Revolutionary and Nationalistic Spirit in the Select Poems of Wb Yeats And

REVOLUTIONARY AND NATIONALISTIC SPIRIT IN THE SELECT POEMS OF W.B. YEATS AND G.A. MAHJOOR: A COMPARATIVE STUDY

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE AWARD OF THE DEGREE OF Doctor of Philosophy IN ENGLISH

BY MUZAFFAR AHMAD RATHER

UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF PROF. RASHMI ATTRI

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH ALIGARH MUSLIM UNIVERSITY ALIGARH (INDIA) 2019 Annexure-I

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I, Muzaffar Ahmad Rather, Department of English, certify that the work embodied in this Ph.D. thesis is my own bonafide work carried out by me under the supervision of Prof. Rashmi Attri, Department of English, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. The matter embodied in this Ph.D. thesis has not been submitted for the award of any other degree. I declare that I have faithfully acknowledged, given credit to and referred to the research works wherever their works have been cited in the text and the body of the thesis. I, further, certify that I have not willfully lifted up some other’s work, paragraph, text, data, result etc. reported in the journals, books, magazines, reports, dissertations, theses, etc. or available at websites and included them in this Ph.D. thesis and cited as my own work.

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Muzaffar Ahmad Rather

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Prof. Rashmi Attri Department of English Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh-202002

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This is to certify that Mr. Muzaffar Ahmad Rather, Department of English has satisfactorily completed the course work/comprehensive examination and pre- submission seminar requirement, which is part of his Ph.D programme.

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Title of the Thesis: Revolutionary and Nationalistic Spirit in the Select Poems of W.B. Yeats and G.A. Mahjoor: A Comparative Study

Candidate’s Name: Muzaffar Ahmad Rather

The undersigned hereby assigns to the Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh Copyright that may exist in and for the above thesis submitted for the award of the Ph.D degree.

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Note: However, the author may reproduce or authorize others to reproduce material extracted verbatim from the thesis or derivative of the thesis for author’s personal use provide that the source and the University’s copyright notice are indicated. Acknowledgements

So, which of the favours of your Lord would you deny? (Al-Quran 55:14)

I would like to express sincere gratitude to my supervisor Prof. Rashmi Attri for her constant help and continuous guidance throughout the study. Her kindness towards me is beyond words. I sincerely and wholeheartedly thank my life coaches, my parents (Ab Aziz Rather and Fatima Begum) for their encouragement, support, care, attention and whatnot. I owe it all to you. Many Thanks! I express my special thanks to my loved family members; Ab Ahad Rather, Zeba, Saja, Gulshana, Mukhtar Ahmad Rather, Mr. Assad (Brother-in-Law), and my uncles namely; Abdul Ahad Parah, Habibullah Parah and Assadullah Parah. They all have played a significant role in my upbringing throughout my entire life. I specially thank my paternal uncle; Ali Mohammad Rather, who has remained shoulder to shoulder and profoundly supported me with me since childhood. I am deeply indebted to my siblings/cousins namely Dr. Shabir Ahmad Parah, Shameema, Dr. Nafis Ibni Assad, Shahzada, Umer Ibni Assad, Safia, Ishrat, Shayesta, Inabat, Uzair for love, affection, advices, care and profound belief in my work. They have always stayed and helped me through thick and thin. My special thanks to my grandmother’s (Zeba [Ahan] and Saja [Zazna]) for their prayers, love and endearment. They always are/were keen to know what I was/am doing and how I was/am proceeding. I express my heartfelt and deepest gratitude to Nusrat Tabasum for relentless support and prayers.

I am also grateful to two of my best friends namely Muzammil Mohammad and Dr. Rafaquat Raja for being with me through and through. I express my special thanks to Mr. Bilal Ahmad Dar, Nadeem Khurshidi and Iqbal Ahmad and Masroor Muzaffar for proof reading my thesis. I would like to thank my well-wishers namely Firdous Hussain Parra, Javid Ahmad Ahanger, Nasir Ahmad Shah, Ishfaq Ahmad Yatoo, Mohammad Ashraf Khwaja, Irfan and Ummer Bashir for support and valuable suggestions. I am grateful to UGC for providing the monthly stipend during the research programme. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the help from Maulana Azad Library (AMU) during my stay in the University.

Thank you all!

Muzaffar Ahmad Rather Abstract

The thesis embarks to explore the revolutionary and nationalistic spirit in the poetry of William Butler Yeats and Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor. Both the poets have been studied in the nationalistic and revolutionary perspective. An attempt has been made to uncover this tendency in their poetry through the depiction of cultural heritage, literature, art, decolonization, legends, folklore and mutual brotherhood. The revolutionary and nationalistic discourse is vividly portrayed in their poetry, which made them the poets par excellence in their respective homelands. Inspite of this, both the poets wanted to change the status quo in their respective societies after witnessing the oppression, slavery, tyranny, exploitation and misery. In order to achieve their goal, they used poetry to incite people to rise against high handedness and domination of the rulers.

Yeats and Mahjoor belong to two different regions of the world having different culture, history, language and political atmosphere. They are considered as the nationalist revolutionaries in their respective places as both the poets craved to revive their past culture, art, literature and heritage. They distanced themselves from the colonizer through imagination as Edward Said believes that a nationalist writer struggles to reclaim the distorted past and geography through imagination. He calls Yeats as a revolutionary poet and keeps him at par him with other revolutionary poets like Léopold Sédar Senghor and Mahmood Darwesh. Mahjoor too eternalizes the Kashmiri culture, streams, gardens, art and literature in his poetry. As a modern poet, Yeats developed an ironical enthusiasm, blend of various layers of experience and the incorporation of images. There certainly was a change in language, style and in theme in their poetry as well. Yeats stressed on the subjectivity of poetry and believed that a poet can have his own point of view. Mahjoor took up political themes in his modern poetry because of the metamorphosis in the political affairs of Kashmir.

The amalgamation of past and present is entwined together in their poetry in order to show the relevance of the past in the contemporary times. In the thesis, both the romantic and modern poems of both the poets are compared to scrutinize the similarities and dissimilarities. Their romantic poetry not only enthrals the beauty, streams, and gardens of their respective nations but visualises the culture, art, literature as well. The mythical dimensions, folklore, legends and occultism portrayed

1 by Yeats in his romantic poetry underscores his nationalist and revolutionary tendencies. Mahjoor visualises the past of Kashmir and laments on the state of affairs after its annexation by the outside rulers. The portrayal of landscape and imagery in their poetry ratifies their passion and fascination towards their homelands. Yeats as compared to Mahjoor is more abstruse and abstract, while as Mahjoor is direct and simple and easy to comprehend. The mythical elements in Yeats’ poetry are present almost everywhere while as Mahjoor focuses on landscape, art, brotherhood, politics and culture in his poetry. He has not portrayed the mythical picture as Yeats but has slightly touched the legends and folklore. Both the poets have been disappointed with the state of affairs in the later stages of their life. They were disillusioned with the circumstances and considered the period of de-colonization not too different from colonization. However, Yeats became a vehement supporter of authoritarianism and Eugenics while Mahjoor remained an ardent supporter of secularism and didn’t favoured any particular religion or community.

The thesis has been divided into five chapters excluding Introduction and Conclusion.

Introduction of the thesis discusses the concept of ‘Nationalism’ and ‘Revolution’ and its importance in relation to literature especially poetry. Nations usually emerge or come into existence mostly because of revolutions. The prime example is the American nation (1775-1783) as it came into existence after the American Revolution (1765-1783) and French nation due to French Revolution (1789-1799). Various philosophers, theorists and historians like Ernest Gellner, Eric Hobsbawm, Gottfried Herder Johann, Leon Trotsky, Frantz Fanon, Ngugi wa Thiong’o, Edward Said and Aijaz Ahmad have expressed their own views on nationalism and revolution. They emphasized that nationalist movements or nationalist sentiments emerge due to the adherence to a particular ideology or culture. It also discusses the role of poets during the difficult times to resist the colonizer and oppression. A revolutionary poet besides trying to rise against tyranny also tries to recollect the collective loss of the society. He considers it necessary to make the people conscious about their past cultural heritage. It means that a nationalist revolutionary writer is always anxious to create consciousness among the hoi polloi about the identity and essence of a nation.

2 The first chapter of the thesis entitled W.B. Yeats: A Blend of Tradition and Modernity starts with the brief introduction about W.B. Yeats. It attempts to discuss Yeats’ romantic characteristics and the incorporation of occult romanticism in his poetry with its basis in Irish nationalism in the form of Irish legends, folklore, culture, fairies and myths. The blend of occult romanticism along with conventional romantic themes deviated him from the traditional English romantic poets like William Wordsworth and others. It also attempts to uncover Yeats’ fascination with the mysticism particularly Indian mysticism. Yeats’ modern poetry reinstates the themes of Irish folklore and legends as he was conscious about the fact that modern writers rejoice the emancipation from the past. The incorporation of both romantic and modern elements with nationalist/revolutionary undertones makes Yeats’ poetry peculiar and different from other Irish poets.

The second chapter of the thesis entitled G.A. Mahjoor: A Blend of Tradition and Modernity starts with the brief introduction about G.A. Mahjoor. This chapter attempts to discuss Mahjoor’s deviation from his predecessor poets so far as the theme and content of his poetry is concerned in relation to Eliot’s concept of “Tradition and Individual Talent”. This chapter also attempts to discuss at length the poet’s incorporation of nationalistic and revolutionary themes in his poetry, which dealt with the social, economic and political affairs of Kashmir. It further attempts to discuss how Mahjoor’s poetry turned out as a wakeup call for the general masses to make them conscious politically and culturally.

The third chapter of the thesis is entitled Irish Nationalism, Revolution and Yeats attempts to discuss the nationalist history of Ireland and Yeats as a nationalist revolutionary poet. This chapter discusses the role played by Yeats in the Irish struggle for freedom in relation to his poems “September 1913”, “Easter 1916”, “Michael Robartes Remembers Forgotten Beauty”, “Nineteen Hundred Nineteen”, “Sixteen Men Dead”, “To Ireland in the Coming Times”, “Coole Park and Ballylee”, “The Sad Shepherd”, “The Song of the Sad Shepherd” and “An Irishmen Foresees his Death”. This chapter further attempts to discuss Yeats’ craving to de-anglicize the Irish culture and his apprehension about the political future of Ireland. Yeats’ stand as a nationalist revolutionary poet is discussed along with the views from different critics and Scholars like Edward Said, Seamus Deane and others.

3 The fourth chapter of the thesis is entitled Kashmiri Nationalism, Revolution and Mahjoor attempts to discuss the Kashmiri nationalism (Kashmiriyat) and Mahjoor’s role in flourishing it. Kashmiriyat encompasses in its fold the age old cultural values, traditions used as an equivalent to the concept of nationalism. Mahjoor’s revolutionary outlook was not to resuscitate the cultural values of Kashmir only but he tried to incite the people for rebellion/revolution against domination and slavery through his poetry. Kashmiri nationalism took a new turn after the revolution 1930’s, when the whole valley of Kashmir erupted like a volcano against Dogra regime. Mahjoor as a keen observer has vividly highlighted the sentiments and aspirations of the Kashmiri people. He along with other nationalists of Kashmir joined together to fight against Dogra oppression. The poems discussed in this chapter are; “Black Night has ended, And Day has Dawned”, “My Rose Garden Fills with Ecstasy”, “Sherwani’s Message”, “Come, Gardener”, “Eternal Are the Bright Hues and Radiance”, “Freedom” and “O Morning Breeze If You Reach America”.

The fifth chapter Fifth of the thesis entitled Yeats and Mahjoor: A Comparison attempts to discuss the similarities and dissimilarities in the poetry of both the poets. Further, this chapter attempts to unveil the cultural ethos in their poetry. It attempts to unearth the nationalist and revolutionary elements both in their romantic and modern poetry and the comparison between them. It also discusses at length, how both the poets exemplified their nationalist feelings by using imagery, symbols and the landscape to highlight their particular identity. It tries to highlight the revolutionary spirit in the poetry of both the poets that awakened the people from slumber and inspired them to bring change in the society. The poems discussed in this chapter have been taken from Yeats’ poetic collection; Michael Robartes and the Dancer 1921), The Tower (1928), The Rose (1893), The Wild Swans at Coole (1917), Responsibilities and Other Poems 1916), The Secret Rose (1897) and Crossways (1889). Mahjoor’s poetry has been taken from Mahjoor’s poetic collection; Kulliyat-i- Mahjoor (1984).

Conclusion of the thesis sums up the arguments of the chapters and discusses how poets from East and the West can be studied together in the domain of comparative study. It incorporates the overall contribution of both the poets in the literary sphere from the nationalistic and revolutionary point of view.

4 The thesis is a modest attempt to evaluate and compare the poetry of both the poets with different conventions, histories, cultures, politics and freedom struggle. However, it cannot be claimed that it covers each and every aspect of their poetry. There is certainly a lot more to explore in the poetry of Yeats and Mahjoor.

5 Contents

Page No.

Introduction 1 - 18

Chapter I 19 - 43

W.B. Yeats: A Blend of Tradition and Modernity

Chapter II 44 - 72

G.A. Mahjoor: A Blend of Tradition and Modernity

Chapter III 73 - 109

Irish Nationalism, Revolution and Yeats

Chapter IV 110 - 141

Kashmiri Nationalism, Revolution and Mahjoor

Chapter V 142 - 195

Yeats and Mahjoor: A Comparison

Conclusion 196 - 200

Bibliography 201 - 216 Introduction

The concept of ‘Revolution’ and ’Nationalism’ have often been studied together and are considered to be interrelated. Revolution means the militant means of overthrowing power or the forcible overthrow of a government in order to change the status quo of the society for its total transformation. It has given birth to different nations in the world from time to time like; American Revolution (1775-1783) gave birth to United States of America (USA) and similarly French nation came into existence after the French Revolution (1789-1799). Revolutions have transpired through human history but differ in terms of ideology, methods and duration as well. It is seen that their results had a major repercussions on the social and political institutions of the society in retaliation to the powerful monarchy, autocracy and plutocracy. The early studies of revolutions mainly focused on the European history but in the contemporary world, it includes in its fold different events across the globe. It also incorporates different approaches from different disciplines.

Revolution has a close connection with nationalism, which aims to resuscitate the heritage, culture, and language of a nation. It is believed that without the rich historical past of any nation, it would be impossible for any nationalist movement to flourish or survive. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in their book The German Ideology (1963) argue that “it is only revolution which succeeds in ridding itself of all the muck of ages and become fitted to found society anew” (69). However, the propounders of nationalism strictly adhere to the notion that nationalist movement can be successful only after exploring the past history and culture of nations. Nationalism thus “exists in history; nationalism without history is like a fish out of water, bereft of the very element that allows it to live” (Kumar and Delanty 7-20).

In pre- modern society, the concept of nationalism was not in vogue as in the contemporary world. The phenomena started in the 18th and 19th centuries and became an academic discussion after the emergence of new nation states. In this context, noted Indian historian Romila Thapar says that “Historians see the nation as a modern concept and do not trace it to antiquity. It emerges at a specific point of time that dates back to the Post-Enlightenment period in Europe” (8). It is a feeling which unifies and unites the people and marks as an identity either on a regional or national level with same culture, tradition and language. Nationalism is a common belief among the

1 people that their nation is superior to others that signifies their utmost love and devotion. Hence, the devotion and consciousness about culture came into existence “when this confusion about one’s identity and sexuality produces a permanent pathology of inadequacy...Cultural nationalism is the basic emotional attitude of the suppressed man” (qtd. in Menon 122). The feeling of nationalism sometimes can turn lethal and may lead towards absolutism. It can also prove poisonous at times for the multi-cultural, multi-religious and multi-ethnic country. If it emphasizes on the brotherhood and unity among the different communities, then it can definitely be called a positive and fruitful force. But, if it focuses on the rights, history, religion or culture of a particular community while bypassing the rights of others, it can turn absolutely drastic and noxious. The prime example is the case of Germany dating back to 1930’s, when Hitler launched a killing spree against the non-Aryans and massacred them on the basis of race in gas chambers and concentration camps to show his superiority. In this context, Romila Thapar opines:

What we take to be nationalism can be a positive force if it calls for the unification of communities, but equally it can be a divisive and therefore negative force if it underlines exclusive rights for one community on the basis of a single identifying factor…Case of Germany in the 1930’s when the Nazis propagated the idea of the purity of the Aryan race…Fascist understanding of European society and crucial to German Fascism and was not absent in Italian Fascism either. (17)

The evolution and development of nationalism is not only the outcome of wars, bloodshed and territorial enlargement but culture also plays a key role in its development. For the creation of nation; folklore, cultural past and tradition play a dominant role. The soul of the nation can be familiarized through folk songs and folk dances. Among all these things, language has a pivotal role to play in the formation of a nation. Famous German philosopher Gottfried Herder Johann believes that “every community or a class has its own history, geography, values and most importantly language” (Heywood 109). He means to say that the identity of a nation can be traced through songs and legends. Therefore, “Herder’s nationalism amounts to a form of Culturalism that emphasizes on awareness and appreciation of national traditions and collective memories instead of an overtly political quest for statehood” (110).

2 It is considered that French Revolution led to the onslaught of the great empires and monarchies of the world like Ottoman and Hansburg, which gave the birth to different new nations of the world. Rogers Brubaker in his book Citizenship and Nationhood in France and Germany (1992) states that French Revolution “invented both the nation-state and the modern institution and ideology of national citizenship” (35). These empires and monarchies had expanded their fold as Benedict Anderson in his Magnum Opus, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (1983) states: “One must also remember that these antique monarchial states expanded not only by warfare but by sexual politics- of a kind very different from that practiced today” (20).

In the academic arena, nationalism and revolution has remained a debatable term among different scholars and theoreticians. Renowned intellectual and critic Edward Said says that “Nationalism is an assertion of belonging in and to a place, a people, a heritage. It affirms the home created by a community of language, culture and customs…” (Reflections 182).The character in Raymond William’s novel, Second Generation (1964) is of the view that nationalism means “Like class. To have it, and to feel it, is the only way to end it. If you fail to claim it, or give it up too soon, you will merely be cheated, by other classes and other nations” (Williams). Similarly, Ernest Gellner in his book Nations and Nationalism (1983) defines nationalism as:

Nationalism is primarily a political principle, which holds that the political and the National unit should be congruent. Nationalism as a sentiment, or as a movement, can best be defined in terms of this principle. Nationalist sentiment is a feeling of anger aroused by the violation of this principle, or as a feeling of satisfaction aroused by its fulfillment. A nationalist sentiment is one actuated by a sentiment of this kind. (1)

Gellner argues that the concept of nationalism is basically the result of industrial revolution in the west having its political manifestations with “the political background, which holds that political and national unit, should be congruent” (1). He means to say that the violation of proper legitimate boundaries of the nation leads to the formation of the nationalist movement in a country. He further argues that the ethnicity of the nation is the larger part of the political system. It insinuates that Gellner tries to relate nationalism with evolution and emergence of industrialization

3 and modernization. However, Sociologist Anthony Smith’s views are totally contrary to Gellner. He says that “modernity (the complex of ‘modern conditions’) is in no way a mode of realizing national identity, much less a product of it…” (Smith 11). Smith believed that every nation is culturally and historically rooted that “may long predate the achievement of statehood or even the quest for national independence” (58). It means that “ethnicity is the precursor of nationalism… modern nations only came into existence when established ethnicities were linked to the emerging doctrine of political sovereignty” (58).

Noted Indian cultural critic Sadan and Menon considers nationalism of two types, i.e., Political and Cultural nationalism. Political nationalism to him deals with the concepts of self-reliance, freedom and sovereignty. While as Cultural nationalism deals with identity, culture and heritage. He believes that “culture has always set up the contours for national movements and nations have used culture as a convenient flag to wave in ideas of superiority or exclusivity” (Menon 110). It is necessary to highlight that emphasizing too much on cultural nationalism can be detrimental for the nations in the political field. To keep the sovereignty and political emancipation on the back burner and thrusting too much emphasis on identity and culture can lead to chaos and confusion. In Menon’s words:

A nation that, at some point, lets its political primacy be eroded and overrun by cultural nationalism can be construed to be on the edge of such an implosion… Majoritarian nationalism masquerading as a ‘cultural good’ is systematically displacing the urgent imperatives of the political economy from the driver’s seat, and is pushing the nation onto a path entirely contradictory to what is strived for or claimed during its movement for national independence. (111)

A nationalist movement is an easy tool of resistance and confrontation in the struggle against occupation. During Russia’s occupation in Poland, Polish language received the setback after it was made mandatory to impose Russian language everywhere in Poland. It was a blow to the Polish cultural nationalism, which prompted the people to raise a voice against colonial designs. Critic Aijaz Ahmad has aptly remarked about the cultural subservience by saying; “Cultural domination is doubtless a major aspect of imperialist domination as such, and ‘Culture’ is always,

4 therefore, a major site for resistance, but cultural contradictions within the imperialized formations tend to be so very numerous-sometimes along class lives but also in cross- class configurations…” (Ahmad 8)

Benedict Anderson emphasized on the cultural roots for the evolution of nationalism. To him, “nationality, or, as one might prefer to put it in view of that word’s multiple significations, nation-ness, as well as nationalism, are cultural artefacts of a particular kind” (4). Anderson means to say that nationalism hasn’t emerged out of a vacuum but the forces behind laid a ground for its development. He categorically rejected the claim that a particular ideology of a particular community can be a backbone for the development of nationalism. He believes that “nationalism has to be understood by aligning it…with a large cultural systems that preceded it, out of which –as well as against which-it came into being” (12). His main point is that the decline of a language of a particular community is because of the sudden appearance of capitalist class with its association with, “the print technology on the fatal diversity of human language created the possibility of a new form of imagined community, which in its basic morphology set the stage for the modern nation” (46). Not only this, he maintains that nationalism or the nationalist sentiment arises when the ‘state of existence’ in which the history of the community is rooted is under the constant threat. It signifies that nationalism in its ambit includes ethnicity, culture, identity and most importantly the political entity as whole in the form of sovereignty, state and its institutions. Further, Anderson equated nationalism with the institution of religion as he believes that “like religion, nationalism too has its prophets and holy books” (12). He reiterates that the rise of nationalism and national consciousness is because of the sudden growth in literacy, which made the people conscious and forced them to re- think on their past. In this regard, nationalism can’t be considered as a mere physical entity, but it takes us back to our roots, past, culture and traditions through literature. Salman Rushdie’s works are a prime example of it. Despite living outside India, the feeling of love for his country, its culture and tradition echoes in his works:

But if we do look back…India almost inevitably means that we will not be capable of reclaiming precisely the thing that was lost; that we will, in short, create fictions, not actual cities or villages, but invisible ones, imaginary homeland, India’s of the mind. (Rushdie, Imaginary 10)

5 Rushdie tries to overcome the loss of Indian culture and tradition in a foreign land through literature. It is not only the loss of a single individual but of the community as a whole living abroad. These things enable the writer to express his feelings with an attachment to his culture, values and traditions in a concrete way. It is because of the fact that the “physical fact of discontinuity, of his present being in a different place from his past, of his being “elsewhere”. This may enable him to speak properly and concretely on a subject of universal significance and appeal” (12).

Nationalism as a movement sometimes emerges as a reaction to colonialism. The prime example is the African nationalism against the French colonialism. This led to the birth of literary movement during 1930’s, which famously came to be known as ‘Negritude’. The major theoreticians and propounders of negritude were; Aime Cesaire, Leopold Senghor, Leon Damas and others. Their main aim was to search for their own identity and culture. The African writers tried to write back to centre in order to reshape their identity, blurred by colonialism. Romila Thapar quotes that “the derogatory term, negro (Black), to mean black people, was deliberately turned on its head and given a positive meaning of black identity. This in a sense also caused it to challenge and oppose the popular “race science of the time in Europe and the notion that Africans are primitive and savage” (Thapar 19). This type of nationalism brought together the Black Africans of the world, which resultantly developed the idea of national consciousness among them. In the same vein, American social activist and poet Du Bois echoed the sentiments of the American Negros in his poetry. Du Bois reflected their sentiments and boldly presented their image of cultural, social and political identity in his poetry. His wrote in favour of American Negros and “established a radical and militant tone, and Negro poetry became characteristically the poetry of rebellion and self assertion” (Irele 334). In this way, he became a mouth piece of the American Negro community and conveyed their message and protest to a large audience all over the world. Like Du Bois, American Poet and Activist James Langston Hughes poetry gave Negro community “a pride in race and origins” (335). The poem recollects the collective loss of the Negro community in general. At the same time, it laments on the sufferings faced by people because of oppression and domination. In one of his poems “The Negro Speaks of Rivers”, he reverberated the sentiments of the community in these verses:

6 I’ve known rivers: I’ve known rivers ancient in the world and Older than the flow of human blood in human veins My soul has grown deep like the rivers I bathed in the Euphrates when dawns were young I built my hut near the Congo and it lulled me to sleep (qtd. in Irele 335)

A nationalist/revolutionary movement not only achieves its objectives through the violent means but literature plays a key role in it. Barbara Harlow argues that “the language skills used by the writer and the armed resistance against the domination has an active role in countering the oppressor and forming a resistance movement at a national level” (15). It signifies an important relationship between revolutionary/ resistance literature and an armed struggle. It would be improper to declare that to resist domination; violence can be the main instrument. The “medium of language and literary form for the anti-colonial writers can be the important mode of resistance” (Boehmer 165). However, to adopt the violent means can be the final choice to fight against the domination. For writers, literature has remained as the best option to highlight the miseries of people. Boehmer further says that “the writers in Africa writing in English language… and writers act as soothsayers and seers of political movement and the writer’s role is to interpret the world, to grasp the initiative in cultural self definition” (175-76). In this context, Bill Ashcroft and Pal Ahluwalia in their book Edward Said (2001) argue that:

…a national culture has to be formed and the old ideology of domination dispersed…an alternative non-coercive knowledge that counters the dominant narrative becomes essential. It is this need for a counter-narrative that motivates Said and that is the main intellectual issue raised by Orientalism. ‘Can one divide human reality?’ he asks as indeed it appears to be so often divided ‘into clearly different cultures, histories, traditions, societies, even races, and survive the consequences humanly?’ This strategy of ‘surviving the consequences humanly’ becomes a key aspect of his view of human liberation… (112)

Poets act as revolutionaries by making the people conscious about the evils of colonialism, oppression and slavery. Leon Trotsky says that “the revolution has issued

7 from the national element... The poetry of revolution is not in the booming of machine guns…but in the poetry of revolution lay not alone in the elemental rise… but in the clear consciousness…” (32-33). He further argues that the revolutionary poetry gives birth to a new different class in a society, who take the reins in their own hands to lead the struggle to its logical conclusion. Trotsky considers it sheer illogical to dictate a revolutionary poet to write in such a way, which may lead to uprising against the state. But he considers it as the choice of the writer to choose themes and give them a new shape through his poetry. He argues; “No one is going to prescribe them. Please write about anything you can think of!” (Trotsky 12). Trotsky’s thrust on revolutionary poetry is furthered by Russian poet Alexander Blok’s poem “The Twelve”. The poem explores the past of the poet:

Thus rave all the fed, Thus longs the satisfaction of important bellies, Their trough is overturned, And confusion is in their foul pen (qtd. in Trotsky 5)

The poet highlights the revolutionary zeal in the poem as the “poem itself is eccentric in the sense of the word as it is used in physics. That is why Blok crowns his poem with Christ. But Christ belongs in no way to the Revolution, only to Blok’s past” (5). Trotsy considers it important to give poets freedom so that “they are encouraged to absorb and make use of the cultural history previously withheld from them” (12).

Revolutionary writing doesn’t only mean to be anti-colonial. It has very important part to play in furnishing the information about past and the archives of the country. Barbara Harlow says that “resistance poets have produced a new and vital corpus of literary and poetic work. That corpus is remarkable not only for its coherence and magnitude, but also for the developed character of its challenge both to western literary convention and to the sway of traditional values from within their own cultures” (45).

In the same way, Frantz Fanon in his book The Wretched of the Earth (1963) says that the “cultured native should not concern himself with choosing the level on which he wishes to fight….to fight for national culture means in the first place to fight for the liberation of the nation…” (232). Fanon argues that to fight for the liberation

8 of a country, it is obligatory to give too much emphasis on the national culture of that nation. He retorts:

The natives who are anxious for the culture of their country and who wish to give to it a universal dimension ought not therefore to place their confidence in the single principle of inevitable, undifferentiated independence written into the consciousness of the people in order to achieve their task. The liberation of the nation is one thing; the methods and popular content of the fight are another... (245)

So, it is mandatory to re-energize the culture, which reciprocally becomes important for the sustenance, credibility and identity of a nation. The first and foremost “necessity is the reestablishment of the nation in order to give life to national culture in the strictly biological sense of the phrase” (244). Culture occupies a dominating position during the freedom struggle and “it is not alone the success of the struggle which afterwards gives validity and vigor to culture; culture is not put into cold storage during the conflict” (244). It is necessary to mention that Fanon laid emphasis on the formation of a nation not in isolation but vis-à-vis its values and culture. He argues that the culture of any nation under colonialism “is a contested culture whose destruction is sought in systematic fashion. It very quickly becomes a culture condemned to secrecy” (Fanon 237). It illustrates that the writer feels the need to revisit his past culture and highlight the intricacies of his community in a poetic way. The writer’s motive is not only to be the mere highlighter of particular identity or culture but; “to go beyond and create a social consciousness in the process of decolonization but also to go beyond and create a social consciousness at the moment of liberation” (112).

In relation to this, Edward Said in his book Reflections on Exile and other Essays (2000) argues that literary history is not a mere detail of the lives of poets, dramatists or novelists but it peeps deep into the identity and history of the artists “with the history of the period in which it existed and flourished.” (431). Said corroborates his statement by giving an example from biographer Richard Ellannn’s book on Yeats entitled The Identity of Yeats (1964). For Said, this applies to all the novelists and poets and “regardless of how revolutionary and innovative they may

9 be… and temporality its sustaining element, the essence of its constitutive structure” (431).

It cannot be claimed that a nationalist or a revolutionary movement comes into existence ex nihilo but the driving force makes it possible to happen. This force can be labelled its “founding fathers, their basic, quasi-religious texts, their rhetoric of belonging, their historical and geographical landmarks…This collective ethos forms what Pierre Bourdieu, calls the habitus…practices linking habit with inheritance” (183). It manifests that Said links nationalism with the past history of a nation and tries to use it as a shield against oppression. He means to say that “Nationalism… coalesced into resistance against an alien and occupying empire on the part of peoples possessing a common history, religion and language” (Said, Nationalism 74). To illustrate his statement, Said gives examples of Palestinian and Lebanese writers like Mahmoud Darvesh and Elias Khoury. He argues that both the writers “gave voice to rooted exiles and the plight of trapped refugees, to dissolving boundaries and changing identities, to radical demands and new languages” (Said, Reflections 314). It can be said that the slogan for cultural resurrection from the oppressed people was to retrieve their identity. However, cultural resurrection was not the only aim to achieve but the independence from foreign rule was an all-inclusive part of it. Said further gives an example of Ireland and India, where the independence movement was not led by a particular group or an individual but people from all sections of community played an active role in it. He quotes thus:

The white man had once only seen lazy natives and exotic customs, the insurrection against imperialism produced, as in Ireland, for example, a national revolt, along with political parties dedicated to independence, which like, Congress party in India, was headed by nationalist figures, poets and military heroes. There were remarkably impressive results from this vast effort at cultural reclamation, most of which are well known and celebrated. (358)

Revolutionary poetry doesn’t necessarily mean to bring a change in the society but it also highlights the personal sufferings of the poet and the whole society. The poet becomes an ambassador of the sufferings faced by the people after highlighting their miseries. In this context, Ghassan Kanafani argues:

10 Resistance was an easy choice; it was rather a daily battle with a ferocious enemy who considered it a question of life and death. And as the measures of persecution became fiercer, resistance consolidated. Contrary to the poetry of exile, the poetry of resistance emerged with an astonishing revolutionary spirit completely free from the sad and tearful trend. Strangely enough, it quickly reverberated with all the political upheavals… (7)

Additionally, revolutionary poetry also takes us back to the cultural roots of a country in order to re-assert an identity, resurrection of religion, tradition and language. The poet in one way or the other is involved in the cultural revolution, besides resisting colonialism. Ghanafani’s view has further been corroborated by another Palestinian Writer Fawaz Turki by saying that “if the Palestinian revolution is armed with a philosophy at all, it is armed with the anti-determinist vision of the open-endedness of the future. Kannafani creates and that becomes visible in his literary exposition of the events of Palestinian history” (qtd. in Ghanafani 15). For Ghanafani, literature becomes an eye opener for the people, which entreat them to bring a revolution in the society. For Ghanafani “resistance poetry didn’t witness a change in purport and poetic effect but also in form and technique. The poet takes new modern themes and rejects the traditional poetic forms without losing force” (7). The poet deems it necessary to shun the outdated conventional themes in poetry and incorporate the themes that deal with nationality, culture, sovereignty and revolution. Barbara Harlow also believes that “role of poetry in the liberation struggle itself has…both as a force for mobilizing a collective response to occupation and domination and as a repository for popular memory and consciousness” (34).

In this way, the poet overtly or covertly tries to counter the oppressive modes of power through his poetry. It simultaneously touches the emotions of the people and incites them to change the status quo in the society by indulging in Intifada (Rebellion). Mahmood Dervish’s poetry had a great impact on the Palestinian masses that triggers them to rise against tyranny in a revolutionary way. This is obvious in one of his poems “Under Siege”:

Women asked the cloud: please enfold my loved one My clothes are soaked with his blood If you shall not be rain, my love

11 Be tress Saturated with fertility, be trees And if shall not be trees, my love Be a stone Saturated with humidity, be a stone…1 (Darwesh)

Darvesh in the poem is not talking about freedom or his craving for a sovereign land directly but lays a stress on the drastic effects of colonialism on Palestinian identity and culture. Primarily, the poet wants to reassert his identity, which will pay way for the ultimate freedom from a colonizer. Kenyan writer Ngugi wa Thiong’o in his book Writers in Politics (1981) also says that a writer has a key role in the society:

A writer’s pen both reflects reality and also attempts to persuade us to take a certain attitude to that reality. The persuasion can be direct appeal on behalf of a writer’s open doctrine or it can be an indirect appeal through ‘influencing the imagination, feelings and actions of the recipient’ in a certain way toward certain goals and a set of values, consciously or unconsciously held by him. (7)

Thus, literature occupies an important role in the struggle for freedom and to present the true picture of the society and its people. It presents the actual picture of the society at a collective level as “literature is trying to make us see how that community, class, race, group has defined itself historically and how it defines the world in relationship to itself” (7). For Ngugi, the national liberation movement doesn’t necessarily mean the political struggle but it is also the “cultural struggle since the aim is to restore …true human creative personalities in history, so as to enhance the quality of life and of life based values” (27). Ngugi makes it clear that the resistance against the colonizer can be for the cultural and political emancipation. The oppressor on the one hand demands freedom from the colonizer and on the other hand is worried about the culture of his nation and tries to rejuvenate it all the time. He deems it necessary that the writers should act as opponents against oppression. Ngugi also considers it necessary for the African writers and critics to “act as cultural army of African people for total economic and political liberation from imperialism and

1 See, https://c www.poemhunter.com/poem/under-siege/

12 foreign domination” (31). So, the revolutionary movements in the countries can’t be solely based on political and economic independence only but as argued by Franklin Frazier; “they have an economic political basis; they involve the question of a common racial and cultural heritage” (35). This is exemplified by the Mau-Mau revolt in Kenya. The propounders of the “Kikuyu nationalist rebellion…designed to counter the influence of European cultural incursion” (Irele 324). It becomes obvious that the national movements launched in the colonized nations not only yearn for political or economic liberation but cultural nationalism occupies an important place in these movements.

The present study deals with the poetry of two poets namely William Butler Yeats and Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor from comparative perspective. Both the poets are considered to be nationalist/revolutionary poets in their respective homelands, who resisted colonialism, oppression and slavery. However, the nationalism and nationalist/revolutionary movements of both Ireland and Kashmir were altogether different. But what makes their poetry interesting is their longing to resurrect their national heritage, history and most importantly self-determination. Both Mahjoor and Yeats considered it necessary to change the status quo in the society through revolution on social, economic and political level.

Mahjoor’s poetry discussed in the thesis deals with pre-partition era. He has written against the foreign invaders to Kashmir from the times of Mughul emperor Akbar to the British implanted Dogra rulers of the 19th century. Not only this, his poetry deals with the loss of Kashmiri culture, literature, values and traditions. On the other hand, Yeats is considered as the nationalist poet of Ireland par excellence. Yeats’ poetry uncovers the poet’s apprehension about Ireland’s occupation under British colonialism from centuries. He expresses his concern for the Irish people, culture, language, natural beauty, traditions, and literature in his poetry. His romantic and modern poetry nonetheless exhibits the characteristics of traditional romantic and modern elements but the incorporation of occult elements, mysticism, folklore and legends related to Irish culture and tradition makes his poetry peculiar.

Mahjoor certainly deviated from his predecessors after introducing the novel themes of paramount importance in his poetry. He retained the tradition of lyric poetry propounded by his predecessors. What deviated Mahjoor from them is the

13 portrayal of sufferings of the common man and his apprehension about the menace of slavery, Kashmiris had undergone through centuries under Mughuls, Afghans, Sikhs, and Dogras. He revolutionized the Kashmiri literature by adding a new life to poetry after abandoning writing in Persian and Urdu languages. Yeats’ yearning for the revitalization of Irish literature and culture makes him a nationalist poet like Mahjoor. Apart from this, both the poets wanted to liberate their nations from the shackles of foreign powers and wished to have their own separate nations free from the menace of colonialism. Yeats has been categorized as revolutionary poet by Edward Said as he believes that his poetry is anti-colonial because it resists the British occupation. While as Seamus Deane believed that Yeats inclusion of occultism in his poetry makes him a revolutionary in a true sense.

Mahjoor has been the best choice for me to compare him with Yeats as there is no other Kashmiri poet who has been the true votary of nationalism, revolution, and brotherhood. Yeats’ poetry has been compared by various scholars from time to time with the poets like Tagore, Shelley, Keats and many others. While as Mahjoor’s poetry has not been compared with any western poet. The thesis is an attempt to study their poetry in order to discuss the deviation of both the poets from the set traditions and to investigate the nationalist and revolutionary movements in Ireland and Kashmir in relation to their poetry. The thesis further attempts to make a comparative study of their poetry to uncover the similarities and dissimilarities.

The thesis is divided into five Chapters excluding Introduction and Conclusion.

Introduction of the thesis attempts to discuss nationalism and revolution in relation to literature, culture, history and politics. Different viewpoints from prominent nationalist and revolutionary theorists, poets, novelists and critics like; Ernest Gellner, Benedict Anderson, Edward Said, Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, Du Bois, Salman Rushdie, Bill Ashcroft, Frantz Fanon and Leon Trotsky are discussed in it. Examples are given both from poetic genre and novel to illustrate how revolutionary and nationalist literature deals with the resurrection of culture, sovereignty and emancipation from domination.

The first chapter of the thesis entitled ‘W.B. Yeats: A Blend of Tradition and Modernity’ starts with the brief introduction about W.B. Yeats. It attempts to discuss Yeats’ incorporation of occult romantic elements and the modern elements in his

14 poetry with its basis in Irish nationalism in the form of Irish legends, folklore, culture, fairies and myths. This blend of occult romanticism deviated Yeats from the traditional English romantic poets like William Wordsworth, S.T. Coleridge and others. This chapter further attempts to uncover the Yeats’ fascination with the mysticism particularly Indian mysticism in his poetry. Yeats’ modern poetry reinstates the themes of Irish folklore and legends as he was conscious about the fact that modern writers rejoice the emancipation from the past.

The second chapter of the thesis entitled ‘G.A. Mahjoor: A Blend of Tradition and Modernity’ starts with the brief introduction about G.A. Mahjoor. It attempts to discuss Mahjoor’s deviation from his predecessor poets so far as the theme and content of his poetry is concerned in relation to Eliot’s concept of “Tradition and Individual Talent”. This chapter also attempts to discuss at length the poet’s incorporation of nationalistic and revolutionary themes in his poetry, that deal with the social, economic and political affairs of Kashmir. Besides this, the chapter also tries to unravel, how Mahjoor’s poetry was a wakeup call for the general masses to rise against oppression and domination.

The third chapter of the thesis entitled ‘Irish Nationalism, Revolution and Yeats’ attempts to unearth the nationalist history of Ireland and Yeats as a nationalist cum revolutionary poet. It discusses the role played by Yeats in the Irish struggle for cultural and political decolonization in relation to his poems “September 1913”, “Easter 1916”, “Michael Robartes Remembers Forgotten Beauty”, “Nineteen Hundred Nineteen”, “Sixteen Men Dead”, “To Ireland in the Coming Times”, “Coole Park and Ballylee”, “The Sad Shepherd”, “The Song of the Sad Shepherd” and “An Irishmen Foresees his Death”. This chapter further attempts to discuss Yeats’ craving to de-anglicize the Irish culture and his apprehension about the political future of Ireland. Yeats’ stand as a nationalist revolutionary poet is discussed alongside the views from different critics and scholars like Edward Said, Seamus Deane and others.

The fourth chapter of the thesis entitled ‘Kashmiri Nationalism, Revolution and Mahjoor’ attempts to discuss the Kashmiri nationalism (Kashmiriyat) and Mahjoor’s role in flourishing it. Kashmiri nationalism encompasses in its fold the age old cultural values, traditions used as an equivalent to nationalism. Mahjoor’s nationalism was not only to resuscitate the cultural values of Kashmir but his poetry

15 incited the people for rebellion/revolution against domination and slavery. Kashmiri nationalism took a new turn after the revolution 1930’s, when the whole valley of Kashmir erupted like a volcano against Dogra regime. This chapter discusses how Mahjoor as a keen observer has vividly highlighted the sentiments and aspirations of the Kashmiri people in his poetry. The poems discussed in this chapter are; “Black Night has ended, And Day has Dawned”, “My Rose Garden Fills with Ecstasy”, “Sherwani’s Message”, “Come, Gardener”, “Eternal Are the Bright Hues and Radiance”, “Freedom” and “O Morning Breeze If You Reach America”.

The fifth chapter of the thesis entitled ‘Yeats and Mahjoor: A Comparison’ attempts to discuss the similarities and dissimilarities in the poetry of both the poets. Further, this chapter attempts to unveil the cultural ethos in their poetry. It further attempts to unearth the nationalist and revolutionary elements both in their romantic and modern poetry. This chapter discusses at length, how both the poets exemplified their nationalistic and revolutionary feelings by using imagery, symbols and the landscape to highlight their identity and essence. It also tries to highlight the revolutionary spirit in their poetry that awakened the people from slumber and inspired them to bring change in the society. The poems discussed in this chapter has been taken from Yeats’ poetic collection; Michael Robartes and the Dancer 1921), The Tower (1928), The Rose (1893), The Wild Swans at Coole (1917), Responsibilities and Other Poems 1916), The Secret Rose (1897) and Crossways (1889). Mahjoor’s poetry discussed in this chapter has been taken from Mahjoor’s poetic collection; Kulliyat-e-Mahjoor (Poetry of Mahjoor) (1984).

16 Works Cited

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18 CHAPTER I

W. B. Yeats: A Blend of Tradition and Modernity

Swear by what the sages spoke Round the Mareotic Lake That the Witch of Atlas Knew, Spoke and set the cocks a-crow (Yeats, Classic 630)

William Butler Yeats, a prominent Irish poet and dramatist of the 20th century was born at George Ville on 13 June in 1865. He was the eldest son to his parents, John Butler Yeats and Susan Pollexfen. His family had some relation with the Middleton family and through them Yeats developed an interest to hear some stories about Ballisodare and Rosses. Yeats’ father even wrote to his son, “We [Yeatses] have ideas and no passions; but by marriage with a Pollexfen we have given a tongue to the sea-cliffs” (Macrae 8).

At the age of eight, Yeats as a child wanted to be a magician after reading Walter Scott’s novel Ivanhoe (1819) and a long narrative poem The Lay of the Last Minstrel (1868). After receiving his formal education under his aunt, Yeats was admitted to a school namely, Godolphin Hammersmith in London. His experience in this school was harsh as “he was made acutely conscious of his Irish nationality” (Chatterjee 5). Yeats was very poor in his studies especially Greek and Latin literature. After attending classes in Metropolitan School of Art in Kildare Street London, he finally realized that his future lies in poetry and not in classics.

Although, Yeats lived most of his life in England after 1968 but he was deeply in love with Ireland. From his early age, he was intensely interested in poetry. He was drawn towards the rich cultural past of Ireland in the form of legends, folklore, myths, occult and Irish past. He once said: “You will find it good thing to make verses on Irish legends and places and so forth. It…one’s verses sincere, and gives one less numerous competitors. Besides one should love best what is nearest and most interwoven with one’s life” (Yeats, The Letters 104). Through Yeats’ poetic corpus, the world got acquainted about the Ireland’s past mythical names like: Deirdre1,

1 Deirdre is known as the tragic figure in Irish mythology.

19 Cachulain2 and many other Irish mythologies. He was highly stimulated by the rich cultural and mythological heritage of Ireland.

During his childhood, he was deeply influenced by his grandfather William Pollexfen, whom Yeats describes as the “silent and fierce old man” (Yeats, Collected 113). The dominant individuality of his grandfather and his remarkable inhibition combined with the intensity of living naturally affected the budding Yeats’ mind. Thus, his grandfather played a key and predominant role in his emotional development. His father too had left an indelible mark on his intellectual development and critical approach. So far as the personality traits of the poet are concerned, they had their genealogy with his father. They both had this opinion that the identity of a person is not simply the person’s complex of unmistakable outside attributes and peculiarities but also contain an accumulation of longings and instincts. He, like his father, had a firm belief that an artist, in order to maintain the integrity of the spirit, must change his scholarly convictions on a daily basis. This alludes to the apprehension of the poet towards the Ireland’s domination under Britishers which unveils his nationalist tendencies. So, Yeats’ development as a poet was not in vacuum but the contribution of his family towards his poetic development is necessary to acknowledge. There are certainly some other elements which made a mark on the life of Yeats as a poet. He has read the works of many great writers of English literature which include Aldous Huxley, Charles Darwin, William Shakespeare, Percy Bysshe Shelley and others. Additionally, he easily took an advantage of his father’s personal library, which introduced him to many other subjects other than English. He says, that his father “never read him a passage because of its speculative interest, and indeed did not care at all for poetry where there was generalization or abstraction; he would read out the first speeches of Prometheus Unbound” (Yeats, Reveries 75). These things definitely nurtured him to be a great Irish poet and dramatist. His meeting with George Russel, a mystic and poet at metropolitan provided him a platform to express his literary richness.

Yeats’ poetry for the first time was published in the year 1885 in the journal, Dublin University Review. It marks the most important phase of his poetic career. In

2 Cachulain is considered as the most important mythological hero in Irish mythology.

20 the same year, he met Ireland’s most important nationalist figure, John O’ Leary3. O’ Leary was himself well versed in Irish subjects, culture and mythology and he wanted Irish people to follow the Irish tradition and past. Yeats’ meeting with O’Leary brought many changes in his poetic career. Prior to his meeting with O’ Leary, the themes of his poetry were more of a romantic than nationalistic one. Later, he wrote many poems on Irish mythology, folklore, ballads and legends.

Yeats became a member of The Rhymers Group4, founded in 1891 and developed very cordial relationship with its members especially Ernest Dowson, Lionel Johnson, and Arthur Symons. He used to call them as ‘The Tragic Generation’. Some members of the group were staunch followers of Walter Pater and Yeats was not an exception. The death of the most towering personality Of Ireland, Charles Stewart Parnell shocked Yeats. He afterwards composed a poem on him called “Mourn-and then Onward”. The year 1892 marked the publication of his prestigious play The Countess Cathleen (1892) and the poetic collection The Rose (1893), which contains mostly melancholic love poems and one of them is The Rose of Battle:

Rose of all Roses, Rose of the entire world! The tall thought-woven sails, that flap unfurled Above the tide of hours, trouble the air, And God's bell buoyed to be the water's care; While hushed from fear, or loud with hope, a band With blown, spray dabbled hair gather at hand… (Yeats, The Rose 7)

Yeats lived through the Victorian and the modern age. In the modern age, a number of changes took place. The industrial and social developments in Europe, besides the political developments changed the structure of the European society. Consequently, certain changes also took place in the literary field as well and Yeats got affected by those changes. Bhabatosh Chatterjee in this regard opines:

All these literary forces were instrumental in changing Yeats’s earlier style to his mature style in poetry. Here Pound exerted the most formidable influence on Yeats, though Pound himself once came to Yeats to learn how to write

3 John O’Leary was a staunch Irish nationalist, politician. He played a great part in 1848 Tipperary Revolt. Yeats has paid a tribute to him in his poem September 1913. 4 Rhymers club was founded by W.B. Yeats and Ernest Rhys in 1890.

21 poetry? Besides, there was a revival of interest in John Donne’s poetry, in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, by which also Yeats was influenced. Donne’s convoluted passion and thought moved Yeats and tried to develop the mechanisms and ways “to control the fury of passion and keep the reader’s intelligence continually alert. (17)

Importantly, Yeats had been influenced by John Donne also. In many of his poems, Yeats followed the tradition of using outdated ‘Similies and Imageries’. Sunil Sarkar says the “intellectual quality of Donne’s poems attracted Yeats, and so we find in his poetry the same far-fetched and incongruous imageries” (43). His collection of romantic poems “The Wild Swans at Coole” was published in the year 1917. He got the most prestigious Nobel Prize award in 1922 and in the same year, he became a senator of the Irish Free State.

Yeats’ most important book of his life on mysticism, A Vision was published in 1925, attributed to Kusta Ben Luka5 ‘a Syrian Philosopher.’ It got him more acclamation and recognition all over the world. He firmly held the belief in the existence of supernatural beings and believed that:

Once every people in the world believed that trees were divine and could take a human or grotesque shape and dance among the shadows; and that deer, and ravens and foxes…They saw in the rainbow the still bent bow of a god thrown down in his negligence; they heard in the thunder the sound of his beaten water-jar, or the tumult of his chariot wheels; and when a sudden flight of wild ducks, or of the crows… (Yeats, Essays 129)

In the year 1928, The Tower was published, which portrays the poet’s creative genius. Some of the poems in The Tower unearth the poet’s “combination of terse, astringent bareness with mythological embroideries” (Chatterjee 21). From the age of 24, Yeats developed a complete familiarity with the women nationalist revolutionary of Ireland, Maud Gonne. As Maud Gonne was already associated with the nationalist movement of Ireland, Yeats too joined the wave and took an active part in the Celtic revival of Ireland. Although, Yeats was deeply in love with her and she seemed to him “a divine race with a complexion “like the bloom of apples” (Jeffares, W.B. Yeats

5 Kusta Ben Luka was a Syrian Christian, who became a source of ideas for Yeats’ poetry.

22 59-60). Yeats’ poetry and prose works published after 1889 are filled with the Ireland’s cultural nostalgia.

In 1915, Yeats in protest declined to accept the British knighthood from the British government for the cause of Ireland’s freedom struggle. His interest in Irish tradition and mythology had its purpose as he was anxious to create a new and different ‘Poetic Tradition’. Yeats revised his mystical work A Vision in 1937 and published it in the same year. In the year 1938, he met Maud Gonne for the last time and ultimately left this mortal world on 18th January 1939. The last two works of his literary career are Purgatory (1938) and The Death of Cachulain (1939). It is fascinating to know that the poet has chosen his epitaph from his poem “Under Ben Bulben”:

Cast a cold Eye On life, on Death. Horseman, pass by! ... (Yeats, Classic 630)

Yeats is considered as the one of the late romantics. The poet can be branded as a romantic poet as his early poetry is filled with romantic subject matter and style. The conventions and themes followed by the romantic poets echo in his early poetry as well. They are; nature, longing, nostalgia and love. Yeats’ prominent romantic poems include; “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”, “The song of Wandering Aengus”, “The Stolen Child”, “The Wind among the Reeds” and others. The earlier poems of his poetic career are pregnant with the images of natural world filled with utopian outlook, which was different from the natural world depicted by William Wordsworth and P.B. Shelley. His romantic world includes the world of fairies and many supernatural beings as well. The utopian element in his earlier poetry is replete with nostalgic sympathies and his mental oscillations.

Yeats denounced the Victorian standards and Arnold’s view that poetry is the “criticism of life”, which manifests that poetry presents the true picture of life. But Yeats emphasized that the function of poetry is to uncover the inner feelings and personal experiences of a poet and believed that “Great poetry does not teach us anything” (Archibald and Donell 115). It can be said that Yeats considered the work of art as a kind of revelation from the poet, which simultaneously unravels his stance of personal worldview. These things made Yeats to devise his subjective approach to

23 aesthetics and to clear the ground about the poet’s role in a society. This ultimately leads to the affiliation between the ‘existence of being’ and a work of art. The moral standards and the ethical values propounded by the Victorian giants had no place in Yeats’ works. It signifies that Yeats had no taste for such type of didacticism. For him, it robs an artist from real natural essence and distorts the value of an art. The poet at the same time also criticized the Victorian particular poetic diction and their oratory. He expresses his discernment against the Victorian standards on the ground that the work of art can never be romantic because the society is based on utilitarian and empirical grounds. This led to the result of religious quandary in him which stimulated him to criticize different novelists and physicists: …Huxley and Tyndall, whom I detested, of the simple-minded religion of my childhood, I have made a new religion, almost an infallible church of poetic tradition, of a fardel of stories, and of personages, and of emotions, inseparable from the first expression, passed on from generation to generation by poets and painters with some help from philosophers and theologians. (115)

Richard Fallis echoes Yeats’ detestation against Victorian values in these words:

By attempting to speak to their age and class, most of the Victorian poets had simply compounded the imaginative crisis in which they found themselves. The demands of their audience, coupled with their own fears of the implications of visionary Romanticism, had led many of the Victorians to the creation of a "popular poetry," dissociated, artificial, and dishonest in its perceptions and expressions. (92)

Yeats’ denouncement of rationality has its inclination towards Frederick Nietzsche and his book Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883), considered as the most important book of the 19th century with anti-rational approach. It doesn’t mean that Yeats was altogether against rational approach but Yeats like Nietzsche, he was well acquainted with the role of irrational on rational in the western society. This is substantiated by Nietzsche in his famous book The Will to Power (1901) in which he says; “Our most sacred convictions, the unchanging elements in our supreme value, are judgments of our muscles” (qtd. in Bohlmann 63). Similar sentiment is echoed in Yeats’ poem “A Prayer for old age”:

24 God guard me from those thoughts men think In the minds alone; He that sings a lasting song Thinks in a marrow- bone… (Yeats, Collected 326) This merriment of physical experience is also seen in his poem “The Phases of the Moon”: …His body moulded from within his body Grows comelier. Eleven pass and then Athenae takes Achilles by the hair, Hector is in the dust, Nietzsche is born… (Yeats, Collected 185)

Yeats later found many such ideas in Blake as well and in this regard Otto Bohlmann in his book Yeats and Nietzsche (1982) states:

Yeats’ denigration of ‘reason’ had long been brewing, growing up as he did with his father’s distrust of the questioning intellect, and later absorbing the anti-rational ideas of Blake, Swift, Berkeley, Shelley and others. Nietzsche's vehemence fanned to a still more savage blaze the embers of passion which bum to the very end in the later Yeats, the Yeats we find longing for 'an old man's frenzy. (64)

Yeats’ inclination towards Nietzsche’s concept of Apollonian and Dionysian binaries cemented his own concept of life. This concept became the foundation for him to articulate the principles of human character. This is propagated by his own personal view by saying; “I have always felt that the soul has two movements primarily: one to transcend forms, and the other to create forms. Nietzsche, to whom you have been the first to introduce me….” (Yeats, The Letters 403).

Yeats like Blake felt that that the person has an “intellect as a happy thoughtless person” (Archibald and Donell 351). It is not only Blake but Nietzsche also considered the, “Superman as a child” (Pasley 178). The main motive of Yeats, Nietzsche and Blake was to contradict and oppose the empirical philosophy of the 18th and 19th century. So, the attack was on the emotionless and totally logical philosophy of life. It can never be claimed that Nietzsche or Yeats categorically debunk a

25 person’s knowledge or intellect like Tabula Rasa6. The main focus was to suggest the newness of a child in the world, where the emotions and intellect can become the normal expressions of his character.

Yeats’ hatred against Victorian standard is found in the poems like “The Two Trees” and “The song of the Happy Shepherd”. Some verses from the poem “The Song of the Happy Shepherd” are:

The woods of Arcady are dead, And over is their antique joy; Of old the world on dreaming fed; Grey Truth is now her painted toy. Yet still she turns her restless head: But O, sick children of the world... (Yeats, Crossways 2)

The poet again and again shows concern about the diminishing beauty and youth in Victorian mechanistic atmosphere. For Yeats, life is meaningless and devoid of any peace at all and the ultimate way to escape from these irritating, mundane things is the aesthetic refuge. This continuous conflict in Yeats gave rise to his early poetry, which makes him different from the other romantic poets. ‘Longing’ is the main feature found in his early romantic poetry. This ingredient is found in the poems like “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”, which uncovers his nostalgic feelings with his motherland. This poem along with “Byzantium” is considered as the poem with escapist tendency. Besides unravelling the nostalgic feelings of the poet, the poem also exposes the spirit of poet’s love for his country. The poet’s heart is throbbed for the place called Sligo in Northern Ireland. Yeats’ memories of Sligo also surface in his Poem, “The Wanderings of Oisin” published in the year 1889. In this epic poem, Yeats also touches the legendary Oisin7 and St. Patrick8:

S. Patrick. You who are bent, and bald, and blind. With a heavy heart and a wandering mind, Have known three centuries, poets sing,

6 It is a Latin phrase, which in English means ‘Blank Slate’ popularized by philosopher John Locke. It is an epistemological idea which affirms that all individuals are born without any mental content and all knowledge is because of the worldly experience and perception. 7 In Irish mythology, Oisin is considered as the great poet and a legend. 8 Also known as “Apostle of Ireland”. He is considered as the first and great Saint of Ireland.

26 Of dalliance with a demon thing… (Yeats, The Wanderings 7)

However, Yeats doesn’t consider romanticism just a movement suitable to a particular era or period but he considers it as the time, which transcends from one school to another school of poets. He associates it with the ancient poets and philosophers like Sophocles and Dante Alighieri and considered the English romantic poets like Wordsworth, Coleridge, Blake and Shelley as their admirers. The romantic elements in his poetry like melancholy, longing and nature are found at large but he perceived romanticism as totally sensual and believed that logic and realism are antipodal to it. It means that the great romantic poets were not mere romantics with the prime focus on ‘Imagination’ but they had the inclination towards the supernatural magical elements and Neo-Platonism. Thus, the romantic poems like Kubla Khan (1816), Christabel (1816) and The Rime of Ancient Mariner (1798) are mystical in nature and uncover the picture of visionary romanticism. They were not the simple ballads for Yeats but “they possessed the mystical, dreamlike qualities…now as the flower of an idealist Romanticism, articulating an incarnatory view of nature” (Gibson 24).

So, it can be claimed that Yeats was not the romantic in the traditional way as other romantic poets. His critical thinking underwent a drastic change from time to time and same was the case with his insight of romanticism. It was because of the poet’s passion with the Irish nationalism. Yeats moved with the changing wave and introduced the novel techniques in his poetry. What Yeats tried to justify is that the romantic poets in one way or the other have the inclination towards the past memory. It can be said that Yeats wanted to be the part of the romantic tradition but at the same time deviated from it by amalgamating the conventional romantic themes with the Irish myths and past. Therefore, Yeats can’t be considered as the romantic poet like other English romantic poets. Besides embracing the conventional romantic stance, he deviates from them slightly by implanting themes related to Irish past. Additionally, Yeats found in Shelley’ poetry symbols associated with magic and mysticism. These things made Yeats’ romantic impulse complex. In this regard, Mathew Gibson argues:

…at all points in his life- so perplexing and contradictory for us now is that he read Coleridge, Shelley and Wordsworth totally differently to how modern

27 readers would do so. For Yeats, the best Romantics-Shelley, Blake, Keats and Coleridge-were all writers who believed, to varying degrees, in magic and a neo-platonic universe, and whose purity of verse depended upon this belief. Aestheticism and Symbolism were, not, as they were for T. S. Eliot and Hugh Kenner, prefatory pages in the large book of Modernism, but were in fact reprisals of an earlier Romantic purity, a purity that for Yeats involved the mystical and the occult. (16)

It can also be argued that Yeats to a large extent was influenced by Coleridge and interprets his poetry for his own occult philosophy. There is no doubt that Coleridge was a symbolist poet, sometimes an aesthete and a precursor of dream poetry. Yeats took advantage of Coleridge’s gothic poetry by interpreting it in his own way. He was aware of the fact that Coleridge has no interest in any occult ideas. Inspite of these things, Yeats was in search of occultism and magic in his romantic poetry. Thus, symbols and mysticism are part and parcel of Yeats’ poetry and occupy an important place in his poetic oeuvre. In order to establish a contact with the eternal, Yeats was yearning for a system which was abstruse in nature. Harold Bloom also says that “Mysticism”, “here, and throughout Yeats on Blake, seems to mean occultism and more precisely theosophy, of Madame Blatavatsky’s9 variety” (70). He firmly asserted that symbols are essential to poetry and without it, there can be no poetry. But he deviates from Blake, who believed that symbols are the direct means which directs a man to come closer to the universality of God. For Yeats, symbols and symbolism is a “hand pointing the way into some divine labyrinth” (Finneran and Bornstein, The Collected 89).

Yeats had a firm belief that the use of symbols in poetry allows a poet to give life and meaning to lifeless things that have been neglected absolutely. Frank Kermode in his book Romantic Image (1957) also states that “in Yeats’ ideas, the doctrine of symbol was a natural continuation from Blake to Mallarme showing that many Fin-de-siècle10 trends were infact deviations of Romanticism” (65). Not only this, he was quite confident that the symbols have the power to change the whole spectrum of literature of any genre. In his essay ‘Art and Ideas’, he stressed that;

9 She was an Occultist and a Philosopher from Russia. She is also credited to have co-founded the Theosophical society in 1875. 10 Actually a French term which in English means ‘turn of the century’.

28 “When I began to write, I sought some symbolic language reaching far into the past and associated with the familiar names and conspicuous hills that I might not be alone amid the obscure impression of senses” (Yeats, Essays 349). The use of symbolism further instigated Yeats to criticize the realists as the poet believed that they do not explore their vision and imagination. It was totally strange thing to him, where imaginative power was reduced to nothing and realism and rationality was given high place by dramatists or poets. Symbolism and aesthetic tendencies in poetry for Yeats were not the preliminary things to modernism: but also occupy the romantic, magical and occult11 propensities. In this context, Edward Larrissy says that “that woman there is Juno…All Art that is not mere story-telling, or mere portraiture, is symbolic, and has the purpose of those symbolic talismans which mediaeval (sic) magicians made with complex colours and forms, a part of the divine essence…” (356).

The poet was critical to poets like Lord Byron and Charles Swineburne as he “valued the high vitality and vivid experience, the impulses, doings and sufferings of great artists like Tolstoi (sic), Shakespeare and Dante” (qtd. in Chatterjee 12). Apart from being a symbolic poet, he had a keen interest in occultism mysticism. His influential poems like “Byzantium”, “Lapis Lazuli”, “The Tower” and others are his symbolic poems filled with mysticism. C. M. Bowra in this regard says that:

Yeats in his symbolism combined a mood of other worldliness derived from Celtic legends with an external descriptive manner that recalls William Morris, and to a less extent Keats. Through his friend Arthur Symons, Yeats met Mallarme and through Symons translations came to know something of symbolism and its aims. To Symons, the propagandist of symbolism in England. Yeats was the chief representative of that movement in our country. (184)

It is very interesting to know that Yeats was moved by some eminent Indian personalities of his time. His meeting with the eminent Brahmin from Bengal namely Mohini Chatterji had attracted him further towards mysticism. He later wrote a poem on Chatterjee called “Mohini Chatterjee”, which conveys his impact on Yeats’ personality:

11 Something that is related to magical practices and supernatural powers.

29 I asked if I should pray. But the Brahmin said, ‘Pray for nothing, say Every night in bed… (Yeats, The Winding 18)

Similarly, the first Indian Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore and Purohit Swami12, an Indian religious Guru stimulated his interest more and more towards mystical and spiritual goals. His love for the Upanishads13 grew so strong after his encounter with Purohit Swami that he initiated to translate some parts of this holy book in companion with Swami. Later, he expressed his thoughts about Upanishads in his famous poem “A Prayer for my son”:

The servants of your enemy, A woman and a man, Unless the Holy writings lie, Hurried through the smooth and rough And through the fertile and waste, Protecting, till the danger past… (Yeats, The Collected 180)

Not only these poems, Yeats composed some poems related to Indian mystic philosophy and spiritual enquiry like; “The Indian to his love”, “The Indian upon God” and “Anashuya and Vijaya”. The poet had too much interest in those things which were spiritual and mystic in nature. He had himself confessed of his being interested in the complicated things in life which are very difficult or rather impossible to explore in one’s life in his poem, “The Fascination of what’s Difficult”:

The fascination of what’s difficult Has dried the sap out of my veins, and rent Spontaneous joy and natural content Out of my heart. There’s something ails our colt… (Yeats, Responsibilities 99)

For Yeats, myth:

12 Swami Purohit is an Indian monk who is known for his book The Autobiography of an Indian Monk: His Life and His Adventures (1932) along with William Butler Yeats. 13 Upanishads are the sacred Sanskrit religious text books of Hindu religion.

30 Expresses the penetration of the natural by the supernatural, what composes the supernatural modulating from a spirit world beyond time and space in his early poetry, to a Neo-Platonic realm of ideas generating human passage through time and space in his middle poetry, to the power of will and desire to assert themselves in the face of mortality in the poetry of his final years. As Yeats's sense of the supernatural changes, so does the notion of the mythic. In his early poetry, the world of Niamh, Oisin, Queen Maeve, Fergus, and the Sidhe competes with and nearly out-lures the world of time and space... (Sailer 54)

His attraction towards symbolism and symbolic movement was through Arthur Symons. Among all his poems, A Vision is considered as the most prominent of all, which undoubtedly provides us with the pronouncement of Yeats’ complex aesthetic convictions. The emblematic idea found in it is the aftereffect of a progressive development in aesthetics, refined by him. Fascinated by the past of Ireland, Yeats made it his own choice to make it a subject matter in most of his poems. He believed that poetry provides us the ultimate opportunity to reveal the person’s hidden reality and it is only through poetry that one can communicate with immortal. For instance, A Vision:

Was a mythopoeic synthesis, fulfillment of Yeats’s quest for universal images and metaphors, an amalgam of various meanings and functions of myth? A study of Yeats’s idea of myth branches out a scrutiny of different conceptions of myth and how they were individualized and reborn in a synthetic form in his poetry, helping him to integrate the variegated experience of life. (Sinha 11)

His poetry is rooted both in past and present. This blend of past and present in his poetry is not ex nihilo but because of the poet’s imaginative power. Yeats upholds the belief that episodes and observations have a meaning in reality when they pass through the poet’s imagination. He believed in the contact with the common people and highly condemned those realists “who mistake the circumference for the centre, the edge for the tumultuous whirlpool that is life itself” (Chatterjee 26). For Yeats, literature cannot be produced only in meditations but it is necessary to assimilate and relive the past as a raw material for the modern poet to produce a work of art. Like

31 Carl Jung’s concept of the ‘primordial images’ which does not belong to the particular individual but had its connection with the past or inherited from the ancestors. Likewise, he too believed “our memories are a part of one great memory, the memory of Nature herself” (Sinha, W.B. Yeats 34). Yeats gives new meaning to the old Irish legends after following the tradition of his ancestors. Yeats’ real personality is exposed through the old Irish mythical figures of Cachulain and Oisin in his poetry. The poet through these images links his own experience of life. Yeats’ hesitation to imbibe Victorian way is summed up in the introduction of his book The Oxford Book of Modern Verse (1936):

The revolt against Victorianism meant to the young poet a revolt against the irrelevant descriptions of nature, the scientific and moral discursiveness of In Memoriam…the political eloquence of Swineburne, the psychological curiosity of Browning and the poetic diction of everybody. (9)

After the publication of Responsibilities and other Poems in 1914, the candid quality of his poetry was slightly different from earlier ones. One of the reasons for his shift from romantic to modern mode of poetry was his contact with Ezra Pound. He was impressed by Pound’s emphasis on the economy of language, accuracy and concreteness. He felt the urge to make some necessary changes in the style of writing poetry. In 1912, he had noted in his diary, “Not to find one’s art by the analysis of language or amid the… and to express the emotions that find one thus in simple rhythmical language. The words should be the swift natural words that suggest the circumstances out of which they arose” (qtd. in Chatterjee 17).

The death of one of his close associates, Charles Parnell14, the political instability in Ireland and the incident of 1913 nurtured him to be the most representative modern poet of Ireland. As has already been mentioned that Yeats’ early poetry was more of a romantic and nostalgic one confined to legends, folklore, Sligo, longing etc. But, it cannot be categorically claimed that he completely rejected romanticism and embraced modernism altogether. He inculcated the literary traits of both ‘isms’ in his poetry. It would be wrong to say that Yeats was a great modern poet like T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound but his shift from the world of melancholy to the modern world links him with the modern poets to some extent. There certainly was a

14 Parnell was the Irish politician and a nationalist.

32 change in language, style and in theme as well. Further, he stressed on the subjectivity in his poetry. Simultaneously, his later poetry demonstrates obscurity, triviality and incomprehensibility as well. After spending his time in England, he came to know the difference between the ‘real’ and the ‘artificial’. He found that the English society has been engulfed by the materialism and materialistic values. Like the American writer and critic Edgar Allen Poe, Yeats was of the view that poetry should be like a dream and the revelation of life. He means to say that there should be equivalence between the world of poetry and the dream per se. This concept is echoed in his poem “Under Ben Bulben”:

Quattrocento put in paint, On backgrounds for a God or Saint, Gardens where a soul's at ease; Where everything that meets the eye Flowers and grass and cloudless sky Resemble forms that are, or seem…(Yeats, The Collected 303)

Yeats certainly developed the language and wealth of meaning according to the modern context but the tinge of romanticism mixed with ‘Irishness’ was still there in his poetry. For instance; “Consider the image of the ‘Golden bough’ in “Sailing to Byzantium. The legend of a “voyage to Hades is nowhere alluded to; the thematic background is entirely different; and yet the old associations conveyed by the image are telescoped with the new and enlarge the meaning” (Chatterjee 29). It is through the amalgamation of past and the present that Yeats’ poetry achieved its greatness. At the same time, the changes and the shifts in expression, tone, conflict in dream and action played a key role. In the later part of his poetic career, he stressed more on the emotional effect of poetry, which was something novel in him as compared to his early poetry. He strived more and more to expand his poetic field, in which past and present and ‘association of sensibility’ are entwined together. Additionally, the changing dynamics in the literary field in the 20th century forced Yeats to adopt the more modernist style and form.

Yeats’ transition from one phase of poetry to another was evolutionary. However, his later poetry was direct, precise and intense unlike escapist and vague.

33 The example of Yeats’s precision and intensity can be seen in the poem “The song of the Old Mother”:

I rise in the dawn, and I kneel and blow Till the seed of the fire flicker and glow; And then I must scrub and bake and sweep Till star are beginning to blink and peep… (Yeats, The wind 17)

The poet stressed more on style but at the same time was worried about the ‘world of imagination’ as before. Even the poet had to face criticism on his way of writing poetry. John Enlington attacked him by arguing; “he looks too much away from himself and from his age, does not feel the facts of life enough, but seeks in art an escape from them” (qtd. in Jeffares 125). But Yeats couldn’t abandon the romantic niceties altogether. It remained with him in the modern era as well. He incorporated environmental niceties and modern imagery into his later poetry, thus inter-mingling both the facets. The Poem “Vacillation” provides a better example of this:

My fiftieth year had come and gone, I sat, a solitary man, In a crowded London shop, An open book and empty cup… (Yeats, The Winding 20)

Two things which are often seen in his later poetry are the obsession with the old age and the greater concern for the bleak future of humanity. The poet wants to escape from the situation of the modern world and go back to the past. He likened the situation of Ireland with the situation of the whole world and the “contemporary phase is seen as part of the revolving cycles of history” (Chatterjee 100). The poet means to say that to escape from the abyss of the world, the only way forward is to re-visit the past. This image of the rotten and ailing civilization is pictured from the verses in the poem “The Second Coming”. The poet fears that some catastrophe and disaster is going to happen in the future:

Turning and turning in the widening gyre The falcon cannot hear the falconer;… Surely some revelation is at hand; Surely the Second Coming is at hand.

34 The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi… (Yeats, Michael 10)

Thus, Yeats stands between the Victorian and the Modern age which indicates the influence of both the eras on him in one way or the other. However, he can neither be considered as a full-fledged romantic nor a complete modern poet. He considers his literary evolution from Dante and the romantic poets like Blake and Shelley. Several other factors responsible for his entrance to modernism are the changing political situation of Ireland. In addition to this, the influence of Nietzsche on him can’t be ignored. His writings infused in him an urge to write in a more modernist way. After embracing modernist principles, his later poetry deviated from his earlier one in tone, style and technique. The effect of the Second World War (1939-45) had left the literary society in shatters and forced the writers to abandon the traditional way of writing and adopt a mode of writing which would depict the catastrophe, pain and trauma. Yeats too adhered to the modernistic principles and reacted to the absolute truths. The changing socio-political atmosphere has compelled the writers to take up such issues in their writings, which would reflect the harsh realities of life. In this way, Yeats changed his diction, language and style in his poetry but didn’t succeed as a successful modern poet as expected. What is more interesting is that Yeats didn’t whole heartedly imbibe all the modus operandi of modernism as followed by T.S. Eliot or other modern poets. Although, there was a change in style and language in Yeats’ poetry but the other modern elements found in Eliot’s poetry are not found in his poetry. Distraction from imagination would have forced the poet to keep away from mingling with the modern trends. He distances himself partially from the modernists and continued his affiliation with the romantic trends as earlier. In this way, he separates himself from Eliot, who held the view that the critics job is to elucidate a literary piece. While as Yeats believed that critic must be the exponent of nationalist susceptibility. Yeats in his essay “Modern Poetry” expresses his reservation against the Eliot’s mode of modernist writing in these words:

In the third year of the war came the most revolutionary man in poetry during my life time, though his revolution was stylistic one-T.S. Eliot published his first book. No romantic word or sound, nothing reminiscent, nothing in the least like the painting of Ricketts could be permitted henceforth. Poetry must resemble prose, and both must resemble the prose of their time; nor there any

35 special subject-matter. Tristram and Iseult were not a more suitable theme than Paddington Railway station. (Essays and Introductions 499)

It exposes the Yeats’ fascination towards romanticism. Like other romanticists, he embraced the subjective approach to life and deemed the person’s day to day life as an apt material for a work of art. This was not the case with the modern philosophy of life as they believed in objectivity and emotional life of a person. He considered romanticism as an anti-thesis to modernism. For Yeats, idealism and modernism can’t go hand in hand and must be separated from each other. In the same way, he shared his abhorrence against the realistic approach to life as well because Yeats felt that realism uproots the spirit of spirituality.

However, Yeats has been highly influenced by Ezra Pound but they are not on the same page regarding their views on romanticism. Not only Ezra Pound, Lady Gregory has played a decisive role in Yeats’ career and he expressed his gratitude in these words; “I cannot realize the world without her. She has been to me mother, friend, sister and brother. She brought to my wavering mind steadfast nobility-all day the thought of losing her is a conflagration in the rafters. Friendship is the entire house I have” (Jeffares, A Commentary 109).

Yeats highlighted the intricacies of the modern world but remained highly sticked to mystic and occult romanticism. Ezra Pound on the other hand was a staunch modernist poet and believed that “poetry should be written at least as well as prose will have as wide a result” (115). Yeats in no way was ready to embrace the supremacy of English over the native Irish culture, literature and tradition. Thus, Yeats romanticized Ireland, its traditions, legends, folklore and castigated the modernity and considered it as a corruption. To react to the wave of modernism, he pictured the rural beauty of Ireland and considered Ireland as the victim of modernity. It can be argued that Yeats adopted his poetry as a tool to counter the hegemony of the modern civilization and tried to reinstate the Irish myths and civilization. For Yeats:

Modernism, with its Bergsonian philosophy of ‘flux’, was simply another form of realism and a movement away from of realism and a movement away from both the life of the spirit and the expression of personality. Furthermore, Yeats increasingly identified heroic subject matter with imaginative

36 endeavour, and delighted in the notion of the hero as Romantic quester… Yeats’ values remained self-consciously those of Romanticism. (Gibson 15)

Thus, it can be argued that Yeats did not embrace modernism on a complete basis. But there was an amalgamation of both romanticism and modernism in his poetry. If the romantic tendencies are found in his early poems like; “The Lake Isle of Innisfree”, “The Wild Swans at Coole” and many others. This outlook is also found in his later poems like “Lapis Lazuli”, “Adams Curse” and others. It manifests Yeats’ assimilation of romantic tradition and the inculcation of new themes in his poetry. The assimilation of some modern techniques was because of the changing socio-political scenario of Ireland and whole Europe. Additionally, Yeats’ affiliation with modern legends like Ezra Pound too became an important reason to enter the modern literary club. What is more fascinating is the retainment of romantic elements in his modern poetry. It actually was the poet’s psyche, which moulded him more and more towards the uniqueness of Ireland in the form of natural beauty, love, folklore, legends and culture. These things enamoured Yeats to emphasize ‘Imagination’ in concoction with the past history and culture. Yeats like cultural critics believed that “culture is a process, not a product” (Tyson 296). In the same way, he wanted to resuscitate the past and show its evolution and then mix it with the world of imagination. This makes it more obvious that Yeats chastised the ‘rational’ as propounded in the Victorian era.

His attraction with Ireland has taken its roots from the very beginning. With the advancement of Science and Technology in the Victorian era, the poet considered that the reason corrupts the man’s innate capacity to think. Similarly, the confusion of the modern age irritated the poet and in order to escape from the anarchy ridden society, he went back to the romanticism. Undoubtedly, he adopted some modern techniques and modern style of writing, but to abandon the romantic elements in modern poetry seemed too difficult for him. In this context, Mathew Gibson writes:

There is no doubt that Yeats saw himself as a Romantic poet, particularly by the end of his life, when he retrospectively reasserted his Romanticism as a heroic stance in the face of the ‘filthy modern tide’ of both class materialism and the flux of modernism, and interpreted his own poetic career as an attempt to reestablish its values. (14)

37 It indicates that Yeats was not a staunch follower of any movement or style. He changed his stance from time to time according to the changing circumstances. Richard Ellmann15 also remarks that “No pattern sufficed him for long” since he found each “too forcible an arrest of the changing world. Therefore, in the light of the new experience every formulation had to be destroyed and a new one attempted” (186). Dissatisfied with the modern brouhaha and fragmentation in the society, the poet deemed it necessary to revisit the ancient heritage. However, prior to the development of the modern sensibilities, his mode of writing poetry was different from the modern giants like Ezra Pound and T.S.Eliot. But they shared the same opinion about the perpetuity of the soul. They firmly held the view that history of man reflects the picture of his soul and at the same time interpreted the modern tirade in their own ways. In their poetry, they predicted the coming of disaster and apocalypse in their own ways. This is presented by Eliot’s poem “The Wasteland” (1922) and Yeats’s poem “The Second Coming” (1919). There is a difference in envisioning the forthcoming of apocalypse in these poems. Eliot expresses his fear in these verses:

Unreal City, Under the brown fog of a winter dawn, A crowd flowed over London Bridge, so many, I had not thought death had undone so many… (Eliot 167-69)

Yeats too predicted the disintegration of society, but it makes him different from Eliot, while expressing the discernment against modern life and society:

…Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world, The blood-dimmed tide is loosed, and everywhere The ceremony of innocence is drowned;… (Yeats, Micheal 10)

There is a varying difference between Yeats and Eliot in showcasing the fragmentation and disintegration in modern society. Eliot held the view that the man’s loss in faith and spiritual rejection are the reasons for the destruction in the society. While as Yeats had a different view from Eliot. He holds the man’s unavoidability against the difficult historical rotation responsible for the chaos. The question remains, whether Yeats was more aligned towards romanticism or modernism. It

15 American writer and a biographer of W.B. Yeats and James Joyce.

38 seems that he was more associated towards romanticism than modernism. He saw himself “very much as a romantic poet…results from his continual obsession with magic and mysticism, makes him labeling as a romantic unsatisfactory” (Gibson 15). A sort of magical romanticism is found in Yeats’ poetry written after 1930’s. It manifests the poet’s bond with the romanticism, wisdom and sensation simultaneously. Mathew Gibson argues:

Yeats in 1930’s saw in Coleridge’s, Shelley’s and Wordsworth’s work, for the first time, a Berkeleian immaterialism (aligned with Zed Buddhism) underpinning their magical leanings as he recast Romanticism. This also explains why Coleridge’s and Shelley’s poetry reemerges in Yeats’s poetry of the thirties. In poems like ‘Blood and the Moon’ and ‘Coole Park and Ballylee 1931’ and ‘Vacillation’, echoes from ‘Kubla Khan’, ‘Prometheus Unbound’, The Rime of Ancient Mariner’ and ‘Christabel’ are all manifest, and express, whether the Shellyan tower or Swan, or with the gushing water and magic forests of ‘Kubla Khan’ and ‘Christabel’, the belief in an incarnatory Romanticism:’ Wisdom, magic sensation. (19)

It can be claimed that Yeats was hostile to the modernist interpretation of past. It would have been against his views on romanticism to disregard the past history. He was conscious about the fact that the modern writers rejoice the emancipation from the past. It was the biggest challenge for him to stick with romanticism completely and at the same time be a modern poet.

His poetry provides clear cut evidence that he tried to fuse both romantic and modern elements in his poetry. He cannot be regarded as a modern writer in the same way as Pound or Eliot because it would have been impossible for the poet to walk away from the world of imagination. In this context, Daniel Albright in “Yeats and Modernism” remarks; “Yeats fights modernism… But this paradox is itself typical, for the modernist often travels a road as far as it will go, only to wind up in some exactly opposite place” (76).

It would be unfair to study Yeats merely as a simple mystic, symbolic, romantic or a modern poet. In order to keep the Irish identity alive and eternal, he retained the subject matter of nationalism in his poetry. This anxiety is seen both in his romantic as well as modern poems. Inspite of this, Yeats has written many of his

39 poems which deal with the political situation of Ireland. Unquestionably, the mystic and symbolic elements in his poetry are rampant, but at the same time nationalistic and revolutionary themes are also found in his poetic and prose works. Besides being highly motivated by Irish nationalists, there were many other political figures and poets responsible for his development as poet. In this context, Yeats said has himself confessed; “In my savage youth, I was accustomed to say that no man should be permitted to open his mouth until he had sung or written his ‘Utopia’… that artists of all kinds should once again praise or represent great or happy people” (Yeats, The Letters 104). Yeats’ involvement in the Irish politics forced him to write poems like “Meditations in Time of civil war”, “Nineteen Hundred Nineteen” and “The Second Coming”, where the vehemently takes sides for Ireland’s emancipation from colonial domination.

In conclusion, it is plausible to say that his early poetry is romantic but nationalistic at the same time. He unveils himself as an escapist poet and the longing for his homeland certainly lands him among the nationalist revolutionary poets. He continued to introduce romantic themes with the tinge of Irish uniqueness in his modern poetry. The veiled reference to Irelands mythical past in his poetry catechizes the boundaries of modern age and domination. After witnessing the turbulent political situation in Ireland, he took up the political themes in his poetry directly:

… Out of Ireland have we come. Great hatred, little room, Maimed us at the start. I carry from my mother’s womb… (Yeats, The Collected 216)

It was an uphill task for Yeats to endorse one movement after another. He ingrained both romantic and modern elements in his poetry. Thus, he was not the full fledged member or adherent of any school of thought. Marjorie Howes and John Kelly in The Cambridge Companion to W.B. Yeats (2006) say that, “his thoughts were profoundly dialectical, for nearly every truth he made or found he also embraced a counter-truth, a proposition that contradicted the first truth, was equally true, and did not negate it” (Howes and Kelly 1). One thing which is common in his romantic and modern poetry is his passion for the motherland.

40 Works Cited

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Marjorie Howes and John Kelly. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print.

Archibald, Doughlas N., and William H.O’ Donell, eds. The Collected Works of W.B. Yeats. Vol. 3. New York: Scribner, 2007. Print.

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Bowra, C. M. The Heritage of Symbolism. London: Macmillan, 1947. Print.

Chatterjee, Bhabatosh. The Poetry of W.B. Yeats. Calcutta: Orient Longmans Limited, 1962. Print.

Eliot, T. S. The Wasteland. ed. Michael North. Los Angeles: University of California, 2000. Print.

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Fallis, Richard. “Yeats and the Reinterpretation of Victorian Poetry.” Victorian Poetry 14. 2 (1976): 89–100. JSTOR. Web. 24 November 2018.

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Gibson, Mathew. “Magical Romanticism: Yeats’s absorption of Romantic writers into Fin-de-Siecle Movements” Plenary Session. University of Leicester. Web. 15 September 2018. <. http://ler.letras.up.pt/uploads/ficheiros/5476.pdf>

Howes, Marjorie, and John Kelly, eds. The Cambridge Companion to W.B. Yeats. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006. Print.

Jeffares, A. Norman, ed. A Commentary on the Collected Poems of W B Yeats. London: Palgrave MacMillan, 1968. Print.

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Kermode, Frank. Romantic Image. London: Routledge and Paul, 1957. Print.

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Pasley, Malcolm, ed. Nietzsche: Imagery and Thought: A Collection of Essays. London: Routledge, 1978. Print.

Pound, Ezra. “Mr. Hueffer and the Prose Tradition in Verse.” Poetry 4.3 (1914): 111–120. JSTOR. Web. 26 November 2018.

Sailer, Susan Shaw. “Time against Time: Myth in the Poetry of Yeats and Heaney.” The Canadian Journal of Irish Studies 17.2 (1991): 54–63. JSTOR. Web. 24 November 2018.

Sarkar, Sunil Kumar. W. B. Yeats, Poetry and Plays. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors, 2002. Print.

Sinha, Manas. In the Context of Irish Nationalism: W. B. Yeats’s poetry and its influence upon the poetry of Jibanananda Das. 2014. Assam University, Ph.D Dissertation. Web. 23 October 2018. < https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/96296>

Sinha, M.P. W.B. Yeats, His Poetry and Politics. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 2003. Print.

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43 CHAPTER II

G. A. Mahjoor: A Blend of Tradition and Modernity

In the agony of separation, I visited faqirs, Tied votive rags in various shrines, Sought him on dark nights in the pir’s abode Plant my heart in a flower vase (Mahjoor, The Best 27)

Peerzada Ghulam Ahmad popularly known by nom de plume Mahjoor in Kashmir and elsewhere, is considered as the quintessential poet of Kashmir. He was born on 11th August, 1887 at Metrigam Pulwama in South Kashmir, India. From his childhood, he was highly attracted towards poetry. A local poet namely Abdul Gani Ashiq “incidentally discovered his precocious talent when the young pupil helped him to fashion a stanza in his poem accurately” (Mahjoor, Ghulam 16). After receiving his early education at the local school known as Anjum Nusrat-ul-Islam in Srinagar, Mahjoor left for Amritsar in 1905. In Amritsar, Mahjoor was fortunate to meet the two great Urdu poets of that period namely Bismil Amritsari and Shibli Noamani. These two poets left a lasting impression on the development of Mahjoor as a poet. During his stay in Amritsar, he got an opportunity to show his talent in a Mushaira (Poetic Symposium) presided by the prominent Urdu poet Aafat Ludhianavi. In the symposium, he recited an Urdu Ghazal (Lyric), which is considered as a first Ghazal (Lyric) of his life:

Robbers choose to hide themselves in desolate caves But a lover chooses to lodge in a restless heart… (Mahjoor, Ghulam 17)

At that time, the economic condition of Mahjoor at home was very week and subsequently had to struggle for livelihood. Fortunately, he got the job as a government Patwari (Local Revenue officer), which he remained throughout his life without getting a promotion at all.

During his long poetic career, Mahjoor initially started writing Persian and Urdu poetry and some Kashmiri poems as well after adopting the pen name Mahjoor. But the sweetness found in his Kashmiri poetry is not found in his Persian or Urdu Poems. The poet was well aware about the fact that there was not enough literature

44 available in Kashmiri language. He considered it his responsibility to protect the most important ingredient part of his culture from degradation. Amin Kamil in his book Mahjoor Nen Bonyan Tal (1999) (Beneath the Chinars of Mahjoor) says “Mehjoor believed that the writers and poets writing in Persian and Urdu will no longer help them as they are not our own languages and not a part of our culture. …this thing made him realize to write his poetry in Kashmiri language” (Kamil 20). His love for Kashmiri language and culture was unshakeable as it had taken firm roots in him after witnessing its dilapidated condition. Later, in his life he became a devout Kashmiri poet and composed his poetry in the Kashmiri language after abandoning Persian and Urdu languages completely. Premnath Bazaz says that “his poetry and songs are full of nationalistic spirit… unity of Hindus and Muslims…pride for ancient culture and past achievements of Kashmiris and love of mankind. His lyrics could not remain uninfluenced by the new revolutionary and patriotic fervor” (Bazaz 295). His love for his mother tongue is evident in one of the Mushairas (Poetic Symposium) held in Kashmir, where he participated and read a ghazal (Lyric). A well-known writer of Kashmir, Amin Kamil writes about the symposium:

The year 1934 was an important year in the history of Kashmiri literature. In that year, for the first time, a Mushaira (Poetic Symposium) was organized in which Mahjoor insisted the then reluctant organizer of the Mushaira (Poetic Symposium) to allow him to read Kashmiri Ghazal (Lyric). Mahjoor believed that it would be an insult to Kashmiris, if he is not allowed to read a Ghazal (Lyric) in Kashmiri language as the Mushaira (Poetic Symposium) is being held in Kashmir… (Kamil 21)

The fame and popularity achieved by Mahjoor during his life is un-paralleled. Whatever is written by him in the Kashmiri language definitely energized and revitalized it from decay. Despite the different hardships faced by him, he continued to write Kashmiri poetry and his interest in it and other academic activities grew stronger day by day. In 1911, he wrote a first Kashmiri Masnavi (Narrative Poem) that marks the beginning of his poetic career. Some verses of the poem are as:

I had to obey my friends Else I wouldn’t choose Kashmiri… (Mahjoor, Ghulam 28)

45 From the verses, it appears that Mahjoor has been insisted by someone to write a poem in Kashmiri. Even the translator of most of his poems Trilokinath Raina has endorsed that he was “urged by his friends, Hakim Ahmad Shah and Abdul Aziz Nagami to revive the great tradition of the Kashmiri Masnavi which flourished in the 19th century”. (Mahjoor in Raina, Ghulam 28) The reference of the poem is “mentioned in the Arabian serial Alif Laila1 (Arabian Nights) as well” (Shauq and Munawar 335). Mahjoor’s first Kashmiri lyric came out in 1915 by the name Vante hai vasey (Tell me, O’ friend):

O friend, should one, as beautiful as the moon, Delight in breaking hearts by playing false in love? He plunged into my heart his pointed dart, Showing no more pity than a swordsman in war… (Mahjoor, The Best 1)

Shafi Shauq and Naji Munawar believe that the poet wrote this poem after reading “Mahmood Ghamis Ghazal (Lyric) Yaar meanio markan manz paan hawith tee pazya (Would it be fair to hide in the bushes, my beloved…). Additionally, he was also impressed by the poetry of Habba Khatoon, Rusul Mir and Maqbool Amritsari. He has himself endorsed of being highly impressed by the poetry of Romantic poet Rusul Mir” (336).

The first lyric was subsequently followed by another marvellous and thrilling poem “I will rock you in my Arms”.

Just one glance from you Sent me into love’s consuming flames, Like one tumbling down the skies. O ravishing moon, don’t hide yourself! I pray some odd job tempts you out, So that we see your radiant form… (Mahjoor, Ghulam 79)

In the year 1918, he wrote a long poem called Jang-e-German (War of Germany) in which he praised English forces and the British Empire. It was the plan of the British government of India and the Dogra regime “to disabuse the common man’s mind and to fed (sic) them assiduously only on the German propaganda that an

1 A play broadcasted in 1990’s by Doordarshan Kashmir.

46 attack on Germany was tantamount to an attack on Islam” (Mahjoor Ghulam 29). Mahjoor for his own sake and safety praised the British domination in India and their role in Kashmir as well in this long poem. It was an attempt by the authorities to use Mahjoor as a weapon, who forced him to write a poem which would invoke Kashmiri people to join the English forces as volunteers in the World War First (1914-18). In this long poem, he showered praise on Kashmir Maharaja, Maharaja Pratap Singh2 and the British Emperor in these verses:

Our august Maharaja Pratap Singh Our protector and guardian angel- Of divine nature is our lord Long live our Gracious Emperor! When the liberal, benign and unassuming British came to aid governance… (Mahjoor, Ghulam 31)

Before writing this poem, he was assured of promotion by the Dogra authorities, if he would help them to propagate their propaganda, which was to recruit the Kashmiri volunteers in the British Indian army. This poem had a far-reaching impact on the people as it helped the Britishers and Dogras to achieve their objective. But at the end, Mahjoor was completely duped and deceived in the name of promotion. He confessed:

The poem that I wrote – Jung-e- German- became very popular, because it was very moving. Pandit Niranjan Lal Sahib, Assistant Settlement Commissioner took the English translation of the poem to Mr. A.M. Stowe, the Settlement Commissioner, who was equally thrilled. When the one month’s leave period was over, I reported on duty and put in a word for the promotion that had been promised, the answer was: ‘Where is the proof that you did inspire the people? No one came here to say so. You also didn’t bring any volunteers here. (qtd. in Raina, Ghulam 30)

However, Mahjoor can be criticized here for being so soft towards Britishers and Kashmiri Maharaja. However, the fact is that he would have been the target of both the British and non-British elements. He has already been the victim of

2 He is also known as Maharaja Sir Pratap Singh (1848-1925). He was one of the Maharajas of Kashmir.

47 discrimination from the higher authorities as he was never being promoted from the Patwari post (Local Revenue Officer), while his juniors had been promoted to higher posts. The poet would have probably thought it better to comply with the government order to save his life and get a promotion as well. But at the end, the promises made with him were never fulfilled.

At a time, when Urdu was declared as the court language of Kashmir in the first half of the 20th century, Persian language suddenly disappeared from the scene. The educated class of Kashmir too turned their attention towards Urdu language and their mother tongue but “different genres of poetry like Masnavi (Epic), Naat (Hymn) and Marsiya (Elegy) were all Persian in metre, rhythm or style” (Raina, A History 100). Mahjoor too turned his attention towards Urdu and wrote beautiful poetry and prose pieces in Urdu from the period 1912-1924. Moti Lal Saki also says that, “Despite Kashmiri, Mahjoor has written in Urdu also which a common man hardly knows” (47). It is worth praising that Mahjoor’s contemporary poet Abdul Ahad Azad3 for the first time mentioned and introduced Mahjoor’s prose contribution to Kashmiri literature in his famous book Kashmiri Zubaan aur shayri (Kashmiri Language and Poetry) published in 2005.

Mahjoor is the first Kashmiri poet who has written a number of prose works besides poetry. His prose works include; Hayat–e-Rahim (Biography of Rahim), Habba Khatoon (Renowed Kashmiri Women poet of the 16th Century), Aayeena-e- Itehaad-e-Kashmir (Portrait of Unity in Kashmir), Sawaaneh Sheikh-Ul- Alam (Biography of Sheikh-Ul-Alam), Safarnama Baltistan (My Baltistan Sojourn), Bebooj Naama (The Story of Chaos), Tazakira Shairaay-I-Kashmir (Introducing Kashmiri poets) and a Novel called Aziz (Beloved) published in 1923. Before him, there was hardly any other Kashmiri poet, who has contributed so immensely to the Kashmiri prose genre. During this period, Mahjoor’s poems in the form of Nazm (Descriptive form of poetry) or Ghazals (Lyrics) too were published in newspapers from time to time. Adjacent to the elevation of Urdu as the court language, Kashmiri language also received a boost from different quarters, which proved very helpful for its promotion. In this context, T.N. Raina says:

3 Also known as John Keats of Kashmir. He was the contemporary of Mahjoor and has vehemently criticized feudalism and feudal lords of Kashmir backed by the Dogra Maharajas in his poetry.

48 The publication of Laala Vaakh (Sayings of Lal Ded) by Grierson and Brunt in 1920 and of the first Kashmiri dictionary by Grierson in 1924 encouraged some educated young men to devote more attention to their mother tongue and burn with a sense of shame that this language had suffered from neglect for centuries. (Raina, History 102)

However, a new beginning started after the emergence of Mahjoor on the literary scene as a dominating Kashmiri poet. The resultant repercussions of his Kashmiri poetry were obvious as it became a talk of the town within no time. His poetry at every place was warmly embraced; even in contemporary Kashmir both men and women with full enthusiasm and valour read and sing his poetry passionately in gatherings or marriage ceremonies. Under his untiring efforts, many of the poets during his time abandoned Urdu and Persian language and started writing in the Kashmiri language, which definitely made Kashmiri literature richer than before. Among them, the notable poets were Abdul Sattar Aasi, Abdul Ahad Azad, Mirza Ghulam Hassan Beigh Arif, Zinda Koul, and Dina Nath Nadim. T. N. Raina is also of the view that many poets turned to Kashmiri language for writing literature:

Abdul Sataar Aasi, who was a coolie Poet writing in Persian, started writing in Kashmiri at his insistence in 1942. He had already persuaded Abdul Ahad Azad in 1935 to switch over from Urdu to the neglected mother tongue, and he was delighted to find a kindred spirit in Mirza Ghulam Hasan Beigh Arif. It is significant that all the major poets of the modern age, including Zinda Kaul and Nadim, gave up their devotion to Urdu and Persian and started writing in Kashmiri in the forties. This Kashmir owes to the ceaseless efforts of Mahjoor. (Mahjoor, Ghulam 19)

Mahjoor infused a new life into the Kashmiri poetry “by reviving the lyrical tradition of Rasul Mir and enlarged his canvas to include new themes and new rhythms and steeped his poems in the living hues of spring and summer in Kashmir” (Raina, History 104).

Interestingly, Mahjoor poetry “got a boost at that time when a singer namely Ghulam Mohammad Gojri started to sing his poetry publicly. It gave a new boost to his poetry which was penned down for all times to come” (Beigh 33). Before Mahjoor, most of his predecessor poets were inclined towards mysticism or were

49 staunch Sufi (Mystic) poets but Mahjoor contradictorily was different from them. Mahjoor’s turn to the Kashmiri language is nonetheless an advantage as he was the key player for its promotion and development; otherwise there would have been an addition of another Sufi poet in the annals of Kashmiri literature. He deviated from them in form, diction and added a new colour to Kashmiri poetry. The style of his poetry too was new in itself and different from his predecessors. In this backdrop, Raina quotes Zinda Kaul4 by saying that, his poems are “like a beautiful lotus in bloom” (qtd. in Mir 53). Though, in his early age, he was somehow attracted by the Sufi poets and Tasawuf (Sufism), but he bypassed the deep Sufi indoctrination and became the henchman of romantic ideals.

It can’t be categorically claimed that he disbanded all his past literary tradition, but “he discarded stylized love, foreign symbols and the sights and sounds of Arabia and retained the symbolism of the Gul (Flower) and the Bulbul (Nightingale) throughout his poetic career” (Mahjoor, Ghulam 57). In this way, Mahjoor added a new life to the Kashmiri poetry after presenting it in such a way that seemed something novel to the people, which Russian formalists called “defamiliarization”. Most of the Kashmiri poetry before Mahjoor was religious and mystic in nature but Mahjoor broke this tradition and added new themes to it. Some of the important poems of Mahjoor like Yemberzal (Narcissus), Graes Koer (The Peasant Lass) and Azaadi (Freedom) are altogether different, that completely deviated him from the earlier poets of Kashmir. K.M. George further added that:

He was drawn progressively towards the picturesque grandeur of his native land which he delineated as gulistan (sic) (Flower Garden), most likely as a befitting parallel to Iqbal's gulistan (sic) (a catchphrase in his sare jahaan se acha… yeh gulistan hamara) While applauding the excellence of Kashmir, he can be known as a Romantic Nationalist. His most critical poem composed amid the prime of his Romantic career is his Graes Koer (Country Lass) was cardinal occasion in his artistic profession. (George, Modern Indian Literature 192-193)

Besides being the paramount Ghazal (Lyric) poet of Kashmir, his romantic poetry in Kashmiri language emboldens the common man about the scenic loveliness

4 Famous poet of 20th century of Kashmir. He is popularly known as ‘Masterji’ among the people.

50 of Kashmir. It is not only in Kashmir, his poetry attracted an attention from outside Kashmir also. A great Punjabi actor and academician Prabhath Mukherjee even made a biographical movie on Mahjoor in 1972 called Shayar-e-Kashmir (Poet of Kashmir). It was made at a time of the then Chief Minister of J&K namely Khwaja Ghulam Mohammad Sadiq5. The government provided 8 (Eight) lakh rupees to the director of the movie namely Prabath Mukherjee to accomplish this objective. In the movie, famous actor Balraj Sahni played the role of Mahjoor. As a romantic poet, he envisions the beauty of the valley through his poetry like the English romantic poets; Wordsworth, Keats and Shelley. He shares the most important thing with them i.e., imagination. Like English romantic poets, he praises the glory and beauty around him and does not create “anything new on his own” (Mahjoor, Ghulam 50). He distances from Yeats in the romantic terrain as there is no scope for supernatural things in his romantic poetry. He is categorized as the romantic poet as he delves deep into the imaginary homeland. This makes Mahjoor more peculiar as the tradition of writing romantic poetry was something new in the literary milieu of Kashmir. It makes his poetry novel in which the mundane and the beautiful are entwined together. However, Mahjoor’s romantic ideals were not confined to the apparent beauty of a lover or beloved but the inner beauty which is always hidden from the reality of the external world that makes him a peculiar one from others.

Kashmiri poetry from the time of Lal Ded was occupied by the Sufi content and tradition mostly but from the time of Habba Khatoon6, it was replaced by the romantic and love thoughts followed by Mahjoor and other poets. He has himself remained the follower and lover of the poetry of Habba Khatoon, Maqbool Shah Kralwari and Rusul Mir. From Habba Khatoon, “he learnt the beauty of the Vatsun7 (Speech) the oldest form of the love lyric. From her again floated to him the music of the folk songs, which is essentially the primordial inspiration of all lyric poetry throughout the world- song, geet or Vatsun” (Mahjoor, Ghulam 19). Mahjoor infused a new life into those emotions of woman folk, which women poets like Lal Ded, Habba Khatoon and Arnimal had expressed long ago. He presented them as the victim of society and poverty:

5 He was once the Prime Minister of Jammu and Kashmir from the year 1964-1965 6 Also known as Nightingale of Kashmir. She was the famous poetess of the 16th century. 7 Vatsun was earlier popularized by Lal Ded. The word has been actually derived from Sanskrit word Vachan. It is devoid of any rhyme scheme or versification.

51 …I saw you working in the field, Singing a love song, your sleeves rolled up, O what rough work for those delicate arms! O the loveliness of those sweat-soaked arched eyebrows (Mahjoor, Ghulam 14)

Thus, it can be claimed that Mahjoor was the person responsible for the Renaissance of Kashmiri literature. He once again re-discovered the two eminent poets of Kashmiri literature i.e., Habba Khatoon and Rusul Mir. Mahjoor with his wit and artistic skill furthermore tries to echo their pain so that they may be relieved from the domination. His poem “O My Sweetheart” reveals it in this way:

I would gaze long at the path you took, But they are watching my eyes; I hear they are going to put a watch. Soon over my beating Heart. O rose-faced beloved, forsaking me, You turned your heart to others; (Mahjoor, The Best 78)

Mahjoor’s Kashmiri poem Poshe Matih Janano (Darling lover of flowers) became very famous which attracted the attention of Nobel Laureate Rabindranath Tagore. He has written this poem after being influenced by Habba Khatoon’s vwolo myaani poshe madano (O My flower fan beloved). In this context, T. N. Raina says:

Spring time 1926 (sic). And spring in Kashmir is a season of magical beauty. One morning he was strolling down the bank of the Dood Ganga stream, when he heard the peasant girls singing the popular Vatsun of Habba Khatoon, walo myaani poshe madano (O My Flower Fan Beloved). (Ghulam 23)

The poem of Mahjoor “Stay your feet, My Love, To Let Me Kiss Them” resembles with Habba Khatoon’s poem in metre and the feminine rendering.

You stole away with fugitive gait My darling lover of flowers Stay, o stay, my only love! O wizard, why must you leave me thus? Tell me how shall I survive…

52 I’m waiting for you on the mountain… (Mahjoor, Ghulam 24)

A great Kashmiri historian Pandit Ananda Kaul translated Mahjoor’s two poems i.e.; Poshe Matih Janano (Darling of Flowers) and Graes Koer (Peasant Lass) into English and published these poems in Vishwa Bharti quarterly journal. This created a ruckus among the literary circles because of their wide mass appeal. The great Indian poet Rabindranath Tagore was alive at that time and wrote to Mahjoor; “I saw your poetry. Our ideas are same. If you would have been well versed in Bengali and English language then I would have definitely said you have borrowed the ideas from my poems, I am very happy after reading your poems. I believe you are the Wordsworth of Kashmir” (Azad 287).

It is pertinent to mention that Rabindranath Tagore then sent his student Professor Davendra Satyarthi to Kashmir in the year 1933 to visit and collect the poetry of Mahjoor. The then daily newspaper Martand published Satyarthi’s words in the year 1935, which he said about Mahjoor; “I thought that I am here to write about the life story of a poet but while reaching here I found a great writer. I am lamenting and that such a legendary figure is working as a Patwari and luck would be held accountable for it” (Azad 301).

It would be a sweeping comment to say that Mahjoor created each and everything new on his own. To the larger extent, he is indebted to his predecessors. Not only Mahjoor, but his predecessors couldn’t escape past tradition as well. It is seen in Mahjoor’s poetry that most of the verses from many of his poems seem to be the replica of the predecessor Urdu or Kashmiri poets. T. S. Eliot in his essay ‘Tradition and Individual Talent’ has categorically mentioned that a writer cannot be original on his own unless and until he assimilates the tradition. Eliot states that:

No poet, no artist of any art has his complete meaning alone. His significance, his appreciation is the appreciation of his relation to the dead poets and artists. You cannot value him alone; I mean this as a principle of aesthetic, not merely historical, criticism. The necessity that he shall conform, that he shall cohere, is not one-sided; what happens when a new work of art is created is something that happens simultaneously to all the works of art which preceded it. The existing monuments form an ideal order among themselves, which is modified

53 by the introduction of the new (the really new) work of art among them. (Eliot, Selected 15)

What makes a poet traditional does not mean that he should follow the great ancestors blindly. It definitely does not make him a successful poet after shattering the tradition of the past. Eliot stresses on the novelty and discourages a mere repetition in a work of art. In order to inherit the legacy of the past, a poet has to undergo a lot of ups and downs, which ultimately makes the legacy of tradition beneficial for him. The foremost condition of attaining the past legacy is the poet’s historical sense. It signifies that any poet must have a ‘perception’ not only of the past but about the presence of that past in present. The historical sense shows the timelessness of the past and its applicability in present. While writing a piece of work, the poet should necessarily show the existence of the past literature in the present circumstances. It means a poet has to show an order in a chronological way. This makes make a poet traditional one in the literal sense.

Eliot’s principle can be applied to Mahjoor’s poetry as well. He has written many poetic verses in Kashmiri language which encapsulate the influence of the past poetic tradition. Undoubtedly, he has deviated so far as the thematic issues of his poetry are concerned but he has shown his association with his predecessor poets. He endorses the contribution of his ancestors in a humble way. To show a relevance of the past in the present, Mahjoor embraces the contribution of predecessors and hasn’t ignored their legacy at all. It is not only the Kashmiri predecessor poets with whom Mahjoor has shown his poetic affiliation but some poems of Mahjoor show his linkage with the Urdu poets as well like Mirza Ghalib and Brij Narayan Chakbast:

1. Lighting struck my nest at night High on the topmost branch. (Mahjoor, Ghulam 25)

2. Don’t be scared of telling me my dear friend, the state of the garden Why must that little nest be mine, where a lightning struck yesterday? (25)

3. In despair the bubble complained To the river You are liberal to others,

54 But my cup remains empty. (25)

4. The whirlpool gyrated With an empty cup, While the river was bountiful To others. (25)

Eliot believes that a poet can never has a complete significance on his own, unless and until he acknowledges the tradition. A poet can only be appreciated in relation to the dead poets. Mahjoor has not altogether abandoned his past, but tried to make a departure after incorporating new themes in his poetry. He can be highly contrasted with the dead ancestors, which makes his poetry more aesthetic. It can never be claimed that Mahjoor out of a vacuum, emerged as a great poet. The existing works as, Eliot believes lays a foundation for the new poet to create something new, which eventually modifies the prevalent order. This makes the relation between an old poet and a new one worthy some. Mahjoor definitely made an intervention in the past order of Kashmiri literature by infusing those themes, which had not been adopted by others. But, he at the same time retains the tradition of lyrical poetry as well. This makes his relation with the past and the present alive. This allows the readers to scrutinize the poet by the past standards and not independently. A comparison is made between the predecessor poets and the new one in order to judge his piece of art. The intention is not to belittle the contribution of the new poet but to make an analysis. Likewise, Mahjoor can be compared to his dead poets to measure the conformity of his poetry without showing any type of dissent against his work. It makes the poet very conscious that “art never improves, but that the material of art is never quite the same” (Eliot Tradition 38).

Mahjoor’s espousal of the past shows his consciousness and awareness in the contemporary times. In the same way, Eliot insisted that an artist should not show this consciousness for a particular time but throughout his career. It can be said that the poet then depersonalizes himself completely and sacrifices his self altogether. In Mahjoor’s case, the sacrifice of self is seen number of times in his poetry. He has not shunned away his legacy of the past but has tried to keep that live. The poet has surrendered his personality and made himself an offshoot of the tradition. The predecessors of Mahjoor too assimilated the past tradition and inculcated new ideas

55 and created a space for themselves to adjust in a tradition. In one way or the other, they showed a certain connection with the past. The poet in order to escape from the past, adds something new to his literary work and decorates it in a way to present himself totally original. Thus, it makes it a chain of writers, who from time to time came and added a new colour to their works but their psyches forced them to be the worshipper of long poetic tradition. In this context, Professor Majrooh Rashid states; “there are, of course poets like Rasool Mir, Mehjoor and others who lived…But the fact remains that the hang- over of the past several hundred years’ tradition has not allowed even Rasool Mir, Mehjoor to shake off this tradition”. (Rashid 11)

T. N. Raina also opines that “Maqbool Shah Kralwari’s Gulrez (Rose sprinkler) with exquisite songs interwoven into it and Rasul Mir’s ghazals (Lyrics) were his great favourites. In fact, the latter was of course the prime influence. He acknowledges him as his model for composing a ghazal (Lyric) “O Golden Oriole”:

Mir’s old wine fills new cups now, And stocks have reached all taverns for sale. Fill up all glasses, Mahjoor, and serve And, Rasul Mir who unveiled love’s gnawing pain (Mahjoor, Ghulam 20)

It is also believed that the great poet of the East Dr. Iqbal too had influenced Mahjoor. Iqbal’s poem “Saare jahaan se acha Hindustan hamara [Better than the world is our India] has always been a national song of India, just as Tagore’s Jana gana mana… [We hail you, O ruler of people’s hearts] is India’s national anthem. Mahjoor’s vwolo haa baagwano… [Come O Gardener] which became the clarion call of the freedom movement organized by Sheikh Abdullah8 was the offshoot of this influence” (21).

In this way, Mahjoor acknowledges the tradition of his past but what makes him different is the content and theme of his poetry. He may have assimilated the past tradition of writing Ghazal (Lyric) poetry, but the onslaught which his poetry brought against the central subject matter undoubtedly makes him as a unique lyricist.

8 Sheikh Muhammad Abdullah was the towering leader of Kashmir of the 20th century. He is the founder of the political party National Conference. Abdullah played a key role in the movement against the Dogra rule in Kashmir in the first half of the 20th century. Nowadays, he is highly abhorred by the general public as the power hungry man because of his accord with Indira Gandhi, known as Indira Abdullah accord (1975).

56 Mahjoor’s poetry is indirect in its meaning and in that indirect meaning lies a mound of emotions. It sometimes satisfies the readers that the poet has made a little deviation from his predecessors as it allows them to read something novel:

I stand forsaken by the Lord of Youth, I am the forlorn Zuleikha on the road, My love, Yusuf’s football awaiting. I yearn to meet him once again… (Mahjoor, The Best 13)

Mahjoor’s tragic impulse in his poetry is something new that made him different from other poets of Kashmir. Besides, celebrating the beauty of nature in his poems, he at the same time laments the loss of culture, voices his concern for the womenfolk, his angst against the feudal lords and the politicians of his time.

There is no doubt in the fact that after 1931, Mahjoor never looked back and completely got assimilated with the people and the freedom movement. It is important to remember that the event of 13th July 1931 marks a great significance in the freedom struggle of Kashmir against Dogra regime. On this day, twenty two (22) people were massacred by the Dogra forces outside the Central jail of Srinagar who had revolted against the atrocious Dogra regime. Every year this day is observed as Youm-e- Shuhada9 (Day of Martyrs) not only in Kashmir but abroad also. The event deepened his interest to write the poems with revolutionary message

It is obvious that a writer can express his emotions or feelings in his mother tongue in a better way than any other language and same was the case with Mahjoor. Mahjoor considered it his primary responsibility to highlight the basic political and social issues of the society. In this regard, Jawaharlal Handoo says:

Mahjoor particularly gave a new direction to Kashmiri writing. He discarded stylized love, foreign symbols, sights and sounds of Perso-Arabic poetic system and replaced them with more meaningful themes, symbols and realities of the culture he represented. Mahjoor laid the foundations of progressive trends in Kashmiri literature by introducing social and political themes. (145)

9 This day is observed on 13th July every Year in Kashmir as a tribute to the martyr’s massacred by the Dogra forces in 1931.

57 Other reasons responsible for Mahjoor’s popularity were that many great Indian academicians and writers have penned down their essays and research articles on him. He was also the first poet since the time of King Zain-Ul-Abidin of the 15th century to have been patronized by the government. For the first time “Mahjoor’s poetry was broadcasted in 1947 on Radio Kashmir. In 1944, Radio Lahore too had broadcasted his poetry.” (Tang 43)

Magazines with a special number from time to time by various departments have been published on Mahjoor. For the first time in 1952, Cultural conference of Kashmir published a magazine Kong posh (Saffron Flower) with a special number called Mahjoor Number. The information department of Jammu and Kashmir government in 1958 also published a magazine namely Gulrez (Rose Sprinkler) with a special number Mahjoor Number. The Academy of art, culture and Languages of J&K government too has published Sheeraz magazine with a special number Mahjoor Number.

It was because of the efforts of Mahjoor that his son Ibn-e-Mahjoor launched a newspaper Gaash (Light) in Kashmir. It was the first ever newspaper published in Kashmiri language in the 20th century. This newspaper too played a key role for the promotion of Kashmiri Language. It was launched with the intention to bring awareness among the uneducated and illiterate masses of Kashmir. Ibn-e-Mahjoor Mahjoor in one of its editorials has written that “this paper was launched more for the illiterate people. If any literate one will read this paper loudly, other illiterate one’s can understand what the newspaper reads….” (Tang 104). when the newspaper was published for the first time, it published the statements of two famous personalities of the era namely Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah and Prem Nath Bazaz, as quoted by Mohammad Yousuf Tang10. It published the Abdullah’s statement regarding the newspaper in this way:

I am very happy after hearing that a Kashmir newspaper namely Gaash (Light) is being published weekly. I am very thankful to Amin sahib that he has done a great job. My prayers are that Gaash newspaper be a source of light for a Paradise like country (Kashmir). (Tang 105)

10 He is a well known critic, scholar and researcher from Kashmir.

58 In the same way P. N. Bazaz too has recorded his statement about the newspaper in the following words:

I am very happy that my best friend Mr. Mohammad Amin is going to launch a Kashmiri newspaper on weekly basis...Amin sahib is following the footpaths of his father (Mahjoor). The way Mahjoor has become a great poet of Kashmiri language; I hope that a son too will be the great news writer, Patriot… (Tang 105)

The newspaper also published a wonderful Ghazal (Lyric) of Mahjoor which starts with the lines “Laleh meon manz shalimaaran saith yaran asih ma… (My beloved in the gardens of Shalimar…)” (Tang 105). The newspaper also became the main source of popularity for Mahjoor for the time being. After the publication of his poems in the newspaper, his name and fame reached every nook and corner of Kashmir. Although, the newspaper couldn’t be published continuously because of the Second World War (1939-45) and the prices of the paper had gone very high. So, it would have been difficult to publish it continuously on a weekly basis. But it had already achieved its objective, for which it was launched. The common people of Kashmir got acquainted with the poetry of Mahjoor after it was transmitted orally by the people among themselves. Although, Mahjoor’s poetry is available in written form these days, but the tradition of singing his poems in marriage ceremonies and other functions has helped people to remember his poetry. It is also either played on radio or TV shows, which also becomes a main reason for the people to remember his poetry easily. That is why; people of Kashmir both literate and illiterate are familiar with the poetry of Mahjoor.

In a broader sense, the nationalistic poetry of Mahjoor filled with nationalistic and revolutionary undertones started to came out after 1931. The voice of dissent that was already given by the fore-runners of the anti- dogra regime too had left an ineffaceable mark on the minds of the poets. Mahjoor’s early poetry was bound to romantics and love with a slight touch of nationalism but after the event of 1931, there was a drastic change in his poetry. He suddenly changed the poetic themes, subject matter and incorporated the modern themes in his poetry after witnessing turmoil everywhere in Kashmir. Mahjoor’s collection of poems popularly known as Kulliyat- e-Mahjoor (Collected Poems of Mahjoor), which is further divided into three parts

59 i.e., Kalaam-e-Mahjoor (Sayings of Mahjoor), Payaam-e-Mahjoor (Message of Mahjoor) and Salaam-e-Mahjoor (Greetings of Mahjoor) provides us an ample evidence that if Mahjoor had continued to write poems on the same scale like his earlier one, he would definitely have been counted among other poets like Habba Khatoon, Maqbool Shah Kralwari, Rasul Mir, Wahab Parray and others. What makes Mahjoor peculiar and different from the other poets was his sensitive attitude towards changing the social and political atmosphere of Kashmir. The fire of social, political and economic metamorphosis engulfed him to uplift the freedom movement to the new heights through his poetry:

You can’t remain end eshed for ever In the world of sinuous curls! Emerge from this enveloping darkness And locate the fountain head of beauty. (Mahjoor, Ghulam 36)

The drastic change in the political and social atmosphere in Kashmir became a turning point in his life which further got him an all acclaim, popularity and encouragement. He, on the one hand, was well aware of the political situation of the Kashmir and on the other hand took keen interest in writing poetry with political themes. He fully praised the flora and fauna, birds, gardens of Kashmir in his poetry. Notwithstanding the fact, that he was praising the natural beauty of Kashmir, but there was also a message hidden in his poems:

O flowers, did you see my love? O bulbuls, Won’t you help me find where he has gone? Seeking him among flowers, I asked the Yemberzals If he who had charmed me had now come to visit… (Mahjoor, The Best 61)

At another place, he says:

Bulbuls faint when they watch me Shaping flowers with my hands. They should know that if I can shape A bulbul, I can also shape a flower! (63)

In another poem, he says:

60 Leaving me desolate, where has he gone-? Prang or Brang or Drang or Kotihaar? (Mahjoor, Ghulam 55)

Mahjoor was well aware of the backwardness and waywardness of the people of Kashmir and his poetry made a great contribution by awakening them from slumber. This also becomes one of the reasons for him to skip the mystic poetry. The poet deemed it necessary to bring a change in the mindset of the people and the poetic corpus, dominated by mysticism. He like the contemporary rebel poet, Abdul Ahad Azad and Dina Nath Nadim11 manoeuvred his poetic talent and all the three are considered as the towering resistance poets of Kashmir in the 20th century. They stood like a rock against the exploitation of the common masses at the hands of the rulers. Professor Aziz Hajini in this regard says:

Abdul Ahad Azad too started his career…but due to some constraints, which made him a revolutionary, he became the first rebel poet of Kashmir. He definitely was influenced by the Russian Revolution of 1917 and was well- versed in the new trends of Urdu poetry… (Hajini 30)

After achieving widespread popularity all over the Valley; he became well acquainted with the Kashmiri nationalist’s and other famous personalities of that time like Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah, Pandit Prem Nath Bazaz, Abdul Ahad Azad, Jia Lal Kaul, Davendra Satyarthi, Balraj Sahni and many others.

In 1948, Radio Kashmir for the first time broadcasted one of his poems in a song form. His most important poem Graes Koer (The Peasant Lass) was written in 1935. It was first Kashmiri poem which deals largely with the Progressive movement. The catchy and symbolic words used by Mahjoor in his poetry like Gul (Flower), Bulbul (Nightingale), Baagh (Garden), Yemberzal (Narcissus), Subhuk waav (Morning Spring), Poshenool (Golden Oriole), Sangarmaal (Hills) unveils Mahjoor’s concern for the future of Kashmir. It was also an attempt by the poet to invoke the same type of feelings among people, he had himself undergone through. To him, it was an important medium to make the people conscious. In 1940, he wrote a poem namely Gatih tchajih Gaash Aaw (Darkness goes and Light comes) which became famous overnight. In this poem, as Shafi Shauq and Naji Munawar stated; “That for

11 Dina Nath Nadim was the influential poet of Kashmir in the 20th century and is known for leading the progressive writer’s movement in Kashmir.

61 the first time Tehreek-e-Hurriyat (Movement by Hurriyat) endorses the struggle of the people of Kashmir…” (338). The poem provides a clear cut evidence of Mahjoor heartily supporting the freedom movement led by the Kashmiri nationalists.

Mahjoor’s modern poetry gives colour to those actual developments which were either the speeches of the political leaders at that time or the emotional aspirations of the people. He lived at a time of acute turmoil and mayhem and it would have been difficult for any poet to escape from the situation. Mahjoor through his poetry recorded the day to day affairs around him and decorated them in a colourful manner through his poetry. His collection of poems known as Payaam-e- Mahjoor (Message of Mahjoor 1939-1949) totally deals with the patriotic content having social and political manifestations.

During 1940’s, the social and political development in the South Asian region had left its impact not only on Mahjoor but on the people of Kashmir as well. It also became an important reason for his elevation as the national poet of Kashmir. In this context, K.M. George opines:

Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor (1887-1952) was the first Kashmiri poet to be exposed to the forces of change that swept over the Indo-Gangetic Basin… Dr. Iqbal’s timely advice to him to switch over completely to the Kashmiri language for his verse emboldened Mahjoor to resist the compelling temptation of Persian and Urdu and also motivated him to steer clear of Sufi Jargon. (George, Modern Indian Literature 192)

After the emergence of Muslim Conference (1932) turned National Conference in 1938, Mahjoor touched the themes of harmony, equality, justice and freedom in his poetry. The year marks the last stage of his poetic career miffed by disturbances and turmoil. His important poem Graes Koer (The Peasant Lass) was Mahjoor’s first poem of the progressive movement. Apparently, he praises the peasant girl in the poem, but he at the same time raises the questions of social inequality and injustice:

What engulfs between you and high born dames! You are the soul of freedom and flowers And the dames languish in shuttered prisons….

62 O those gushing springs of bashfulness! The houris envy your grace, and yet You’re framed in virtue, strong-souled maiden (Mahjoor, Ghulam 74)

This poem makes complete departure from the past and unveils his wish to write about love themes with social and political undertones. It makes it obvious that a Kashmiri poet for the first time has started pondering and writing about day to day affairs of the common people. He praises the beauty and innocence of the girl in the poem but there is also a hidden meaning in it which becomes clear when the poet compares a peasant girl with the women of the upper class. He draws a comparison to dissect the views of the people who are hell-bent upon dividing them on materialistic lines. The core of the poem which Mahjoor wants to convey is that the menace of feudalism had robbed the people of one section and elevated the status of others. His concern for the common people sets his poetry apart from other poets. Before him, Habba Khatoon too had highlighted these problems but they were more of the personal one rather than the general. But Mahjoor definitely is different from her by becoming the people’s mouthpiece. K.M. George states that “He ardently echoed New Kashmiris concerns that had erupted into the Quit Kashmir Movement of 1946…tribal raid hurled him into agony, which he shared with his readers…” (George, An Anthology 193).

Another significant poem that makes Mahjoor different from others is Sangarmalan Peo Pragaash (Daybreak over the hills). In the poem, it appears as if Mahjoor is dreaming of a bright and beautiful future after going through the long dark period. The poem conveys and predicts the message of encouragement, hope and bravery. It forces a person to realize his powerlessness before destiny, but at the same time assures of bright future and destiny. It was written in 1952 by Mahjoor when he appeared on the Programme called Bache Programme (Children’s Programme) broadcasted by Radio Kashmir Srinagar station:

When the British government in India arrested the leaders of National Conference and put them behind the bars… I was so happy and enthusiastic after seeing the people’s reaction. Before this, my friend had met and informed me that our leaders have destroyed their lives and it is impossible for them to

63 be successful in their life ever. At that time, these words came from my mouth.12 (Radio)

…Flower bushes bear autumn’s havoc, knowing That spring will surely come and probe! He alone survives who faces ordeals, (Mahjoor, The Best 54)

After the romantic poet Rusul Mir, Mahjoor is probably the only poet of Kashmir who has unveiled the beauty in his poetry, but with political and social themes. His romantic poetry uncovers many things of his life which contradicts the tradition of his times. He would have lived his life in ease if he had followed the profession of his father, but he turned out to be a reformer litterateur and chose the path of a rebel poet. He once outrightly told his father:

A healthy and strong man has no right to receive any type of money from people…What is the value of that money, which is earned and received without any work and struggle? I can no longer follow this profession as God has blessed me with strength and mind. (Azad 193)

He is the only poet of Kashmir to have attained such a great fame, which no other poet has achieved till now. No other poetic work of any poet of Kashmir is published more than that of Mahjoor. A renowed critic of Kashmir, Mohammad Yousf Tang took the pains to publish his poetic works from the J&K academy of art, culture and languages. Additionally, the thorough concern and keenness of Mahjoor towards the history of Kashmir beautified his image more and more among the literary circles. He acted as the historian and wrote a letter to the chief editors of the different newspapers published those days in Kashmir like Khidmat Khalaq, Desh, and Martand about the need and importance of the history of Kashmir. Some excerpts of the letter are quoted by Kashmiri writer Syed Rasul Pompur “Educated people of the valley are well-known about the history of the world and the history of Britain and remember it orally. The past history of Kashmir is very much interesting and encouraging on which one should be proud of.…” (114).

12 Refer to radio Kashmir Programme called ‘Bacche Programme’ (Children’s Programme) held in 1952. This programme was aired by Radio Kashmir Srinagar. The excerpts of the interview are also highlighted in the Sheeraza magazine published by JandK Academy of Art, Culture and Language.

64 Mahjoor was not withholding only the traditional way of writing ghazal (Lyric) poetry by following his predecessors but what makes him different is the new way of writing. It would be wrong to say that Mahjoor laid the foundation of Nazm (Descriptive form of poetry) in Kashmiri literature, but there were many Sufi poets who wrote such type of poetry before him. Mahjoor added new things to it and certainly brought innovations in this form of poetry. The circumstances at that time too were highly responsible which compelled Mahjoor to think about the changes that should be brought in Kashmiri poetry. It was after the rebellion against the Dogra rule that the political atmosphere took a new turn and literary crusade started against them. This was one of the main reasons that Mahjoor took a new turn and infused a new spirit in the Kashmiri poetry. At the same time, the wave of political metamorphosis also engulfed him and provided him enough material to express his sentiments. These innovations in his poetry are visible in his later poems as they are filled with revolutionary themes. Poem Lokchaar (Childhood) is considered as one of the most important poem written by Mahjoor. At the time of writing this poem, Mahjoor’s age was almost 47 (Forty Seven). In this poem, Mahjoor apparently laments on the loss of childhood. The ‘childhood’ also signifies towards whole Kashmir, when it used to be free of conflict.

The socio-political scenario is presented in a very candid manner by Mahjoor in another poem “How soon after enchanting me you left, I Wizard.” When Mahjoor felt that the common man’s needs are not addressed but instead are being pushed to the wall, he raised a voice against the establishment and the rulers more and more:

Life’s spring time, O my youth! How like high midsummer was my youth, Tempting the world with lifted veil! But alas, the blossoms remained for a day! (Mahjoor, Ghulam 72)

Mahjoor’s most important poem Yemberzal (Narcissus) occupies the most significant place in the poetic genre of Kashmiri poetry. This poem clearly and categorically provides an insight into the destiny of the man and his helplessness. Mahjoor says:

Spring has sent me with a message, And I came running all the way-

65 But how shall I say spring’s leaving fast, And what am I say to summer? And what shall I say to violet, Ivy, Sumbal and the yellow flower… (81)

Through different flowers, animals and gardens, he updates a person about his essence and evokes him to start a new life, full of enthusiasm and valour. In this way, this poem too is dealing with the progressive movement with an indirect touch of resistance and urge for freedom.

Ashok Jaitley13, an Indian civil servant in an interview with Victoria Schofield in 1995 says’ “…If not to their geographical ambitions. “[Azaadi] is not a geographical concept but an emotional one, the freedom to be themselves with dignity and self-respect wherever they can get it” (qtd. in Schofiled 30). There is no doubt that the hue and cry against the Dogra regime was because of the feudalism prevalent in the society and to eradicate it, Mahjoor played a key role. The slogan of economic freedom gave rise to the sentiment of Azaadi (Freedom) among the people after the political scenario changed in Kashmir. It is important to mention that Mahjoor definitely raised a voice against feudalism but his poetry also envisages the sentiment of Azadi (Freedom) as well. This sentiment grew stronger after partition in the sub- continent, which is echoed among the writings of other writers of Kashmir like Agha Shahid Ali, Shahnaz Bashir, Mirza Waheed and others. Indian novelist Salman Rushdie in his novel Shalimar the Clown (2005) also mentions the hardships faced by the people in day to day affairs, which has turned their life into a dungeon. Rushdie is talking about the situation after partition, but in reality highlights the actual sentiments of the people that have never faded away. Kashmiris definitely achieved economic freedom from the Dogras, but they feel alienated from the rest of the people from the Indian sub-continent. Rushdie states:

He saw the boats like little fingers tracing lines in the surface of the waters and the flowers too numberless to name… No, he would not ride out into Kashmir, did not want to see her scarred face , the lines of burning oil drums across the roads, the wrecked vehicles, the smoke of explosions, the broken houses, the broken people, the tanks, the anger and fear in everyone. (305)

13 Ashok Jaitley was the Indian civil servant and former chief secretary of JandK state.

66 However, Rushdie emerged as a writer many years after Mahjoor but what is important is the reflection of the change of sentiments among the people from mere economical to political or geographical one. Importantly, Mahjoor’s revolutionary poetry became a new sensation among the youths of Kashmir in the contemporary times. It indicates the living spirit and appeal of his poetry for all times. His poetry has never lost the relevance in Kashmir but has taken firm roots in the minds of the people. The sentiment as claimed by Jaitley didn’t remain confined to economic field but changed into a geographical one on a large scale. It can be said that this craving for the homeland remains in the heart of hearts among writers and the common people alike. If Mahjoor presents the image of the uncommon situation of his times, Rushdie too presents the picture of Kashmir of a different period. The common point between both the writers is that they unearth the emotional values of the people of Kashmir to judge whether they are yearning for economic or the geographical freedom. Catherine Miquel vividly presents the picture of the people caught in conflict between Indian forces and the rebels across the border from Pakistan in relation to Salman Rushdie’s novel Shalimar the Clown (2005):

Shalimar the Clown describes in detail all the trials and suffering to which the inhabitants of the mountain villages of Kashmir are subjected, squeezed as they are between the Indian army, eager to uncover and oppress “rebels” reluctant to agree that Kashmir is “an integral part of India”, and the pro- Pakistan Islamists. (Miquel 151)

Thus, it may be opined that Mahjoor through his poetry completely expresses the wishes and aspirations of the people. He laid the foundation of a new struggle for freedom and infused the spirit of nationalism and revolutionary zeal among the people. In a very simplistic tone, he put forth his ideas before the hoi polloi to make them aware of their past and their history. The most fascinating point about the poetry of Mahjoor is its uniqueness and mass appeal. Mahjoor’s poem Yemberzal (Narcissus) shows the helplessness of a man before fate. Another poet namely Ghulam Nabi Firaq14 too has written a poem Yemberzal (Narcissus), but it cannot be compared with Mahjoor’s poem. The first verse of Mahjoor’s poem creates a storm like situation in one’s mind and gives birth to novel thoughts:

14 A poet and famous educationist of Kashmir of the 20th century.

67 He placed me in a predicament! Bewildered, what can a Yemberzal Say to others, like the spring, The morning breeze and the dew? (Mahjoor, Ghulam 81)

Firaq in his poem too wanted to show the fragility of life and compares this world with the short life of Yemberzal (Narcissus) flower. But what surprises is that Firaq has not highlighted any sign of sadness and regret like Mahjoor:

I am perplexed when the Bulbul Asks for news from there! I may evade him on some excuse, But how shall I bluff my own heart? (81)

Mahjoor in poem Yemberzal (Narcissus) conveys the message of the vulnerability of the world in a simple language but the poem by Firaq is difficult to comprehend. The poem of Firaq is not inferior to Mahjoor’s poem in any way but the sweetness, clarity and lucidity in Mahjoor’s poem is unmatched in opposition to Firaq’s poem. Mahjoor uses simple method to express his views as was earlier put forth by William Wordsworth:

The language too, of these men has been adopted (purified indeed from what appear to be its real defects, from all lasting and rational causes of dislike or disgust) because such men hourly communicate with the best objects from which the best part of language is originally derived…they convey their feelings and notions in simple and unelaborated expressions. (Wordsworth 33)

Therefore, Mahjoor’s poetry stands between traditional and modern poetry. He inculcated new themes in his poetry which are not found in his earlier poetry and retained the tradition of writing Ghazals (Lyrics). He “discarded stylized love, foreign symbols, and the sights and sounds of Arabia … he did realize that the conventional fountains had almost run dry and that the only thing that would give life and vitality to his verse was a new theme”. (Raina, A History 104)

Thus, the Kashmiri poetry which had been occupied by the Sufi content and style from the 14th century was freed from the bondage by the untiring efforts of Mahjoor. It would be difficult to say that he wouldn’t have shifted to Kashmiri

68 language if he had not been advised by poet Iqbal. Undoubtedly, he may have been influenced by some elements but he was entangled in such a situation which forced him to embrace Kashmiri language. The poet was compelled by the unavoidable circumstances to bring certain necessary changes in the poetic genre. There is no doubt in the fact that before Mahjoor, other Kashmiri poets too had made their mark in Kashmiri poetry but what makes Mahjoor’s poetry different is the wider mass appeal and the attention it got from the general public. If Mahjoor had not been given the title of Shair-e-Kashmir (National Poet of Kashmir) by Sheikh Abdullah led National Conference, he still would have been considered as the greatest poet of the Kashmir so far. Rahman Rahi, an eminent poet and intellectual of the 20th century of Kashmir has paid a rich tribute to him in the following verses in a Mushaira (Poetic Symposium) in 1987:

His proper tomb has been raised And a debt to history paid. We feel today we are awake Our dignity soaring into the sky… Also proudly the praise Tagore lavished on Mahjoor… (qtd. in Raina, Ghulam 89)

The partial patronage which Mahjoor got from the Muslim Conference turned National conference under Sheikh Abdullah was for their own political gains as their sole purpose was to attract masses to propagate their own agenda. A verse from Muzaffar Razmi highly suits Mahjoor as a victim of political circles:

Past is witness to wrong deeds that have been accomplished In moments for which whole generation had to bear the brunt for centuries (Razmi 21) (Translation Mine)

Thus, it can be said that Mahjoor came as a poet with a different method and conventions to break the age old tradition of poetry by incorporating new themes and style. He definitely deviated from the predecessor poets in content and introduced new modern themes of nationalism, politics and revolutionary zeal. The way Eliot says that the intervention of the new artist is necessary to modify the “past order, so that the whole relationship is readjusted once again” (Eliot Tradition 37). It vindicates that the poet has “no personality to express, but a particular medium, which is only a

69 medium and not a personality, in which impressions and experiences combine in peculiar and unexpected ways…” (41). Mahjoor certainly brought a renaissance and revolution in Kashmiri literature and retained the lyrical tradition of poetry as followed earlier by Habba Khatoon and Arnimal. He highlighted the problems of the poor and the downtrodden, which at that time was sine qua non for the political and economic conditions of Kashmir. He was revolutionary in the sense as he portrayed the problems of the women folk, invoked the people to rise against oppression, stressed on unity and culture through his poetry. Additionally, he broke the barriers of discrimination, inequality, injustice and exploitation.

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72 CHAPTER III

Irish Nationalism, Revolution and Yeats

It lay five hundred years. Yet if no change appears No moon; only an aching heart Conceives a changeless work of art (Yeats, The Tower 9)

There has been a lot of argy-bargy whether to accredite Yeats as a nationalist and revolutionary poet and Ireland as a colonized country or not. It would be important to discuss the term ‘Postcolonialism’ prior to discussing Yeats as a nationalist revolutionary poet and Ireland as a colonized country. Coming to the term postcolonialism, it has always remained a moot point among the literary bigwigs and scholars. Peter Childs and Patrick Williams in their book An Introduction to Post- Colonial Theory (1997) believe that postcolonialism “is the end of one period of history and the beginning of another ….in any simple or unproblematic fashion” (1). Critic Aijaz Ahmad also argues that “Postcolonialism makes the history of colonized people’s history subservient to colonialism” (19). In the academic field, a postcolonial study focuses on the exploitation of the colonies and its inhabitants by colonizers on cultural, political, geographical and material level.

Postcolonialism doesn’t only mean the period after colonialism but it also includes the period during colonial domination. Stuart Hall says “it (Postcolonialism) is not only ‘after’ ‘but going beyond’ the colonial” (15). It starts from the day when the colonizer/colonizers infiltrates and violates the sovereignty of another country unlawfully and rules over the subjects unwaveringly. In The Empire Writes Back (1989), postcolonialism is defined as, “Post-Colonial, however to cover all the culture affected by the imperial process from the moment of colonization to the present day” (Ashcroft et al 2).

Postcolonial writer/literature contradicts the value system, criteria and the cultural hegemony of a colonizer. He questions the colonial attitude and the framework shaped in the colonial literature and tries to counter it through his own writings. Critic Dianna Brydon says “Postcolonialism describes the process of rethinking attitudes toward colonialism and its aftermath, including the terms and

73 categories in which that Knowledge has been cast” (4). Ania Loomba and Declan Kiberd too have expressed their opinions on postcolonialism. Loomba believes that “it is more helpful to think of postcolonialism not just as coming literally after colonialism and signifying its demise, but more flexibly as the contestation of colonial domination and the legacies of colonialism” (12). Kiberd also states that the emergence of postcolonialism is not the end of colonizer’s evacuation from the land of colonized “but the very moment when a native writer formulates a text committed to cultural resistance” (Kiberd, Inventing 6). In this way, the definitions of postcolonialism vary from one critic to another as there has been various colonial experiences from time to time at different places in the world. Lastly, Peter Childs and Patrick Williams believe that “postcolonial texts which are anti-colonial, reject the premises of colonialist intervention… might be regarded as postcolonial insofar as they have got beyond colonialism and its ideologies, broken free of its lures to a point from which to mount a critique or counter-attack” (4). It covers the areas of representation, ethnicity, nationalism and much more. So, postcolonialism can’t be termed as a homogenous group as diverse forms of de-colonization has emerged from time to time. In this way, Ireland is one such country with a different case.

Ireland has a troubled political history from the very beginning. Initially, it had to face the invasion from the Normans in the 12th century and then under the British occupation, it remained as a colony for centuries. Despite being a European country like other neighbouring countries, Ireland too couldn’t escape the horrors of colonialism. The colonial relationship of Ireland with Britain had the drastic implications on its overall development. The British domination made Ireland subservient not only politically, economically and socially but on the cultural level also. Irish critic Seamus Deane says that “Ireland is the only Western European country that has had both an early and a late colonial experience” (Deane, Introduction 3). In order to free themselves from the yokes of colonialism, Irish people from all walks of life including activists, writers, common men and poets took an active part. After the Irish war of Independence in 1921-22, a large section of Ireland including twenty six (26) counties decided to secede from Britain and form a new nation which later came to be recognized as the Republic of Ireland in 1948. However, the rest of Ireland i.e., Northern Ireland remained the part of United Kingdom.

74 The British government since the 16th century made different attempts to integrate Ireland under British imperialism. In order to mobilize their strivings, British settlers from time to time were implanted in Ireland with the sole aim to anglicize the Irish natives. This process continued till the 18th century. Rather than making a political alliance with Ireland, the English settlers had made the life of Irish Catholic majority miserable. The Catholics were deprived of their basic rights of education, property and voting. When the anger among the Irish people grew day by day, the British government was left with no option but to make a union with Ireland after the rebellion broke out in the year 1800. Despite the union between Ireland and Britain, the condition of Irish Catholics was same as before because of the pressure from Irish Protestants. These developments had a tremendous impact on the overall political history of Ireland. When the whole European world was progressing by leaps and bounds, Ireland was deprived and could not achieve the benefits as it would have been impossible for them as a colony. That means Ireland could not take the advantage of the fast-growing industrialization and enlightenment. These things certainly created distrust between Britishers and Irish people and became a reason for the creation of different anti-British movements in Ireland.

As far as the discussion of Ireland as the colony is concerned, it emerged after the publication of Terry Eagleton’s book Nationalism, Irony and Commitment (1988) and Edward Said’s Yeats and Decolonization (1988). There is no doubt that Ireland’s case as a colony was different from other colonies because of its similarity with other European nations in terms of geography and language. It forced some critics not to characterize Ireland as a postcolonial country. One such critic is Liam Kennedy, who in his essay “Modern Ireland’, Post-Colonial society or Post-Colonial Pretensions” vehemently refuses to accept Ireland as a colonized country because he believes that in the 20th century, its history of colonial experience cannot be deemed appropriate. In the same way, echoing Kennedy’s claim of not ascribing Ireland as colony, the authors of the The Empire Writes Back (1989) too have refused to ascribe Ireland as a postcolonial country. It is astonishing that these critics have included other countries in the category of postcolonial nations like Australia and Canada but there is no mention of Ireland. They believe that the postcolonial countries are the one “whose culture has been highly affected because of the horrors of Colonization” (Ashcroft et al 2).

75 It is imperative to mention that like other postcolonial nations of Africa and Asia, Ireland as a country too had been exploited on a large scale in a different ways. Although, unlike other colonies, Ireland has not been labelled as the colony on an official level but they had to face the economic and cultural exploitation like the other colonies of the world. The most important way to categorize Ireland as a colonial country is to compare it with other colonies of the world outside the European world. Like other colonized countries, they were regarded inferior despite being white in colour as Ania Loomba quotes Charles Kingsley after he returned from his trip from Ireland; “I am haunted by the human chimpanzees i saw along that hundred miles of horrible country....But to see white chimpanzees is dreadful; if they were black, one would not feel it so much…” (Loomba 109).

However, Edward Said defies all those critics, who have been reluctant to categorize Ireland as a postcolonial country and Yeats as a nationalist cum revolutionary poet. In his book, Culture and Imperialism (1993), he argues “that the Europe’s special ways of representing the Caribbean Islands, Ireland and the far East among them are ‘the stereotypes about ‘the African (or Indian or Irish or Jamaican or Chinese) mind” (11). Said’s claim refutes Rudyard Kipling, who was considered as the vehement supporter of the British Empire. Kipling had feared the anti-British revolutions against British Empire by the Indian and Irish masses in his famous novel Kim (1901). At a time, when Ireland was decolonized in all its spheres, it became a source of inspiration for other colonized countries. One can easily argue how Ireland can be considered as a colonized country despite the fact that the inhabitants belong to white race from Europe. Importantly, Ireland was considered part and parcel of British Empire in colonizing the countries like India as different missionaries sent to India from time to time were mostly Irish. But, it is necessary to keep in mind that they too had to bear the pain of social, political, cultural and economic stigma.

Apart from Yeats, who can be evaluated from the nationalistic and revolutionary perspective, there are other Irish writers, who were in search for an Irish identity and wanted to revive the national culture and heritage. One such example is James Joyce. His most important novel A Portrait of Artist as a Young Man (1916) presents the picture of an artist as a colonized one. During the conversation between Dean and Stephen in the novel, they use two different words for the same thing and

76 the English man uses another which confounds them all. It was a sort of an epiphany on the part of the artist, which ultimately led him to the ultimate realization.

To put Yeats in the domain of nationalist/revolutionary writers makes his writing more interesting as it has always been his desire to create a national literature on his own. Edward Said has vehemently claimed Yeats as a nationalist revolutionary poet like Pablu Neruda in these words:

Just as Neruda saw no difficulty in thinking of himself as a poet who dealt with both internal colonialism in Chile and with external imperialism throughout Latin America, we should think of Yeats, I believe, as an Irish poet with more than strictly local Irish meaning and applications. Neruda accepted him as a national poet representing Irish nation in its war against tyranny and, according to Neruda, Yeats responded positively to that unmistakably anti- fascist call, despite his frequently cited dispositions towards European fascism. (Said, Culture 281)

A large number of critics from time to time have thrown light on Irish nationalism, but there is certainly a lot more to explore in Yeats’ poetry. Before discussing nationalism in relation to Yeats, it is imperative to mention that Ireland unlike other countries of the world is neither multi-cultural nor multi-lingual society. But the idea and feeling of nationalism was rooted in them for a long time. The yearning for a separate identity with the political sovereignity had taken firm roots in the hearts of the Irish people. In this context, Seamus Deane in her introduction to book Nationalism, Colonialism and Literature (1990) says that “Irish nationalism is, in its foundational moments, a derivative of its British counterpart. Almost, all nationalist movements have been derided as provincial, actually or potentially racist, given to exclusivist and doctrinaire positions and rhetoric” (7). It means all nationalist movements try to show and dig their ‘essence of being’. Deane further retorts:

The nationalisms have a metaphysical dimension, for they are all driven by an ambition to realize their intrinsic essence in some specific and tangible form…This is the characteristic of colonial and imperial nations. Because they universalize themselves, they regard any insurgency against them as necessarily provincial…They are usually, as in Ireland, under the additional

77 disadvantage that much of their past has been destroyed, silenced, erased. Therefore, the amalgam they produce is susceptible to attack and derision. (9)

In addition to this, a colonizer always considers his model as an ideal one, which all other nations should follow blindly. Any type of reaction in any form is considered provincial by them. In response to this, the revolutionary nationalists try to find out their basic foundation by reviving the past history and culture. The colonized always link the problems of the present with the past because they think the failure is the result of the negligence of particular “national character of a nation” (Deane, Introduction 9).

In the same way, French philosopher and theorist Ernest Renan in his lecture at University of Sorbonne in 1882 title Qu’est-ce qu’une nation? (What is a Nation) maintained “that nation is not formed by language, race or territory but it is a culmination of a long past of endeavours, sacrifice and devotion. A heroic past, great men glory, that is the social capital upon which one bases a national idea” (Renan). It is a “soul and a spiritual principle” (Renan) and in this sense Yeats was in search of an ethos of Ireland, culminated through his poetry. Edward Said is also of the view that nationalism serves as a “mobilizing force that coalesced into resistance against an alien and occupying empire on the part of peoples possessing a common history, religion, and language” (Said Yeats 74). Yeats himself believed that a nationalist is one “who is ready to give up a great deal that he may preserve to his country whatever part of her possessions he is best fitted to guard” (Yeats, The Collected Works 35).

In the Irish freedom struggle, both cultural and political nationalists were never on the same page and always held different viewpoints about the future of Ireland. Cultural nationalists especially Doughlas Hyde was of the opinion that revival of Gaelic past and literature is more important than political goals. His counterpart and opponent John Dillon however was sympathetic with the cultural cause of Ireland, but his views were an antithesis to Doughlas Hyde. He believed in the self- government at the national level. For him, too much emphasis on culture would deteriorate the already fragile conditions of Ireland by dividing the people on sectarian and language basis. Hyde believed that the Anglicization of Irish culture is the biggest challenge and threat to cater with. So, he eventually, founded the Gaelic league with an aim to educate the Irish masses about the Ireland’s rich cultural

78 history. Likewise, John Dillon in order to mobilize his aims primarily laid an emphasis on land reforms and education for Catholics. His address on The Necessity of De-Anglicizing Ireland on 25th November 1892 before Irish National Literary Society is demonstrated as a driving force for the revival of Irish past and culture:

On the one hand, Irish people are demanding and struggling for independence from Britishers but on the other hand, our cultural and social lineage is dying a slow death. The only way to come out from this problem is to revisit the Irish past. However, he made a startling argument at the end of the lecture by saying that it is impossible to write Irish literature in an English language. (Hyde)

The lecture by Hyde motivated Yeats to reckon, which highly impacted his poetic career. Eventually, he wrote a letter to the editor of the newspaper United Ireland on 17 December 1892:

Can we not build up a national tradition, a national literature, which shall be none the less Irish in spirit from being English in language? Can we not keep the continuity of the nation’s life, not by trying what Dr. Hyde has practically pronounced impossible, but by translating or retelling in English, which shall have an indefinable Irish quality of rhythm and style, all that is best of the ancient literature? Can we not write and persuade others to write histories and romances of the great Gaelic men of the past, from the son of Nessa to Owen, until there has been made a golden bridge between the old and the new? (Yeats, The Collected Letters 312-315)

Yeats wanted to build up the Irish national literature, which would be totally different from the British literature to revive an Irish identity. In order to move forward with the mission, he gave the example of America, which had no rich past of its own, yet they stood as a great nation by saying; “with no past to speak of, a mere parvenu among the nations” (qtd. in Longley 41).

In the modern world, cultural nationalist movements have played a big role in achieving the idea of a nation as an independent entity. These movements’ help in reviving the rich cultural and historical past of countries and at the same time influences the various social and political groups to achieve a common political goal.

79 In Ireland’s freedom struggle, cultural nationalism played a dominant part after the establishment of Royal Irish Academy in 1785. Nationalism in Ireland was a phenomenon adversely affected by diverse political innuendo. Yeats’ poetry and some of his dramas like Cathleen ni Houlihan (1902) provide a justified view of him being a revolutionary nationalist. For Yeats, it was a way of recognizing the Irish community and Ireland as a nation. Independent and separate Irish national culture was always a source of inspiration for him, who yearned to see Ireland as an independent nation with a specific identity. Yeats exhausted his efforts by inventing an independent Irish tradition in the English language but didn’t try to follow the footsteps of the English writers like Jonathan Swift and Edmund Burke. He was anxious of re-inventing the ‘Irishness’, a serious effort among all the Irish writers. These elements gave birth to the question of identity, race, character and it is with the help of these characteristics, a cry for a separate identity mushroomed Ireland like a wildfire.

To materialize his aim, he thought it necessary to re-visit the old Irish legends, past history, Irish myth and folklore. However, it was not only the culture, which tempted Yeats to revive it. But “Yeats as a poet was involved in this process of bringing about the downfall of imperial domination in Ireland, and Said implies that poetry can have a crucial role in the business of politics. Yeats is not alone in delineating the 'contours of an "imagined" or ideal community” (Said, Yeats 84). After years of subjugation and rule under Britishers, Irish people started to show resistance against the English government from time to time under the leadership of revolutionaries like O’Neill, Wolfe Tone and Edward Fitzgerald. They made an arduous attempt to unite Ireland into one nation and free the country from foreign rule. In order to regenerate and rejuvenate the Irish nation engulfed in demoralization, Yeats preferred English language as a medium to develop the old Gaelic civilization along with the cultural nationalists and the people affiliated with politics. In the poem “September 1913”, Yeats remembers these revolutionary personalities and paid homage to them in these verses:

…For this that all that blood was shed, For this Edward Fitzgerald died, And Robert Emmet and Wolfe Tone, All that delirium of the brave?

80 Romantic Ireland’s dead and gone, It’s with O’Leary in the grave… (Yeats, The Collected 108)

Besides remembering the legendary figures of Ireland, there is also the connotative meaning of this poem. The poet wants the Irish people to know the political figures of Ireland and their contribution for the Irish cause. The poem is an example of a true artist who uses poetry to encourage the people for revolution against oppressors by naming Irish revolutionaries like Thomas Davis, John O’ Leary, Robert Emmet and Edward Fitzgerald. It also signifies Yeats’ acknowledgement of the sacrifices of the Irish nationalists from time to time. The poet slightly refers to the romantic setting in the poem by saying ‘Romantic Ireland is dead and gone’. In this context, Edward said in his essay “Yeats and Decolonization” calls Yeats as an anti- colonialist writer and argues that the “‘anti-imperialist’ resistance writer distances himself from the colonial master through imagination” (77). Hence, there is a vital need to give foremost importance to the identity of that geographical place that has been forcibly grabbed by the colonizer. The colonizer in order to take a firm control on a territory first transforms it environmentally, socially, politically and thereby completely dislocating the native from his origins. In this way, a nationalist revolutionary poet feels the pain to go back to the past traditions and culture in a more romantic way. So, the “imagination of anti-imperialism and space at home in the peripheries has been usurped and put to use by outsiders for their purpose” (79). It is therefore necessary to reinvent and relive the past, not only to visit the historical times but to fix the gap that has been forcibly deprived in the past, which is conveyed by the verse; “Romantic Ireland is dead and gone” (Yeats, The Collected 103). Through this verse, it becomes very clear that poem is filled with the romantic refinement juxtaposed with Irish historical sensation.

Yeats was well aware about the fact that Ireland had a vast literature in the form of folklore and mythology preserved by poets and artists through centuries. Yeats, in order to preserve the rich cultural heritage, highly endorsed the vastness of the Irish culture. He considered it as his responsibility to uphold that culture and maintain its sanctity at any cost. In the following lines, he takes us back to the Irish past:

81 Has maddened every mother’s son They weighed so lightly what they gave. But let them be, they’re dead and gone, They’re with O’Leary in the grave (109)

It means that the poet in one way or the other touched the culture and political history of Ireland. It was an attempt to save Irish culture from Anglicization and British colonialism. In this regard, George Boyce asserts:

Ireland had a class of poets (file) whose place in early Irish society was similar to that of the druid in ancient Gaul, that of the omnipotent man of learning, the seer. These poets preserved a kind of history compounded of folklore, racial memories, mythology, dynastic propaganda, genealogy, and they were the guardians and expounders of traditional law… (Nationalism 28)

Conscious of his political and literary past of Ireland, Yeats couldn’t escape from it. It is important to mention that at the time of Yeast’ birth, Irish freedom struggle was at its peak and the Irish freedom fighters were highly revered for their contribution to the Irish cause. T.S. Eliot famously argued that Yeats was “one of those few poets whose history is the history of their own time, who are part of the consciousness of an age which cannot be understood without them” (qtd. in Foster 1).

Though, Ireland has produced many great literary figures like Bernard Shaw, James Joyce, Samuel Beckett, Seamus Heaney and many others, but Yeats is regarded with much reverence and is considered as a national poet of Ireland. During his lifetime, he has witnessed different upheavals which Ireland had to undergo like the Irish civil war (1922- 1923), Easter Rising (1916) and Irish war of independence (1919-1921), which left a deep impact on his poetic career. These events were the main causes for refurbishing the Ireland’s identity and national character. Edward Said too calls Yeats “A great modern Irish poet, deeply affiliated and interacting with his native traditions, the historical and political context of his times… great nationalist poet who articulates the experiences, the aspirations, and the vision of a people suffering under the dominion of an offshore power” (Yeats 69).

Edward Said has solely been involved with Yeats so far as the Ireland’s freedom struggle is concerned. It signifies that Yeats had been the true representative

82 of the Ireland. Yeats by Said has been branded as a revolutionary on the ground that he is the sole Irish artist, to resist the British domination. Apart from this, the theme of regeneration in Yeats’ poetry further takes us back to Nietzsche, Blake and Shelley. He was privy to the development brought by industrialization and the capitalism and the disorder it has created in the European world at a large scale. This too was one of the reasons, Yeats preferred the traditional themes in his poetry more than the modern ones. He vehemently spoke like these writers for the emancipation from the fetters “forged by the conspiracy between British empirical philosophy and the urban industrial capitalism” (Deane, Yeats, Ireland 39) in his poem “Fragments”:

Locke swank into a swoon; The Garden died; God took the spinning-jenny Out of his side. Where got I that truth? Out of a medium’s mouth… (Yeats, The Tower 18)

Said’s view is highly sustainable that Yeats is a nationalist writer, whose aim was to relive the past in order to maintain the sanctity of the ‘Irishness’. This has been the main issue of all nationalist writers to energize their particular identity in one way or the other. But, it can also be said that in order to energize the nationalist themes linked with the regeneration, Yeats thought it compulsory to study the domains of magic and history to build up a concrete “history of philosophy, which was also a philosophy of history” (Deane, Yeats, Ireland 39). Thus, to stress on an idea of ‘Irishness’ was to combat the empirical tradition for Yeats and eventually the emphasis on “the Romantic origin of Englishness, the way Coleridge has done it before. But what makes Coleridge and Yeats different is that Yeats thrusted on the concept of the philosophers like Hobbes” (39). Deane further retorts that “just as Coleridge had, in the process, emphasized a peculiar concept of Englishness that had existed before Locke, Hobbes and Bacon in order to give edge to his own concept of Irishness that had always been opposed to the empirical tradition” (57).

Yeats’ involvement in Irish politics made him an ambassador of freedom for his country. After the Great Famine (1845-49) in Ireland, he joined the Fenian group, the main aim of which was the establishment of a sovereign Irish Republic under the

83 leadership of great nationalist O’Leary. Yeats’ meeting with O’ Leary turned out to be a turning point in his literary career. It stresses on the Yeats revolutionary outlook as the Fenian group had the aim of bringing revolution in Ireland to change the Status quo. He considered it vital for the Irish artists to work for the liberation of Ireland “who are genuinely Irish in thought, subject and style, must, whether they will or no, nourish the forces that make for the political liberties of Ireland.” (qtd. in Cullingford 8-9).

O’Leary had a deep impact on Yeats and through him; he came into contact with Maud Gonne, a great contemporary revolutionary of Ireland. It can be unhesitatingly said that his meeting with her was the turning point of his career. It was after his appointment with them that he turned out to be a nationalist. This is exemplified in the words of Norman Jeffares:

The effect of O’ Leary’s refined doctrines of nationalism upon Yeast’s own development was profound. The poet had brought from Ireland a set of convictions which he was ready to publish whenever possible. In the articles which he wrote for ‘The Boston Pilot’ and ‘The Providence Sunday Journal’ the constant note is that there is no great literature without nationality, no great nationality without literature. (104)

After his meeting Maud Gonne, he became a serious votary of the other nationalist poets like Sir Samuel Ferguson, Thomas Osborne Davis, William Allingham and Standish O’ Grady. In his Autobiographies (1956), he has mentioned the names of these poets:

… the name of Irish literature, and to substitute for it certain neglected writers: Sir Samuel Ferguson, a writer of ballads in their eighteenth century sincerity; Standish O’ Grady, whose History of Ireland retold the Irish heroic tales in romantic Carlylean prose; the Clarence Mangan of the Dark Rosaleen and O’Husseys Ode to the Maguire, our one poet raised to the first rank by intensity, and only that in these or perhaps in the second of these poems. (395- 96)

Yeats’ poem “The sad shepherd” is one among those poems filled with the notion of the consciousness of ‘Irishness’:

84 And my own tale again for me shall sing: And my own whispering words be comforting And lo! my ancient burden may depart Then he sang softly nigh the pearly rim But the sad dweller by the sea-ways lone Changed all he sang to inarticulate moan… (Yeats, The Collected 9)

In the poem, the poet is trying to explain the need and significance of language, used by the poets for the greater Irish cause. It provides a message to the general Irish masses to stand united in the difficult times and forget all the differences. Another poem with similar theme is “The Song of the Sad Shepherd”. This poem in a way is an appeal to the general masses to get in touch with the Irish artists from all walks of life to discuss their problems. Yeats believes that artists in turn will give colour to their emotions or frustrations through art of any form:

Go gather by the humming sea Some twisted, echo-harbouring shell, And to its lips thy story tell, And they thy comforters will be, Rewording in melodious guile They fretful words a little while, (8)

Yeats is actually talking about the problems faced by the Irish poets in re- uniting the Irish masses. In a wider sense, both the poems present a divergent picture of the Irish poets. On the one hand, the poet emphasizes the need of using such type of a language which will present an actual image and aspirations of the people. While on the other hand, Yeats believes that it would be impossible to be the representatives of the people by merely relying on the language. The overall message, Yeats wants to convey is that, it is the responsibility of the poets to overcome this problem and be the true representatives of the people.

Unlike other nationalists, Yeats was not directly a part of any rebellion or any coup d'état but acted as an intellectual nationalist. Apart from his poetry, his dramas, letters, essays provide a clear picture of him as people’s poet. The political and nationalist poems of Yeats such as “The Ballad of Father O’ Hart”, “The Ballad of Moll Magee”, “The Ballad of Foxhunter”, “The Rose” and the “Wanderings of Oisin”

85 are a living example of poet’s concern for the Irish culture, people, nationalism and revolutionary outlook. The poem “Michael Robartes Remembers Forgotten Beauty” presents Yeats’ image as a nationalist writer, while highlighting the Ireland’s lost beauty:

When my arms wrap you around i press My heart upon the loveliness That has long faded from the world; The jewelled crowns that kings have hurled… Through many a sacred corridor Where such grey clouds of incense rose… (Yeats, The Wind 27)

Yeats refers to Maud Gonne in this poem, while talking about the beauty. But in reality, he talks about the Irish past that has been diminished by the chaos of the modern age. The poet claims that Ireland has been robbed of the beauty. He castigates the Britishers of draining Ireland of all the resources and taking them to England. The poet shows the resentment by saying; “The love-tales wrought with silken thread/ By dreaming ladies upon cloth/ That has made fat the murderous moth” (27). This makes Said’s claim clear that the nationalist writer distances himself from the colonizer through imagination. Yeats apparently talks about the loss of beauty like romantic poets. But the main targets are the colonizers, who are responsible for the destruction.

Yeats’ hatred for the British occupation was not only limited to the occupation of Ireland but it also included his hatred for the British literature. It nonetheless exposes the poet’s unprecedented attachment with Ireland. In most of his poetry, the poetic subjects are confined to Ireland and its history, past, legends and folklore. He discredited some Irish nationalist poets like Thomas Moore and John Mitchel. However, they were nationalists but their fault was that they focused on the non-Irish literature and Yeats remarked that “for no man who deserts his own literature for another’s can hope for the highest rank” (Autobiographies 110-112). In a collection of articles titled Irish National Literature, Yeats boasts about the Irish literary tradition that “it greatly takes from the importance of our literature… its writers, no matter what they write of, carry its influence with them, just as Carlyle remained a Scotsman when he wrote of German kings or French revolutionists and Shakespeare” (Yeats, The Collected Works 264). The main aim of the poet was to

86 moralize and regenerate the modern Irish society of Ireland by reviving the Irish past and literature through English language. To achieve that aim, he joined hands with the contemporary nationalists and revolutionaries of Ireland like Lady Gregory and Maud Gonne.

Colonial domination affects the country not only on political and economic level but at the cultural level too. Yeats had this fear that Irish literature and culture may perish during the English rule. He wanted to save the rich culture, tirelessly preserved by his ancestors and predecessors. The insistence on the revival of Gaelic culture by Yeats was because he believed it to be an important way of uniting different sects of people divided into various lines to resist the occupation. Yeats believed that this revivalism will make the people conscious about their past and proud of their nobility. In this regard, Suheil B. Bushrei’s states:

All of the efforts of Yeats' celebrations of Irish nationality were directed toward the spiritual ennoblement of Ireland, and to make the Irish people aware and proud of their nobility. In order to envisage Ireland as it might become Yeats created a national myth, not loosely fabricated, but deeply rooted in heritage and history of Ireland. (Bushrui)

Yeats’ political and cultural poems convey a message about the cultural richness and freedom struggle of Ireland. His inclusion in the ‘Young Ireland Society’, a group of young Irish nationalists like Charles Gavan Duffy, John Dillon and Thomas Davis sparked in him a love for the restoration of the past of Ireland. The discussions at the Young Ireland Society further infused in him a new spirit of nationalism. The members of the society believed that “it is expedient to establish reading rooms in the parishes of Ireland” (Davis 242). Further, they made an ardent effort to create awareness among Irish people about their identity. Robert Welch is of the view that this is a common practice in colonized countries and also in Ireland that “the search for the authentic Irishness and ancient tradition is a phase of the Post- colonial experience when the native... asserts the continuity of racial substrate of the colony in mystical terms” (Welch 34).

Besides focusing more on political issues, Yeats’ cause of concern was the cultural identity of the country also. That is why; he is most of the times labelled as the cultural nationalist more than the political nationalist. But, it can’t be categorically

87 denied that Yeats ignored the political cause altogether. He wholeheartedly supported Ireland’s struggle for freedom. He once opined; “All the Irish singers, who in reality are Irish in style and language must encourage those forces, who can work for the Ireland’s liberation” (Autobiographies 100). The poem “An Irishman Foresees his Death” uncovers the poet’s love for Ireland in these verses:

I know that I shall meet my fate Somewhere among the clouds above; Those that I fight i do not hate, Those that I guard i do not love; My country is Kiltartan cross, My country is Kiltartan’s poor… (Yeats, The Wild 13)

The poem presents the actual picture of Yeats’ allegiance towards his nation. In the poem, the poet represents the whole of Ireland and didn’t want to take part in the war or side with the Britishers. He wants to die somewhere else rather than in the war. The poet categorically refuses to be on the colonizers side. The verses; “Those that i fight i do not hate, Those that i guard i do not love...” (13) reveals his wish to live an independent life without any domination of others. The poet means to say that he has his own identity and country and the forcible domination from Britishers irks him. At the same time, the poem highlights the futility of war and the destruction faced by the war torn countries. Additionally, it alludes towards the fatigued soldiers in war, distressed by the continuous fight and the destruction. The poem resembles with Rudyard Kipling’s poem “My Jack Boy” in which Kipling is distressed by the loss of lives in the First World War in 1914. He reflects the pain of all those parents, who have lost their loved one’s during the war. Similarly, Yeats also highlights the futility of war and the destruction followed by it: I balanced all, brought all to mind, The years to come seemed waste of breath, A waste of breath the years behind In balance with this life, this death… (13)

Other than the poems dealing with cultural content of Irish art and culture, some of his poems like “Easter 1916”, “September 1913”, “Nineteen Hundred Nineteen” are revolutionary poems with a mass appeal. The poem “Sixteen Dead

88 Men” is another poem written on the death of the revolutionaries. The opening stanza of the poem presents the picture of the turbulent times during Ireland’s struggling for independence. Yeats depicts the frustration, loss and the disappointment of the Irish masses:

Many ingenious lovely things are gone… That seemed sheer miracle to the multitude, We too had many pretty toys when young; A law indifferent to blame or praise, To bribe or threat; habits that made old wrong Melt down, as it were wax in the sun’s rays; (Yeats, The Collected 182)

The poem is filled with emotions and Yeast’s attachment with Irish freedom struggle. It is an impassioned speech to arouse nationalist feelings among the Irish people:

…The sixteen men were shot, But who can talk of give and take, What should be and what not While those dead men are loitering there To stir the boiling pot... That have an ear alone For those new comrades they have found, Lord Edward and Wolf Tone… (182)

Yeats wants Irish people to act bravely and bear the pain of struggle against Britishers. The poem reflects the changing political situation of Ireland under the influence of revolutionaries. Noted literary critic Stephen Burt is of the view that “...it is with his poems on public events, which imply—none more so than “Nineteen Hundred and Nineteen”—that political art can reach its zenith only when political action, as such, has failed” (The Nation). Yeats has categorically emphasized on the authority of the general public and the distressing events in the poem. He throws a light on the Irish rebel leaders and their swift action to tackle the atrocities. The continuous use of the word ‘bone’ in the poem illustrates the power of public rebellion on domination and oppression. Dr. Lucy Collins from University College Dublin claims that the poem “is a new political narrative in dialogue with

89 revolutionaries of the past-Edward Fitzgerald and Wolfe Tone-and here Yeats recalls his own idealization of those men in an earlier poem, ‘September 1913... (Lucy). Yeats highlights the brutality of the notorious force, known as ‘The Blacks and Tans1’, who mercilessly killed a women by saying:

…a drunken soldiery Can leave the mother, murdered at her door, To crawl in her own blood, and go scot-free; The night can sweat with terror as before (Yeats, The Collected 182)

Similarly, the poem “Easter 1916” vividly presents the political stance of the poet. Although, Yeats was against the violent means of achieving independence, but the execution of revolutionaries at the hands of Britishers shocked him. In the poem, he praises their valour and presents their picture as:

That woman's days were spent Ignorant good-will, Until her voice grew shrill. Her nights in argument What voice more sweet than hers When, young and beautiful, (180)

Yeats expresses shock on the death of one of the revolutionaries namely John MacBride, former husband of Maud Gonne. He criticizes him by saying a “drunken and vain glorious lout” (181). Its reason would have been his unshakeable love for Maud Gonne but he also admits his sacrifice for the Irish nation by saying ‘a terrible beauty is born’. The way, Yeats describes him in the poem, it appears as if he was least expecting that common person like him would become revolutionary figure one day. But at the same time, he praises the beauty of another revolutionary Constance Markieviz and acknowledges the sacrifice of Thomas MacDonagh and Patrick Pearse; “I write it out in a verse-/ MacDonagh and MacBride/ and Connolly and Pearse...” (182). The poem portrays the zeal of the Irish people against British domination in a powerful manner. Most interesting thing in this poem is the admixture of tragedy and

1 It was an Irish Constabulary force created by the then British secretary of state for war Winston Churchill. The purpose of its creation was to assist Royal Irish Constabulary to crush the Irish war of Independence.

90 comedy as Dr. Lucy believes that “seeds of ‘the terrible beauty...in reference to the motley and to the ‘casual comedy’- Yeats allows the ideals of the rebels to be viewed lightly, before their full implications may be recognized” (Lucy). It can be argued that Yeats in the poem shows his full sympathies with the revolutionaries. The verse; “Terrible beauty is born” (Yeats, The Collected Poems 180) unveils frustration and anger of the poet and the future plans to resist and fight against the domination. Thus, the poem highlights the revolutionary spirit of the poet. Some critics believe that Yeats has shown ambivalence regarding the event:

He celebrated them (rebels) as quasi-mythological martyrs of the fight for freedom, but acknowledged that their ethic of blood sacrifice had contributed to civil war brutalities, and had permanently inflamed the temper of public life in Ireland. He accused himself of creating the climate in which that ethic had developed. ‘Now I began running through the years from my youth up and measure[d] my responsibility for an event that has been a great grief to me & many mother[s]. He viewed this responsibility sometimes with pride, sometimes with shame, but always with a deep sense of personal involvement. (Cullingford 85)

Yeats at the same time questions the role of the revolutionaries in the poem as if the whole sacrifice has gone in vain; “Was it needless death after all?/ For England may keep faith” (Yeats, The Collected Poems 182). As a whole, he doesn’t question the sacrifice of the revolutionaries but the political atmosphere of Ireland. Maud Gonne comes to his rescue and considers him a great revolutionary poet in the following words; “Without Yeats there would have been no literary revival in Ireland. Without the inspiration of that revival and the glorification between beauty and heroic virtue...They were poets and writers who led Irish youth to die, that Ireland might live…” (Cullingford 88).

Maud Gonne is of the view that the Easter happening was helpful for the Irish cause so far its affect on the people of Ireland is concerned. The poem clearly highlights the revolutionary potential of Yeats:

To murmur name upon name, As a mother names her child When sleep at last has come

91 On limbs that had run wild What is it but nightfall? NO, no, not night but death (Yeats, The Collected 181)

The tragic event of 1916 highly influenced the artistic circle of Ireland. An Irish revolutionary poet namely Canon Charles O’Neill has written a poem “The Foggy Dew” in which he wails on the death of revolutionaries on the Easter day. Some verses of his poem are:

…But the bravest fell, and the requiem bell rang mournfully and clear For those who died that Eastertide in the springing of the year… 2 (O’ Neill)

However, Seamus Deane in his book Celtic Revivals (1985) believes that Ireland, which Yeats was earlier longing for was “amenable to his imagination but with the passage of time he was somewhat bewildered by witnessing Ireland as totally recalcitrant against his wishes” (3). At the same time, he called Ireland “a revolutionary country, because Yeats was capable to use the backwardness of Ireland... for the radicalism and disruption of it to a more spiritual domain that has been lost to an overdeveloped modern Europe” (39). Furthermore, in the Easter Rising of 1916; “Yeats saw the breaking of a cycle of endless, perhaps meaningless recurrence, as symbolized by the apparently timeless travails of Cachulain” (46). Seamus Deane interprets the situation of the event of 1916 in these words:

The men of 1916 had offered their deaths to history. In doing so, they had broken the cycle of eternal recurrence. Their consciousness of themselves became the consciousness of the race. Irish difference, Irish uniqueness, the basis, after all, for the Gaelic-nationalist claim to independence, had been mediated through death. Yeats’ aesthetic became, then, more and more politicized under the pressure of the crisis which had afflicted his country… (46)

2 See, Charles Canon, O’Neill. (http://www.independent.ie/irish-news/1916/rising-poems-the-foggy- dew-by-canon-charles-oneill-34381970.html

92 Seamus Deane’s approach towards Yeats is similar to that of Edward Said. Deane believes that Yeats comes in line with those romantic writers, who had blended the “revolutionary aesthetic with the traditionalist politics” (38). It means Yeats exploited the magic, folklore and legends for the theme of regeneration in the modern age. It is because of the fact that Yeats wants to keep his culture alive and vibrant in modern world, which has left man bereft of any reflection and deliberation. In these circumstances, a poet can truly be called revolutionary, when he represents the old nationalism by incorporating myth and legends in his poetry. Edward Said also believes that in such atmosphere, a poet can truly be called as a rebel, who “stimulates a sense of eternal” (Said, Yeats 81). Said also designates Yeats as the Nativist poet, whose fundamental principle is to reassert the past history, culture and tradition that has been highly diminished by the colonizer, thus reproducing him in a more heroic way as exemplified by Theodor Adorno in his book Negative Dialectics (1973); “We might be tempted to speculate… history that gave the human species its open consciousness and thus its awareness to death-whether this turn does not contradict a continuing animal constitution …” (395).

However, other critics differ in their opinions to impute Yeats as a nationalist poet. A Critic named Longley was highly critical of Yeats and labels him of being conscious of his protestant background by alluding to his Memoirs (1974) in which Yeats says “The sense of forms…..has always been protestant in Ireland” (212-213). But these views are countered by Edward Said, who goes to the extent of calling Yeats as an anti-colonialist writer. Not only this, he keeps him at par with by saying; “The great nationalist artists of decolonization and revolutionary nationalism like Tagore, Senghor, Neruda, Vallejo...Yeats. Yeats... to this group, for all sorts of reasons...” (Said, Yeats 73). Said has depicted Yeats, “a great national poet who during a period of anti-imperialist resistance articulates the experiences, the aspirations, and the restorative vision of a people suffering under the dominion of an offshore power”. (36). To Said, Yeats was the great nationalist poet, whose aim was to restore the great Irish past and cultural heritage. Thus, it can be argued that Yeats was a revolutionary nationalist, who maintained the sanctity of the Irish past in the form of legends, folklore and other forms of culture.

Acting as a revolutionary, he infused the occult romantic themes in his poetry to show the relevance of Irish culture in the contemporary times. He wanted to create

93 a new narrative that is why there “is annoyance at the stratagems of division… the celebration and commemoration of violence in bringing about a new order, and the sinuous interweaving of loyalty and betrayal in the nationalist setting” (85). Inspite of this, Yeats’ immediate and totally a different involvement with the dominant nationalist figures like O’ Leary and the uprisings of the Easter suddenly adds to his poetry as in Carl Gustav Jung words “defence against an onslaught of immediate experience with its terrible ambiguity” (Jung 45).

After reading Yeats’ poems; “Nineteen Hundred and Nineteen”, “Easter 1916” and “September 1913”, not just the disappointments of life commanded by “greasy till” or the violence of roads is uncovered but the horses of “weasels fighting in a hole, and also of a terrible new beauty that changes utterly the old political and moral landscape” (Said Yeats 86). It means that Yeats like all other writers, who in one way or the other deal with decolonization find a difficulty in giving an outline of the ‘Imagined community’. Thus, to free the culture from the narrative of colonization, a long list of histories, biographies, stories and other forms of literature come to the fore. In this context, Said quotes Barbara Harlow from Resistance Literature (1987) who also believes that the “different types of autobiographies, memoirs, and other genres of literature dealing with resistance and protest have some sort of inconsistency and instability of time is often found in them” (86). So, same is the case with Yeats, as instability is also found in him because of the great cycles in his “poetry between popular and formal speech, folk tale, and learned writing” (86). Thus, Yeats has been compartmentalized by different critics through the binaries. Other critics like Stephen Regan and others were reluctant to categorize Yeats as a nationalist/revolutionary poet. They are citing the examples from the works of the later stage of his life, where he categorically unearths his colonial attitude. Stephen Regan says that:

To call Yeats as a revolutionary is to study his work from a fixed perspective. It can’t be claimed that Yeats’ Cultural nationalism was in any way affiliated to his political nationalism. It was rather ‘the product of a complex set of allegiances and identities; Yeats has a high sense of colonial insecurity in him and at the same time was anxious about his class. (73)

94 Yeats’ picture as a nationalist poet becomes more apparent, from his philosophical concepts of the “Unity of Culture’ and ‘Unity of Being”. It further authenticates his position as a nationalist cum revolutionary poet. These concepts have a close resemblance with idea of “Collective Unconscious” propounded by Carl Gustav Jung. What led him to the concept of the “Unity of Culture” is the belief that a nation always has a distinct type of a memory or a type of a recollection, different from other memories of other nations? It forces him towards the imaginary collective past of his country to search for its roots and history. And by the “Unity of Being” he means; “An image or bundle of related images symbolical or evocative of the state of mind, which unifies nations, races and individuals together” (Sinha 35). In his Autobiographies (1956), he has elaborated the concept of “Unity of Being” by saying; “I thought that in man and race alike there is something called “Unity of Being” using that term a Dante used it when he compared beauty in the Convito...” (191). To overcome fragmentation in a society, Yeats believed there is a need to go back to the history of nation and explore the literature with its foundations in folk tales and mythical history. He elaborates on the richness of Ireland by saying; “Have not all races had their first unity from a mythology that marries them to rock and hill? We had in Ireland imaginative stories, which the educated classes, rediscovering for the work’s sake what I have called ‘the applied arts of literature” … (194).

Yeats’s poetry with cultural base in Irish mythology and history had unquestionably a political touch. The initial reading of these poems unravels unknowable archaic images of the past with symbolic stroke. These images indicate the rich historic past of Ireland aimed to achieve the motive of “Unity of Being”. This concept is embodied in the poems particularly “Among School Children” (1926), “A Vision” (1925) and his book Per Amica Silentia Lunae. (1917). The poem “Among School Children” is written after the poet’s visit to a school. A girl child in school reminds him of Maud Gonne and past life as well. The poem alludes towards the past memory of the poet, which signifies a relationship between of the past with the present:

I walk through the ling schoolroom questioning; A kind old nun in a white hood replies; The children learn to cipher and sing, …A dream of a Ladaean body, bent

95 Above a sinking fire, a tale that she Told of a harsh reproof, or trivial event That changed some childish day to tragedy- Told, and it seemed that our two natures blent Into a sphere from youthful sympathy, Or else, to alter Plato’s parable, Into the yolk and white of the one shell… (Yeats, The Tower 20)

Evan Radcliffe believes that “the poem represents Yeats’ ideal in a more subtle way...suggested by interpretations which state that the ending seeks “union of body and soul, beauty and suffering, wisdom and labour...it is an ideal of personality embodied in poetry...” (109). Although, Yeats main theme in the poem is old age and he believes that the philosophers like Plato, Pythagoras and Aristotle can never prevent a person from growing old. The images created in the poem refer to the past life of the poet. However, the poet aims to thrust his own philosophy of life and emphasizes on the concept of ‘Unity of Being’, corroborated by the last stanza:

Labour is blossoming or dancing where The body is not bruised to pleasure soul, Nor beauty born out of its own despair, Nor blear-eyed wisdom out of midnight oil O chestnut tree, great rooted blossomer, Are you the leaf, the blossom or the bole? O body swayed to music, O brightening glance, How can we know the dancer from the dance (Yeats, The Tower 21)

In order to mobilize his dream of national cultural rejuvenation, Yeats in 1897 inaugurated the Irish Literary Theatre after his affiliation with the Irish Republican Brotherhood (1858) along with Edward Martyn, Lady Gregory and George Moore. He states that the theatre “is hope to find in Ireland an uncorrupted and imaginative audience, trained to listen by its passion for oratory…we will show that Ireland is not the home of buffoonery and of sentiments, as it has been represented but the home of an ancient idealism” (Boyce and O’ Day 122).

The motive of establishing the theatre “was to foster ‘unity of Being’ and the “unity of Ireland’” (qtd. in Howes 67). The establishment of the theatre was a success

96 and the raison d'être was the portrayal of national culture among the masses. It became a contraption for the Irish culture and in Yeast’s words “to give Ireland a hardy and shapely national character” (McKinsey 72). Yeats believed that cultural unity among masses is important for the political means and to achieve that aim, establishment of theatre is the key factor. He was very proud of the rich history of Ireland. In one of his essays called “Ireland and the Arts”, Yeats has compared the history of Ireland with the history of Greece. It was an attempt to show the existence of Ireland as a nation like other nations of the world:

The Greeks looked within their borders, and we, like them, have a history fuller than modern history of imaginative events; and legends which surpass, as I think, all legends but theirs in wild beauty, and in our land, as in theirs, there is no river or mountain that is not associated in the memory with some event or legend; while political reasons have made love of country, as I think, even greater among us than among them. (253)

Culture was the core issue about which Yeats was highly apprehensive. During colonization, Britishers introduced their own system of administration and educational system which facilitated and strengthened their rule in Ireland. These developments had drastic consequences on Irish literature, culture and tradition. Patrick Pearse, a hardcore revolutionary and a contemporary of Yeats in one of his essays called “Murder Machine” written in 1908 says “The curriculum is implicitly imperial forced on the Irish child in an attempt to alienate him from his own literature and culture” (Morgan 64). He is remembered for his brave acts in an Irish history for all times to come. His love for Ireland is apparent in one of his poems Mise Éire translated as “I am Ireland”:

I am Ireland: I am older than the old woman of Beare. Great my glory: I who bore Cuchulainn, the brave.… 3 Great my shame… Great my pain… Great my sorrow… I am Ireland (Pearse)

3 See Padraic Pearse, https://ireland-calling.com/mise-eire/

97 Yeats’ attempt to strengthen the nationalist base of Ireland doesn’t stop here. He along with fellow revolutionary nationalists namely John O’Leary and Maud Gonne founded the ‘Irish literary society’ in London. The main objective of the organization was to explore Irish literature which will be totally different from the grasp of English literary tradition. He had to face many obstacles and sometimes harsh criticism from different quarters against the steps taken by him. He continued with his mission of liberating Ireland both culturally and politically. Like other great literatures of different nations, Yeats too wanted Ireland to have its own great Irish literature free from western discourse by saying; “The great numbers of those who joined my society had come earlier under the seal of young Ireland at that age when we were all mere wax; the more ambitious...” (Yeats, Autobiographies 202)

In his Nobel Prize speech in 1923, Yeats expressed his ideas about the literary revival of Ireland in these words:

The modern literature of Ireland, and indeed all that stir of thought which prepared for the Anglo-Irish War, began when Parnell fell from power in 1891. The children were made to believe that England and Ireland are a one nation and there is no existence of a separate Ireland as an entity. A disillusioned and embittered Ireland turned away from parliamentary politics; an event was conceived and the race began, as I think, to be troubled by that event’s long gestation. (Yeats, Selected 195)

It can’t be claimed that Yeats was altogether in favour of cultural revival but he had a great role in the Irish politics as well. His poetry provides a vivid example of his stand for the political cause as well. Although, he had to face criticism from Maud Gonne, who had blamed him of showing very little care for the Irish political cause. But the poem “To Ireland in the Coming Times” makes his stand clear as a revolutionary poet. In the poem, he justifies his stand as a nationalist and a revolutionary poet:

…That sang to sweeten Ireland’s wrong, Ballad and story, ran and song; Nor be i any less of them Because the red rose bordered him… (Yeats, The Collected 50)

98 The poem exposes Yeats’ hidden aim to be counted as the nationalist revolutionaries like his predecessor and contemporary poets. In order to validate his stance, the poet came up with this poem to remove all the doubts of Maud Gonne and the people of Ireland. This poem clearly exposes his political stand for his country and his clear support for the nationalists of Ireland after comparing himself with the nationalists like Thomas Davis, James Clarence Mangan and Samuel Ferguson. The poet touches the history of Ireland and wants Ireland to be free from the jackboots of British army generals and commanders. The poet is hopeful that Ireland will arise from the difficulties and difficult times. This is evident from the lines; “And may the thoughts of Ireland brood/ Upon a measured quietude” (50).

Yeats considers himself no less than other Irish revolutionaries. He means to say that his poetry occupies a hidden treasure with profound meaning. Mathew Campbell says that “Yeats in the poem anticipates the rebirth of the nation as a repetition of the beginning of the history of a world which even then had contained ‘Ireland’... the past initiates the rhythms of the heartbeat of the nation as a preconceived cultural entity...” (12). The last stanza of the poem is powerful in the sense as it stresses on the unity among the Irish people. The poet expresses dissatisfaction over Christianity and believes that it has not helped the Irish people to stand together against domination. He expresses his dissatisfaction in Christianity by saying; “Are passing on to where may be/In truth’s consuming ecstasy” (Yeats, The Collected Poems 50). The poet warns of the consequences, if the Irish people are not united on time. To him, God has stopped to help the Irish folks in the crucial time and holds the Irish people responsible to decide their fate:

For God goes by with white football. I cast my heart into my rhymes, That you, in the dim coming times, May know how my heart went with them (50-51)

He worked as a mediator between all sections of the Irish society and intended to live in unison to fight for the national cause. What made him unique among all Irish artists is the seriousness towards his nation. Hutchinson and Aberbach highlighted the role played by Yeats and Israeli national poet Hayim Nachman Bialik for their respective nations:

99 Yeats and Bialik were the outstanding poets of literary movements integral to national revivals. Each spoke for a subject people with glorious and violent ethno-religious memories, now struggling for survival in an imperial state with an attractive dominant culture… They galvanized this vision through artistic innovation and virtuosity marrying European modernism to indigenous forms and themes. Their poetry belongs to the best in their cultures. (501-502)

Like other nationalist writers, Yeats revisited the past history of Ireland as Chinua Achebe in his novel Things Fall Apart (1958). In the novel, Achebe exposes the drastic effects of Europeans on Igbo culture. Achebe depicts how Europeans considered themselves and their culture superior to all other cultures. Yeats too was anxious about the rich history of Ireland and feared its survival. He has not openly expressed his anguish about the cultural degradation of Ireland but his poetry is an indirect message of the rich culture of Ireland by highlighting Irish mythology, legends and folklore. It is worth mentioning that his poetry awakened the deadened conscience of his people which made them aware of their past. One such poem is “The Second coming” which conveys a message of domination, catastrophe, destruction and trepidation. It appears as if he was already aware about the ill effects of the European civilization and modernism on Irish culture and tradition. The poem shows the contrast between ancient and the modern times. Additionally, the poet warns of the consequences that humans have to face in the future as they have lost touch with nature, past and national heritage:

Turning and turning into widening gyre The falcon cannot hear the falconer Things fall apart; the centre cannot hold; Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world… Surely some revelation is at hand. The Second Coming! Hardly are those words out When a vast image out of Spiritus Mundi… (Yeats, The Collected 187)

Seamus Deane in her article, “The Second Coming”: Coming Second: Coming in a Second” says that the poem is reputedly about the Russian Revolution of 1917...the political movements are dramatized as part of a larger theatrical dispute that dominates the whole volume” (92). Yeats is prophesying that some strange things

100 are looming on the world. The poem narrates the “narrative of revival associated with Ireland and the Occult; and the narrative of degeneration, especially associated with the modern world and science” (99). It also highlights the drastic effects of modern age and predicts the fragmentation that may engulf the world in the future. It to a large extent is related with the past history and “nevertheless has its anticipations within the volume in which it occurs, it also has its anticipations in history some of which are visible in the early drafts. The Russian Revolution of 1917 has, as its great prefiguration, the French Revolution.” (98).

In order to explore the hidden treasure of Ireland in the form of literature, folklore, traditions, Yeats “decided to go back further and to delve deep down; and, let us make no mistake, it was with the greatest delight that they discovered that there was nothing to be ashamed of in the past, but rather dignity, glory and solemnity” (Fanon 169). The two questions that often arose in his mind were “Can we not build a national tradition, a national literature which shall be none the less Irish in spirit from being English in language” (qtd. In Kiberd 249) and “should national literature be written in the language that one’s country does speak or the language it ought to speak” (Kiberd 164). In order to maintain pace and progress with other European countries of the world, he wants Irish literature and culture to flourish like other literatures of other countries. It is seen among the writers of the colonized countries that they want to present their respective countries through a language which is understandable all over the world. Like Yeats, an African writer namely Edward Blyden wants to show his African identity in English language also. Edward Blyden believes that “the African must advance methods of his own. He must possess a power distinct from that of the European...We must show that we are able to go alone, to carve out our own way” (89-90).

Similarly, Yeats preferred English language as a tool of communication and stressed that national literature should be written in that language. He believed that if the literature is written in vernacular language, its appeal would not be the same as English language. He has justified his writing in an English language by saying, when he was once questioned “why he did not write in Irish...No man can think or write with music and vigour except in his mother tongue. […] Gaelic is my language, but it is not my mother tongue” (The Major Works 385). His motive was not to sideline Irish literature but his intention was for the collective advantage of Ireland. He wanted

101 Irish people to be bilingual and said “We are preparing, as we hope, for a day when Ireland will speak in Gaelic […] within her borders, but speak, it may be, in English to other nations” (385). In a letter to Katharine Tynan, he wrote; “I feel more and more that we shall have s school of Irish poetry-founded on Irish myth and history-a neo romantic movement” (Yeats’s, The Collected Letters 10). Yeats’ desire was contrary to the Indian novelist Raja Rao, who finds it tricky task of conveying the essence of a work in an English language. Raja Rao unveils his difficulty in these words from the forward of his novel Kanthapura (1938):

The telling has not been easy. One has to convey in a language that is not one’s own; the spirit that is one’s own. One has to convey the various shades and omissions of a certain thought-movement that looks maltreated in an alien language. I use the word ‘alien’, yet English is not really an alien language to us. It is the language of our intellectual make-up, like Sanskrit or Persian was before, but not of our emotional make-up. We are all instinctively bilingual, many of us writing in our own language and in English. We cannot write like the English. We should not. We cannot write only as Indians. We have grown to look at the large world as part of us. Our method of expression therefore has to be a dialect which will someday prove to be as distinctive and colourful as the Irish or the American. Time alone will justify it. (Rao 7)

Yeats’ poetry makes an appeal to every section of the Irish community for the betterment of Ireland. But, he sternly hated middle class and wished an amicable relation between aristocracy and peasant class of Ireland. Yeats believed that in the 18th century, Irish people were living in harmony with each other because aristocrats and peasants had created the atmosphere of harmony among people. Despite belonging to the middle class background himself, he castigated them and wants to “exile himself and his ideal version of society as completely as before from the bourgeois world” (Deane, Yeats, Ireland 57). In one of his articles called “Poetry and Tradition”, he fully praises aristocrats, peasants and artists of their unity and advancement of Irish culture and art:

Three types of men have made all beautiful things; aristocracies have made beautiful manners, because their place in the world puts them above the fear of life and the countrymen have made beautiful stories and beliefs, because they

102 have nothing to lose and so do not fear, and the artists have made all the rest, because providence has filled them with recklessness. … (Essays 310)

His deep prejudice against the middle class was also because Britain too was dominated by the middle class at that time. Yeats did not want the same thing to happen in Ireland. However, Yeats was a staunch supporter of goodness, virtues, decency, nobility and also a true lover of art and literature. His alliance with Lady Gregory made him a staunch adherent of aristocracy. The poem “Coole Park and Ballylee, 1931” is a comprehensible example of his team work with Lady Gregory for the promotion and defence of Irish nationalism. The title of the poem is a symbolic enough to symbolize aristocracy and tradition to a larger extent. In the opening of the poem, he speaks about Lady Gregory and the works produced in the large villa like; “I meditate upon a swallows flight,/ Upon an aged women and her house,.../ Great Works constructed there in nature’s spite/ For scholars and for poets after us” (Yeats, The Collected Poems 245). Hubert McDermott says that, “The main interest of Yeats: Coole Park and Ballylee, lies, I believe, in the author’s charting of Yeats’s struggle with his own Anglo-Irish identity” (162). Besides, the poet stresses on the unity among the people by saying; “Thoughts long knitted into a single thought,/ A dance- like glory that those walls begot” (245). It represents the huge architecture and the classy surroundings around the park:

We shift about- all that great glory spent… We were the last romantics –chose for theme Traditional sanctity and loveliness; Whatever is written in what poet’s name? The book of the people; whatever most can bless The mind of man or elevate a rhyme; But all is changed, that high horse riderless… (245)

For Yeats “Thoor Balylee, a tower was a monument to a heroic past; it was a romantic longing back to an ancient civilization, the dignified life-style of the aristocracy... He also admired the values of the peasant class, representing harmony and simplicity. In his view, these two groups were in sharp contrast with the newly emerging Irish Catholic middle- classes” (Nordin 46).

103 The poem also reflects on the nobility of Ireland with whom Yeats has shared his sympathy. Because he “regarded the peasantry as ‘Ireland’s lost nobility, whom repeated English oppression had either impoverished or destroyed” (Perloff 123). Yeats highly pays a tribute to Lady Gregory. The poem also has a revolutionary touch as well. The poet means to say that the house will remind the future generation of the glorious past and legendary figures, who had stayed in the house. One day the historical house will be razed to the ground but it will always continue to inspire people forever:

Here, traveller, scholar, poet, take your stand When all those rooms and passages are gone, When nettles wave upon a shapeless mound And saplings root among the broken stone, And dedicate-eyes bent upon the ground... A moment’s memory to that laurelled head (Yeats, The Collected 246)

After the end of the domination from the British rule in 1921, Yeats became the senator of the Irish Parliament. Being a senator of the parliament amused him but at the same time the civil war in 1922 made him very anxious about the future of Ireland. He expressed his apprehensions in a letter sent to Olivia Shakespeare in these words:

…Under the direction of an Erskine Childers they burn houses that they may force the majority to say, ‘At any rate that is believed to be the policy. I have met some of the ministers who more and more seem too sober to meet the mildness of these enemies; and everywhere one notices a drift towards conservatism, perhaps towards Autocracy… (Stock 182)

In summary, it can be said that Yeats played lynchpin role for Irish cause through his poetry. However, critics have given different opinions and doubted his position as a nationalist and a revolutionary poet. But, his poetry provides an ample evidence of his stand as a nationalist revolutionary poet against domination and a saviour for the preservation of Irish culture.

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109 CHAPTER IV

Kashmiri Nationalism, Revolution and Mahjoor

My mind, like one roaming in the desolation Of forests, mountains and appalling wastes Suffered an agony I cannot describe A flower among thorns, who know not his worth (Mahjoor, Ghulam 27)

Kashmir, throughout the world is known for its mesmerizing beauty and unconditional hospitality. Notwithstanding its exquisiteness, Kashmir all the way has remained the hub of multi-cultural and multi-religious society. People belonging to different religions, sects, communities and beliefs have lived together for hundreds of years in a congenial and forbearing atmosphere that allowed them to follow their religion and culture without any obstacle. This co-existence between different communities and ethnicities came to be known as nationalism or Kashmiriyat locally. It underscores the mutual understanding of the people of Kashmir to live in unison and harmony. The culture of living together intermingled with different religious diversities worked as a source of reciprocal trust among the people. Undoubtedly, it helped to combat any type of circumspection and prudence in the society. It is a feeling of oneness among people with same culture, past and values. Noted historian of Kashmir, Mohammad Ishaq Khan argues about Kashmir and Kashmiriyat:

Kashmir is not simply a land of enchanting beauty, but more than that… thanks to the soul- searching and intellectual efforts of the Philosopher Abhinavagupta, the historian Pandit Kalhana, the mystics, Lal, Ded and Sheikh Nooruddin Rishi, the enlightened rulers, Lalitaditya and Sultan Zain’l- Abidin (Budshah)… the romantic poet Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor and so on. Perhaps for this reason we are quite often called upon by political orators to defend what is called Kashmiriyat… (Khan, Humanity)

The people of Kashmir are proud enough to have inculcated and adopted such an atmosphere through ages without any scope for religious extremism and cultural domination. This constructive admixture accredited them to live in an atmosphere, filled with tranquility and respect, surpassing all the boundaries of hatred and prejudice. Salman Rushdie in his book Shalimar the Clown (2006) has highlighted the

110 sweetness about Kashmiriyat by saying; “…Kashmiriyat, Kashmiriness, the belief that at the heart of Kashmiri culture there was a common bond that transcended all other differences” (Rushdie 180). Kashmiriyat is not only confined to cultural and religious harmony but also postulates a sense of security among the people, no matter belonging to any community. It is not only the guarantee of cultural harmony and religious bond but an intermixture in the practical life and refers to “our roots, our culture, our traditions and our Kashmiri Language, which have evolved “over these centuries upto the present times into full bloomed flower” (Aslam).

The roots of Kashmiriyat in Kashmiri poetry can be traced in the poetry of 14th century poets like; Lal Ded1 and Sheikh Nur-U-Din2, popularly known as Nund Rishi. Although, most of their poetry is dominated by the mystic and Sufi themes but the philosophy of Kashmiriyat in their poetry cannot be ignored altogether. Both the poets in one way or the other have highlighted the genesis of it intentionally or unintentionally centuries before. Their poetry helps to strengthen the bond between different sections of the community irrespective of any difference. Mathew Philip too believes that “it is a socio-cultural religious harmony in which people from different communities freely propagate their beliefs, which is no doubt the dominant part of Kashmiriyat in 15th to 17th century” (60). The poetry of Lal Ded surpasses the religious and social dichotomy and is undoubtedly a prime prototype of love, peace and brotherhood. Her poetry leaves a reader in puzzle to guess her religion:

I said La illah il Allah3 I destroyed myself in it I left my own entity and caught him who is all encompassing Lalla then found God I went to look for Shiva (qtd. in Inaytullah 14-15)

Lalla’s contemporary, Nund Rishi too “effectively bridged the gap between religious thought and its regional backdrop, Sheikh Nooruddin’s poetry provides a ready vehicle for Kashmiri nationalists” (Zutshi 23). He acted as a mutineer against the social ills in the society and pummeled the barriers of hate and abhorrence. Highly

1 Lal Ded is also known as Lalleshwari. She was a Kashmir mystic belonging to the Shaivism School of philosophy. 2 Also known as Sheikh-ul-Alam, was a contemporary of Lal Ded. He is considered as the Muslim Sufi mystic and a poet. 3 One of the major pillars of Islam, which means there is no God but Allah.

111 respected by both Hindu and Muslim communities, he earned the title of Sheikh- Ul- Alam, Nund Reshi, Alamdar-e-Kashmir, thus demonstrating him to be the emissary of Kashmiriyat. Most importantly, Nund Reshi had fully understood the emotions and aspirations of the people and guided them to delve deep into the springs of Kashmiriyat. Like Lal Ded, Nund Reshi’s poetry by-passes all types of sectarian and communal divides and proffers religious long-suffering and cultural amalgamation. His poetry unequivocally conveys message of love and brotherhood in these verses:

Among the children of the same parents Why did you create a barrier? Hindus and Muslims are one (qtd. in Khan, Evolution 35)

Chitralekha Zutshi commenting about the importance of the poetry of both these poets writes:

In Kashmir, poems have provided a remarkable number of everyday colloquialisms and aphorisms, and have thus long played an important role in the historical formation of Kashmiriyat, the idea of a collectivity different from others outside the language-community. For instance, phrases and lines from the poems of the fourteenth-century mystics Lal Ded and Sheikh Nooruddin (Nund Rishi) are treated as maxims, and spoken often enough to constitute the common sense of the land. (Zutshi 3)

In this way, the poetry of both these poets left a deep impression for the successor poets and Mahjoor certainly was one of them to attain this virtue. Despite the fact, Mahjoor came hundreds of years after Sheikh-Ul-Alam and Lal Ded, but what surprises the readers is his historical wakefulness and a deep vision on the cultural affairs of Kashmir. Professor Margoob Banhali in this regard quotes; “After being influenced by the Predecessor Sufi poets, Mahjoor exercised his artistic capacity which definitely helped him to bring forth the unique identity of his motherland unknown to the people. As a result of it, he became a prime portrayer of Kashmiriyat… (184)

Professor Ishaq Khan also believes that “Kashmiris owe a great deal to Nooruddin since it is through his compositions that it articulated the expanding complex of impulses and responses, and orchestrated the music of consciousness…it

112 symbolizes a way of life” (Khan, Transition 107). It is also claimed that the Kashmiri Sufi poets sometimes propagated the theistic perspective under the garb of Kashmiriyat with the intention to ignore religion at all. But to some extent, they portrayed the tenets of Kashmiriyat unintentionally without any motive. Poet Mahmud Gami is credited with providing us this type of an example:

The form and the reality are like the dream and its interpretation The two are the rose and its perfume Really all the veils are removed from him (Sufi 434)

Apart from these great poets, Kashmir has produced other eminent and legendary poets like Shitikant, Gani Kashmiri, Rusul Mir, Wahab Khar, Paramananda and others. Mahjoor may have been influenced by his predecessors but it can be said that the intention of the Sufi poets to proclaim the asset of brotherhood, peace was unintentional. But Mahjoor had an agenda to resuscitate the dying culture and to invoke the feeling of nationalism in people through his poetry. He felt the need to act as revolutionary and incite the people against tyranny and totalitarianism against the British implanted Dogra rulers. He was different from Sufi poets as his illustration of nationalistic sentiment in his poetry was all intentional.

This typical atmosphere filled with religious and cultural harmony prevailing through centuries in Kashmir received its first blow after Mughul emperor Akbar’s4 invasion on Kashmir on 6th October 1586, when he treacherously defeated Kashmiri King Yousuf Shahi Chak. The assault from the Mughul emperor throws out the native ruling administration of the Kashmir to the dogs and created a textbook of cruelty and misery. The Mughul emperors ruled Kashmir for about One Hundred and Sixty Five years (165) from the year 1586-1751 AD. Mahjoor in one of his poems has expressed his dissension against the invasion and has called the Mughal period, a period of slavery:

It is three hundred and sixty years Since outsiders made us their slaves and our chains. (Mahjoor, Topical 97)

4 Abu’l-Fath Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar popularly known as Akbar 1 or also called as ‘Akbar the Great’ was the third Mughul Emperor from 1556-1605.

113 Sumantra Bose in his book Contested Lands, Israel-Palestine, Kashmir, Bosnia, Cyprus and Srilanka (2007) contends that “the Mughul ruler’s, who conquered much of the territory in 1586, were so taken by the beauty of its landscape that they called it Jannat-paradise” (154). The invasion of the Mughal emperor Akbar posed a huge threat to Kashmiriyat and made Kashmir vulnerable to external aggression and invasions. Consequently, Mughuls were followed by Afghans (1750- 1819), then Sikhs (1820-1846) and then Dogras5 (1846-1947), who continued the same tale of barbarity and oppression as was followed by the Mughul Kings and Governors. The oppression and barbarity inflicted by these invaders for hundreds of years created fear and phobia among the people. Tyndale Biscoe in his book Kashmir in Sunlight and Shade (1922) says that “It is quite possible that if we Britishers had to undergo what the Kashmiris have suffered in the past we might have lost our manhood” (79). Kashmir came under the rule of Dogras on 16 March 1846 through the notorious sale deed called ‘Treaty of Amritsar’ signed between Dogras of Jammu headed by Maharaja Ghulab Singh6 and Britishers. In this regard, Mahjoor has aptly described the drastic consequences of this treaty in the following verses:

…My grandfather’s life, property Were mortgaged for a mere penny. The loan that I toiled all my Life to repay is still uncleared… (Mahjoor in Kaul 95)

In this treaty, Kashmir and Kashmiris were sold like “cattle to the Dogras of Jammu” (Thomas 17) for a meagre sum of 75 Lakh NanakShahi (Sikh Currency at that time) rupees without showing a minuscule of respect to the emotions and sentiments of the people of Kashmir. Mahjoor deplores the treaty and castigates both the parties involved in it. The poet lashes out at Dogras and believed that they were no different from their predecessor and only added to the miseries of the people. In order to create rift and discord among the various sections of the community, they damaged the old tradition of Kashmiriyat by dividing the people on religious and social basis. It

5 The Dogras are an Indo –Aryan ethno-Linguistic group in India and Pakistan consisting of the Dogri language speakers. Dogra Rajputs ruled Jammu and through Treaty of Amritsar (1846), they acquired Kashmir. 6 Maharaja Ghulab Singh was the founding father of Dogra dynasty and considered as the first Maharaja of Princely state of Jammu and Kashmir.

114 can be clearly said that like their colonial masters (Britishers) in India, who had adopted the policy of Divide and Rule, Dogras too left no stone unturned to segregate the already damaged religious harmony and created cultural and political chasm in Kashmiri society. This inhumane treatment for centuries was waiting for a mass volcano which ultimately culminated into the uprising of 1931. It turned out to be the turning point in the political history of Kashmir and Mahjoor’s development as a poet particularly. The event is considered as the people’s revolution in Kashmir against the Dogra regime.

The aftermath of the incident of 1931 was deadly as the communal rift broke out in the valley. However, it would be far from reality to say that the event was already orchestrated to create a rift between different communities as believed by some commentators. The incident can clearly be described as the anti-dogra because the frustration, economic depravity and unemployment had taken a heavy toll on the people. Chitralekha Zutshi thus argues the “the peaceful and placid Kashmir valley, where religious communities had lived in complete harmony since times immemorial, as the discourse on Kashmiriyat claimed had ultimately fallen into a communal trap” (Zutshi 215). The communal trap divided the people on sectarian basis, which became one of the main basis of concern in Mahjoor’s poetry. This gave rise to political nationalism in the valley and people from different walks of life joined hands together for the emancipation from domination. Mahjoor certainly was one of them, who wholeheartedly tried to strengthen the nationalist movement in Kashmir through his poetry by stressing on the common heritage and culture. His poetry echoes the sentiments of the general people to get rid of the outside rulers.

Following the incident, Kashmiri intellectuals and nationalists formed a “Reading Room Party7” in 1929-30, of which the towering nationalist Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah was also a core member. The sole aim of the party was to address the socio-economic and political problems faced by the people and to discuss the literature dealing with French and Russian Revolution. It is also said that the famous communist writer Faiz Ahmad Faiz also used to attend the party and discuss the core issues along with other members. Renowed lawyer and campaigner, Nandita

7 It was established in 1930’s by the Kashmiri intellectuals and nationalists mostly for the Socio- Political awareness. From time to time, it used to discuss the different revolutions brought in different countries of the world especially French and Russian Revolution.

115 Haksar in her book The Many Faces of Kashmiri Nationalism: From the Cold War to the Present Day (2015) argues:

It all started in 1930. Historians say that the Sheikh (Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah) was approached by the Reading Room Party (RRP) that has been organized by a group of some educated Muslim men. These young men would read Urdu and English newspapers vociferously; discuss the French and Russian Revolutions besides exploring the possibilities of finding reasonable jobs for themselves. It is said that the newspapers and pamphlets were published in thousands and smuggled through vehicles like trucks and cars entering Srinagar from Pakistan’s now garrison city, Rawalpindi. (Haksar 26)

Haksar is referring to political nationalism in the book spearheaded by emerging nationalists of Kashmir. Before the emergence of political nationalism, the feeling of oneness was mostly based on common culture love, trust and brotherhood. So, what makes Mahjoor’s poetry relevant under those circumstances is both the political and cultural wakefulness about Kashmir. He is credited to have awakened the people of their political and economic rights. With the passage of time, number of nationalists emerged on the scene and launched a full- fledged nationalist movement against the Dogra regime under the leadership of towering nationalist Sheikh Abdullah. Apart from Abdullah, the party consisted of other prominent nationalists like Prem Nath Bazaz, Mirwaiz Mohammad Yousuf, Chaudhry Ghulam Abbas, Ghulam Muhammad Ashai, to mention a few. The nationalist movement focused primarily to address the injustice faced by the people under the Dogra regime. The injustice faced by the people is reflected in the verses by Mahjoor:

Even after year-long toil that I am left starved Usurers, goldsmiths gobble up my huge earnings. After day-long toil, I have to Contend with the half meal The master doles out. Alas! He realized my sad plight… How long will the tyrants Trample the weaklings' rights? (Mahjoor in Kaul 95)

116 The aim of the movement was not to favour any particular group or a section of a community but to ensure the betterment of the people of Kashmir. Among all the nationalists, Abdullah was the main player and leading from the front. After completing his masters in Chemistry from Aligarh Muslim University, he was infused with revolutionary outlook and ideas and tried to create political consciousness among the general public. With the passage of time, Abdullah developed a faith among the people because of his vociferous and vocal approach against injustice and Dogra rulers. He came to be considered as a saviour of the Kashmiri community because till then, no leader had emerged like him, who could have launched a campaign against the tyrannical forces. It is important to mention that after the foundation of Muslim Conference in 1932, number of writers came forward to show their support in one way or the other for the Kashmir cause. Kashmiri writer and critic Amin Kamil writes that “After the emergence of Muslim conference in Kashmir, post 1932 number of poets emerged and came forward to write in favour of Muslim conference” (Kamil 51). Apart from Mahjoor, his contemporary, Abdul Ahad Azad was also an important one. He has aptly reflected the pain of the people in his poetry:

The (rich) have robes coloured in blood, We with wounded heart weep like flood… Revolution shall teach thee to go ahead… What is life? A book of Revolution Revolution, Revolution, Revolution… The essence of agitation is Revolution… (Kulliyat 178-224)

However, until the 20th century, there was no such poet other than Mahjoor who wholeheartedly and vociferously exalted Kashmiriyat through his poetry. He too joined the chorus of other nationalists after witnessing the hardships faced by the people. Akhtar Mohi-ud-Din says, “In this surcharged climate, a new star with an invigorated and invigorating voice was born, and it was Mahjoor, whose poetry embodied all the aspirations of this new and resurgent consciousness” (87). He came to be recognized as the main element against the authorities for their colonial approach and mindset. The pathetic and political turmoil highly moved him which in a way provided him a fertile ground to express his thoughts and ideas. He gave a new touch to his poetry, promulgated with nationalistic and revolutionary undertones. When the freedom struggle reached its zenith, Mahjoor’s poetry became talk of the

117 town as it had already made its mark among the local population. According to Chaman Lal Chaman, “Mahjoor was a poet with broad vision and deep outlook which is clearly evident from his poetry. He was deeply concerned about the future of Kashmir” (367).

Co-incidentally, when the freedom struggle of India against Britishers grew stronger day by day, it simultaneously influenced Kashmiri leaders. But the communal forces inside the valley were always hell-bent upon creating a communal rift between the people to thwart from attaining the goal of economic and social independence from the Dogras. Prakesh Chandra is of the view that “During the various phases of the freedom struggle in the 1931-47 periods, the nationalists faced serious threats from the forces of communalism having strong feudal ties with Dogras” (35). It was an attempt to widen the gap of mutual understanding and synchronization of centuries-old Kashmiriyat, which as an identity was the focal stimuli of recognition. Dogra authorities considered it as an easy tool to sabotage the resistance movement of the nationalists. Working as de-facto rulers of British Indian Government, the British authorities highly supported the Dogra Maharaja (King) to inflict more and more miseries on the people. In order to create more rifts between Hindus and Muslims, they took the opportunity to create communal tension:

The British resident stationed in Kashmir encouraged the Dogra Maharaja to deal with the common masses sternly and at the same time feudal lords too were supported by him to exercise their arbitrary rule according to their own will…When the British troops were brought into the valley, they succeeded in their designs in provoking the clashes between Hindus and Moslems. (G .G. Kotovsky et al 197)

To spoil any type of sectarian or communal crisis in the valley, Mahjoor played an active role to unite the people from all sections of the community. As a secular poet, he cut all the nexus of bigotry and communalism; and firmly put forth the agenda of Kashmiriyat.

Forget your squabbles and love each other, Mix milk and sugar in sweet accord, With Hindus at the helm Muslims to row; Thus will our boat float smoothly?

118 The whole world has attained Freedom, old treaties and (Mahjoor in Kaul 96)

The poet makes an appeal to the general people to fight together against oppression and tyranny inflicted by rulers. In the poem, Mahjoor wants the people to rise from slumber and fight for their freedom. He means to say that it is possible only when Hindus and Muslims will work together for their common cause. It was an attempt by the poet to incite the people to overthrow the Dogra regime for all times to come. The verses; “Freedom, old treaties and Covenants are gone/ Slaves have no use for religion, honesty” (96) is a reminder that those nations who were once the colonies of the world powers have achieved freedom and it is only Kashmir, which is still reeling under the slavery of outside rulers. Acting as a secular poet, he considers it futile and poisonous to fight in the name of religion. Thus, in order to maintain peace and brotherhood in society, Mahjoor to a large extent played a predominant role by conveying the message of communal harmony and mutual brotherhood.

He joined the chorus of Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah by highlighting the atrocities committed by Dogras and even showered him praises in some of his poems, which glorified Abdullah as Sher-e-Kashmir (Lion of Kashmir) among the common people. Mahjoor as believer in Kashmiriyat was well aware about the fact that to maintain peace and brotherhood in the society, it is imperative to activate the nationalist feelings among the people. That is why; most of his poetry alludes towards the past of Kashmir. It was an attempt by the poet to remind the people of their foundation and their genealogy. In one of his poems “Arise, O Gardener”, he inundated king Lalitaditya and other legendary figures of Kashmir:

Kashmiris' fame will again spread in the world if you Create luminaries like Tazi Bhat, Lalitaditya and Mubarak Khan. Official writs will again run at your will in case you Produce a peer of Zia Bhan in this modern age. Litterateurs of Iran will bow to you in reverence if you Create a poet with powers of magical narration like Ghani. (Mahjoor, Ghulam 6)

119 The poet eulogizes his predecessors and the rich past by paying a tribute to heroes like Lalitaditya, Zia Bhan and the poets like Gani Kashmiri. He tries to explore the rich past, an offshoot of Kashmiriyat, which has been the important part of Kashmiri society. Mahjoor was fully aware about the fact that the need of the hour is to follow the cultural values and fight collectively for the freedom. Mashal Sultanpuri in this regard says:

At a time, when the Indian freedom struggle was at its peak, people from all the sections of the community including Poets, academicians contributed and took an active part. In Kashmir, freedom struggle was started by some people and what was lagging behind was the support of poets and Mahjoor came at a time as if freedom struggle was awaiting Mahjoor. (208)

Sultanpuri considers Mahjoor as the main figure of the freedom struggle. It encompasses the validation of a poet to shape the aspirations of the people and give it a ‘poetic affect’ through his poetry. Mahjoor was well aware of the fact that unless and until love and spirit of the motherland is not infused in the hearts of the people, they can never be the true lovers of their nation. It brings one point to the fore that the cultural amalgamation among people in the society had remained limited to the psyche of the people without being aware of it in the practical realm. It became an important reason for Mahjoor to time and again remind the people of their past culture and history. Resultantly, he attempted to highlight those elements in his poetry which would incorporate the feeling of love and regard:

The sweet gift of spring To fountains, rivulets and streams And waterfalls is music. A garden is our land (Mahjoor, Ghulam 66)

For Mahjoor, Kashmir seems to be the best place on earth and to love it more and more was his ultimate agenda. The poet’s motive is to make the people conscious about mesmerizing beauty of Kashmir and its historical past. It was to make them aware that infiltrators have occupied this land for a long time and have devastated its culture, sovereignty, economy and reduced the people to mere slaves.

120 At the same time, Mahjoor’s abhorrence against the feudal class and capitalism is obvious from his poetry. He along with other nationalists rose against this injustice and inequality in the society. It is also believed that the Russian Revolution of 1917 highly affected Mahjoor against the division in the society on the basis of class and wealth. His poetry thus conveys the message to fix the gap in the Kashmiri society between rich and poor.

…If only there was a dispensation To save me in my own home My jobless many wouldn’t have to knock about On dreary winter nights… I wear myself out round the year, But can never banish hunger, With bankers, grocers, jewelers Swallowing up whatever I earn. (Mahjoor, Ghulam 42)

The poet was well acquainted with the difficulties and hardships of the labouring class. He lambasts the wealth hoarders of fleecing the poor peasants by heavy taxation and other ways of economic exploitation. But the poet was hopeful at the same time and saw a ray of hope after the end of exploitation. He means to say that despite working for hours, the common man is unable to meet his two ends. He believed that a day will come, when the inequality and exploitation of every kind will come to an end:

But remember! When these poor naked souls Do stand up at last one day… I had to pay gold and silver For just tea and snuff! What more proof that our markets Are not there for public weal! (42)

The ‘poor naked souls’ refers to the peasants of Kashmir, who had to bear all the brunt from the feudalists and landlords. The verses; “I had to pay gold and silver/ For just tea and snuff” (42) is a clear indication towards the oppression meted out to the poor peasants of Kashmir. On the one hand, the poet was fighting a literal war against the inhuman feudal system. On the other hand, Mahjoor’s makes a fervent

121 appeal to all the sections of the community to uphold the sanctity of Kashmiriyat, which had been under constant threat for a long time, given the circumstances in Kashmir. Mahjoor’s main motive was to see Kashmir free from the outside rulers. The reference towards the past history and heritage was to show the richness of Kashmiri culture, when Kashmir was an independent sovereign nation centuries ago. He through his poetry inculcated a ray of hope among the people for a bright future. The poet was equally vocal about it in his prose work also. In a booklet published in 1932 namely Aayene Etihad-e-Kashmir (Constitution for the Unity of Kashmir) he said; “I am in support of Hindu-Muslim unity and the discord between two communities is fatal….” (qtd. in Kamil 50).

His poetry time and again reminds the people of their glorious past and Kashmir as an autonomous and separate region. Not only this, Mahjoor through his revolutionary poetry, wants to revive that beautiful past which Kashmiris were proud to have hundreds of years before with separate culture, history and political civilization. Like Yeats, Mahjoor too was trying to revisit the past. This has been the tendency of the nationalist poets to rejuvenate their culture. Though, Yeats in his poetry has given the example of Greek civilization with the Irish one. Mahjoor also goes back to past in search for his roots. The way, Yeats inter-mingles the mythical and legendary elements in his romantic and modern poetry, Mahjoor directly talks about the past by alluding to monuments, places and gardens. For the poet, Kashmir’s history of being a colonial and occupied territory is just few hundred years old. In poem “My Rose Garden Fills with Ecstasy”, he boasts about the past of Kashmir in these verses:

I was not what you see me now! My many monuments of stone Bear eloquent witness to the greatness Of my glorious ancient heritage… (Mahjoor, Ghulam 42)

The predecessor Sufi poets of Kashmir before Mahjoor were somehow responsible for not highlighting the slavery and oppression of Kashmiris in their poetry. They have not written anything against the oppression, the way Mahjoor has written. He deviated from them and rescued Kashmiriyat from the slow death. He

122 acted as the votary of Hindu-Muslim unity and remained highly secular. In this context, Tasneem Bakshi points out:

Two important mentionable factors that shaped and moulded Mehjoor’s secular ideas were, firstly, age old tradition of Secularism and secondly… combination of Hinduism, Islam and Buddhism which greatly influenced the ancient, medieval and modern thought and poetry in Kashmir. (100)

Mahjoor repeatedly lays emphasis on religious harmony and love between different communities. To him, this is one of the cardinal principles of Kashmiri nationalism and culture:

The kind and stock of all Kashmiris is one; Let you mix milk and sugar once again. Hindus will keep the helm and Muslims ply the oars; Let you together row (ashore) the boat of this country (qtd. in Bazaz 296)

The main reason of poet’s stresses on the unity of the people is to prepare them for the revolution in all spheres of life. The verse; “Let you mix milk and sugar once again” (296) signifies the unity between Hindus and Muslims. He stresses on joining the hands to resist occupation and barbarism.

In a first-ever Kashmiri drama Quda Gojwari issued in a monthly Journal Kong Posh (Saffron Flower) during 1950’s, Mahjoor paid a glowing tribute to the person Abdul Qudoos Gojwari, who had provided shelter to the family of a Pandit rebel. He had stood against the then ruthless Pathan Governor Buland Khan of the Afghan regime and embraced death over the fugitive Pandit family. The poet eulogized that communal harmony in these verses:

Quda Gojwari sacrificed his life for the safety of a Kashmiri Hindu family, Today recall and remember such instances of communal amity. (Khayal 164)

It highlights the Mahjoor’s secular nature without siding with any particular religion or community. In this regard, B. B. Kachru statess; “Kashmiri Poetry became marked… this poetry displays an assessment of “Kashmiriness,” a contemplation about the state of Kashmiris, as people and as a nation… main carriers of this message are Mahjur and Azad” (45). The poet’s motive was to show the ‘Kashmiriness’ to the

123 world and portray the true image of Kashmir. At the same time, it was the reminder to the general hoi polloi about their cultural richness developed through centuries.

It is pertinent to mention that Abdullah was the sole person who spearheaded the nationalist movement followed by other nationalists including Mahjoor. In the poem “Sherwani’s Message”8, he pays a tribute to Maqbool Sheerwani. Mahjoor eulogizes him in these verses:

O stars of the firmament listen to my laments Witness my helplessness and my ardor To whom can I express my thoughts And my emotions I am imprisoned and my people slumber I am (like) Joseph at the mercy of his Stepbrother (Mahjoor, Topical 94)

Mahjoor expresses his concern and helplessness in the poem about the awful situation in Kashmir. He likens the situation of Kashmir with Prophet Joseph, who had been forsaken by his brothers. These lines nevertheless remove the doubts of the poet about Abdullah. The poem shows the devotion and adherence of the poet towards Abdullah and other nationalists. He makes a fervent appeal to the people to follow the footsteps of nationalists particularly Abdullah by saying, “If you obey the lion of Kashmir/ You will be rid of poverty and hunger” (94).

The poem was written at the time of tribal raid to Kashmir, which forced the poet to speak against invaders:

Listen to me my friends, the youth of this country I am like a setting sun, come listen to my exhortations Take courage. You have to save this land The cannibals have descended from the mountains… (94)

The main motive of the poem was to motivate the people to side with Abdullah and resist the invasion from enemies. On the one hand, Kashmir was struggling with the menace of oppression and domination from the Dogras and on the

8 Maqbool Sheerwani was the National Conference worker and die hard follower of Sheikh Abdullah.

124 other hand, the invasion of tribal’s frustrates the poet further that leaves him in confusion to predict the fate of Kashmir.

Mahjoor’s poetry also received a great boost at a time, when Prem Nath Bazaz9 and Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah launched a newspaper Hamdard in 1935. The newspaper was considered as an ambassador of the wishes of the people and especially Mahjoor’s poetry was whole heartedly published in it. Even Sheikh Abdullah has himself confessed that “I used Mahjoor’s poetry to infuse a new spirit in the hearts of the people of Kashmir and used it as a tool to mould the people towards himself” (Chaman 368). It indicates the power of Mahjoor’s verses, which even motivated the other nationalists to quote his poetry during rallies.

It won’t be wrong to say that the creation of nationalist movement by Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah was a turning point in the history of Kashmir’s freedom struggle. After its creation, people of Kashmir began to change themselves for a new life. These things forced people to introspect upon their pathetic condition and its solution. Mohammad Yousuf Tang in Kulliyat-e-Mahjoor (Poetry of Mahjoor) writes, “His political poetry is an important part of Kashmiri literature. Besides, his poetry has always helped the freedom Movement” (Tang). Mahjoor’s poetry was warmly welcomed by the people as it echoed their sentiments to live free from domination. It is as if the people were waiting for him for a long time to colour their ambitions and wishes. Mahjoor employed the traditional Gul-o-Bulbul (Flower and Nightingale) but with a different meaning. His Bulbul (Nightingale) is definitely a freedom fighter and his Gul (Flower) is Kashmir. His famous poem which became a clarion call for the people to act and later sung in every political meeting of Muslim Conference is “Come, O’ Gardener”:

Come, gardener! Create the glory of spring! Make Guls bloom and bulbuls sing-create such haunts... The dew weeps, and your garden lies desolate; Tearing their robes, your flowers are distracted… (Mahjoor, Ghulam 16)

Filled with avant-garde and revolutionary ideas, the inhabitants of Kashmir were supplicated by the poet to come forward and save their land. The poem indicates

9 Bazaz was one of the revolutionary nationalists of Kashmir.

125 the pain of the poet for his motherland to save it from utter disaster and the menace of the oppressive regime. The words “thousands of hyacinths” in the poem are none other than the lower classes of the society. (46). Like a true revolutionary, he prompts the people to fight together and decorate the homeland again as it was before, full of bloom and tranquility. The poet conveys a message to infuse a new life to the desolate garden.

The movement launched by the Muslim leaders especially the members of ‘Reading Room Party’, particularly Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah was not only to relieve the Muslim brethren from the yokes of slavery but also included Pandit brethren as well. It was this message, which Mahjoor was propagating through his poetry without showing sympathy towards any particular community. He made a fervent appeal to all the sections of the community to share love and respect for each other as they have been living together for centuries. To bring them closer to each other, he boasts of tolerance and love in the poem “Eternal Are The Bright Hues And Radiance”:

Dogmas of religion sow discord Even between two brothers; While words of love build a bridge Between two alien souls. Lightning is not as swift as love. Remember, it was a mere touch... (18)

Mahjoor’s poetry to some extent is highly responsible for Abdullah’s elevation as a great leader through which he came to be known as Sher- e- Kashmir (Lion of Kashmir). Abdullah was propagating the same agenda of Kashmiriyat, which Mahjoor was propagating through his poetry. The then newspaper Hamdard weekly reported Abdullah’s speech in one his rallies as:

The labourers, both Hindus and Muslims, are prey to the feudalists. The labouring classes in Kashmir made more sacrifices during the last six years of our freedom movement… peasants and the labourers fill the state treasury with their blood and sweat and the money is spent by others... (7)

126 This makes it obvious that Mahjoor and his poetry was exploited by Abdullah for his political career. He was already aware about the fact that Mahjoor’s poetry has a great influence on the emotions of the people. He like Mahjoor was trying to reveal his secular nature before the public to gain sympathy from them. During his speech in 1933, he made an appeal to all the sections of the community to support the freedom movement of Kashmir. He opined; “The Muslim Conference without any discrimination has always fought for the good and well-being of the people. Both Hindus and Muslims are living in complete harmony. My request to the non- Muslims brethren is that they should stand shoulder to shoulder…” (Hassnain 79- 80).

It is important to mention that Kashmiriyat provided a smooth podium for the Kashmiri nationalists to bring people on the same page for the national cause. Necessarily, nationalism would have been the only panacea to save the people from falling prey to the communal elements in the valley. It was an easy and probably the single medium for the basis of cultural and political integration for the nationalists. Noted critic of Kashmir Mohammad Yousuf Tang in Kulliyat-e-Mahjoor (Poetry of Mahjoor) says that “Mahjoor’s political poetry as an important part of Kashmiri literature it has always helped the freedom movement to propagate its agenda and convey the message of National Conference openly” (123).

It was often seen that the nationalists especially Abdullah in the public rallies used to recite Quranic verses and the poetry of Dr. Mohammad Iqbal to gain public support before delivering his sermon. It can also be argued that his motive behind this would have been to make the people conscious about their rights. With the passage of time, Abdullah realized that most of the people of the valley are illiterate and are hardly able to comprehend and understand the Quranic verses and Iqbal’s poetry. In order to win the hearts of the public, he started reading Mahjoor’s poetry. It is for that reason; he was subjected to criticism from various quarters. Mushtaq-ul-Haq Sikander has criticized him in an article published in daily Greater Kashmir for exploiting nationalism:

The word was used as a justification for conversion of Muslim Conference to National Conference. Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah used to silence his critics who would criticize the actions of Muslim Conference into National Conference by using this phase of Kashmiriyat. When the freedom fighters

127 became aware of the hijacking of National conference leadership by the Indian National Congress, Sheikh Abdullah would say “Jawaharlal’s and my blood is one i.e.; the blood of Kashmiriyat. (Sikander)

It would have been impossible for Abdullah to gain support and emerge as a leader if he had not opted these tactics. It is a different matter, whether Sheikh Abdullah was interested in the poetry of Mahjoor, but he adopted it as a tool to masquerade the masses. Mahjoor’s intentions as a poet were quite clear to work as the people’s ambassador for freedom along with his other contemporaries. This becomes apparent after praising the main nationalist leader in the poem “Great Leader Sher-e- Kashmir”:

Who has altered our destiny? (Our) Qaid-e-Azam, Sher-e-Kashmir Slavery has ended, life has changed… The capital of Budshah’s city will be ruined A great man will arise and revive it again This prophesy is today fulfilled (Our Qaid-e-Azam (is) Sher-e-Kashmir) (Mahjoor, Topical 96)

Mahjoor almost compares Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah with the great ruler Zain-Ul-Abidin10, popularly known as Budshah (The Great King) of the 15th century. It exposes his reverence and affiliation with him. He had a full faith in him that a leader like Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah will re-build Kashmir again. The poem unveils the past history during the time of Budshah (The Great King), when Kashmir was free and ruled by its own rulers as separate homeland. In order to incite and encourage people, he used eloquent and grandiloquent words to mould the people towards the Kashmiri cause:

The mountain dwellers, destitute thieves. By whose efforts were they vanquished?... Who reconstructed New Kashmir? Qaid-e-Azam Sher-e-Kashmir… Who made the Hato an honorable minister?

10 Ghiyas-ud-Din Zain-Ul-Abidin was the eighth sultan of Kashmir, who ruled from 1418-1419 and 1420-1470.

128 Qaid-e-Azam Sher-e-Kashmir (98)

The poet is eulogizing the nationalists and the revolutionary steps taken by them. The poem refers to the ‘New Kashmir Manifesto’, a memorandum submitted by the towering nationalist Sheikh Abdullah to the Dogra government in 1944, which included measures aimed for the welfare of the people. Mahjoor considers the people as ‘crestfallen and Hopeless’ folk because of their powerlessness before the rulers. To him, it is only the nationalists especially Abdullah, who has struggled to provide them relief from tartars. ‘Hato’ in the poem refers to the natives of Kashmir. The term was used derogatively for them by non-Kashmiris in Kashmir and outside. The poet means to say that the people of Kashmir will live a dignified life under the aegis of Abdullah in future.

The national movement reached its culmination first in 1946, when Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah and his companions demanded complete independence from the Dogras. They gave the slogan, “Bi-nama Amritsar tod do, Kashmir hamara chod dho” (Tear up the Treaty of Amritsar11 and Quit Kashmir). Mahjoor in one of his poems “Kashmir Affairs” criticizes the Dogra Maharaja and asks him to Quit Kashmir12 in these verses:

We have been enslaved for more than a hundred years This dark blot still persists, About eighteen years ago we began to cut our ropes of bondage We tried to search ways to attain independence… When our protests did not bear fruit We told the cruel ruler to Quit Kashmir. (27)

The poet refers to the enslavement of Kashmir for centuries under different monarchs and kings. He considers it as the heaviest blow to people and sovereignity of Kashmir. It becomes evident that the poet was quite conscious about the slavery of Kashmir and considers it his prime motive to free Kashmir from all types of bondage. The verse; “About eighteen years we began to cut our ropes of bondage” (27) refers to

11 Treaty of Amritsar, 1809, an agreement between the British East India Company and Maharaja Ranjit Singh, founder of the Sikh Empire. Treaty of Amritsar, 1846, a treaty formalizing the arrangements in the Treaty of Lahore between the British East India Company and Maharaja Gulab Singh Dogra after the First Anglo Sikh War. 12 A movement launched by Sheikh Abdullah in May 1946 against the Dogra Maharaja

129 the incident of 1931, when the people revolted against the autocracy and began to search for their identity.

The root cause of this slogan was Abdullah’s undue influence by the Indian National Congress under the aegis of Jawaharlal Nehru. Although, Abdullah was initially demanding the economic and political rights from the Maharaja’s government, but he reached a stage, when he demanded the complete independence from the Dogras. In a public rally in Srinagar, Sheikh Abdullah reiterated:

The demand that the princely order should quit the state is a logical extension of the policy of 'Quit India'. When the freedom movement demands complete withdrawal of British power, logically enough the stooges of British imperialism should also go and restore sovereignty to its real owners, the people... (Akbar 227-28)

Mahjoor’s poetry helped Abdullah to gain sympathy and support from the people. He was nominated as the National poet of Kashmir by the National Conference. Prem Nath Bazaz says, “Mahjoor was named as the main Spokesperson of its secular mantra, Kashmiriyat” (296-99). After writing a poem ‘Bidat’, Mahjoor was thrown behind the bars by Abdullah government, which makes it clear that he was used for political purposes. However, critics interpret the poem in their own ways. Poet Zareef Ahmad Zareef believes that the “intention of the poet was to reflect the intentions of the people of Kashmir after the blockade of supplies from Pakistan” (qtd. in Mirani). Premnath Nath Bazaz also believes that, it was not more “than confusion from the poet…” (Bazaz 298), which forced Mahjoor to write this poem:

…To buy salt, I went to the NC shop He set a condition, first join India hearing this13. Though I would like to sacrifice my life and body for India, Yet my Heart is in Pakistan… (298)

It would have been impossible for Abdullah to achieve popularity and fame among the masses without the poetry of Mahjoor. Besides Mahjoor, there was another poet namely Aziz Bahrar, a staunch follower of Sheikh Abdullah and the nationalist movement launched by him. In this regard, Chaman Lal Chaman quotes

13 See Kashmir News, http://www.kashmirnewz.com/f000118.html

130 autobiography of Sheikh Abdullah; “Like Mahjoor, he too composed a lot of poetry praising Abdullah and National freedom struggle. But, it is very tragic that his name has no where been mentioned in his autobiography Aaatish Chinar”14 (Flames of Chinar) (369). Among all the poets of that era, he mentions only Mahjoor in his autobiography Aatish Chinar (Flames of Chinar). It was because of the mass appeal of Mahjoor poetry that Abdullah used it very tacitly. He has confessed:

I met Mahjoor at that time, when the Muslim conference had crossed half of its journey. Mahjoor in his poem Come O Gardener has beautifully portrayed the Nationalistic feelings of the people of Kashmir. I in majority of my rallies used to recite this poem which helped me to lure and attract the common village people and daily labourers.... I used to read this poem louder and it became very famous. (Aatish Chinar)

His poetry had such a deep impact on Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah that he made this poem as the national anthem of Kashmir. In August 1981, a magazine was published by the J&K Information Department of Kashmir in which Sheikh Abdullah expressed his views about Mahjoor by saying; “Mahjoor has an important place in our nationalistic poetry. His poetry helped us a lot during the freedom movement to rise against the powers of oppression and cruelty” (Aatish Chinar).

Abdullah also claimed that his own melodious voice has deeply attracted the people, which proved very helpful to him in attracting the masses while reciting the poem, “Come O’ Gardener”:

Come, gardener! Create the glory of spring! Make Guls bloom and bulbul’s sing- create such haunts! … Who will set you free, captive bird? Crying in your cage? Forge with your hands (Mahjoor, Ghulam 16)

This poem reverberates the same emotion as Allama Iqbal’s poem “Tasveri Dard” (The Portrait of Anguish):

My story is not indebted to the patience of being heard

14 An autobiography written by Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah in Urdu. It was published for the first time in 1986 by publishing house namely Ali Mohammad and sons, Srinagar. It was later translated by Khushwant Singh into English.

131 My silence is my talk, my speechlessness is my speech Why does this custodian of silencing exist in your assembly? My tongue is tantalized to talk in this assembly15 (Iqbal)

After the partition of 1947, the whole atmosphere in the sub-continent underwent complete metamorphosis. At that time, Mahjoor showed his secular attitude but at the same time he was disgusted with the communal atmosphere in the sub-continent. He expressed his dissatisfaction against the partition as he was aware that Kashmir cause will be put in the back burner for a long time. He expresses the resentment of partition in these verses:

Before the four corners of India Were bathing in the sunshine of Independence, lakhs were pushed Into the cauldron of hatred. (Mahjoor in Kaul 97)

It is a direct indication towards India’s freedom from Britishers and the creation of new state Pakistan. For Mahjoor, freedom undoubtedly was a moment of joy and happiness for the people of India and Pakistan. But contrary to these happenings, the poet laments on the state of affairs in Kashmir, as the freedom propelled them into the dungeons of slavery again. He had this firm belief that after the end of Dogra rule, Kashmir will be free like any other country. But he was dejected after witnessing the terrible situation in the whole sub-continent. In his poem “Azaadi” (Freedom), the poet yearns for an independent state, however his hopes were dashed after Kashmir came under the control of India and Pakistan. He castigates freedom vociferously in these verses:

This freedom, while it rains mercy on the west Has nothing but hollow thunder for us. Poverty, Destitution, Apathy and Speechlessness- It is with these blessings that Freedom has come to us Freedom is a hourie; can it roam from door to door? Very few homes are blessed with her gracious presence (Mahjoor, Ghulam 28)

15 See, http://www.academia.edu/32405834/Dr.Allama_Iqbal.s_Selected_poetry

132 In these verses, he blames the frontrunners of freedom in Kashmir. He lambasts that only few people have seen the fruits of freedom and the status of common people is still same as it was before. Freedom for Mahjoor was not only to do away with the injustice and inequality faced by the common folk but also to live freely in a separate state. To him, freedom from Britishers is nothing more than mourning for the people, who had anticipated a bright future during the struggle. It was like a chain of falling preys to different regimes over hundreds of years:

When the landlord and the tenant quarrel Freedom quietly enjoys the spectacle from some hidden place The common people lament but the rulers like bridegrooms Sit with freedom in some secluded bower. (Mahjoor, Topical 108)

His later poetry highlights the unfathomable reaction of the people after the freedom in the Sub-continent. The poet believes that the people of Kashmir were deceived by the local leadership. This is anticipated in the poem “Freedom” which is similar to the poem written by Turkish communist poet Nazim Hikmat’s “A Sad State of Freedom”:

You love your country As the nearest, most precious thing to you. But one day, for example, They may endorse it over to America. (111)

Consequently, Mahjoor’s hopes were dashed after India got divided into two countries, which left the future of Kashmir in lurch:

India is divided into parts Penetrated in our land also Flowers and Gardens are destroyed India has turned into a slaughter house (qtd. in Kamil 56)

The way Yeats wished to live in a separate homeland without intervention of any other power; Mahjoor too wished the same. After the annexation of Kashmir by India and Pakistan, he saw a ray of hope in the United Nations and wanted to plead his case before the world powers. It highlights the frustration and concern of the poet for his homeland. He appeals the morning breeze to convey his message to the

133 authorities at United Nations to settle the Kashmir dispute once for all in the poem “O Morning Breeze If You Reach America”:

O morning breeze if you reach America Go to the council in Lake Success and describe our plight in detail (Mahjoor, Topical 99)

Mahjoor criticizes both India and Pakistan for making Kashmir a battlefield for their own interests. His plea to the morning breeze shows his helplessness to fight with the two powers. Already trampled by the oppression of former rulers, the poet didn’t want to be the victim of any other power and wants to live an independent, secure and free life. He mocks both India and Pakistan, who are both power hungry to rule Kashmir. He criticizes them as invaders and boos them for invading Kashmir:

…The cries of our helplessness resounded from the hills and mountains The skies wept and the hearts of good people were moved by our plight A party came by air to help us A wrestling match started in our home and we got trampled underfoot (101)

Nationalism, for Mahjoor was not only the mutual harmony and integration among people but sovereignty was also an inclusive part of it. It does not include only the rich cultural past but political and economic emancipation was part and parcel of it. After India’s freedom from Britishers, his dream to see Kashmir free remained unfulfilled. He again depicts the chaos after partition in Kashmir in these verses:

…The cries of our helplessness resounded from the hills and mountains The skies wept and the hearts of good people were moved by our plight … One of them says Pakistan and another says Hindustan Mean while this country has become Dakistan (102)

This conveys the perplexity of the poet after witnessing the atrocities in Kashmir at the time of partition. The word ‘Dakistan’ in the poem conveys total anarchy and chaos in Kashmir followed by partition in Indian Sub-continent. In this way, Mahjoor was down in the mouth with the freedom and crisis in Kashmir:

Let them excuse us and leave us that would be best for us Let them all leave this place we will take care of our house ourselves

134 Let these wise people be thrown out of this land We will ourselves rule our country this is our only plea… For how long will you test our dignity and self respect? We will die but will not bow our heads at the feet of foreigners (103)

He attacks both the countries of making Kashmir a hotbed of bloodshed under the pretext of saving it from invaders. Mahjoor and Yeats had the main aim of emancipating their nations from political, economic and social boredom. Mahjoor is directly expressing his destitution at the hands of tormentors. The poet is tired and everyone around seems unreliable and deceitful to him. He launched the scathing attack on Pakistan in these verses:

Lien birds envy thy garden and Want to assume control over it Yet, as they occupy it, thou Thinketh they will protect (98)

It shows the firm determination of the poet to fight till the last moment. It is also an attack on both the countries to settle the affairs of their states, blemished by the partition. Acting as a revolutionary poet, he threatens intruders of expulsion from Kashmir. The poet seems ready to sacrifice his life to save Kashmir at any cost and not ready to bend before an outside ruler. It is very interesting to notify that in one of his verses; ‘Let these wise people be thrown out of this land” (103), he highlights his frustration and hatred for both India and Pakistan. This was an indirect approach for both the countries to leave Kashmir and allow the people of Kashmir to live in dignity and love.

Mahjoor was dreaming of a bright future for Kashmir after the independence of India. He had hoped for the upliftment of downtrodden and poor sections of the society. But the pathetic condition of the peasant class remained as before even after Partition:

---Freedom was supposed to end Capitalism but it hath, instead, Started capital formation, Favouring only near and dear (Mahjoor in Kaul 98)

135 During the later phase of his life, he was very critical of the local leadership because of their approach towards the people of the valley. Like the English poet, William Wordsworth, who was dejected with the French Revolution; Mahjoor too was disappointed after the partition. The acute indifference of local leaders forced Mahjoor to re-think and change his notion about them. Professor Majrooh Rashid16 in this regard argues; “Mehjoor too was disappointed by the behaviour of the persons who remained confined to the corridors of power.” (Rashid 98). In one of his poems, he expresses his discernment about corrupt politicians:

Ministers are busy riding Their newly-acquired cars; How can they find time to? Heal the wounds of the poor? (99)

In these verses, Mahjoor portrays the mindset and attitude of the leadership of Kashmir. Their promises turned hollow after power came in their hands and the condition of the common people remained same as before.

The event of 1947 marred the culture of Kashmiriyat further after the wholesale bloodshed in the sub-continent that left its ramifications on Kashmir as well. Professor Riyaz Punjabi is of the view that “In post- Independent Kashmir, the ethnicity of the Kashmiri people and the identity of Kashmir have undergone several changes… which is placing this particular identity under strain. This has the potential of diluting Kashmiri ethnicity” (114). Kashmiri nationalism after partition got integrated with the Indian and Pakistani nationalism, which was not feasible at all with the Kashmiri culture and polity. Its identity was distorted after being merged with the two different cultures. Nyla Ali Khan argues:

After the partition, Kashmiri culture and identity got diluted as Nyla Ali khan says“…the exclusionary discourse of Indian Nationalism, which over the years has subsumed the discourse of Kashmiriyat or a unitary Kashmiri nationalist identity within it; and the erosion of cultural myths, legends, and folklore upon which the edifice of Kashmiri society is built. (Khan, Introduction 3)

16 A professor at Department of Kashmiri, University of Kashmir.

136 Rightly in the contemporary times, Kashmiri nationalism based on secular grounds under the attire of Kashmiriyat got politicized to a large extent and was used for political manifestations. Mahjoor’s nationalism and revolutionary outlook was limited to cultural integration, sovereign state, secular atmosphere and separate identity like Yeats. Irish society and nationalism was mostly based on folklore, myths and legends, which Yeats has enthusiastically and proudly reflected in his poetry. However, Mahjoor has not touched folklore or myths in his poetry as Yeats. There have been no attempts made by other poets after Mahjoor to represent the Kashmiri unique identity. The political conundrum remained as the main hindrance to follow the legacy of Mahjoor. The changing political scenario provided new themes to the poets and novelists, but the feeling of secularism is still alive among the people.

The changing political scenario gave it a new colour and a new wave emerged for the complete independence from India and Pakistan. Mahjoor has candidly advocated for the resurgence of the age old ideals of the Kashmiri society with the thrust on past and culture. He nonetheless raised a strong voice against the economic and social exploitation of the masses, but he at the same time yearned for a complete emancipation from the invaders. Thus, his concept of nationalism didn’t remain limited to the four walls of Kashmiriyat, but it included his wish for a separate homeland also. The poet realized it after witnessing the devastation and repercussion of partition.

The concept of Kashmiriyat was applicable at a time, when the whole Kashmiri society was living together as a separate entity but after the alienation of one community from the other, it faded away from the scene. For some commentators, it is an obsolete idea in the contemporary Kashmir as it received severe blows after blows from time to time after partition, which led to the dis-integration of people like the exodus of Kashmiri Pandit’s from the valley. The revolutionary armed struggle after 1990 gave birth to new concepts like freedom, separate state, mass uprisings, encounters, rebellions etc, which changed the whole discourse of Kashmiri nationalism. However, Balraj Puri differs and talks about peace in Kashmir in these words:

The fight is essentially for the soul of Kashmir. The gun is not its most authentic voice, nor can it be silenced through gun. It has expressed itself

137 through the verses of the saints and poets, Lall Ded and Nund Rishi, Mehjur and Nadim, and through the melodies of Habba Khatoon. It is futile to subdue it with force. (Puri 12)

In the contemporary times, the concept of Kashmiriyat has lost its relevance keeping in view the present circumstances. Mahjoor’s mantra of Kashmiriyat may have kept the people culturally united but they can be poles apart, when it comes to the political situation of Kashmir. The whole narrative of Kashmiriyat is no longer applicable in the present circumstances as the people are well aware that it has been used for the political ends from time to time. It has not remained the culture specific, which Mahjoor has mostly highlighted in his poetry. The political nationalism has now overshadowed the cultural nationalism. The slogan of political nationalism is gaining roots more and more in the contemporary times. The poets or novelists, who had emerged after Mahjoor in Kashmir, have thrusted more on the political situation of Kashmir rather than cultural one by highlighting the conflict, bloodshed, trauma, alienation and mistrust. The most important among them is Agha Shahid Ali17. He mostly talks about the alienation and freedom in his poetry.

In conclusion, it can be said that Mahjoor came as a saviour to highlight the past legacy of Kashmir and brotherhood in the society. The Sufi poets before him had failed to highlight the ancient past of Kashmir and indulged themselves in supernatural entities. The greatness of Mahjoor lies in his concern for the society and well being of the people. Before him, many great poets had emerged in Kashmir, but Mahjoor in turn was totally different from them in content and style. Mahjoor would have been counted as the common poet like his predecessors but the conditions awakened him and provided him a raw material to highlight the problems faced by the common man. His poetry portrayed the rich heritage of Kashmir at a time, when the whole milieu of Kashmiri poetry was filled with mystic and Sufi credo. This is what makes Mahjoor a people’s poet and elevated his esteem more and more among the people.

17 Agha Shahid Ali was a Kashmiri American Poet known for his famous collections, The Half Inch Himalayas (1987), The Country without a Post Office (1997), Rooms are Never Finished (2001) and others.

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141 CHAPTER V

Yeats and Mahjoor: A Comparison

When you are old and grey and full of sleep, And nodding by the fire, take down this book (Yeats, The Rose 10)

Those who will know you, except a few Have not yet been born (Mahjoor, The Best 65)

It is a well-known fact that English romantic poets share one important and basic ingredient, i.e., ‘Imagination’. Noted critic Edward Said believes that the anti- colonialist writer has the tendency of “isolating himself from the colonizer through imagination” (Said, Yeats 77). The domination of the colonizer in a way dislodges the colonized at cultural, political and geographical level, which forces the nationalist poet to revisit his past culture and traditions to reassert his identity in a more romantic way. In this way, the “imagination of anti-imperialism, and space at home in the peripheries has been usurped and put to use by outsiders for their purpose” (79). Yeats’ poem “Lake isle of Innisfree” is a prime example of Yeats’ imagination, which stipulates that the poet distances himself from the oppressor and reassert his identity in a romantic way:

I will arise and go now, and go to Innisfree And a small cabin build there, of clay and wattles made; Nine-bean rows will I have there, a hive for the honey bee… I hear lake water lapping with low sounds of the shore; (Yeats, The Rose 9)

Mahjoor has shown a similar desire in one of his famous poems but at the same time yearned for the peaceful and sovereign homeland. Yeats in the poem longs for the Irish beauty and Irish homeland; it unveils his nationalistic stance and love for his country. Mahjoor too highlights the prettiness of Kashmir in the poem “I Long to Put on Saffron Robes”:

…With Kamadev1 coming to the Dal To spend a night at Telbal

1 Kamadev is the god of love

142 O could i become a patient lotus In the lake to watch him pass Variegated flowers bloom, Some with ravishing perfumes; (Mahjoor, Ghulam 30)

Mahjoor dreams of building a new world like Yeats, roaming all over the world like a hermit with a new awareness. Mahjoor like Yeats in a romantic way longs for the happiness and joy. Fed up with the mundane and boring life, Mahjoor wants to live a secluded life away from the noisy environment. Both the poets share the same idea to live in the lap of nature. Yeats’ poem unearths his fascination towards Ireland and didn’t want it to be associated with any other country. To him, only the natural surroundings of Ireland can provide him solace, when he says; “I hear lake water lapping sounds of the shore” (Yeats, The Rose 9). Similarly, Mahjoor expresses the same wish in the lines; “Variegated flowers bloom, Some with ravishing perfumes…” (Mahjoor, Ghulam 30).

Yeats poem “The Wild Swans at Coole” presents Yeats as deeply impressed by the beauty of the swans. This poem is classical in its smoothness and lucidity and shows the influence of Wordsworth:

The trees are in their autumn beauty The woodland paths are dry Under the October twilight the water Mirrors a still sky; Upon the brimming water among the stones Are nine-and-fifty swans. (Yeats, The Wild 14)

There is also a melancholy tone in the poem. The poet says that he is watching the swans after nineteen years; “The nineteenth autumn has come upon me/ Since I first made my count” (14). It reminds the poet of the old days; when he was free to roam everywhere. He remembers his golden days and contrasts them with the prevailing circumstances in the contemporary world. The real cause of poet’s grief is an old age, which has taken a heavy toll on him. The poet has the fear that a day will come, when the swans will leave him for all times. What Yeats means to say is that he has seen everything changing in the world, but swans will always remain the same like immortal beings. In this way, he wants to show the transience of the world.

143 The poet has also touches the natural beauty in the poem that has the close affiliation with the Irish cultural past. It plays a significant role in the symbolic significance of his poetry. The natural scenery in his poetry is not mere natural but it has the linkage with the Irish culture as well:

Unwearied still, lover by lover, They paddle in the cold Companionable streams or climb the air; Their hearts have not grown old; Passion or conquest, wander where they will, Attend upon them still. (Yeats, The Wild 15)

Yeats has very aptly created a beautiful landscape by juxtaposing the spiritual as well as mythical elements in the poem. The poet reminds us of the past through the autumn season and affirms the continuity of life after death. Yeats touches the remote past of the ‘Celts2’ as they believed in the “perpetuity of the soul”. In this way, eternal consciousness becomes Yeats’ part of the beautiful Irish landscape. It depicts and specifies the poetic meaning of his poetry in a subtle way that touches and reaches to its cultural domain. In the poem, the imagery of stones, water and trees is recurrently used which had its own significance, so far as mythology and traditional symbols are concerned. Yeats indirectly talks about the cultural past of Ireland; while as Mahjoor also tries and touches the cultural past by using landscape as a medium to show his association and fascination with the past. However, the mythical elements found in Yeats’ poetry can’t be found in Mahjoor’s poetry which makes them slightly dissimilar in their approach.

It can be clearly argued that the nationalist poetry of both the poets has a revolutionary message too. The induction of mythical elements by Yeats and Mahjoor’s inclusion of past elements accentuates the revolutionary perspective of both the poets. Yeats’ wish that “Ireland should retain its culture by keeping awake its consciousness of metaphysical questions” and [Mahjoor’s aspiration to re-examine the past] manifests the rebellious attitude of both of them” (Said, Yeats 81). A revolutionary poem necessarily doesn’t convey the revolutionary message through arms or public gatherings. In this regard, Adrienne Rich points out:

2 Celts are considered as the ethno-linguistic group in Europe and Ireland is considered as a part of it.

144 A revolutionary poem can never instruct you to kill, maim or burn or even how to theorize. It in a way (reminds you of the lost track or way which you have known) where and when and how you are living and might live- it is a wick of desire. It can do its job either through language or images of dreams, meditations, chants lists… (qtd. in Margolies 241)

Adrienne Rich means that a writer uses a different language, imagery and a technique to express his desire of going back to the past rather than using harsh and offensive language to express his revolutionary sentiments. A thorough evaluation of the poetry of both the poets unveils the tendency to revisit their past in an indirect way. At the same time, Cecil Day Lewis argues:

…we must not expect a revolutionary poet to write about nothing but the revolution: he will, presumably, fall in love, admire natural scenery and the movement of machines, and suffer personal despairs and exaltations: and he must write all about these. Thirdly, even when he is writing directly from a revolutionary stimulus, we must not expect the result to be the same as our slogans and our pamphlets: we must not look for direct propaganda. (54)

Mahjoor was the successful versifier of Kashmir, who has depicted love and concern for nature and human values as intimately as the great English poet, William Wordsworth. He too was rocked in the golden cradle of nature and swayed in nature’s joyful swing. To nature, he showered his love and devotion in his poetry:

The bulbul sings to the flowers: ‘A garden is our land!’ The Hyacinth says to the Violet, Why are you hiding thus? Come down from the woods to the garden! A garden is our land! The early spring has come again And camped on mountain heights (Mahjoor, The Best 101)

There is no wonder in the fact that both the poets shower praise on the natural beauty in their poems but there is a veiled message in them also. Cecil Day Lewis further retorts that “it is not necessary that a revolutionary writer will always talk

145 about revolution, but he can also shower praises on beauty, love and sometimes may express personal despairs…” (Margolies 54). Keeping in view Said’s argument that the poet tries to isolate himself from the colonizer in a more romantic way, Yeats and Mahjoor are actually doing the same by deviating themselves from the colonial attitude. They want to reassert their essence and divulge their love towards their nation and its natural beauty. Yeats expresses his fear of old age and eulogizes the beauty of the swans, which exposes the poet’s frustration that puts him in the category of revolutionary poets as propounded by Cecil Day Lewis. Mahjoor attempts to extol the lost peace and scenery of his motherland that has been marred by the violence and invasions from time to time. The ‘garden’ in the poem not only refers to a particular place but it refers to the whole of Kashmir. Thus, both the poets try to revisit their past by imagining the lost beauty and identity.

Yeats’ nationalism was not confined to culture only but also included the political nationalism. Similarly, Mahjoor’s nationalism was beyond the cultural boundaries and included in its fold the political goals also. Mahjoor has vociferously praised the scenic beauty of Kashmir in his poetry, which provides an ample example of Mahjoor’s nationalistic and revolutionary undertones. In his early poetry, the nationalistic feelings are apparent from the poem “Flower of Nishat Garden”:

Flower of Nishat Bagh, Come with your graces, Come with your laughter, Come showering pearls! When you entered the garden, The Kusum kissed you,… Who will heed my woes But you my love. (Mahjoor, Ghulam 20)

It appears that the poet is praising the beauty of the flowers in the garden but it exhibits his love for Kashmir. The beauty at the same time discloses the unbridled compassion and love for people, flora and fauna of Kashmir. The flowers and the beauty of the garden may be fascinating for the poet but in reality, the real garden for the poet is whole Kashmir. At the beginning of the poem, the poet fully praises the beauty of the valley, but the middle of the poem reveals the poets agony of the lost

146 heritage and the sufferings faced by the common masses. This becomes apparent from the lines; “who’ll heed my woes/But you my love/I’m dying of grief/come showering love” (20). The poet nonetheless eulogizes the beauty but he is crestfallen because of the volatile situation. Mahjoor in a way reverberates Edward Said claim by highlighting the romantic beauty, which actually is his counter attack to the oppressor for his obliteration to the geography, culture and sovereignity of Kashmir. The last stanza of the poem reflects the poet’s sensation of the past history and the pride on it by saying:

God grant we never part, Nor pull down what we’ve built! Keep singing this song Of Mahjoor, and come! (20)

Nationalistic spirit in Mahjoor’s poetry points towards the monumental places of Kashmir valley. One more romantic poem in which both the romantic and nationalistic vigour is found is “Beloved, You Drove Me Distracted”. In the poem, the poet shows his anger towards his beloved like Yeats in many of his poems talks about the beauty of Maud Gonne. But in reality, Yeats speaks about the cultural heritage of Ireland by saying; “Come from a more dream-heavy land,/ A more dream heavy hour than this;/ And when you sigh from kiss to kiss/ I hear white beauty sighing, too” (Yeats, The Wind 27). Similarly, Mahjoor in the poem depicts his conversation with his beloved, which revitalizes the flowers in the Nishat and Shalimar gardens. It actually uncovers the poet’s imagination that takes him deep into the realms of past to reassert his identity:

Beloved, you drove me distracted, But you could also save me now!... Your coming caused a frenzied bloom In Nishat and Shalimar. Cross the Dal again, O lover of flowers, To set the whole lake in bloom! (Mahjoor, Ghulam 11)

Mahjoor has very craftily pictured the landscape of Kashmir. Although, the poem is romantic but the poet’s fascination towards the landscape and natural beauty exposes his exceptional love and adulation for Kashmir. The poet from the beginning

147 of the poem holds his beloved responsible for his distraction but at the same time believes that only beloved can save him from sadness. It is fascinating at the same time to mention that Mahjoor pleads his beloved to come again, which may add glorification to the gardens of Nishat and Shalimar. The same feeling is echoed in another poem of Mahjoor:

A new world shall settle therein The deserts shall change into a flower garden The thorny poisonous bush (arakhal) shall get a graft of the pine; (qtd. in Bazaz, History. 297)

The poet means to say that hardships and oppression doesn’t last for a long time. A time will come, when the sufferings and tyrannical forces have to leave the land and the new dawn of freedom will emerge. The poet believes that the past glory may resurrect again and the ‘thorny poisonous bushes’ that Kashmir has been reduced to may get a new life. The ‘thorny poisonous bushes’ are the tormenters and oppressors, who are inflicting oppression on the people. The poet conveys his message through imageries in an indirect way to return to his past. In this context, Moti Lal Saqi states:

I was born and bred in this valley of flowers. His language, his imagery, his symbols are all studded with assorted memorable fragments from Kashmir’s past and the gems of beauty of the countryside around him. Reading his poems gives you the feeling that you are moving through the valley and also visualizing its legendary past. (qtd. in Raina, Ghulam 37-38)

This surely forces a reader to ponder on the poem to uncover the concealed allusion towards the past. The poet’s reference to the past and geographical locations implies his wish to recover it through imagination. Edward Said believes that the resistance writer always “radically distinguishes the imagination of anti-imperialism it is the primacy of the geographical in it” (Said, Yeats 77). Mahjoor also tries to locate his self and the roots of his nation through imagination. Without attacking the corridors of power directly, the poet takes the route of imagination to counter the imperialistic designs. The poet immortalizes his motherland by delving deep into the imagination. Through imageries, Mahjoor tries to recapture the land that has been

148 snatched by the invaders. The naming of different places in the form of mountains and springs actually shows the poet’s deep involvement with his motherland:

The spring has spread out velvet in Gulmarg, Nila Nag and the two Patheris3. Bathe in the Sind water, meditate Manasbal and see God on Harmukh4 (Mahjoor, Poems 124)

Nishat Ansari says that “Mahjoor’s attachment to his local environment later on developed into his passionate love for his homeland and his Kashmiri compatriots which made him the first ever patriotic Kashmiri poet who passionately sang in praise of his birthplace” (qtd. in Mir 61).

Mahjoor’s another poem “I’ll rock you in my arms” is a manifestation of unmatched devotion to his homeland. This poem unveils a slight nationalistic touch and inference towards Kashmir to make its monumental places immortal. The poet calls Kashmir ‘Paradise’ because the poet was aware that the famous places in Kashmir have an enthralling affect on the people all over the world. It is because of the fact that Kashmir in all over the world is called as ‘Paradise on Earth’:

How much like Shereen or Badwaljamal Or a hourie emerging from Paradise With pearls gleaming on a swan’s neck My forest of Najd and Mount Sinai!” (Mahjoor, The Best 2).

It is interesting to mention that Mahjoor only implies to the important and monumental places of Kashmir. He names them as they are the famous tourist resorts and form an important part of the identity of Kashmir. He considers a visit to these places as a panacea for all the ills and sickness. The poet echoes these sentiments in another poem “The Garden is Ablaze with Diverse Hues”:

A drink of morning dew relieves The heart that’s bowed with grief- It’s only the garden where the sick get healed.

3 Gulmarg, Nila Nag and Patheris are tourist resorts in Kashmir and known for springs and fresh water. 4 Manasbal is tourist resort in District Ganderbal of Kashmir and Harmukh is a mountain in the same district.

149 The morning breeze wafts abroad Praise of the beauty self flowers, Which fills all lovers with longing… (Mahjoor, Ghulam 67)

The poet is referring to the emperors especially Mughul emperors, who used to throng Kashmir in summers. In order to relive themselves from the scorching heat and sickness, they considered the gardens of Kashmir as the cure for their sickness. The poet in a way is criticizing them as mere invaders without having a miniscule of sympathy towards the people of Kashmir. The poet apparently talks about beauty, but the revolutionary tinge can’t be ignored all together. The poet shows his castigation towards the invaders, who had violated the sovereignity of Kashmir for their own designs and banefits. It is only after the total metamorphosis of political scenario in Kashmir at the beginning of the 20th century that he became more nationalistic and revolutionary. In this regard, Kalim Akhtar quotes Tabish Siddiqi:

He has written on different issues and most importantly he is praised everywhere as he has touched those issues in his poetry which are concerned with the Nationalistic and Patriotic themes. He has highlighted the brutality and barbarism faced by the people and also wrote on streams, mountains, cemeteries, springs of Kashmir. It is with these things that Mahjoor was successful in inculcating the spirit of Nationalism among the people. (126)

The names of streams, gardens and mountains like Kausar Nag, Rambay Ara Nala, Kongwattan, Zabarwan, Naseem Bagh5 and the old legends like Naagrai and Heemal6 were firmly rooted in the psyche of the poet that appear number of times in his poetry. These things were the part of the poet’s subconscious, taking shape in the form of poetry. It is quite similar with Carl Jung’s concept of ‘Primordial images’, a bundle of images common to all people in a community which binds them together. The poet is fully aware that the things, which are common to the people, can unite them as a community. That is why; he names these streams and mountains to inculcate a nationalist feeling among the people. This was something new to the Kashmiri poetry as such type of imagery enables him to highlight the indigenous part

5 Names of different rivers, streams, mountains and famous gardens of Kashmir. 6 Naagrai is the name of hero and Heemal, a heroine. Their stories are narrated in the ballad form by the elders to children in Kashmir

150 of Kashmiri culture and past tradition. He extols these places in another poem called “O Friend, Should One, as Beautiful as the Moon”:

Lovers in mortal pain take heart when they behold Those twin breasts- an elixir for ailing souls! He slipped out by subtle stealth, but I’ll seek him out In his favourite haunts-Pari Mahal, Telbal7, Dal or Shalamar My lot is tears! Leaving me lonesome and broken, he’s gone! Who knows where?-Prang or Brang or Drang or Kotahar8! (Mahjoor, Ghulam 48)

Mahjoor’s use of imageries in his poetry draws him closer with Yeats to express his nationalist feelings and revolutionary outlook in a better way. Yeats’ popular poem “A Prayer for my Daughter” is an important one to present the poets apprehension about Irish tradition and the coming generation of Ireland. The poet draws a correspondence between the tempestuous sea and his depressing mood about the future of his daughter. An important point about the poem is the poet’s wish to characterize the landscape of Ireland after amalgamating the ‘tree’ and ‘sea’ image. Yeats shows his consciousness about the Irish land, people and their ways of worship through his daughter, when he says that his daughter should live like:

May she become a flourishing hidden tree? That all her thoughts may like the linnet be, And have no business but dispensing round Their magnanimities of sound, Nor but in merriment begin a chase, Nor but in merriment a quarrel O may she live like some green laurel Rooted in one dear perpetual place… And may her bridegroom bring her to a house Where all’s accustomed, ceremonious; (Yeats, Michael 12)

7 Pari Mahal is a garden built by Mughul emperor Shah Jahaan in Srinagar and opened in 1650. Telbal is place near to Dal Lake. 8 Names of different places in Kashmir.

151 His daughter stands for all the Celtic people and their apprehensions about Ireland. The poet’s state of being conscious and his approach towards his ancestral past in harmony with the environmental sources of water in general and sea in particular is visible through the verse; “Dancing to a frenzied drum,/Out of the murderous innocence of the sea” (12). The poet actually wants his daughter to inherit the uniqueness of the Irish race and qualities allied with the Irish past. Yeats finds the tradition as the ultimate power to nourish the newer generation of Ireland with ‘Irishness’:

Out of the mouth of Plenty’s horn, Because of her opinionated mind Barter that horn and every good By quiet natures understood For an old bellows full of angry wind?” (12)

Historian Thomas Rolleston in this regard quotes Doughlas Hyde by saying; “…heaven is above us, and earth beneath us and the sea is round about us. Unless the sky shall fall with its showers of stars on the ground where we are camped, or unless the earth shall be rent by an earthquake…the waves” (Rolleston 24).

Thus, both the poets have hinted towards the local habitat because their main endeavor was to redeem the lost territories. The colonization not only affected the ecology of the colonized nations but the political system also and the “nationalist poet or the visionary, seemed retrospectively to have alienated the people from their authentic traditions, way of life, political organizations” (Said, Yeats 77). Yeats’ poem has also been interpreted from the feminist perspective. Marjorie Elizabeth Howes in her book Yeats’s Nations (1998) says that “the poem is that of a female sexual choice. But, she also argues that to read the poem without the political context surrounding the Irish revolution robs the text of a deeper meaning that goes beyond the relationship between Yeats and the female sex” (Howes).

Nationalistic and revolutionary character in their poetry can’t be read in isolation but in unison. There certainly are some other poems of both the poets, where besides conveying the nationalist sentiment, revolutionary message is more powerful. Yeats’s poem “Easter 1916” is one of them. Although, the poem has already been discussed in Chapter Third, but it is necessary to examine the poem once again and

152 compare it with Mahjoor’s poem “Come O’ Gardener” written in 1931, when Kashmiri freedom struggle was at its peak. In the poem, Mahjoor incites his people in an indirect way to rise against the autocratic rule. Cecil Day Lewis says that a “good poem always touches our emotions, if the poem is written by a good revolutionary and therefore to be essentially –though not formally-propaganda” (Margolies 54). Thus, Mahjoor acts as a revolutionary poet, whose poetry touches the emotions of the people, which eventually forced the people to change the status quo. The poem plays an important role to awaken the poor and downtrodden from slumber to fight for their rights. His poems came as a spontaneous expression of change, filled with the revolutionary zeal and a high sense of patriotic fervor. As a revolutionary, his poetry left a deep impact on the emotions of the people, which made them to re-think of their miserable conditions. The following verses of Mahjoor sums up these features in his poetry:

Bid good-bye to your dulcet strains. To rouse This habitat of flowers, create a storm, Let thunder rumble, - let there be an earthquake! (Mahjoor, Ghulam 16)

The poet wants the people to rise against the tyranny and bring a change in the society by any means. He unlike Yeats was not accustomed to esoteric beliefs or practices but was highly concerned with the domination and culture of his nation. Yeats’s poem “Easter 1916” is a political poem with nationalistic and revolutionary undercurrents. The poet in the poem alludes towards the Greek mythology. The verse “a terrible beauty is born” (Yeats, Michael 5) directly alludes towards the ‘Sun God of fertility in the Irish Mythology.’ This line also signifies the great Irish heroes of the past like ‘Finn’ as if he was dominating the powers of some eternal divine powers:

A horse-hoof slides on the brim And a horse plashes within it, The long-legged moor-hen dive, And hens to moor-cocks call; Minute by minute they live The stone‘s in the midst of all… (6)

153 Yeats’ political and national aspirations are traceable in these wonderful lines; “The stone’s in the midst of all…” (6). It shows the poet’s Irish protestant spirit and enthusiasm. The poet pays tribute to the Irish heroes for their contribution to Irish cause:

Through summer and winter seem Enchanted to a stone To trouble the living stream… Too long a sacrifice Can make a stone of the heart. O when may it suffice? That is Heaven’s part, our part To murmur name upon name, (8)

Yeats in this poem reveals himself as a warrior of Ireland. At the same time, he highlights the dramatic political uncertainty and situation of Ireland under the British occupation by the phrase ‘living stream’. He like “Celtic warriors considered the world of dead as a sort of extension of their life on earth” (Bordas 34). The poet believes that the struggle for freedom is not far away, which is corroborated by the ‘stone’ image. The ‘stream’ image in the poem signifies a ray of hope. The way stream washes away all the litters and dust, definitely adds beauty and makes the surroundings more beautiful than before. These things are related with hope waiting for the Irish people in future. However, several critics have criticized Yeats and questioned his stance as a nationalist poet citing this poem. Declan Kiberd believes that the poem “speaks, ambiguously… he was disclaiming the rather programmatic nationalism of his youth for a more personal version of Irish identity” (213). While Richard Kearney admires him by saying that:

In his poem Easter 1916, Yeats admits that the rebel leaders whom he had earlier disregarded in a ‘mocking tale or gibe’ have been ‘transformed utterly’ by the mythic rite of blood-sacrifice. The motley crew of disparate individuals has been metamorphosed into a visionary sect…That is the ultimate reason that Yeats highly endorses Pearse’s myth of an enduring nation… (114-115)

Mahjoor’s poem “Come Gardener” too has revolutionary undertones hidden in it, which baffles by its wonderful imagery. If Yeats is concerned about the freedom of

154 Ireland, Mahjoor too is concerned about the fate of his nation. Yeats conveys his message in an indirect way, which forces a reader to re-think, while as Mahjoor is direct in conveying his message in the poem. In his poem “Come O’Gardener”, Mahjoor dreams and thinks of the time, when every “Captive bird” will come out from his cage. He means to say that every such person or community will be free from the shackles of oppression. The ‘captive bird’ is none other than a common man of Kashmir, who has been reduced to penury and destitution because of exploitation and slavery. The poet expresses his sadness in these lines:

Who will set you free, captive bird? Crying in your cage? Forge with your own hands The instruments of your deliverance! Wealth and pride and comfort, luxury and authority, Kingship and governance-all these are yours, Wake up, sleeper, and know these as yours! (Mahjoor, Ghulam 16)

In the poem, Mahjoor echoes the aspirations of the people against tyranny. The anarchy that engulfed Kashmir after the dreadful incident of 1931 made the poet realize that there is no way to escape but to rise and protest. The poet in a way mocks his people by using the words, ‘sleeper’ and ‘wake up’. It was an attempt to awaken the people and lure them towards the prosperous future. Yeats’ hope is stimulated by the ‘stone’ image in the poem and Mahjoor’s ‘ray of hope’ can materialize only if the people can take some concrete steps to change their fate. The verse; “forge with your own hands” (16) is the message for the people to assemble together for a common cause without any type of bias and discrimination. It was to insist the people to fight against tyranny forcefully, which will open the gates of freedom for them. Michel Foucault calls this mass awareness among the masses against tyranny by saying; “there is always a resistance where power is displayed” (95). Mahjoor conveys his enthusiastic and revolutionary message in the verse; “Let thunder rumble, - let there be an earthquake!” (Mahjoor, Ghulam 16-17). It exposes the frustration of the poet under the oppressive rule. He wants people to use any means to get rid of from the clutches of tyranny. Like Yeats, Mahjoor too is hopeful that day is not far away, when the Kashmiris will be free. Premnath Bazaz states about the poem; “In August 1939 Mahjur composed an inspiring poem for the Social …The Hamdard. It was melodious, emotional and deeply moving….his fellow countrymen to discard the old

155 conventional means and methods of achieving freedom…” (Bazaz, History 296). This urge for freedom is corroborated in the verses:

Though un-freedom made you stammer, Your call enchanted the birds of the air, For it was born of love… Mahjoor, throw away this belt of bondage! From now, you are free as a bird. Your heart commands, your voice obeys (Mahjoor, Ghulam 21)

Though, both the poets highlight the political uncertainty and tyranny but they are hopeful that tough time will never last long and certainly has an end somewhere. This message of ‘hope’ is further conveyed through the depiction of landscape in their poems. Yeats pays a tribute to the Irish heroes in “Easter 1916”; Mahjoor too is touching his past history, which is visible from the phrase ‘Habitat of flowers…’ Mahjoor means to say that his land was full of bloom with flowers in the past and insists to regain that lost glory. Tasneem Bakshi puts forth his view about Mahjoor’s fascination with the past by saying; “Mahjoor had an unshakeable faith in the past… nationalism is essentially a group memory of past achievements, traditions and experiences. A voracious reader…highly civilized periods in the past, as is obvious from his poems. No wonder he felt proud of his inheritance” (104).

What makes them different is their approach while dealing with the past is that Yeats uses and alludes towards the mythic past of Ireland through myths and symbols while as Mahjoor uses more of a metaphorical language while alluding towards the past history of Kashmir. Mahjoor names the legendary figures of Kashmir from the past while Yeats has referred towards the Irish mythology, occultism or folklore to name the Irish heroes. Additionally, Mahjoor was not as complex as Yeats while touching the cultural or literary past of Ireland. But certainly, he went deep into the history of Kashmir and “he linked with the stories of the past, the legends, the stories of heroism woven together make the fabric of Kashmir…it was a part of him in every way, for it is these things woven together that was Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor” (Mahjoor, Ghulam 55). The mythical tradition of Kashmir is not as rich as an Irish one. This is one of the reasons that Mahjoor has referred to his past directly like Yeats. It is because of the fact that Mahjoor had to convey his message to the illiterate

156 and uneducated people of Kashmir and his motive was to convey the message as simply as possible, so that it can be easily comprehended by the people. Additionally, in the field of mysticism, Mahjoor was poles apart from Yeats with no interest in any type of mystic propensity but Yeats’ poetry is pregnant with mystic elements. Yeats uses mythic tradition and folklore as Mathew Bells argues:

The poetry and plays of W. B. Yeats often take subject matter from traditional Celtic folklore and myth. By incorporating into his work the stories and characters of Celtic origin, Yeats endeavored to encapsulate something of the national character of his beloved Ireland. The reasons and motivations for Yeats’ use of Celtic themes can be understood in terms of the authors own sense of nationalism as well as an overriding personal interest in mythology and the oral traditions of folklore (Bells)

Yeats has fully eternalized the past of Ireland in his poetry through landscape, environmental sereneness, mythology and culture. The poem “A Meditation in the Time of War” is a clear representation of Yeats’ zeal of fighting and exuberance of Ireland’s struggle against aggression and invasions. The poem at the same time depicts the crisis of occupation as well. Yeats’ portrayal of ‘grey stone’ in the poem not only shows the traditional meaning of burial place but also the valour of the Irish masses:

For one throb of the artery, While on that old grey stone I sat Under the old wind-broken tree, I knew that one is animate (Yeats, Classic 67)

In the poem, stone imagery is recurrently used, which gives a clue of Ireland’s incessant struggle against the aggression. Another such poem presented with stone image is the “The Man and the Echo”: In a cleft that’s christened Alt Under broken stone I halt At the bottom of a pit That broad noon has never lit, And shout a secret to the stone. All that I have said and done,

157 Now that I am old and ill, Turns into a question till (427)

The poem is a philosophical one having deep roots in past and Yeats’ traumatic life. Seamus Heaney argues about the poem:

The poem tries to make sense of historical existence within a bloodstained natural world and an indifferent universe. It was written near the end of Yeats’ life, when he was reviewing his involvement with the historical events in Ireland over the previous half-century: events such as the founding of the Abbey Theatre and its political impact on the lead-up to the 1916 rising, the Irish war of independence… (96)

Despite the philosophical undertones in the poem, it has a political message also. Yeats is also doubtful about life after death as exemplified by the verses; “Shall we in that great night rejoice?/ What do we know but that we face” (Yeats, Classic 427). He reviews his involvement in the struggle against the Britishers and questions whether he has played his role as a poet or not:

Did that play of mine send out Certain men the English shot? Did words of mine put too great Strain On that women’s reeling brain Could my spoken words have checked That whereby a house lay wrecked? (427)

Yeats doubts that his play Cathleen Ni Houlihan (1902) has been responsible to a large extent to incite the people against the Britishers. The poet feels guilty of causing destruction to property and the loss of human lives on the Easter day. But there is also a double dilemma found in Yeats, when he says that he and his works are not responsible for any kind of damage and wants to leave the world calmly by saying; “And all seems evil until i/sleepless would lie down and die” (427). The poet also talks about death for which a man is never prepared in his entire life. What Yeats wants to convey is that the man should never feel guilty and justify his deeds but to live the life freely without any distress. He in a way wants to exonerate himself from all the wrong doings of his past life.

158 Moreover, the depiction of natural scenery from sea to cloud purposely symbolizes Yeats’ undying passion and fervor with his own identity and the place of being. It corroborates his concepts of the ‘Unity of Being’ and ‘Unity of Culture’. Yeats denounces the theory of ‘Theory of Philosophical Presentism’ propounded by philosophers like Fyodor Shcherbatskoy in his book Buddhist Logic (1932), which says that neither the past nor the present, exists anywhere. The poet not only revisits the past but at the same time wants to show its relevance with the present. Mahjoor also comes in this category, who time and again relishes the past memories.

Mahjoor’s poem “Flower of Nishat Garden” is nonetheless the nationalistic poem. If Yeats is fed up with the foreign rule, Mahjoor too is disgruntled with the state of affairs of Kashmir and domination from outside rulers. Mahjoor highlights the landscape of Kashmir by mentioning the places like Shalimar9, Dal10, Nishat11 and the gushing springs of Kashmir. His detestation against the rulers is obvious from the verses:

You can’t remain with folded wings! Plume them, fly and see the world. See flowers now with eyes of freedom… (Mahjoor, Ghulam 71)

The poet makes an appeal to the masses to come from the cozy rooms. For him, it is time to wake up and fight the oppressive ruler with full might and bravery. The poet is quite aware that the slavery has reduced the people to commodities, who couldn’t open their mouth against atrocities or demand their rights freely by saying: Though un-freedom made you stammer Your call enchanted the birds of the air” For it was born of love (71)

The prime motive was to make his people politically and culturally conscious. In another poem, “A Garden is our Land”, the ‘garden’ is none other than “Kashmir”. The poem shows the real image of Kashmir from Verinag to Lolab and from Alapather to Pampore12:

9 Shalimar Bagh is a garden in Srinagar, Kashmir built by Mughul emperor Jahangir in 1619 A.D. 10 It is a beautiful lake in Srinagar, also known as “Jewel in the crown of Kashmir”. 11 It is a Mughul garden in Srinagar built by Nur Jahan brother Asif Khan. 12 Names of different places in Kashmir.

159 Like walls of white marble, The mountain peaks enclose A sunny space of emerald green. A garden is our land! The early spring has come again And camped on mountain heights, And tulips blow in Shalimar. A garden is our land! (66)

This poem became famous in a fortnight and came to be considered as the national anthem of Kashmir. Landscape in the poem is pictured everywhere like Yeats has pictured in his poetry. It was written with the intention to encourage the people, boost their morale and make them feel that Kashmir is matchless on earth. At the end of this poem, the poet gives vent to his emotions in an enthusiastic way:

Mahjoor, our motherland Is the loveliest on earth! Shall we not love her best? (66)

There is a beautiful message in the last stanza of this poem. Mahjoor seems perplexed about his devotion towards Kashmir by saying; “Shall we not love her best” (66). The poet’s main motive here is to make sure that there is no such land and country in the world more beautiful than Kashmir. It highlights his internal conflict and confusion about his loyality towards Kashmir. It can be argued that Mahjoor wants to show absolute devotion and love and like Yeats, he wants to exonerate himself from all the doubts and misconceptions, which the people had about him. It signifies that both the poets were in dilemma and doubted their contribution towards their respective causes.

Yeats like Mahjoor is also in search of his roots and wants to re-build the old culture and find their essence. Yeats’ poem “Sailing to Byzantium” plays an important role to display the concern of the poet as it talks about his ancestral roots. It touches the focal point of ‘Youth and old age’. Apparently, the poet talks about the mortality of life and old age as curse:

…An aged man is but a paltry thing

160 A tattered coat upon a stick, unless Soul clap its hands and sing, and louder sing For every tatter in its mortal dress… (Yeats, The Tower 2)

The poet believes that in order to live a happy and joyful life in an old age, a person should study the old civilizations of the world; “Nor is there singing school but studying/ Monuments of its own magnificence” (2). The poem is basically the poet’s inner journey in the beautiful landscape of Ireland, which fascinates and haunts him at the same time. The poet’s inner journey from the sea is the larger part of the total Irish landscape. Yeats talks about the historical work of art crafted by the popular craftsmen from two major civilizations of Greece and Rome; “But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make/ of hammered gold and gold enameling” (2). He also throws some light on the ancient powerful Celtic tribes of the 4th century B.C. In Celtic Mythology (2004), Thierry Bordas writes; “Celtic art evolved, adopting many eastern motifs in the torcs, fibula, belt buckles, bracelets etc. The technique of the craftsmen is remarkable not only did they work with bronze and gold but also with glass and enamel” (16). The poet tries to compare the Celtic land with the city of Byzantium:

O sages standing in God's holy fire As in the gold mosaic of a wall, Come from the holy fire, perne in a gyre, And be the singing-masters of my soul. Consume my heart away; sick with desire And fastened to a dying animal It knows not what it is; and gather me Into the artifice of eternity… (Yeats, The Tower 2)

Norman Jeffares argues that “Yeats would remember that in Celtic legendary the salmon is used as a symbol of strength; the hero Cachulain is renowed for his ‘salmon leap’, and his energy is compared to the flight of a bird” (Jeffares 47). Byzantium for Yeats is actually an image, which has been popular for different reasons where the poet could have located his self easily without being dismayed in tribulations and confusion. Thus, Byzantium and Irish landscape is intermingled with each other and the poet believes that the present Ireland may be free like old Byzantium. Byzantium

161 symbolizes “a new Ireland infringing away from its masters so that it might develop its own philosophical, religious and artistic destiny” (Henn 222).

The imagery reflected in the poem as; “The Salmon-falls, the mackerel- crowded seas/ Fish, flesh, or fowl, commend all summer long” (Yeats, The Tower 1) highlights in reality the Ireland’s ecological history. T. R. Henn further retorts that, “Sligo river drops through the town in a series of shallow falls where fish run up to Lough gill, and the memory is that of spring and the magnificent strength and grace of the leaping fish, itself magical and a symbol of strength in Celtic literature” (225). The poem draws a line between the past and the present .The sea imagery is not dominant only in this poem but also in the poem “Byzantium”, considered as a sequel to it. If “Sailing to Byzantium” is considered as the poet’s inner journey, Byzantium is the poets ‘Country of mind’. For Yeats, Byzantium is the peculiar country with; “Common bird or petal/ And all complexities of mire or blood” (Yeats, Classic 131). It represents the problematic situation of Ireland that finds it difficult to endure in the turbulent times:

Before me floats an image, man or shade, Shade more than man, more image than a shade; For Hades' bobbin bound in mummy-cloth May unwind the winding path; A mouth that has no moisture and no breath Breathless mouths may summon; (131)

Yeats through the images unearths the volatile past of Ireland. At the same time, the poet emphasizes the supremacy of art over everything else. This thing cannot be taken out that the poet also stresses on the rituals represented by the image of Dolphin. At the end of the poem, the poet uncovers the ritualistic atmosphere in this way: Astraddle on the dolphins mire and blood, Spirit after spirit! The smithies break the flood, The golden smithies of the Emperor! Marbles of the dancing floor Break bitter furies of complexity, Those images that yet Fresh images beget, That dolphin-torn, that gong-tormented sea. (131)

162 In a similar way, the poem “The Statues” also shows the supremacy of art and unravels Yeats’ intention that art can make any nation great and supreme. In the poem, the poet looks at the statues and ponders on their immortality and prevalence in the contemporary times. The poet is well aware about the fact that art of any kind is part of an identity for a nation. The main motive is to bring awareness among the people about the Irish art of the past times. The depiction of the supremacy of art by the poet is his devotion with Ireland’s identity that forms a larger part of Irish nationalism. Dr. B. Rajan believes that “The Statues is an attempted fusion of cultural history with Irish nationalism” (182). Firstly, Yeats reckons that Pythagoras made the statues but lastly he says that the great artists infused them with a living character:

Pythagoras planned it. Why did the people stare? His numbers, though they moved or seemed to move In marble or in bronze, lacked character. But boys and girls, pale from the imagined love… No! Greater than Pythagoras, for the men That with a mallet or a chisel modeled these (Yeats, Classic 514)

A co-relation is found between the Indian and Greek art in the poem. It becomes obscure to link Buddha with the ideal Irish heroes’ like Cachulain. But later, it becomes clear that ‘Cachulain is the old spiritual descendent of Apollo and Buddha’; “Grimalkn crawls to Buddha’s emptiness/When Pearse summoned Cachulain to his side” (514). It dates back to the Alexander’s conquest of India that has highly influenced the Indian art. It also signifies the inter-relation between the Greek and an Indian art and connotes the cultural relationship of different arts of the world. Thus, it means that “it moves from the antithetical Europe to primary Asia and then returns back to the antithetical Europe. It is the subjective men and the antithetical art that always wins against the subjective men and their civilization” (Yeats, Explorations 451).

Yeats means to say that the present Ireland faces the same cunning situation that has been faced by the Greeks at battle of Salamis. Ireland for Yeats is the part and parcel of the antithetical Europe that has once defeated Persia. In a way, Yeats wants to show his presence in the European world at par with other European nations. The modern age is criticized by Yeats in; “which harsh strains of capitalism have removed

163 thought and reflection, a poet who can stimulate a sense of eternal and death into consciousness is the true rebel…” (Said, Yeats 81). The subject matter of the poem is an interesting one as it is the anonymous perfection of the Greek sculpture and the poet’s prophetic belief that the Irish, wrecked by the ‘formless, spawning fury’ of ‘the filthy modern tide’ will be reborn and will repossess their “ancient powers so splendidly realized in the classic design of ‘the plummet-measured face…the Pythagoras image is subtly interlinked with the heroic figure of Cachulain, which again, is associated with the Easter Rising” (Chatterjee 131).

When Pearse summoned Cachulain to his side What stalked through the post office? What intellect What calculation, number, measurement, replied? We Irish born into that ancient sect But thrown upon this filthy modern tide And by its formless spawning fury wrecked, Climb to our proper dark that we may trace The lineaments of a plummet-measured face (The Collected Poems 376)

‘The Tower’ is considered as the most important and Magnum opus of Yeats. The Tower for Yeats is an old monumental structure, where the poet is sitting and trying to discover his inner being and the historical past of Ireland. Edward Larrisy is of the view that “tower is actually the building constructed by the Normans during their time… passage of time it was then occupied by their successors and they ultimately formed a significant element of the Gaelic order in the Middle Ages” (57). The main focus and theme of the poem are the poet’s passions getting more muscular and vibrant day by day. But on the other hand, the physical weakness rummages him. Basically, the poem is divided into three parts and the second part of it is the most important and interesting because the poet deeply envisions the Irish culture and history from the historical tower:

Never had I more Excited, passionate, fantastical Imagination, nor an ear and eye That more expected the impossible— No, not in boyhood when with rod and fly,

164 Or the humbler worm, I climbed Ben Bulben’s back And had the livelong summer day to spend. It seems that I must bid the Muse go pack, Choose Plato and Plotinus for a friend Until imagination, ear and eye, (Yeats, The Tower 3)

The ‘Tree image’ has a considerable importance in the poem as it is linked to the poet’s memory. The images of ‘tree’, ‘rock’ and other images are the remembrances of the past history for the poet; “Some few remembered still when I was young/ A peasant girl commended by a song,/ Who’d lived somewhere upon that rocky place/ And praised the colour of her face” (3). The Tower reminds Yeats different incidents and events from the Irish history. Though, the poet has turned fragile physically, but these things promulgate his liveliness of the soul and the relationship of his golden days in youth and old age. The Tower heralds the poet’s matchless association and the deep rootedness with the Irish nationalism. It has left an ineffaceable mark on the memory of Yeats. The poet also remembers it in the poem “Blood and the Moon”: Blessed be this place… Alexandria’s was a beacon tower, and Babylon’s An image of the moving heavens, a log-book of the sun’s journey and the moon’s; And Shelley had his towers, thought’s crowned powers he called them once. I declare this tower is my symbol; I declare This winding, gyring, spiring treadmill of a stair is my ancestral stair; That Goldsmith and the Dean, Berkeley and Burke have travelled there. Swift beating on his breast in sibylline frenzy blind (Yeats, The Winding 6)

Thus, the most important thing which both the poets share is the same devotion and hero worship towards their past culture. They are on the same page as they glorify the past achievements and are also proud of their heritage as well.

Mahjoor has made a reference to his ancestors and at the same time alludes towards the Kashmiri art in the poem “Arise O’ Gardener”:

Arise, O Gardener! And usher in the glory of a new spring Create conditions for ‘bulbuls’ to/Hover over full-blown roses…

165 Official writs will again run at your will in case you Produce a peer of Zia Bhan in this modern age Litterateurs of Iran will bow to you in reverence if you Create a poet with powers of magical narration like Ghani (Mahjoor, Ghulam 6)

It is well known fact that Persian art and literature is considered as one of the oldest and richest in world. Mahjoor wants to say that Kashmiris have to muster their capability to recreate past glory and enthusiasm. The poet mentions the most revered poet of the 17th century Ghani Kashmiri13 in the poem. It also uncovers the poet’s regret of the loss of past glories but he at the same time is hopeful that the same glory can be revived again if the legends like Ghani Kashmiri are born again, whose writings will attract the artists and writers from Persia. It is important to mention that Ghani Kashmiri was the Persian poet and Mahjoor willingly has made his comparison with the writers of Persia to unveil his legacy. The images of past and present are colorfully pictured in order to make a comparison between the older days and the contemporary one. The message is to stimulate the people and enlighten them of the bright history and culture.

Likewise, Yeats in the poem “Byzantium” depicts and compares the situation of past with the contemporary history of Ireland to create an individual and separate national literature. For him, it is possible only after revitalizing the old heroic past and Irish mythology. It was a deliberate attempt from the poet to give a common platform to the common ultimate goal, so that people can get united to achieve the common goal of national liberation. This becomes more evident from his Autobiographies (1956):

Might I not, with health and good luck to aid me, create some new Prometheus Unbound; Patrick or Columcille, Oisin or Finn, in Prometheus’ stead, and instead of Caucasus, Cro-Patrick or Ben Bulben? Have not all races had their first unity from a mythology that marries them to rock and hill. We had in Ireland…that is with music, speech, and dance; and at last, it might be, so

13 Muhammad Tahir Ghani Kashmiri was a famous Persian poet of Kashmir of the 17th century and achieved popularity all over South Asia.

166 deepen the political passion of the nation that all, artist and poet, craftsman and day-labourer would accept a common design? (Yeats, 193-94)

The symbols and imageries used in the poem “Byzantium” have a deep significance as they represent the ‘atmospheric quality’. They allude towards the significance of art of any country. The images like “Byzantine dome, the mechanical golden bird planted on the golden bough, and the flames on the emperor’s pavement…represent the summit of Byzantium’s achievement of art” (Chatterjee 122): The unpurged images of day recede; The Emperor’s drunken soldiery are abed Night resonance recedes, night-walkers’ song After great cathedral gong (Yeats, Classic 131)

Mahjoor too wants the people to stand on their legs and work for the nation building. Mahjoor and Yeats thus invoke the memories of the past as Hutchinson says:

It is true that cultural nationalism is usually little more than a small-scale coterie of historical scholars and artists, concerned to revitalize the community by invoking ‘memories’ of the nation as an ancient and unique civilization…this ’grass roots’ movement has played a central part in nation- building. (482)

Mahjoor sees the Kashmiri people as a community as “cultural nationalists perceive the nation not as a state but as a distinctive historical community, which continuously evolving, embodies a higher synthesis of the traditional’ and the modern” (Hutchinson 486). Mahjoor at the end of the poem again mentions rich ‘art’ of Kashmir but what depreciates him time and again is the traumatic condition of the people of Kashmir:

O Mahjoor! You created roses in the field of poetry, Now make a wailing ‘bulbul’ too in this colourful garden (Mahjoor, Ghulam 6)

It indicates the poet’s apprehension for Kashmir. The ‘Bulbul’ here refers to the inhabitants of Kashmir and ‘Colourful garden’ certainly to the whole of Kashmir.

167 By ‘colourful’, Mahjoor exposes the prosperous past. The poet in these lines addresses himself as he considers it his responsibility to glorify the motherland again and stimulate people towards revolution. In the same poem, he records his apprehensions in the following verses:

Total immersion in the love of the motherland behooves man. If you create this faith, surely you shall attain your goal, Who will free you, O ‘bulbul’, while you bewail in the cage? With your hands, work out your own salvation. (6)

From these lines, the poet exposes himself as the lover of the land. The poet’s goal is none other than freeing the people from the clutches of ‘slavery’ and ‘oppression’. Sometimes, there is a mélange of past heritage and the depiction pathetic condition in his poetry. Mahjoor talks about the past but at the same time, he urges the people to free themselves from the slavery; “With fresh youth and a passionate Heart/ “Why fill our glass with foreign brew/Or alien pockets with our wealth?/This must cease. A new orientation/ Must begin in my home!” (75). The poet questions the domination of the outside powers in Kashmir and considers it as a shame. He wants to make a new start to create new Kashmir, free from the pathos of anarchy and loot. The confidence of the poet is at its zenith and he is quite sure that a day will come, when the name and fame of Kashmir will spread to all over the Eastern part of the world: While ruin stalks poor men’s homes. There shall be a single gate That leads to various homes- Mosques, temples and churches, Pilgrims’ homes and shrines of saints. The time is not far when Kashmir Will reawaken the eastern world (76)

Mahjoor in some of his poems has shown his concern because of the grave situation of the peasants and farmers of Kashmir. The capitalistic agenda promulgated by the capitalists has been shattered by Mahjoor in his poetry. He is well aware that the reason of the backwardness of the people is the lack of wealth that is in the hands of few people. In the above verses, he talks about the same problem and instantly

168 promulgates the nationalist sentiments by ensuring the unity among all to fight against capitalism and loot. However, Yeats hasn’t been as apprehensive as Mahjoor in the economic field. The Irish writers including Yeats believed “in searching for that identity Irish writers turned, as if naturally, to the people they imagined to be most distinctively and authentically Irish: Peasants” (Hirsch 1121). It can be said that Yeats tries to explicate the “character of Irish peasant life” (1129). The attempt to formulate a new image of the peasants was in turn to ascertain the legitimacy of turning “culture into nature and thus providing, in Roland Barthes’s terms, natural justification for a historical and literary intention” (1129).

Yeats dreams of a New Ireland as is obvious in the poem “The Municipal Gallery Revisited”. The poem deals with the poet’s visit to one of the galleries, which reminds him of the legendary figures and important moments of his life. The poem “may be the large collection of Yeats’ own past poetic images in the poem. By re- assembling the “fellow workers,” “statesmen,” and “events of the last thirty years of his life” (Gardiner 58). But the presentation of Irish peasants, revolutionaries and patriots can’t be ruled out altogether like; Roger Casement and Kevin O’ Higgins:

Around me the images of thirty years… Guarded; Griffith staring in hysterical pride; Kevin O’ Higgins’ countenance that wears The dead Ireland of my youth, but an Ireland The poets have imagined, terrible and gay.’ Before a woman’s portrait suddenly I stand, Beautiful and gentle in her Venetian way … Without the peasant base civilization must die (Yeats, Classic 436)

It can also be argued that Yeats’ psyche doesn’t allow him to forget the Irish revolutionaries and the sufferings faced by the Irish peasants because of the oppressive policies executed by Britishers. In the last stanza of the poem, Yeats mentions the political and literary figures of Ireland; “And here John Synge himself, that rooted man…/ Where my friends’ portraits hang and look thereon/Irelands history is their lineaments trace…” (436). The portraits at the gallery has an allegorical significance because “of the purposeful separation from its “meaning,” is

169 ultimately suggested by an analysis of what Benjamin calls “allegorical constellations” in which figures stand in relation to … one another” (Gardiner 59). In addition to this, Yeats touches the issues the common life of the people in an incongruous way as is obvious from the poem “News for the Delphic Oracle”. He tries to become a mouth piece of the poor and downtrodden people: …and having stretched and yawned awhile Lay sighing like the rest. Straddling each a dolphin’s back And steadied by a fin, Those innocents re-live their death, Their wounds open again. (Yeats, Classic 270)

In these lines, Yeats talks about the connection of the past with the present as Yeats contrasts the past with the contemporary times. Like, Mahjoor seems to be the recipient and admirer of the art of Persia. In the same way, Yeats also has the fascination towards Greek and Irish personalities associated with art or myths:

And the wind sighed too. Man-Picker Niamh leant and sighed By Oisin on the grass; There sighed amid his choir of love Tall Pythagoras. Plotinus came and looked about. (270)

Mahjoor enlivens the great figures of Kashmir. He eternalizes the old kings and nobles of Kashmir like Tazi Bhat14, Lalitaditya15 and Mubarak Khan16 by saying; “Kashmiris’ fame will again spread in the world if you/Create luminaries like Tazi Bhat, Lalitaditya and Mubarak Khan” (Mahjoor, Ghulam 6). Mahjoor means to say that Kashmir was a separate country ruled by its own rulers without any interference from the outsiders. The naming of the past rulers was to remind the people about Kashmir as an independent nation like many other nations of the world. Yeats in his poem “The Dedication to a book of Stories selected from the Irish Novelists” echoes

14 Tazi Bhat was commander-in-chief of one of the Sultans of Kashmir. 15 Lalitaditya was the 12th century King of Kashmir. He belonged to the Korkata dynasty. He has been called as ‘World conqueror’ by Kalhana in his historical chronicle Kalhana. 16 Mubarak khan was a cabinet minister in king Yusuf Khan’s cabinet in Kashmir.

170 the similar emotions like Mahjoor. The poem begins by the old name of Ireland as ‘Eire’ in this way:

There was a green branch hung with many a bell When her own people ruled this tragic Eire; And from its murmuring greenness, calm of faery, A Druid kindness, on all hearers fell. It charmed away the merchant from his guile, And turned the farmers memory from his cattle, (The Collected Poems 34)

Yeats makes a reference towards the contemporary Ireland, controlled by the foreign rulers. The poet speaks about the ‘green branch’, which implies towards the “legendary branch whose shaking cast all men into a gentle sleep” (Jeffares 22). Unlike Mahjoor, Yeats addresses the Irish people in exile, longing to see Ireland free from colonial burden; “Ah, Exiles wandering over lands and seas/ And planning, plotting always that some morrow/ May set a stone upon ancestral sorrow!/ I also bear a bell-branch full of ease” (Yeats, The Collected 34). The poet in a way claims to be the nationalist poet and serving the Irish people, while raking the issue of exiled Irishmen. The imagery of trees and branches manifests the deep passion and bonding with the Irish geography. Through imagery, Yeats nonetheless is successful in portraying the true picture of Ireland. In Mahjoor’s poetry, imagery is not as rampant as in Yeats’s poetry but in some of his poems, he has used the imagery of Bulbul (Nightingale), Yemberzal (Narcissus) that keeps him at par with Yeats. With his embroidery of imagery and symbols, both the poets create the delicate pictures vacillating with emotions and longing for the shades of life.

Mahjoor assimilates the old tradition of his predecessors that shows his ineffable amalgamation with art and literature like Yeats. He endorses the tradition in the poem “Friend, why is mo Love so cross with me”:

…Mir’s old wine fills new cups now, Stocks have reached all taverns for sale. Pour it unto glasses, Mahjoor, and serve! (Mahjoor, Ghulam 23)

171 Yeats mentions the names of his predecessors in his other poems and pays an obeisance for their contribution. The heroes of Ireland like Wolf Tone17, Edward Fitzgerald, and Robert Emmet18 and O’ Leary are paid glowing tribute by Yeats :

For this Edward Fitzgerald died, And Robert Emmet and Wolfe Tone, And all that delirium of the brave? They weighed so lightly what they gave. But let them be, they’re dead and gone, They’re with O’ Leary in the grave. (Yeats, Classic 306)

The poet pays a glowing tribute to the Irish nationalists, revolutionaries and artists. It can be argued that Yeats was not only associated with the Irish nationalists but revolutionaries also. Further, Yeats’ assimilation with the predecessor poet Lord Edward Fitzgerald keeps him at par with Mahjoor by acknowledging the diverse contribution of his ancestors. Although, Mahjoor is in a way different from Yeats as he makes no mention of any revolutionary poet of Kashmir in the poem but considers himself as a successful successor of the romantic poet Rusl Mir.

The question remains what was lost in Ireland on which Yeats is lamenting in the poem “September 1913”. In this regard, Irish Times published an article titled “The Strange death of Romantic Ireland” in year 2012:

The plaintiff’s evidence suggests that the heroic tradition of Irish Nationalism has been killed off, those “for whom the hangman’s rope was spun”. Those named by Yeats were Lord Edward Fitzgerald, Robert Emmet, and Wolfe Tone, romantic revolutionary figures from the late 18th and the early 19th centuries. More generally, Yeats pays tribute to those who had been exiled from Ireland on account of their political beliefs. Most of all, it was the Fenian, John O’ Leary, who epitomized the loss for which Yeats grieved.19(Mulhall 01)

17 Wolf Tone was hardcore Irish revolutionary. 18 A rebel leader of Ireland. 19 See, https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/books/the-strange-death-of-romantic-ireland-1.544820

172 The ’grave’ image in the poem connotes death but it also implies the memories of notable personalities. Thus, the main theme and idea in the poem is Irish past and political history.

Was it for this the wild geese spread The grey wing upon every tide The grey wing upon every tide For this that all that blood was shed. (Yeats, Classic 306)

Richard Ellmann says that “the words ‘for this’ and ‘all that blood’ stands for the contrast between the present and the past for the simplicity of its blood sacrifice” (143). Yeats wants to communicate the revolutionary zeal of his ancestors to the future generation of Ireland. The poet means to say that the ancient heroes are not simply dead and gone but their memories will reverberate the Irish people for all times.

In another poem, “To a Shade”, a literary and political history of Ireland is presented by the poet. Yeats’ main theme in the poem is to praise the unsung hero of Ireland, Charles Stewart Parnell, an Irish nationalist politician of the 19th century. The tomb of Parnell in the poem is called as ’Shade’ and the ‘Town’ stands for the Dublin town of Ireland. The main point is to show the political and cultural values of Ireland that ultimately is an indication towards Irish values and tradition of the past. This is presented through the image of the ‘Tomb’:

If you have revisited the town, thin shade,… The pack upon him. Go, unquiet wanderer, And gather the Glasnevin coverlet… You had enough of sorrows before death— Away, away! You are safer in the tomb. (Yeats, Responsibilities 36)

The main point is that the literary history or the cultural nationalism is part and parcel of political struggle. The poem “Parnell’s Funeral” is one such poem, where the poet through the symbolic image of a ‘tree’ presents the animation of the people, who have given their life for the freedom struggle of Ireland. But what makes

173 Mahjoor different from Yeats is the plausibility of language. His poetry is not as multifaceted as Yeats’ but is easy to comprehend:

…Had Cosgrave eaten Parnell’s heart, the land’s Imagination had been satisfied, Or lacking that, government in such hands. O’ Higgins its sole statesman had not tied Had even O’ Duffy- but I name no more- Their school a crowd, his master solitude; (Yeats, Classic 177)

Yeats to a large extent has been influenced by some revolutionary nationalists of Ireland. It is also a fact that Yeats had himself witnessed the unrest and exploitation under British rule and simultaneously followed his nationalist predecessors. Mahjoor’s emergence as nationalist poet was something new in the history of Kashmiri literature and he expressed his resentment directly against the corridors of power. In the past, a poet namely Ghani Kashmiri had revolted against the Mughul King Aurangzeb20 after refusing to attend his court ceremony. He had expressed his resentment in these verses against the emperor:

Like a needle I sew clothes for others Myself remaining naked and O Ghani, I wish such a revolution in the world That the globe turns into dust in the skies. (qtd. in Mohi-ud-Din 83)

Thus, in general terms, both Yeats and Mahjoor acted as crusaders in their respective nations against occupation, injustice and inequality. Mao Tse-tung is of the view that:

While fighting for the liberation, only armed forces and weapons is not necessary to achieve the goal, but artists have a key role to play to which Mao Tse-tung refers ‘Cultural army’. Also there is in fact no such thing as art for art’s sake… or art that is detached from or independent of politics. He adds that revolutionary art serves as “cogs and wheels in the whole revolutionary machine” (Tse-tung NP).

20 Aurenzeb was the sixth Mughul emperor (Medieval ruler) and his actual name was Muhi-ud-Din Muhammad. He ruled India from 1658-1707.

174 Yeats’ subject-matter in his poetry is Irish and Mahjoor’s subject-matter is Kashmiri. In one of his poems “My Rose Garden fills with Ecstasy”, Mahjoor stressed on the Kashmiriness and the imagery used in the poem in the form of Bulbuls (Nightingales) and Poshinool (Golden Oriole) makes it evident that the poet was all together anxious to shape his identity. The poet reflects the attractiveness of Kashmir which tempts the people all over the world because of its natural beauty, sereneness, peace and tranquility. Mahjoor talks about the exploitation of the common masses and distortion of culture and identity:

Sick men flock here from various lands, And go back home in health; But my own men, racked with hunger and disease, Lie dying on my roads. (Mahjoor, Ghulam 42)

Manzoor Ahmad Fazili in relation to the poem believes that:

The poet has expressed that the exploitation of poor at the hands of rich ones has resulted in the further degradation of downtrodden and left them without providing them an opportunity to enjoy themselves. But at the same time, the poet has expressed the hope that a day will come when the poor labourers would get an opportunity to enjoy in their own home. Thus, he stimulated the people to revolt against the despotism and domination. He also desired to see Kashmir free from clutches of Dogra exploitation. (14)

Mahjoor taunts the rulers from all over the world, who had invaded Kashmir from time to time. The poet is referring to the Mughul king Jahangir21 in the poem (1569- 1627) after his visit to Kashmir. The beauty and placidity of Kashmir forced Jahangir to repeat the couplets of famous Persian poet Amir Khusrao (1253-1325):

If there is a paradise on Earth, It is this, it is this, it is this…22 (Khusrao)

The poet at the same time taunts the Mughul King as a mere invader to Kashmir, who treated Kashmir as a pleasure resort and a place of merrymaking. He

21 Jahangir was the fourth Mughul emperor and his actual name was Mirza Nur-ud-Din Beig Muhammad Khan Salim. He ruled from 1605-27. 22 See, https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/7386585-farsi-couplet-agar-firdaus-bar-roo-e-zameen-ast- hameen-ast-o

175 castigates them for the deterioration of Kashmir in every field. It can’t be only Mughul king but all the rulers like Afghans and Dogras, who had deliberately looted the wealth of Kashmir and violated the sovereignity from time to time. What traumatizes Mahjoor is the pathetic and dismal condition of the common masses of Kashmir. Undoubtedly, Mahjoor is dejected by the dismal picture of the people because of starvation, death, poverty, hunger and disease. He reminds the people about their rich past and heritage and the people responsible for its sudden catastrophe:

I was not what you see me now! My many monuments of stone Bear eloquent witness to the greatness Of my glorious ancient heritage. If you just scrape my soil, Gaze steadily down with care, Mixed with the dust, you will find Many a garden that was once in bloom! ... (Mahjoor, Ghulam 42)

The poet says that big and mammoth monuments in Kashmir are witness to this fact that the heritage of Kashmir is matchless. The poet refers to an era of peace which once prevailed in Kashmir. These lines are the clear indication of the poet’s matchless bond with Kashmir and its people. But he is sad and distressed by the remorseful and contrite conditions also:

My naked poor labour hard, And grow food for everyone; Never satisfied, the rich demand Their slaving for them night and day. But remember I when these poor naked souls Do stand up at last one day, (42)

Mahjoor castigates the wealthy people for exploiting the poor folks of the society by forcing them to work day and night without paying them the proper wages. The poet refers to the concept of ‘Beggar23’ or ‘Forced labour’ introduced by Dogra

23 It was an inhuman practice in Kashmir, where a person was forced to work forcibly without paying a penny at all.. Walter Lawrence in his book The Valley of Kashmir (1895) has also mentioned about it.

176 rulers. In this inhuman act, any person was forcibly employed in a type of work for days or months. At the end, the poor worker was paid a meagre amount or not at all. Mahjoor has lived in that era of the Dogra period and has witnessed this type of callous practice. Noted Kashmiri critics, Shafi Shauq and Naji Munawar are of the view that “For the first time in the history of Kashmir, Mahjoor was the first poet who raised a voice against the political subjugation, economic exploitation and tyranny of the Kashmiri people which had reduced them to indigence” (Shauq and Munawar 145). The words ‘inheritance of wealth’ in the poem is important in the sense as it is related to the Kashmir and the economic deprivation faced by the Kashmiri people. Mahjoor time and again wants to revisit the past and yearns for its revival. These verses evoke emotions in a reader as Cecil Day Lewis talks about the importance of poetry thoroughly by saying; “A good poem enters deep into the stronghold of our emotions: if it is written by a good revolutionary, it is bound to have a revolutionary effect on our emotions and therefore to be essentially- though not formally – propaganda…” (Margolies 54).

Mahjoor was not only concerned about the cultural degradation but also the occupation and slavery of Kashmiris. The poem “The News that he’ll be our guest tonight” presents the pitiable picture of the people of Kashmir under occupation:

…The freshness of the Yemberzal, Are all offerings at his feet. With honest virtue standing guard, Verdure need fear no ravage. Those who were busy amassing wealth Will fall like autumn leaves. (Mahjoor, Ghulam 68)

The poet compares the downfall of rulers with the downfall of the leaves from trees in the autumn season. Mahjoor has left no stone unturned to criticize and blame the Dogras and their followers. The ‘I’ in the poem stands for the whole Kashmir, which was once full of blossoms and fruits; “How enamoured of me was everyone/When I was draped in blossoms! /And, o how stones were hurled at me,/when the blossoms changed to fruit” (68). He was also aware that his poetry has a far reaching affect on the people. He further knew that he would be no different from his predecessor poets, if he will not highlight the miseries of the common people:

177 Mahjoor, your words, the seekers feel, Are no less than life-giving nectar. Were you not a serving halqadar? We’d call you a hallowed saint (68)

He has given hint in many of his poems about the applicability and purpose of his poetry. This is apparent from the verses in one of his poems; “Bouquet from Beauty’s everlasting Garden”. He means to say that his poems are not only to soothe the ears of the common people but the agenda of his poetry is to prepare the common man for revolt against exploitation; “Mahjoor, how sweet are your songs! /They have a depth of meaning for the knowing souls/Who don’t dismiss them as a fabric of words” (25).

Yeats’ and Mahjoor’s desire to revive and resuscitate the old glory associated with myths, heritage, art and literature was not the ultimate end. Cultural revival was significantly and confidentially a means to thwart the colonial designs and to prepare the masses for the anti-colonial propaganda. Nancy Cardozo argues that “No revolution could succeed unless backed by a cultural revival might be a sweeping generalization but in a country like Ireland where the relationship between literature and revolution was quite obvious and inseparable, it surely seems relevant” (8). Yeats’ anti -colonial approach and nationalist agenda is again vividly again clear from his poem “The Lamentation of the Old Pensioner”. Although, the poet talks about old age but there is also the reference towards rebellion:

…And crazy rascals rage their fill At human tyranny, My contemplations are of time That has transfigured me (Yeats, Classic 415)

Yeats castigates the rulers for their callousness and colonial mindset. Yeats is not naming a particular ruler but it is a direct attack on the British colonizers. Similarly, Mahjoor expresses same abhorrence against rulers in the verses:

My leaders have been so busy, Taken up with family feuds, That despite their best intentions, They couldn’t redress my wrongs (Mahjoor, Ghulam 42)

178 Mahjoor has primarily focused on the autocratic system of government. The aggressive approach adopted by the poet was a deliberate and targeted one to awaken the people from being the mere submissive without having any type of political awareness and worry about future. However, the poet knows that the day is not far away, when the chains of oppression will break and the doors of freedom will open. The primary issue for the poet was to rise against the injustice and barbarity faced by the people:

The dark fortnight will end soon, Light will flood the heavens, Making my mountains and my caves As visible as the moon (43)

The poet is quite hopeful that Kashmir will revive and bloom again. It is possible only after the emancipation from the domination of the rulers. It means both the poets highly castigate the ruling class to express their protest. Yeats castigates the British crown Edward V11 in these verses:

I have heard the pigeons of the seven woods Make their faint thunder, and the garden bees Hum in the lime-tree flowers; and pit away The unavailing outcries and the old bitterness (Yeats, In the Seven 1)

Yeats’ poem “To Ireland in the Coming Times” tries to validate the nationalist cause of Ireland. Many critics believe that, Yeats tries to justify his stand as a nationalist poet for the future generation of Ireland. However, Paul Scott Stanfield says, “Here Yeats aims to reconcile to three major passions of his youth, namely literature, nationalism, and philosophy into a meaningful whole” (4). He was inculpated that his poetry is longer relevant to the Irish cause and political situation of Ireland. So, in order to defend himself, he wrote the poem to justify his stand as a nationalist poet:

Know, that I would accounted be True brother of a company That sang, to sweeten Irelands wrong, Nor may I less be counted one (Yeats, The Rose 19)

179 The poet wants to be numbered among the nationalists of Ireland who had fought for the Irish cause. Although, the main subject matter in Yeats’ poetry that had dominated most of his poems is missing in this poem. It is because of the fact that this poem was a type of an apology, which becomes clear from the original and earlier title of the poem, “Apologia Addressed to Ireland in the Coming Days”.

There was also a compulsion which forced Yeats to justify his stance as a nationalist poet of Ireland. He was quite aware of the fact that his poetry may seem unfathomable to the people. In The Rose collection, this fear is obvious in many of his poems especially in the poem “TO the Rose upon the Rood of Time”. The poet believes that his complete attachment with the mythical and occult activities may distance him from the day to day mundane life:

Rose Rose, Proud Rose, sad Rose of all my days!... A little space for the rose-breath to fill!... Come near; I would, before my time to go, Sing of old Eire and the ancient ways… (2)

So far as Mahjoor’s case is concerned, he was more accustomed with the political circles of Kashmir from the very beginning. However, the nationalistic terrain of his earlier poetry was limited to a particular section of the community. In one of his poems, he directly appeals the Muslims of Kashmir:

O Muslims of Kashmir, have you ever Reflected upon the grand culture to which you belonged. Before the wisdom and intellect of your ancestors Wisemen of Persia and India bowed their heads (qtd. in Bakshi 101)

Mahjoor in these verses seems communal by favouring only a particular section of the community. Its main reason was the backwardness among the Muslim population of Kashmir. If Yeats had to justify his position as a nationalist poet either because of compulsion, Mahjoor later too stopped favouring a particular community:

Mosques, Temples, churches, religious inns, and idol-houses, For so many different places of worship I will make out one entrance (101)

180 Mahjoor was well aware about the fact that to achieve any cause for the collective benefit of the society, it is necessary to act as an emissary of peace and brotherhood. This became one of the reasons that Mahjoor came to be recognized as the nationalist poet of Kashmir among all the sections of the community. Otherwise, it would have been impossible for him to achieve such popularity and fame.

The main point which differs the poetry of both the poets is the condition under which they had to authenticate their position. Mahjoor had already got the tag of nationalist poet of Kashmir. But Yeats wants to make his stand clear among the people and desires to be placed among the nationalists of Ireland; “Know, that I would accounted be/True brother of a company/That sang, to sweeten Ireland’s wrong…” (Yeats, The Rose 18). It means Yeats had a doubt, whether he may be considered as the nationalist poet or not by the future generation. Patrick Kavanagh reads the poem “To Ireland in the Coming Times” as “as an indication of Yeats’ sense of not belonging to or rather as his aspiration to a place he does not possess” (61). Additionally, Yeats was not sure of his stance as a nationalist poet and in some of his poems; he presents himself as an ambiguous one and a decision maker in hurry. The poem is too apologetic to the ancestors of Ireland for not being able to continue the Irish ancestry:

Pardon, old fathers, if you still remain Somewhere in ear-shot for the story’s end, Old Dublin merchant ‘free of ten and four’ Or trading out of Galway into Spain;… I have no child; I have nothing but a book, Nothing but that to prove your blood and mine. (Yeats, Responsibilities 2)

These lines unveil the poet’s imprudence and emotional immaturity as a nationalist poet. But at the same time, it shows his deep rootedness and undying passion for his motherland, when he says; “I have no Child, I have nothing but a book” (2). He means to say that his poetry can nourish the Irish people i.e., awaken the Irish people to revive the great Irish culture and ultimately freedom from the yokes of slavery. So far as Mahjoor’s case is concerned, there is no ambiguity or duality found in his poems. Even the most famous ruler of Kashmir of the 20th century Sheikh Mohammad Abdullah has endorsed him as the nationalist poet by saying;

181 “Mahjoor was a great poet and patriot who contributed to the reawakening of the masses. His songs will live long to urge his people to attain greater material and spiritual heights” ( Pompur 77).

In Yeats’ poetic collection The Rose (2010), Rose symbol persistently appears which stands for the volleys of meanings and interpretations. Norman A. Jeffares says that from 1891, “Yeats had begun to use the rose as an increasingly complex symbol. In doing so he was influenced by current English poetic practice and by the work of Irish poets in whose work it had stood for Ireland” (Jeffares 22). Yeats was quite aware that the Rose symbol is already used by many Irish poets in the past. Thus, Rose not only stands for romantic or love message for Yeats but it also stands as an address to the Irish people. In the poem The Rose Tree, Yeats uses the ‘Rose’ word in the conversation between two legendary figures of Ireland i.e., Pearse and Connolly; both of them achieved martyrdom on the day of Easter Rising.

O words are lightly spoken Said Pearse to Connolly, ‘Maybe a breath of Politic Words Has withered our Rose Tree;… It needs to be watered,’ James Connolly replied, (The Collected 183)

The ‘Rose Tree’ symbol represents the vulnerability of Ireland as a nation under British domination. The verse in this poem; “The breath of politic words” (183) is a direct reference towards the hegemonization of Britishers on Ireland. The poet is uncomplicatedly in favour of the strong measures, which Irish people are supposed to take. Yeats’ revolutionary spirit comes to the fore, when he says that in order to make a New Ireland with an identity of its own, then; “There’s nothing but our own red blood/ Can make a right Rose Tree” (183). It signifies that the poet himself is ready to give his blood for the freedom of Ireland. It is nonetheless the revolutionary zeal of the poet, which impels him to play with his life for the future of Ireland. Seamas MacAnnaidh is of the view that “ Authors like Yeats were consciously choosing to see themselves as Irish and to weave another strand into the cultural tapestry of the country rather than to remain aloof and try to be British” (210). Yeats tries to electrify

182 his struggle more and more by thoroughly focusing on political conundrum, past and the future of Ireland.

For Mahjoor, poetry has always proved a driving factor to change the fate of the nations. As a revolutionary, he believed “Revolution is the sum total of emotional fervour, restlessness, courage and youth” (Bakshi 102). He was extremely cognizant of the powerful force behind the sereneness of poetry:

The force of my songs and your courage combined, can shake the mountains and hills to their foundations (102)

Mahjoor wants to change the existing system with a new one in which equality and justice will prevail. In order to achieve this objective, “he is quite sure that the force and influence of his poems is far reaching, which can definitely encourage the people to raise a voice against occupation of the Dogra regime” (102). The strong revolutionary message of the above verses was the result of resurgence of nationalist zeal of the 20th century and an “unprecedented, elemental upheaval that brought Dogra Raj to the realization of a stark reality” (Kashmir 30). The words ‘Courage Combined’ are nonetheless a message to the masses to change their fate.

It is important to mention that any revolutionary cause cannot be achieved only through violent means but through the means of non-resistance also. But, “…the language skills of rhetoric together with armed struggle are essential to an oppressed people’s resistance to domination and oppression and to an organized liberation movement” (Harlow xv). So, Mahjoor’s message is a revolutionary one as he incites the public to shatter the foundations of rulers, who are responsible for their misery and downfall by using poetry as a tool. Mao Tse- Tung24 states that “Revolutionary literature and art follow the correct path of development and provide better help to other revolutionary work in facilitating … enemy and the accomplishment of the task of national liberation” (Tse-tung NP). Yeats wants to sacrifice his life and shed his blood for Ireland; Mahjoor too is not in favour of the slow tactics but waits for the day of revolution, when all the handcuffs of servitude and enslavement will perish:

24 A Chinese revolutionary leader and the founder of People’s Republic of China.

183 Flowers will wait patiently for Autumn storms to pass over One day spring will come and he Who bore hardships will get his reward (qtd. in Bakshi 103)

The poet appears optimistic about future and waits for the days of spring to overtake the autumn. Autumn for the poet are the darker days full of misery and catastrophe. The poet’s contribution “lies in revolting against the prevalent conditions by inducting the theme of workmen in his poetry and in urging his countrymen to overthrow the yoke of slavery, of oppression, rampant in their land” (104). Mahjoor as it appears from his poems has a tinge of revolutionary zest more than Yeats. The tone in Mahjoor’s poetry is more powerful than Yeats’ while expressing resentment and frustration. He seems more of a ruthless revolutionary than Yeats, as the poet is fed up with the then existing system of Kashmir. Mahjoor compares the rulers with the hawks, who are ready to kill the weak ones with their might and cleverness. This is expressed in his poem “Black night has ended, and day has dawned”:

Hawks can’t escape from the garden’s slingers! O bulbul shed fear and plume your wings. (Mahjoor, The Best 54)

There is a revolutionary message in the above verses of the poem as well. The poet refers to the rebellion by the people which will kick out the rulers with hawkish character. “Gardens Slingers” (54) is characterized symbolically as the one, who is always ready to kill or maim a person through sling shots. Here, it stands for the occupiers of the land. Like a true revolutionary, he wants people to leave all fears and face the threats with open arms. The only panacea before the poet is to rise and fight against the oppression and cruelty in a gallant way. A verse, “He alone survives who faces ordeals” (54-55) has nonetheless a revolutionary significance. Poet’s stern warning is an eye opener to the exploiters, who had exploited the people from time to time. The optimistic nature of the poet about revolution is obvious from the verses:

Enjoy the opulence for a day or two (more), Soon thou shall have to face the flood (of democracy) People will then reside in the drawing rooms. Listen, therefore, to the (voice of) reality; (qtd. in Bazaz, History 297)

184 Mahjoor’s rebellion and castigation of the rulers was something new to the general public as they had never been able to stand against injustice and inequality on daily basis. Mahjoor, for them was like a Messiah, who took a brave step to rescue them from dungeons of slavery and barbarism. These things certainly makes a difference in the poetry of both the poets while conveying their revolutionary propaganda, which is more obvious in Mahjoor’s case and sometimes veiled in Yeats. Cecil Day Lewis in this context argues:

First, we must guard against that form of literary sentimentality which would accept any piece of verse evidently written from a revolutionary standpoint and reject everything written from any other angle. The first qualification of a poem is that it should be a good poem – technically good, I mean… Secondly, we must not expect a revolutionary poet to write about nothing but the revolution… (Margolies 54)

Cecil Day Lewis is favouring the poems, where the revolutionary message is concealed all the time. He also thrusts on the technical stand of the poem rather than the thematic one. But the issue of background and context is something, which maneuvers an artist to express his emotions according to situations.

Mahjoor is more satirical than Yeats but his satire is always delicate and subtle. Without any ambiguity in his words, he presented his message in a simple and clear form unlike Yeats, whose poetry is more complicated and less subtle. The simplicity, clarity, terseness and short lyrical poems makes Mahjoor’s poetry different from Yeats’. Mahjoor openly and bluntly talks about freedom and equality and in order to achieve that goal, he wants the people to assemble and fight together for the sole cause:

All Kashmiris belong to one and same origin. Do not ever lose sight of this fact and Muslims are milk and Hindus sugar Both together make a sweet drink (qtd. in Mohi-ud-Din 89)

In the poem, “O Bulbul, Let the freedom urge possess your soul!” Mahjoor once again revolutionized his verses leaving the reader with teary eyes. The poet is

185 unhesitatingly urging his countrymen to come out from their homes and sacrifice themselves for the better future in the poem:

O bulbul, let the freedom urge possess your soul! …Speak out bold and clear. Your voice Need not falter with fear As when you sang within your cage In bondage, they served you ample food. Now gather in the fields what grain you can, (Mahjoor, Ghulam 45)

This poem resembles with the revolutionary poet Faiz Ahmad Faiz’s25 poem “Speak”. The poem by Faiz has a revolutionary affect and instigates the people to rise against oppression and tyranny. In the same way, Mahjoor conveys the same message, so that barricades of hatred and oppression will go forever. Mahjoor’s message of open rebellion is clear when he incites the people to come to the streets and fight for freedom; “Now gather in the fields what grain you can,/And see how sweet food in freedom is” (45). The verse; “Speak out bold and clear. Your voice/Need not falter with fear” (Mahjoor, The Best 32) unearths his intention that to deal with the tyrannical and fascist forces will undoubtedly be hectic. But, the poet is ready to serve for the betterment of the people and wants to convey the same through his poetry. In this context, Leon Trotsky says that “The struggle for revolutionary ideas in art must begin once… immutable faith of the artist in his own inner self. Without this there is no art. ‘You shall not lie!’- that is the formula of salvation” (127).

Thus, Yeats and Mahjoor have a similarity and dissimilarity on many issues but the striking point between the two is the disillusion as unveiled in the later stages of their poetry. Both the poets had dreamed of free and sovereign nation. But at the end, they had to face disappointment. Mahjoor in the later years of his life was very critical of bad state of affairs and the rulers, who were busy enjoying their lives and looting the exchequer of the state. He had hoped that the misery and injustice will come to an end. For Yeats, postcolonial government is no longer different than the colonial one. Both the poets realized that freedom brought no solace to the people:

25 A leftist, Urdu poet from Pakistan of the 20th century

186 When freedom first made herself visible in India… For us there is only the noise of thunder The common people lament but the rulers like bridegrooms Sit with freedom in some secluded bower… (Mahjoor, Topical 11)

Yeats too lost his faith on the revolutionary outlook and the spirit of nationalism. In his later poems, it becomes very clear that he was dejected even after de-colonization and believed that the miseries of the Irish people has remained the same as before. Yeats expresses the discernment against the nationalist government of Ireland in the poem “The Great Day”:

Hurrah for revolution and more canon-shot! A beggar upon horseback lashes a beggar on foot. Hurrah for revolution and cannon come again! The beggars have changed places, but the lash goes on. (Yeats, Classic 391)

Declan Kiberd and Stephen Regan on this point denied to call Yeats as a revolutionary poet. They had insisted that he changed his ideas in his later life and became more authoritarian. The postcolonial Irish government was nothing new for Yeats and he considered it as same as colonial one. Yeats like other “ post-colonial writers like Frantz Fanon and Femi Osofisan to Naipaul have been very critical and have written against the postcolonial state and expressed their opinion different from the mainstream of indigenous opinion” (Ramazani 800). The poem expresses anger against the turbulent situation of Ireland and the sudden change that inundated the whole Ireland. In another short poem “What was Lost”, this becomes more apparent:

Is sing what was lost and dread what was won, I walk in a battle fought over again, My king a lost king, and lost soldiers my men; Feet to the rising and setting may run, (Yeats, Classic 643)

The common point between the two is that they considered the change of regime or the replacement of earlier government with the new one nothing new but the continuation of oppressive power. Mahjoor believed that freedom has come to the homes of a few people and the rest of the people had to face only disappointment. Prem Nath Bazaz has also reflected the unhappiness of Mahjoor in these words:

187 That Mahjur was held in high esteem by the nationalists and he too was their great supporter and admirer. But after the 1947, the political disaster the poet trembled. The poet had all the time supported nationalists but was highly petrified by the pathetic situation where the Kashmiri leadership had brought Kashmir. He had composed a beautiful and catchy poem that begins with the words, “though I would like to sacrifice my life and body for India yet my heart is in Pakistan”. It was typical of the mental confusion through which he passed. But nationalists considered it as a crime. He was arrested and put behind bars for many days… (History 298)

The poet expresses chaos and restlessness in Kashmir after the partition of India and believes that independence and regime change in Kashmir brought nothing new but only added to their miseries in a novel way. He expresses his unhappiness in these words in the poem “Lets offer Thanksgiving”:

Poverty and starvation, Repression and lawlessness,- It’s with these happy blessings That she has come to us … Nabir Sheikh knows what freedom means, For his wife was whisked away. (Mahjoor, The Best 107)

Mahjoor was hoping for a change in the society in the economic and political spheres but it turned contrary to his expectations. The condition of the working class remained the same and there was no respite to the people from the oppression. His dream of reviving Kashmiriyat remained empty as it was used for personal gains. His dissatisfaction with freedom is expressed in the verses more beautifully; “There’s mourning in every house…/They searched her armpits seven times/To see if she was hiding rice;/In a basket covered with a shawl/The peasant’s wife brought freedom home” (Mahjoor, Ghulam 37).

Mahjoor remained highly critical to the rulers both from the Dogra dynasty and the rulers after the partition. Hence, Yeats’ and Mahjoor’s later poetry endorses the views of some of the anti-colonial thinkers especially Frantz Fanon, who thought that “independence and decolonization from a colonizer doesn’t guarantee complete

188 freedom or equality” (119-165). At another place, Mahjoor expresses his bitterness and disturbance in these verses:

After we have attained freedom we will decide Whether we will join the Congress26 or the Muslim League27. We are still slaves and if at present we accede to either of the two countries Our slavery will continue forever. (Mahjoor, Topical 34)

After witnessing slavery and mayhem from all sides after the partition, Mahjoor was disgruntled with both India and Pakistan. Undoubtedly, partition freed the Kashmiri people from Dogras but the confusion prevailed even after the partition on the issue whether Kashmir should join India or Pakistan. The above verses categorically clarify that Mahjoor wanted Kashmir as a separate sovereign country without joining any world power. He believed that freedom from one power and merging with another power can never uplift any community or nation.

In the same way, the later poetry of Yeats uncovers his harsh and tyrannical views against democracy. He became an ardent supporter of authoritarianism and a vehement critique of democracy. The poem “Church and the State” ridicules the state and religion of its involvement with the affairs of the common masses:

Here is the fresh matter, poet Matter for old age meet; Might of the church and the state, Their mobs put under their feet. O but heart’s wine shall run pure, Minds bread grow sweet (Yeats, Classic 134)

Yeats appears to be a fascist and craves for the authoritarian government. The poet also yearns for war and violence and openly supports the process of eugenics. He speaks in the same tone as the colonizer and believed that the colonizers have the ultimate authority to rule over the colonizer in every sense. The poet considers violence as the ultimate means to curb the people. Spurgeon Thompson believed that “On the Boiler is a tract about nothing other than a colonialist anxiety about the state”

26 The Indian National Congress is one of the political parties of India 27 It was a political party established during British rule in India and demanded separate homeland for Muslims, which is nowadays called Pakistan.

189 (30). But on the other hand, he was an active supporter of civil liberties and the rights of the individuals. Thus, in dealing with the fixed identity of a poet, it is necessary to take into consideration the notion of duality, ambivalence and ambiguity.

However, Mahjoor has not touched religion in his poems. He was wholly and solely determined to see his people free from the clutches of slavery. While as Yeats considered authoritative government as the only way to run the affairs of Ireland. This development is not found in Mahjoor as he believed in secularism without favouring any religion or any particular community. Till the last moment, he was highly worried about Kashmiri people:

I am like a setting sun, come listen to my exhortations Take courage, you have to save this land The cannibals have descended from the mountains They have the blood of a multitude of innocents on their hands They have made my country a veritable hell” (Mahjoor in Hussain 93)

However, the poem “Blood and the Moon” by Yeats unravels his admiration for authoritarianism and no contempt of the past sacrifices and bloodshed. Daniel Albright argues that the poem “depict modern man as ‘insufficiently lunar-neither powerful nor wise” (Albright 704):

Seven centuries have passed and it is pure, The blood of innocence has left no stain. There, on blood-saturated ground, have stood Soldier, assassin, executioner Whether for daily pittance or in blind fear Or out of abstract hatred, and shed blood (Yeats, The Winding 7).

In conclusion, it can be said that both Yeats and Mahjoor believed in the restoration and rebuilding of their nations on a cultural and political level. As compared to Mahjoor, Yeats to a large extent was ambiguous as a nationalist poet. It cannot be denied that the celebration of the past, literary figures, legends, folklore made their poetry a novel one in varied respects. However, the nationalism of their nations was totally different but their poetry presents a vivid picture of their struggle

190 for cultural and political emancipation. It is not the propaganda or the violence; they manifested all the time in their poetry. But, they played a pivotal role in propounding the nationalist/revolutionary movements in their respective countries.

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195 Conclusion

The main argument of the thesis is that nationalistic and revolutionary poetry of William Butler Yeats and Ghulam Ahmad Mahjoor manifest their covet to preserve rich cultural heritage and an emancipation from colonization and slavery through revolution. Both the poets are poles apart from political, geographical, historical and social points of view. The nationalism of both Kashmir and Ireland has been different but what motivated me to study them together is the revolutionary/nationalistic zeal of their poetic corpus. Mahjoor’s poetry not only has its significance in the political, social or economic realms but also in the academic field also. It brought a renaissance in the Kashmiri literature and revolutionized its poetic genre. He came at a time, when people from all walks of life in Kashmir had revolted against the Dogra rulers of Kashmir. He joined the people’s chorus to vehemently oppose their imperialistic and oppressive designs. Similarly, Yeats’ role as a nationalist revolutionary is un- paralleled in the Irish freedom struggle. He aligned with the Irish nationalists and revolutionaries in the struggle for freedom against colonial rule. Yeats’ poetry surpasses other nationalistic poetic corpus of other Irish poets as it widely and vociferously highlighted the necessity for Irish cultural revivalism and an independent state. Both the poets through their poetry tried to change the colonized mindset of the hoi polloi and to create a consciousness among the people about rich heritage, culture and unity.

The thesis attempts to discuss the concept of nationalism and revolution in relation to theorists and revolutionaries like Ernest Gellner, Leon Trotsky, Romila Thapar, Benedict Anderson, Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, Edward Said and others. It discusses the poetry of both the poets in accordance with the concepts and ideas propounded by these theorists. Eminent nationalists and revolutionaries like Trotsky and Ngugi believe that a nationalist writer attempts to revisit his past to explore the rich heritage and culture. Similarly, Yeats’ and Mahjoor’s focal point in their poetry is to search for their roots and give a new shape to their identity. Their poetry played a key role to re-energize the struggle against occupation by inciting the people against the corridors of power. They struggled for the Socio-politico, economic and cultural emancipation of their respective nations. Their poetry awakens the people from slumber and invoked them to live a life of dignity and freedom.

196 Ireland’s history of colony has a long history and it has remained a debate whether to call Yeats as a nationalist revolutionary poet or not. In the Irish freedom struggle, political and cultural nationalists had never been on the same page. It has always remained the issue among political and cultural nationalists to decide the future of Ireland. Yeats involvement in the Irish nationalism has been the key moment. He was anxious of re-inventing the ‘Irishness’, a serious effort among all the Irish writers. These elements gave birth to the question of identity, race, character and simultaneously a cry for a separate identity and homeland mushroomed Ireland like a wildfire. Mahjoor’s involvement in the freedom movement made him the nationalist poet of Kashmir surpassing his predecessors and contemporaries. It is because of the fact that he is credited to have inculcated the feeling of nationalism among the people. Before the emergence of full-fledged nationalist movement, Mahjoor emphasized on brotherhood, peace, love between different communities popularly known as Kashmiriyat. However, Kashmiri nationalism took a new turn after the nationalist movement was launched in Kashmir by Sheikh Abdullah and others.

Mahjoor besides focusing on mutual harmony and brotherhood stressed on the sovereignty, culture and emancipation from the outside rulers. He also tried to explore the past more and more and demanded a separate homeland for Kashmir. Familiar with the past of Kashmir, he tried to unearth the rich past to give a definite shape to the nationalist movement and crisscross the boundaries of hatred, hypocrisy and sectarianism. Like Carl Jung’s concept of ‘Primordial Images’, Mahjoor too believed in the collective history and memory of the people, which binds them together on every platform. This is also found in Yeats’ poetry in the form of ‘Unity of Being’ and ‘Unity of Culture’. The imageries, symbols, metaphors, used in their poetry have a deep meaning that demonstrates their sense of belonging and consciousness. The frustration portrayed in the poetry of their later stages of life illustrates their disillusionment with the political conundrum in their nations.

Yeats’ espousal of romantic ideals in his poetry with the incorporation of mythical and legendary themes related to Irish legends, myths and folklore differs him from the conventional romantic poets. His romantic poetry is a mixture of love, longing, nature, nostalgia, imagination and beauty. Yeats’ romantic aesthetic was slightly different from Wordsworth and Shelley and didn’t remain confined to beauty or nature but the incorporation of occult themes related to ‘Irishness’ lands him

197 among the romantic nationalists. To Yeats, Wordsworth and other romantic poets were not mere romantics with the prime focus on ‘Imagination’ but they had the inclination towards the supernatural magical elements and Neo-Platonism. His abhorrence for the Victorian standards, particularly the emphasis on reason makes him at par with the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche, who in his famous book, Thus Spake Zarathustra (1883), echoed the same sentiments against his detestation against the mechanistic atmosphere. Yeats believed that too much emphasis on rationality distracts him from the Irish mythology and legends. He delves deep into the Irish culture and considered the resuscitating of culture as the primary tool of Irish nationalism. The modern poetry of Yeats exposes him, not a staunch follower of modernism like Ezra Pound and T. S. Eliot, but a modest one.

What deviates Mahjoor from Yeats importantly is the lack of myth and occult elements in his poetry. Mahjoor tried to reclaim the past glory and achievements through imagination by immortalizing the monuments, past glories, art and literature. Both the poets changed the subject matter and became more controversial in their later life. Mahjoor got entangled in the mass movement orchestrated by the nationalists of Kashmir and resisted the slavery and oppression in poems like “Kashmir Affairs”, “Complaint”, “Freedom”, “O Morning Breeze, if You Reach America” and others. While as Yeats modern poems like “Leda and the Swan”, “An Irishmen Foresees his Death”, “Easter 1916” etc are pregnant with political themes, criticizing the English occupation.

Mahjoor’s poetry represents a shift from the tradition both in terms of theme and content. He freed Kashmiri poetry from the heavy Perso-Arabic influences and used it for the political awakening and nationalist cause. He definitely deviated from his predecessors and introduced novel themes in his poetry that dealt with the social, economic, cultural and political issues of Kashmir. For the first time in the history of Kashmiri literature, Mahjoor’s poetry awakened the people and urged them fight for their rights. The poet retained the Ghazal (Lyric) form of writing poetry. What made Mahjoor peculiar from her is that he eternalized the Ghazal (Lyric) form by highlighting the miseries of the common man and women folk in general. He highlighted the concerns of the women and shattered the binaries of rich/poor, superior/inferior, ruler/ruled, invader/invaded, slave/master and colonizer/colonized. Additionally, Mahjoor touched the nationalistic strings by immortalizing the gardens,

198 streams, mountains and gardens of Kashmir and exalted art and literature more than any other Kashmiri poet. In order to maintain the sanctity of age old culture, he decorated his poetry vis a vis cultural values and alluded towards the sovereignty of the state.

Yeats on the other hand is the quintessential Irish poet, who in an altruistic way immortalized the scenic beauty and the rich cultural history of Ireland. His constant contact with the Irish masses developed after the Irish struggle against Britishers became more vibrant. It led to the constant shift in his poetry from mythological themes to the political ones. There have been diverse views about his stand as a revolutionary poet. Irish critic Seamus Deane calls him a revolutionary as he mixed the traditional with his aesthetic in contrast to Edward Said, who fully acknowledges him a nationalist revolutionary poet like Mahmood Darwesh, Leopold Senghor, Tagore and others. Yeats for Said is a true revolutionary as he resisted the cultural and political domination of Britishers through his poetry. While as, Mahjoor involvement with the politics made him a revolutionary poet as he resisted and revolted against the Dogra occupation in Kashmir. He also resisted against the invaders, who had invaded Kashmir from the times of Mughul emperor on 6 October, 1586. Like Yeats, Mahjoor too laments the loss of culture and sovereignty and considered it necessary to change the status quo through revolution. The major difference between the two poets is that Yeats was more of an ambiguous nationalist than Mahjoor. Yeats’ poetry doubts the contribution of revolutionaries and sometimes justifies his own position as a revolutionary. While as Mahjoor became a pawn in the hands of Kashmiri nationalists, who used him for their political gains to a large extent.

Both the poets wanted their people to be the phoenix to rise from the ashes and restart a new life. Yeats has been influenced by Rabindranath Tagore and Tagore on the contrary has been impressed by Mahjoor’s poetry. Both the poets never knew each other in real life but the mediation of Tagore between them makes their poetry more interesting. Mahjoor’s poetry is altogether different in comparison to Yeats. Yeats poetry is philosophical and abstruse, while as Mahjoor is simple and comprehensible. Yeats’ stance as nationalist/revolutionary poet is doubtful as exemplified from his later poetry. He showed his inclination towards authoritarianism and eugenics. However, Mahjoor remained highly secular and sticked to his concept of nationalism with separate culture, identity, nationality and separate homeland. He has not been as

199 popular as other postcolonial Indian poets. But, it can be said that he was a greatest nationalist revolutionary poet of Kashmir than Agha Shahid Ali.

The thesis is a humble attempt to unravel the revolutionary and nationalistic themes in the poetry of both the poets. However, it cannot be claimed that it covers each and every aspect of their poetry. There is certainly a lot more to explore in the poetry of Yeats and Mahjoor.

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