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From Mother to Mother Nature: the Role of Interpersonal Attachment in Human–Nature Relations

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From Mother to Mother Nature: the Role of Interpersonal Attachment in Human–Nature Relations FROM MOTHER TO MOTHER NATURE: THE ROLE OF INTERPERSONAL ATTACHMENT IN HUMAN–NATURE RELATIONS by Colin A. Capaldi A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Psychology Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario © 2020 Colin A. Capaldi Running head: ATTACHMENT AND HUMAN–NATURE RELATIONS ii Abstract Over the past two decades, environmental psychologists have become increasingly interested in the concept of nature connectedness: the degree to which people feel connected to the natural world. Nature connectedness has been shown to predict a variety of important individual differences, including stronger proenvironmental attitudes and behaviours, and greater well-being. Despite the increased attention that this topic has recently received, there is a dearth of research that has comprehensively examined how people’s relationship to nature might be related to and influenced by social relationships and contexts. In this dissertation, I consider and test the applicability of attachment theory to human–nature relations. Across two studies, I examined whether interpersonal attachment orientations (i.e., attachment anxiety and attachment avoidance) are associated with nature connectedness at the trait-level. I also investigated whether momentary activation of specific attachment-related schemas influence people’s motivation to connect with nature, and whether dispositional attachment orientations and nature connectedness moderate the impact of these temporarily activated schemas on motivation to connect with nature. Evidence for relationships between interpersonal attachment orientations and nature connectedness at the trait-level were weak and inconsistent across the two studies. Motivation to connect with nature did not differ across experimental conditions in either study, but some evidence was found for interpersonal attachment orientations moderating the effect of some of the experimental conditions. In general, the current research did not provide clear and consistent evidence for a link between how people relate to close others and how they relate to nature, or for attachment-related contexts impacting people’s motivation to connect with nature. Based on these results, one could conclude that attachment theory appears to have limited relevance for understanding human–nature relations. Limitations and future research directions are discussed. ATTACHMENT AND HUMAN–NATURE RELATIONS iii Acknowledgements Thank you to my supervisor, Dr. John Zelenski, for your mentorship, your never-ending support, and your consistent encouragement. I will be forever grateful to have had the opportunity to learn, work, and laugh with you over all these years. Thank you to my committee members, Dr. Johanna Peetz and Dr. Marina Milyavskaya. Your insightful feedback and suggestions helped shape this line of research, and your expertise was essential in ensuring its feasibility. Thank you to Dr. Andrew Howell for serving as the external examiner and Dr. Paul Peters for serving as the internal examiner at my defence. Thank you as well to all my fellow Carleton University Happy Lab members and alumni who I had the pleasure of interacting with since the first year of my graduate studies in 2012. Your warmness and comradery were much appreciated. Thank you to my fiancée, Daphne, for your love, commitment, and patience. You kept me motivated, while still making sure that we had countless unforgettable adventures along the way. I would also like to sincerely thank Sarah Hobson, Rafia Junaid, Neha Khanna, Tyler Kydd, Joy McLeod, Sarah Rosenbloom, and Madison Waller for their help with collecting data as research assistants for my in-lab dissertation study. Finally, thank you to all the individuals who participated in this research and openly shared their personal experiences. This research was supported through scholarships from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council, the Government of Ontario, and Carleton University. ATTACHMENT AND HUMAN–NATURE RELATIONS iv Table of Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................... iii Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iv List of Tables ........................................................................................................................... vii List of Figures ........................................................................................................................... xi List of Appendices .................................................................................................................. xiii Introduction ................................................................................................................................1 Attachment Theory .....................................................................................................................4 Theoretical and Empirical Foundations ...................................................................................4 Attachment in Adulthood ........................................................................................................9 Attachment Processes in the Moment .................................................................................... 11 Human–Nature Relations .......................................................................................................... 18 Nature as a Relational Partner ............................................................................................... 20 Developing a Connection to Nature ....................................................................................... 27 Integrating Attachment Theory and Human–Nature Research ................................................... 32 Behavioural Systems ............................................................................................................. 33 Nonhuman Attachments and the Correspondence/Compensation Hypotheses ........................ 39 Indirect Support for the Correspondence Hypothesis ................................................................. 45 Personality ............................................................................................................................ 45 Well-Being ............................................................................................................................ 49 Values ................................................................................................................................... 54 Indirect Support for the Compensation Hypothesis .................................................................... 55 ATTACHMENT AND HUMAN–NATURE RELATIONS v Meaning Maintenance Model ................................................................................................ 56 Ostracism .............................................................................................................................. 58 Anthropomorphization .......................................................................................................... 63 Preliminary Investigation of the Link Between Attachment and Nature Connectedness ............. 68 Reanalysis of Zelenski and Nisbet (2014) .............................................................................. 69 Study 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 75 Research Questions ............................................................................................................... 75 Method .................................................................................................................................. 78 Materials ........................................................................................................................... 78 Procedure .......................................................................................................................... 84 Results .................................................................................................................................. 87 Background & Data Quality .............................................................................................. 87 Exclusions and Sample Demographics .............................................................................. 87 Trait-Level Associations Between Interpersonal Attachment and Nature Connectedness ... 90 Manipulation Checks ......................................................................................................... 91 Experimental Manipulation, Trait Attachment, Trait Nature Connectedness, and Motivation to Connect with Nature .................................................................................................... 117 Discussion ........................................................................................................................... 128 Correlational Findings ..................................................................................................... 128 Experimental Findings ..................................................................................................... 132 Study 2
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