Intro duction to the Literature
On Programming Language Design
Gary T Leavens
TR c
Jan revised Jan Feb and July
Keywords programming languages semantics typ e systems p olymorphism typ e theory data abstrac
tion functional programming ob ject oriented programming logic programming declarative programming
parallel and distributed programming languages
CR Categories D Programming Techniques Applicative Functional Programming D
Programming Techniques Concurrent Programming D Programming Techniques Ob ject oriented Pro
gramming D Programming Techniques Logic Programming D Software Engineering To ols and
Techniques Mo dules and interfaces D Software Engineering Program Veri cation D Software
Engineering Program Veri cation D Programming Languages Formal De nitions and Theory D
Programming Languages Language Classi cations D Programming Languages Language Constructs
and F eatures F Logics and Meaning of Programs Sp ecifying and verifying and reasoning ab out pro
grams F Logics and Meaning of Programs Semantics of Programming Languages F Logics and
Meaning of Programs Studies of Program Constructs H Database Management Languages Database
p ersistent programming languages I Arti cial Intel ligence Programming Languages and Software
c
Gary T Leavens Permission is granted for you to make copies for educational
and scholarly purp oses but not for direct commercial advantage provided this notice app ears on all copies
All other rights reserved
Department of Computer Science
Atanaso Hall
Iowa State University
Ames Iowa USA
Intro duction to the Literature
On Programming Language Design
Gary T Leavens
Department of Computer Science Iowa State University
Ames IA USA
leavens cs iastate edu
July
Abstract
This is an intro duction to the literature on programming language design and related topics It is
intended to cite the most imp ortantwork and to provide a place for students to start a literature search
This is a selective introduction to the literature on programming language design The intended audience
is graduate students b eginning a study of programming languages Instead of trying to b e comprehensive
references are given that are to works of lasting value up to date surveys or that seem to b e imp ortant
or interesting at the moment Besides references that haveintrinsic interest a few are included b ecause
they are the original sources and are likely to b e referenced by others doing related work e g Chu To
prob e an area more deeply start with the pap ers mentioned follow their references and also use the Science
Citation Index to see what pap ers have referenced the ones mentioned
As a general aid to nding pap ers many older references are reprinted in a collection called TUTORIAL
Programming Language Design edited byA I Wasserman and available from the IEEE Computer So ciety
Was Readers with web browsers may also wanttolookatthefollowing web page titled Programming
Language and Compiler Bibliographies
ne language bibliographies html http www cs cmu edu mleo
However this tends to have b etter coverage of recenttechnical rep orts and its coverage of older journal
pap ers and other published material is sp otty
Generalities
There are several excellent undergraduate texts on programming languages including PZ Seb Set
FWH Hen Kam Wat GJ Mac Ten Graduate texts include SK Sta Sch
Win Wat Mey Gor
Volume B of the Handbook of Theoretical Computer Science contains many detailed surveys relevantto
formal mo dels and semantics vL
Journals include a substantial coverage of programming languages include ACM Transactions on Pro
gramming Languages and Systems abbreviated TOPLAS ACM Letters on Programming Languages and
Systems abbreviated LOPLAS ACM SIGPLAN Notices Computer Languages Pergamon Press Journal
of Pro gramming Languages Chapman and Hall Information and Computation formerly Information and
Control Academic Press and Acta Informatica Springer Verlag Applied areas such as sp eci cation and
This work was supp orted in part by the National Science Foundation under Grants CCR CCR and
CCR
Naturally these judgements are p ersonal but it is hop ed that authors of that vast bulk of pap ers that are not cited here
will not take o ense
veri cation have their own journals e g IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering Science of Computer
Programming Formal Aspects of Computing Other journals can b e found by scanning the bibliography
Conferences devoted to topics related to programming languages include the Annual ACM Symp osium on
Principles of Programming Languages POPL the ACM SIGPLAN Conference on Programming Language
Design and Implementation PLDI the ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Functional Program
ming formerly called the Symp osium on LISP and Functional Programming LFP and the ACM SIGPLAN
Symp osium on Principles and Practice of Parallel Programming PPOPP Conferences with a more the
oretical b ent include the IEEE Annual Symp osium on Logic in Computer Science LICS Mathematical
Foundations of Programming Semantics MFPS the Europ ean Symp osium on Programming ESOP the
International Collo quium on Automata Languages and Programming ICALP and the International Sym
p osium on Mathematical Foundations of Computer Science Conferences not sp onsored by the ACM or IEEE
are often available in the Springer Verlag series of Lecture Notes in Computer Science LNCS The ab ove
list do es not include conferences devoted to software engineering e g TAPSOFT or particular metho ds
e g category theory where other imp ortantwork is found
Both Hoare and Wirth have written guidelines for programming language designers Hoa Wir
Floyd s Turing Award lecture discusses his view of programming languages as capturing paradigms of pro
gramming Flo Another viewp oint is that language design should pro ceed from semantic principles
Ten Bac a
The truism that bad programs can b e written in any programming language is describ ed as Flon s
Axiom in a pap er written at the height of the structured programming controversy Flo Shaw and Wulf
t out that language designers can provide reasonable defaults while still giving programmers the ability p oin
to change them SW
The idea of the expressiveness of a language is just starting to receive satisfactory formal treatments
Fel Mit
Semantics
Some texts that cover many di erent approaches to semantics are NN Win SK
Op erational Semantics
Landin s SECD machine is de ned in his pap er The Mechanical Evaluation of Expressions Lan see
also Henderson s b o ok Hen
A more systematic style of op erational semantics based on rewrite rules is found in Plotkin s structural
op erational semantics Plo Hen Ast
Several meta circular interpreters for variants of LISP are discussed in Steele and Sussman s pap er The
Art of the Interpreter SS a An excellent and more readily accessible discussion is found in Ab elson and
Sussman s b o ok ASS whichusesScheme A more detailed treatmentofinterpreters is found in Kam
FWH See KdRB for an approach using the CLOS meta ob ject proto col More recently structuring
mechanisms for semantics based on monads Mog Wad Wad have lead to more mo dular structuring
of de nitional interpreters Ste LHJ
Calculus
A standard reference on Church s calculus Chu is Barendregt s b o ok Bar Informal intro ductions
include Gor For the typ ed calculus see GLT or Mit b
The use of calculus for describing programming languages and as the inspiration for programming
language design has b een investigated by Landin Lan Lan
Denotational Semantics
A short summary of the denotational approach to programming language semantics Sco can b e found in
Tennent s article The Denotational Semantics of Programming Languages Ten A survey is found in
Mos
Intro ductory texts include Gor All Wat Sch An excellent text with mathematical depth
is Gun Standard works on denotational semantics are the b o oks byStoy Sto and Schmidt Sch
b oth of which o er a comprehensive and mathematical treatment Schmidt s b o ok Sch can b e consulted
for references to denotational descriptions of real languages
To read some of the most technical works one will need some familiarity with category theory Lan
Gol LS the following are go o d intro ductions that emphasize semantic applications Hoa BW a
AL b Pie Wal Gun
One can use a typ ed functional programming language such as Standard ML to implement a denotational
semantics Two descriptions of this are Wat MA
Action semantics an o sho ot of denotational semantics is describ ed in Wat and more fully in Mos
Axiomatic Semantics
An early presentation of axiomatic semantics is Hoare s pap er An Axiomatic Basis for Computer Program
ming Hoa
An example of the use of axiomatic semantics to de ne a programming language is Hoare and Wirth s
axiomatic de nition of Pascal HW A b o ok on axiomatic semantics slanted towards programming lan
guage theory as opp osed to veri cation is Hesselink s monograph Hes Foundational material that may
help in reading this monograph is found in DS whichgoesover notational issues as well as the underlying
mathematics
Avery intro ductory tutorial on veri cation from the software engineering p ersp ective is LG chapter
eloping a pro of of a program at the same time the program is b eing develop ed has b een The idea of dev
elo quently advo cated by Dijkstra and Gries Dij Gri More recent treatments in this style advocate
a calculational approach Mor Coh GS See Al a for an intro duction that discusses concurrent
and distributed programs
A survey of program veri cation for imp erative programs is Cou
A language designed to supp ort program veri cation is Euclid LGH PHL Another such lan
guage is Alphard SWL Sha
Algebraic Semantics
Another approach to the semantics of programming languages is the algebraic approach sp ecifying the
b ehavior of programs instead of directly sp ecifying the function computed A b o ok length treatmentis
BHK which uses to ols describ ed in Kli Examples include MA BWP PGM SK Chapter
Typ e Systems
Background
The purp ose of typ e checking is nicely summarized by Morris as a mechanism that allows program mo dules
to protect ob jects from unwanted discovery mo di cation and imp ersonation Mor Wegbreit s discussion
of the extensible language EL is also go o d background Weg
Polymorphism
An intro ductory survey of mo dern p olymorphic typ e systems and research results is Cardelli and Wegner s
pap er On Understanding Typ es Data Abstraction and Polymorphism CW See also Har Car
DT the latter twohav emuch material related to ob ject oriented programming A still more recent
survey is Mit b
Standard references include Girard s system F Gir see also Gir GLT and Reynolds indep en
dentwork Rey sometimes called the Girard Reynolds second order lamb da calculus or SOL Mo dern
exp ositions are found in MP MH Rey Mit b Car Sch
Other kinds of typ e information may b e incorp orated into a typ e system and checked at the same time
as typ es GL LG OG
Typ e Inference
Typ e inference is also sometimes called typ e reconstruction The basic idea is describ ed in Milner s pap er
A Theory of Typ e Polymorphism in Programming Mil A more mo dern exp osition of Milner s ideas is
Car A top down variation of the standard algorithm is studied in LY
This typ e inference system is used in the programming language Standard ML GMW MTH
MT Textb o oks ab out programming in Standard ML include Pau Sok Sta Ull ML also
hasavery interesting mo dule system HL Ler Mac
An imp ortant research problem HM has b een extending this typ e system to handle subtyping EST
Nor OSW PT Pot
An extension of this typ e system to handle static overloading ad hoc p olymorphism is describ ed
in WB and further re ned in Jon NP One waytohandlemutation in this typ e system is de
scrib ed in Har There are also ob ject oriented extensions to ML RV RR FR
The language Poly Mat b Mat a usestyp e inference to infer typ e parameters An algorithm for
inferring op eration parameters is describ ed in CW Other extensions to the basic typ e inference algorithm
are describ ed in OG TJ Bo e Along similar lines one can use a mix of typ e annotations and
inference to allow p olymorphic functions to b e passed as arguments OL
yp e inference problems has also b een an The computational complexityofvarious typ e checking and t
active area of research Wel Sch Hen See Tiu forasurvey
Typ e Theory
Typ e theory narrowly de ned uses the to ols of constructive logic to study typ e systems such as the ab ove
Logical inference systems can often b e translated directly into typ e systems due to the Formula as Typ es
notion or the Curry Howard isomorphism How GLT Chapter Con Thus much research
in typ e theory lies on the b order of mathematics and computer science Another motivationistouse
typ e information to capture b ehavioral sp eci cations thus allowing one to reason ab out programs in the
programming language NP Dyb
After reading the references ab ove one will still need an intro duction to some of the more technical asp ects
of typ e theory Go o d b o ok length treatments are Tho and Sch Those wishing a shorter intro duction
might try Rey which is not comprehensive but is tutorial Bac which esp ecially fo cuses on Martin
L of style typ e theory and Sce which fo cuses more on the calculus of constructions After reading one
of these the studentmaywant to read PDM for some practical hints
In the past some groups working on typ e theory have included deBruijn and others working on AU
TOMATH dB Martin L of s and followers ML ML Bac BCMS Constable s group at Cor
nell CZ and Co quand and Huet s group CH has also b een in uential for mo dern language design
Some of the latest work on typ e theory uses linear logic Gir instead of a more standard logic A linear
typ e system allows a value to b e used only once Bak Mac SBvEP Kob
There are also connections b etween typ e theory and abstract interpretation Cou PP
Data Abstraction and Typ es
A good intro ductory treatment of the idea of data abstraction is found in LG A more technically oriented
intro duction is CL Another excellent pap er is Co o which distinguishes b etween programming with
abstract data typ es and ob ject oriented programming
CLU is a language designed around data abstraction LSAS LAB LG It also has an interesting
control abstraction and exception handling mechanisms LS
Alphard designed around the same time as CLU and with many of the same goals has surprising
di erences SWL Sha
The language Russell was develop ed at Cornell to investigate howtyp es can b e treated as values There
are many pap ers that have app eared ab out Russell but p erhaps the b est intro duction to the language is the
pap er Data Typ es are Values DD which can b e consulted for other references
Much recentwork involves ob ject oriented languages For example Trellis Owl SCB features strong
typ e checking and a declared i e by name subtyp e relation By contrast many other languages feature
structural subtyping including Emerald BHJL BHJ BH BH Car Two excellentbooks
one by Abadi and Cardelli AC and another by Castagna Cas are a go o d starting p oint in this area
Other theoretical work in this area includes the following BCP Car b Car a AC CMMS
CCH CHC Co o BTGS BCM BM Bru BCM PS Bru PT Aba
AC AC EST FM Cardelli has b een one of the most active in this area and most of the
literature will cite one of his pap ers For work that directly b ears on multimetho ds as in CLOS see
Rey Ghe a Ghe b CGL Cha CGL Cas Cas Cas CL LP MC For
adding multimetho ds to conventional languages see BC LM For a tutorial discussion of the problems
of typing binary metho ds see BCC
Programming languages with separate compilation do some of their typ e checking at link time LAB
Ler Str This interaction of typ es separate compilation linking and mo dules has recently b een
formalized Car GM Some recent theoretical work b een on combining mo dules and ob ject oriented
programming features FF FR MC
Alternative Programming Mo dels
Functional Programming
A survey of functional programming is Hud which also discusses the language Haskell HF HJW
Sno Dav Another survey is Bar There are several go o d b o oks on functional programming
including Hen BW Hen SF Oka For an intro duction that also treats language imple
mentation issues see Pey The articles in Tur b makeaninteresting intro duction to some research
topics
John Backus one of the designers of Fortran prop osed a new language for functional programming
without any names called FP in his Turing Award Lecture Bac a A functional programming style using
a more congenial notation based on Landin s ISWIM Lan isdevelop ed in Henderson s b o ok Functional
Programming Application and Implementation Hen
One axis of variation in functional languages is b etween the lazy and strict eager languages Wad
ML is eager but Haskell and its predecessor Miranda Tur a are lazy Miranda also has an interesting
notion of data abstraction
Recently various approaches to incorp orating state information in a safe wayinto functional languages
have centered around the use of monads LS Mog Wad Wad There is syntactic supp ort for
monads in Haskell Others are exploring alternatives to monads CH Kag Ode SBvEP Wad
Erlang AWWV is used by Ericsson telephone company in several commercial pro ducts
Logic Programming
Kowalski s pap er Algorithm Logic Con trol is a go o d intro duction to logic programming in an idealized
setting Kow A classic textb o ok on Prolog is the b o ok by Clo cksin and Mellish CM another go o d
text is Sterling and Shapiro s SS A short description and evaluation of Prolog is found in the pap er
The Prolog Phenomenon McD A survey is Apt
Several AI languages preceded the development of Prolog for example Planner SWC and Conniver
MS
Muchwork has fo cused on concurrent logic programming languages Sha which are p erhaps more like
CSP than logic programming An evaluation of the Fifth Generation pro ject and some history of concurrent
logic programming languages is found in SW A related language is Andorra Prolog BHW
Work on typ e checking for logic programming languages is surveyed in the collection Pfe The language
Prolog features typ e inference typ e checking and higher order programming constructs Mil a Mil a
NM MNPS
Other Declarative Programming Paradigms
Constraint based languages will probably b e imp ortant in the future An early attempt was emb o died in
Steele and Sussman s work as describ ed in SS An overview is given in Leler s b o ok Lel A survey is
found in vHS The language CLP R isawell known constraint logic programming language JMSY
Some higher order equational logic languages based on variations of narrowing Sla have started to
app ear in research languages Mil Pfe Qia
Languages based on term rewriting without logic variables also allow for parallelism A standard example
is OBJ FGJM which also has an interesting mo dule system Gog
Ob ject Oriented Programming
A go o d but not very technical intro duction to ob ject oriented concepts is given byCox Cox his b o ok
also discusses the language Ob jective C A more technical intro duction is Budd s b o ok Bud b Meyer s
b o ok on Ei el also has more technical meat Mey as well as a fo cus on software engineering concerns
Another fairly complete treatmentisgiven in Goldb erg and Robson s b o ok on Smalltalk GR A
graduate level intro duction is BGHS
Descriptions of ob ject oriented design metho ds are found in Bo o WBWW dCLF dCF
dCLF Both Bo o and dCLF havemany references A treatment of ob ject oriented design that
fo cuses more on C is found in Mul See also the survey by WBJ Much recentwork in this area
has fo cused on design patterns Joh GHJV
A collection of pap ers is found in Pet More collections of edited research pap ers are SW KL
The ma jor annual conferences on ob ject oriented programming are the European Conference on Object
OrientedProgramming ECOOP and Object OrientedProgramming Systems Languages and Applications
OOPSLA The ECOOP tends to b e more academic while OOPSLA is more practical The OOPSLA
pro ceedings have b een published as sp ecial issues of ACM SIGPLAN Notices Novemb er December
with an addendum in May and Novemb er and Octob er of the following years ECOOP
and OOPSLA had a joint conference in
There are now three journals devoted to ob ject oriented programming The Journal of Object Oriented
Programming JOOP is the oldest Two more academic journals are Theory and Practice of Object Systems
TAPOS and Object Oriented Systems
The b est do cumented and the cleanest ob ject oriented programming language is Smalltalk Ing
GR Squeak is a recent dialect IKM
A more widely used language is C ES Go o d intro ductions to C include Str and Lip
Multiple inheritance a feature not found in Smalltalk seems to b e quite useful Snyder s analysis of
the design issues involved is insigh tful Sny although his viewp oint is di erent from that of most advo cates
of multiple inheritance
Semantics of inheritance as opp osed to typ e theory or semantics of subtyping app ear in Kam BC
CP See Tai forasurvey on the notion of inheritance
My own views on the sub ject of ob ject oriented sp eci cation veri cation and subtyping can b e found
in LW Lea b LW For a contrast see also BW b Ame AvdL Mey MOM Co o
UR LW
The concept of delegation is explored in Lie in Actra LTP LaL and in Ungar s language
Self US
The contrast b etween message passing and other kinds of p olymorphism is one of binding time Some
relevant semantic mo dels are discussed in Mit a and CHC
A dated survey of the literature on ob ject oriented programming is Lea a
Blends of Various Paradigms
Various authors have tried to blend various paradigms Blends of functional and logic programming are
found in GM JG Blends of imp erative and logic programming ideas are found in Bud a AS
Goguen and Meseguer even try to unify everything GM
Another approachisamultiparadigm language Leda is one example Bud
Language Case Studies
The following entries are intended to b e selective rather than comprehensive Instead they are biased towards
the most interesting languages and references for the programming language designer Thus although
COBOL ANS was is the most widely used language on the planet its in uence on programming
language design has b een small While the languages discussed b elow are often obscure they demonstrate
interesting issues in language design
Those interested in history for its own sake or in delving further into early languages should lo ok at
the pro ceedings of the two History of Programming Languages Conferences Wex Wex The rst
conference covers the earliest languages including COBOL BASIC and many others not discussed b elow
Many of the more established languages have their de nitions standardized These are often published by
the American National Standards Institute ANSI the International Standards Organization ISO or the
IEEE
Other resources for case studies include Kamin s b o ok Kam which has several case studies put in
a common framework The Grand Tour b o ok by Horowitz has articles ab out sp eci c languages as well
Hor See also the languages mentioned under the various paradigms ab ove
FORTRAN
The rst widely used programming language was FORTRAN See Bac b for a discussion of the history
of FORTRAN what early versions of FORTRAN were like and early references The developmentof
FORTRAN IV is discussed in BH
John Backus who headed the team that develop ed FORTRAN later b ecame dissatis ed with the in u
ence that FORTRAN had on programming languages Bac a
Algol
Among other innovations it intro duced the syntax formalism The Algol rep ort is a true classic NBB
now known as BNF Despite the precise use of English in the rep ort Knuth and others were able to nd
problems with the language de nition Knu
Algol
Algol is a direct descendent of Algol It is a more p owerful and more complete language than Algol
for example it has user de ned typ es overloading of op erators and mechanisms for parallel pro cessing The
language design is fascinating and bristles with examples of orthogonality one of many terms coined in the
Algol design The revised rep ort is a forbidding do cument which has an innovative formal mechanism for
de ning the language s semantics vWMP Because the revised rep ort is di cult to follow Tanenbaum s
tutorial is probably a b etter place to start Tan Those seriously interested in Algol will want to consult
LvdM
C
A p opular descendent of Algol is the lower level language C KR C represents the b est of several
languages that supp ort low level programming while maintaining the p ortability of the resulting program
The language has recently b een standardized and incorp orates several changes from its variant C Str
Algol W Pascal Mo dula and Ob eron
Wirth and Hoare s language known as Algol W can b e thoughtofasanimproved version of Algol WH
Wirth s language Pascal Wir JW has b een enormously p opular attracting detractors Hab and
defenders LD Pascal is in part a resp onse to the complexity of Algol All this attention has provoked
Wirth to reassessing Pascal Wir and to the design of Mo dula Wir and Ob eron Wir Ob eron
has ob ject oriented features as do es the non Wirth language Mo dula CDJ Nel
Euclid
Euclid is an attempt to improveonPascal in a di erent direction PHL LGH Sp eci cally it
attempts to supp ort program veri cation
Ada
Ada was designed by rst setting out requirements for the language Hig and then designing and revising
a language to meet those requirements IBH Ada IBFW Recently the language was revised to
add some ob ject oriented features BB Ada
Java
Java GJS AG is an ob ject oriented language with a syntax similar to C However underneath it
is like Lisp as it features garbage collection and implicit p ointers It also has re ective features including
dynamic class loaders LB Although it has a strong static and safe DEK NvO typ e system
b ecause it has a universal typ e Object that is a sup ertyp e of almost all the other typ es and an op eration
to dynamically checktyp es instanceof withchecked typ e casts it can b e programmed as if it were a
dynamically typ ed language Several authors have prop osed extensions to add parametric p olymorphism to
the language BOSW CS MBL OW Tho b
Lisp like Languages
The original LISP is describ ed in the LISP Programmer s Manual MAE The language has since
ev olved in many directions MacLisp is a main stream dialect that provided many system building to ols
Pit The successor to MacLisp is Common Lisp Ste Ste Unlike most earlier dialects of Lisp
Common Lisp has static scoping
Scheme was the rst dialect of Lisp to emphasize static scoping SS b ASS See also the references
in the Revised report KCE
ZetaLisp as found on Symb olics Lisp Machines includes the in uential Flavors mechanism for ob ject
oriented programming WM SMW Sym The Flavors mechanism evolved into the Common Lisp
Ob ject System Kee Ste Pae The meta ob ject system of Common Lisp is describ ed in KdRB
it provides a very exible way to extend the language The ideas in the meta ob ject system have led to
Asp ect Oriented Programming KLM that is designed to allow the isolation of concerns that would
otherwise b e spread throughout a program
Snob ol SL and Icon
SNOBOL is a language for string pro cessing that is unlikeany other GPP Because it is so unstructured
its designers have tried to place its p owerful features in a more structured framework The language SL
one attempt in this direction is notable for its exible pro cedure mechanism HG Another descendentof
SNOBOL Icon is a more conventional programming language with innovative control structures GG
APL
Another unconventional language is APL Ive Ive APL has array pro cessing features without equal
bined in interesting ways Ive More references on APL can b e found and generic op erators that can b e com
by consulting the pro ceedings of the yearly International ConferenceonAPL sp onsored bytheACM In
the past this was often just called APL or some suchname
The most recentversion of APL APL is describ ed in Bro BC
Parallel and Distributed Programming Languages
Parallel programming languages are a hot topic of current research and one with considerable overlap with
op erating systems networking and database systems Many of the ab ove areas and articles have implications
for parallel programming This area also has several journals and conferences of its own Some journals that
publish programming language related materials but whichwere not mentioned ab ove include Distributed
Computing IEEE Transactions on Paral lel and Distributed Systems andInternational Journal of Paral lel
Programming See also ACM SIGOPS Operating Systems Review Imp ortant conferences not mentioned
ab ove include the annual ACM Symposium on Operating Systems Principles ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on
Principles PracticeofParal lel Programming and the ACM SIGACT SIGOPS Symposium on Principles
of Distributed Computing
A recent survey is ST An older but still go o d survey on parallel programming language issues is
AS A survey that fo cuses on the Linda mo del app ears in CG See BZ BZ GC for more
work on Linda An older survey that fo cuses on ob ject oriented asp ects is WKH and a more recent
survey BGL also discusses distributed ob ject oriented programs A survey that fo cuses on distributed
programs is And b Andrew s textb o ok on concurrent programming languages also contains material on
program veri cation as well as some survey material And a Data ow languages are surveyed in Ack
hniques is Sno A useful collection of pap ers is ST An intro duction to concurrent programming tec
Actor languages are discussed in Agh A concurrentversion of ML is describ ed in Rep Some
asp ects of data parallel programming languages are describ ed in HS Gri The language Jade is
describ ed in RL RSL
Data parallel languages allow one to split data among pro cessors and to execute the same co de for each
A prominent example is High Performance Fortran Lov The language Orca combines b oth data and
task parallelism HBJ
Distributed programming is a subarea of parallel programming with its own set of problems Mul
A survey app ears in BST which can b e consulted for other references Asurvey with a fo cus on
ob ject orientation is CC Other sources of references are is the collection of reprints AS and the
b o ok GR Of particular interest are the languages Argus LS Wei and SR AOC AO The
Amo eba distributed op erating system also has interesting implications for language designers TvRvS
TKB
Mobile co de is a recent researchinterest It was featured in Emerald BHJL BHJ BH BH
and of course is part of Java Some other mobile languages of interest include Obliq Car Mobile UNITY
Rom and Distributed Oz vRHB A recent survey of the eld is Tho a
An older but still heavily used approach to the semantics of concurrent pro cesses is Petri nets Pet
PC A classic reference for the op erational semantics of concurrent pro cesses is Milner s b o ok on CCS
Mil b Another widely used approach is Hoare s CSP Hoa BHR LS Hoa See Hen
BM Mil b MPW for more work in the semantics of concurrency and LL and Bro for work
in the semantics of distributed systems
The Future
A bynow a bit dated summary of research directions for language design is given in LLM
Consumers of programming languages programmers and language standardization committees seem to
b e fairly conservative and interested more in p erformance than elegance or expressivepower See Gab
for a p essimistic view of what this means for language design
Acknowledgements
Thanks to my teachers Thanks esp ecially to Lawrence Flon who intro duced me to the literature on
programming languages Thanks also to Barbara Liskov David Gi ord and William Weihl who help ed
shap e my attitudes towards it Thanks to students of the class Com S at Iowa State Universitywho
have given me feedback on the literature recommendations contained herein
References
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April
AC Rob erto M Amadio and Luca Cardelli Subtyping RecursiveTyp es ACM Transactions on
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AC Mart n Abadi and Luca Cardelli A Theory of Primitive Ob jects Untyp ed and First Order
Systems In Masami Hagiya and John C Mitchell editors Theoretical Aspects of Computer
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April
AC Mart n Abadi and Luca Cardelli On Subtyping and Matching In Walter Oltho editor
ECOOP Object OrientedProgramming th European Conference Aarhus Denmark num
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AC Mart n Abadi and Luca Cardelli ATheory of Objects Monographs in Computer Science
Springer Verlag New York N Y
Ack W B Ack erman Data Flow Languages Computer February
Ada American National Standards Institute Reference Manual for the Ada Programming Language
February ANSI MIL STD A Also published by Springer Verlag as LNCS
Ada International Organization for Standardization Ada Reference Manual The Language The
Standard Libraries January ANSI ISO IEC
AG Ken Arnold and James Gosling The Java Programming Language TheJava Series Addison
Wesley Reading MA second edition
Agh Gul Agha The Structure and Semantics of Actor Languages In J W de Bakker W P
de Ro ever and G Rozenb erg editors Foundations of Object OrientedLanguages REX
School Workshop Noordwijkerhout The Netherlands May June volume of Lecture
Notes in Computer Science pages Springer Verlag New York N Y
Al a Krzysztof R Apt and Ernst Rudiger lderog Intro duction to Program Veri cation In E J
Neuhold and M Paul editors Formal Description of Programming Concepts IFIP State of
the Art Rep orts pages Springer Verlag New York N Y
The MIT Press AL b Andrea Asp erti and Guisepp e Longo Categories Types and Structures
Cambridge Mass
All Lloyd Allison APractical Introduction to Denotational Semantics Cambridge University
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