but this implied filing for these compensations, which for rural populations with a very low literacy rate was an impossible step to take. 5 Mike Davis, Planet of Slums (London/New York: Verso, 2006). 6 Rakesh K. Sinha ‘New Delhi: The World’s Shanty Capital in the Making.’ OneWorld South Asia 26, August 2003. 7 Gayatri Spivak ‘Can the Subaltern Speak?’ in Cary Nelson and Lawrence Grossberg (eds) Marxism and the Interpretation of Culture (London: Macmillan, 1988).

1 Mapping the Invisible: Critical Perspectives on Invisibility

1 Ralph Ellison, Invisible Man (London: Penguin, 1965 [1952]). 2 Guillaume Le Blanc, L’Invisibilité Sociale (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2009). 3 David, Macey, Frantz Fanon, A Life (London: Granta Books, 2000). 4 Macey notes that ‘[h]e made no contributions to the journal itself and appears not to have considered it as a potential publisher for Peau Noire. He had, of course, decided to study in Lyon because there were “too many negroes” in Paris. He described himself as being reluctant to live in a purely Martinican environment in France (even though he did frequent precisely that milieu when he was in Paris) and must have been equally reluctant to associate himself too closely with the main journal of negri- tude. As he puts it towards the end of Peau Noire: “In no way must I derive my original vocation from the past of peoples of colour. In no way must I devote myself to resurrecting a negro civilization that has been unfairly misrecognized”’ (quoted in Macey, 2000, 156). 5 Percival Everett, Erasure (London: Faber and Faber, 2001).

187 188 Notes

6 Theorist Arjun Appadurai has stressed the necessity of distinguishing between the various types of diaspora in economic terms and in particular with the different contexts in which the diasporic journey is undertaken. Appadurai himself distinguishes between three types of diaspora, the dispora of hope, the diaspora of terror and the diaspora of despair. Other recent publications in the field of diasporic studies stress the historical context and therefore the type of migration involved; Vijay Mishra’s book The Literature of the Indian Diaspora: Theorizing the Diasporic Imaginary (New York/London: Routledge, 2008) and Mariam Pirbhai’s book Mythologies of Migration, Vocabularies of Indenture: Novels of the South Asian Diaspora in Africa, the Caribbean and Asia-Pacific (2009) are noteworthy examples in this regard. 7 Jan Breman and Arvind Das. Down and Out: Labouring Under Global Capitalism (New Delhi 2000). 8 Mike Davis, Planet of Slums (London: Verso, 2006). 9 Arjun Appadurai, ‘Deep Democracy: Urban Governmentality and the Horizon of Politics’, Environment and Urbanization 13: 2 (October 2001, 27). 10 Pryer explains that in the 1970s there was considerable international concern about Bangladesh’s fast growing population and that the question was raised as to whether the value of child work incited parents to have large families (Pryer, 2004, 59). In the 1980s child work was under scrutiny again, the argument being that child work was a major obstacle to universal primary education. Then the debate was reactivated in 1992 following the bill proposed by the American Senator Hankin to boycott imports from countries resorting to child labour. 11 For further discussion of the difference between child labour and child work, see Pryer (2003, 68) and J. Boydon, (‘Child work and Policy Makers: A Comparative perspective on the globalisation of childhood’, in A. James, and A. Prout, (eds), Constructing and Reconstructing Childhood (London/New York: The Farmer Press, 1990). 12 Jane Pryer, Poverty and Vulnerability in Dhaka Slums: The Urban Livelihoods Study, Aldershot 2003. 13 BBS stands for Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Yearbook of Bangladesh, Government of Bangladesh, Dhaka, Bangladesh. 14 In The Labouring Poor, Jan Breman argues that one of the main problems with informality is that workers have no contracts and no rights, but there is also another problem which is the gap within this class between those who get overexploited and some who are better off, the worst off being children and women (Breman, 181). See also Jan Breman and Arvind Das, Down and Out: Labouring Under Global Capitalism, New Delhi 2000. 15 For further discussion of invisible migrants see M. Abdul-Wali, They die Strangers. (Austin, TX: The University of Texas at Austin, 2001), J.C. Bacher, Petrotyranny (Toronto: Dundern Press, 2000), A.M. Gardner, City of Strangers: Gulf Migration and the Indian Community in Bahrain (Ithaca, NY: Cornell UP, 2010). 16 Lisa Lowe and David Lloyds (eds) The Politics of Culture in the Shadow of Capital (Durham/London: Duke University Press, 1997). Notes 189

17 Davis writes that among researchers, there is a consensus that ‘the 1980s crisis – during which informal sector employment grew two to five times faster than formal-job sectors – has inverted their relative structural positions, establishing informal survivalism as the new primary mode of livelihood in a majority of Third World Cities’ (178). 18 On 6 April 2011, 300 people drowned after a boat capsized off the shores of Sicily (The Guardian, 6 April 2011). 19 On 22nd June 2012 off the shores of Christmas Island a boat carrying 200 people, all asylum seekers, capsized. 109 passengers were rescued but 90 people remained unaccounted for. (http://heraldsun.com.au:news/ victoria/an-asylum-seeker-boat-has-capsized-north-of-christmas-island/ story-e6frf71f-1226404645552, accessed on 2.3.2013) 20 Judith Butler, Precarious Life: the Powers of Mourning and Violence (London/ New York: Verso, 2004). 21 Matthew Frye Jacobson, Whiteness of a Different Colour: European Immigrants and the Alchemy of Race (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1999). For further discussion of ‘whiteness’, as well as colour and American citizenship, see David Roediger, Coloured White: Transcending the Racial Past (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002) and The Wage of Whiteness: Race and the Making of the American working class (London: Verso, 1999). 22 ‘When the cream of Miami is the Cuban bourgeoisie, and the best students at MIT are Chinese, and not a candidate can stand before a democratic presidential convention without flashing his racial or ethnic credentials – when everybody sticks out and doesn’t seem to mind, per- haps Jews are less likely to worry about their sticking out; less likely in fact to stick out’ (Milbauer, Asher and Donald Watson (eds) Reading Philip Roth, New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1988, p. 4). 23 Imagining the Nation: Asian American Literature and Cultural Consent (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998). 24 The term marielitos refers to the last important wave of Cuban immigra- tion in 1980 who arrived after Castro announced that those who wanted to leave Cuba were free to go and be reunited with their families in the US. What happened in actual fact is he rid the island of a lot of people who were chronically ill or who had a criminal record by sending them off to the United States. One of the effects was that Cubans at large got a bad name on account of the bad reputation that the marielitos had in the United States and which was radically different from that of the previous waves of Cuban immigrants. 25 Jan Breman, Footloose Labour: Working in India’s Informal Economy (Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 26 Low income countries were in 1983 countries with a GNP per capita between $695 and $8,626. 27 For further discussion, see Cecilia Zanetta, The Influence of the World Bank on National Housing and Urban Politics: The Case of Mexico and Argentina in the 1990s (Aldershot, 2004, pp. 1994–6). 28 Paul Atkinson, A Handbook of Ethnography (London: Sage, 2001). 29 Vinayak Chaturvedi (ed.) Mapping Subaltern Studies (London: Verso, 2000). 190 Notes

30 In the 1970s Ranajit Guha editor of Subaltern Studies and a group of young historians based in Britain engaged in a reflexion on the contemporary state of South Asian historiography (Partha Chatterjee, Shahid Amin, David Arnold, David Hardiman, Gyanendra Pandrey). The movement gradually became more international in scope; while the focus was initally limited to India (in the 1980s) it reached far beyond the frontiers of its place of birth and in 1993 the Latin America Subaltern Studies group was founded. 31 Chakrabarty concentrates more specifically on the tradition of the adda in the city of Calcutta in the first half of the twentieth century and gives the following definition of the adda: ‘The word adda (pronounced ‘uddah’) is translated by the Bengali linguist Sunitikumar Chatopadhyay as “a place” for “careless talk with boon companions” or “the chats of intimate friends”. [ . . . ] Roughly speaking, it is the practice of friends getting together for long, informal, and unrigorous conversation.’ 32 Chakrabarty also explains that the addas were not always viewed favour- ably by Bengalis themselves for ‘middle-class addas are usually forgetful of the working classes’ (Chakrabarty, 2000, 181). They were also criticized by feminists who saw them as episodes of male idleness which were taking place in the absence of women who were at work while their husbands indulged in each other’s company. 33 Abdulrazak Gurnah, Admiring Silence (London: Penguin, 1996). 34 Bharati Mukherjee, Jasmine (London: Virago Press, 1990 [1989]). 35 Hari Kunzru, Transmission (London: Penguin, 2004). 36 Kiran Desai, The Inheritance of Loss (London: Hamish Hamilton, 2006). 37 The dividing line is still hazy today in the sense that if the caste system has officially been abolished with the independence of India (1947) and the constitution, it remains a fact that caste hierarchies still determine power struggle and hierarchies in the workplace in a tremendous way. 38 Lisa Lowe and David Lloyds, eds The Politics of Culture in the Shadow of Capital. (Durham; London: Duke University Press, 1997, 356).

2 Space, Discourse and Visibility: Towards a Phenomenology of Invisibility

1 By showing the limitations of both sociology and psychology regarding the issue of human suffering, Renault does not necessarily call for a trans- disciplinary approach as such, at least not for one that would involve a merging of methodologies. What Renault prescribes is an articulation of methodologies which would allow for an object of study to be examined in conjunction with two or more adjacent disciplines, using the tools of analysis borrowed from the relevant disciplines. The disciplines in question – Renault gives the example of sociology and psychology – would combine and complement each other to offer a multidimensional picture and therefore a multifocal diagnosis made from several angles. For further discussion see Chapter 1. Notes 191

2 The French term ‘infâme’ is derived from the Latin infamous and means he who does not have a good reputation; in contemporary French however, the term has evolved into a close synonymous of ‘abject’, which flags up the way abjection is an evolving and contingent phenomenon. This analysis links up with Julia Kristeva’s analysis of the notion of abject in Powers of Horror, as a characteristic contextually defined in relation to the agenda of the community and its need to exclude an ‘other’ defined as object. The direct reference is however more to Michel Foucault’s ‘ La vie des hommes infâmes’ in Dits et Ecrits, vol. III. 3 Spaces of Capital: Towards a Critical Geography (Edinburgh University Press, 2001). 4 This branch of geography took up the tradition of natural geography and the work of people like Alexander von Humboldt (1849–1852) or Carl Ritter (1822–1859). Harvey stresses the way it deteriorated to the point of becoming an exhaustive listing of resources on the planet. 5 Harvey stresses some of the pitfalls of this branch of the discipline and flags up the dangers inherent in its cognitive material in the sense that it can be made to serve the interests of political leaders and provide some cognitive backup to their expansionist undertakings. Karl Haushoffer in particular had been involved in the Nazi expansionist undertaking. 6 Cassirer devised a taxonomy of the different types of space. 7 Ulf Hannerz, Keywords in Transnational Anthropology. Working Paper Series, Department of Anthropology, WPTC, 2K-02, 1997. 8 The well-known and much publicized debate around the right for Muslim women to wear the hijab in public places such as schools or administrations may be the best known example of what France expects its population of foreign origin to do in order to prove their commitment to the national ethos. 9 Edward Said stresses the fact that one of the features of colonial discourse is its emphasis on the a-historical timelessness of foreign cultures, which seems to imply that time and history started with the arrival of Europeans and that before that these cultures were marooned in a sort of stasis. 10 Another famous example of invisibilization linked to discursive strategies is the Palestinian case. Rob Nixon has argued that ‘the formulation for perpetuating the cycles of dispossession is reminiscent of the cata- strophic colonial designation of Palestine as “a land without a people” and Palestinians as “a people without a land.” The argument begins by designating a people as nomadic, proceeds by claiming that this pre- cludes them from owning land, and thereby deduces that such landless people cannot, by definition, suffer dispossession. The motive for and consequence of this rationale is the accelerated dispossession of the Palestinians’ (Rob Nixon, 1994, 114–28). 11 In Fear and Temptation Terry Goldie argues that in all the colonized countries where the colonists took the place of first nations, there has been a more or less conscious need to establish the legitimacy of the colonizing nation. One way of doing that was by appropriating the culture of the 192 Notes

first nations as a way of deriving a certain legitimacy from the ‘natural’ legitimacy of native people. 12 It must be noted that the book came under criticism when the project of a film made after the novel started to materialize. The ‘peasants’ Chanu refers to are the Sylhetis who make up the majority of the Bangladeshi population of Brick Lane. See Chapter 4 for further discussion. 13 In Colonial Desire, Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London: Routledge, 1995), Robert Young analyses the dynamics of sexual desire in a colonial context and the power struggles underlying relations between people of different racial origins. 14 In his study of nineteenth-century literature, Daniel Pick traced the emergence of figures of degeneracy in the second half of the nineteenth- century, which fed off the findings of pseudo-sciences like craniology or phrenology as well as popular culture and superstitions. 15 For Le Blanc, work needs to be envisaged as a ‘mise en œuvre’ (implemen- tation) which operates on different levels; it contributes to the creation of material goods, but the workplace is also the locus where someone’s personal style comes to existence and develops. Through work only can we transform whatever society has already produced into something else. 16 Adorno offers a critique of Max Scheler who laments the Zersetzung of ethical ideas by which he means the destruction of a common and collective ethos characterized by an emphasis on ethics. 17 In Minima Moralia, Adorno insists on the fact that any set of rules or maxims must be appropriated by individuals in a living way and that universality can be violent. Its violence consists in part in its indifference to the social conditions under which a living appropriation might become possible. 18 This case corresponds to the Sartrian conception of the other as my transcendence transcended (‘l’autre comme regard n’est que cela: ma transcend- ance transcendée.’ The gaze of the other is just that, my transcendence transcended).

3 Visibility, Representation and Agency in the Visual Arts: the Body in Question

1 Nicholas Mirzoeff, Bodyscape. Art, Modernity and the Ideal Figure (New York: Routledge, 1995). 2 In my discussion of the prerequisites of social visibility (Chapter 2) I have stressed the fact that social visibility is ultimately conditional and depends on other people’s acknowledgement of my presence (see the discussion of Kafka’s Metamorphosis and Judith Butler’s reflexion on social disacknowledgement). 3 Sartre, Jean-Paul, L’Existentialisme est un Humanisme (Paris: Gallimard, 1996 [1946]). 4 For further discussion of this idea, see Adorno on the impossibility of poetry after Auschwitz ‘to write poetry after Auschwitz is barbaric’ (Theodor Adorno, ‘An Essay on Cultural Criticism and Society’, Prisms, 34). Notes 193

5 Nicholas Mirzoeff gives the following definition of the term bodyscape: ‘In representation, the body appears not as itself, but as a sign. It cannot but represent both itself and a range of metaphorical meanings which the artist cannot fully control, but only seeks to limit by the use of context, framing and style. This complex of signs is what I shall call the bodyscape’ (Mirzoeff, 1995, 3). 6 Elizabeth Grosz, ‘Bodies-Cities’, in Beatriz Colomina (ed.), Sexuality and Space (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 1992, 241–54, 243). 7 Jean-Luc Nancy, Corpus (Paris: Fayard, 1992). 8 In Bodyscape, Art, Modernity and the Ideal Figure (1995) Mirzoeff questions the assumption that there is an opposition between the modern, single body and the postmodern fragmented body. This opposition depends on a restricted interpretation of modernism which questions the idea that the body united became fragmented under the duress of capitalism. For him the body of the enlightenment was both fragmented and universal (3–4). 9 Palestinian artist Mona Hatoum was born in the Lebanon. She was exiled to London in the mid 1970s where she has worked and lived since then. She was nominated for the prestigious Turner Prize in 1995. 10 The war in the Lebanon broke out in 1975 and lasted till 1990. 11 For further discussion of the work of Hatoum, see Mona Hatoum: The Entire World as a Foreign Land (London: Tate Gallery Publishing, 2000). 12 Mona Hatoum, Michael Archer, Guy Brett, Catherine de Zegler (London/ New York: Phaidon Press, 1997 (2001). 13 Hatoum’s Recollection (22 April–28 May 1995) was commissioned for the exhibition series ‘Inside the Visible. Begin the Beguine in Flanders’ organized by the Kanaal Art Foundation in Kortrijk. In ‘Hatoum’s Recollections: About Losing and Being Lost’ (Archer, Brett and de Zegher, 1997, 90–105), Catherine de Zegher describes the installation as follows: ‘Hairs are like fragile links to loss; Recollection comments on the monument not only in its materiality, but in its appearance: its volume expands in an absence of solid- ity. Because hair is a symbol of remembrance, the timelessness of hair equals the timelessness of memory. On the one hand, although hair may last as long as stone, paper, or institutionalized wood, it is either rejected as “matter out of place” in traditional drawing and sculpture, or institutionalized in the predetermined conceptions of the ethnic and the primitivist’ (97). 14 Mona Hatoum has experimented with many aspects of the body in its physicality, from bodily needs and their absence from the scene of social dealings – she offered the ICA a project that involved placing cameras in toilet cubicles to testify to what exactly happens beyond the confines of the socially codified space of social dealings. She also worked on the visibilization of rejects and refuse such as hair, pubic hair which she placed centre stage, therefore going against the grain of social etiquette and artistic conventions. 15 This term ‘western scopophilia’ has been extensively discussed by Rey Chow in her book on contemporary Chinese cinema Primitive Passions: Visuality, Ethnography, and Contemporary Chinese Cinema (New York: Columbia University Press, 1995). 194 Notes

16 Mirzoeff makes the point that the figure of the servant was an essential signifier of race, corruption and disease without which Olympia could not raise the question of class and gender which have been central to the interpretations of the picture. But he also stresses, referring to Gilman’s groundbreaking 1985 article that black females do not merely represent the sexualized female, they also represent the female as source of corruption and disease. Indeed, Gilman argued that it is ‘the Black female as emblem of illness who haunts the background of Manet’s Olympia’ (Gilman 1985: 250). 17 Lisa Lowe. Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms. (Ithaca, NY/ London: Cornell University Press, 1991). 18 In Black Art, A Cultural History, Richard Powell discusses the example of I Like Olympia in Black Face (1970) painted by the white American artist Larry Rivers, which was originally commissioned by the Menil Foundation for ‘Some American History’. Powell writes that I Like Olympia in Black Face 'redressed the peripheral and often negative place of blacks in Western art history' (Powell, 146). 19 ‘Ethnography and anthropology developed together with the increasing technical accomplishments of photography, though it is worth remem- bering that most so-called ethnographic photographs were black and white, and therefore in this respect were not naturalistic [ . . . ] The disciplines did not take on a scientific status until the later nineteenth century, and anthropology found its first institutional homes in muse- ums, rather than universities [ . . . ] The amassing of collections, both of material culture and photographs, ‘propelled anthropology towards insti- tutionalization, as curators started to define themselves professionally as anthropologists’ (Doy, 2000, 111). 20 Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, c.1848–1918 (Cambridge University Press, 1989). 21 In Time and the Other, Johannes Fabian argues that ‘the ability to visualize a culture or society almost becomes synonymous for understanding it’ (Fabian Johannes, Time and the Other: How Anthropology Makes its Object (New York: Columbia University Press, 1983, 106). 22 Christopher Pinney, former Chair of the Royal Anthropological Institute Photography Committee has argued that the body and the mind of the anthropologist functioned as a ‘photographic negative’. Exposed to the culture of the ‘other’ s/he returned home imprinted with the traces of the other’s material life. After fieldwork the anthropologist was able to produce a ‘positive’ in the form of the ethnographic monograph. Although this statement is more programmatic than an actual description of the way ethnically and racially different people are accounted for in anthropology, this statement, heuristic as it may seem is a welcome departure from the use and abuse of ethnic bodies in past years. 23 Stuart Hall, Representation: Cultural Representations and Signifying Practices (London: Thousand Oaks, 1997). 24 Robert Young J.C. Colonial Desire: Hybridity in Theory, Culture and Race (London: Routledge, 2002 (1995)). Notes 195

25 For further discussion, see Gen Doy, Black Visual Culture (111). 26 Annie Coombes, E. Annie and Steve Edwards ‘Site unseen: Photography in the Colonial Empire: Image of subconscious eroticism’, Art History, 12, 4 (1989) 510–16. 27 Another aspect worth noting is that this dark episode of colonial encoun- ter has left its mark in the sense that in some countries like the US the depiction of the black female body is still taboo and represents a line even black artists themselves are reluctant to cross. Talking of black art in the US in his book Black Art As Cultural History (Richard J. Powell, Thames & Hudson World of Art, London (2000)), Powell writes that there is a certain form of self-censorship in black art and that until the 1970s artists in the US would refrain from representing black nudes:

the artistic process of removing a human subject’s clothing and focus- sing on his or her essentially biological, naked self, interjected a close and discomforting element of objectification into representation. When this disrobing, deindividualizing, and sexualizing was imposed on black subjects (who were already susceptible to erasures of person- hood), the visual results – even in a seemingly innocuous image like Lichfield’s nude photograph of Vogue model Marsha Hunt – often mean that the individual was presented as both artifact and sexual object. (Powell, 2002, 146–7)

This statement needs to be qualified however by the fact that the origins of the artists and the subjects they chose produced a variety of representations of black bodies which were not objectified. Powell takes the example of the works of painter Murry N. DePillars and argues that DePillar’s Queen Candace (1989) produced after his initial Chicago period and under the utopian tenets of Afri-COBRA, spoke of royalty and placed colorful, African-style designs on the silhouetted, pregnant, and virtually nude body of a black woman (Powell, 148). These artists according to Powell had a sense that ‘blacks could be both objects of artistic contem- plation and actors in their own aesthetic discernment, that made these works provocative and central to a revised art history of transgressive, radical black images’ (Powell, 2002, 147). 28 Fred Wilson is an African American installation artist. His exhibitions attempt to counter the tendency of American art, letters and history to silence African American voices and obscure their contributions to American art. 29 Sonia Boyce is a black British painter and installation artist of Barbadian and Guyanese parentage. Issues related to sexual abuse, domesticity, cognition and voyeurism permeate her work. 30 Bailey, ‘Re-thinking Black Representations. From positive images to cultural photographic practices’, Ten 8, 31 (no date, 1988) 47. 31 The Impossible Science of Being exhibition curated by Christopher Pinney, Chris White and Roslyn Poignant examined the histories and similarities of anthropology and photography (www.thephotographersgallery.org.uk) 196 Notes

32 Theorists like Homi Bhabha or Edward Said in Orientalism have commented on the fact that colonial literature always portrays native people as performing ritual activities stressing the ritual and cyclical nature of their traditions but also of their time, which contrasts with the linear time of our ‘modern societies’ based on the idea of progress. 33 Sociologists often distinguish between the image and the self-image, which refers to the more subjective image one has of oneself and which depends on certain parameters such as one’s level of self-esteem and the social background one comes from. 34 Richard J. Powell. Black Art, A Cultural History (London: Thames and Hudson, 2002 [1997]). 35 Basquiat’s success is emblematic of the double-edged sword of the phenomenon of ‘marketing of the margins’ (Huggan). Indeed, Basquiat’s success on the art scene came at a time of unparalleled hostility to the phenomenon of graffiti in New York. The mainstream media interpreted graffiti as an assault on society, raising ethical questions as to the state of modern civilization. There was even a climate of deep-seated anxiety and the sense that the city was being taken over by the African Americans, the Latinos and the Chinese, which explains why at the height of New York bankruptcy crisis, Mayor Koch spent over $6.5 million in removing graffiti, while the subway police devoted an enormous amount of time and effort to preventing its occurrence on trains, a major target for the graffiti artists to ‘bomb’ (Mirzoeff, 1995, 164). 36 One of the marks of success for graffiti artists was to place their tags in the most conspicuous place possible. Basquiat often placed his work next to Soho art galleries on the night before an opening. As Mirzoeff explains: ‘Graffiti challenged the rigid de facto segregation of American cities by placing the work of outsiders where it could be seen by everyone [ . . . ] Graffiti was perceived not only as a challenge to public order, but as an assault on the hegemonic values of the art world’ (Mirzoeff, 1995, 164). 37 In Black Art As Cultural History Richard Powell describes Basquiat’s ‘see-through man’ motif in the following terms:

A frequent motif in Basquiat’s work – the ‘see-through’ man – not only responded metaphorically to this period’s fascination with exposing and destroying people’s facades, but also spoke to the notion that anatomy had a theatrical quality ( . . . ). The exposed lungs, sinew, and guts in Basquiat’s ‘Flexible’ (1984) convey this notion of the black-body-as-public-theater, while the entire piece recalls a white- washed wooden barrier, fit to be covered with urban hieroglyphs and prophetic black imagery. (167)

38 For further reflexion on black art and the issue of representation, see Kobena Mercer, ‘Black Art and the Burden of Representation’, Third Text 10 (Spring 1990). 39 Georges Didi-Huberman. Ouvrir Venus: Nudité, Rêve, Cruauté (Paris: Gallimard, 1999). Notes 197

40 In the early years of her career as an artist, Mona Hatoum submitted a project to the ICA. Hatoum toyed with the idea of video cameras in toilets to see and document what exactly happens beyond the screen of social etiquette, what we hide, what society tells us to hide, and what is not visible. The project has met with refusals on the grounds that people had a right not to be confronted with art in private spaces like toilets, but it seems more likely that the real reason was that this daring project clashed with social etiquette. 41 Mona Hatoum, Untitled (Wheelchair), 1998, Stainless Steel and rubber (97 ϫ 50 ϫ 84), reprinted in The Migrant’s Time: Rethinking Art History and Diaspora (Saloni Mathur (ed.) New York/London: Yale University Press, 2011, 13). 42 Brett, Guy, ‘In search of the Body’, Art in America, 1994, 58. 43 Recollection (1995). Extract from Mona Hatoum’s pesonal notes: ‘I made this work for the Beguinage in Kortrijk Belgium. A 13th Century building that housed the Beguines, a community of single women who lived in small houses around this meeting place. They dedicated their life to welfare and lace work. This hall was a school for lace makers at one point. The title Recollection is used as in remembrance of the women who occu- pied the space and also as in the act collecting the hair, which was the material used for this installation. So when you enter this large space, it first looks empty apart from a small wooden table in the distance. Then you notice these balls on the floor and the windowsills. They look like dust balls that have gathered in this disused place. As you walk in trying to avoid crushing the hairballs (they sometime become invisible as they merge with the knots in the wooden floor) . . . you feel something brush- ing against your face. I had hung single strands of hairs tied together to make a length of 2m from the beams in the ceiling, at a distance of 15 cm from each other (which is the width of the human skull). These strands of hair are invisible but they brush against your face, like cobwebs, when you walk through the space. When you get to the table at the back of the space, you find a small roughly made loom with a piece of weaving made with hair. I had been collecting my own hair for a period of 6 years as it came off my head every time I washed it in the bath, on my hairbrush etc . . . and rolling it between my hands to make these hair balls. I collected them in shoeboxes under my bed . . . till I came across this space.’ Mona Hatoum, Correspondence with the artist. 44 Gilles Deleuze, A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and Schizophrenia (Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 1980).

4 Films and Mass Visibility

1 In the previous chapter we briefly touched upon the issue of the limitations of certain media, for example photography; we stressed the fact that a photograph of a place which exerts a form of discursive domination is not as powerful and as explicit as a fully articulated critique of the 198 Notes

underlying strategy of domination. As meaning is not given as such but is dependent on the capacity of the viewer to interpret it and on his/her willingness to do so, films are a more challenging language to convey meaning and more likely, as it were, to give voice to either individual or collective vindications or claims of a personal or political nature. 2 Deleuze, Cinema 2. The Time Image. Translated by Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta. London: Athlone Press, 1994 (Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 1985). 3 Sarah Gavron is a British film director; her filmography includes The Girl in the Lay-By (2000), Losing Touch (2000), Brick Lane (2007) and Village at the End of the World (2013). 4 This newly gained visibility can be seen in the visual arts with the emergence since the 1980s of black artists like Sonia Boyce, Keith Piper or Dave Lewis. In films, this visibility has been gained in independent cinema and it has increasingly reached out over the years to more lucrative and ‘impact’ generating forms of films. One of the most telling examples is probably Gurinder Chadha whose film Bhaji on the Beach meant that an Asian film director drew attention to her but also that a large cast of Asian women or Britons of Asian origin became visible to both a white and a non-white audience. More recently her film Bend it Like Beckham whose plot revolves around the adulation surrounding soccer star David Beckham – marks a qualitative leap if not a change of trajectory from the small arena of independent films to the wider audience. Of course, one could consider that the fact that Chadha cashes in on the image and bankability of Beckham is ironic in terms of exploiting the quintessentially English white icon. And of course in recent years the pushing of series on black Britons or Asians in TV series, in particular on Channel 4 has taken the phenomenon to new heights, as has that of the representation of a more multicultural Britain in series like East Enders. 5 Horace Ové is a film director and script writer from Trinidad; his films inlcude The Art of the Needle (1966) Baldwin’s Nigger (1968) Reggae (1971) Pressure (1976) and Playing Away (1987) as well as several TV series (Moving Portraits, The Orchid House). 6 Lionel Ngakane (1920–2003) started his career as an actor and film assis- tant before becoming a film director in the United Kingdom where he went into exile. He is best remembered for his film Jemima and Johnny (1965) inspired by riots in Notting Hill. He also directed documentaries on Apartheid and African development. 7 Mercer discusses in some length not only the slow emergence of a politics of representation but also the maturation of the critical response to black films. For him the jarringness of the response which ranged from ‘hostile impatience to the awarding of prizes’ (54) is characteristic of a difficulty as well as an anxiety to pin down and categorize a practice that upsets and disrupts fixed expectations and normative assumptions about what black films should be like (55). 8 In an article published in The Guardian (23/7/2006) Germaine Greer who was taking side with the Sylhetis’ discontent about the shooting of the Notes 199

film which triggered a heated discussion with Rushdie stressed the de facto permanence and authority of the written word and the process of diffracted validation which in the case of the shooting of Brick Lane was about to happen: ‘Writers are treacherous; they will sneak up on you and write about you in terms that you don’t recognise’ (Greer, 2006). 9 Jim Pines: ‘The Cultural Context of Black British Cinema’ in Mbye Cham and Claire A. Watkins (eds) Blackframes: Critical Perspectives on Black Independent Cinema. (Boston MIT/Celebration of Black Cinema Inc. 1988) 29. 10 Mercer also stresses the didactism of black art and cinema and accounts for its overemphasis on the race issue by explaining that the urgency of the situation inevitably leads to a strategy of overstatement and overemphasis which gets in the way of artistic mastery of the medium. Mercer quotes Attille (in Pines): ‘There was a sense of urgency to say it all, or at least to signal as much as we could in one film. Sometimes we can’t afford to hold anything back for another time, another conversation or another film. That is the reality of our experience – sometimes we only get the one chance to make ourselves heard’ (Attille in Pines 1986, 101). 11 In an article published in The Guardian, Germaine Greer argued that as ‘Brick Lane is a real place, there was no need for Monica Ali to invent it’ (Greer, 2006).

Bengali Muslims smart under an Islamic prejudice that they are irre- ligious and disorderly, the impure among the pure, and here was a proto-Bengali writer with a Muslim name, portraying them as all of that and more. For people who don’t have much else, self-esteem is crucial. For the novel Brick Lane, Ali didn’t need to spend any time at all in the real Brick Lane. Movies are different; permission is now being sought to film the cinematic Brick Lane in the real Brick Lane. The community has the moral right to keep the film-makers out but they cannot then complain if somewhere else is used and presented to the world as Brick Lane. There is only one remedy available if your reality is being recycled through a writer or a movie-maker, and that is to write your own novel or make your own film – and accept ostra- cism as your just desert. It hurts to be misrepresented, but there is no representation without misrepresentation. London’s East Enders don’t watch East Enders, because they don’t recognise its version of their demanding and rigorous minority culture. They watch Coronation Street instead. Farmers don’t listen to The Archers. And Bangladeshi Britons would be better off not reading – or, when it comes out, see- ing the film of Brick Lane. (Germaine Greer, The Guardian, 23/07 2006)

12 While the book had triggered no controversy the film sparked a controversy regarding the issue of the representation of certain communities. As it stands most of the Bengalis living in Brick Lane and in the area around Brick Lane are Sylhetis and the film was accused of not giving a flattering representation of these people. The controversy sparked a lot of interest. Salman Rushdie stepped in and argued against the idea that Monica Ali 200 Notes

was not an authentic Indian voice because she had left Bangladesh at the age of three and only spoke broken Bengali. 13 Conversation with the actor. 14 Bhaji on the Beach is Gurinder Chadha’s first feature-length narrative film, and Chadha is Britain’s first Asian woman director. She is of Punjabi origin and was born in Kenya. Her family migrated to England when Chadha was very young and they settled in Southall in the sixties. Before shooting Bhaji on the Beach she had done short films and documentaries I’m British But . . . (1990), A Nice Arrangement (1991) and Acting Our Age (1992). 15 East is East is a 1999 British film written by Ayub Khan-Din and directed by Damien O’Donnell. It is set in Salford, Lancashire in 1971, in mixed ethnicity household headed by Pakistani father George (Om Puri) and an English mother. 16 Gilles Deleuze, Félix Guattari, A Thousand Plateaus. Capitalism and Schizophrenia. (Transl. Brian Massumi. London: The Athlone Press, 1988, 1980. Paris Les Editions de Minuit, 167–8). 17 In Le Pli (The Fold, trans. T. Conley, Minneapolis: U of Minnesota Press, 1993) Deleuze refers to the concept of what he calls ‘le pli’ (the fold). The fold refers to the fold in baroque aesthetics and is used by Deleuze to conceptualize the way meaning unfolds as a series of developments which bring some areas into contact while leaving others in the shade as it were, less exposed and less accessible. 18 ‘Landscapes are culture before they are nature’ (Simon Schama, Landscape and Memory. London: HaperCollins, 1995, 61). 19 I am referring to the traditional unfolding of the tragic plot as described by Aristotle in Poetics; the tragic hero’s reversal of fortune (peripeteia) causes him to suffer pathos but also to realize the cause of his misery (anagnorisis). 20 In Beyond Bollywood, Jigna Desai points out the reference to the song Summer Holidays in the film, which is transformed with punjabi lyrics (Desai, 138) but also notices ‘other aspects of the British humor of films such as the early Carry On Series as well as Tony Richardson’s A Taste of Honey (1962) and Ken Loach’s Up the Junction (1965).’ 21 Chandra Mohanty (ed.): ‘Defining Genealogies: Feminist Reflections on Being South Asian in North America.’ (Our Feet Walk the Sky. Women of South Asian Descent Collective. San Francisco: Aunt Lute, 1993, 351–58). 22 In Contemporary British Cinema and the South-Asian Diaspora. SACS 2, 1, 26–38, E. Anna Claydon insists on the fact that if the film needs to be repositioned in the aesthetics of Indian diasporic cinema, Claydon claims that ‘films which represent the South-Asian and other post-colonial diasporas have been little examined as a body for their diasporic properties. Rather, as part of the critical appraisal of the mid-90s and as part of the renaissance of new British cinema, they have been analysed limitedly, in terms of a reshaping of the British national cinema.’ 23 John Kenneth Muir. Mercy in her Eyes: The Films of Mira Nair (New York: Applause Theatre and Cinema Books, 2006). 24 Nair’s attachment to the format of the documentary is quite telling and expresses rather well her personal ethos and her involvement on Notes 201

a political level with Indian society and its flaws, as well as with the visual language she is comfortable with. Talking about Jama Masjid Street Journal, a documentary she filmed on the streets around the Great Mosque in Delhi among Muslim men, she said the camera acted as a veil and later she added a voiceover for a film she had intended to be silent. She later regretted this. There is indeed in her aesthetics an incentive to ‘wrench the veil which separates the viewer from the subject represented’, so as to get to the heart of things. Visually speaking, this call for immediacy is conveyed through a staging of the screen itself and of the gaze, of the characters but also metaphorically of the viewer to go beyond what is perceptible. In Salaam Bombay, for example, the long shot on Solassol’s face from inside the car or on Chaipu looking at her evidence the per- sistence of this mediation and at the same time the need to go beyond and see through. 25 Mira Nair. Create the world you know. Nair Tells Filmakers. Variety, September 30, 2002, 14–15. 26 Santyajit Ray’s films include Aparajito (1956) and The World of Apu (1959). 27 Indian Cabaret (1984), Children of a Desired Sex (1987). 28 In Part One we discussed the realistic aesthetics that many films by direc- tors from minorities engage in. Salaam Bombay takes this to another level since the cast includes actual street kids who had no experience of acting. In the months leading up to the shooting of the film, child acting work- shops were set up and children came from all over the country to play in the film. The weeding was then organized and since none of them could act, they were made to take part in various activities, games, dancing, playing, to see what they were like and how they would interact. The kids were shown The 400 Blows by Truffaut; Nair wanted them to understand what realist filming was about. This was all the more important as, just like Chaipu and his friends in Salaam, street kids had only been exposed to the aesthetics of Bollywood films (Muir, 2006, 18). 29 50,000 Asians were expelled from Uganda as a result of the ‘Uganda to Black Ugandans’ movement. 30 The opposite is also true and some actors have enjoyed a new lease of life and popularity as a result of something major happening in their lives; for example Amitav Bachchan’s accident – he was punched violently in the stomach by a stuntman – gave rise to widespread national grief. Thousands of people gathered in front of the hospital to support their dying star (Mishra, 2002, 152–6). 31 Lata Mangeshkar is one of the best-known and most respected play- back singers in India. Her career, which started in 1942 has spanned over seven decades. She has recorded songs for over a thousand Hindi films and has sung songs in over thirty-six regional Indian languages and foreign languages, though primarily in Marathi and Hindi. The fact that she recorded approximately 25,000 solo, duet and chorus-backed songs between 1948 to 1974 created a situation of ubiquity whereby she became ‘the voice of the postcolonial Indian woman’, as Vijay Mishra explains. Only at the end of the 1990s did Lata disappear completely. 202 Notes

Other voices began to emerge, and in Govind Nihalani’s Thakshak (The Serpent 1999) the new voices which emerged carried the heterogeneous tradition of Indian singing: Asha Bhosle, Alisha Chinnai, Hema Sardesai and Sujata Trivedi. 32 Chow, Rey. Primitive Passions: Visuality, Sexuality, Ethnography and Contemporary Chinese Cinema (New York: Columbia U Press, 1995).

5 Nation Building and Home Thinking

1 Gayatri Spivak wrote that ‘the private is marked by a public potential, since it is the weave or texture of public activity’. (Homemaking. Women writers and the Politics and Poetics of Home. Ed. Catherine Wiley, Fiona R. Barnes. New York and London: Garland Publishing, 1996, x). 2 The structure of the panopticon, which is the quintessential jail architecture allows for a total control of few individuals over a large mass of people thanks to the use of light and visibility, the visibility that allows people to have the upper hand and control others. Made visible with the light, carefully used and monitored, the prisoners are under close scrutiny. They cannot communicate with other prisoners and are available for control by the warden at the centre of the whole structure. In Discipline and Punish (1977) Foucault traces a history of state control which revolves around the body. Foucault shows that, taking health as an excuse, the hospital served as means of control over families, they knew who was married and who was not, what the sleeping arrangements were, etc. The other example he gives, that of control in times of plague, makes control fully justified. 3 Deleuze, Cinema 2. The Time Image. Translated by Hugh Tomlinson and Robert Galeta. (London: Athlone Press, 1994) (Paris: Les Editions de Minuit, 1985). 4 Jomo Kenyatta, ‘The Gentleman of the Jungle’ in Achebe Chinua and C.L. Innes (eds) African Short-Stories (London: Heinemann, 1985). 5 bell hooks, Breaking Bread (Boston: South End Press, 1991). 6 Another reason why the home motif is so central in diasporic fiction is that it constitutes a very good barometer of the diasporic journey and says a lot of the migrant’s agenda in terms of the length and nature of his diasporic experience, his readinesss to embrace the new land, as it were and take it on board, or on the other hand his attempt at turning his house into a fragment of the homeland uprooted and rerooted into the adopted country. Diasporic literature is replete with examples of houses which fail to become homes through the migrant’s conscious or uncon- scious refusal to cast his roots, making the home not only a barometer of migrant’s success but also a reflection of contextual parameters linked to the migrant’s journey, like the social background or the balance of power between country of origin and country of settlement. 7 More reflexions on the home are often found in the literature by female writers such as Jean Rhys whose novel Voyage in the Dark chronicles the Notes 203

exilic journey of a young woman from the Caribbean, a white creole, trying to make good in London. Jean Rhys’s position as a female writer from the Caribbean writing in 1934 about women in England is quite unique and offers a rather atypical view of the migrants’ quest to make a living in London. As a young woman without much family, except for an aunt in the north of England, Anna, the heroine of Voyage in the Dark is deprived of a home. Her home back in Dominica has been sold and what has been gained from the sale entrusted to her aunt. The plot which revolves around her love story with a rather well-off married man stresses the conjunction of affect and economic needs as well of the deeper implica- tions of having a home, in particular in terms of social status and morale. Alone and without a home, Anna uses her aunt’s address since it is the only fixed address she has and which can help her maintain links with people she meets. Jean Rhys’s novel offers a very personal depiction of London, one that is largely seen through the eyes of her unrooted heroine who drifts through the city, from boarding house to other forms of temporary accommodation. The house not only fails to materialize as a home, it becomes a place where the fine line between private and public is displaced, where they intersect and sometimes clash quite dramatically and where the constraints and rules of society weigh upon the individual so that it ceases to be a shelter and becomes a site of enforcement of epis- temic violence. The house which Anna has to leave for example, when the landlady has vent of her affair is not a neutral place but one associated with the ethos of bourgeois life, which the landlady embodies. 8 In Planet of Slums Mike Davis stresses the way comments describing native accommodation as organic-looking are never neutral and barely conceal an underlying agenda, often one which justifies to leave people in dire circumstances, with the excuse that they enjoy a ‘natural lifestyle’. 9 ‘Except for the Marabar Caves [ . . . ] the city of Chandrapore presents nothing extraordinary. Edged in rather than washed by the river Ganges, it trails for a couple of miles along the bank, scarcely distinguishable from the rubbish it deposits so freely’ (Forster, 1924, 2). 10 Rose Marangoly George’s book The Politics of Home opened the path for investigations into the power struggle surrounding the home, its representation and its definition in a postcolonial context. In The Politics of Home, George stresses the collusion between an emphasis on the crowd at the expense of the individual. For her, the absence of real native houses is a way of undermining the notion of native agency. Susheila Nasta’s Home Truths (2001) provides a detailed and informed study into the dynamics of home leaving and rebuilding in a migrational context. 11 See Král, Critical Identities (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009). 12 Saloni Mathur, (ed.) The Migrant’s Time: Rethinking Art History and Diaspora. (New Haven/London: Yale U Press, 2011). 13 In the same way that some characters have doubles which echo and invert the other half of the pair, Mrs Price’s house has a sort of ‘double’ which is the house in Rajnabar where Ila and the narrator used to play as children. Situated in the basement of the real house in Rajnabar, the imaginary 204 Notes

house, dark and dusty, allows the children not only to play houses and give way to their aspirations and personality, it also allows the narrator to map and imagine Mrs Price’s house in London, so much so that when the narrator finally sees the real house, he can find his way round it very easily. 14 But the story is also symptomatic of a wish to ‘whiten’ one’s lineage as Frantz Fanon would say in the sense that Ila imagined herself with a daughter not only whiter than her but entirely white with freckles and red hair, almost quintessentially British. Interestingly the house, or rather the dyad real house (where they are) and the imaginary house (where they project themselves) is not only presented as private. It is a porous border between matters of public interest (race relations, discrimination, class struggle since Magda is mugged by a working class girl) and more private issues shifting the line, blurring it to the point where it becomes a shadow line. 15 Helen Tiffin. ‘Under the Kiff-Kiff Laughter: Stereotype and Subversion in Moses Ascending and Moses Migrating’ (eds) Susheila Nasta and Anna Rutherford. Tiger’s Triumph, Celebrating Sam Selvon (Dangaroo Press, 1995, 130–9). 16 Salman Rushdie, The Ground Beneath Her Feet (London, Jonathan Cape, 1999). 17 Arakawa and Madeline Gins, Architectural Body (Tuscaloosa: U of Alabama Press, 2002).

6 Invisibility and the Fractal City

1 Cosmopolitanism requires a geographical imaginary; hence the importance of imaginary landscapes. In Space and Place (1978) Tuan analyses the cultural policy of Singapore, whose role is to be an incentive to arts and culture so that the city is not just an economic city, but a global city with culture (Tuan, Space and Place: The perspective of Experience, Minneapolis, MN, University of Minnesota Press, 1977). See also Kong, 1986 (‘Environmental cognition: the Malay World in Colonia Fiction’, Unpublished Manuscript, University of Singapore’). Kong writes that the ‘subjective dimension of human-environment relationships can be revealed more intensely in literature than in social surveys’. For further discussion, see T.J. Barnes and J.S. Duncan (eds) Writing Worlds: Discourses, Texts, and Metaphors in the Representation of Landscape (London: Routledge, 1992). 2 I have developed the idea of a paradigm of the snowglobe elsewhere (Král, 2009) to refer to the way the collusion between a logic of liberal economy and political discourse generates a two-tiered geography in which the main loci are brought into the limelight while others are pushed into the background and made to become invisible. 3 If we push this argument a step further, we can even wonder what impact the new ads on screens and their subliminal messages will have on people, not to mention the randomly generated discourse created by a juxtaposition of intentional and random messages on city streets. Notes 205

4 In Postmetropolis Soja refers to the urban patterns of the first cities and in particular Jericho. 5 Daniel Defoe’s depiction of London in Moll Flanders is quite eloquent and the labyrinthine architecture of the fast-growing town, with its narrow lanes provides a safe haven for thieves and pickpockets. 6 In Dickens’s novel Dombey and Son, the description of the streets turned upside down by the roadworks induced by the building of the railway line is associated with the meaning of the train and what it represented in Victorian England, an instrument of progress but also an instrument of geographic and social mobility which posed a threat to the established social order of things. 7 This is not specific to France or Britain; in 1919 the Russian government promised 500,000 new homes in the next three years. This increased development of towns and cities also coincided with the development of the nuclear family. 8 With its straight lines, the ‘grid’ is the archetypal modern city map; it was used in many American cities and in particular in Chicago. 9 In his book In the Cities of the South: Scenes from a Developing World (London, 1996) Jeremy Seabrook describes the state of Penang fisher- men’s homes ‘engulfed by urbanization without migrating, their lives overturned, even while remaining on the spot where they were born’ (9). 10 Migrations themselves change the socio-ethnic make-up of cities; the second half of the twenty-first century has seen a large influx of populations from the third world moving to capital cities like New York, London or Paris, thereby altering the ethnic composition of these cities. Los Angeles is the largest Mexican metropolitan area outside Mexico and New York the largest Caribbean city in the world. 11 In the Gandhi Café, a little after three years from the day he’d received his visa, the luckiest boy in the whole world skidded on some rotten spinach in Harish-Harry’s kitchen, streaked forward in a slime green track and fell with a loud popping sound. It was his knee. He couldn’t get up. ‘Can’t you get a doctor?’ He said to Harish-Harry after Saran and Jeev had helped him to his mattress between the vegetables. ‘Doctor!! Do you know what is medical expense in this country?!’ ‘It happened here. Your responsibility.’ ‘My responsibility!’ Harish-Harry stood over Biju, enraged. ‘You slip in the kitchen. If you slip on the road, then who would you ask, hm?’ [ . . . ] ‘Without us living like pigs,’ said, Biju, ‘what business would you have? This is how you make your money, paying us nothing because you know we can’t do anything, making us work day and night because we are illegal. Why don’t you sponsor us for our green card?’ (Kunzru, 187–8) 12 The term fractal seems to Soja to be perfectly suited to refer to the American context given the fact that the US has ‘the largest gap between wealth and poverty in the developed world and the ratio is widest in New York and Low Angeles, comparable to Karachi, Bombay and Mexico 206 Notes

City’, according to a UN report mentioned in ‘Riots called Symptom of Worldwide urban Trend’, Los Angeles Times, May 25, 1992. 13 D.W.S. Wong et al. (1999) analysed social segregation in American towns using a fractal approach (Dauphiné, 2012, 7). 14 André Dauphiné. Fractal Geography (Croydon: ISTE and John Wiley& Sons. 2012). 15 Allen, John. ‘Worlds within cities’. In D. Massey, J. Allen and S. Pile (eds) City Worlds (London/ New York: Routledge, 1999). 16 Joachim Schlor charts the changing rhythms associated with historical shifts in public morality, state regulations (drink laws, curfews) and night technologies (street lighting, policing technologies). Schlor shows how city laws came to be lifted with night security passed from civil watch- men into the hands of the police, opening up the night to new rhythms but also causing itinerants to be pushed into spheres of invisibility. 17 Ash Amin and Nigel Thrift. Cities: Reimagining the Urban (Oxford: Blackwell, 2002). In this book Ash paves the way for a different practice of urban theory based on ‘the transhuman rather than the human’ ‘the dis- tanced rather than the proximate’, ‘the displaced rather than the placed’ and ‘the intransitive rather than the reflexive’. 18 Soja contends that ‘all these forms of privatized community are impli- cated in the deep erosion of public space and the fortressing of the American city. More subtle and less visibly expressed in CIDs and HOAs, this erosive fortressing reaches its most obvious peak in the gated community’ (316). Soja writes that ‘under all these association-administered servitude regimes, microgovernance and “civic secession” revolve around what Foucault once called the “little tactics of the habitat.” There are parking restrictions, restrictions regarding certain vehicles, pet sizes, mail- boxes and so on.’ For further discussion see Evan MacKenzie in Privatopia: Homeowner Associations and the Rise of Residential Private Government (1994). 19 Some analysts contend that gated communities offer a new way of defending public issues against private lobbies and are a new form of public space based on private ownership and property but with a public ethos. I tend to think that this semi-public space is a poor replica of public space as we used to know it in a pre-hypermodern phase. 20 The kinetoscope is one of the first devices used in early motion picture. It was designed for people to view films through a peephole. Only one viewer at a time could use the kinetoscope. The principle was to create the illusion thanks to the use of a strip of film bearing a sequence of images over a light source with a high-speed shutter. The principle was first described by Thomas Edison in 1888, but was developed by his employee William Kennedy Laury Dickinson. Dickinson also devised the kinetograph, an innovative motion picture camera with rapid intermittent film movement. 21 As stressed by the authors of the edited volume Cosmopolitan Urbanism (Jon Binnie, Julian Holloway, Steve Millington) there has been a resurgence in cosmopolitan theorizing since 1990s. Hollinger in particular argues that it needs to be retheorized in light of a new context, Notes 207

identity politics in the US, the end of the cold war, and the ethno- religious nationalism (Hollinger 2002, 228). 22 Harvey ‘Cosmopolitanism and the banality of geographical evils’, Public Culture, 12: 529–64.

Concluding Remarks: Fractal Visibility

1 This point had to some extent been anticipated by Vattimo who remained skpetical as to the actual access of subcultures to these sites and more specifically as to whether their voice would be heard and taken into account. ‘Cultures and subcultures of all sorts have stepped into the limelight of public opinion. Of course, one could object that having a voice does not correspond to true political emancipation – economic power is still held by capital’ (6). 2 Debord had already evoked the democratizing of the literary sign through the spread of these new forms. ‘If the centrality of the literary sign is (re) moved by the increasing omnipresence of the visual sign, and reading and writing decentered by the coming of the film medium, the literary sign is also (re)moved democratically, from being the agent of record of life among the elite classes to being the agent of record of life among the masses.’ Bibliography

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Select filmography

Babenco, Hector, dir. Pixote: A Lei do Mais Fraco. 1981. Embrafilme. 128 min. Boyle, Danny, dir. Slumdog Millionaire. 2008. Warner/ Pathé. 120 min. Chadha, Gurinder, dir. Acting Our Age. NAATA 1993, UK. 30 min. ——. Bend it Like Beckham. Twentieth Century Fox, 2002. Germany/UK/US. 112 min. ——. Bhaji on the Beach. Writ. Meera Syal. First Look, 1993. UK. 100 min. ——. I’m British But. . . AATA, 1990. UK. 30 min. ——. A Nice Arrangement. NAATA, 1991. UK. 11 min. ——. Rich Deceiver. BBC, 1995. UK. 110 min. ——. What Do You Call an Indian Woman Who’s Funny? Third World Newsreel, 1994, UK. 18 min. ——. What’s Cooking? Trimark, 2000. UK/US. 109 min. Frears, Steven, dir. My Beautiful Launderette. Writ. Hanif Kureishi. Orion Classics, 1986. UK. 94 min. ——. Dir. Sammy and Rosie Get Laid. Writ. Hanif Kureishi. Cinecom, 1988. UK. 97 min. Gavron, Sarah, dir. Brick Lane. UK Universal Classics 102 min. Kumar, Manoj, dir. Paurab aur Paschim. Vishal International. 1970. Mehta, Deepa (Deepa Mehta Saltzman) dir. At 99: A Portrait of Louise Tandy March. 1975. Canada. 24 min. ——. Dir. Bollywood/Hollywood. Mongrel Media, 2000. Canada. 103 min. ——. Dir. Camilla Malofilm, 1994. Canada. 95 min. ——. Dir. Earth/1947. G2, 1988. Canada. 95 min. ——. Dir. Fire. Zeitgeist, 1997. Canada/ India. 104 min. ——. Dir. The Republic of Love. Seville Pictures, 2003. Canada. ——. Dir. Sam & Me. Writ. Rajit Chowdhry. 1991. Canada. 94 min. ——. Dir. Water. In Production. Canada/ India. Michel, Roger, dir. The Buddha of Suburbia. Writ. Hanif Kureishi. BBC, 1993. UK. 222 min. Nair, Mira, dir. Children of a Desired Sex. 1987. ——. Dir. Hysterical Blindness. HBO, 2002. US. 96 min. ——. Dir. ‘India.’ 11’09’01 September 11. Bac Films, 2002. France/UK. ——. Dir. India Cabaret. 1985. ——. Dir. Jama Masjid Street, Journal. 1979. ——. Dir. Kama Sutra: A Tale of Love. Trimark. 1997. India. 117 min. 226 Bibliography

——. Dir. The Laughing Club of India. 1999. India/US. 28 min. ——. Dir. Mississippi Masala. SCS Films, 1992. US. 118 min. ——. Dir. Monsoon Wedding. USA Films, 2002. France/ India/ Italy/ US. 114 min. ——. Dir. My Own Country. Showtime Networks, 1998. US. 95 min. ——. Dir. The Perez Family. Samuel Goldwyn, 1995. US. 115 min. ——. Dir. Salaam Bombay! Cinecom. 1988. India. 114 min. ——. Dir. So Far From India. 1982. US. 52 min. ——. Dir. Vanity Fair. Gramercy Pictures, 2003. UK/US. O’Donnell, Damien, dir. East is East. UK. 1999. 96 minutes. ——. West is West. 2010. UK. BBC Films. 103 min. Ové, Horace. Dir, The Art of the Needle. 1986. UK. ——. Dir. Baldwin’s Nigger, 1968. ——. Dir. Orchid House. 1991. UK. ——. Dir. Writ. Caryl Phillips. Playing Away. ArtMattan, 1986. UK/US. ——. Dir. Pressure. 1976. UK. 120 min. ——. D ir. Reggae. Impact, 1971. US. Index

absolute space, 43, 46–7 Breman, Jan, 23, 32–3, 188 adda, 38 Brett, Guy, 96 Adorno, Theodor, 192 Buchanan, Beverley, 150 Afri COBRA, 195 Butler, Judith, 2, 28, 56, 65, 90–1 Ali, Monica, 14, 54, 60, 109, 147, 199 Giving an Account of Oneself, 65 Brick Lane, 14, 54, 60, 109 Precarious Life: The Powers of Appadurai, Arjun, 39, 185 Mourning and Violence, 2, 28, 56, Arakawa and Gins, Madeline, 152, 90–1 204 Architectural Body, 152 Cassirer, Ernst, 46 Making Dying Illegal, 152 Ceddo, 104 Reversible Destiny, 152 Chadha, Gurinder, 13, 110, 114–16, archiving memory, 9, 41 118, 128, 198, 200 archiving and hypermodernity, 10 Bend it Like Beckham, 107 Augé, Marc, 50 Bhaji on the Beach, 114–16, 118, authenticity, 108 123, 128, 198, 200 Chakrabarty, Dipesh, 37–8, 190 Baartman, Saartje, 79 channels of visibility, 2, 178–86 Babenco, Pixote, 124 Chaturvedi, Vinayak, 37 Bacon, Francis, 88 child labour, 24, 27, 188 Bailey, David, 83 child work, 24, 27, 188 Balibar, Etienne, 12 Chow, Rey, 129 Banks, Joseph, 80 city, 150, 153–7 Basquiat, Jean-Michel, 88–9, 196 American cities, 168 Baudrillard, Jean, 12, 161–2 Coombes, Annie, 80 Bauman, Zygmunt, 14–15, 147, 150 cosmopolitanism, 175 Life in Fragments: Essays in craniology, 82 Postmodern Morality, 15 Cuban exiles, 30–1 Liquid Love: On the Frailty of see also Marielitos Human Bonds, 15 Liquid Modernity, concept, 14 Dauphiné, André, 165, 206 Bayart, Jean-François, 127 Davis Mike, 4, 23–4, 137, 203 Bhabha, Homi K., 85, 173 Planet of Slums, 4, 23–4, 137, Bhagat Singh Thind, 29 203 Black Audio Film, 104 Debord, Guy, 179, 181 Bourdieu, Pierre, 64 Delacroix, Eugène, 75 Boyce, Sonia, 10, 13, 81–2, 87, 195 Deleuze, Gilles, 14, 100–1, 129, 134, Peep exhibition, 10 198 Boyle, Danny, 4, 124 Cinema 2, 102, 134, 198, 200 Slumdog Millionaire, 4, 124 the fold, concept, 113, 200

227 228 Index

Deleuze, Gilles – continued Hall, Stuart, 79 A Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism Hannerz, Ulf, 49 and Schizophrenia, 14, 112 Harrisson, Tom, 36 visagéité, concept, 14, 100, 112 Hart, Keith, 23 Desai, Jigna, 114, 117 Harvey, David, 12, 43, 45–6, Desai, Kiran, 39, 146, 162–3, 190 156–7 deshification, 13 Hatoum, Mona, 66, 73–4, 92–8, diasporic art, 69–100, 101–30 135–6, 197 Didi-Huberman, Georges, 95, 196 Home, 136 Doy, Gen, 76, 78, 83–4, 86 Measure of Distance, 92–3 Dyche, Ernest, 13, 85–6 The Negotiating Table, 74 Recollection, 97–8, 197 East is East, 107, 110–11, 115 Untitled (Wheelchair), 95 Edwards, Steve, 80 Hegel, G. W. R., 64 Ellison, Ralph, 2, 19, 27 Hirsch, Marianne, 99, 148 Invisible Man, 19, 27 home motif, 14, 133–40, 143–5, Everett, Percival, 20–2, 187 148–50, 150–2 Erasure, 20–2 in diasporic literature, 14, 134, 138–40, 143–6, 148–50 Fabian, Johannes, 78, 194 in the visual arts, 150 visualism, concept, 78 homecoming narratives, 15 Fanon, Frantz, 20–2, 135, 204 Homi, K. Bhabha, 12 Black Skin White Masks, 20–1, 135 hooks, bell, 136 female characters in diasporic film, Hopkins, Manley Gerard, 48 128 hypervisibility, 7, 87 Fisher, Jean, 89, 101 Forster, E.M., 203 imaginary homelands, 114 Foucault, Michel, 133, 202 informal sector, 23–7, 33 fractal design, 15, 164–5, 205 invisibility, economic, 23–4 fractal gaze, 130, 169–70, 153–77 invisibility, social, 31, 41 Freud, Lucian, 88 invisible lives and the media, 5 Frye Jacobson, Matthew, 29 invisibility and geography, 11 invisibility and race relations, gated communities, 167–9, 206 19–20, 29 Gauguin, Paul, 75 invisibilization, 29, 49, 53 Gavron, Sarah, 14, 103, 107 Brick Lane, film, 14, 108, 111 Jen, Gish, 157 Geddes, Patrick, 156 Jennings, Humphrey, 36 Gildman, Sander, 194 Ghosh, Amitav, 134, 140–3, 201, 204 Kafka, Franz, 63, 134 Goldie, Terry, 53, 191 Kenyatta, Jomo, 134, 202 Gottdiener, Mark, 12 Král, Françoise, 10, 139, 170, 203 Greer, Germaine, 107–9, 198 Kristeva, Julia, 58 Grosz, Elizabeth, 71 Kunzru, Hari, 39, 54, 146, 158, Guattari, Félix, 14, 112 160–1, 166, 190, 205 Guha, Ranajit, 139–40 Transmission, 39, 54, 146, 158, Gurnah, Abdulrazak, 15, 39 160–1, 166, 205 Index 229

Lacan, Jacques, 60 Mirzoeff, Nicholas, 13, 69, 78, 110, Lahiri, Jhumpa, 147 194, 196 Lamming, George, 143–4 bodyscape, concept, 69–70, 78 Lean, David, 138–9 Mishra, Vijay, 127, 139 Le Blanc, Guillaume, 2, 20, 37, 41–4, model minority discourse, 29 50–1, 56–8, 64, 90, 138, 192 Morrison, Toni, 151 Dedans Dehors, 43, 51, 57 Mukherjee Bharati, 39, 54, 190 L’Invisibilité Sociale, 2, 20, 37, Muir, John K., 121 41–4, 56, 64 Mumford, Lewis, 156 Lecercle, Jean-Jacques, 185 Lefebvre, Henri, 46 Naipaul, V. S., 47–8, 134 Leiwei Li, David, 30 Nair, Mira, 4, 103, 119–24, 126, Levinas, Emmanuel, 65–6, 98 170–2, 200, 2002 Lewis, Dave, 10, 13, 81, 84 Indian Cabaret, 122 Lewis, John Frederick, 76–7 Mississippi Masala, 119–21, 124–6 Lewycka, Marina, 148–9 Monsoon Wedding, 120, 1971 A Short History of Tractors in The Perez Family, 119 Ukrainian, 148 The Reluctant Fundamentalist, 119 Two Caravans, 148 Salaam Bombay!, 4, 103, 119–24, We’re All Made of Glue, 148 170–72 Lim, Catherine, 176 Namada valley, 3 Lloyd, Richard, 25–6 Nancy, Jean-Luc, 71 Lowe, Adoph, 36 Nasta, Susheila, 14, 139, 143–4 Lowe, Lisa, 5, 25, 40, 75–6, 194 Home Truths, 14, 139 luggage motif, 15 naturalization act (US), 29 Lyotard, Jean-François, 15, 137 New Historicism, 51 Ngakane, Lionel, 104 Macey, David, 21, 187 nostalgia, 114, 151 Madge, Charles, 36 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 36 Ong, Aihwa, 25–6 Mangeshkar, Lata, 127, 201 The Politics of Culture in the Shadow Manet, Edouard, 75 of Capital, 25–6 Marangoly George, Rose, 14, 138, see also Richard Lloyd 139 Orwell, George, 186 The Politics of Home, 14, 139 Ové, Horace, 104, 198 marielitos, 31 Mehta, Suketu, 120 Paurab aur Paschim, 113–14 Mass Observation, 36 Phillips, Caryl, 39, 175 Mcluhan, Marshall, 1, 12, 46 phrenology, 82 Understanding Media: Pick, Daniel, 78, 194 The Extensions of Man, 1 Pines, Jim, 105 Memmi, Albert, 143 Pinney, Christopher, 194–5 memory and history, 8–9 Piper, Adrien, 13 see also archiving memory Piper, Keith, 13, 81–3, 86, 88 Mercer, Kobena, 7–8, 101, 104–6, Powell, Richard, 87–8, 150–1, 195 196, 199 Pratt, Mary Louise, 51–2 Welcome to the Jungle, 8, 104 Pryer, Jane, 24, 188 230 Index

Ray, Santyajit, 121 shadow class, 25 Reagan, Ronald, 30 Simpson, Christopher, 109 re-gazing, 80, 82, 85 Sinha, Rakesh K., 4 relational space, 43, 46 Smith, Zadie, 55 relative space, 43, 46 social demotion, 125 Renault, Emmanuel, 2, 6, 34–7, 42, social segregation, 206 190 Soja, Edward, 156, 164–5, 168, Mépris Social: Ethique et Politique de 205–6 la Reconnaissance, 2 Spivak, Gayatri, 7, 57, 133, 184, Souffrances Sociales, 6, 34–7, 42 202 Retake, 104 Can the Subaltern Speak?, 7, 57, Rhys, Jean, 202 184 rhythm analysis, 167 Srivastava, Sanjay, 128 Rivers, Larry, 75, 194 Stevenson, Robert Louis, 61 Roth, Philip, 29, 157 Stoker, Bram, 61 Roy, Arundhati, 3 Storr, Robert, 151 The Cost of Living, 3 Subaltern Studies, 37 Rushdie, Salman, 58–62, 108, 141–2, 152, 199, 204 terra nullius, 52 The Satanic Verses, 59–62 Tiffin, Helen, 146

Said, Edward, 191 Vassanji, M. G., 147 Sankofa, 104 Vattimo, Gianni, 1, 179, 183–4 Sargent, Philip, 36 The Transparent Society, 1, 179 Sartre, Jean-Paul, 69, 193 Schlor, Joachim, 167 Wallerstein, Immanuel, 12 see also rhythm analysis Warhol, Andy, 88, 187 Selvon, Sam, 143, 146–7, 158–60, West is West, 107, 110 204 western scopophilia, 9, 80 The Lonely Londoners, 144, 147, Wilson, Fred, 81–2 158–60 Wirth, Lewis, 156 Moses Ascending, 144–6, 158 Woolf, Virginia, 158 Sennett, Richard, 156, 163 Shabazz, Menelik, 104 Young, Robert, 194