Ritualistic Institution and Livelihood Fragility of Female Migrant Workers in Urban China
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International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health Article Ritualistic Institution and Livelihood Fragility of Female Migrant Workers in Urban China Chao Wang and Jiayi Tang * School of Public Policy & Management (School of Emergency Management), China University of Mining and Technology, Xuzhou 221116, China; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected] Received: 22 October 2020; Accepted: 18 December 2020; Published: 21 December 2020 Abstract: China’s rapid urbanization can be attributed, in part, to the contribution of female migrant workers. However, they are a socially vulnerable group. In order to explore the vulnerability of female migrant workers and its reasons, questionnaires and in-depth interviews were conducted with female migrant workers in Guangdong and Hubei provinces, China, and 992 questionnaires and 147 interview data were finally collected as the research object. The descriptive statistical analysis was conducted with the quantitative data to reveal the livelihood vulnerability of female migrant workers and its reasons, and qualitative data were used to corroborate and consolidate the argument. “Ritualistic institution” is the key to understanding the livelihood fragility of female migrant workers. The policy on migrant workers has weakened the concept of family, making it difficult for families, which are on the fringes of the national policy vision, to benefit from the system. Therefore, the livelihood costs of female migrant workers have increased. Traditional gender norms also make it difficult for migrant women to enjoy the limited benefits and resources of the policy. This weakens the authoritative role of the policy in solving the problem of livelihood vulnerability for migrant workers, particularly women. This shows that China’s policy on migrant workers is somewhat symbolic. Through “family separation” and “ritualistic institution”, it can be seen that China’s urbanization is a modern development activity that carries urban bias and lacks humanistic care value. This is bound to result in the neglect of human development, gender differences, and family, making it difficult for rural migrant women to survive. This in-depth study seeks to find solutions to the problems prevalent under the cover of contemporary Chinese modernity. Keywords: female migrant workers; livelihood fragility; family separation; ritualistic institution 1. Introduction With the rapid urbanization in China and the relaxation of the ban on migration between rural and urban areas [1], a large number of rural migrant workers have moved to prosperous urban areas to seek employment opportunities for their livelihood. China saw large-scale migration to cities in the late 1980s and early 1990s. In 1995, the number of migrant workers reached 50 million. After that, the number of migrant workers increased rapidly by 6 million to 8 million every year. In 2019, the total population of migrant workers reached 290.77 million, an increase of 0.8% or 2.41 million from 2018. Women accounted for 35.1% of all migrant workers (Figure1)[ 2], and the proportion of women increased by 0.3% from 2018. This not only means that female migrant workers have contributed to China’s urbanization, but also indicates that their livelihood status affects urbanization, because no matter what kind of urban development model is adopted, its execution depends on people. Therefore, the Chinese government has adopted a series of policies for migrant workers to ensure their livelihood, so as to better promote the process of urbanization. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 9556; doi:10.3390/ijerph17249556 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph Int.Int. J. J. Environ. Environ. Res.Res. PublicPublic HealthHealth 20202020,, 1717,, 9556x 22 of of 19 19 Million Proportion 300 100 90 290 80 280 70 60 270 50 260 40 250 30 20 240 10 230 0 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 Year Number of 252.78 262.61 268.94 273.95 277.47 281.71 286.52 288.36 290.77 Migrant Workers Proportion of Women (%) 34.1 33.6 33 33.6 34.5 34.4 34.8 35.1 Figure 1. Figure 1.Number Number and and gender gender distribution distribution of migrantof migr workersant workers in China in China from 2011from to 2011 2019 to (Data 2019 source: (Data National Bureau of Statistics. Note: Since the ratio of male to female migrant workers in 2013 is not source: National Bureau of Statistics. Note: Since the ratio of male to female migrant workers in 2013 released by the National Bureau of Statistics, the trend line is used instead here). is not released by the National Bureau of Statistics, the trend line is used instead here). Since 1978, the number of government-issued papers related to migrant worker policy has been Since 1978, the number of government-issued papers related to migrant worker policy has been increasing in tandem with the rise in the number of migrant workers. The top three years in terms of increasing in tandem with the rise in the number of migrant workers. The top three years in terms of the number of published papers were 2006, 2016, and 2017. Taking 2002 as the node, the number of the number of published papers were 2006, 2016, and 2017. Taking 2002 as the node, the number of policies averaged to about six per year from 1978 to 2002, while the average number rose 9.3 times to policies averaged to about six per year from 1978 to 2002, while the average number rose 9.3 times to about 56 per year from 2003 to 2017. This represents two different stages of development, showing a about 56 per year from 2003 to 2017. This represents two different stages of development, showing a long-term gradual balance and an occasional transition path. However, the policy on migrant workers long-term gradual balance and an occasional transition path. However, the policy on migrant based on urban-rural division, urban protectionism, and traditional gender norms poses a series of workers based on urban-rural division, urban protectionism, and traditional gender norms poses a livelihood vulnerability problems to female migrant workers in the process of creating a strong China series of livelihood vulnerability problems to female migrant workers in the process of creating a with rapid economic development and continuous improvement in overall national strength. The most strong China with rapid economic development and continuous improvement in overall national significant achievement of China’s reform and opening up is the rapid economic development [3]. strength. The most significant achievement of China's reform and opening up is the rapid economic According to the National Bureau of Statistics, Chinese GDP has grown from 0.325 trillion yuan in 1977 development [3]. According to the National Bureau of Statistics, Chinese GDP has grown from 0.325 to 99.0865 trillion yuan in 2019, and its per capita GDP increased from 344 yuan in 1977 to 70,892 yuan trillion yuan in 1977 to 99.0865 trillion yuan in 2019, and its per capita GDP increased from 344 yuan in 2019. It is difficult for migrant women to enjoy their due welfare, exercise their basic rights, and be in 1977 to 70,892 yuan in 2019. It is difficult for migrant women to enjoy their due welfare, exercise accepted by urban society. Thus, they have become socially vulnerable groups. their basic rights, and be accepted by urban society. Thus, they have become socially vulnerable Migrant workers usually work in the so-called “3D” positions, namely “dirty,dangerous, and demeaning” groups. positions. Compared with male migrant workers, female migrant workers are more likely to be Migrant workers usually work in the so-called “3D” positions, namely “dirty, dangerous, and marginalized from urban life [4]. This is due to the fact that the female identity of migrant workers demeaning” positions. Compared with male migrant workers, female migrant workers are more based on gender discrimination, urban-rural dual structure, and urban protectionism makes them likely to be marginalized from urban life [4]. This is due to the fact that the female identity of migrant relatively more vulnerable to social risks, such as low pay, unemployment, and economic fluctuations [5], workers based on gender discrimination, urban-rural dual structure, and urban protectionism makes facing the risk of social marginalization in employment and life. In addition, they also need to bear them relatively more vulnerable to social risks, such as low pay, unemployment, and economic the heavy responsibility of childbirth and family labor, which makes them an extremely vulnerable fluctuations [5], facing the risk of social marginalization in employment and life. In addition, they group [6], facing more livelihood vulnerability than male migrant workers [7]. also need to bear the heavy responsibility of childbirth and family labor, which makes them an Authors put forward the idea of “ritualistic institution” to interpret the livelihood vulnerability of extremely vulnerable group [6], facing more livelihood vulnerability than male migrant workers [7]. female migrant workers. When informal rules are superior to formal rules, or the former erodes or even Authors put forward the idea of “ritualistic institution” to interpret the livelihood vulnerability squeezes the function of the latter, the formalization of formal rules will arise. Thus, the system becomes of female migrant workers. When informal rules are superior to formal rules, or the former erodes or a ritualistic institution, a kind of “symbolic ornament” [8,9]. In other words, the current series of even squeezes the function of the latter, the formalization of formal rules will arise. Thus, the system policies for migrant workers is not an appropriate way to solve the problem. The problem lies in the fact becomes a ritualistic institution, a kind of “symbolic ornament” [8,9]. In other words, the current series of policies for migrant workers is not an appropriate way to solve the problem.